164 files changed, 17 insertions, 47331 deletions
diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d7b82bc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/.gitattributes
@@ -0,0 +1,4 @@
+*.txt text eol=lf
+*.htm text eol=lf
+*.html text eol=lf
+*.md text eol=lf
diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6312041
--- /dev/null
+++ b/LICENSE.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,11 @@
+This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements,
+metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be
+in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES.
+
+Procedures for determining public domain status are described in
+the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org.
+
+No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in
+jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize
+this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright
+status under the laws that apply to them.
diff --git a/README.md b/README.md
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..50c02d2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/README.md
@@ -0,0 +1,2 @@
+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #62134 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/62134)
diff --git a/old/62134-0.txt b/old/62134-0.txt
deleted file mode 100644
index 70425cc..0000000
--- a/old/62134-0.txt
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,21538 +0,0 @@
-Project Gutenberg's London in the Time of the Tudors, by Sir Walter Besant
-
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
-other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
-whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
-the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
-www.gutenberg.org.  If you are not located in the United States, you'll have
-to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook.
-
-Title: London in the Time of the Tudors
-
-Author: Sir Walter Besant
-
-Release Date: May 14, 2020 [EBook #62134]
-
-Language: English
-
-Character set encoding: UTF-8
-
-*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LONDON IN THE TIME OF THE TUDORS ***
-
-
-
-
-Produced by Chris Curnow, Robert Tonsing, 'Junet' for
-finding, scanning and re-creating Agas' map, and the Online
-Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This
-file was produced from images generously made available
-by The Internet Archive)
-
-
-
-
-
-    +--------------------------------------------------------------+
-    |                  _UNIFORM WITH THIS VOLUME_                  |
-    |                     PRICE =30/= NET EACH                     |
-    |                                                              |
-    |                         L O N D O N                          |
-    |                 IN THE TIME OF THE STUARTS                   |
-    |                                                              |
-    |  _With 116 Illustrations and a Reproduction of Ogilby’s Map  |
-    |                     of London in 1677._                      |
-    |                                                              |
-    | “It is a mine in which the student, alike of topography      |
-    | and of manners and customs, may dig and dig again with the   |
-    | certainty of finding something new and interesting.”—_The    |
-    | Times._                                                      |
-    |                                                              |
-    | “The pen of the ready writer here is fluent; the picture     |
-    | wants nothing in completeness. The records of the city and   |
-    | the kingdom have been ransacked for facts and documents,     |
-    | and they are marshalled with consummate skill.”—_Pall Mall   |
-    | Gazette._                                                    |
-    |                       ---------------                        |
-    |                         L O N D O N                          |
-    |                  IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY                   |
-    |                                                              |
-    |  _With 104 Illustrations and a Reproduction of Rocque’s Map  |
-    |                    of London in 1741–5._                     |
-    |                                                              |
-    | “The book is engrossing, and its manner delightful.”—_The    |
-    | Times._                                                      |
-    |                                                              |
-    | “Of facts and figures such as these this valuable book       |
-    | will be found full to overflowing, and it is calculated      |
-    | therefore to interest all kinds of readers, from the         |
-    | student to the dilettante, from the romancer in search of    |
-    | matter to the most voracious student of Tit-Bits.”—_The      |
-    | Athenæum._                                                   |
-    |                       ---------------                        |
-    |                         L O N D O N                          |
-    |                     IN MEDIÆVAL TIMES.  _In preparation._    |
-    +--------------------------------------------------------------+
-
-
-
-
-►The Survey of London◄
-
-                                LONDON
-                       IN THE TIME OF THE TUDORS
-
-
-[Illustration: _Spooner & Co._ _Frontispiece._
-
-QUEEN ELIZABETH (1533–1603)
-From the painting by Gerard at Burleigh House.]
-
-
-
-
-                                LONDON
-                       IN THE TIME OF THE TUDORS
-
-                                  BY
-                           SIR WALTER BESANT
-
-                            [Illustration]
-
-                                LONDON
-                         ADAM & CHARLES BLACK
-                                 1904
-
-
-
-
-                               CONTENTS
-
-                           TUDOR SOVEREIGNS
-
-  CHAP.                                                             PAGE
-
-  1.  HENRY VII.                                                       3
-
-  2.  HENRY VIII.                                                     17
-
-  3.  EDWARD VI.                                                      45
-
-  4.  MARY                                                            52
-
-  5.  ELIZABETH                                                       65
-
-  6.  THE QUEEN IN SPLENDOUR                                          85
-
-
-                               RELIGION
-
-  1.  THE DISSOLUTION AND THE MARTYRS                                109
-
-  2.  THE PROGRESS OF THE REFORMATION                                143
-
-  3.  SUPERSTITION                                                   162
-
-
-                          ELIZABETHAN LONDON
-
-  1.  WITH STOW                                                      171
-
-  2.  CONTEMPORARY EVIDENCE                                          185
-
-  3.  THE CITIZENS                                                   196
-
-
-                   GOVERNMENT AND TRADE OF THE CITY
-
-  1.  THE MAYOR                                                      209
-
-  2.  TRADE                                                          216
-
-  3.  LITERATURE AND ART                                             244
-
-  4.  GOG AND MAGOG                                                  263
-
-
-                              SOCIAL LIFE
-
-  1.  MANNERS AND CUSTOMS                                            269
-
-  2.  FOOD AND DRINK                                                 292
-
-  3.  DRESS—WEDDINGS                                                 303
-
-  4.  SOLDIERS                                                       316
-
-  5.  THE ’PRENTICE                                                  323
-
-  6.  THE LONDON INNS                                                333
-
-  7.  THEATRES AND SPORTS                                            342
-
-  8.  THE POOR                                                       366
-
-  9.  CRIME AND PUNISHMENT                                           379
-
-
-  APPENDICES                                                         397
-
-
-  INDEX                                                              421
-
-
-
-
-                             ILLUSTRATIONS
-
-
-                                                                    PAGE
-
-Queen Elizabeth                                           _Frontispiece_
-
-Henry VII.                                                             3
-
-Perkin Warbeck                                                         7
-
-Katherine of Aragon and Arthur, Prince of Wales                       10
-
-The Exchequer in the time of Henry VII.                               11
-
-The Children of King Henry VII.                         _Facing page_ 12
-
-Screen in Henry VII.’s Chapel, Westminster Abbey                      14
-
-Interior of Henry VII.’s Chapel, Westminster Abbey                    15
-
-Henry VIII. when young                                                17
-
-Henry VIII.                                                           18
-
-Katherine of Aragon                                                   19
-
-Henry VIII. as a Musician                                             22
-
-Cardinal Wolsey                                                       25
-
-Eastcheap Market                                                      27
-
-The King in Parliament                                                29
-
-Henry VIII. granting the Barber-Surgeons’ Charter                     31
-
-The Burning of Anne Askew                                             33
-
-Dean Colet                                                            34
-
-Thomas Cromwell, Earl of Essex                                        35
-
-Dean Colet’s House, Stepney                                           36
-
-A Procession                                                          37
-
-Henry VIII., Princess Mary, and Will Somers             _Facing page_ 38
-
-Embarkation of Henry VIII. at Dover                                   41
-
-Edward VI.                                                            45
-
-Edward VI. (three-quarter length)                                     47
-
-Edward VI. granting Charter to Bridewell                _Facing page_ 48
-
-The Coronation Procession of Edward VI.                               50
-
-Mary Tudor                                                            52
-
-Lady Jane Grey                                                        55
-
-St. Peter ad Vincula, overlooking Tower Green                         57
-
-Execution of Lady Jane Grey                             _Facing page_ 58
-
-The Persecution of John Bradford                                      60
-
-The Martyrdom of John Bradford                                        60
-
-Interior of the Bell Tower                                            61
-
-Philip II. of Spain                                     _Facing page_ 62
-
-Queen Elizabeth                                                       65
-
-Queen Elizabeth                                                       67
-
-_Feus de Joye_ in honour of Queen Elizabeth’s Entry into London       69
-
-Queen Elizabeth                                                       71
-
-Queen Elizabeth                                                       72
-
-Queen Elizabeth (full length)                                         73
-
-Sir Philip Sidney and his brother Lord Lisle                          75
-
-The Spanish Armada (the first engagement)               _Facing page_ 76
-
-View of the House of Peers                                            79
-
-Lord Burghley                                                         81
-
-Hampton Court                                                         85
-
-Nonsuch House                                                         89
-
-Coaches of Queen Elizabeth                                            91
-
-Royal Procession to St. Paul’s                                        93
-
-Queen Elizabeth going in Procession to St. Paul’s       _Facing page_ 94
-
-The Tower                                                             97
-
-Westminster                                                           98
-
-A Hunting Scene                                                      101
-
-Queen Elizabeth’s Funeral                              _Facing page_ 102
-
-The Palace of Greenwich                                              104
-
-Queen Elizabeth                                                      105
-
-Carthusian Martyrs                                                   113
-
-Sir Thomas More                                                      115
-
-Martyrs at Smithfield                                                121
-
-Westminster Abbey                                                    123
-
-Bishop Gardiner                                                      125
-
-Queen Elizabeth at Prayer                                            129
-
-Protestant Prisoners                                                 133
-
-Hugh Latimer                                                         134
-
-Bishop Ridley                                                        135
-
-Thomas Cranmer                                                       137
-
-The Burning of John Rogers                                           139
-
-The Martyrdom of Archbishop Cranmer                                  141
-
-Queen Elizabeth’s Tomb                                               147
-
-Popish Plots and Treasons                     _Facing pages_ 148 and 149
-
-Knight seizing an Archbishop                                         149
-
-A Royal Picnic                                                       153
-
-Old St. Paul’s                                                       157
-
-The Tower of London                                                  173
-
-Cloisters of St. Katherine’s                                         175
-
-St. Paul’s Church                                                    177
-
-Latimer preaching before Edward VI. at Westminster                   178
-
-Baynard’s Castle                                                     179
-
-West Cheap in Elizabethan London                                     182
-
-Cold Harbour                                                         184
-
-Bridewell Palace and Entrance to the Fleet River                     186
-
-Londinium Feracissimi Angliae Regni Metropolis                       187
-
-Plan of the City of Westminster                                      189
-
-Plan of the City of London in the time of Elizabeth                  189
-
-Parish of St. Giles in the Fields            _Between pages_ 190 and 191
-
-Bishopsgate                                                          192
-
-Plan of Islington                                                    193
-
-Earl of Somerset and his Wife                                        196
-
-Shop and Solar, Clare Market                                         199
-
-Tottenham Court                                        _Facing page_ 200
-
-Queen Elizabeth’s Bath                                               204
-
-Mayor and Aldermen                                                   209
-
-London Bridge                                                        213
-
-The Custom House                                                     216
-
-Panorama of London and Westminster           _Between pages_ 218 and 219
-
-Sir Thomas Gresham                                                   221
-
-Christ’s Hospital                                                    223
-
-Sir Francis Drake                                                    226
-
-Drake’s _Golden Hind_                                                227
-
-A Merchant of the Steelyard                                          231
-
-Medals struck in Commemoration of the Armada           _Facing page_ 232
-
-Panorama of London—London Bridge             _Between pages_ 234 and 235
-
-The Tower in 1553                                                    239
-
-Near Paul’s Wharf                                                    241
-
-Tradesmen of the Tudor Period                                        242
-
-Old Temple Bar in time of James I.                                   245
-
-Sir Francis Bacon                                                    248
-
-William Shakespeare                                                  249
-
-Edmund Spenser                                                       251
-
-Ben Jonson                                                           259
-
-Holbein                                                              261
-
-Staple Inn, Holborn                                                  277
-
-The More Family                                        _Facing page_ 282
-
-A Ship of the time of Henry VIII.                                    289
-
-Tittle-Tattle; or, the several Branches of Gossiping                 295
-
-Marriage Feast of Sir H. Unton                                       301
-
-Lady Hunsdon in a Farthingale                                        303
-
-Lady in the Court of Queen Elizabeth                                 304
-
-Noble Matron of England                                              304
-
-English Lady of Quality                                              305
-
-English Nobleman                                                     305
-
-Wealthy Merchant of London                                           308
-
-Page Boy of the time of Edward VI.                                   309
-
-Sir William Russell                                                  310
-
-Court of Wards and Liveries in the time of Elizabeth   _Facing page_ 310
-
-Robert de Vere                                                       311
-
-John Clinch, Chief Justice of the Common Pleas                       311
-
-Sir Edward Coke, Chief Justice of the King’s Bench                   311
-
-The Christening of Prince Arthur                                     313
-
-Burial in the Fields                                                 314
-
-Soldiers of the Tudor Period                                         316
-
-Yeoman of the Guard                                                  318
-
-A Knight in Armour                                                   319
-
-Pikeman                                                              320
-
-Musketeer                                                            321
-
-Sign of the Boar’s Head, East Cheap                                  339
-
-The Bear Garden and the Globe Theatre                                342
-
-Bankside, Southwark, in 1648, with a view of Holland’s Leaguer
-                                                       _Facing page_ 346
-
-Panorama of London—the Tower and Greenwich   _Between pages_ 350 and 351
-
-Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester                                     357
-
-A Fête at Horselydown                                                361
-
-The Dancing Picture                                                  364
-
-The Pillory                                                          381
-
-Engravings taken from Henry VIII.’s Armour                           383
-
-Billingsgate                                                         385
-
-The Cucking-Stool                                                    389
-
-
-
-
-                           TUDOR SOVEREIGNS
-
-
-
-
-                               CHAPTER I
-
-                               HENRY VII
-
-
-[Illustration: HENRY VII. (1457–1509)
-
-From the painting in the National Portrait Gallery, London.]
-
-On stepping out of the fifteenth into the sixteenth century one becomes
-conscious of a change; no such change was felt in passing from the
-twelfth to the thirteenth century, or from the fourteenth to the
-fifteenth. The world of Henry the Sixth was the same world as that of
-Edward the First; it was also the same as that of Henry the Second.
-For four hundred years no sudden, perceptible, or radical change took
-place either in manners and customs, language, arts, or ideas. There
-had, of course, been outbreaks; there had been passionate longings for
-change; men before their time, like Wyclyf, had advanced new ideas
-which sprang up like grass and presently withered away; there had
-been changes in religious thought, but there was no change, so far,
-in religious institutions. At the beginning of the sixteenth century,
-however, we who know the coming events can see the change impending,
-change already begun. Whether the Bishops and Clergy, the Monks and
-Friars, were also conscious of impending change, I know not. It seems
-as if they must have been uneasy, as in France men were uneasy long
-before the Revolution. On the other hand, Rome still loomed large
-in the imagination of the world: the Rock on which the Church was
-established; the Throne from which there was no appeal; the hand that
-held the Keys. We have now, however, to chronicle the part, the large
-part, played by London in this great century of Revolution.
-
-After forty years of Civil War,—with murders, exactions, executions,
-treacheries, and perjuries innumerable, with the ruin of trade, with
-the extinction of ancient families, with the loss of all the French
-conquests,—the City, no less than the country at large, welcomed the
-accession of a Prince who promised order and tranquillity at least. Of
-all the numerous descendants of Edward the Third who might once have
-called themselves heirs to the Crown before the Duke of Richmond, there
-remained but two or three. Of the Lancastrians Henry alone was left,
-and his title was derived from a branch legitimised. The two brothers
-of Henry V. had no children; the only son of Henry VI. was dead. On
-the Yorkist side Edward’s two sons were dead; Richard’s only son was
-dead; there remained the young Earl of Warwick, son of Clarence.
-He was the one dangerous person at the time of Henry’s accession.
-Edward Plantagenet, Earl of Warwick, was not the heir to the Yorkist
-claims—this was certainly the eldest daughter of Edward the Fourth;
-but he was the son of George, Duke of Clarence, and the last male
-descendant of the York line. He was now fifteen years of age, and had
-been kept in some kind of confinement at a place called Sheriff Hutton
-Castle, in the County of York. Considering the practice of the time,
-and the reputation of Richard III., one wonders at his forbearance
-in not murdering the boy. Henry sent him—it was his first act after
-his victory—to the Tower for better safety. Grafton[1] calls this
-unfortunate Prince “the yongling borne to perpetual captivitie.” He is
-said to have been a simple youth, wholly ignorant of the world. Though,
-as we shall see later on, Henry found it expedient to treat this young
-Prince after the manner of his time. A dead Prince can never become a
-Pretender.
-
-And no other fate was possible in the long-run for one whom
-conspirators might put up at any moment as the rightful claimant of the
-Crown. The unfortunate youth was only one of a long chain of possible
-claimants, all of whom paid the penalty of their inheritance by death.
-Among them were Edward’s infant Princes; his own father; Henry’s son,
-Edward, Prince of Wales; and later on Lady Jane Grey, and Mary Queen of
-Scots.
-
-In the same castle of Sheriff Hutton, in similar confinement, was
-the Lady Elizabeth, Edward the Fourth’s elder daughter, whom Richard
-proposed to marry with the sanction of the Pope, his own wife, Anne,
-having strangely and mysteriously come to her death. Bosworth Field put
-a stop to that monstrous design. According to Grafton, the purpose of
-Richard was well known to the world, and was everywhere detested and
-condemned.
-
-Henry rode to London immediately after his victory. At Shoreditch he
-was received by the Mayor, Sheriffs, and Aldermen, clothed in violet
-and bearing a gift of a thousand marks. He then went on to St. Paul’s
-and there deposited three standards—on one was the image of St. George,
-on another a “red fierie dragon beaten upon white and greene sarcenet,”
-and on the third was painted “a dun cow upon yellow _tarterne_.” He
-also heard a Te Deum.
-
-Four weeks after Henry’s entrance into the City there broke out, quite
-suddenly, with no previous warning, a most deadly pestilence known as
-the sweating sickness. This dreadful epidemic began with a “burning
-sweat that invaded the body and vexed the blood, and with a most ardent
-heat infested the stomach and the head grievously.” If any person could
-bear the heat and pain for twenty-four hours, he recovered, but might
-have a relapse; not one in a hundred, however, of those that took the
-infection survived. Within a few days it killed two Mayors, namely, Sir
-Thomas Hill and Sir William Stocker; and six Aldermen. The sickness
-seems to have been swifter, and more deadly while it lasted, than even
-the Plague or the Epidemic of 1349. But it went away after a time as
-quickly as it had appeared.
-
-Henry’s coronation was celebrated on the 13th of October. His
-predecessor had disguised the weakness of his title by the
-splendour of his coronation. Henry, on the other hand, made but a
-mean display—perhaps to show that he was not dependent on show or
-magnificence. Stanley perceives in this absence of ostentation a kind
-of acknowledgment that his title to the Crown rested more upon his
-victory than his descent. This opinion seems to me wholly fanciful;
-Henry would never at any moment acknowledge that his title was weak.
-On the other hand, he stoutly claimed, through his mother, to be the
-nearest heir in the Lancastrian line. His known dislike to ostentation
-is quite a sufficient reason to account for the comparative poverty of
-the Coronation show—at which, however, one new feature was introduced,
-namely, the bodyguard of the King’s person, known as the Yeomen of the
-Guard. The King’s belief in the strength of his own title was shown in
-his treatment of the Lady Elizabeth. He had solemnly promised to marry
-her; he did so in January 1486, five months after his victory; but he
-was extremely loth to crown her, lest some should say that the Queen
-was Queen by right, and not merely the Queen consort. The coronation of
-the Queen was postponed for two years. The celebration, however, when
-it did take place, was accompanied by a great deal of splendour.
-
-The business of Lambert Simnel shows the real peril of the King’s
-position. The experience of the last forty years had taught the people
-a most dangerous habit. They were ready to fly to arms on the smallest
-provocation. Who was Henry, “the unknown Welshman,” as Richard called
-him, that he should be allowed to sit in peace upon a throne from
-which three occupants had been dragged down, two by murder and one
-by battle? But the occasion of the rising was ridiculous. The young
-Earl of Warwick was in the Tower; it was possible to see him—Henry, in
-fact, made him ride through the City for all the world to see. Yet the
-followers of Lambert Simnel proclaimed that he was Edward Plantagenet,
-Earl of Warwick. Lambert’s father was a joiner of Oxford; Sir Richard
-Symon, a priest, was his tutor. The boy, who in 1486 was about eleven
-years of age, was of handsome appearance and of naturally good manners.
-
-After the defeat of his cause, Lambert and the priest who had done the
-mischief were taken. The priest was consigned to an ecclesiastical
-prison for the rest of his natural life; the boy was pardoned—they
-could not execute a child—and contemptuously thrust into the King’s
-kitchen as a little scullion. He afterwards rose to be one of the
-King’s falconers—the only example in history of a Pretender turning
-out an honest man in the end. Can we not see the people about the
-Court gazing curiously upon the handsome scullion in his white jacket,
-white cap, and white shoes, going to and fro upon his duties, washing
-pans with zeal and scraping trenchers? The boy had a lovely face, and
-manners very far beyond his station. Can we not hear them whispering
-that this young man had once been as good as King, and knew what it was
-to exercise royal authority?
-
-The Earl of Warwick was still, however, allowed to live.
-
-The King, who was magnanimous when it was politic, could also exhibit
-the opposite quality on occasion. He had never found it easy to forgive
-Edward’s Queen for submitting herself and her daughters to Richard
-after she had consented to Henry’s attempt upon the Crown, on the
-condition of his marrying the eldest. He laid the matter before his
-Council, who determined that Elizabeth, late Queen, should forfeit all
-her lands and possessions, and should continue for the rest of her life
-in honourable confinement in the Abbey of Bermondsey. Here, in fact,
-she died, not long afterwards, the second Queen who breathed her last
-in that House.
-
-One Pretender removed, another arose. Perkin Warbeck professed, as we
-know, to be the younger son of Edward IV., namely, Richard, Duke of
-York, who, it was pretended, had escaped from the Tower. The strange
-adventures of Perkin are told in every history of England. He is
-connected with that of London on three occasions. The first was after
-his abortive attempt to land in Kent. The Kentish men, refusing to join
-him, attacked his followers, drove some of them back to their ships,
-and took prisoners a hundred and sixty men with four Captains. These
-prisoners were all brought to London roped together, a curious sight
-to see. Those who lived on London Bridge saw many strange sights, but
-seldom anything more strange than these poor prisoners, who were not
-Englishmen but aliens, thus tied together. They were all hanged, every
-one: some on the seashore, where their bodies might warn other aliens
-not to come filibustering into England; and the rest at Tyburn.
-
-[Illustration: PERKIN WARBECK (1474–1499)
-
-From a drawing in the Municipal Library, Arras.]
-
-The Cornish Rebellion was an episode in the history of the Perkin
-Warbeck business. The men of Cornwall refused to pay taxes and resolved
-to march upon London. Led by Lord Audley they advanced through
-Salisbury and Winchester into Kent: they were there opposed, and moved
-towards London, finally lying at Blackheath. The battle that followed
-was chiefly fought at the bridge at Deptford Strand. Two thousand
-of the rebels were killed; fifteen hundred were taken; Lord Audley
-was beheaded; two demagogues who had instigated the rising, namely,
-Flammock an attorney, and Joseph a farrier, were hanged; the rest were
-not pursued or punished.
-
-The City, meantime, showed its loyalty by a loan of £4000 to the King
-and by putting London into a state of defence. Six Aldermen and a
-number of representatives from the Livery Companies were deputed to
-attend to the City ordnance; houses built close to the wall were taken
-down; the Mayor was allowed an additional twelve men, and the Sheriffs
-forty serjeants and forty valets to keep the peace.
-
-Among those appointed to guard the City gates was Alderman Fabyan the
-Chronicler.
-
-The next episode in Perkin’s career which touches London is that ride
-which he undertook, very much against his will, from Westminster to the
-Tower. Everybody knows how he gave himself up to the Prior of Shene.
-The King granted him his life, but he imposed certain conditions. He
-was placed in the stocks opposite the entrance to Westminster Hall,
-where he sat the whole day long, receiving “innumerable reproaches,
-mocks and scornings.” The day after he was carried through London
-on horseback, in sham triumph. They were ingenious in those days in
-their methods of putting offenders to open shame. At an earlier date
-the traitor Turberville had to ride in shameful guise; and when Lord
-Audley, Captain of the Cornish Rebels, was led out to execution, he
-was attired in a paper robe painted with his arms, the robe being
-slashed and torn. No doubt Perkin was handsomely attired in coloured
-paper, with a tinsel crown upon his head; no doubt, too, he bestrode
-a villainous hack, while all the ’prentices of London ran after him,
-laughing and mocking. They placed him on a scaffold by the Standard in
-Chepe and kept him there all day long. In the course of the day he read
-aloud his own confession, which is a very curious document.
-
-  “First it is to be knowne, that I was borne in the towne of Turneie
-  in Flanders, and my father’s name is John Osbecke, which said
-  John Osbecke was controller of the said towne of Turneie, and my
-  moother’s name is Katherine de Faro ... againste my will they
-  made me to learn Englishe and taught me what I shoulde do or say.
-  And after this they called me Duke of Yorke.... And upon this the
-  said Water, Stephen Poitron, John Tiler, Hubert Burgh, with manie
-  others, as the aforesaid earles, entered into this false quarrell.
-  And within short time after the French king sent an ambassador into
-  Ireland, whose name was Loit Lucas, and maister Stephen Friham, to
-  advertise me to come into France. And thense I went into France,
-  and from thense into Flanders, and from Flanders into Ireland, and
-  from Ireland into Scotland and so into England.” (Grafton.)
-
-The last occasion of his public appearance was on the day when he was
-hanged. After his two days’ enjoyment of pillory he was taken to the
-Tower and was contemptuously told that he would have to end his days
-there in confinement. Here he soon brought an end upon himself. He
-found in the Tower the young Earl of Warwick, who, as we have seen,
-was a very simple young man. Perhaps Perkin understood very well that,
-even if his own pretensions were hopelessly discredited, with the
-real Earl of Warwick, Clarence’s undoubted son, grandson of the great
-Earl, the last male representative of the House of York, there would
-be the chance of a far greater rising than either Simnel’s or his own.
-He was already sick of prison; the chances of a rising seemed worth
-taking, with all its perils and dangers; he was probably desperate and
-reckless. He accordingly bribed his keepers with promises to connive at
-the escape of the Earl and himself. One has an instinctive feeling that
-they only pretended to connive; that the course of the plot was daily
-communicated to the Governor of the Tower, and by him to the King;
-that the wretched man was encouraged and urged on in order to give an
-opening for the greatly desired destruction of the Earl as well as his
-own. However that may be, in the end Perkin and a fellow-conspirator,
-one John Atwater, were placed on hurdles and drawn to Tyburn, where
-they received the attentions reserved for traitors. Perkin died, it is
-said, confessing his guilt. Guilty or not guilty, it was a convenient
-way of ridding the King not only of an impudent pretender, but also
-of a dangerous rival. Edward Plantagenet was beheaded on Tower Hill:
-his end is said to have been suggested by the King of Spain before the
-betrothal of Prince Arthur to Katherine of Aragon. It was sixteen years
-after his accession that Henry caused the unlucky youth to be beheaded;
-and now no rival was left to disturb the security of Henry’s crown.
-
-There was, however, still a third personation, passed over by most
-historians, this time by a native of London. The new Pretender was
-named Ralph Wilford, the son of a shoemaker. He fell into the hands
-of a scoundrel named Patrick, an Augustine friar, who taught him what
-to say and how to say it. The two began to go about the country in
-Kent, and to whisper among the simple country folk the same story that
-Lambert Simnel had told. This lad was none other than the Earl of
-Warwick. When the friar found that the thing was receiving, here and
-there, a little credence, he began to back up the boy, and even went
-into the pulpit and preached on the subject. But this time the matter
-was not allowed to get to a head. There was no rebellion: both the
-rebels were arrested, the young man was hanged at St. Thomas Waterings,
-and the friar was put into prison for the rest of his natural life.
-
-In the year 1500 was a “great death” in London and in other parts.
-The “great death” was due to an outbreak of plague; not the sweating
-sickness, which also returned later, but apparently some form of the
-old plague, the “Black Death.” It is one of the many visitations which
-fell upon the City, afflicted it for a time, filled the churchyards
-with dead bodies, then passed away and was forgotten. Twenty thousand
-persons, according to Fabyan, were carried off in London alone. The
-King retired to Calais till the worst was over.
-
-On the 14th November 1501, Prince Arthur, then a little over fifteen
-years of age, was married to Katherine of Aragon, who was then three
-years older. They were married in St. Paul’s Cathedral. Holinshed says
-that a long stage was erected, 6 feet high, leading from the west doors
-to the Choir; that at the end was raised a Mount on which there was
-room for eight persons, with steps to go up and down; and that on this
-platform stood the King and Queen and the bridegroom, and on it also
-the Mayor and Aldermen were allowed a place.
-
-[Illustration: KATHERINE OF ARAGON AND ARTHUR, PRINCE OF WALES
-
-C. Butler’s Collection.]
-
-After the ceremony a splendid feast was held, with dancing and
-disguisings. Holinshed concludes his account of the wedding by an
-anecdote which, if true, proves that the Princess was truly the wife of
-Arthur. The day after, the Royal party went to Westminster, where there
-were tournaments and great rejoicings. The Prince died five months
-afterwards. Another royal wedding, held on the 25th January 1502,
-caused even greater rejoicing. It was that of the Princess Margaret
-with the King of Scotland; a marriage which promised peace and goodwill
-between the two nations; a promise which has been fulfilled in a manner
-unexpected, by the failure of the male line of Tudors. One observes
-how strong the desire of Henry VII. was to conciliate the goodwill
-of London. He borrowed money from the City over and over again, but
-he always repaid these loans. The exactions that we find recorded
-are chiefly those of his old age—when he was fifty-two years of age,
-which was old for that time, when he had grown covetous. He could be
-ostentatious when show was wanted, witness the marriage of Prince
-Arthur with Katherine. He could also entertain with regal splendour,
-witness the Christmas cheer he offered to the Mayor and Aldermen.
-
-  “Henry VII., in the ninth Year of his Reign, holding his Feast
-  of Christmas at Westminster, on the twelfth Day, feasted Ralph
-  Anstry, then Mayor of London, and his Brethren the Aldermen, with
-  other Commoners in great number; and, after Dinner, dubbing the
-  Mayor Knight, caused him with his Brethren to stay and behold the
-  Disguisings and other Disports in the Night following, shewed in
-  the great Hall, which was richly hanged with Arras, and staged
-  about on both sides; which Disports being ended, in the Morning,
-  the King, the Queen, the Embassadors, and other Estates, being set
-  at a Table of Stone, sixty knights and esquires served sixty Dishes
-  to the King’s Mess, and as many to the Queen’s (neither Flesh nor
-  Fish), and served the Mayor with twenty-four Dishes to his Mess,
-  of the same manner, with sundry Wines in most plenteous wise. And,
-  finally, the King and Queen being conveyed, with great Lights, into
-  the Palace, the Mayor, with his Company, in Barges, returned and
-  came to London by Break of the next day.” (Maitland, vol. i. p.
-  218.)
-
-[Illustration: THE EXCHEQUER IN THE TIME OF HENRY VII.
-
-From a print in the British Museum.]
-
-Henry VII. was respected and feared, rather than loved. He kept his
-word; if he borrowed he paid back; he was not savage or murderous;
-and he was a great lover of the fine arts. But the chief glory of his
-reign is that he enforced order throughout the realm: it is his chief
-glory, because order is a most difficult thing to enforce at a time
-when the people have been flying to arms on every possible occasion
-for forty years. In the rising of Lambert Simnel; in that of Perkin
-Warbeck; in the strange determination of the Cornishmen to march upon
-London,—one can see the natural result of a long civil war. Men become,
-very easily, ready to refer everything to the arbitration of battle;
-in such arbitration anything may happen. It was such arbitration that
-set Edward up and pulled Henry down, and then reversed the arrangement.
-It was such arbitration that placed the crown on Henry Tudor’s head.
-Why should not young Perkin step into a throne as Richard, Duke of
-York? Henry accepted the arbitrament of battle, defeated his rival, and
-dispersed the rebel armies one after the other. One would think that
-the spirit of rebellion would be quickly daunted by so many reverses.
-It was not so; for nearly a hundred years later there were rebellions.
-They broke out again and again: the people could not lose that trick of
-flying to arms; the barons could not understand that their power was
-gone; the memory still survived of princes dragged down, and princes
-set up, as Fortune turned the way of Victory.
-
-Henry, like all the Tudors, was arbitrary: he had no intention of being
-ruled by the City; by his agents Empson and Dudley he levied fines
-right and left upon the wealthier merchants; he put the Mayor and the
-Sheriffs in the Marshalsea on a trumped-up charge, and they had to pay
-a fine of £1400 before he would let them out. He seized Christopher
-Hawes, Alderman, and put him also in prison, but the poor man died of
-terror and grief. He imprisoned William Capel, Alderman, who refused
-to pay a fine of £2000 for his liberty, and remained in prison till
-the King died. Lawrence Aylmer, ex-Mayor, was also imprisoned in the
-Compter, where he remained till the King’s death. Henry understood very
-clearly that with a full Treasury many things are possible that are
-impossible with empty coffers. He accumulated, therefore, a tremendous
-hoard: it is said to have amounted to one million eight hundred
-thousand pounds in money, plate, and jewels.
-
-The events which belong especially to London in this reign, as we
-have seen, were not numerous, nor were they of enduring importance.
-As regards building, the King pulled down a chapel and a house—the
-house where Chaucer once lived—at the west end of Westminster Abbey,
-and built the Chapel called after his name; the Cross of Westchepe
-was finished and put up; Baynard’s Castle was rebuilt, “not after the
-former manner with embellishments and Towers,” but more convenient. It
-was the time when the castle was passing into the country house; it
-became now a large and handsome palace, built round two courts facing
-the river, much like those palaces built along the Strand, but without
-any garden except the courts.
-
-[Illustration: _Three Children of K. Henry VII  and Elizabeth his
-Queen.
-
-I. Prince Arthur II. P^r. Henry III. P^s. Margaret
-
-From the Royal Collection at Kensington Palace.
-
-From E. Gardner’s Collection. _p. 12._]
-
-The City showed more than its usual jealousy of strangers when in
-1486 it passed an Ordinance that “no apprentice should be taken nor
-Freedom given, but to such as were gentlemen born, agreeable to the
-clause in the oath given to every Freeman at the time he was made
-Free.”... “You shall take no Apprentice but if he be free born.”
-These are Maitland’s words. The statement is surely absurd. For
-suppose such a regulation to hold good for the wholesale distributing
-Companies, how could it be sustained in the case of the Craft
-Companies? Did a gentleman’s son ever become a working blacksmith or
-a journeyman saddler? Another kind of jealousy was shown by the City
-when they passed an Act which prohibited any citizen under penalty
-of £100 (one-third to be given the Informer) for taking any goods or
-merchandise to any Fair or Market within the Kingdom, for the term of
-seven years. What did it mean? That the country merchants should come
-to London for their wares? Parliament set aside this Regulation the
-following year.
-
-A sanitary edict was passed to the effect that no animals should be
-killed within the City. There is no information as to the length of
-time that this edict was obeyed, if it were ever obeyed at all.
-
-In 1503 the King showed his opinion of the authority of the City
-when he granted a Charter to the Company of Merchant Taylors which
-practically placed them outside the jurisdiction of the Mayor. Some of
-the other Companies, perceiving that, if this new independence were
-granted everywhere, there would be an end of the City, joined in a
-petition to Parliament for placing them formally under the authority of
-the Mayor and Aldermen. The City got a Charter from the King in 1505.
-The Charter, which cost 5000 marks, was especially levelled against
-recent encroachments of foreigners in buying and selling, and was drawn
-up to the same effect, and partly in the same words, as the Fifth and
-last Charter of King Edward the Third. Thus the conclusion of Edward’s
-Charter was as follows:—
-
-  “We ... have granted to the said Mayor, etc., that no strangers
-  shall from henceforth sell any Wares in the same City or Suburbs
-  thereof by Retail, nor shall keep any House, nor be any Broker in
-  the said City or Suburbs thereof, saving always the merchants of
-  High Almaine, etc.”
-
-Henry’s Charter was as follows:—
-
-  “That of all Time, of which the Memory of Man is not to the
-  contrary, for the Commonweal of the Realm and City aforesaid,
-  it hath been used, and by Authority of Parliament approved and
-  confirmed, that no Stranger from the Liberty of the City may buy or
-  sell, from any Stranger from the Liberties of the same City, any
-  Merchandize or Wares within the Liberties of the same City, upon
-  Forfeiture of the same.”
-
-A curious story of this reign relates how the King, to use a homely
-proverb, cut off his nose to spite his face. For the conduct of
-Margaret, Duchess of Burgundy, in acknowledging the Pretender, so
-incensed him against the Flemings that he banished them all. No doubt
-he inflicted hardship upon the Flemings, but he also—which he had not
-intended—deprived the Merchant Adventurers of London of their principal
-trade. The Hanseatic Merchants, perceiving the possible advantage
-to themselves, imported vast quantities of Flemish produce. Then
-the ’prentices rose and broke into the _Gildhalla Teutonicorum_—the
-Steelyard—pillaging the rooms and warehouses. There was a free fight in
-Thames Street, and after a time the rioters were dispersed. Some were
-taken prisoners and a few hanged. As nothing more is said about the
-Flemings, one supposes that they all came back again.
-
-[Illustration: SCREEN IN HENRY VII.’s CHAPEL, WESTMINSTER ABBEY
-
-E. Gardner’s Collection.]
-
-There had been grave complaints about the perjuries of Juries in the
-City. The Jurymen took bribes to favour one cause or the other. It was
-therefore enacted:—
-
-  “That, for the future, no Person or Persons be impannelled or sworn
-  into any jury or Inquest in any of the City Courts, unless he be
-  worth forty Marks; and if the Cause to be tried amount to that Sum,
-  then no Person shall be admitted as a Juror worth less than one
-  hundred Marks; and every Person so qualified, refusing to serve
-  as a Juryman, for the first Default to forfeit one Shilling, the
-  second two, and every one after to double the Sum, for the Use of
-  the City.”
-
-  “And when upon Trial it shall be found, that a Petty Jury have
-  brought in an unjust Verdict, then every Member of the same to
-  Forfeit twenty pounds, or more, according to the Discretion of the
-  Court of Lord-Mayor and Aldermen; and also each Person so offending
-  to suffer six Months’ imprisonment, or less, at the Discretion of
-  the said Mayor and Aldermen, without Bail or Mainprize, and for
-  ever after to be rendered incapable of serving in any jury.”
-
-  “And if upon Enquiry it be found, that any Juror has taken Money as
-  a Bribe, or other Reward, or Promise of Reward, to favour either
-  Plaintiff or Defendant in the Cause to be tried by him then, and
-  in every such case, the Person so offending to forfeit and pay to
-  the Party by him thus injured ten times the Value of such Sum or
-  Reward by him taken, and also to suffer imprisonment as already
-  mentioned, and besides, to be disabled from ever serving in that
-  Capacity; and that every Person or Persons guilty of bribing any
-  Juror, shall likewise forfeit ten times the value given, and suffer
-  imprisonment as aforesaid.” (Maitland, vol. i. p. 219.)
-
-[Illustration: INTERIOR OF HENRY VII.’s CHAPEL, WESTMINSTER ABBEY
-
-E. Gardner’s Collection.]
-
-Fortifications commanding roads and approaches to the City were erected
-in the year 1496, especially on the south side, in order to defend the
-City against the Cornish rebels. It is quite possible that some of
-them remained, and that some of the supposed works of 1642 were only a
-restoration or a rebuilding of forts and bastions on the same places.
-
-In the year 1498 many gardens in Finsbury Fields were thrown into a
-spacious Field for the use of the London Archers or Trained bands. This
-field is now the Artillery Ground with Bunhill Fields Cemetery. In 1501
-the Lord Mayor erected Kitchens and Offices in the Guildhall, by means
-of which he entertained the Aldermen and the principal citizens.
-
-Towards the end of his reign, the King, finding himself afflicted with
-an incurable disease, took steps in the nature of atonement for his
-sins. He issued a general pardon to all men for offences committed
-against his laws—thieves, murderers, and certain others excepted. He
-paid the fees of prisoners who were kept in gaol for want of money to
-discharge their fees; he also paid the debts of all those who were
-confined in the “counters” of Ludgate, _i.e._ the free men of the City,
-for sums of forty shillings and under; and some he relieved that were
-confined for as much as ten pounds. “Hereupon,” says Holinshed, “there
-were processions daily in every City and parish to pray to Almighty God
-for his restoring to health and long continuance in the same.” But in
-vain; for the disease continued and the King died.
-
-Here is a note on the first visit of Henry the Eighth to the City:—
-
-  “Prince Henry, who afterwards succeeded his father on the throne
-  as King Henry VIII., but was at the time a child of seven years,
-  paid a visit to the City (30 Oct. 1498), where he received a hearty
-  welcome, and was presented by the Recorder, on behalf of the
-  citizens, with a pair of gilt goblets. In reply to the Recorder,
-  who in presenting this ‘litell and powre’ gift, promised to
-  remember his grace with a better at some future time, the prince
-  made the following short speech:—
-
-  ‘Fader Maire, I thank you and your Brethren here present of this
-  greate and kynd remembraunce which I trist in tyme comyng to
-  deserve. And for asmoche as I can not give unto you according
-  thankes, I shall pray the Kynges Grace to thank you, and for my
-  partye I shall not forget yor kyndnesse.’” (Sharpe, _London and the
-  Kingdom_, vol. i. p. 334.)
-
-The funeral of the King was most sumptuous.
-
-  “His corpse was conveyed from Richmond to St. Paul’s on the 9th
-  May, being met on its way at St. George’s Bar, in Southwark,
-  by the mayor, aldermen, and a suite of 104 commoners, all in
-  black clothing and all on horseback. The streets were lined with
-  other members of the companies bearing torches, the lowest craft
-  occupying the first place. Next after the freemen of the city came
-  the ‘strangers’—Easterlings, Frenchmen, Spaniards, Venetians,
-  Genoese, Florentines and ‘Lukeners’—on horseback and on foot,
-  also bearing torches. These took up their position in Gracechurch
-  Street. Cornhill was occupied by the lower crafts, ordered in such
-  a way that ‘the most worshipful crafts’ stood next unto ‘Paules.’
-  A similar order was preserved the next day, when the corpse was
-  removed from Saint Paul’s to Westminster. The lowest crafts were
-  placed nearest to the Cathedral, and the most worshipful next
-  to Temple Bar, where the civic escort terminated. The mayor and
-  aldermen proceeded to Westminster by water, to attend the ‘masse
-  and offering.’ The mayor, with his mace in his hand, made his
-  offering next after the Lord Chamberlain; those aldermen who had
-  passed the chair offered next after the Knights of the Garter, and
-  before all ‘knights for the body’; whilst the aldermen who had
-  not yet served as mayor made their offering after the knights.”
-  (_Ibid._ p. 341.)
-
-
-
-
-                              CHAPTER II
-
-                              HENRY VIII
-
-
-[Illustration: _Spooner & Co._
-
-HENRY VIII. WHEN YOUNG (1491–1547)
-
-From a portrait by Holbein.]
-
-London has now changed its character: the old quarrels and rivalries of
-Baron, Alderman, or Lord of the Manor with merchant, of merchant with
-craftsman, of master with servant, have ceased. The Lord of the Manor
-has disappeared in the City; the craft companies have at last gained
-their share in the government of the City, but, so far to their own
-advantage, they are entirely ruled by the employers and masters who
-belong to them, so that the craftsmen themselves are no better off than
-before. The authority of the King over the City is greater now than
-at any preceding time, but it will be restrained in the future not so
-much by charters, by bribes and gifts, as by the power of the Commons.
-The trade of the City, which had so grievously suffered by the Civil
-wars, is reviving again under the peace and order of the Tudor Princes,
-though it will be once more injured by the religious dissensions.
-Lastly, the City, like the rest of the country, is already feeling the
-restlessness that belongs to a period of change. At Henry’s accession,
-men were beginning to be conscious of a larger world: wider thoughts
-possessed them; the old learning, the old Arts, were rising again from
-the grave; the crystallised institutions, hitherto fondly thought to
-be an essential part of religion, were ready to be broken up. Even the
-most narrow City merchant, whose heart was in his money-bags, whose
-soul was to be saved by a trental of masses, an anniversary, or a
-chantry, felt the uneasiness of the time, and yearned for a simpler
-Faith as well as for wider markets across the newly-traversed seas.
-I propose to consider the events of this reign, which were of such
-vast importance to London as well as the country at large, by subjects
-instead of in chronological order as hitherto.
-
-[Illustration: HENRY VIII. (1491–1547)
-
-From the portrait by Holbein in Windsor Castle.]
-
-[Illustration: KATHERINE OF ARAGON (1485–1536)
-
-From the painting in the National Portrait Gallery, London.]
-
-And I will first take the relations of the City and the King.
-
-They began with a manifest desire of the young King to conciliate
-the City. Evidently in answer to some petition or representation, he
-banished all “foreign” beggars, _i.e._ those who were not natives of
-London; and ordered them to return to their own parishes. It is easy
-to understand what happened: the “foreign” beggars, in obedience to
-the proclamation, retired to their holes and corners; the streets were
-free from them for some days; the Mayor and Sheriffs congratulated
-themselves; then after a decent interval, and gradually, the beggars
-ventured out again. The difficulty, in a word, of dealing with rogues
-and vagrants and masterless men was already overwhelming. In the time
-of Elizabeth it became a real, a threatening, danger to the town. We
-must remember that one effect of a long war, especially a civil war,
-which calls out a much larger proportion of the people than a foreign
-war, is to throw upon the roads, at the close of it, a vast number of
-those who have tasted the joys of idleness and henceforth will not
-work. They would rather be flogged and hanged than work. They cannot
-work. They have forgotten how to work. They rob on the high road; they
-murder in the remote farm-houses; in the winter, and when they grow
-old, they make for the towns, and they beg in the streets. However,
-Henry greatly pleased the City by his order, and for a time there was
-improvement. He then took a much more important step towards winning
-the affection of the City. He committed Empson and Dudley to the Tower.
-They were accused of a conspiracy against the Government—in reality
-they had been the approved agents of the late King; but this it would
-have been inconvenient to confess. They were therefore found guilty
-and executed—these unfortunately too willing tools of a rapacious
-sovereign. Henry offered restitution to all who had suffered at their
-hands. It was found on subsequent inquiry that six men, all of whom had
-been struck off the lists for perjury, had managed to get replaced, and
-had been busy at work for Empson and Dudley in raking up false charges
-against Aldermen or in taking bribes for concealing offences. These
-persons, as being servants and not principals, were treated leniently.
-They were set in pillory, and then driven out of the City.
-
-The loyalty of the City showed itself on the day of the Coronation when
-the King, with his newly married Queen, rode in magnificent procession
-from the Tower to Westminster, where the Crowning was performed with a
-splendour which surpassed that of all previous occasions.
-
-On St. John’s Eve 1510 the King, disguised as one of his own yeomen,
-went into the City in order to witness the finest show of the year, the
-procession of the City Watch. He was so well pleased with the sight
-that on St. Peter’s Eve following he brought his Queen and Court to
-Cheapside to see the procession again:—
-
-  “The March was begun by the City musick, followed by the
-  Lord-Mayor’s officers in Party-coloured Liveries; then the
-  Sword-Bearer on Horseback, in beautiful Armour, preceded the
-  Lord-Mayor, mounted on a stately Horse richly trapped, attended
-  by a Giant, and two Pages on Horseback, three Pageants,
-  Morrice-dancers, and Footmen; next came the Sheriffs, preceded by
-  their Officers, and attended by their Giants, Pages, Pageants,
-  and Morrice-Dancers. Then marched a great body of Demi-Lancers,
-  in bright Armour, on stately Horses; next followed a Body of
-  Carabineers, in white Fustian Coats, with a symbol of the City Arms
-  on their Backs and Breasts; then marched a Division of Archers,
-  with their Bows bent, and Shafts of Arrows by their Side; next
-  followed a Party of Pikemen in their Corslets and Helmets; after
-  them a Body of Halberdeers in Corslets and Helmets; and the March
-  was closed by a great Party of Billmen, with Helmets and Aprons of
-  Mail; and the whole Body, consisting of about two thousand Men,
-  had between every Division a certain Number of Musicians, who were
-  answered in their proper Places by the like Number of Drums, with
-  Standards and Ensigns as veteran troops. This nocturnal March was
-  illuminated by Nine hundred and forty Cressets; two hundred whereof
-  were defrayed at the City Expence, five hundred at that of the
-  Companies, and two hundred and forty by the City Constables. The
-  March began at the Conduit at the west end of Cheapside, and passed
-  through Cheapside, Cornhill, and Leadenhall Street, to Aldgate;
-  whence it returned by Fenchurch Street, Gracechurch Street,
-  Cornhill, and so back to the Conduit. During this March, the Houses
-  on each side the said streets were decorated with Greens and
-  Flowers, wrought into Garlands, and intermixed with a great number
-  of Lamps.” (Maitland, vol. i. p. 222.)
-
-There is no more pleasant page in the whole of history than that which
-relates the first years of King Henry’s reign. He was young; he was
-strong; he was married to a woman whom he loved; he was tall, like
-his grandfather King Edward, and of goodly countenance, like his
-grandmother Elizabeth Woodville; he was a lover of arts, like his
-father; and of learning, like his grandmother Margaret, Countess of
-Richmond; he was brave, like all his race; he was masterful, as became
-a king as well as a Tudor; he was skilful in all manly exercises. Add
-to all this that at the time of his accession he was the richest man
-in Europe. This accomplished Prince, according to Holinshed, used,
-even in his progresses, to exercise himself every day in shooting,
-singing, dancing, wrestling, casting the bar, playing on the recorders,
-the flute, the virginals, or writing songs and ballads and setting
-them to music. His songs are principally amorous. He wrote anthems,
-one of which is extant. The words are taken from the Song of Solomon
-(Vulgate). His verse is melodious and pretty:—
-
-    “O my hart and O my hart
-        My hart it is so sore!
-    Since I must nedys from my love depart
-        And know no cause wherfore.”
-
-Or a song of constancy:—
-
-    “Grene grouth the holy, so doth the ivie
-    Thow winter’s blastys blow never so hye.
-    As the holy growith grene and never chaungyth hew
-    So I am—ever hath bene—unto my lady trew.
-                  Grene grouth, etc.
-
-    As the holy grouth grene with ivie all alone
-    Whose flowerys cannot be seen and grene wode levys be gone,
-    Now unto my lady, promyse to her I make
-    From all other only to her I me betake.
-    Adew myne owne lady, adew my specyall
-    Who hath my hart trewly, be sure, and ever shall.
-                  Grene grouth, etc.”
-
-And the song which became so popular, “Pastyme with good Company.” This
-song was actually taken by Latimer as a text for a sermon before Edward
-the Sixth:—
-
-    “Pastyme with good companye
-    I love and shall untyll I dye;
-    Gruche who list—but none denye,
-    So God be plesyd thus leve wyll I;
-        For my Pastance
-        Hunt, syng, and dance,
-        My hart is sette;
-        All goodly sport for my comfort
-            Who shall be let?
-
-    Youth must have some dalliance,
-    Of good or yll sum pastance;
-    Companye me thynkes then best
-    All thoughts and fansys to dejest;
-        For idleness
-        Is chief mistress
-        Of vices all;
-        Then who can say
-        But myrth and play
-            Is best of all?
-
-    Company with honeste
-    Is vertu—vices to flee;
-    Company is good and ill,
-    But every man hath hys fre wyll;
-        The best ensew,
-        The worst eschew,
-        My Mynde shall be
-        Vertu to use,
-        Vice to refuse,
-            Thus shall I use me.”
-
-[Illustration: HENRY VIII. AS A MUSICIAN
-
-From a Royal MS. in British Museum.]
-
-At the outset there was nothing but feasting, jousts, feats of arms,
-masques, devices, pageants, and mummeries. At the feasts the King
-was lavish and free of hand; at the tilting the King challenged all
-and won the prize; at the masques and mummeries he was the best of
-all the actors; at the dance he was the most graceful and the most
-unwearied. There are long pages in contemporary history on this festive
-and splendid life at the Court, when as yet all the world was young
-to Henry, and no one had been executed except Empson and Dudley. The
-following extract from Holinshed shows the things in which he gloried,
-and the nature of a Court Pageant:—
-
-  “Then there was a device or a pageant upon wheels brought in, out
-  of the which pageant issued out a gentleman richlie apparelled,
-  that shewed how in a garden of pleasure there was an arbor of gold
-  wherein were lords and ladies, much desirous to shew pastime to
-  the queene and ladies, if they might be licenced so to doo; who
-  was answered by the queene, how she and all other there were verie
-  desirous to see them and their pastime. Then a great cloth of arras
-  that did hang before the same pageant was taken away, and the
-  pageant brought more neere. It was curiouslie made and pleasant to
-  beholde, it was solemne and rich: for every post or piller thereof
-  was covered with frised gold, therein were trees of hawthorne,
-  eglantine, rosiers, vines, and other pleasant floures of diverse
-  colours, with gillofers, and other hearbs, all made of sattin,
-  damaske, silver and gold, accordinglie as the naturall trees,
-  hearbs, or floures ought to be. In this arbor were six ladies,
-  all apparelled in white satin and greene, set and embrodered full
-  of H. & K. of Gold, knit together with laces of gold of damaske,
-  and all their garments were replenished with glittering spangels
-  gilt over, on their heads are bonets all opened at the foure
-  quarters overfrised with flat gold of damaske, and orrellets were
-  of rolles, wreathed on lampas doucke holow, so that the gold shewed
-  through the lampas doucke: the fassis of their head set full of new
-  devised fashions. In this garden also was the king and five with
-  him apparelled in garments of purple sattin, all of cuts with H.
-  & K. everie edge garnished with frised gold, and everie garment
-  full of posies, made of letters of fine gold in bullion as thicke
-  as they might be, and everie person had his name in like letters
-  of massie gold. The first Cureloial, the second Bon Voloire, the
-  third Bon Espoir, the fourth Valiant Desire, the fifth Bon Foy,
-  the sixt Amour Loial, their hosen, cape, and coats were full of
-  posies, with H. & K. of fine gold in bullion, so that the ground
-  could scarse appeere, and yet was in everie void place spangles of
-  gold. When time was come, the said pageant was brought foorth into
-  presence, and then descended a lord and a ladie by couples, and
-  then the minstrels which were disguised also dansed, and the lords
-  and ladies dansed, that it was a pleasure to behold. In the meane
-  season the pageant was conveyed to the end of the palace, there to
-  tarie till the danses were finished, and so to have received the
-  lords and ladies againe: but suddenlie the rude people ran to the
-  pageant, and rent, tare, and spoiled the pageant so that the lord
-  steward nor the head officers could not cause them to absteine,
-  except that they should have foughten and drawen blood and so was
-  this pageant broken. Then the king with the queene and the ladies
-  returned to his chamber, where they had a great banket, and so this
-  triumph ended with mirth and gladnes.” (Holinshed, vol. iii. p.
-  560.)
-
-On the proclamation of war against France, the City was ordered to
-furnish a contingent of 300 men fully armed and equipped. There seems
-to have been no difficulty in getting the men. The money for their
-outfit was subscribed by the Companies, who raised £405, and so the men
-were despatched, clad in white with St. George’s Cross and Sword, and a
-rose in front and back.
-
-In June 1516 Cardinal Wolsey addressed an admonition to the City:
-they must look to the maintenance of order; there was sedition among
-them; the statute of apparel was neglected; vagabonds and masterless
-men made the City their resort—an instructive commentary on the
-King’s ordinances of seven years before. The sedition of which Wolsey
-complained was due to the intense jealousy with which the people of
-London always regarded the immigration of aliens. They were always
-coming in, and the freemen—the old City families—were always dying out
-or going away. In 1500, and again in 1516, orders were issued for all
-freemen to return with their families to the City on pain of losing
-their freedom. Had they, then, already begun the custom of living in
-the suburbs and going into town every morning? The case against the
-foreigners is strongly put by Grafton:—
-
-  “In this season the Genowayes, Frenchmen and other straungers,
-  sayd and boasted themselves to be in suche favor with the king and
-  hys counsayle, that they set naught by the rulers of the city:
-  and the multitude of straungers was so great about London, that
-  the poore English artificers could scarce get any lyvyng: and
-  most of al the straungers were so prowde, that they disdayned,
-  mocked, and oppressed the Englishmen, which was the beginning of
-  the grudge. For among all other thinges there was a carpenter in
-  London called Wylliamson which boughte two stocke Doves in Chepe,
-  and as he was about to pay for them, a Frenchman tooke them out
-  of his hande, and sayde they were not meat for a Carpenter: well
-  sayde the Englisheman I have bought them, and now payde for them,
-  and therefore I will have them; nay sayde the Frenchman I will have
-  them for my Lorde the Ambassador, and so for better or worse, the
-  Frenchman called the Englishman knave and went away with the stock
-  Doves. The straungers came to the French Ambassador, and surmised
-  a complaint against the poore Carpenter, and the Ambassador came
-  to my Lord Maior, and sayde so much, that the Carpenter was sent
-  to prison: and yet not contented with this so complayned to the
-  king’s counsayle, that the king’s commaundement was layde on him.
-  And when syr John Baker and other worshipfull persons sued to
-  the Ambassador for him, he aunswered by the body of God that the
-  Englishe knave should loose his lyfe, for he sayde no Englisheman
-  should denie what the Frenchmen requyred, and other aunswere had
-  they none. Also a Frenchman that had slayne a man, should abjure
-  the realme and had a crosse in his hande, and then sodainely came
-  a great sort of Frenchman about him, and one of them sayde to the
-  Constable that led him, syr is thys crosse the price to kill an
-  Englisheman. The Constable was somewhat astonied and aunswered
-  not. Then sayde another Frenchman, on that price we would be
-  banished all by the masse, this saiying was noted to be spoken
-  spitefully. Howbeit the Frenchmen were not alonly oppressors of the
-  Englishemen, for a Lombard called Frances de Bard, entised a man’s
-  wyfe in Lombarde Streete to come to his Chamber with her husband’s
-  plate, which thing she did. After when her husband knew it, he
-  demanded hys wife, but answere was made he should not have her;
-  then he demanded his plate, and in like manner answere was made
-  that he should neyther have plate nor wife. And when he had sued
-  an action against the straunger in the Guyldehall, the stranger
-  so faced the Englishman that he faynted in his sute. And then the
-  Lombard arrested the poore man for his wyfes boord, while he kept
-  her from her husband in his chamber. This mocke was much noted, and
-  for these and many other oppressions done by them, there encreased
-  such a malice in the Englishmen’s hartes: that at the last it brast
-  out.” (Grafton’s _Chronicles_, vol. ii. p. 289.)
-
-He goes on to relate that a certain John Lincoln, a broker, desired a
-priest named Dr. Standish to move the Mayor and Aldermen at his Spital
-sermon on Easter Monday to take part with the Commonalty against the
-aliens. Standish refused. John Lincoln then went to a certain Dr. Bele,
-Canon in St. Mary Spital, and represented the grievous case of the
-people.
-
-... “lamentably declared to him, how miserably the common artificers
-lyved, and scarce could get any worke to find them, their wives and
-children, for there were such a number of artificers straungers, that
-toke away all their living in manner.”
-
-Then followed the tumult known as Evil May Day. Dr. Bele preached
-the Spital Sermon of Easter Tuesday. He first read Lincoln’s letter
-representing the condition of the craftsmen thus oppressed by the
-aliens, and then taking for his text the words, “Caelum caeli Domino
-Terram autem dedit Filiis hominum”—the Heavens to the Lord of Heaven,
-but the Earth hath he given to the Sons of Men—he plainly told the
-people that England was their own, and that Englishmen ought to keep
-their country for themselves, as birds defend their nests. Thus
-encouraged, the people began to assault and molest the foreigners in
-the City. Some of them were sent to Newgate for the offence; but they
-continued. Then there ran about the City a rumour that on May Day
-all the foreigners would be murdered, and many of them, hearing this
-rumour, fled. The rumour reached the King, who ordered Cardinal Wolsey
-to inquire into it. Thereupon the Mayor called together the Council.
-Some were of opinion that a strong watch should be set and kept up
-all night; others thought that it would be better to order every one
-to be indoors from nine in the evening till nine in the morning. Both
-opinions were sent to the Cardinal, who chose the latter. Accordingly
-the order was proclaimed. But it was not obeyed. Some time after nine,
-Alderman Sir John Mundy found a company of young men in Cheapside
-playing at Bucklers. He ordered them to desist and to go home. One of
-them asked why? For answer the Alderman seized him and ordered him to
-be taken to the Compter. Then the tumult began. The ’prentices raised
-the cry of “Clubs! Clubs!” and flocked together; the man was rescued;
-the people crowded in from every quarter; they marched, a thousand
-strong, to Newgate, where they took out the Lord Mayor’s prisoners, and
-to the Compter, where they did the same; at St. Martin’s they broke
-open doors and windows and “spoiled everything.” And they spent the
-rest of the night in pulling down the houses of foreigners. When they
-grew tired of this sport, they gradually broke up and went home, but on
-the way the Mayor’s men arrested some three hundred of them and sent
-them to the Tower. Another hundred rioters were arrested next day.
-Dr. Bele was also sent to the Tower. Then began the trials. Lincoln
-and some twenty or thirty others were found guilty and sentenced to
-be hanged, drawn, and quartered. Ten pairs of gallows were set up in
-different parts of the City for their execution. Lincoln, however, was
-the only one who suffered. For the rest a reprieve was granted. Then
-the affair was concluded in a becoming and solemn manner:—
-
-  “Thursday the xxij day of May, the king came into Westminster
-  Hall, for whome at the upper ende was set a cloth of estate, and
-  the place hanged with arras. With him was the Cardinall, the Dukes
-  of Norfolke and Suffolke, the Earles of Shrewsbury, of Essex,
-  Wilshire and of Surrey, with manye Lordes and other of the kinges
-  Counsale. The Maior and Aldermen, and all the chief of the City,
-  were there in their best livery (according as the Cardinall had
-  them appoynted) by ix of the clocke. Then the king commaunded that
-  all the prisoners should be brought forth. Then came in the poore
-  yonglings and olde false knaves bound in ropes all along, one after
-  another in their shirtes, and every one a Halter about his necke,
-  to the number of foure hundred men and xj women. And when all were
-  come before the kinges presence, the Cardinall sore layd to the
-  Maior and commonaltie their negligence, and to the prisoners he
-  declared that they had deserved death for their offence: then all
-  the prisoners together cryed mercy gracious Lorde, mercy. Then the
-  Lordes altogether besought his grace of mercy, at whose request
-  the king pardoned them all. And then the Cardinall gave unto them
-  a good exhortation to the great gladnesse of the heerers. And when
-  the generall pardon was pronounced, all the prisoners showted at
-  once, and altogether cast up their Halters unto the Hall rooffe, so
-  that the king might perceyve they were none of the discretest sort.
-  Here is to be noted that dyvers offenders which were not taken,
-  heeryng that the king was inclined to mercys, came well apparayled
-  to Westminster, and sodainlye stryped them into their shirtes with
-  halters, and came in among the prisoners willingly, to be partakers
-  of the kinges pardon, by the which doyng, it was well knowen that
-  one John Gelson yoman of the Crowne was the first that beganne to
-  spoyle, and exhorted other to do the same, and because he fled and
-  was not taken, he came in the rope with the other prisoners, and so
-  had his pardon. This companie was after called the blacke Wagon.
-  Then were all the Galowes within the Citie taken downe, and many a
-  good prayer sayde for the king, and the Citizens tooke more heede
-  to their servants.” (Grafton’s _Chronicles_, vol. ii. p. 294.)
-
-[Illustration: CARDINAL WOLSEY (1471–1530)
-
-From the painting in the National Portrait Gallery, London.]
-
-A singular story belongs to the arrival of the French embassy charged
-with negotiating the marriage of the King’s infant daughter and the
-Dauphin. The ambassadors were escorted by a company of their own King’s
-bodyguard and another of the English King’s bodyguard. They were met at
-Blackheath by the Earl of Surrey, richly apparelled, and a hundred and
-sixty gentlemen; four hundred archers followed; they were lodged in the
-merchants’ houses and banqueted at Taylors’ Hall. And then, says the
-historian, “the French hardermen opened their wares and made Taylors’
-Hall like to the paunde of a mart. At this doing many an Englishman
-grudged but it avayled not.” In other words, a lot of French hucksters,
-under cover of the embassy, brought over smuggled goods and sold them
-in the Taylors’ Hall at a lower price than the English makers could
-afford.
-
-The reception of the Emperor Charles by Henry in this year was as
-royally magnificent as even Henry himself could desire. The procession
-was like others of the same period and may be omitted.
-
-In 1524 a curious proclamation was made by the Mayor. Evidently papers
-or letters of importance had been lost.
-
-  “My lorde the maire streihtly chargith and commaundith on the king
-  or soveraigne lordis behalf that if any maner of person or persons
-  that have founde a hat with certeyn lettres and other billes and
-  writinges therin enclosed, which lettres been directed to our said
-  sovereign from the parties of beyond the see, let hym or theym
-  bryng the said hat, lettres, and writinges unto my saide lorde
-  the maire in all the hast possible and they shalbe well rewarded
-  for their labour, and that no maner of person kepe the said hat,
-  lettres, and writinges nor noon of them after this proclamacioun
-  made, uppon payn of deth, and God save the king.” (Sharpe, _London
-  and the Kingdom_, vol. i. p. 373.)
-
-[Illustration: EASTCHEAP MARKET
-
-From an old drawing in British Museum.]
-
-Two cases, that of Sir George Monoux and that of Paul Wythypol,
-prove that the City offices were not at this time always regarded as
-desirable. In the former case, Sir George Monoux, Alderman and Draper,
-was elected (1523) Mayor for the second time, and refused to serve.
-He was fined £1000, and it was ordained by the Court of Aldermen that
-any one in future who should refuse to serve as Mayor should be fined
-that amount. In this case Monoux was permitted to retire, probably on
-account of ill-health. The second case, which happened in 1537, was
-that of Paul Wythypol, merchant-taylor. He was a man of some position
-in the City: he had been one of the Commoners sent to confer with
-Wolsey on the “amicable” loan (Sharpe, _London and the Kingdom_, vol.
-i. p. 377); he attended the Coronation banquet of Anne Boleyn; he was
-afterwards M.P. for the City, 1529–1536. They elected him Alderman
-for Farringdon Within. For some reason he was anxious not to serve;
-rather than pay the fine he got the King to interfere on his behalf.
-Such interference was clearly an infringement of the City liberties;
-the Mayor and Aldermen consulted Wolsey, who advised them to seek an
-interview with the King, then at Greenwich. This they did, and went
-down to Greenwich. When they arrived they were taken into the King’s
-great chamber, where they waited till evening, when the King received
-them privately. What passed is not known, but in the end Wythypol
-remained out of office for a year afterwards. At the end of that time
-he was again elected Alderman, and was ordered to take office or to
-swear that his property did not amount to £1000. He refused and was
-committed to Newgate, the King no longer offering to help him. Three
-weeks later he appeared before the Court and offered to pay a fine of
-£40 for three years’ exemption from office. The Court refused this
-offer and sent him back to prison. Three months later—Wythypol must
-have been a very stubborn person—he again appeared before the Court,
-and was ordered to take up office at once or else swear that his
-property was not worth £1000. If he did not, he was to be fined in a
-sum to be assessed by the Mayor, Aldermen, and Common Council. He did
-not take office, and it is therefore tolerably certain that he paid a
-heavy fine.
-
-In the year 1529 sat the memorable Court presided over by Cardinals
-Campeggio and Wolsey, which was to try the validity of Henry’s marriage
-with his brother’s widow. It was held in the great hall of the
-Dominican Friars. No more important case was ever tried in an English
-Court of Law, nor one which had wider or deeper consequences. Upon this
-case depended the national Faith; the nation’s fidelity to the Pope;
-its continued adhesion to the ecclesiastical order as it had developed
-during fifteen hundred years. This trial belongs to the national
-history.
-
-In October of that year (1529) the King, enraged by the Legate’s delay
-in the marriage business, deprived Wolsey of the Seals, seized his
-furniture and plate, and ordered him to leave London. In November
-of the same year, at a Parliament held in the Palace of Bridewell,
-a Bill was passed by the Lords disabling the Cardinal from being
-restored to his dignities. In February 1530 Wolsey was restored to his
-Archbishopric but without his palace, which the King kept for himself;
-he was summoned to London on a charge of treason, but he fell ill and
-died on the way.
-
-No Englishman before or after Wolsey has ever maintained so much state
-and splendour; no Englishman has ever affected the popular imagination
-so much as Cardinal Wolsey. Contemporary writers exhaust themselves in
-dwelling upon the more than regal Court kept up by this priest. It is
-like reading of the Court of a great king. We must, however, remember,
-that all this state was not the ostentation of the man so much as,
-first, the glorification of the Church and of the ecclesiastical
-dignities, and next, a visible proof of the greatness of the King in
-having so rich a subject.
-
-Between 1527 and 1534 there were disputes on the subject of tithes and
-offerings to the clergy. At this time began the dissolution of the
-Monasteries, to which we will return presently.
-
-[Illustration: THE KING IN PARLIAMENT
-
-From a print in the British Museum.]
-
-So far as regards the relations between the King and the City. Let
-us now return to the City itself. We have already seen that the
-intervals of freedom from plague were growing shorter. In this reign
-of thirty-eight years there was a return of the sweating sickness in
-1518; a return of the plague, which lasted from 1519 to 1522; another
-appearance of the sweating sickness in 1528; and another attack of
-the plague in 1543. It seems strange that no physician should have
-connected the frequency and violence of the disease with the foulness
-and narrowness of the streets. From the beginning of the sixteenth
-century to the Great Fire of 1666, London, crowded and confined,
-abounded with courts and slums of the worst possible kind; it swarmed
-with rogues and tramps and masterless men who lived as they could,
-like swine. There were no great fires to cleanse the City. The
-condition of the ground, with its numberless cesspools, its narrow
-lanes into which, despite laws, everything was thrown; its frequent
-laystalls; the refuse and remains of all the workshops; the putrefying
-blood of the slaughtered beasts sinking into the earth,—must have
-been truly terrible had the people realised it; but they did not.
-Fluid matter sank into the earth and worked its wicked will unseen and
-unsuspected; the rains washed the surface; no man saw farther than the
-front of his own house; therefore when pestilence appeared among them
-it did not creep, according to its ancient wont, from house to house,
-but it flew swiftly with wings outspread over street and lane and court.
-
-Steps were taken to protect and to improve the medical profession. It
-was ordained in 1512 that no one should practise medicine or surgery
-within the City or for seven miles outside the City walls without a
-license from the Bishop of London or the Dean of St. Paul’s; the said
-license only to be obtained by examination before the Bishop or the
-Dean by four of the Faculty. Two years later surgeons were exempted
-from serving on juries, bearing arms, or serving as constables. In 1519
-the Physicians obtained a Charter of Incorporation, by which they were
-allowed a common seal; to elect a President annually; to purchase and
-hold land; and to govern all persons practising physic within seven
-miles of London. The College of Physicians, observe, was at first only
-considered as one of the City Companies: it had jurisdiction over
-London and over seven miles round London, but no more. The positions of
-both Physicians and Surgeons were enormously improved by these Acts of
-Parliament.
-
-There were in this reign, for the admiration of the people, an
-extraordinary number of executions, both of noble lords and hapless
-ladies, as well as of divines, monks, friars, gentlemen, gentlewomen,
-and the common sort, for treason, heresy, and the crimes which are
-the most commonly brought before the attention of justice. What reign
-before this would exhibit such a list as the following? Two Queens,
-Anne Boleyn and Katherine Howard; of others, the Marquis of Exeter,
-the Earl of Surrey, the Earl of Kildare, the Duke of Buckingham,
-Lord Rochford, Lady Rochford, Lady Salisbury, Fisher, More, Empson,
-Dudley, Cromwell. Of abbots, priors, monks, friars, doctors, priests,
-for refusing the oath of the King’s supremacy a great number; of
-lesser persons for heresy or treason another goodly company. Some
-were beheaded—those were fortunate; others were burned, not being so
-fortunate; the rest were drawn on hurdles, and treated in the manner we
-have already seen.
-
-The dissolution of the Religious Houses, the changes in the Articles
-of Religion, and their effect upon the City of London, will be found
-in another place (see p. 109). In this chapter a few cases are given
-to illustrate the changes of thought and the general excitement in the
-minds of men.
-
-There is, first, the case of Lambert. He was a learned man and a
-schoolmaster who denied the Real Presence in the Sacrament. The
-case had been already brought before the Archbishop, who had given
-a sentence against Lambert. The King, who ardently believed in the
-Real Presence, announced his intention of arguing publicly with this
-heretic. The argument was actually held in Westminster Hall in the
-presence of a great number of people. In the end the King, apparently,
-got the worst of it, for we find him becoming judge as well as
-disputant, and ordering the unfortunate man to recant or burn. Lambert
-would not recant—the pride and stubbornness of these heretics were
-wonderful; in some cases, perhaps in this, the man stood for a party:
-he would not recant for the sake of his friends as well as himself. He
-was burned.
-
-[Illustration: HENRY VIII. GRANTING THE BARBER-SURGEONS’ CHARTER
-
-After the picture by Holbein in Barber-Surgeons’ Hall, London.]
-
-The case of Anne Askew is remarkable for the introduction of torture,
-which was then unusual either with criminals or heretics. She was so
-miserably tortured—yet perhaps the torture was intended as a merciful
-act, in the hope of rescuing her from worse than earthly flames—that
-she could not stand or walk. She, like Lambert, suffered for denying
-the Real Presence. She was a gentlewoman of very good understanding.
-
-The Holy Maid of Kent, Elizabeth Barton, was a woman of a much lower
-order. She was hysterical and weak-minded. At the present day she would
-be looked after and gently cared for. She had fits and convulsions,
-during which her face and her body were drawn, and she talked rambling
-nonsense. That she was unintelligible was quite enough to make the
-ignorant country folk flock about her, listening for inspired words in
-her hysterical ejaculations. She passed among them for one to whom God
-had sent a new revelation of His Will and Intentions. She was taken to
-see Bishops Fisher and More, who do not seem to have regarded her as a
-person of the slightest importance. But certain priests—it is said so;
-one may believe it or not—obtained influence over her and persuaded
-her to prophesy—no doubt she believed what they told her—that if the
-King took another wife he would not remain King for another year. Henry
-was not the man to be turned aside from his fixed purpose by such a
-gross cheat. He arrested the Maid and her accomplices. They were all
-brought to the Star Chamber and examined; they all confessed. They were
-then exposed on a scaffold at St. Paul’s and publicly confirmed their
-confessions. Her confederates included six ecclesiastics, of whom two
-were monks of Canterbury and one a Friar Observaunt; two were private
-gentlemen; one was a serving-man. Confession made, they were taken
-back to the Tower and their case laid before Parliament, which met
-after Christmas. They were all sentenced to the same traitor’s death
-and, after being kept in prison for three months, were carried out to
-Tyburn. The last words of the girl if they are correctly reported are
-very pathetic and to the purpose. But they look as if they had been
-written for her.
-
-  “Hether am I come to die, and I have not beene the onele cause of
-  mine owne death, which most justly I have deserved, but also I am
-  the cause of the death of all these persons which at thys time here
-  suffer: and yet to saye the truth I am not so much to be blamed,
-  consydering it was well known unto these learned men that I was
-  a poore wenche, without learnyng, and therefore they might have
-  easily perceyved that the thinges that were done by me could not
-  proceede in no suche sort, but their capacities and learning coulde
-  right well judge from whence they were proceeded, and that they
-  were altogether fayned: but because the things which I fayned was
-  profitable unto them, and therefore they much praised mee and bare
-  me in hande that it was the holy ghost, and not that I did them,
-  and then being puffed up with their prayses, fell into a certaine
-  pride and foolish phantasie with my self, and thought I might fayne
-  what I would, which thing hath brought me to this case, and for the
-  which now I crye God and the King’s highnesse most hartely mercie,
-  and desire all you good people to pray to God to have mercie on me,
-  and all them that here suffer with me.”
-
-One cannot refrain in this place from remarking on the change which
-has come over the temper of the people as regards the sacred person
-of the priest. Henry the Seventh would not send to execution even
-those mischievous priests who invented and carried out the impudent
-personations. Yet his son, thirty years later, sends to block, stake or
-gallows, bishops, abbots, priors, priests, monks, and friars, by the
-dozen.
-
-The story of Richard Hun illustrates the condition of popular feeling
-which made these executions of ecclesiastics possible. He was a
-citizen of good position and considerable wealth, a merchant-taylor by
-calling; he was greatly respected by the poorer sort on account of
-his charitable disposition. “He was a good almesman and relieved the
-needy.” It happened that one of his children, an infant, died and was
-buried. The curate asked for the “bearing sheet” as a “mortuary.”[2]
-Richard Hun replied that the child had no property in the sheet. The
-reply shows either bad feeling towards the curate or bad feeling
-towards the clergy generally. Most likely it was the latter, as the
-sequel shows.
-
-[Illustration: The order and manner of the burning of _Anne Askew_,
-_John Lacels_, _John Adams_, _Nicholas Belenian_, with certaine of the
-Councell sitting in Smithfield.]
-
-The priest cited him before the spiritual court. He replied by counsel,
-suing the curate in a praemunire. In return Hun was arrested on a
-charge of Lollardry and put into Lambeth Palace. And here shortly
-afterwards he was found dead. He had hanged himself, said the Bishop
-and Chancellor. The people began to murmur. Hanged himself? Why should
-so good a man hang himself? A coroner’s inquest was held upon the body.
-The jury indicted the Chancellor and two men, the bell-ringer and the
-summoner, for murdering Richard Hun. The King’s attorney, however,
-would go no further in the matter. By the Bishop’s orders the body was
-burned at Smithfield. But the murder—if it was a murder—of Richard Hun
-was not forgotten. Nor was it forgotten that without a trial his body
-was burned as a heretic’s. These things lay in the minds of the people.
-And they rankled.
-
-[Illustration: DEAN COLET (1467–1519)
-
-From an engraved portrait in Holland’s _Heroologia_.]
-
-In the reign of Henry VI. (1447), four new grammar schools had been
-established in the City: viz. in the parishes of All Hallows the
-Great; St. Andrew’s Holborn; St. Peter’s Cornhill; and in St. Thomas
-Acons’ Hospital. Nine years later, five other parish schools had been
-founded or restored, namely, that of St. Paul’s; of St. Martin’s; of
-St. Mary le Bow; of St. Dunstan’s in the East; and of St. Anthony’s
-Hospital. All these schools seem to have fallen more or less into decay
-during the next hundred years. But very little indeed is known as to
-the condition of education during this period. There is, however, no
-doubt that in the year 1509 the Dean of St. Paul’s, John Colet, found
-the condition of St. Paul’s School very much decayed. He was himself
-a man of large means, being the son of a rich merchant who had been
-Sheriff in 1477, Mayor in 1486, and Alderman, first of Farringdon Ward
-Without, and afterwards of Castle Baynard and Cornhill successively.
-The Dean resolved upon building a new school and endowing it. He
-therefore bought a piece of land on the east side of the Cathedral;
-there placed a school and entrusted the revenues with which he endowed
-it to the Mercers’ Company, saying, that though there was nothing
-sacred in human affairs, he yet found the “least corruption” among
-them. Later on, the Merchant Taylors founded a school; the Mercers
-founded another school; and John Carpenter, Clerk, founded the City of
-London School. The educational endowments founded by London citizens
-amount to nearly a hundred.
-
-[Illustration: THOMAS CROMWELL, EARL OF ESSEX (1485(?)-1540)]
-
-The enclosure of common lands has always been a temptation to those
-who live in the neighbourhood and a grievance to those who are thus
-robbed of their common property. Both in the north and south of London
-there stretched wide common lands in which the people possessed rights
-of pasture, cutting wood, and other things. Many of these common lands
-still remain, though greatly shorn of their former proportions. On
-the north Hampstead Heath is all that is left of land which began
-at Moorfields and stretched northwards as far as Muswell Hill and
-Highgate and eastward to include the Forests of Epping and Hainault.
-In a map of London of the sixteenth century these common lands must
-be laid down as a special and very fortunate possession of the City,
-where people could in a few minutes find themselves in pure country
-air. Early in the century, however, there were murmurings on account of
-the enclosure of the fields north of London. “Before this time,” says
-Grafton, “the townes about London, as Islington, Hoxton, Shordyche,
-and other, had enclosed the common fields with hedges and ditches
-that neyther the yonge men of the City might shoote, nor the auncient
-persons might walk for their pleasure in the fields, except eyther
-their bowes and arrows were broken or taken away, or the honest and
-substantiall persons arrested or indicted, saiving that no Londoner
-should goe oute of the City but in the high wayes.” It is not stated
-how long this grievance lasted; probably it grew gradually: field after
-field was cut off; one enclosure after another was made; until the
-Londoners rubbed their eyes and asked each other what had become of
-their ancient grounds—especially the delightful fields called the Moor,
-on whose shallow ponds they skated and slid in winter, and where they
-practised the long bow, while the elders looked on, in the summer. They
-were gone: in their place were fields hedged and ditched, with narrow
-lanes in which two people might walk abreast. How long they looked
-on considering this phenomenon we know not. At length, however, the
-pent-up waters overflowed. “Suddenly this yere” (1514) a great number
-of people assembled in the City, and a “Turner” attired in a fool’s
-coat ran about among them crying, “Shovels and Spades.” Everybody knew
-what was meant. In an incredibly short time the whole population of
-the City were outside the walls, armed with shovels and spades. Then
-the ditches were filled in, and hedges cut down, and the fields laid
-open again. The King’s Council, hearing of the tumult, came to the Grey
-Friars and sent for the Mayor to ascertain the meaning, for a tumult in
-the City might become a very serious thing indeed. When, however, they
-heard the cause and meaning of it they “dissimuled” the matter with a
-reasonable admonition to attempt no more violence, and went home again.
-But the fields were not hedged in or ditched round any more.
-
-[Illustration: DEAN COLET’S HOUSE, STEPNEY]
-
-In 1532 there was held a general Muster of all the citizens aged
-from sixteen to sixty. The City, never slow to display its strength
-and wealth, turned out in great force. The men mustered at Mile End,
-probably because it was the nearest place which afforded a broad
-space for marshalling the troops. They were dressed in white uniforms
-with white caps and white feathers; the Mayor, Sheriffs, Aldermen,
-and Recorder wore white armour, having black velvet jackets with the
-City arms embroidered on them, and gold chains. Before each Alderman
-marched four halberdiers, each with a gilt halberd. Before the Lord
-Mayor marched sixteen men in white satin jackets, with chains of gold
-and long gilt halberds; four footmen in white satin; and two pages
-in crimson velvet, with gold brocade waistcoats; two stately horses
-carrying, the one the Mayor’s helmet, the other the Mayor’s pole-axe.
-
-[Illustration: _a Description of the Solemn JUSTS held at Westminster
-the 13^{th} day of February in the first year of King HENRY y^e VIII,
-in honor of his Queen KATHERIN upon the Birth of their eldest Son
-Prince HENRY, A.D. 1510. taken from the Original Roll now in the
-College of Armes, London._
-
-PROCESSION. TIME OF HENRY VIII.
-
-E. Gardner’s Collection.]
-
-All citizens of distinction on such occasions wore white satin
-jackets and gold chains. The vast expenditure of money on a single
-day’s pageant such as this, was quite common at this time and in the
-preceding age. It may perhaps be explained by certain considerations.
-Thus: it was an age of great show and external splendour; the
-magnificence of dress, festivals, masques, ridings, and pageants,
-is difficult to realise in this sober time. Wealth, rank, position,
-privileges, were in fact marked by display. We have seen the splendour
-of the Baron who rode to his town house with an army of 500 followers
-all richly dressed. And it has been observed that it was not wholly the
-mere love of magnificence that caused a nobleman or an ecclesiastic
-to keep up this great state. So, in preparing this martial show,
-with 15,000 men of arms all fully and richly equipped, the Mayor and
-Aldermen intended to illustrate to the King and his Ministers the power
-of the City, the wealth of the City, and the resolution of the City to
-defend their liberties. And I have no doubt that this intention was
-thoroughly understood by Henry and taken to heart. The March began at
-nine in the morning. The troops marched through Aldgate, through the
-City, and so to Westminster by Fleet Street and the Strand—a little
-over four miles. At five in the evening the last company marched past
-the King. That part of the business therefore must have lasted about
-six hours.
-
-In the matter of the King’s divorce the City, or the populace, had
-taken a very strong side in favour of Queen Katherine. It may indeed
-be true that the King’s conscience was awakened after all these years
-of marriage as to the legality of marrying his brother’s widow: he saw
-perhaps in the failure of male heirs a sign of the Divine displeasure;
-that may be: it is not possible to understand all the motives which
-guide a man. To the outside world the simplest motive seems always the
-certain motive. Katherine was no longer young, no longer beautiful.
-Anne Boleyn was both. When the second marriage was announced, the
-citizens were greatly displeased: partly on account of their sympathy
-with Katherine, partly because they remembered that Anne was the
-grand-daughter of a mayor, one of themselves. No honour is ever felt
-to be conferred upon the people by the marriage of a Prince with one
-of themselves, but quite the reverse. Edward IV. and James II. are
-examples, as well as Henry VIII. So much did the citizens show their
-disgust, that at an Easter sermon some of them went out of the church
-before the prayers for the Queen were read. The King sent word to the
-Mayor about it. He called the guilds together and bade them cease
-murmuring against the King’s marriage, and cause their journeymen and
-apprentices and even their wives to offend no more.
-
-On the 29th of May the Queen passed from Greenwich to the Tower, and
-on the 31st from the Tower to Westminster. The City hastened on this
-occasion to show their loyalty by preparing a splendid reception for
-the Queen. The Pageant is described below.
-
-The Princess Elizabeth was born in September of the same year (1533).
-In the spring of the following year Parliament passed an Act of
-Succession declaring that she, and not Mary, was heir to the Crown; the
-whole of the citizens took the oath in acknowledgment of this Act. If
-any were so hardy as to refuse, they were executed.
-
-[Illustration: HENRY VIII., PRINCESS MARY, AND WILL SOMERS
-
-From Earl Spencer’s Collection.  _p. 38._]
-
-Of Pageants and Ridings no reign ever saw so many, nor was the City
-ever more honoured in the part which it was invited to take in them.
-Here, for instance, is a list of the more important: the Coronation
-in 1509; the reception of the French Ambassadors in 1518; that of the
-Legate Cardinal Campeggio; that of the Emperor Charles in 1522; the
-Coronation of Anne Boleyn;—every one an occasion for the display of
-sumptuous raiment, tapestry, gold chains and allegorical groups. Two
-of these functions stand out above all others: the Coronation of Anne
-and the Christening of her child. Let us take the account of the Water
-Pageant as furnished by Grafton:—
-
-  “The xix day of May the Maior and his brethren all in Scarlet, and
-  such as were knightes had collers of Esses and the remnaunt havyng
-  good chaynes, and the counsayle of the Citie with them assembled
-  at saint Marie Hyll, and at one of the clocke dissended to the
-  Newstayre to their Barge, which was garnished with many goodly
-  Banners and instruments, which continually made goodly armony.
-  After that the Maior and his brethren were in their Barge seing
-  that al the companies to the number of fiftie Barges were readie to
-  wayte upon them. They gave commaundement to the companies that no
-  Barge should rowe neerer to another then twise the length of the
-  Barge upon a great paine. And to see the order kept, there were
-  three light Wheryes prepared, and in every one of them two officers
-  to call on them to keepe their order, after which commaundement
-  given they set foorth in order as hereafter is described. First
-  before the Maior’s Barge was a Foyst or Wafter full of ordynaunce,
-  in which Foyst was a great Dragon contynually moovyng, and casting
-  wilde fyre: and round about the sayde Foyst stood terrible monsters
-  and wilde men casting fire, and making hideous noyses: next after
-  the Foyst a good distaunce came the Maior’s Barge, on whose right
-  hand was the Batchelers’ Barge, in the which were Trumpets and
-  divers other melodious Instruments. The deckes of the sayde Barge
-  and the sailyardes and the top Castels were hanged with riche cloth
-  of Golde and silke. At the foreship and the sterne were two great
-  banners riche beaten with the armes of the King and the Quene, and
-  on the top Castell also was a long streamer newely beaten with the
-  sayde armes.
-
-  At three of the clock the Queene appered in riche clothe of Gold
-  and entered into her Barge accompanied with divers Ladies and
-  gentlewomen, and incontinent the Citizens set forwardes in their
-  order, their Musicians continually plaiyng, and the Batchelers’
-  Barge goyng on the Queenes right hande, which she toke great
-  pleasure to behold. About the Queenes Barge were many Noblemen,
-  as the Duke of Suffolke, the Marques Dorset, the Erie of Wilshire
-  her father, the Erles of Arrondell, Darby, Rutland, Worcester,
-  Huntyngton, Sussex, Oxford, and many Bishoppes and noblemen, every
-  one in his Barge which was a goodly sight to behold. Shee thus
-  being accompanied rowed toward the Tower, and in the meane waye the
-  shippes which were commaunded to lye on the shore for lettyng of
-  the Barges shot divers peales of Gonnes, and or shee landed there
-  was a marvailous shot out of the Tower as ever was harde there.
-  And at her landing there met with her the Lorde Chamberlaine with
-  the officers of armes and brought her to the king, which received
-  her with lovyng countenance at the posterne by the waterside, and
-  kyssed her, and then she turned back againe and thanked the Maior
-  and the citizens with many goodly words and so entered the Tower.”
-  (Grafton’s _Chronicles_, vol. ii. p. 448.)
-
-The Insurrection in the North, called the Pilgrimage of Grace, the most
-dangerous rising in this reign, caused the King to look to the City for
-assistance. The Mayor sent him 300 men fully armed and equipped.
-
-The Mayor took another step in the interests of the Crown and of order.
-Although the suppression of the Houses was only begun, the intention of
-the King was manifest, and the rising in the North showed the temper of
-some part of the people. It is probable that in the City the popular
-voice was with the King. But there was a minority consisting of some
-of the monks and friars ejected, some of the people who had lost their
-occupation and their service, some partisans of the old order; and
-these were dangerous. The Court of Aldermen, therefore, deprived every
-priest, monk, friar, and religious person of every kind, of all weapons
-except their meat knives. A rising of the Religious, maddened with rage
-and fear, joined by one knows not how many of lay partisans, hot-heads
-and ribalds always anxious for a row, might have been a very serious
-thing indeed. We may be quite sure that there were many within and
-without the walls who would have desired nothing so much as the sack
-and pillage of the rich merchants’ houses in the sacred name of the
-Holy Church. Perhaps one of the reasons of the City’s acquiescence in
-the destruction of the Religious Houses was the knowledge that such a
-rebellion would have produced some kind of alliance with the rogues and
-vagabonds of their lanes and slums.
-
-The execution of Anne Boleyn and the succession of Henry’s queens may
-be passed over here as belonging to the national history.
-
-In June and July 1536 a Convocation was held at St. Paul’s, presided
-over by Cromwell, the King’s Vicar-General. A more important assembly
-was never held in this country. For this Convocation separated the
-Church of England altogether from Rome: it held that the King, as
-Supreme Head of the Church, ought to disregard all citations from
-the Pope. Once before the Pope’s citations had been disregarded and
-scoffed at, viz. by John; but that was on his own authority, apart
-from his Clergy and his people. In this case Henry kept up the show of
-consultation with his Clergy. Not he, but Convocation, decided that he
-was wholly independent of the Pope.
-
-In the year 1543 the plague appeared and carried off a great many. The
-City Authorities ordered all infected houses to be marked with a cross;
-all infected persons who recovered were to remain in quarantine for a
-month; all straw and rushes from infected houses were to be carried
-away and burned; and infected clothes were to be carried out of the
-City. Dogs, except watch-dogs, were to be killed. It proved, happily,
-to be a short though sharp visitation.
-
-In 1544 the City sent 1000 men to aid Henry in his war with France,
-in two contingents of 500 each; and in the following year a third
-contingent of 2000 men was sent to France. In 1545 a tax for
-two-fifteenths was imposed for the purpose of bringing water from
-Hackney, Muswell Hill, and Hoxton, into the City. The conclusion of the
-war with France in 1546 was celebrated by a Procession which was solemn
-and magnificent. It marched from St. Paul’s to Leadenhall Chapel and
-back again. First came men carrying the silver crosses of the Parish
-Churches; then all the Parish Clerks, Choristers and Priests in London;
-then the Choir of St. Paul’s, in their school caps: they were followed
-by the City Companies in their liveries. Last of all marched the Lord
-Mayor and Aldermen in scarlet robes.
-
-Peace, however, brought with it an invasion of disbanded soldiers,
-riotous, and given to acts of robbery and violence. They were
-accompanied by their camp-followers, whose character may be guessed.
-The Mayor gave orders that the old soldiers should be allowed to beg
-for a certain number of days, but that the vagabond followers should be
-driven out of the City. So I suppose they got rid of a few while the
-greater number remained behind—an addition to the rogues and beggars of
-the City, who had already become a most dangerous element. (See p. 366.)
-
-[Illustration: EMBARKATION OF HENRY VIII. AT DOVER]
-
-In the last year of Henry’s reign (1546) he bestowed an endowment of
-500 marks a year on the City Poorhouses on condition that the City
-itself raised as much. He also gave the City, only a few days before
-his death, the Hospital of St. Bartholomew, to be called the House of
-the Poor; the House of the Grey Friars, and the House or Hospital of
-Bethlehem. Henry died on the 28th of January 1547 at his Palace of
-Whitehall.
-
-I will now discuss a few more incidents in the history of this reign.
-
-In 1511 Roger Acheley, Mayor, caused the City Granary of Leadenhall to
-be stored with grain for prevention in time of scarcity. This Mayor
-also caused Moor fields to be levelled, and bridges and causeways to be
-erected thereon.
-
-In 1512 the Sheriffs were, by Act of Parliament, empowered to empanel
-Juries for the City Courts. Every Juryman was to be a citizen worth
-100 marks. If he failed to appear upon the first summons he was to
-forfeit one shilling and eightpence; for the second, three shillings
-and fourpence—and so on, the penalty being doubled for each occasion.
-
-In 1517 the Court of Conscience was first established. Two Aldermen
-and four “discreet” Commoners were appointed every month to sit at
-the Guildhall twice a week, on Wednesday and Saturday, to hear causes
-between citizens and freemen of debts not exceeding forty shillings.
-The Act was passed for two years only; but as it proved highly
-serviceable it was continued by repeated Acts of Council until the
-Court was confirmed by James I.
-
-In 1519 the King by Charter removed the Sessions of Peace from St.
-Martin’s le Grand to the Guildhall, to the great contentment of the
-citizens.
-
-In 1519 the Tower Ditch, between Aldgate and the Tower Postern, was
-scoured and cleansed—the work cost £95:3:4. The Chief Ditcher was paid
-7d. a day; the second Ditcher 6d.; the rest 5d.; the “Vagabonds,”
-_i.e._ men pressed into the work, got a penny and their food. It
-follows from this that the wage of a working man was then 5d. or 6d. a
-day. The pay of a chantry priest was in most cases £6 a year, or about
-4d. a day. So that the craftsman received, to support himself and his
-family, very little more than the priest for the support of himself.
-This fact shows that even the despised chantry priest occupied a much
-higher social position than the craftsman.
-
-In 1525 Wolsey proposed to levy a tax of one-sixth of all the goods
-and chattels of the laity, and a fourth of those of the clergy.
-There was so much indignation at this tax that the King gave way,
-sending a letter to the Mayor in which he stated that he would never
-exact anything of his people by compulsion, but would rely on their
-benevolence. It appeared, however, when Wolsey sent for the Mayor and
-Aldermen to confer with them upon the subject, that the City was not
-disposed to grant any benevolence at all, relying on a statute of
-Richard III. abolishing such benevolences. It was in vain that Wolsey
-pointed out to them the facts that Richard was a murderer and a tyrant:
-the City stood by the Law, and the benevolence was dropped.
-
-In 1526 occurs an early example of the boycott. The City found that
-certain foreign merchants had purchased license to import woad contrary
-to law. It was therefore resolved that no London citizen should have
-any dealings with any foreign merchant who should import woad.
-
-About the year 1527 there was an attempt made by Wolsey to pass laws in
-the teeth of the simple rule of supply and demand. The war with Spain
-caused great losses to the manufacturers of cloth, who were obliged to
-dismiss their servants and to stop the production. Wolsey thereupon
-sent for the principal merchants of the City and ordered them to go
-on buying from the manufacturers as usual; in other words, to ruin
-themselves and their own servants in order to prevent the dismissal of
-the factory hands. Should they disobey, the great Cardinal threatened
-to remove the cloth market from Blackwell Hall to Westminster.
-“However,” Maitland remarks quietly, “it was neither in the power
-of the King, nor in that of his Minister, to execute the aforesaid
-injunction: wherefore commerce continued on the same footing as before,
-till the conclusion of a Peace.”
-
-In 1529, after the meeting of Convocation already mentioned, a
-Proclamation was passed in London prohibiting all commercial
-intercourse with Rome.
-
-In the same year the City recovered the right of the Great Beam. The
-King had taken over this important right with all the profits belonging
-to it and had conveyed it to Sir William Sidney. For ten years the
-City had been endeavouring to recover their rights even by bribing,
-but without success. In 1531 a compromise was arrived at, by which
-Sir William Sidney continued to hold the Beam at an annual rent, and
-by Royal Charter the right was once more conveyed to the Mayor and
-Corporation, the Grocers’ Company having the privilege of appointing
-the weighers.
-
-Another attempt was made to regulate the price of food. It was
-complained that butchers who were not freemen had put up stalls along
-Leadenhall Street where they sold their meat before the doors of the
-houses. The Mayor made them all go into Leadenhall Market, where they
-had to pay rent to the Corporation. He also fixed the price of beef
-at a half-penny a pound, and of mutton at three-farthings. As a whole
-sheep could be bought for 2s. 10d., it would seem as if the whole sheep
-weighed only 45 lbs. It was discovered, however, that the regulation
-only made meat dearer. Therefore it was not enforced. At this time
-French wine was sold at 8d. a gallon; Malmsey and other sweet wines at
-a shilling.
-
-In 1542 occurred the business of George Ferrers. He was M.P. for
-Plymouth, and he was arrested for debt in the City and lodged in the
-Compter, a manifest infringement of the privileges of the House. The
-Serjeant-at-Arms was therefore ordered by the House to proceed to the
-City and to demand the release of the prisoner. The Sheriffs—Rowland
-Hill and Henry Suckley—in their zeal for the privileges of Parliament,
-not only refused to obey, but abused the serjeant and maltreated him.
-Upon which he returned to Westminster and informed the House of what
-had been done. The House therefore ordered the serjeant to return
-and to demand the prisoner without writ or warrant. Meanwhile the
-Sheriffs had learned the meaning of their action and were beginning
-to feel uncomfortable. They released the prisoner and, accompanied
-by the creditor, one White, they attended at the Bar of the House.
-The Sheriffs and the creditor and one of their clerks were sent to
-the Tower; the arresting clerk and four others to Newgate. And in
-this melancholy plight they continued for some days, until they were
-released by the intercession of the Mayor. This was an example to all
-future Sheriffs not to take too much upon themselves.
-
-About this time also the principal streets of the suburbs were first
-completely paved: viz. Holborn, High Street, Aldgate as far as
-Whitechapel Church, Chancery Lane, Gray’s Inn Lane, Shoe Lane, Fetter
-Lane, White Cross Street, Chiswell Street, Grub Street, Shoreditch,
-Goswell Street, St. John’s Street, Cannon Street, Wych Street,
-Holy Well Street (by Clement Danes), the Strand; Petty France in
-Westminster; Water Lane in Fleet Street; Long Lane in Smithfield; and
-Butcher Row without Temple Bar. The paving was not yet the flat slab of
-stone introduced later, but the round cobble stone, with a channel or
-gutter running down the middle.
-
-In 1543 an Act was passed empowering the City to bring water from
-Hampstead and Muswell Hill, and two years later a conduit was set up in
-Lothbury with water from Hoxton Fields. (Appendix I.)
-
-The death of Henry left the City in a condition of the greatest
-confusion and disorder. The streets were full of returned soldiers, and
-of the idle vagabonds who follow the army: in holes and corners there
-were lurking unfrocked friars and people turned out of their work in
-the Religious Houses; there were no hospitals for the sick; none for
-the blind; none for the insane. If these were the fruits of the King’s
-supremacy, then, men whispered to each other, it were better to return
-to the old superstitions.
-
-
-
-
-                              CHAPTER III
-
-                               EDWARD VI
-
-
-The City presents few points of interest during this reign which do not
-belong to the national history. The Progress of the Reformation is the
-subject which more especially belongs to and interests the world in
-this young King’s short reign.
-
-[Illustration: EDWARD VI. (1537–1553)
-
-From a portrait by Holbein at Windsor Castle.]
-
-There can be no doubt whatever that just as in the reign of Richard
-II. the City was saturated with Lollardry, so in the last years of
-Henry VIII. it was filled with the new ideas. The connection with the
-Pope severed; the religious Orders clean swept away; the reading of
-the Bible rapidly spreading; the teaching and example of men like
-Cranmer, Latimer, Rogers, Ridley, Hooper, and others; the derision
-poured upon the old things such as pilgrimages, image worship, repeated
-services and monasticism; the popular attack on the Religious by such
-writers as Fish in the _Supplicacyon of Beggars_ and Barnabe Googe in
-his _Popish Kingdom_; the lectures and sermons carefully composed with
-the design of overthrowing and casting contempt upon the old Faith;
-the natural instinct of men to see in new ideas a certain remedy for
-old ills;—these things made it inevitable that the new thoughts should
-spread and take root. We hear no more, for instance, of the Mayor
-disarming men who had been monks and friars.
-
-The new ideas, again, appealed to the nobler and more generous part of
-humanity. To stand erect before the Creator without the intervention
-of a priest; no longer to be called upon to believe that which the
-Bible would not allow to be believed; the introduction of Reason into
-the domain of Doctrine; the abandonment of childish pilgrimages to the
-tombs of fallible and sinful mortals; the abolition of the doctrine
-that pardons, indulgences, Heaven itself, can be bought with money; no
-longer to believe that fasting and the observance of days may avail
-to salvation;—these things caught hold of men’s minds and ran rapidly
-from class to class. And then there was the reading of the Bible for
-themselves by the folk who could do no more than read. There are no
-means of deciding how far the old English Version had been read and
-passed from hand to hand.
-
-In the reign of Edward VI. we see the first-fruits of the new ideas.
-Already, however, there were signs of change other than those ordered
-and authorised by the most autocratic of sovereigns. The Mayor
-abolished the service of the Boy Bishop at St. Paul’s; sober citizens
-were haled before the courts charged with blaspheming the mass; men
-rose in their places and made a noise in church during celebration;
-one, a boy, threw his cap at the Host during the time of elevation:
-“at this tyme” (_Grey Friars Chron._) “was moche spekyng agayn the
-Sacrament of the Auter, that some called it Jack of the boxe, with
-divers other shameful names.”
-
-Thus the new reign began.
-
-It was a time of great uncertainty and trouble in religious matters. We
-see the citizens, ignorant of Greek, disputing over the interpretation
-of a text; over the conditions of salvation; over matters too high
-for them—one grows hot and says things that ought not to be said. The
-informer in the crowd—there is always an informer—steals away and
-lays information. Then the hasty citizen is lucky if he gets off with
-a fine. They whisper thus and thus concerning the intentions of the
-Protector and the opinions of the Archbishop. It is rumoured that the
-new Bishop of this or that will not be consecrated in his robes; it is
-rumoured that there will be more changes in the Articles of Religion;
-it is rumoured that there will be a vast rising of the ejected priests
-and the starving friars; it is rumoured that they have already risen in
-the East and in the West. The air is full of rumours. Trade is very
-bad. There is no money anywhere; the coinage is debased: a shilling
-is worth no more than sixpence; a groat is twopence; a penny is a
-half-penny; and the price of provisions is certainly double what it
-was! It is a strange, perplexed time.
-
-[Illustration: EDWARD VI. (1537–1553)
-
-From a portrait by Holbein at Windsor Castle.]
-
-There were other events connected with the City besides these constant
-alarms about the change of Faith. Traitors were executed, notably the
-two Seymours; rebels were drawn, hanged and quartered, notably the four
-Captains of the Cornish Rising; the sweating sickness appeared again
-in 1550 and lasted for six months, carrying off men only and sparing
-women and children. The cloister of St. Paul’s, commonly called the
-Dance of Death, and the Charnel House of St. Paul’s, were destroyed and
-carried away; there were risings in Cornwall, Norfolk, and Yorkshire;
-a woman named Joan of Kent was burned at Smithfield for heresy; then
-happened the famous murder of Arden of Faversham, for which his wife,
-his maid, and one of the murderers were all burned; three men and one
-woman hanged; a Dutchman named George of Paris was burned for heresy in
-Smithfield.
-
-An important acquisition, however, was gained by the City in 1550. The
-Borough of Southwark consisted of three manors, the Guildable Manor,
-the King’s Manor, and the Great Liberty Manor. Edward III. had granted
-the first of these to the City. Edward IV. had confirmed and amplified
-this grant, giving the City the right of holding a yearly Fair in the
-month of September together with a Court of Pie Powder. The City next
-claimed the right of holding a market twice a week in Southwark. On
-this claim there were disputes. Finally the City bought all the rights
-of the Crown in Southwark for the sum of £647:2:1. They thus obtained
-a recognised right to hold four weekly markets, and to administer the
-whole borough excepting the two prisons of the Marshalsea and the
-King’s Bench, and the Duke of Suffolk’s House.
-
-A very curious difference was made between the new Ward of Bridge
-Without, then founded, and the other wards. It is this: that in the
-election of Aldermen the people of the Ward have never had any voice
-and have never taken any part. And they are not represented in the
-Common Council.
-
-In one respect the civic history of this reign is very fine—the
-citizens grappled manfully with the question of the poor and the
-sick. We have seen how Henry gave them Grey Friars, Bartholomew’s,
-and Bethlehem. In aid of the former they levied on the City a tax of
-one-half of a fifteenth, _i.e._ a thirtieth. And the memory of the
-old Religious Fraternities lingered still, for we find them founding
-a Brotherhood for the Relief of the Poor, to which Sir John Gresham,
-then Mayor, and most of the Aldermen belonged. Nor was this all. They
-obtained by purchase, at the cost of £2500, the Hospital of St. Thomas
-in Southwark.
-
-After the poor, the children. Grey Friars House was taken in hand and
-altered to convert it into a school. In a few months 400 children were
-admitted. This was the work of Sir Richard Dobbs as Mayor. When Ridley
-was lying in prison, shortly before his death he wrote to Dobbs in
-these words:—“Oh Dobbs, Dobbs, Alderman and Knight, thou in thy year
-didst win my heart for evermore, for that honourable act, that most
-blessed work of God, of the erection and setting up of Christ’s Holy
-Hospitals and truly Religious Houses which by thee and through thee
-were begun.”
-
-After the sick and the children come those who cannot work and those
-who will not work. In 1553 the young King consented to give his disused
-Palace of Bridewell for the purpose of turning it into a Work-house
-or hospital for those who could work no longer, and for a House of
-Correction to those who would not work (see also p. 368). The King
-gave also 700 marks and all the beds and bedding of the Palace of the
-Savoy. The very last act of Edward VI. was a Charter of Incorporation,
-appointing the Mayor, Aldermen, and Commonalty, Governors of these
-Royal Hospitals in the City.
-
-[Illustration: EDWARD VI. GRANTING CHARTER TO BRIDEWELL
-
-From E. Gardner’s Collection.  _p. 48._]
-
-In the first year of Edward the House of Commons passed an Act which
-showed that the old spirit of independence and the desire to form
-Unions were not dead among the craftsmen of London. They enacted:—
-
-  “That if any Artificers, Workmen, or Labourers do conspire,
-  covenant, or promise together, that they shall not make or do
-  their work but at a certain Price or Rate, or shall not enterprize
-  nor take upon them to finish that work which another hath begun,
-  or shall do but a certain work in a day, or shall not work but
-  at certain Hours or Times; that then every Person so conspiring,
-  covenanting, or offending, being thereof convicted by Witnesses,
-  Confession, or otherwise, shall forfeit for the first offence
-  £10 or twenty days’ Imprisonment; for the second offence £20 or
-  Pillory; and for a third offence £40 or to sit on the Pillory,
-  and to have one Ear cut off, besides being rendered infamous and
-  incapable of ever giving Evidence upon Oath.” (Maitland, vol. i. p.
-  239.)
-
-The Act is explained to apply especially to butchers, bakers, brewers,
-poulterers, cooks, etc.—in a word, to those who provided the daily
-necessaries of life.
-
-In 1548 the Marching Watch was revived by Sir John Gresham, after being
-in abeyance for many years. It was London’s finest show. (See p. 362.)
-
-The Deposition and trial of the Protector are matters of national
-history. The part taken by the City is not generally recorded by the
-historian. It is told by Maitland:—
-
-  “The Earl of _Warwick_, and divers Lords of the Privy-Council,
-  being highly dissatisfied with the Administration of _Edward
-  Seymer_, Duke of _Somerset_, the Protector, withdrew from Court,
-  associated, and armed themselves and Domesticks, and secured
-  the Tower of _London_ by a Stratagem of the Lord Treasurer’s,
-  without the Effusion of Blood; and, having removed the Governor,
-  substituted one of their Friends to succeed him. Having luckily
-  succeeded in their first Attempt, _Warwick_ removed into the City,
-  and lodged at the House of _John York_, one of the Sheriffs of
-  _London_.
-
-  Upon advice of these proceedings at _London_, the Protector was
-  so greatly intimidated, that he instantly removed with the King
-  from _Hampton-Court_ to _Windsor_, and began strongly to fortify
-  the Castle. In the Interim the Lords at _London_ had a Conference
-  with the Lord-Mayor and Aldermen, whom they earnestly importuned
-  to provide a Power sufficient for Defence of the City: Which being
-  assented to, the several Companies were ordered alternately to
-  mount Guard, to be ready to oppose all Attempts that might be
-  made against them. They likewise desired a Supply of five hundred
-  Men, to enable them to bring the Protector to Justice. To which
-  Answer was returned, That nothing could be done in that Affair
-  without consulting the Common-Council; to which End, the Lord-Mayor
-  summoned all the Members thereof to assemble the next Day in
-  _Guildhall_.
-
-  In the mean time the Lords convened in the Mayor’s House; where
-  after having drawn up a trifling charge against the Protector,
-  they caused it to be proclaimed in divers parts of the City.
-  After which they conferred with the Mayor and Aldermen in the
-  Council-Chamber (before they met the Commons) and, having come
-  to several Resolutions, the Mayor and Aldermen repaired to the
-  Common-Council; where, in a full Assembly, they produced a Letter
-  from the King, commanding them immediately to send him five hundred
-  Men completely armed to _Windsor_. However, _Robert Brook_, the
-  Recorder, earnestly exhorted them rather to supply the Lords with
-  that Number, by whose assistance they would be enabled to call the
-  Protector to an Account, and thereby redress the Grievances of an
-  injured Nation; without which the City was not only in Danger of
-  being ruined, but likewise the whole Kingdom to become a Prey to
-  his insatiable Avarice. This Speech, instead of having the desired
-  Effect, occasioned a profound Silence; which greatly amazing the
-  Orator, he reassumed his Discourse, and seriously pressed them for
-  an Answer: Whereupon _George Stadlow_, a prudent and judicious
-  Citizen, rose up, and spoke as followeth:—
-
-  ‘I remember,’ sayth he, ‘in a Story written in Fabian’s Chronicle,
-  of the Warre betweene the King and his Barons, which was in the
-  time of King _Henry_ III. and the same Time the Barons, as our
-  Lordes do now, demaunded Ayde of the Maior and Citie of _London_,
-  and that in a rightful Cause for the Commonweale, which was for
-  the Execution of divers good Lawes, whereunto the King before
-  had geven his Consent, and after would not suffer them to take
-  Place; and the Citie did ayde the Lords, and it came to an open
-  Battayl, wherein the Lordes prevayled, and toke the King and his
-  sonne Prisoners, and upon certaine Condycions the Lordes restored
-  againe the King and his Sonne to their Liberties; and, amonge other
-  Condycions, this was one, That the King should not only graunt his
-  Pardon to the Lordes, but also to the Citezens of _London_; which
-  was graunted, yea, and the same was ratified by Act of Parliament:
-  But what followed of it? Was it forgotten? No, surely, nor forgiven
-  during the King’s life; the Lyberties of the City were taken away,
-  Straungers appointed to be our Heades and Gouvernors, the Citezens
-  geven away Bodye and Goodes, and from one Persecution to another
-  were most miserably afflicted. Such it is to enter into the Wrath
-  of a Prince, as _Solomon_ sayth, _The Wrath and Indignation of a
-  Prince is Death_. Wherefore, forasmuch as this Ayd is requyred of
-  the King’s Majestie, whose Voyce we ought to hearken unto, for he
-  is our high Shepherd, rather than unto the Lords; and yet I would
-  not with the Lords to be clearly shaken off, but that they with
-  us, and we with them, may joyne in Sute, and make our most humble
-  Petition to the King’s Majestie, that it would please his Highness
-  to heere suche Complaynt against the Government of the Lorde
-  Protector, as maye be justly alleged and proved; and, I doubt not,
-  but this Matter will be pacefied, that neither shall the King, nor
-  yet the Lordes, have Cause to seeke for further Ayde, neyther we to
-  offend any of them bothe.’” (Maitland, vol. i. p. 240.)
-
-[Illustration: THE CORONATION PROCESSION OF EDWARD VI.]
-
-It would seem that the nobles had resumed the old custom of having a
-great train of followers. For at the departure of Mary Queen of Scots
-from London, where she had been entertained for four days, the Duke
-of Northumberland attended her with a hundred mounted men, of whom
-forty were dressed in black velvet, with velvet hats and feathers,
-and had gold chains about their necks. The Earl of Pembroke was there
-with a hundred and twenty men, also in hats and feathers; and the
-Lord Treasurer had a hundred gentlemen and yeomen. The last glimpse
-which London had of the young King was when Sir Hugh Willoughby sailed
-down the river on that voyage which was to discover a N.E. passage
-through the ice and snow of North Siberia. The ships were dressed
-with streamers; trumpeters stood in the bows; guns were fired for a
-farewell salute as they passed Greenwich Palace, and the dying Prince
-was brought out for one more look upon the glory of his realm in the
-courage and enterprise of his subjects.
-
-
-
-
-                              CHAPTER IV
-
-                                 MARY
-
-
-The proclamation of Lady Jane Grey as Queen, the short-lived and
-ill-fated period of that usurpation, belong to the history of the
-country, not to that of London.
-
-[Illustration: MARY TUDOR (1516–1558)
-
-From a woodcut of the portrait by Antonio Moro, in Prado, Madrid.]
-
-It was on the evening of the 3rd of August that Mary made her entry
-into the City accompanied by her half-sister Elizabeth. She came
-from Newhall in Essex where, a few days before, she had received a
-deputation from the City with a present of £500 in gold. At the Bars
-of Aldgate she was met by the Mayor, who gave her the City Sword. The
-order of the procession is related by a contemporary as follows:—
-
-  “First, the citizens’ children walked before her magnificently
-  dressed; after followed gentlemen habited in velvets of all sorts,
-  some black, others in white, yellow, violet and carnation; others
-  wore satins or taffety, and some damasks of all colours, having
-  plenty of gold buttons; afterwards followed the Mayor, with the
-  City Companies, and the chiefs or masters of the several trades;
-  after them, the Lords, richly habited, and the most considerable
-  knights; next came the ladies, married and single, in the midst of
-  whom was the Queen herself, mounted on a small white ambling nag,
-  the housings of which were fringed with gold thread; about her
-  were six lacqueys, habited in vests of cloth of gold. The Queen
-  herself was dressed in violet velvet, and was then about forty
-  years of age, and ‘rather fresh-coloured.’ Before her were six
-  lords bareheaded, each carrying in his hand a golden mace, and some
-  others bearing the arms and crown. Behind her followed the archers,
-  as well of the first as the second guard.... She was followed by
-  her sister, named Madame Elizabeth, in truth a beautiful princess,
-  who was also accompanied by ladies both married and single. Then
-  might you hear the firing of divers pieces of artillery, bombards
-  and canons, and many rejoicings made in the City of London; and
-  afterwards the Queen, being in triumph and royal magnificence in
-  her palace and castle of Oycemestre [Westminster], took it into
-  her head to go and hear mass at Paules, that is to say, at the
-  church of St. Paul, and she was attended by six hundred guards,
-  besides the cere, that is to say the servants of lords and nobles.”
-  (_Antiquarian Repertory._)
-
-On the 10th of August the remains of the late King were buried
-according to the forms of the Book of Common Prayer. It was not long,
-however, before every one understood clearly the mind of the Queen.
-
-On the 1st of October Mary rode through the City to Westminster for her
-Coronation. Sharpe notes the significant fact that the daily service
-at St. Paul’s was not held because all the priests not suspended for
-Protestantism were wanted at Westminster Abbey.
-
-Queen Mary was crowned with every possible care to return to the old
-ritual. Fresh oil, blessed by the Bishop of Arras, had been brought
-over; she was afraid that St. Edward’s Chair had been polluted by her
-brother, the Protestant, sitting in it; she had therefore another chair
-sent by the Pope. The death of Edward took place on the 6th of July
-1553, the Coronation of Mary on the 1st of October. The Queen must have
-requested the Pope to send her the chair immediately on her accession
-if that chair had arrived within eighty-five days.
-
-In November Lady Jane Grey, her husband, two of his brothers, and
-Cranmer, were tried at the Guildhall and sentenced to death; but
-execution was delayed. Probably in the case of Lady Jane Grey the
-sentence would never have been carried out had it not been for Wyatt’s
-Rebellion in January 1554. The ostensible cause was the Spanish match,
-which was regarded with the greatest dislike and suspicion by the whole
-people—“Yea, and thereat allmost eche man was abashed, looking daylie
-for worse matters to grow shortly after.” When the Rebellion broke
-out the City stood loyally by the Queen: the Companies set watch; no
-munitions of war were allowed to go out of the City; chains were set
-up at the Bridge foot; and 500 men were hurriedly raised and equipped.
-Mary herself showed the courage of her race. She rode into the City and
-met the citizens at the Guildhall, making them a very spirited speech.
-She spoke in a loud voice so that everyone should hear. No action
-in her reign shows her nearly so well as this natural and courageous
-speech.
-
-The following is Mary’s speech as given by Maitland:—
-
-  “In my owne Person I am come unto you, to tell you that which
-  yourselves already doe see and know; I mean, the traiterous and
-  seditious Number of the _Kentish Rebels_, that are assembled
-  against Us and You: Their Pretence, as they say, is to resist a
-  Marriage between Us and the Prince of _Spain_. Of all their Plots,
-  pretended Quarrels and evil-contrived Articles, you have been made
-  privy.... What I am, loving Subjects, you right well know, your
-  Queene, to whom at my Coronation, when I was wedded to the Realme,
-  and to the Lawes of the same (the Spousal Ring whereof I have on
-  my Finger, which never hitherto was, nor hereafter shall be left
-  off), ye promised your Allegeance and Obedience unto me; and that
-  I am the right and true Inheritor to the _English_ Crown, I not
-  only take all _Christendome_ to Witness, but also your Acts of
-  Parliaments confirming the same.
-
-  And this I say further unto you in the Word of a Prince, I cannot
-  tell how naturally a Mother loveth her Children, for I was never
-  the Mother of any; but certainly, if a Prince and Governour may as
-  naturally love their Subjects, as the Mother doth her Child, then
-  assure yourselves, that I, being your Soveraigne Lady and Queene,
-  doe as earnestly and tenderly love and favour you; and I, thus
-  loving you, cannot but thinke, that you as heartily and faithfully
-  love me againe; and so, this Love bound together in the Knot of
-  Concord, we shall be able, I doubt not, to give these Rebels a
-  short and speedy Overthrow....
-
-  But if, as my Progenitors have done before, it might please God
-  that I might leave some Fruit of my Body to be your Governour, I
-  trust you would not only rejoice thereat, but also I know it would
-  be to your great Comfort; and certainly if I either did know or
-  thinke that this Marriage should either turne to the Danger or Loss
-  of any of you, my loving Subjects, or to the Detriment of any Part
-  of the Royal Estate of this _English_ Realme, I would never consent
-  thereunto, neither would I ever marry, whilst I lived.
-
-  Wherefore, good Subjects, plucke up your Hearts, and, like true
-  Men, stand fast with your lawful Prince against these Rebels, both
-  ours and yours, and fear them not, for I assure you, I do not, and
-  will leave with you my Lord _Howard_ and my Lord Treasurer, to be
-  assistant with my Lord-Maior, for the Safe-guard of the City from
-  Spoile and Sackage, which is the onely Scope of this rebellious
-  Company.” (Maitland, vol. i. p. 249.)
-
-The failure of the revolt was due to the spirited and prompt action of
-the City.
-
-All this belongs to the history of the country. Yet we cannot pass
-over the execution of Lady Jane Grey. It is the most melancholy of
-all the many tragedies which belong to the Tower during the fifteenth
-and sixteenth centuries. Perhaps it seemed necessary at the time, in
-order to prevent other risings like that of Wyatt, in the same way that
-it had seemed necessary to Henry VII. that the young Earl of Warwick
-should be removed; and later to Elizabeth that Mary Queen of Scots
-should no longer be an occasion of conspiracy. At the same time it is
-wonderful that it should have been thought even possible to bring to
-the scaffold this girl of sixteen who had been made to play a part.
-The story of her execution and of her noble words, told with simple
-directness by Holinshed, cannot be read without tears:—
-
-  “By this time was there a scaffold made upon the greene over
-  against the White Tower, for the ladie Jane to die upon, who being
-  nothing at all abashed, neither with feare of hir owne death, which
-  then approched, neither with the sight of the dead carcasse of
-  hir husband when he was brought into the chapell, came forth, the
-  lieutenant leading hir, with countenance nothing abashed, nor hir
-  eies anything moistened with teares, with a booke in hir hand,
-  wherein she praied untill she came to the said scaffold. Whereon
-  when she was mounted, this noble yoong lady as she was indued with
-  singular gifts both of learning and knowledge so was she as patient
-  and mild as anie lambe at hir execution, and a little before hir
-  death uttered these words:—
-
-  ‘Good people I am come hither to die, and by a law I am condemned
-  to the same. My offence against the queenes highness was onelie in
-  consent to the device of other, which now is deemed treason: but
-  it was never of my seeking, but by counsell of those who should
-  seem to have further understanding of things than I, which knew
-  little of the law and much lesse of the titles to the crowne.
-  But touching the procurement and desire thereof by me, or on my
-  behalfe, I doo wash my hands in innocencie thereof before God,
-  and the face of all you (good Christian people) this daie.’ And
-  therewith she wroong her hands wherein she had hir booke. Then
-  (said she) ‘I praie you all good Christian people, to beare me
-  witnesse that I die a true Christian woman and that I looke to be
-  saved by none other meanes, but onlie by the mercie of God, in the
-  bloud of his onlie sonne Jesus Christ: and I confesse that when I
-  did know the word of God, I neglected the same, and loved myselfe
-  and the world, and therefore this plague and punishment is justlie
-  and worthlie happened unto me for my sins, and yet I thanke God of
-  his goodnesse, that he hath given me a time and respit to repent.
-  And now, good people, while I am alive I praie you assist me with
-  your praiers.’ Then kneeling downe she said the psalme of _Miserere
-  mei Deus_ in English, and then stood up and gave hir maid (called
-  mistress Ellin) hir gloves and handkercher, and hir booke she also
-  gave to maister Bridges the lieutenant of the Tower, and so untied
-  her gowne: and the executioner pressed to helpe her off with it,
-  but she desired him to let hir alone, and turned hir toward hir
-  two gentlewomen, who helped hir off therewith, and with hir other
-  attires, and they gave hir a faire handkercher to put about hir
-  eies. Then the executioner kneeled downe and asked her forgiveness,
-  whom she forgave most willinglie. Then he willed her to stand upon
-  the straw, which doone, she saw the blocke and then she said, I
-  praie you dispatch me quickly. Then she kneeled down saieng, Will
-  you take it off before I laie me downe? Whereunto the executioner
-  answered, No, Madame. Then tied she the handkercher about her eies
-  and feeling for the blocke she said, Where is it? Where is it? One
-  of the standers by guided her thereunto and she laid downe hir head
-  upon the blocke and then stretched forth her bodie and said, Lord,
-  into thy hands I commend my spirit; and so finished hir life.”
-  (Holinshed, vol. iv. p. 22.)
-
-[Illustration: LADY JANE GREY (1537–1554)
-
-After the portrait in the Collection of the Earl of Stamford and
-Warrington]
-
-Mary’s first Parliament met with the celebration of mass, which was
-ominous; but it was not too compliant: it was ready to restore the
-situation as it was in the last years of Henry VIII.; it was unwilling
-to submit to Rome; and it refused absolutely to restore the Church
-property. Further, it presented a petition against the proposed foreign
-marriage. Mary’s second Parliament, more obedient to the will of the
-Queen, gave its consent to the proposed marriage, but refused to
-re-enact the statute for the burning of heretics. Her third Parliament
-went a step farther: it re-enacted the statute for the burning of
-heretics; it agreed to reconciliation with Rome; but it refused, like
-its predecessors, to sanction the surrender of Church lands. They were
-ready to obey their sovereign in matters of faith: the soul may always
-be left to the care of the Church; but property—property—that, if you
-please, belongs to the Lay mind. Convocation, on the other hand, was
-very thorough: it denounced the Book of Common Prayer; it demanded
-the suppression of the Catechism; it recommended violent measures
-against the clergy who should deny the Real Presence and against those
-who should not put away their wives. This meant Revolution. Hosts of
-priests, and those who still survived from the monasteries, rejoiced
-to say mass once more, even in the ruined and desecrated churches that
-were left to them. It meant Restoration. Priests sprang up everywhere
-from the ground—how had they lived for ten years? Priests in the
-villages and the parish churches put on their old robes; dragged out
-the censing vessels; replaced the Host. Ex-monks who had been pensioned
-from the monasteries; ex-friars who had received no pensions but had
-been simply turned into the street; ecclesiastics from abroad;—all
-came, eager to revive the forbidden worship. They looked around them
-ruefully at the dishonoured shrines and the ruined chapels: it would
-take centuries to make everything as it had been; but still—one must
-try.
-
-Meantime, think, if you can, of the deadly hatred which these priests
-must have felt towards those who had done these mischiefs; think of
-the silent satisfaction with which even the best of them would witness
-the execution of one who had been a leader—a Hooper or a Latimer—in
-bringing about this destruction. But the destruction was stayed. Holy
-Church was back again, and of course for ever. The Great Rebellion,
-they thought, was ended. As for the beneficed clergy in possession,
-many conformed for fear and for safety; very few indeed gave up their
-wives; happy were the contumacious if their contumacy brought no worse
-consequence than to beg their bread on the road; happy if it did not
-lead to a speedy trial, conviction, and the certainty of becoming a
-fiery example. They might have made up their minds at the outset that
-Mercy was not a quality for which Mary would be conspicuous. Before the
-Fires of Smithfield began there were the executions for the Rebellion
-of Wyatt. It was an excellent opportunity for winning the hearts of
-the people; Lady Jane Grey’s party never had the smallest chance: she
-herself might have been allowed to be at liberty with no danger to the
-Queen, while to execute her boy-husband was as barbarous and useless
-as to execute herself. Fifty persons, however, officers, knights, and
-gentlemen, were put to death in consequence of the Rebellion. Four
-hundred common men were hanged about London. Fifty were hanged on
-gibbets, and there left to hang a great part of the summer.
-
-[Illustration: ST. PETER AD VINCULA, OVERLOOKING TOWER GREEN
-
-E. Gardner’s Collection.]
-
-Meantime, the people of London—partly exasperated by the sight of
-these gibbets; partly hating the Spanish marriage; partly hating the
-break-up of the Reformation—showed their minds in every possible way.
-They shot at preachers of Papistry; they dressed up a cat like a Roman
-Priest, and hanged it on a gallows in Cheapside; they found a girl
-who pretended to receive messages from a spirit. It was called the
-Spirit in the Wall. When the Eucharist was carried through Smithfield
-a man tried to knock the holy elements out of the priest’s hands. And
-on Easter Day a priest saying mass in St. Margaret’s, Westminster, was
-attacked by a man with a knife.
-
-The Marian Persecution began in January 1555. The Queen issued a
-proclamation that bonfires should be lit in various places in the City
-to show the people’s joy and gladness for the abolition of heresies.
-This was the signal for the martyrdoms. John Rogers, Prebendary of
-St. Paul’s, was burned, to begin with, at Smithfield; Hooper, at
-Gloucester; Ferrar at St. David’s; Rowland Taylor at Hadleigh; Lawrence
-Saunders at Coventry; William Flower at Westminster; John Cardmaker at
-Smithfield; John Bradford at Smithfield. It is enough to state that
-the martyrs of this Persecution were two hundred and eighty-eight in
-number: including five Bishops, twenty-one clergy, fifty-five women,
-four children, and two hundred and three laymen. Of the laymen, only
-eight were gentlemen. I will invite consideration of this fact later on.
-
-The flames of martyrdom lasted till within a month of Mary’s end. It is
-difficult to understand how the Bishops could believe that the burning
-of this kind of heretic stamped out heresy. Hundreds, nay, thousands,
-of families went in perpetual mourning for the death of brother or
-cousin, a martyr faithful to the end. The Bishops might have understood
-the signs of the times: they might have seen the Mayor and Aldermen
-trying vainly to show conviction rather than obedience in attending
-all the processions and functions of the Church at which the people
-looked on sullenly and with murmurs; they might have listened to the
-wisdom of Cardinal Pole, who pointed out to the Queen and the Council
-that these severities were destructive to the Catholic Faith in the
-country. The Persecution reads like the revenge of a revengeful woman.
-“Burn! Burn! Burn!” she cries. “To avenge the tears of my mother; to
-avenge the unhappiness of my childhood; to avenge the act that made me
-illegitimate; to avenge the marriage of Anne Boleyn. Burn! Burn! Burn!”
-
-Everybody knows the eager hopes and expectation with which Mary looked
-forward to the birth of a child. The tales of the common people about
-the Queen’s supposed pregnancy are illustrated by a story in Holinshed.
-
-  “There came to see me, whome I did both heare and see, one Isabel
-  Malt, a woman dwelling in Aldersgate Street in Horne allie, not
-  farre from the house where this present book was printed, who
-  before witnesse made this declaration unto us, that she being
-  delivered of a man-child upon Whitsuntide in the morning, which was
-  the eleventh daie of June Anno 1555, there came to hir the Lord
-  North, and another lord to her unknowne, dwelling then about old
-  Fish Street, demanding of hir if she would part with hir child, and
-  would swear that she never knew nor had no such child. Which if
-  she would, hir sonne (they said) should be well provided for, she
-  should take no care for it, with manie faire offers if she would
-  part with the child. After that came other women also, of whome one
-  (she said) should have been the rocker: but she in no wise would
-  let go hir sonne, who at the writing hereof, being alive and called
-  Timothie Malt, was of the age of thirteene yeares and upward. Thus
-  much (I saie) I heard of the woman hirself. What credit is to be
-  given to hir relation, I deale not withall, but leave it to the
-  libertie of the reader to believe it they that list: to them that
-  list not, I have no further warrant to assure them.” (Vol. iv. p.
-  83.)
-
-[Illustration: _W.A. Mansell & Co._
-
-EXECUTION OF LADY JANE GREY
-
-From the painting by Paul Delaroche in the Tate Gallery, London.
-
-_p. 58._]
-
-The same Chronicler gives us a glimpse of the divided state of
-the popular mind on the occasion of the removal of Dr. Sands,
-Vice-Chancellor of Cambridge, to London, to be tried for heresy. As he
-left Cambridge the Papists came out to jeer at him, and his friends
-to mourn for him. When he got to London, one like a milk-wife hurled
-a stone at him, which struck him in the breast. When he came to Tower
-Hill a woman cried out, “Fie on thee, thou knave, thou traitor, thou
-heretic!” For which she was upbraided by another woman who called out,
-“Good gentleman: God be thy comfort and give thee strength to stand in
-God’s cause even to the end!” When, after some weeks, they brought him
-from the Tower to the Marshalsea the people had gone round already, and
-“poperie was unsaverie.” Everywhere they prayed to God to comfort him
-and to strengthen him in the truth. In the Marshalsea, Sands fell into
-the hands of a Protestant keeper, who gave him all the indulgence he
-could. And in the end he escaped into Holland, and there stayed till
-the death of Mary.
-
-The examples of Henry the Seventh’s reign were not likely to be lost so
-soon. A lad of eighteen named William Fetherstone, a miller’s son, was
-reported to be at Eltham in Kent giving himself out for King Edward,
-who, he declared, was not dead at all. Was the boy mad? It is not
-known. He himself declared that he had been made to say this: it is
-quite possible that certain hot-headed Protestants thought to set up
-King Edward again, and so to get back the new religion. Such a thing
-can never be attempted without encouragement—perhaps the lad was soft
-and easily moulded. Being brought before the Council he rambled in his
-talk; wherefore he was committed to the Marshalsea as a lunatic. That
-conclusion did not prevent them from whipping the boy all round the
-Palace at Westminster and all the way from Westminster to Smithfield.
-They then packed him off to his birthplace in the North, where he might
-have rested in peace; but the unlucky wretch began to talk again about
-Edward VI., who, he said, was still alive. Therefore they brought him
-up to London and hanged him at Tyburn.
-
-[Illustration: Certaine Bishops talking with Master Bradford in prison.]
-
-[Illustration: The description of the burning of Master Iohn Bradford
-Preacher, and Iohn Lease a Prentice.]
-
-To return to the other points connected with London during this reign.
-They are not many. One of the difficulties was the rush into London of
-Spaniards who came over after the marriage of Philip and Mary. It is
-interesting to note how with every consort of foreign origin the people
-of the country to which he or she belonged flocked over to London in
-multitudes. After the Norman Conquest came troops of Normans; after the
-accession of Henry II. came Angevins; after the arrival of Eleanor of
-Provence came men of Provence; and now came Spaniards. Was London,
-then, always considered a Promised Land to those who lived outside?
-It was but a poor Land of Promise in these years, when all the world
-was torn by civil and religious wars. However, the Spaniards were
-everywhere: “a man should have mete in the streets for one Englishman
-above iiij Spanyardes”; the Court was crammed with Spaniards; and
-Philip, so far from attempting to win the hearts of the English nobles,
-held himself aloof with Castilian ceremony. We hear little more of
-the Spaniards after Philip’s departure: probably they found London an
-unfavourable soil for a permanent settlement and withdrew; the Spanish
-element as shown in the names of the Londoners at the present day, or
-in the Parish Registers, is small indeed.
-
-[Illustration: INTERIOR OF THE BELL TOWER, WHERE PRINCESS ELIZABETH WAS
-IMPRISONED BY HER SISTER QUEEN MARY
-
-E. Gardner’s Collection.]
-
-The jealousy of foreigners, especially of Spaniards, caused trouble in
-the City throughout this reign. There were rumours that thousands of
-Spaniards were coming over; the old jealousy of the Hanseatic League
-was renewed: the Mayor gave orders that work should not be given to
-foreigners; they were forbidden to open shops in the City; they were
-not allowed to keep school; their shutters were forcibly closed. One
-feels that the situation of the foreigner in the City was anything but
-pleasant, especially if he were a Spaniard.
-
-The submission of Juries to the Judges was expected in matters of
-treason, if not in other things. The case of Nicholas Throgmorton,
-charged with high treason and complicity in the Rebellion of Wyatt,
-proves this. Doubtless it was in opposition to the Judge’s charge
-that the Jury brought in a verdict of Not Guilty. For this they were
-summoned before the Star Chamber, where four of the twelve made
-submission; the remaining eight were sent to prison, where they
-remained for six months. They were then brought before the Star Chamber
-again, where they defended their finding as being in accordance with
-their own consciences. As if Juries in matters of treason could have
-consciences! So they were sent back to prison, and only got out by
-paying a fine—some of £44, some of £60 apiece.
-
-In 1556 the City gave Mary a loan of £6000.
-
-War with France was declared in June 1557. The City was instructed
-to put its munitions of war on a sound and serviceable footing.
-It complied, and raised a force of 500 men, which joined the army
-commanded by Lord Pembroke. In less than a month the Queen sent a
-letter to the Mayor informing him of the departure of Philip and
-commanding him to raise another force of 1000 men. After a good deal
-of protest and grumbling, and after vain appeals to the liberties and
-franchises of the City respecting the sending of men on active service,
-submission was made and the men were got together. This was early in
-August. But it does not seem that they were sent. On 27th August the
-French were defeated at St. Quentin. Towards the end of the year it was
-known that Calais was in a dangerous position. On 2nd January a message
-arrived from the Queen, ordering the despatch of 500 men at once. They
-were wanted for the relief of Calais. But Calais fell on the 7th. Then
-the City was called upon to furnish another 2000 men. On the 13th the
-Queen wrote to say that a violent storm had crippled her fleet—the men
-were to be kept back, but in readiness. Then it was heard that Philip’s
-forces were on their way to Flanders, under the Duke of Savoy, and that
-the Channel was kept open by a Spanish fleet. A regiment of 500 was
-therefore sent off to Dover in order to be shipped for Dunkirk.
-
-In March 1558 Mary raised a loan of £20,000 on the security of the
-Crown lands, from the City Companies. The greater Companies contributed
-£16,983:6:3, the rest being made up by the smaller Companies. The
-Mercers gave £3275; the smaller Companies sums varying from £50 to £300.
-
-For the better regulation of trade an Act of Parliament was passed in
-1554 by which non-residents were not allowed to sell their wares in any
-town.
-
-  “Whereas the Cities, Boroughs, Towns Corporate and Market Towns,
-  did heretofore flourish, where Youth were well educated, and
-  civilly brought up, and were highly serviceable to the Government;
-  but were brought to great Decay, and were like to come to utter
-  Ruin and Destruction, by Reason that Persons dwelling out of the
-  said Cities and Towns came and took away the Relief and Subsistence
-  of the said Cities and Towns by selling their Wares there: For
-  Remedy whereof, be it enacted, That no Person or Persons dwelling
-  any where out of the said Cities or Towns (the Liberties of the two
-  Universities only excepted) shall hereafter sell, or cause to be
-  sold, by Retail, any Woollen and Linnen Cloth (except of their
-  own making), or any Haberdashery, Grocery, or Mercery Ware, at
-  or within any of the said Cities, Boroughs, Towns Corporate, or
-  Market Towns within this Realm (except in open Fairs), on Pain to
-  forfeit and lose, for every Time so offending, six shillings and
-  eight Pence, and the whole Wares so sold, offered or profered to be
-  sold.” (Maitland, vol. i. p. 251.)
-
-[Illustration: PHILIP II. OF SPAIN (1527–1598)
-
-From the painting by Alonso Sanchez Coello in the Berlin Museum.]
-
-An attempt was made to reduce the number of Taverns in London and
-Westminster. There were to be no more than forty in the City and three
-in Westminster. But the law was not enforced nor obeyed.
-
-In this reign we first hear of the abuse of prisons. One of the two
-Compters then stood in Bread Street. The warden or keeper, one Richard
-Husbands, was accused of maltreating his prisoners barbarously; also
-of receiving men and women of criminal and disreputable character,
-and giving them lodging within the prison for fourpence a night. The
-Corporation therefore built a larger and more convenient compter in
-Wood Street, to which they removed the prisoners, appointing a new
-keeper in place of Husbands.
-
-In January 1557 one Christopher Draper, Alderman of Cordwainer Street
-Ward, employed a man to walk nightly about the streets of the Ward,
-ringing a bell and calling on the people to take care of their fires
-and lights; to help the poor; and to pray for the dead. This was the
-origin of the office of Bellman.
-
-In this year arrived the first Ambassador from Russia. He was wrecked
-on the coast of Scotland. The Russia Company sent officers into Holland
-with money and necessaries, and with orders to bring him to London.
-On his arrival he was met by eighty merchants on horseback, richly
-accoutred and with gold chains round their necks, and was taken to a
-house in Highgate, where he was royally entertained for the night.
-Next day he rode into the City and was received by the Mayor and Lord
-Montague, who escorted him to his quarters in Fenchurch Street. During
-the whole of his stay his charges were defrayed by the Russia Company.
-
-The profuse expenditure expected of the Mayor and Sheriffs during their
-year of office, made many citizens who ought to have filled these
-posts, retire into the country rather than put themselves to such great
-expense.
-
-The Common Council took up the matter: in a very curious array of
-ordinances it was provided among other things
-
-  “That thenceforth the Mayor should have no more than one course
-  either at Dinner or Supper; and that on a Festival, being a Flesh
-  Day, to consist of no more than seven Dishes, whether hot or cold;
-  and on every Festival, being a Fish Day, eight Dishes; and on every
-  common Flesh Day, six Dishes; and on every common Fish Day, seven
-  Dishes, exclusive of Brawn, Collops with Eggs, Sallads, Pottage,
-  Butter, Cheese, Eggs, Herrings, Sprats and Shrimps, together with
-  all sorts of Shell-fish and Fruits: That the Aldermen and Sheriffs
-  should have one Dish less than the above-mentioned; and all the
-  City Companies at their several Entertainments the same number of
-  Dishes as the Aldermen and Sheriffs; but with this Restriction, to
-  have neither Swan, Crane, nor Bustard, upon the Penalty of forty
-  Shillings; etc. etc. etc.”
-
-On the 17th of November 1558 Mary died. The bonfires which hailed the
-accession of her sister were fires of rejoicing over the death of the
-unhappy Queen. The whole City was united in joy, with the exception of
-the Bishops and the Priests. Not only was religion concerned, but the
-domination of Spain; the immigration of Spaniards; the humiliation of
-the country. The general rejoicing was marked by the keeping the day
-of Elizabeth’s accession as a holiday for a hundred and fifty years to
-come.
-
-
-
-
-                               CHAPTER V
-
-                               ELIZABETH
-
-
-[Illustration: _Walker & Cockerell._
-
-QUEEN ELIZABETH (1533–1603)
-
-From a painting, attributed to Zuccaro, in the National Portrait
-Gallery, London.]
-
-“My Lady Elizabeth,” the Venetian Ambassador writes in the lifetime
-of Queen Mary, “the daughter of Henry VIII. and Anne Boleyn, was
-born in 1533 (in the month of September—so that she is at present
-twenty-three years of age). She is a lady of great elegance both of
-body and mind, although her face may be called rather pleasing than
-beautiful; she is tall and well made; her complexion fine though rather
-sallow; her eyes, but, above all, her hands, which she takes care not
-to conceal, are of superior beauty. In her knowledge of the Greek and
-Italian languages she surpasses the Queen. She excels the Queen in the
-knowledge of languages; for, in addition to Latin, she has acquired no
-small acquaintance with Greek. She speaks Italian, which the Queen does
-not. In this language she takes such delight, that in the presence of
-Italians it is her ambition not to converse in any other. Her spirits
-and understanding are admirable, as she has proved by her conduct in
-the midst of suspicion and danger, when she concealed her religion and
-comported herself like a good Catholic. She is proud and dignified
-in her manners; for, though her mother’s condition is well-known to
-her, she is also aware that this mother of hers was united to the King
-in wedlock, with the sanction of the Holy Church and the concurrence
-of the Primate of the realm; and though misled with regard to her
-religion, she is conscious of having acted with good faith; nor can
-this latter circumstance reflect upon her birth, since she was born in
-the same faith as that professed by the Queen. Her father’s affection
-she shared at least in equal measure with her sister; it is said
-that she resembles her father more than the Queen does, and the King
-considered them equally in his will, settling on both of them 10,000
-_scudi_ per annum. Yet with this allowance she is always in debt.
-And she would be much more so if she did not studiously abstain from
-enlarging her establishment, and so giving greater offence to the
-Queen. For indeed there is not a knight or a gentleman in the kingdom
-who has not sought her service, either for himself or for some son or
-brother; such is the affection and love that she commands. This is one
-reason why her expenses are increased. She always alleges her poverty
-as an excuse to those who wish to enter her service, and by this means
-she has cleverly contrived to excite compassion, and at the same time
-a greater affection; because there is no one to whom it does not
-appear strange that she—the daughter of a king—should be treated in so
-miserable a manner. She is allowed to live in one of her houses about
-twelve miles distant from London, but she is surrounded by a number of
-guards and spies, who watch her narrowly and report every movement to
-the Queen. Moreover, the Queen, though she hates her most sincerely,
-yet treats her in public with every outward sign of affection and
-regard, and never converses with her but on pleasing and agreeable
-subjects. She has also contrived to ingratiate herself with the King of
-Spain, through whose influence the Queen is prevented from bastardising
-her, as she certainly has it in her power to do by means of an Act of
-Parliament, which would exclude her from the throne. It is believed
-that but for this interference of the King, the Queen would without
-more remorse chastise her in the severest manner; for whatever plots
-against the Queen are discovered, my Lady Elizabeth or some of her
-people may always be sure to be mentioned among the persons concerned
-in them.”
-
-Attention has already been called to the rejoicings of the people on
-the death of Mary and the uplifting of that long-continued cloud. The
-bells of the City were rung; bonfires were lit; loaded tables open for
-all comers were spread in the streets—yea, even in that dark night of
-November. A week later the new Queen rode from Hatfield to the Charter
-House, where she stayed for five days; on the 28th she rode in state
-to the Tower; here she remained till the 5th of December, when she
-went by water to Somerset House. On the 17th of December, the body of
-Mary was laid in Westminster Abbey, with the Roman Catholic Service;
-on the 12th of January, the Queen returned to the Tower, and thence
-on the following day she rode to Westminster. The reader has probably
-remarked, in the course of this history, that neither King nor Queen,
-nor Mayor nor people, ever paid the slightest regard for weather or for
-season. A Royal Riding with Pageants and red cloth and tapestry, and a
-procession in boats, was undertaken as readily in January, when there
-is generally hard frost; in April, when there is generally east wind;
-in July, when there is generally the heat of summer; or in October,
-when there is generally fine weather with the repose of autumn. Season
-and weather, sunshine or frost, made no difference. In her desire to
-win the hearts of the people, Elizabeth probably paid no heed to the
-weather, whether it was cold or not.
-
-[Illustration: _Walker & Cockerell._
-
-QUEEN ELIZABETH (1533–1603)
-
-From a painting in the National Portrait Gallery, London. Painter
-unknown.]
-
-We have remarked a great change in the temper and attitude of the City
-towards the Sovereign. We hear from time to time murmurings about the
-City liberties; but nothing of importance. The reasons are several:
-the Tudor sovereigns carefully respected those liberties which, so
-to speak, made the most show; they abstained from interference with
-the City elections; they would not interfere with the City Courts. As
-regards the point of real importance to themselves—the raising of money
-and men—their demands were generally arbitrary; witness the calls of
-Mary for men and still more men. Another cause for cheerful loyalty
-was that when the religious discussions were at length appeased, it
-was incumbent on everybody to do his utmost for the Protestant Cause,
-which became the National Cause. For these reasons we find the City
-cheerfully giving to Elizabeth what it reluctantly gave, or refused to
-give, to Henry the Third or Richard the Second.
-
-It was understood by those who welcomed the Queen so joyously that
-her first care must be the restoration of the Reformed Faith. Every
-craftsman who threw up his cap expected so much. Fortunately, the
-events of the last reign had turned the hearts of most people wholly
-away from the mass. Elizabeth was fully informed as to the opinion of
-the majority of her subjects; as for her own opinion, it is said that
-she favoured the old Church. Perhaps so; that is to say, she would
-rather, as a matter of choice, listen to the Roman Mass than to the
-English Litany—it is certainly more beautiful; at the same time, one
-cannot but believe that she was sincere in making her choice and in
-keeping steadfast to it. Her kindness to the Catholic Faith was shown
-in the relaxation of persecution. She would not at first persecute any
-for believing what she herself publicly professed not to believe. Her
-first step, however, clearly showed the direction of future law. She
-put forth a royal proclamation ordering the cessation of disputations
-and sermons, and ordered in their place the reading of the Epistle
-and Gospel for the Day, with the Ten Commandments, in the vulgar
-tongue. She also appointed, in the first year of her reign, certain
-Commissioners, whose duty it was to visit every diocese, for the
-establishment of religion according to the new Act of Parliament. Those
-for London were Sir Richard Sackville, knight; Robert Horne, Doctor of
-Divinity; Doctor Huicke; and Master Savage. The Commissioners visited
-every parish, calling before them persons of every sort, whom they
-instructed and admonished. They suppressed all the Religious Houses
-that Mary had established—the Abbey of Westminster, Syon House, the
-House of Shene, the Black Friars of Smithfield and those of Greenwich.
-They further pulled down all the new roods and images, and burned all
-the vestments, altar cloths, banners, mass books, and rood lofts. In
-fact, the people showed very plainly that their minds were all for the
-Protestant religion.
-
-[Illustration: REPRESENTATION DES FEVS DE IOYE QVIFVRENT FAICTS SVR
-LEAV DANS LONDRES A L’HONNEVR DE LA REYNE LA NVICT DVIOVR DE SON ENTREE
-
-E. Gardner’s Collection.]
-
-An Act of Uniformity followed, which forbade the use of any form of
-public prayer other than that of the Prayer Book of Edward VI. with one
-or two slight alterations. This book was replaced in the churches, and
-service was conducted in accordance with it on Whit Sunday 1559. What
-happened immediately after? A pulling out of Bibles from hiding-places;
-a return to the old talk, restrained for five years for fear of
-informers; an enjoyable plunge into the anti-Scriptural aspects of the
-Roman Creed; and a rush for the ornaments, roods, tombs, the vestments
-and the incense vessels and the candles in all the City churches. In
-some cases the wafers, vestments, and altar cloths, books, banners,
-and other ornaments of the churches were burned—things which had cost
-thousands when they were renewed under Queen Mary. All this happened,
-and an incredible amount of mischief was done before the destruction
-was stopped.
-
-There appears to have been little strength of feeling or spirit of
-martyrdom among the Roman Catholics in London. They submitted; more
-than this, they made no attempt to maintain their religion; their
-children, if not themselves, became wholly Anglican; such Roman
-Catholic worship as survived lurked in holes and corners, or was
-maintained secretly by a few nobles and gentlemen. Before long,
-however, the Government had to deal with that advanced form of
-Protestantism which had been brought over from the Continent. In 1565
-an order was issued that all the clergy were to wear the surplice.
-A good number of them refused, and left their churches, with their
-congregations. This was the beginning of Nonconformity. But Elizabeth
-made no attempt to enforce obedience or to persecute those who
-dissented.
-
-On the 25th of May 1570, the temper of the people was plainly indicated
-by their reception of a Bull from the Pope, which was actually
-found nailed to the door of the Bishop of London’s Palace in Paul’s
-Churchyard. It was in Latin. Holinshed gives both text and translation.
-
-  “Pius, Bishop, servant of God’s servants, etc. Queene Elizabeth
-  hath cleane put awaie the sacrifice of the masse, praiers,
-  fastings, choise or difference of meats and single life. She
-  invaded the kingdome, and by usurping monstrouslie the place of
-  the supreme head of the Church in all England, and the cheefe
-  authoritie and jurisdiction of the same, hath againe brought the
-  said realem into miserable destruction. Shee hath remooved the
-  noble men of England from the king’s councell. Shee hath made
-  hir councell of poore, darke, beggerlie fellows, and hath placed
-  them over the people. These councellors are not onlie poore and
-  beggerlie, but also heretikes. Unto hir all such as are the
-  woorst of the people resort, and are by hir received into safe
-  protection, etc. We make it knowne that Elizabeth aforesaid, and
-  as manie as stand on hir side in the matters abovenamed, have run
-  into the danger of our cursse. We make it also knowen that we have
-  deprived hir from that right shee pretended to have in the kingdome
-  aforesaid, and also from all and every hir authoritie, dignity,
-  and privilege. We charge and forbid all and every the nobles and
-  subjects, and people, and others aforesaid, that they be not so
-  hardie as to obey hir or hir will, or commandements or laws,
-  upon paine of the like accursse upon them. We pronounce that all
-  whosoever by anie occasion have taken their oth unto hir, are for
-  ever discharged of such their oth, and also from all fealtie and
-  service, which was due to hir by reason of hir government, etc.”
-  (vol. iv. p. 253).
-
-The crime was brought home to one John Felton, who on 4th August,
-three months later, was arraigned at the Guildhall on the charge of
-affixing the said Bull. Four days later he was drawn from Newgate to
-St. Paul’s Churchyard and there duly hanged, cut down alive, bowelled,
-and quartered. On the same day—which shows that their office was not an
-easy one—the Sheriffs of London, after seeing the end of Felton, had
-to accompany two young men, who had been found guilty of coining, to
-Tyburn, where they suffered the same horrible punishment.
-
-[Illustration: _Walker & Cockerell._
-
-QUEEN ELIZABETH (1533–1603)
-
-From a painting in the National Portrait Gallery, London. Painter
-unknown.]
-
-Meantime the Catholic enemy never relaxed his attempt to effect the
-reconversion, or, failing that, the subjugation, of this country. Not
-by Bulls alone did he work. Seminary priests were sent over to work
-secretly upon the people and so, it was hoped, gradually to make them
-ready for conversion. After the tender mercies of the last reign one
-would believe that the task was hopeless: one is persuaded that even
-if the secret missionaries had been allowed to put an advertisement
-in the windows openly proclaiming their object they could have done no
-harm. But the Queen’s Council, whether wisely or not, were extremely
-jealous of these priests. They charged the City Authorities to try
-every means of laying hands on them: they were to arrest all persons
-who did not attend church; and to banish all strangers who did not go
-to church; they were to make every stranger subscribe the Articles.
-A proclamation was issued ordering English parents to remove their
-children from foreign colleges; declaring that to harbour Jesuit
-priests was to harbour rebels; imposing a fine upon those who did not
-attend church; which involved a strict watch upon all the parishes to
-find out what persons kept away. The two chief conspirators moving
-about England were two priests, named Campion and Parsons. Campion was
-presently arrested and, after undergoing torture, was executed in the
-usual manner. Parsons got back to the Continent, where he continued in
-his machinations. Catholic historians are eloquent on the sufferings of
-the Catholics during this reign; we must, however, acknowledge that the
-conspiracies and intrigues of such men as Campion, Allen, and Parsons
-went far to explain the persecution to which they were liable.
-
-[Illustration: QUEEN ELIZABETH (1533–1603)
-
-From the “Ermine” portrait in the possession of the Marquis of
-Salisbury.]
-
-The failure of the Armada: the failure of Philip’s second attempt,
-destroyed by tempest; the fact that the Catholic cause was now in
-the minds of the people the Spanish cause, and therefore execrable;
-the manifest proofs that the heart of the nation was sound for the
-Queen and the Protestant religion;—did not put a stop to Catholic
-spies and Catholic conspirators. The emissaries are always called
-“Spanish,” though they were generally English by birth; it is probable
-that Cardinal Allen found the emissaries, whose work Philip certainly
-did not discourage. These emissaries were ecclesiastics, who came
-over-disguised in every possible way. Those who were young called
-themselves, or became, students at Oxford and Cambridge; those who
-were older rode about the country disguised as simple gentlemen,
-merchants, physicians; they worked secretly, everywhere with the
-design of sapping the loyalty of the people towards the Queen and the
-Protestant Faith. They did so at great peril, with the certainty of
-tortures if they were caught; and their courage in facing the dangers
-was so great that it elevates their conspiracies into the propaganda of
-a sacred cause. The greatest exertions were made for their detection,
-and chief among these was the means already mentioned of noting those
-who did not go to church. However, it does not appear that many were
-caught, and perhaps the numbers were exaggerated. Sharpe has found a
-description of one whom they desired to arrest in 1596 (i. 550):—
-
-  “A yonge man of meane and slender stature, aged about xxvj, with a
-  high collored face, red nose, a warte over his left eye, havinge
-  two greate teeth before, standinge out very apparant, he nameth
-  himselffe Edward Harrison, borne in Westmerland; apparelled in
-  a crane collored fustian dublet, rounde hose, after the frenche
-  facion, an olde paire of yollowe knit neather stockes, he escaped
-  without either cloake, girdle, garters or shoes.”
-
-[Illustration: QUEEN ELIZABETH (1533–1603)
-
-From the engraving by Isaac Oliver. A. Rischgitz’ Collection.]
-
-The constant discussion of religious matters and agitation on points of
-Faith produced the natural phenomenon of religious enthusiasts, strange
-sects, and mad beliefs.
-
-The growth of the Puritan spirit is shown by a letter written by the
-Lord Mayor on the 14th of January 1583. A large number of people
-were assembled one Sunday for Sport, _i.e._ Bear-baiting, in Paris
-Gardens; they were standing round the pit on twelve scaffolds, when the
-scaffolds all fell down at once, so that many were killed and wounded.
-The Mayor wrote as follows to the Lord Treasurer:—
-
-  “That it gave great occasion to acknowledge the hand of God, for
-  such abuse of his Sabbath-day; and moved him in Conscience to
-  beseech his Lordship to give Order for Redress of such Contempt
-  of God’s service. And that he had for that end treated with some
-  Justices of Peace of that County, who shewed themselves to have
-  very good Zeal, but alledged Want of Commission; which they humbly
-  referred to his honourable Wisdom.” (Maitland, vol. i. p. 267.)
-
-After Religion, Charity. The bequests to religious purposes had become
-fewer and of smaller importance during the fifteenth century: they
-were almost discontinued in the reign of Henry VII.; they ceased under
-Henry VIII. and his son; and they hardly revived during the reign
-of Mary. There can be no surer indication of the change of thought.
-Under Elizabeth we have not only a complete change of thought but the
-commencement of a new era in Charity. We now enter upon the period of
-Endowed Charities. Not that they were before unknown, but that they
-were grafted upon and formed part of Religious Endowments, as St.
-Anthony’s School, which belonged to the Religious House of that name,
-and Whittington’s Bedesmen, who formed part of Whittington’s College.
-The Religious element now disappears except for the erection of a
-chapel for the Bedesmen. The list of Charitable Endowments founded in
-this century is large and very laudable. They consist of colleges,
-schools, and almshouses, not in London only, but by London citizens for
-their native places, for Oxford, and for Cambridge.
-
-[Illustration: SIR PHILIP SIDNEY AND HIS BROTHER LORD LISLE
-
-From the picture in the possession of Lord De L’Isle and Dudley,
-Penshurst Place, Kent.]
-
-Of London as a City of Soldiers we hear much less under Elizabeth,
-despite the contingent sent to fight the Spanish invader, than under
-any king. London no longer sallies forth ten thousand strong for this
-claimant or that. She finds, however, the money for ships, and on
-occasion she raises and equips for foreign service, 400 men, 600 men,
-1000 men, at the order of the Queen.
-
-The first appearance of Londoners under arms was a mere parade, to
-which the City sent 1400 men. They were equipped by the twelve
-principal Companies, who also supplied officers from their own body.
-In 1562 the Queen asked the City for a force of 600 men. These were
-raised. Next year she applied again for 1000 men for the holding of
-Havre; only 400, however, were wanted. These sailed for Havre, but the
-garrison being attacked by the plague there was no fighting, and the
-town surrendered.
-
-In 1572 the Queen in a letter to the Mayor commanded him to raise a
-large body of men, young and strong, for instruction in the Military
-Arts. Accordingly the Companies chose young men to the number of 3000;
-armed them; placed officers of experience over them, and instructed
-them. This appears to have been the beginning of the London Trained
-Bands. In May of the same year they were reviewed by the Queen. In
-1574 the City was called upon to furnish 400 soldiers for the Queen’s
-service.
-
-In 1578 the City was ordered to provide 2000 arquebusiers. Scarcely
-had the order been received when there came another for 2000 men to be
-raised and kept in readiness.
-
-On the 8th March 1587, the Queen sent a letter, followed by one from
-the Privy Council, to the same effect, informing the Mayor that certain
-intelligence had been received of warlike preparations being made in
-foreign parts, and calling upon the City to provide a force of 10,000
-men fully armed and equipped, of whom 6000 were to be enrolled under
-Captains and Ensigns and to be trained at times convenient.
-
-The men were raised in the following numbers from each ward:—
-
-  Farringdon Ward Within    807
-  Bassishaw                 177
-  Bread Street              386
-  Dowgate                   384
-  Lime Street                99
-  Farringdon Without       1264
-  Aldgate Ward              347
-  Billingsgate              365
-  Aldersgate                232
-  Cornhill                  191
-  Cheap                     358
-  Cordwainer                301
-  Langbourne                349
-  Coleman Street Ward       229
-  Broad Street              373
-  Bridge Ward Within        383
-  Castle Baynard            551
-  Queenhithe                404
-  Tower Street              444
-  Walbrook                  290
-  Vintry                    364
-  Portsoken                 243
-  Candlewick                215
-  Cripplegate               925
-  Bishopsgate               326
-                         ——————
-              Total      10,007
-
-We may apply this total in order to make a guess at the population
-of London in 1587. Thus supposing _x_ to be the percentage of the
-population taken from each ward to fill the ranks, since the population
-of each ward = the number taken, multiplied by 100, and divided by _x_,
-
-Therefore the whole population of the City
-
-  = whole number taken, multiplied by 100, and divided by _x_
-  = 1,000,700 ÷ _x_
-
-If 10 per cent of the population were taken we should have a total of
-100,070 or roughly 100,000.
-
-[Illustration: _W. A. Mansell & Co._
-
-THE SPANISH ARMADA (THE FIRST ENGAGEMENT)
-
-From Pine’s engravings of the House of Lords tapestry hangings.]
-
-The City also supplied a fleet of sixteen ships, the largest in the
-river, fully found, with four light pinnaces, and paid the men during
-their services. It was with these ships that Drake ran into Cadiz and
-Lisbon, destroyed a great quantity of shipping, and threw into the sea
-the military materials that had been accumulated there.
-
-The Earl of Leicester, who was in command at Tilbury, received 1000 of
-the London force only, and that on condition that they brought their
-own provisions.
-
-The London men wore a uniform of white with white caps, and the City
-arms in scarlet on back and front. Some carried arquebuses; some were
-halberdiers; some were pikemen. They marched in companies according to
-their arms. Their officers rode beside the men dressed in black velvet.
-They were preceded by billmen, corresponding to the modern pioneers; by
-a company of whifflers, i.e. trumpeters; and in the midst marched six
-Ensigns in white satin faced with black sarsenet, and rich scarves. The
-dress of officers and men was just as useless and unfit for continued
-work as could well be devised. It is melancholy to find that the Earl
-of Leicester, who was in command at Tilbury, held a very poor opinion
-of the London contingent. “I see,” he writes to Walsingham, “that their
-service will be little, except they have their own captains, and having
-them I look for none at all by them when we shall meet the enemy.”
-Most fortunately there was no enemy to meet, and the heroism of the
-Londoners remains unchallenged. The Captain of the London Trained Bands
-was Martin Bond, citizen, whose tomb remains at St. Helen’s Church.
-
-When the danger was over, the Aldermen looked to it that the price of
-provisions should not be raised when the sick and wounded were brought
-home. But it was some time before the welcome news was received of the
-final dispersion of the invading fleet. The first public notification
-was made in a sermon preached at Paul’s Cross by the Dean of St.
-Paul’s, in the presence of the Mayor and Aldermen and the Livery
-Companies in their best gowns.
-
-On the 18th November the Queen rode into the City in state and attended
-a Thanksgiving Service.
-
-Sharpe calls attention to the fact that two at least of the great naval
-commanders were well-known in the City:—
-
-  “Both Frobisher and Hawkins owned property in the City, and in all
-  probability resided there, like their fellow-seaman and explorer,
-  Sir Humphrey Gilbert, who was living in Red Cross Street, in the
-  parish of St. Giles, Cripplegate, in 1583, the year that he met
-  his death at sea. The same parish claims Frobisher, whose remains
-  (excepting his entrails, which were interred at Plymouth, where
-  he died) lie buried in St. Giles’s Church, and to whom a mural
-  monument was erected by the Vestry in 1888, just three centuries
-  after the defeat of the Armada, to which he had contributed so
-  much. If Hawkins himself did not reside in the City, his widow had
-  a mansion house in Mincing Lane. He, too, had probably lived there;
-  for although he died and was buried at sea, a monument was erected
-  to his memory and to that of Katherine, his first wife, in the
-  church of St. Dunstan-in-the-East. There is one other—a citizen of
-  London and son of an alderman—whose name has been handed down as
-  having taken an active part in the defence of the kingdom at this
-  time, not at sea, but on land. A monument in the recently restored
-  church of St. Helen, Bishopsgate, tells us that Martin Bond, son of
-  Alderman William Bond, ‘was captaine in ye yeare 1588 at ye campe
-  at Tilbury, and after remained chief captaine of ye trained bands
-  of this Citty until his death.’ The monument represents him as
-  sitting in a tent guarded by two sentinels, with a page holding a
-  horse.” (Sharpe, vol. i. pp. 544–545.)
-
-In 1591 a further contingent of 400 men was ordered. In 1594 the
-City was called upon to raise 450 men. In 1596 a message came to the
-Mayor and Aldermen from the Queen. They were listening to a sermon
-at Paul’s Cross. The letter commanded them to raise a thousand men
-immediately. They rose and left the sermon, and instantly set to
-work. Before eight of the clock they had raised their men. But the
-order was countermanded, and the men were disbanded. On Easter Day
-in the morning another message came to the same effect, and then—it
-is a curious story—the Mayor and Aldermen went round to the churches
-in the respective wards. Remember that on such a day every man in
-the City would be in church. The Mayor shut the doors, picked his
-men, and before noon had raised his thousand men. This order also was
-countermanded, and the men returned home. A strange interruption of an
-Easter morning’s service!
-
-In the same year the Queen asked for more men. Then the City Common
-Council expostulated. On the sea service alone, they pointed out, the
-City had spent 10,000 marks within the last few years. In 1597 they
-raised first 500 men, then 300 more, and sent the Queen £60,000 on
-mortgage. In 1598, on a new alarm of another Spanish invasion, the City
-found sixteen ships and a force of 6000 men.
-
-It will thus be seen that during this reign the City furnished over
-6000 fully equipped soldiers for active service; that it raised at
-an hour’s notice, on two separate occasions, 1000 men ready for
-immediate service; that it raised a force of Trained Bands 3000
-strong; that on occasion it could increase this number to 10,000;
-that it could fit out for sea a fleet of twenty or thirty ships.
-I do not think that the expenditure of the City on these military
-services has ever been published, but it must have been very great.
-A corresponding expenditure at the present time would be enormous;
-it would be expressed in many millions. This simple fact both proves
-and illustrates the tried loyalty of the City. The time, however, had
-gone by when the Londoners could, and did, send out an army capable
-of deposing one king and setting up another. That power and that
-spirit died with the accession of the Tudors. In the beginning of
-Elizabeth’s reign the citizens even prayed to be excused the practice
-of arms even as a volunteer force, seeing that “the most parte of
-those our apprentices and handy craftesmen who continually are kept at
-work; who also, if they should have that libertie to be trayned and
-drawn from their workes in these matters, wolde thereby fall into such
-idleness and insolency that many would never be reduced agayne into any
-good order or service.”
-
-[Illustration: _A_ View _of the_ House _of_ Peers, Queen Elizabeth _on
-the Throne, the_ Commons _attending_.
-
-_Taken from a Painted Print in the Cottonian Library._
-
-_The Knights of Shires & Burgesses (as they call them) which constitute
-y^e lower house of Parliament presenting their Speaker._]
-
-We have seen repeated proofs that the City was never friendly towards
-foreigners. At this time there were many causes beside the old trade
-jealousy why the people should view strangers with an unfriendly eye.
-During the last reign the City swarmed with Spaniards; from the very
-first day of this long reign until the very last, Spain never ceased
-plotting, conspiring, and carrying on war with the Queen and the new
-Religion. In the foreign merchants’ houses the conspirators found a
-refuge. There were, again, thousands of immigrants from Flanders or
-Spain, flying from religious persecution; and though many of the people
-settled down to steady industry, there were many who were by no means
-the virtuous, law-abiding persons, such as the present age would expect
-of Huguenots.
-
-From time to time, partly in order to allay the jealousy and terror
-of the people, partly for the sake of getting at the facts, there was
-a numbering of the strangers. Thus, in 1567, such a numbering showed
-45 Scots; 428 French; 45 Spaniards and Portuguese; 140 Italians;
-2030 Dutch; 44 Burgundians; two Danes; and one Liégeois: in all 2735
-persons. In 1580 another census of aliens was taken; wherein it was
-shown that there were 2302 Dutch; 1838 French; 116 Italians; 1542
-English born of foreign parents; of other nations not specified
-447; and of persons not certified 217: in all 6462. In 1593 a third
-census showed 5259 strangers in London. These figures are not without
-interest. In the first year we find a large number of Dutch; they are
-fugitives. In the next we find that the whole number of strangers has
-more than doubled: there has been a large accession of Huguenots; in
-the third census the numbers have gone down a little. In our time a
-great outcry has been raised over the invasion of the Town by 50,000
-Polish Jews; that means a proportion of one in a hundred. In 1560 there
-were 6500 for a population of, say, 120,000, which means one in twenty
-(approximately). Now, one in twenty is a large fraction out of the
-general population.
-
-At one time the hatred of the Apprentices grew so irrepressible that a
-conspiracy like that of Evil May Day was formed among the Apprentices,
-with the design of murdering all the foreigners. The conspiracy was
-happily discovered, and the conspirators laid by the heels in Newgate.
-A Petition to the Queen against the grievous encroachments of aliens
-will be found in Appendix III.
-
-[Illustration: WILLIAM CECIL, FIRST BARON BURGHLEY (1520–1598)
-
-From the painting by Marc Gheeraedts (?) in the National Portrait
-Gallery, London.]
-
-The domestic history of Elizabeth’s reign is crammed full of hangings,
-burnings, and the executions of traitors, with all the barbarity
-of that punishment. There are so many, that in order to make this
-remarkable shedding of blood intelligible, I have compiled a list of
-the executions mentioned by Holinshed and Stow during one part of her
-reign. The list will be found in Appendix X., (Executions, 1563–1586).
-This list, which principally concerns London and is apparently
-incomplete, even within its narrow limits shows that between the years
-1563 and 1586, there were in all 64 executions at which 228 persons
-suffered. Of these, seventy-one were rebels hanged on two occasions;
-seventeen were executed for murder; three for military offences;
-twelve for counterfeiting, clipping, or debasing the coinage; two for
-counterfeiting the Queen’s signature; twenty-nine were pirates; two
-were executed for witchcraft or conjuring; twelve for robbery; one for
-adultery; three for heresy, and seventy-six for high treason. Among
-the traitors were Dr. John Storey; Edmund Campion; William Parry; the
-Babington conspirators; the Charnock conspirators; and many Roman
-Catholic priests. There can be no doubt that the priests who came over
-with secret designs for the conversion of the country constituted a
-real and ever-present danger; if anything could justify the barbarities
-committed upon them when they were caught these conspiracies were
-enough. That the people at large did not condemn these barbarities
-is proved by the fact that there was no feeling of sympathy for the
-sufferers; that the common opinion was that for treason no punishment
-could be too severe; and that the country after Elizabeth’s reign
-was concluded was far more Protestant than at the beginning. The
-conspiracies and secret goings in and out of Catholic priests came to
-an end in the reign of James, for the best of all reasons, viz. that
-there was no one left with whom a priest could conspire or whom he
-could convert. Two women were burned for poisoning their husbands—a
-most dreadful offence, and one which called for the direst terrors
-of the law; one woman was burned for witchcraft; another was only
-hanged for the same offence—but such differences in sentences are
-not unknown at the present day. One more point occurs. Were the last
-dying speeches correctly reported? If so, since they are always so
-moving, and sometimes so eloquent, why did they elicit no response of
-sympathy or indignation among the bystanders? When Thomas Appletree
-was to be hanged for firing a gun accidentally into the Queen’s barge
-(see p. 389), the people wept, and the culprit wept, but the justice
-of the sentence was not questioned. Now in the Marian Persecution the
-people looked on indignant and sympathetic, being restrained from
-demonstrations by force and fear. Whether the dying speeches are
-correctly reported or invented, matters very little. They show one
-thing, that there was no unmanly terror observed at the last moment:
-every one, guilty or innocent, mounted the ladder with an intrepid
-countenance. Death has no terrors either for the arch-conspirator
-Storey, or for the pirate hanged at Execution Dock.
-
-The privileges granted to the foreign merchants of the Steelyard and
-the Hanseatic League were finally withdrawn by Queen Elizabeth.
-
-This withdrawal had been in preparation for nearly two hundred years.
-In the time of Henry IV. English merchants began to trade in the
-Baltic and with Norway and other parts. This aroused the jealousy
-of the Hanseatic League, which seized upon several of the English
-ships. Complaints were laid before the King, who withdrew such of
-the privileges enjoyed by the League as interfered with the carrying
-on of trade by his own merchants. He also granted a charter to the
-merchants trading to the Eastlands. This charter was renewed and
-enlarged by Edward IV. In the first and second of Philip and Mary a
-charter was granted to the Russia Company—we have seen how the first
-Russian Ambassador came to England in the reign of Mary. This Company
-obtained a confirmation of their charter under Queen Elizabeth. Now,
-although our people enjoyed many more privileges than of old, yet the
-Hanseatic League still had the advantage over them by means of their
-well-regulated Societies and their privileges, insomuch that when the
-Queen wanted hemp, pitch, tar, powder, and other munitions of war, she
-had to buy them of the foreign merchants at their own price. The Queen,
-therefore, began to encourage her own people to become merchants: she
-assisted them to form companies; she gave them Charters; she withdrew
-all the privileges from the Hansa. Not the least of the debt which
-England owes to this great Queen is her wisdom in the encouragement of
-foreign trade.
-
-The strange and foolish rising of the Earl of Essex belongs to national
-history. It was, however, met and repressed in the first outbreak by
-the City. Not one person offered to join the Earl; he was proclaimed
-traitor in Cheapside; the Bishop of London raised, in all haste, the
-force which stopped him on Ludgate Hill.
-
-Towards the end of Queen Elizabeth’s reign there were great complaints
-of hawkers and pedlars—in fact we begin to hear of the London Cries.
-These street cries did great harm to London tradesmen. We have seen
-that there were no shops at all originally, except in the appointed
-markets; these hawkers, with their itinerant barrows and baskets,
-brought the market into every part of London. Steps were taken to
-prevent this nuisance; but they were unavailing.
-
-In 1580 the Queen issued a Proclamation against the building of new
-houses and the further increase of London:—
-
-  “To the preservation of her People in Health, which may seem
-  impossible to continue, though presently, by God’s Goodness, the
-  same is perceived to be in better Estate universally than hath
-  beene in Man’s Memorie; yet where there are such great Multitudes
-  of People brought to inhabite in small Roomes, whereof a great Part
-  are seene very poore, yea, such as must live of begging, or by
-  worse Means, and they heaped up together, and in a sort smothered
-  with many families of Children and Servants in one House or small
-  Tenement; it must needes followe, if any Plague or popular Sicknes
-  should, by God’s Permission, enter amongst those Multitudes, that
-  the same would not only spread itself and invade the whole Citie
-  and Confines, but that a great Mortalitie would ensue the same,
-  where her Majesties personal Presence is many times required.
-
-  For Remedie whereof, as Time may now serve, until by some further
-  good Order be had in Parliament or otherwise, the same may be
-  remedied; her Majestie, by good and deliberate advice of her
-  Counsell, and being also thereto moved by the considerate opinions
-  of the Lord-Mayor, Aldermen, and other the grave wise men in and
-  about the Citie, doth charge and straightly command all manner of
-  Persons, of what Qualitie soever they be, to desist and forbeare
-  from any new Buildings of any House or Tenement within three miles
-  from any of the Gates of the sayde Citie of _London_, to serve
-  for Habitation or Lodging for any Person, where no former House
-  hath bene knowen to have bene in the Memorie of such as are now
-  living; and also to forbeare from letting or setting, or suffering
-  any more Families than one onely to be placed, or to inhabite from
-  henceforth in any one House that heretofore hath bene inhabited.”
-
-On the 6th of December 1586, a very solemn and tragic ceremony was
-performed, first in Cheapside; then in Leadenhall; then at the end of
-London Bridge, and lastly at the south end of Chancery Lane; where
-the Mayor with the Aldermen, and attended by many of the Nobility and
-eighty of the principal citizens in chains of gold, proclaimed the
-sentence of death passed upon the unfortunate Mary Queen of Scots.
-
-The importance of the act; the publicity given to it; the formalities
-attending the Proclamation,—show the desire of the Queen and her
-Council that the people should understand the dreadful necessity of
-removing this cause of endless intrigue and conspiracy.
-
-One more trade regulation closes the history of London in the reign
-of Elizabeth. A practice had grown up among hucksters and others of
-setting up stalls in the streets in front of the shops, in consequence
-of which the trade of the shopkeepers was greatly injured, insomuch
-that many of them were obliged to employ these very people to sell
-their wares for them. It was therefore ordered that no one should
-erect any stall, or stand, before any house under a penalty of twenty
-shillings.
-
-One of the last things done in the name of the Queen was the offer to
-all Debtors in prison of freedom if they would volunteer to serve on
-board the fleet newly raised for the suppression of Spanish pirates.
-
-On the death of the Queen, the City, which was always most truly loyal
-and faithful to her, put up in most churches a tablet or a statue to
-her memory.
-
-This brief and bald account of the relations between the Crown and the
-City is not proffered as a history of London during the Tudor period.
-This history will, it is hoped, be found in the following pages. I
-have only hinted at the creation of the Trading Companies and the
-connection of the great Sea Captains with London. The Poor Law of 1572;
-the granting of monopolies; the wonderful outburst of Literature;
-the troubles caused by the substitution of pasture for agriculture;
-the growth of Puritanism and the beginnings of the High Church,—all
-these things belong to the history of London. The diplomacy; the Court
-intrigues; the rise and fall of Ministers; the anxieties concerning the
-Succession,—these things do not belong to the history of London.
-
-
-
-
-                              CHAPTER VI
-
-                        THE QUEEN IN SPLENDOUR
-
-
-The Court of Queen Elizabeth was almost as itinerant as that of Henry
-the Second. The Queen understood thoroughly that for a sovereign to be
-at once loyally served and wholesomely feared it is not enough to sit
-still in one place. She must be seen by her people: they must realise
-by ocular demonstration how great is her power and authority; they must
-learn it by the sight of her person glittering with jewels and all
-glorious with silk and velvet; by the splendour of her train; by the
-noble lords who attend her; by the magnificence of the entertainment
-she receives. Nearly every year of her long reign was marked by one or
-more Progresses; some of her nobles she visited more than once: she was
-the guest of Cecil at Theobalds on twelve different occasions, each
-visit costing the host two or three thousand pounds; three times she
-visited Leicester at Kenilworth. These Progresses, though they belong
-not to the history of London, must be borne in mind in thinking of this
-long and glorious reign.
-
-[Illustration: HAMPTON COURT
-
-From a print in the British Museum.]
-
-When Elizabeth was not travelling she resided at Whitehall, at St.
-James’s, at Greenwich, at Hampton Court, Windsor, Richmond, Nonsuch,
-Chelsea, Hunsdon. In moving from one palace to another a huge quantity
-of plate and furniture had to be carried about. And during the change
-of residence the City bells were set ringing. If the Queen went by
-river, or from Westminster to Greenwich, she was attended by the barges
-of the Mayor and the Companies, all newly painted and beautified: they
-had artillery on board, and there was a great shooting of guns; also
-there was “great and pleasant melodie of instruments which plaed in
-most sweet and heavenly manner.”
-
-On the day before her coronation the Queen received the Pageant devised
-in her honour by the City of London.
-
-A full account of this Pageant is preserved in a tract first printed
-in 1604, and reproduced in Nichols’s _Progresses of Queen Elisabeth_.
-It is too long to quote in full. The following, therefore, is greatly
-abridged from the original:—
-
-  “Entryng the Citie was of the People received marveylous entirely,
-  as appeared by the assemblie, prayers, wishes, welcomminges, cryes,
-  tender woordes, and all other signs, which argue a wonderfull
-  earnest love of most obedient subjectes towarde theyr soveraigne.
-  And on thother side, her Grace, by holding up her hand and merie
-  countenance to such as stode farre of, and most tender and gentle
-  language to those that stode nigh to her Grace, did declare
-  herselfe no leswe thankefully to receive her Peoples good wyll
-  than they lovingly offered it unto her. To all that wyshed her
-  Grace well, she gave heartie thankes, and to such as bade God
-  save her Grace, she sayde agayne God save them all, and thanked
-  them with all her heart: so that on eyther syde there was nothing
-  but gladnes, nothing but prayer, nothing but comfort. The Quenes
-  Majestie rejoysed marveilously to see that so exceadingly shewed
-  towarde her Grace, which all good Princes have ever desyred. I
-  meane so earnest love of subjectes, so evidently declared even to
-  her Grace’s owne person, being carried in the middest of them.”...
-  “Thus therefore the Quenes Majestie passed from the Towre till she
-  came to Fanchurche, the people on eche side joyously beholdyng the
-  viewe of so gracious a Ladye theyr Quene, and her Grace no lesse
-  gladly notyng and observing the same. Nere unto Fanchurch was
-  erected a scaffolde richely furnished, whereon stode a noyes of
-  instrumentes and a chylde in costly apparell, which was appoynted
-  to welcome the Quenes Majestie in the hole Cities behalfe. Against
-  which place when her Grace came, of her owne wyll she commaunded
-  the chariot to be stayde, and that the noyes might be appeased
-  tyll the chylde had uttered his welcome oration, which he spake in
-  English meter as here followeth:—
-
-    ‘O pereles Soveraygne Quene, behold what this thy Town
-    Hath thee presented with at thy fyrst entraunce here:
-    Behold with how riche hope she ledeth thee to thy Crown,
-    Beholde with what two gyftes she comforteth thy chere.
-
-    The first is blessing tonges which many a welcome say,
-    Which pray thou mayst do wel, which praise thee to the sky,
-    Which wish to thee long lyfe, which blesse this happy day
-    Which to thy kingdomes heapes, all that in tonges can lye.
-
-    The second is true hertes which love thee from their roote,
-    Whose sute is tryumphe now, and ruleth all the game.
-    Which faithfulness have wone, and all untruthe driven out,
-    Which skip for joy when as they heare thy happy name.
-
-    Welcome therefore, O Quene, as much as herte can thinke;
-    Welcome agayn, O Quene, as much as tong can tell;
-    Welcome to joyous tonges, and hartes that will not shrink.
-    God thee preserve we praye and wishe thee ever well.’
-
-  At which wordes of the last line the hole People gave a great
-  shout, wishing with one assent, as the chylde had said. And the
-  Quenes Majestie thanked most heartely both the Citie for this her
-  gentle receiving at the first, and also the People for confirming
-  the same.”
-
-In Gracious (Gracechurch Street) was erected a “gorgeous and sumptuous
-Arke”:—
-
-  “A stage was made whiche extended from th’one syde of the streate
-  to th’other, richely vawted with battlementes conteining three
-  portes, and over the middlemost was avaunced three severall stages
-  in degrees. Upon the lowest stage was made one seate Royall,
-  wherein were placed two personages representyng Kyng Henrie the
-  Seventh, and Elyzabeth his wyfe, doughter of Kyng Edward the
-  Fourth, eyther of these two Princes sitting under one cloth of
-  estate in their seates, no otherwyse divided, but that th’one of
-  them, whiche was King Henrie the Seventh, proceeding out of the
-  House of Lancastre, was enclosed in a Redde Rose, and th’other,
-  which was Quene Elizabeth, being heire to the House of Yorke,
-  enclosed with a Whyte Rose, eche of them Royally crowned, and
-  decently apparailled as apperteinted to Princes, with Sceptours
-  in their hands, and one vawt surmounting their heades, wherein
-  aptly were placed two tables, eche conteining the title of those
-  two Princes. And these personages were so set, that the one of
-  them joined handes with th’other, with the ring of matrimonie
-  perceived on the finger. Out of the which two Roses sprang two
-  branches gathered into one, which were directed upward to the
-  second stage or degree, wherein was placed one, representing the
-  valiant and noble Prynce, King Henry the Eight, which sprong out of
-  the former stock, crowned with a Crown Imperial, and by him sate
-  one representing the right worthy Ladie Quene Ann, wife to the said
-  King Henry the Eight, and Mother to our most soveraign Ladie Quene
-  Elizabeth that now is, both apparelled with Sceptours and Diademes,
-  and other furniture due to the state of a King and Queene, and two
-  tables surmounting their heades, wherein were written their names
-  and titles. From their seate also proceaded upwardes one braunche
-  directed to the thirde and uppermost stage or degree, wherein
-  lykewyse was planted a seate Royall, in the whiche was sette one
-  representyng the Queenes most excellent Majestie Elizabeth nowe our
-  moste dradde Soveraigne Ladie, crowned and apparalled as th’other
-  Prynces were. Out of the forepart of this Pageaunt was made a
-  standyng for a chylde, whiche at the Quenes Majesties comeing
-  declared unto her the hole meaning of the said Pageaunt. The two
-  sides of the same were filled with loud noyses of musicke. And all
-  emptie places thereof were furnished with sentences concerning
-  unitie. And the hole Pageant garnished with Redde Roses and White,
-  and in the forefront of the same Pageant in a faire Wreathe, was
-  written the name and title of the same, which was, ‘The uniting of
-  the two Howses of Lancastre and Yorke.’ Thys Pageant was grounded
-  upon the Quenes Majesties name. For like as the long warre between
-  the two Houses of Yorke and Lancastre then ended, when Elizabeth
-  doughter to Edward the Fourth matched in marriage with Henry the
-  Seventhe, heyre to the Howse of Lancastre: so since that the Quenes
-  Majesties name was Elizabeth, and forsomuch as she is the onelye
-  heire of Henrye the Eighth, which came of bowthe the howses, as the
-  knitting up of concorde, it was devised, that like as Elizabeth was
-  the first occasion of concorde, so she, another Elizabeth, myght
-  maintaine the same among her subjectes, so that unitie was the ende
-  whereat the whole devise shotte as the Ouenes Majesties name moved
-  the first grounde.
-
-  The childe appoynted in the standing above named to open the
-  meaning of the said Pageant, spake these wordes unto her Grace:—
-
-    ‘The two Princes that sit under one cloth of state,
-      The Man in the Redde Rose, the Whoman in the White,
-    Henry the VII. and Quene Elizabeth his Mate,
-      By ring of marriage as Man and Wife unite.
-
-    Both heires to both their bloodes, to Lancastre the Kyng,
-      The Queene to Yorke, in one the two Howses did knit:
-    Of whom as heire to both, Henry the Eighth did spring,
-      In whose seat, his true heire, thou, Quene Elizabeth doth sit.
-
-    Therefore as civill warre, and fuede of blood did cease
-      When these two Houses were united into one,
-    So now that jarrs shall stint, and quietnes encrease,
-      We trust, O noble Quene, thou wilt be cause alone.’
-
-The which also were written in Latin verse, and both drawn in two
-tables upon the forefront of the saide Pageant.
-
-[Illustration: NONSUCH HOUSE
-
-From an old print.]
-
-These verses and other pretie sentences were drawen in voide places
-of thys Pageant, all tending to one ende, that quietness might be
-mainteyned, and all dissention displaced, and that by the Quenes
-Majestie, heire to agrement and agreing in name with her, which tofore
-had joyned those Houses, which had been th’occasion of much debate and
-civill warre within thys Realme, as may appeare to such as will searche
-Cronicles, but be not to be touched in thys treatise, openly declaring
-her Graces passage through the Citie, and what provisyon the Citie
-made therfore. And ere the Quenes Majestie came wythin hearing of
-thys Pageaunt, she sent certaine, as also at all other Pageauntes, to
-require the People to be silent. For her Majestie was disposed to heare
-all that shoulde be sayde unto her. When the Quenes Majestie had hearde
-the chylde’s oration, and understoode the meanyng of the Pageant at
-large, she marched forward toward Cornehill, alway received with lyke
-rejoysing of the People: and there, as her Grace passed by the Conduit,
-which was curiously trimmed agaynst that tyme with riche banners
-adourned, and a noyse of loude instrumentes upon the top thereof, she
-espyed the seconde Pageant: and because she feared for the People’s
-noyse that she shoulde not heare the child which dyd expound the same,
-she enquired what that Pageant was ere that she came to it: and there
-understoode that there was a chylde representing her Majesties person,
-placed in a seate of Government, supported by certayn vertues, which
-suppressed their contrarie vyces under their feete, and so forthe.”...
-“Against Soper Lane ende was extended from th’one side of the streate
-to th’other a Pageant, which had three gates, all open. Over the
-middlemost whereof wer erected three severall stages, whereon sate
-eight children, as hereafter followeth: On the uppermost one childe,
-on the middle three, on the lowest foure, eche having the proper name
-of the blessing that they did represent written in a table, and placed
-above their heades. In the forefront of this Pageant, before the
-children which did represent the blessings, was a convenient standing,
-cast out for a chylde to stand, which did expownd the sayd Pageant
-unto the Quenes Majestie as was done in th’other tofore. Everie of
-these children wer appointed and apparelled according unto the blessing
-which he did represent. And on the forepart of the sayde Pageant was
-written, in fayre letters, the name of the said Pageant, in this maner
-following:—
-
-    ‘The eight Beatitudes expressed in the V chapter of the Gospel of
-         St. Matthew
-                  applyed to our Soveraigne Lady Quene Elizabeth.’
-
-Over the two syde portes was placed a noyse of instrumentes. And
-all voyde places in the Pageant were furnished with prety sayinges,
-commending and touching the meaning of the said Pageant, which was
-the promises and blessinges of Almightie God to his People.”... “At
-the Standard in Cheape, which was dressed fayre agaynste the tyme,
-was placed a noyse of trumpettes, with banners and other furniture.
-The Crosse lykewyse was also made fayre and well trimmed. And neare
-unto the same, uppon the porche of Saint Peter’s church dore, stode
-the waites of the Citie, which did geve a pleasant noyse with their
-instrumentes as the Quenes Majestie did passe by, whiche on every saide
-cast her countenance and wished well to all her most loving people.
-Sone after that her Grace passed the Crosse, she had espyed the Pageant
-erected at the Little Conduit in Cheape, and incontinent required to
-know what it might signifye. And it was tolde her Grace, that there was
-placed Tyme. ‘Tyme?’ quoth she, ‘and Tyme hath brought me hether.’ And
-so forth the hole matter was opened to her Grace: as hereafter shalbe
-declared in the description of the Pageant. But in the opening when her
-Grace understode that the Byble in Englyse shoulde be delivered unto
-her by Trueth which was therin represented by a chylde: she thanked the
-Citie for that gyft, and sayde that she would oftentymes reade over
-that booke, commaunding Sir John Parrat, one of the Knightes which
-helde up her canapy, to goe before, and to receive the booke. But
-learning that it shoulde be delivered unto her Grace downe by a silken
-lace, she caused him to staye, and so passed forward till she came
-agaynste the Aldermen in the hyghe ende of Cheape tofore the Little
-Conduite, where the companies of the Citie ended, whiche beganne at
-Fanchurche and stoode along the streates, one by another enclosed with
-rayles, hanged with clothes, and themselves well apparelled with many
-riche furres, and their livery whodes uppon their shoulders, in comely
-and semely maner, having before them sondry persones well apparelled
-in silkes and chaines of golde, as wyflers and garders of the sayd
-companies, beside a number of riche hangings, as well of tapistrie,
-arras, clothes of golde, silver, velvet, damaske, sattin, and other
-silkes, plentifullye hanged all the way as the Quenes Highnes passed
-from the Towre through the Citie. Out at the windowes and penthouses
-of every house did hang a number of ryche and costlye banners and
-streamers, tyll her Grace came to the upper ende of Cheape. And there,
-by appoyntment, the Right Worshipfull Maister Ranulph Cholmeley,
-Recorder of the Citie, presented to the Quenes Majestie a purse of
-crimeson sattin richely wrought with gold, wherin the Citie gave unto
-the Quenes Majestie a thousand markes in gold, as maister Recorder did
-declare brieflie unto the Quenes Majestie: whose woordes tended to this
-ende, that the Lorde Maior, his brethren, and Comminaltie of the Citie,
-to declare their gladnes and good wille towardes the Quenes Majestie
-dyd present her Grace with that golde, desyering her Grace to continue
-theyr good and gracious Queen, and not to esteeme the value of the
-gift, but the mynd of the gevers. The Quenes Majestie, with both her
-handes, tooke the purse, and answered to hym againe mervelous pithilie:
-and so pithilie, that the standers by, as they embraced entirely her
-gracious answer, so they mervailed at the cowching thereof: which was
-in wordes truely reported these: ‘I thanke my Lorde Maior, his Brethren
-and you all. And wheras your request is that I shoulde continue your
-good Ladie and Quene, be ye ensured, that I will be as good unto you
-as ever Quene was to her People. No wille in me can lacke, neither doe
-I trust shall ther lacke any power. And perswade your selves, that
-for the safetie and quietnes of you all I will not spare, if need be,
-to spend my blood. God thanke you all.’ Which answere of so noble an
-hearted Pryncesse, if it moved a mervaylous showte and rejoysing, it
-is nothyng to be mervayled at, since both the heartines thereof was
-so wonderfull and the woordes so joyntly knytte. When her Grace hadde
-thus answered the Recorder, she marched toward the Little Conduit,
-where was erected a Pageant with square proporcion standynge directly
-before the same Conduite, with battlementes accordyngelye. And in the
-same Pageant was advaunced two hylles or mountaynes of convenient
-heyghte. The one of them beyng on the North syde of the same Pageaunt,
-was made cragged, barreyn, and stonye: in the whiche was erected
-one tree, artificiallye made, all withered and deade, with braunches
-accordinglye. And under the same tree, at the foote thereof, sate one
-in homely and rude apparell, crokedlye, and in mourning maner, havynge
-over hys headde, in a table, written in Laten and Englyshe, hys name,
-whiche was, ‘Ruinosa Respublica,’ ‘A Decayed Commonweale.’ And upon the
-same withered tree were fixed certayne tables, wherein were written
-proper sentences, expressing the causes of the decaye of a Commonweale.
-The other hylle, on the South syde, was made fayre, fresh grene, and
-beawtifull, the grounde thereof full of flowers and beawtie: and on the
-same was erected also one tree very fresh and fayre, under the whiche
-stoode uprighte one freshe personage, well apparayled and appoynted,
-whose name also was written bothe in Englyshe and Latin, whiche was,
-‘Respublica bene instituta,’ ‘A florishyng Commonweale.’ And uppon the
-same tree also were fixed certayne tables, conteyning sentences which
-expressed the causes of a flourishing Commonweale. In the middle,
-between the sayde hylles, was made artificially one hollow place or
-cave, with doore and locke enclosed: oute of the whiche, a lyttle
-before the Quenes Highness commynge thither, issued one personage,
-whose name was Tyme, apparaylled as an olde man, with a sythe in his
-hande, havynge wynges artificiallye made, leadinge a personage of
-lesser stature than himselfe, whiche was fynely and well apparaylled,
-all cladde in whyte silke, and directlye over her head was set her name
-and tytle, in Latin and Englyshe, ‘Temporis filia,’ ‘The Daughter of
-Tyme.’ Which two so appoynted, went forwarde toward the South syde of
-the Pageant. And on her brest was written her propre name, whiche was
-‘Veritas,’ ‘Trueth,’ who helde a booke in her hande, upon the whiche
-was written, ‘Verbum Veritatis,’ ‘The Woorde of Trueth.’ And out of the
-South syde of the Pageaunt was cast a standynge for a childe, which
-shoulde enterprete the same Pageant. Against whom when the Quenes
-Majestie came, he spake unto her Grace these woordes:—
-
-    ‘This olde man with the sythe olde Father Tyme they call,
-      And her his daughter Truth, which holdeth yonder boke:
-    Whom he out of his rocke hath brought forth to us all,
-      From hence for many yeres she durst not once out loke.
-
-    The ruthful wight that sitteth ynder the barren tree,
-      Resembleth to us the fourme when Commonweales decay:
-    But when they be in state tryumphant, you may see
-      By him in freshe attyre that sitteth under the baye.
-
-    Now since that Time again his daughter Truth hath brought
-      We trust, O worthy Quene, thou wilt this Truth embrace:
-    And since thou understandst the good estate and nought,
-      We trust wealth thou wilt plant, and barrenness displace.
-
-    But for to heale the sore, and cure that is not seene,
-      Which thing the boke of Truth doth teache in writing playn,
-    She doth present to thee the same, O worthy Quene,
-      For that, that wordes do flye, but wryting doth remayn.’
-
-[Illustration: COACHES OF QUEEN ELIZABETH
-
-From _Archæologia_.]
-
-When the childe had thus ended his speache, he reached his booke
-towardes the Quenes Majestie, whiche, a little before, Trueth had let
-downe unto him from the hill: whiche Sir John Parrat was received,
-and delivered unto the Quene. But she, as soone as she had receyved
-the booke, kissed it, and with both her handes helde up the same, and
-so laid it upon her breast, with great thankes to the Citie thereof.
-And so went forward towardes Paules Churchyarde.... When she was come
-over against Paules Scole, a childe appointed by the scolemaster
-thereof pronounced a certein oration in Latin, and certein verses,
-which also wer there written.”... “In this maner, the people on either
-side rejoysing, her Grace went forwarde, towarde the Conduite in
-Flete-street, where was the fifte and last Pageaunt erected, in forme
-following: From the Conduite, which was bewtified with painting, unto
-the North side of the strete, was erected a stage, embattelled with
-foure towres, and in the same a square platte rising with degrees, and
-uppon the uppermost degree was placed a chaire, or seate royall, and
-behynde the same seate, in curious and artificiall maner, was erected
-a tree of reasonable height, and so farre advaunced above the seate as
-it did well and semelye shadow the same, without endomaging the syght
-of any part of the Pageant: and the same tree was bewtified with leaves
-as greene as arte could devise, being of a convenient greatnes, and
-conteining therupon the fruite of the date, and on the toppe of the
-same tree, in a table, was set the name thereof, which was ‘A palme
-tree’: and in the aforesaide seate, or chaire, was placed a semelie
-and mete personage, richlie apparelled in Parliament robes, with a
-sceptre in her hand, as a Quene crowned with an open crowne, whose name
-and title was in a table fixed over her head, in this sort: ‘Debora
-the judge and restorer of the House of Israel, Judic. iv.’ And the
-other degrees, on either side, were furnished with vi personages: two
-representing the Nobilitie, two the Clergie, and two the Comminaltye.
-And before these personages was written, in a table, ‘Debora with her
-estates, consulting for the good Government of Israel.’ At the feete of
-these, and the lowest part of the Pageant, was ordeined a convenient
-rome for a childe to open the meaning of the Pageant. When the Quenes
-Majestie drew nere unto this Pageant, and perceived, as in the other,
-the childe readie to speake, her Grace required silence, and commaunded
-her chariot to be removed nigher, that she myght plainlie heare the
-childe speake, whych said as hereafter foloweth:—
-
-    ‘Jaben of Canaan King had long by force of armes
-    Opprest the Israleites which for God’s People went:
-    But God minding at last for to redresse their harmes,
-    The worthy Deborah as judge among them sent.
-
-    In war she, through God’s aide, did put her foes to fright,
-    And with the dint of sworde the hande of bondage brast;
-    In peace she, through God’s aide, did alway mainteine right,
-    And judges Israell till fourty yeres were past.
-
-    A worthie President, O worthie Queen, thou hast,
-    A worthie woman judge, a woman sent for staie.
-    And that the like to us endure alway thou maist,
-    Thy loving subjectes will with true hearts and tonges prai.’
-
-Which verses were written upon the Pageant: and the same in Latin also.
-The voide places of the Pageant were filled with pretie sentences
-concerning the same matter. Thys ground of this last Pageant was,
-that forsomuch as the next Pageant before had set before her Grace’s
-eyes the florishing and desolate states of a Commonweale, she might
-by this be put in remembrance to consult for the worthy Government of
-her People: considering God oftimes sent women nobly to rule among
-men: as Debora, whych governed Israell in peas the space of xl years:
-and that it behoved both men and women so ruling to use advise of good
-counsell. When the Quenes Majestie had passed this Pageant, she marched
-toward Templebarre: but at St Dunstones church, where the children of
-thospitall wer appointed to stand with their governours, her Grace
-perceiving a childe offred to make an oration unto her, stayed her
-chariot and did cast up her eyes to heaven, as who should saye: ‘I here
-see thys mercyfull worke towarde the poore, whom I muste in the middest
-of my royaltie nedes remembre!’ And so turned her face towarde the
-childe, which, in Latin, pronounced an oracion. The childe, after he
-had ended his oracion, kissed the paper wherein the same was written,
-and reached it to the Quenes Majestie, whych received it graciouslye
-both with woordes and countenance, declaring her gracious mynde
-towarde theyr reliefe. From thence her Grace came to Temple Barre,
-which was dressed fynelye with the two ymages of Gotmagot the Albione,
-and Corineus the Briton, two gyantes bigge in stature, furnished
-accordingly: which held in their handes, even above the gate, a table,
-wherin was writen, in Latin verses, the effect of all the Pageantes
-which the Citie before had erected. Which versis wer also written in
-Englishe meter, in a lesse table, as hereafter foloweth:—
-
-    ‘Behold here in one view thou mayst see all that payne,
-    O Princesse, to this thy people the onely stay:
-    What echewhere thou hast seen in this wide town again
-    This one arche whatsoever the rest conteynd doth say.
-
-    The first arche, as true heyre unto thy father dere,
-    Did set thee in the throne where thy graundfather satte:
-    The second did confirme thy seate as Princesse here.
-    Vertues now bearing swaye, and Vyces bet down flatte.
-
-    The third, if that thou wouldst goe on as thou began,
-    Declared thee to be blessed on every syde;
-    The fourth did open Trueth and also taught thee whan
-    The Commonweale stoode well, and when it did thence slide.
-
-    The fifth as Debora, declared thee to be sent,
-    From Heaven, a long comfort to us thy subjectes all:
-    Therefore goe on, O Quene, on whom our hope is bent,
-    And take with thee this wishe of thy town as finall:
-
-    Live long, and as long raygne, adourning thy countrie
-    With Vertues, and mayntayne thy people’s hope of thee:
-    For thus, thus Heaven is won: thus must you pearce the sky.
-    This is by Vertue wrought, all other must nedes dye.’
-
-[Illustration: ROYAL PROCESSION TO ST. PAUL’S
-
-From a picture painted in 1616, in the possession of the Society of
-Antiquaries. E. Gardner’s Collection.]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-_W. A. Mansell & Co._
-
-QUEEN ELIZABETH GOING IN PROCESSION FROM SOMERSET HOUSE TO ST. PAUL’S
-CHURCH, TO RETURN THANKS FOR THE DEFEAT OF THE SPANISH ARMADA, NOVEMBER
-24, 1588
-
-From an engraving in British Museum.]
-
-On the South side was appoynted by the Citie a noyse of singing
-children: and one childe richely attyred as a poet, which gave the
-Quenes Majestie her farewell, in the name of the hole Citie, by these
-wordes:—
-
-    ‘As at thyne entraunce first, O Prince of high renown,
-    Thou wast presented with tonges and heartes for thy fayre;
-    So now, sith thou must nedes depart out of this towne,
-    This citie sendeth thee firme hope and earnest prayer.
-
-    For all men hope in thee, that all vertues shall reygne,
-    For all men hope that thou none errour wilt support,
-    For all men hope that thou wilt trueth restore agayne,
-    And mend that is amisse, to all good mennes comfort.
-
-    And for this hope they pray thou mayst continue long
-    Our Quene amongst us here, all vyce for to supplant:
-    And for this hope they pray, that God may make thee strong
-    As by His grace puissant so in his trueth constant.
-
-    Farewell, O worthy Quene, and as our hope is sure
-    That into Errour’s place thou wilt now Truth restore:
-    So trust we that thou wilt our Soveraigne Quene endure,
-    And loving Lady stand, from henceforth evermore.’
-
-Whyle these woordes were in saying, and certeine wishes therein repeted
-for maintenaunce of Trueth and rooting out of Errour, she now and
-then helde up her handes to heavenwarde, and willed the people to say
-Amen. When the child had ended she said, ‘Be ye well assured I will
-stande your good Quene.’ At whiche saying her Grace departed forth
-through Temple Barre towarde Westminster with no lesse shoutyng and
-crying of the People, then she entred the Citie, with a noyse of
-ordinance, whiche the Towre shot of at her Grace’s entraunce first into
-Towre-streate. The childes saying was also in Latin verses, wrytten in
-a table which was hanged up there. Thus the Quenes Hyghnesse passed
-through the Citie, whiche, without any forreyne persone, of itselfe
-beawtifyed itselfe, and receyved her Grace at all places, as hath
-been before mentioned, with most tender obedience and love, due to
-so gracious a Quene and Soveraigne Ladie. And her Grace lykewise of
-her side, in all her Grace’s passage, shewed herselfe generally an
-ymage of a woorthye Ladie and Governour: but privately these especiall
-poyntes wer noted in her Grace as synges of a most princelyke courage,
-wherby her loving subjectes maye ground a sure hope for the rest of her
-gracious doinges hereafter.”
-
-The most beautiful thing about the accession and coronation of
-Elizabeth was the moment when she passed out of the gates of the Tower,
-where once before she had lain in daily expectation of death. Her
-carriage waited for her. She stood looking round her; in the clear,
-cold, winter light she saw the City rising before her with its spires
-and gables—her City—filled with hearts that longed above all things for
-the restoration of the new Faith. And she raised her eyes to heaven and
-cried:—
-
-  “O Lord, Almighty and Everlasting God, I give Thee most humble
-  thanks, that Thou hast been so merciful unto me as to spare me to
-  behold this joyful day; and I acknowledge that Thou hast dealt
-  wonderfully and mercifully with me. As Thou didst with thy servant
-  Daniel the prophet, whom Thou deliveredst out of the den from the
-  cruelty of the raging lions, even so was I overwhelmed, and only
-  by Thee delivered. To Thee, therefore, only be thanks, honour, and
-  praise for ever. Amen.”
-
-The Service in the Abbey was the Coronation Mass; but the Litany was
-read in English, and the Gospel and Epistle both in Latin and in
-English. All the Bench of Bishops were absent except one; and the Abbot
-of Westminster took his part in the Service for the last time. Yet a
-few weeks and all England knew that the Reformation had come back to
-them. For this gift the people never ceased to love and venerate Queen
-Elizabeth. There has been no English sovereign save Queen Victoria who
-was so wholly and unfeignedly loved by the English people as she. This
-is a commonplace, but it is well, in such a work as this, to remind
-ourselves how the citizens of London, one and all, and throughout her
-long reign, were ready to fight and to die for their beloved Queen.
-She was sometimes hard; she was always inflexible; she was sometimes
-vindictive; but above all things people delight in a strong king. Henry
-the First; Henry the Second; Edward the First; Henry the Fifth; Henry
-the Eighth; Elizabeth; William the Third,—have been the best loved of
-all the English sovereigns, because of their strength and courage. In
-the woman’s heart of the Maiden Queen lay all the courage and all the
-strength of her masterful father.
-
-The new opinions made rapid and, for the most part, unchecked advance.
-It was observed how, at the burial of a certain gentlewoman in St.
-Thomas Acons, no priests or singing clerks were present, but in their
-stead the new preachers in their gowns, who neither spoke nor sang
-until they came to the church, and when the body was lowered into the
-grave, a Collect was read in English, instead of Latin, and a chapter
-of St. Paul was read—probably the same chapter which is now read at
-funerals. The spirit of the time was also marked by a Proclamation
-forbidding the players of whatever Company to play any more for a
-certain time.
-
-[Illustration: THE TOWER
-
-From Visscher’s _Panorama of London_.]
-
-It has been observed that there were few noblemen left in the City:
-we observe, however, that Lord Wentworth when he was acquitted for
-the loss of Calais, went to live at Whittington College. At the
-funeral service held for the death of King Henry II. of France the
-sermon, preached by the Bishop-elect of Hereford, turned upon Funeral
-Ceremonies, pointing out the simplicity of the Primitive Church—a
-sermon pointing to change; after the sermon the Communion was
-administered both of wine and of bread.
-
-In August, on St. Bartholomew’s Day, there was a great burning of
-roods, copes, crosses, altar cloths, rood cloths, books, banners, and
-other church gear, in London. In May, six months after the Queen’s
-accession, the English service was ordered to be held in all the
-churches. And the Mayor and Aldermen who had been accustomed to go in
-procession to St. Paul’s, there to pray at the tomb of Bishop William,
-with other ceremonies, changed this practice into hearing a sermon.
-Early in 1560 we find the people all together singing a Psalm in metre,
-the custom having been brought from abroad by the Protestant refugees.
-By this time the Protestant form of worship seems to have been firmly
-established, though it wanted the Spanish Armada and the risings and
-conspiracies in favour of the old Faith to make it impossible that the
-great mass of the people should desire a return.
-
-[Illustration: WESTMINSTER
-
-From an engraving by Hollar.]
-
-Meantime not only by her Progresses, but by her evenings on the river,
-her presence at jousts and tilts, her personal reviewing of troops and
-trained-bands, Queen Elizabeth kept herself continually in evidence.
-(_See_ Appendix IV.) The people crowded after her, especially on the
-river, where in her honour they fired off guns and blew trumpets, beat
-drums, played lutes, and threw squibs into the air. The Queen even
-took part in the rough national sports, sitting for whole afternoons
-with the Foreign Ambassadors, looking on at the baiting of bears and
-bulls, and hawking was a favourite amusement of hers. A description of
-Whitehall Palace and its treasures is given by the German traveller
-Hentzner.
-
-  “In Whitehall are the following things worthy of observation:—
-
-  I. The Royal Library, well stored with Greek, Latin, Italian,
-  and French books: amongst the rest, a little one in French, upon
-  parchment, in the handwriting of the present reigning Queen
-  Elizabeth, thus inscribed: ‘To the most High, Puissant, and
-  Redoubted Prince, Henry VIII. of the Name, King of England, France,
-  and Ireland, Defender of the Faith: Elizabeth his most humble
-  daughter, Health & Obedience.’ All these books are bound in velvet
-  of different colours, though chiefly red, with clasps of gold and
-  silver: some of pearls and precious stones set in their bindings.
-
-  II. Two little silver cabinets of exquisite work, in which the
-  Queen keeps her paper, and which she uses for writing-boxes.
-
-  III. The Queen’s bed, ingeniously composed of woods of different
-  colours, with quilts of silk, velvet, gold, silver, and embroidery.
-
-  IV. A little chest, ornamented all over with pearls, in which
-  the Queen keeps her bracelets, ear-rings, and other things of
-  extraordinary value.
-
-  V. Christ’s Passion in painted glass.
-
-  VI. Portraits: among which are Queen Elizabeth at sixteen years
-  old; Henry, Richard, Edward, Kings of England; Rosamond; Lucrece;
-  a Grecian Bride, in her nuptial habit; the Genealogy of the Kings
-  of England; a picture of King Edward VI. representing at first
-  sight something quite deformed, till, by looking through a small
-  hole in the cover, which is put over it, you see it in its true
-  proportions; Charles V., Emperor; Charles Emanuel Duke of Savoy,
-  and Catherine of Spain his wife; Ferdinand Duke of Florence, with
-  his Daughters; one of Philip King of Spain when he came into
-  England and married Mary; Henry VII., Henry VIII. and his Mother;
-  besides many more of illustrious men and women, and a picture of
-  the Siege of Malta.
-
-  VII. A small hermitage, half hid in rock, finely carved in wood.
-
-  VIII. Variety of emblems, on paper, cut in the shape of shields,
-  with mottoes, used by the nobility at tilts and tournaments, hung
-  up here for a memorial.
-
-  IX. Different instruments of music, upon one of which two persons
-  may perform at the same time.
-
-  X. A piece of clock-work, an Aethiop riding upon a rhinoceros, with
-  four attendants, who all make their obeisance when it strikes the
-  hour: these are all put into motion, by winding up the machine. At
-  the entrance into the park from Whitehall is this inscription:—
-
-    The Fisherman who has been wounded learns though late to beware
-              But the unfortunate Actaeon always presses on.
-                    The chaste Virgin naturally pitied:
-              But the powerful Goddess revenged the wrong.
-                    Let Actaeon fall a prey to his dogs
-                          An example to Youth
-                  A disgrace to those that belong to him.
-                    May Diana live the care of Heaven
-                        The delight of mortals
-                  The security of those that belong to her.
-
-  In a garden joining to this Palace, there is a Jet d’eau with a
-  sun-dial, which, while strangers are looking at, a quantity of
-  water, forced by a wheel, which the gardiner turns at a distance,
-  through a number of little pipes, plentifully sprinkles those that
-  are standing round.”
-
-The entertainment of a noble visitor was hospitable and generous. This
-is shown in the case of John Casimir, Count Palatine of the Rhine and
-Duke of Bavaria. He arrived about seven of the clock on the evening of
-22nd January 1579. He landed at the Tower, and was there received by
-divers noblemen and others, who conveyed him by cresset and torchlight
-to the house of Sir Thomas Gresham in Bishopsgate Street, where he
-was received with the sounding of trumpets, drums, fifes, and other
-instruments, and a great concourse of people; here he rested for
-some days. He was then taken by some of the nobility to the Queen at
-Westminster, and lodged at Somerset House. The week after he hunted
-at Hampton Court. On Sunday the first of February he was entertained
-with a great tilting at Westminster; on Monday with a sword-fight at
-barriers. On Tuesday he dined with the Mayor; on Wednesday with the
-Duchess of Suffolk at the Barbican; on Thursday at the Steelyard. On
-February the 8th he was made a Knight of the Garter. And when he went
-away he took with him presents worth 3000 crowns.
-
-The tiltings at Westminster attracted an immense number of spectators:
-in the year 1581 so great was the concourse and so crowded were the
-scaffolds that they broke down, and many persons were injured or killed.
-
-April the 4th, 1581, was a day to be remembered. On that day the Queen
-came from Greenwich by water to Deptford, where there was moored a
-certain ship newly returned from a voyage round the world, the first
-made by an Englishman. The ship was called _The Golden Hind_, the
-Captain, Francis Drake. The Queen examined the ship, questioned the
-Captain, looked at the charts, and saw the things collected and brought
-home. Then she graciously dined on board, and after dinner conferred
-the honour of knighthood upon the Captain. An immense number of persons
-were gathered to see the Queen, and to gaze upon the ship which had
-been all round the world. A wooden bridge on which one hundred persons
-were standing broke, but happily none were killed. The ship was laid
-up in Deptford Dockyard, till she was cut to pieces by visitors taking
-each a piece of her timbers away. When she was at length broken up, a
-chair was made out of the wood, and given by a Mr. John Davis to the
-University of Oxford.
-
-The observance of the Maundy was held in great state:—
-
-First, the Hall was prepared with a long table on each side, and forms
-set by them; on the edges of which tables and under those forms were
-laid carpets and cushions for her Majesty to kneel, when she washed
-the poor. There was also another table laid across the upper end of
-the Hall, where the Chaplain stood. A little beneath the middle of the
-Hall a stool and “cushion of estate” were placed for her Majesty to
-kneel at during service time. This done, the holy-water basons, alms,
-and other things, being brought into the Hall, and the Chaplain and the
-poor women, the recipients of the Queen’s bounty, having taken their
-places, the Yeoman of the Laundry, armed with a fair towel, and taking
-a silver bason filled with warm water and flowers, washed their feet,
-all, one after another, wiped the same with his towel, and so, making
-a cross a little above the toes, kissed them. After them followed the
-Sub-Almoner, doing likewise, and after him the Almoner himself also;
-so that the feet of the poor folk were three times washed before the
-Queen appeared. When she came into the Hall, they sang certain psalms
-and read certain prayers, together with the Gospel of Christ’s washing
-His disciples’ feet; then thirty-nine gentlewomen [in accordance
-with the Queen’s age—this account refers to the year 1572] presented
-themselves with aprons and towels to wait upon her Majesty; and she,
-kneeling down upon the cushions and carpets under the feet of the poor
-women, first washed one foot of every one of them in so many several
-basons of warm water, and sweet flowers, brought to her severally by
-the said ladies and gentlewomen, then wiped, crossed, and kissed them,
-as the Almoner and others had done before. When her Majesty had thus
-gone through the whole number of thirty-nine (of which twenty sat on
-the one side of the Hall and nineteen on the other) she began again
-with the first, and gave to each one certain yards of broad cloth.
-This done, she again began with the first, giving to each in turn a
-pair of shoes. Fourthly, to each of them she gave a wooden platter,
-wherein were laid a side of salmon, with an equal weight of ling, six
-red herring, and two loaves of bread. Fifthly, she began with the
-first again, and gave to each of them a white wooden bason filled with
-wine. Sixthly, she received of each Waiting Gentlewoman her towel and
-apron, and gave one towel and apron to each poor woman. After this the
-Treasurer of the Chamber came to her Majesty with thirty-nine small
-white purses wherein were also thirty-nine pence according to the
-number of the years of her Majesty’s age; and of him she received and
-distributed them severally; which done, she received of him the same
-number of red leather purses, each containing twenty shillings, for the
-redemption of her Majesty’s gown, which, by ancient custom, should have
-been given to some one of them at her pleasure; the Queen, however,
-had changed that reward into money, to be equally divided amongst them
-all, namely, twenty shillings apiece; and those she also delivered
-particularly to each one of the whole company; and “so, taking her
-ease upon the cushion of state, and hearing the choir a little while,
-her Majesty withdrew herself and the company departed; for it was by
-that time the sun-setting.” This account is taken from that of William
-Lambarde an Antiquary, who is quoted by John Nichols in his _Progresses
-of Queen Elizabeth_ (vol. i.).
-
-[Illustration: “HOW TO FLEE THE HEARON”
-
-From Turberville’s _Booke of Falconrie_, 1575.]
-
-The custom of making New Year’s gifts to the Queen was duly honoured
-every year. The list of the gifts for 1562 as presented by Nichols
-contains the names of all the noble lords and great ladies in the
-kingdom, the Bishops, and the Court: nearly two hundred in number.
-These gifts are of all kinds: gold boxes; purses of money; embroidered
-sleeves; sugar loaves; ginger; sweetmeats; a smock of silk;
-handkerchiefs “garnished with gold, silver, and silk”; carved coffers;
-sleeves embroidered with gold; silk hose—two such gifts; fine glass;
-gilt cups; tankards, bowls, spoons, and salts; and so on. On the other
-hand, the gifts which the Queen had to make constantly to Ambassadors,
-to her officers, to the christening and marriage feasts of the people
-about the Court, would seem to run away with most of these presents. It
-is worthy of note that in all the long list of gifts of 1562 there is
-not one single picture or statue.
-
-[Illustration: The Chariott drawne by foure Horses upon which chariot
-stood the Coffin covered wth purple velvett and upon that the
-representation. The Canapy borne by six Knights.
-
-QUEEN ELIZABETH’S FUNERAL
-
-A section from a contemporary MS. scroll in British Museum.]
-
-The following is Hentzner’s account of the Queen’s Court at Greenwich
-(Nichols vol. ii.):—
-
-  “We next arrived at the Royal Palace of Greenwich, reported to
-  have been originally built by Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester,
-  and to have received very magnificent additions from Henry
-  VII. It was here Elizabeth, the present Queen, was born, and
-  here she generally resides, particularly in Summer, for the
-  delightfulness of its situation. We were admitted, by an
-  order Mr. Rogers procured from the Lord Chamberlain, into
-  the Presence Chamber, hung with rich tapestry, and the floor
-  after the English fashion strewed with hay, through which the
-  Queen commonly passes on her way to Chapel; at the door stood
-  a Gentleman dressed in velvet, with a gold chain, whose
-  office was to introduce to the Queen any person of distinction
-  that came to wait on her; it was Sunday, when there is usually
-  the greatest attendance of Nobility. In the same Hall were the
-  Archbishop of Canterbury, the Bishop of London, a great number
-  of Counselors of State, Officers of the Crown, and Gentlemen,
-  who waited the Queen’s coming out: which she did from her
-  own apartment when it was time to go to prayers, attended in
-  the following manner: First went Gentlemen, Barons, Earls,
-  Knights of the Garter, all richly dressed and bareheaded; next
-  came the Chancellor, bearing the seals in a red silke purse,
-  between two; one of which carried the Royal Sceptre, the other
-  the Sword of State, in a red scabbard, studded with golden
-  fleurs-de-lis, the point upwards; next came the Queen, in the
-  sixty-fifth year of her age, as we are told, very majestic: her
-  face oblong, fair, but wrinkled; her eyes small, yet black and
-  pleasant; her nose a little hooked; her lips narrow and her
-  teeth black (defect the English seem subject to from their too
-  great use of sugar); she had in her ears two pearls, with very
-  rich drops; she wore false hair and that red; upon her head
-  she had a small crown, reported to be made of some of the gold
-  of the celebrated Lunebourg Table. Her bosom was uncovered, as
-  all the English Ladies have it till they marry; and she had on
-  a necklace of exceeding fine jewels; her hands were small, her
-  fingers long, and her stature neither tall nor low; her air
-  was stately, her manner of speaking mild and obliging. That
-  day she was dressed in white silk, bordered with pearls of the
-  size of beans, and over it a mantle of black silk, shot with
-  silver threads; her train was very long, the end of it borne
-  by a Marchioness; instead of a chain, she had an oblong collar
-  of gold and jewels. As she went along in all this state and
-  magnificence, she spoke very graciously, first to one, then
-  to another, whether foreign ministers or those who attended
-  for different reasons, in English, French, and Italian; for,
-  besides being well skilled in Greek, Latin, and the languages
-  I have mentioned, she is mistress of Spanish, Scotch, and
-  Dutch; whoever speaks to her, it is kneeling; now and then she
-  raises some with her hand. While we were there, W. Slawata,
-  a Bohemian Baron, had letters to present to her; and she,
-  after pulling off her glove, gave him her right hand to kiss,
-  sparkling with rings and jewels, a mark of particular favour;
-  wherever she turned her face as she was going along, everybody
-  fell down on their knees. The ladies of the Court followed
-  next to her, very handsome and well-shaped, and for the most
-  part dressed in white; she was guarded on each side by the
-  Gentlemen Pensioners, fifty in number, with gilt battle-axes.
-  In the anti-chapel next the Hall, where we were, petitions were
-  presented to her, and she received them most graciously, which
-  occasioned the acclamation of ‘Long live Queen Elizabeth!’
-  She answered it with, ‘I thank you, my good people.’ In the
-  Chapel was excellent music; as soon as it and the service was
-  over, which scarce exceeded half an hour, the Queen returned
-  in the same state and order, and prepared to go to dinner. But
-  while she was still at prayers, we saw her table set out with
-  the following solemnity: A Gentleman entred the room bearing
-  a rod, and along with him another who had a table-cloth,
-  which, after they had both kneeled three times with the utmost
-  veneration, he spread upon the table, and after kneeling again
-  they both retired. Then came two others, one with the rod
-  again, the other with a salt-cellar, a plate, and bread; when
-  they had both kneeled, as the others had done, and placed what
-  was brought upon the table, they too retired with the same
-  ceremonies performed by the first. At last came an unmarried
-  lady (we were told she was a Countess) and along with her a
-  married one, bearing a tasting knife; the former was dressed in
-  white silk, who, when she had prostrated herself three times
-  in the most graceful manner, approached the table, and rubbed
-  the plates with bread and salt, with as much awe as if the
-  Queen had been present; when they had waited there a little
-  while, the Yeomen of the Guard entered, bare-headed, cloathed
-  in scarlet, with a golden rose upon their backs, bringing in
-  at each turn a course of twenty-four dishes, served in plate,
-  most of it gilt; these dishes were received by a gentleman in
-  the same order they were brought, and placed upon the table,
-  while the lady-taster gave to each of the guards a mouthful to
-  eat, of the particular dish he had brought, for fear of any
-  poison. During the time that this guard, which consists of the
-  tallest and stoutest men that can be found in all England,
-  being carefully selected for the service, were bringing dinner,
-  twelve trumpets and two kettle-drums made the hall ring for
-  half an hour together. At the end of this ceremonial, a number
-  of unmarried ladies appeared, who, with particular solemnity,
-  lifted the meat off the table, and conveyed it into the Queen’s
-  inner and more private chamber, where, after she has chosen for
-  herself, the rest goes to the Ladies of the Court. The Queen
-  dines and sups alone, with very few attendants; and it is very
-  seldom that anybody, foreigner or native, is admitted at that
-  time, and then only at the intercession of somebody in power.”
-
-[Illustration: THE PALACE OF GREENWICH (PLACENTIA)]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-_Walker & Cockerell._
-
-QUEEN ELIZABETH (1533–1603)
-
-From a painting in the National Portrait Gallery. Painter unknown, but
-probably Marc Gheeraedts.]
-
-The great popularity of the Queen, and the affection with which she
-was regarded by all classes, is shown by the following Proclamation
-issued in the year 1563, relating to persons making portraits of Queen
-Elizabeth:—
-
-  “Forasmuch as thrugh the natural desire that all sorts of
-  subjects and peple, both noble and mean, have to procure the
-  portrait and picture of the Queen’s Majestie, great nomber
-  of Paynters, and some Printers and gravers, have alredy and
-  doe dayly attempt to make in divers manners portraietures of
-  hir Majestie in paynting, graving, and prynting, wherein is
-  evidently shewn that hytherto none hath sufficiently expressed
-  the naturall representation of hir Majesties person, favor,
-  or grace, but for the most part have also erred therein, as
-  thereof dayly complaints are made amongst hir Majesties loving
-  subjectes, in so much that for redres hereof hir Majestie
-  hath lately bene so instantly and so importunately sued unto
-  by the Lords of hir Consell and others of hir nobility, in
-  respect of the great disorder herein used, not only to be
-  content that some speciall conning payntor might be permitted
-  by access to hir Majestie to take the natural representation
-  of hir Majestie, whereof she hath bene allwise of her own
-  right disposition very unwillyng, but also to prohibit all
-  manner of other persons to draw, paynt, grave, or pourtrayet
-  hir Majesties personage or visage for a time, untill by some
-  perfect patron and example the same may be by others followed.
-  Therfor hir Majestie, being herein as it were overcome with
-  the contynuall requests of so many of hir Nobility and
-  Lords, whom she cannot well deny, is pleased that for their
-  contentations, some coning person mete therefor shall shortly
-  make a pourtrait of hir person or visage to be participated to
-  others for satisfaction of hir loving subjects, and furthermore
-  commandeth all manner of persons in the mean tyme to forbear
-  from payntyng, graving, printing, or making of any pourtraits
-  of hir Majestie, until some speciali person that shall be by
-  hir allowed shall have first finished a pourtraiture thereof,
-  after which fynished, hir Majestie will be content that all
-  other painters, printers, or gravers, that shall be known men
-  of understanding, and so thereto licensed by the hed officers
-  of the plaices where they shall dwell (as reason it is that
-  every person should not without consideration attempt the same)
-  shall and maye at their pleasures follow the sayd patron or
-  first portraiture. And for that hir Majestie perceiveth that a
-  grete nomber of hir loving subjects are much greved and take
-  great offence with the errors and deformities allredy committed
-  by sondry persons in this behalf, she straitly chargeth all hir
-  officers and ministers to see to the due observation hereof,
-  and as soon as may be to reform the errors already committed,
-  and in the meantime to forbid and prohibit the shewing or
-  publication of such as are apparently deformed, until they may
-  be reformed which are reformable.”
-
-
-
-
-                               RELIGION
-
-
-
-
-                               CHAPTER I
-
-                    THE DISSOLUTION AND THE MARTYRS
-
-
-In speaking of the Dissolution of the Religious Houses it must be
-understood that I am considering this momentous step with reference to
-London only. The influences of the Continental movement; the lessons
-of history; the turn taken by theological controversy; the unedifying
-spectacle of Rome in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries; the
-talk of scholars; the strength of the conservatism which rallied
-about the Church at first; the apparent power of the Church, which
-seemed, indeed, able to crush every opponent, whatever his rank and
-station;—these things moved not, consciously at least, the man of
-London. He became acquiescent in the changes imposed upon him by
-other considerations. And I believe that had not his acquiescence
-been understood as certain to follow, these changes would not have
-been attempted. Henry VIII. was the most masterful sovereign of
-his time; but a king cannot outrage and trample upon the settled
-religious faith of his subjects. The Old Faith had gone to pieces when
-Constantine proclaimed the New. The New, in its turn, now grown old and
-incrustated, and hidden by a thousand additions, superstitions, and
-superfluities, was in its turn ready for departure, in Northern Europe
-at least, when Henry effected the separation from Rome which began the
-Reformation in England.
-
-Among an ignorant and an uncritical people the ancient Faith passed
-unquestioned—was it not the Faith of all those in authority? Its
-doctrines were supported less by teaching than by outward forms,
-ceremonies, pageants, splendours and traditional conventions. In every
-church the story of the Gospels was partly represented, but overlaid
-with stories of the Saints; the Christian virtues were never, even
-at the lowest point of Church History, forgotten, yet their practice
-had become crystallised; almsgiving was part of the Rule of every
-Religious Order, but it was indiscriminate; mercy towards the criminal
-had become a refuge for those who continued in their evil practices
-under cover of Sanctuary; the tradition of austerity no longer brought
-respect to the Benedictine; the tradition of self-sacrifice no longer
-brought love to the Franciscan: to the former, as to the College of
-All Souls, Oxford, the members were _bene nati_, and, I believe, for
-the most part _bene morati_ and _moderate docti_; in the more secluded
-religious communities discipline was relaxed and scandals had crept
-in; for a hundred years and more the people had been gradually ceasing
-to endow the Religious Houses with bequests. At the commencement of
-the sixteenth century they had wholly ceased the practice, formerly
-universal. Monk and Nun; Friar and Sister; Hermit, Anchorite, Anchress,
-now received no more bequests; of all the Religious Orders none had
-fallen into disrepute so hopelessly as the Franciscans: they were
-selling the lead off the roofs of their stately churches; they were
-selling their sacred vessels of silver gilt; their boxes, hung up in
-the shops—if the shopkeepers admitted them—received no more offerings;
-they were insulted in the streets; their numbers were dwindling daily.
-Now all these things were like an open book in which those who passed
-along the way might read daily, and did read unconsciously, so that
-their minds were moulded and directed, they could not tell why or how.
-
-As for the spread of the ideas called Lollardry, one knows not how far
-they survived the persecution under Henry V. and the disturbances of
-the Civil Wars. But such ideas, whose strength lies in the exercise
-of reason, so far as men can reason, do not easily die; the case of
-Richard Hun (p. 32) shows that they were still alive. The socialistic
-side of Lollardry had vanished, but some, at least, of the religious
-side survived.
-
-Yet the old things went on apparently undisturbed. Nothing could
-surpass the external splendour of a Cardinal Archbishop: no authority
-was greater in appearance than his. The rich endowments of the greater
-Abbeys made the Houses magnificent and the Brethren proud, generous,
-and profuse in hospitality and in alms. Who could be more dignified
-than the Abbot of St. Peter’s, Westminster? Still the Church seemed to
-rule in everything: the Fraternities continued; they still attracted
-members; they still marched in procession, each with its chaplain and
-its singing men, its banners and its brethren, through the streets on
-its appointed day; the City Companies were incorporated as Religious as
-well as Trade Societies; the Manger and the Holy Tomb still adorned the
-churches on the great Festivals; the Angel still flew over the people
-from the roof on the Day of Pentecost; the pictures on the wall in
-every church recorded the martyrdom of the Saint of Dedication and the
-miracles which commanded his canonisation. No one could have dreamed,
-no one could have prophesied, when the scholarly young King thundered
-against Luther that the old order was drawing to its allotted end, and
-that for Rome, as well as Northern Europe, Reform was at hand.
-
-In many ways the Church had long lost its former hold. No longer were
-the architects Churchmen; no longer were the bridge builders a distinct
-fraternity; the lawyers were clerks, indeed, but not in Holy Orders;
-the King’s Ministers were no longer necessarily of the Clergy; scholars
-were no longer of necessity ordained priests or deacons; physicians
-were laymen; the clergy were allowed to practise surgery, provided
-that they did not use fire or steel—in other words, did not conduct
-operations; in trade the lending of money—formerly in the hands of the
-Jews and afterwards in those of the so-called “Caursini,” Italians
-licensed by the Popes—was now recognised as necessary, and was carried
-on more or less openly by merchants; in a word, the daily life of the
-world, which had been shot through and through, like a piece of silk
-with its coloured threads, by Religion, had long been emancipating
-itself, by slow and gradual steps, from the control of the Church and
-the interference of the priest.
-
-How much these things were understood at the time it is not necessary
-to inquire. Probably the people, who knew no history, had been
-unconsciously moulded and changed, and were far from realising the
-great gulf which now divided them from their ancestors.
-
-Yet there were other signs of change, could they have been rightly
-interpreted. Scholars, like Erasmus, openly derided the adoration of
-relics; some of them, under new Pagan influence, denied the Christian
-faith itself; the scholars of France, like Rabelais and Étienne Dolet,
-scoffed at the Pope and the Papal pretensions; yet Rabelais did not
-dare to publish in his lifetime the most daring and the most deadly
-part of his work.
-
-Add to these things the long-standing disaffection towards the
-Roman authority. For centuries the Pope had been attempting fresh
-encroachments, claiming new powers, demanding more contributions.
-All travellers to Rome brought back the same story of corruption and
-laxity; men asked themselves why they should submit to the oppression
-of an Italian prince. In 1529 the House of Commons drew up a petition
-in which, while they did not ask for a change of doctrine, they
-complained of the independent legislation claimed by Convocation, the
-number of officers, the exorbitant fees of ecclesiastical courts, the
-granting of benefices to children, pluralities, non-residence and other
-grievances. Surely such a man as Wolsey must have discerned in all
-these symptoms a warning, clear and loud, that their house must be set
-in order. Perhaps not, however: nothing is more difficult than for the
-ecclesiastical mind to see, outside its fences of doctrine and usage,
-the questioning people, and to hear and understand the awakened mind.
-
-The action of Henry, which, on the face of it, seems the most masterful
-thing ever attempted by a king, was, on the contrary, approved and
-accepted by the great mass of the people; especially by the people of
-London, by the scholars, and by the clergy. There were few who emulated
-the constancy of the unfortunate Carthusians or the martyrdom of More
-and Fisher; the old order crumbled and fell to pieces at a touch;
-out of the débris, among the fallen monarchs of the forest, rose up
-a tangled mass of vegetation, from which the nobler kinds had to be
-separated by trial and proof, by persecution and by cultivation.
-
-The first direct step towards the Reformation was, assuredly, not
-considered as such. It was the suppression by Cardinal Wolsey of
-certain small houses with whose revenues he endowed his Colleges.
-
-The second direct step was the Petition of the House of Commons, which
-also passed the Upper House, in 1529.
-
-In January 1531 the House of Commons, in demanding of the clergy the
-payment of £118,000—an enormous sum, representing more than a million
-of our money—gave Henry the title of Head of the Church. This was
-before the break with Rome; so far it meant only that the civil power
-should be superior to the ecclesiastical.
-
-Then followed the Bill for the abolition of _annales_ or payment to the
-Pope of the first year’s income of benefice or see. This was at first
-held _in terrorem_ over the head of the Pope.
-
-The divorce of Katherine and the King’s marriage with Anne Boleyn
-in spite of the opposition of the Pope completed the separation.
-Henceforth the King was Head of the Church within his own realm.
-
-It was to show to the whole world that he was in earnest and that he
-meant indeed to be Head of the Church, that Henry caused the execution
-of the Carthusian monks, of Bishop Fisher, and Sir Thomas More. All
-Christendom shuddered when those holy men were dragged forth to suffer
-the degrading and horrible death of traitors; yet all Christendom
-recognised that there was a King in England who would brook no
-interference, who knew his own mind, and would work his own will.
-
-I need not follow the course and the development of the Reformation,
-for its history belongs to the whole country. As regards London, two or
-three points present themselves for consideration: as, for instance,
-the condition of the Houses; the manners and morality of the Religious;
-and the mind of the people.
-
-Let us consider these points from the position of a contemporary
-Londoner, so far as is possible. First, as to the condition of the
-Houses.
-
-The enormous wealth of the Church could not fail to impress every one
-with the incongruity of ecclesiastical professions and practices.
-The sight of those scores of able-bodied men, most of them with no
-pretensions to be considered scholars, or divines, or even gentlemen—a
-qualification which, at the time, might have been sufficient
-justification for living on the work of others—but men of low origin
-and of narrow attainments, lounging about the streets and in the
-taverns—some, as the friars, with no apparent duties at all; some,
-like the chantry priests, with half an hour’s work every day; many
-of them without the least pretence to piety or virtue—could not but
-become a powerful aid in the popular approval of the Dissolution. In
-London alone, a very large part of the City belonged to the Church.
-The streets swarmed with ecclesiastics who, in the midst of a busy and
-industrial population, seemed idle and useless.
-
-In the Italian _Relations of England_ the writer speaks of the vast
-wealth of the Church and the power of the ecclesiastics. “I for my
-part,” he says, “believe that the English priests would desire nothing
-better than what they have got, were it not they are obliged to assist
-the Crown in time of war, and also to keep many poor gentlemen, who are
-left beggars in consequence of the inheritance devolving to the eldest
-son. And if the Bishops were to decline this expense they would be
-considered infamous, nor do I believe that they would be safe in their
-own churches.”
-
-[Illustration: CARTHUSIAN MARTYRS
-
-From a historical print in the British Museum.]
-
-There is surely some confusion here. It is true that younger sons
-attached themselves to the following of the great Lords Spiritual as
-well as Temporal, but I have nowhere else found it stated that it was
-the duty of the Church to keep them. Also many of them, as we have
-seen, had City connections and embarked in trade. For “Church” we
-should perhaps read “the Monastic Houses.”
-
-If we come to consider the condition of the Religious on the score
-of morality, all that can be said concerning those of London is that
-we hear nothing against them. It is true that the details of the
-Visitations of London have not been revealed. But there could not
-have been anything very bad, or it would have been laid hold of and
-enlarged upon, and pointed out for the execration of the people, by the
-preachers of the new religion.
-
-Froude, in his paper on the Dissolution of the Monasteries, argues
-that the evidence of immorality on the part of certain Religious
-Houses is overwhelming. His case against that of St. Albans is
-certainly convincing, so far as that House alone is concerned. And
-it is difficult not to believe that in other cases about the country
-the evidence of the visitors, even granting that their own private
-character left a good deal to be desired, is much too detailed for pure
-invention.
-
-But, as regards the Religious of London, I am not aware that there is
-any evidence to prove that they were either notoriously or secretly
-corrupt or luxurious. Considering the pristine standard of the Rule,
-they were doubtless degenerate, just as in a College of Oxford or
-Cambridge fifty years ago, the Fellows who should have carried on
-the lamp of learning spent their time in the study of Port and the
-practice of Whist. Father Gasquet argues in favour of the whole body
-of nuns—London or country—when he cites the case of Sister Joan. In
-the year 1535 the Archbishop of York visited a certain convent in his
-diocese and learned that one of the nuns had been guilty of unchastity.
-He inflicted upon her a sentence of great severity: she was to be
-kept in prison for two years, without speaking to any one but the
-Prioress; she was to fast altogether on Wednesday and Friday; and on
-every Friday she was to be taken to the Chapter House, there to receive
-discipline—_i.e._ to be whipped. Is it possible, Father Gasquet asks,
-that the nunneries of England could be grossly and openly immoral—even
-secretly immoral—when such a severe punishment was meted out to an
-offender by the visiting archbishop? One might point out that a severe
-punishment may tell of two things: either of horror at a rare and
-heinous offence, or of a determination, by severe measures, to put down
-a too frequent breaking of the vows of chastity.
-
-Concerning, therefore, the morals of the London Religious, there has
-been no special charge, so far as I know, brought against the whole
-body. We may remember, however, that the number of persons bound by
-vows of celibacy was very large; that even at the present time, when
-there is certainly more self-restraint, it would be impossible for
-these vows to be kept by so large a proportion of the people; and that
-the clergy, in morals and in practice, have never been more than a
-little in advance of the laity.
-
-The many acts of unchastity of which one reads in the books were
-perhaps scattered and solitary instances. I refer, however, to
-certain documents which prove, not the common prevalence of vice, but
-relaxation of the Rule. They are a collection of papers, the charges of
-Langland, Bishop of Lincoln, early in the sixteenth century, published
-in _Archæologia_ (vol. xlvii.). They point to laxity, not to vice.
-
-[Illustration: SIR THOMAS MORE (1478–1535)
-
-From the painting by Holbein in the National Portrait Gallery, London.]
-
-The first is a charge to the Abbess and Convent of Elstow, near
-Bedford. In this House the Sisters, instead of assembling in the
-Fratry for their meals, were accustomed to gather together in what
-they called their “Households”; apparently messes of two or more, at
-which secular men, women, and children were allowed to be present. This
-has to be amended. Henceforth they may repair to the Misericorde, but
-only one or two at a time, and then under charge of an elderly sister.
-Their attendance at the services in the “Quire” has become irregular,
-henceforth they are all to attend every service; they are not to look
-about the church upon the people during service, for which purpose
-a door is to be constructed shutting off the choir. They had become
-irregular about their dress, henceforth they are not to wear their
-dresses cut low. As for the Lady Abbess, she herself is ordered to get
-up and attend matins with the rest, and not to break her fast nor to
-sup with the steward or any secular man.
-
-Clearly, a House requiring reformation, yet not blameworthy of the
-grosser sins.
-
-There was the Priory of Studley, a Benedictine Nunnery in the Parish of
-Beckley, Oxfordshire, the burial-place of the British Saint Donanverdh,
-and one of the residences of Richard of Almayn, brother of Henry. The
-Prioress is warned to dismiss a certain steward, named Marten Whighill;
-she is not to suffer her ladies to become godmothers, nor to go out
-on visits to their kinsfolk “onles it be for their comforte in tyme
-of ther syknesse, and yett nott then onlesse it shal seme to you,
-ladye priores, to be behoveful and necessarye, seeing that undre such
-pretence muche insolency have bene used in religion.” Considering,
-further, that the House is in great debt, the Prioress is to grant no
-more corrodies, _i.e._ right of board and lodging in the House; to have
-fewer servants; and to live “in a scarcer manour.” She is to look more
-carefully after the food of the Sisters; she is to see that they wear
-their robes; and she is to admit more ladies.
-
-The Prioress of Cotham, in Lincolnshire, is to see that there is more
-order in the singing of the novices. This House has grown very lax. The
-kinsfolk of the Sisters were no longer to be admitted; the Chaplain was
-not to be allowed the key of the church; the Lord of Misrule was not to
-be admitted at Christmas. Then, some of the Sisters had been allowed to
-go out into the world under pretence of pilgrimage, which license had
-caused great scandals. Henceforth they were not to be allowed out of
-the House for the night, nor out of the House at all unless accompanied
-by a devout Sister. Again, the Sisters had been allowed to go on visits
-to Thornton, Newsome, Hull (where there were other nunneries), and the
-Bishop speaks strongly of the reproach, rebuke, and shame which the
-rumours of their conduct had brought upon them. This House is the worst
-case of the four. Certain persons named are absolutely forbidden within
-the walls. Sir John Warde, Sir Richard Calverley, Sir William Johnson,
-the Parson of Skotton, and Sir William Sele, are those who have brought
-upon themselves by their misconduct this prohibition. Lastly, since the
-House had been reduced to miserable poverty, the Prioress must diminish
-her servants, grant no more corrodies, sell no more plate, and get the
-necessary repairs effected as speedily as possible.
-
-The last of the charges is one to the Abbot of Missenden, in
-Buckinghamshire. This House, also, has fallen into poverty; there must
-be a diminished number of servants and a simpler table; there must
-be no more granting of corrodies; the House must be put into repair.
-There was no school for the novices; a man learned in grammar must be
-appointed at once; the boys must be kept apart; in future the monks
-must not be allowed to wander about outside, day and night, as had been
-the case. And no women were to be admitted either by day or by night.
-John Compton was to be turned out of the monastery at once—he was
-probably the steward; and Dom John Slithurst was to be put in prison
-and kept there.
-
-These accounts indicate very clearly the decay of discipline in the
-Houses. The Prioress eats and drinks with her steward; the Sisters
-entertain their kinsfolk within the walls; the church plate is sold to
-pay debts; the Sisters get outside on any pretext—then come scandals.
-Certain persons are so much mixed up with these scandals that they must
-never be allowed within the House at all; the Sisters adopt as much of
-the fashions of the world as they can; they shirk the services; they
-relieve the monotony of their lives by going on pilgrimages. As to the
-monks they get out alone, all night long. What scandals made the Bishop
-so determined upon keeping women out of the House altogether? And
-what had Dom Slithurst done, more than his fellows, that he was to be
-clapped into prison and kept there?
-
-It will be replied that these are all Houses in the country. That is
-quite true; yet I think that, considering the attacks on the Religious;
-the decay of the Friars; the withdrawal of bequests from monks and
-friars alike,—the London Houses must have been open at least to charges
-of laxity; and I would not press against them anything more severe. In
-the admonition of the Dean of St. Paul’s to the Nuns of St. Helen’s,
-laxity, not vice, was the principal complaint. Those who believe that
-graver charges might be brought may read the famous accusation against
-the Abbot of St. Albans—a thing, to my mind, impossible to get over.
-True, St. Albans is not London, which is a saving clause.
-
-Enough about the condition of the Houses and the morality of the
-Religious. I hear certain whispers where men congregate: they
-murmur—_tacenda_. I have no proof that they are true; but I understand
-that the holiness of the Religious is no longer accepted as a matter of
-course; it is enough for one that this is so. The work of the Houses
-is done when the people no longer desire the prayers of brethren
-_inclusi_, and sisters immured; and no longer expect the pristine
-devotion of the Friars.
-
-The suppression of the Religious Houses and its immediate effects in
-London are passed over by Stow, in his _Survey_, with great brevity.
-It is a pity; we should like so much to have a clear understanding of
-how the people at large received these measures. Now this historian was
-born in 1525; he could remember, therefore, not only the Dissolution,
-but also the condition of the City under the old _régime_. It is much
-to be lamented, further, that though he could find time and space to
-give whole pages to the Coronation of Anne Boleyn, he could not give
-more than a brief note on the suppression of one House after another.
-He remembered the Franciscans going in and about everywhere in their
-grey gowns; the Dominicans in black; the Carmelites in white; he
-remembered the riding apparel of the monks; he remembered—he notices,
-in fact—the hospitality of the richer houses; he remembered the stately
-churches towering above the humble parish churches, as Westminster
-above St. Margaret’s; St. Augustine’s over Peter le Poor; the Holy
-Trinity over St. Catherine Cree; their peals of bells; their organs;
-their treasures of gold and silver plate; their church furniture,
-sumptuous with cloth of gold and velvet. He remembered the splendour,
-wealth, authority, and power of the old ecclesiastics. Their authority
-seemed rooted in the solid rock, never to be destroyed; and he
-remembered how this substantial ecclesiastical structure vanished at
-a word, at a touch, leaving behind it nothing but ruined cloisters;
-churches desecrated; carvings and marbles broken up. In his old age he
-sat alone and marvelled over these things. But he spoke not. Perhaps
-it was dangerous, even for a historian, to speak—Stow had already been
-accused of being a favourer, at least, of the old Order; regrets were
-accounted traitorous; sympathy with the outcast monk was heresy—or,
-which was as dangerous, was _lèse Majesté_. Not every one desired
-the crown of martyrdom: to most people it was disagreeable to be
-burned—one would avoid this method of extinction if possible; almost
-as disagreeable was it to be dragged on a hurdle, half hanged, cut
-down, and then quartered. So Stow wrote nothing about the old time as
-compared with that which followed.
-
-In a single passage, however, Stow does allow us to understand
-something of his opinion as to the whole business. No doubt many people
-looked about for some mark of the Divine displeasure upon those who
-took an active part in the Dissolution. To this day, certain persons
-whisper about the families which succeeded to the monastic houses; if
-anything happens to them it is put down to the vengeance which must
-be expected to follow upon the sacrilegious occupation of monastic
-property; nothing is said, of course, as to the long prosperity which
-has attended most of the families which still occupy the old monastic
-lands.
-
-  “About such time as Cardinall Wolsey was determined to erect
-  his new Colledges in Oxford and Ipswich, he obtayned licence
-  and authoritie of Pope Clement the Seventh to suppresse about
-  the number of fortie Monasteries of good fame, and bountifull
-  hospitalitie, wherin the King bearing with all his doings, neyther
-  Bishop nor temporall Lorde in this Realme durst saye any worde to
-  the contrarie.
-
-  In the executing of this business, five persons were his chiefe
-  instruments, who on a time made a demaunde to the Prior and
-  Convent of the Monasterie of Daintrie, for occupying of certayne
-  of theyr groundes, but the Monkes refusing to satisfie their
-  requests, streightway they picked a quarrel agaynst the house,
-  and gave information to the Cardinall agaynste them, who taking a
-  small occasion, commaunded the house to bee dissolved, and to bee
-  converted to hys new Colledge, but of thys irreligious robberie,
-  done of no conscience, but to patch up pride, whiche private wealth
-  coulde not furnishe, what punishmente hath since ensued at God’s
-  hande (sayeth myne Author) partly ourselves have seene, for of
-  those fyve persons, two fell at discorde betweene themselves, and
-  the one slewe the other, for the which the survivor was hanged;
-  the thirde drowned himselfe in a well; the fourth beeing well
-  knowne, and valued worth two hundred pounde, became in three
-  yeares so poore, that hee begged to hys dying day; and the fifth
-  called Doctor Allane, beeyng chiefe executor of these doyngs, was
-  cruelly maymed in Irelande, even at suche tyme as hee was a Bishop;
-  the Cardinall falling after into the King’s greevous displeasure,
-  was deposed, and dyed miserably; the Colledges whiche hee meante
-  to have made so glorious a building, came never to good effect;
-  and Pope Clement himselve, by whose authoritie these houses were
-  throwne downe to the ground was after enclosed in a dangerous siege
-  within the Castell of Saint Angell in Rome by the Emperialles; the
-  Citie of Rome was pitifully sacked; and himselfe narrowly escaped
-  with his life.”
-
-I have repeatedly spoken of the falling off in bequests to the various
-Religious Orders during the hundred years preceding the Reformation.
-The fact, indeed, seems to be most important in considering the
-attitude of the citizens. That it is a fact may be proved by the
-following table, compiled from the _Calendar of Wills_. I have already
-made some extracts from the Wills in proof of the change of popular
-opinion in this respect; this table considers the fact from another
-point of view.
-
-Of course we have not, in these pages, all the Wills, nor anything
-more than a small fraction of the Wills made by the Citizens during
-the centuries covered by the contents of these two volumes. But they
-may be taken as representative wills, in whatever manner they present
-contemporary opinion. Now, as regards bequests to Religious Houses, I
-have made the following analysis. I take three periods. (1) from 1250
-to 1350; (2) from 1350 to 1450; (3) from 1450 to the Dissolution, say
-1538; covering nearly three centuries. During these three periods the
-following is the number of bequests:—
-
-   1. To the various Orders of Friars for 1250–1350        20
-                                          1350–1450        12
-                                          1450–1540         4
-
-   2. To the Charter House for the 1st period, not founded.
-                                   2nd   „                 31
-                                   3rd   „                 14
-
-   3. To the Grey Friars for the 1st period, bequests included among the
-       various Orders.
-                                 2nd   „                   20
-                                 3rd   „                  none
-
-   4. To the Black Friars 1st period, included among various Orders.
-                          2nd   „                          10
-                          3rd   „                           1
-
-   5. To the Holy Trinity Priory for the 1st period        17
-                                         2nd   „       46 (?)
-
-   6. To Eastminster for the 1st period, not yet founded.
-                             2nd   „                        7
-                             3rd   „                        2
-
-   7. To St. Helen’s for the 1st period                    18
-                             2nd   „                       12
-                             3rd   „                     none
-
-   8. Crutched Friars for the 1st period                   13
-                              2nd   „                      10
-                              3rd   „                       1
-
-   9. Carmelite or White Friars, 1st period                15
-                                 2nd   „                   11
-                                 3rd   „                    1
-
-  10. Austin Friars for 1st period                         13
-                        2nd   „                            13
-                        3rd   „    for masses               2
-
-  11. St. Bartholomew’s for 1st period                     14
-                            2nd   „                        13
-                            3rd   „                         2
-
-  12. Haliwell for 1st period                              12
-                   2nd   „                                 20
-                   3rd   „                                  2
-
-  13. Minoresses for 1st period                             9
-                     2nd   „                               18
-                     3rd   „                                3
-
-These figures show most unmistakably that the monastic life was no
-longer regarded as it had been by the people of London. By the friars
-especially, _i.e._ by those who could read the signs of the time, it
-must have been understood that the end was very near. Not the alleged
-immorality of the Religious, but the decay of their numbers, the
-wasting of their property, the withdrawal of support by the laity,
-might have warned those under vows that a change was nigh at hand. I do
-not suppose that many of them heard this warning. Who could believe,
-standing in the great church, glittering with lights, with gold and
-silver, rich with colour, splendid with carved work, that the axe was
-already laid to the root?
-
-The people of London were not, it is true, consulted. Henry was not
-the kind of man to consult the illiterate on points of Theology or
-Spiritual Government. They were, however, filled with a vague unrest
-of new ideas; we know not what survivals of the old Lollardry lingered
-and were whispered about, or spoken openly; we know not how widely the
-ballads and satirical verses against monks and friars were repeated
-and sung and made the subject of merriment in the taverns. We do know,
-however, that the King ordered and that the people of London obeyed.
-I think it incredible that even the most masterful of English kings
-should have dared to force changes so radical upon an unwilling city.
-London was never remarkable for meekness, and in matters religious was
-never uncertain. The King must have known that the people of London,
-at least, would be with him. London, therefore, obeyed; the people
-looked on while the Pope of Rome vanished; they made no protest when
-they saw Monks, Nuns, and Friars turned out of doors and their Houses
-closed; they looked on without a murmur even when the Carthusians
-were dragged to a horrible doom. Was this callousness? Was it fear?
-Was it acquiescence in the Revolution, with the hope of larger things
-to follow? For my own part, looking at the attitude of the citizens
-during the successive reigns of Henry, Edward, Mary, and Elizabeth, I
-think there can be no doubt as to the general opinion at the time, and
-that it was from the outset in favour of the Dissolution of the Houses
-and the Dispersion of the Religious; in favour of denying the authority
-of the Pope; eager for the free readings of the Holy Scriptures in the
-vulgar tongue and for the right of that private interpretation which
-seems so easy to the illiterate. As regards ritual, the changes, as
-will be explained later, were gradual; the introduction of distinctive
-Protestant doctrine was not brought about in a day; the genesis of the
-Puritanic spirit does not belong to the Revolution under Henry.
-
-[Illustration: MARTYRS AT SMITHFIELD
-
-E. Gardner’s Collection.]
-
-Let us endeavour to realise something of the extraordinary change which
-the Suppression of the Houses brought about in London. Fortunately the
-work was carried on by successive Acts, covering a period of fifteen
-years or so; it was not until 1548, for instance, that the whole of the
-chantries, colleges, etc., were suppressed.
-
-The point of departure is, naturally, the expulsion and the dispersion
-of the Religious of all Orders. At this point most historians stop. Yet
-this was only the beginning.
-
-Consider, then, the number of those turned out of the London Houses.
-We may arrive at an approximation of the number by the following
-considerations. There were 202 Houses, not counting Friaries, dissolved
-in 1538–1540.
-
-They contained, in all, 3221 Monks and Canons. This gives an average of
-16 Brethren to each House. Now there were in London some twenty Houses
-great and small—say from St. Peter’s, Westminster, to Jesus Commons. In
-the same proportion there would thus be 300 Monks and Canons. In the
-same proportion, also, there would be about a fourth of that number of
-Nuns. Now, these monks and nuns were not sent out into a cold world
-empty-handed. Not at all. They received pensions. The nuns of St.
-Helen’s, for instance, received pensions of £2:14:4 each. The chantry
-priests of the same place, whose stipends had been £6:13:4 and £7
-respectively, obtained pensions of £5 each. We must, in fact, put aside
-altogether the generally received notion of the Dissolution as an Act
-which drove thousands of holy men and women out of their homes—abodes
-of piety and virtue—to starve. There was no starvation at all: the
-pensions though small were intended to be sufficient; we have therefore
-the fact that some 400 Religious of London were made to lay down the
-habit of their Profession and to go forth into the world on pensions
-large enough to maintain them. What became of them? Many of the older
-monks and nuns doubtless felt acutely the change of habit; the loss of
-the former life—its quiet, its self-centred interests, its community;
-some of the younger men, we cannot doubt, willingly turned themselves
-to secular pursuits; some lived quietly, keeping up privately, two or
-three together, some manner of religious life; some were concealed
-in the country and a few, perhaps, in town, and led the life of the
-Rule in a clandestine manner; some, again, the restraint of their vows
-being withdrawn, ran into excesses and fell into the mire; some haunted
-taverns, to the disgrace of their former calling. But of suffering or
-privation I cannot discover that there was much, if any, either for
-monks or nuns. It is pretended that the pensions were irregularly paid.
-The evidence seems to me insufficient; in regard to the nuns of St.
-Helen’s, we have positive evidence pointing in the opposite direction.
-
-The greatest sufferers were, as we have seen, the friars. For them
-there was no pity; for them there were no pensions; no one believed in
-them any longer; their day was done. There appeared, a short time ago,
-a book written by one who had been for twelve years a friar: he came
-out of the House; he laid down his frock and renounced his vows; and
-he wrote a book in which he described the life of his late brethren.
-It is not an exaggerated or an ill-natured book; it is simply a plain
-statement of the manner of life led by the friars of these days.
-Looking through its pages one begins unconsciously to consider the
-friars of the early sixteenth century—the friars in their last days—by
-the light of this revelation. Now the modern friar is a man of some
-education and some culture. Take away his education and his culture in
-order to get at the friar of the Tudor time. Place him in a time much
-rougher and coarser in manners; give him nothing to do: no work either
-of mental or physical kind; and to the general futility and unreality
-of life in a modern friary add the temptations, almost irresistible to
-the uneducated mind of the ordinary friar, of the world around him. In
-this way one may succeed, perhaps, in understanding the reasons for the
-unpopularity of the friars.
-
-[Illustration: The North Prospect of Westminster Abbey
-
-From an engraving by G. Collins. A. Rischgitz’ Collection.]
-
-It is generally stated that riches flowed in upon the friars as a
-consequence of the respect in which they were held. That is not the
-case: they were never rich. They owned a few houses built within the
-limits of their own precinct, the rent of which went to maintain the
-fabric of the church, and the service. For themselves the friars
-possessed no great buildings, except the Church, the Library, and the
-Hall: and they lived on charity at the end of their time as at the
-beginning. Wyclyf makes much of their churches. “Freres bylden mony
-grete churches and costily houses, and cloystris as hit were castels
-and that withoute nede. Grete houses make not men holy, and onely by
-holiness is God wel served.”
-
-The friars were not rich, but they were proud: they arrogated power and
-sanctity for their very robe. Those who died in the Franciscan habit
-could never, they said, be carried away by the devil. Walsingham, who
-had, perhaps, the jealousy of a monk, thus wrote of them:—
-
-  “The friars, unmindful of their profession, have even forgotten
-  to what end their Orders were instituted; for the holy men their
-  lawgivers desired them to be poor and free of all kind of temporal
-  possessions, that they should not have anything which they might
-  fear to lose on account of saying the truth. But now they are
-  envious of possessors, approve the crimes of the great, induce
-  the commonalty into error, and praise the sins of both; and with
-  the intent of acquiring possessions, they who had renounced
-  possessions, with the intent of gathering money, they who had sworn
-  to persevere in poverty, call good evil and evil good, leading
-  astray princes by adulation, the people by lies, and drawing both
-  with themselves out of the straight path.”
-
-They disappeared. What became of them? It is impossible to say. Some
-of the Sisters went to Flanders; some of those who were in priests’
-orders obtained benefices; some took up honest work; for many, work was
-impossible. If a man gets to thirty or so without doing any work, it
-becomes impossible that he should ever do any work.
-
-The Brethren, however, were not the only people who lived upon
-the revenues of the House. Every Monastic Foundation had its own
-establishment and was complete in itself. Of course, the superfluity
-of officers and the general waste of work were, from a modern point of
-view, deplorable. Every House had its mill, its brewery, its bakery,
-its still-rooms, its gardens, orchards, fish-ponds, vineyards; its
-servants of all kinds, including bailiffs, serjeants, scriveners,
-illuminators, carvers, gilders, singing men, singing schools, huntsmen,
-farmers, carpenters, plumbers, gardeners, agriculturists, sextons,
-gate-porters, rent-collectors, lawyers, stewards, and one knows not
-what besides. When the House was closed all these people were turned
-adrift, certainly, without pensions. Thousands of families, for these
-people were not under vows and were married, were suddenly deprived of
-their means of livelihood. What could they do? The ordinary craftsmen
-would make shift: their Companies helped them; but the better sort,
-the scriveners, limners, illuminators, painters, carvers, gilders; the
-bailiffs, lawyers, stewards,—what could they do? For fifteen years
-London was flooded with the people of the monasteries turned adrift to
-find a means of living; they were not people who swelled the ranks of
-the vagabond and the masterless; they were respectable and honest folk.
-Their struggles and their sufferings, if we could get at them, must
-have been very real and, in many cases, very terrible.
-
-There were, next, the people who lived by the making and selling
-of things no longer wanted under the new order. There were the
-makers of ecclesiastical vestments and robes; altar cloths; wax
-tapers; instruments required in the celebration of Mass; crosses and
-crucifixes; beads, reliquaries, images, and all the “properties”
-required for the old Faith. Also all those who sold tapers, beads,
-crosses, images, relics, books of hours, mass books, censers and
-every kind of church vessel. One has only to look at the shops in the
-vicinity of a French cathedral to understand the extent of the business
-when not a single cathedral, but a hundred and fifty parish churches,
-and monastic chapels, had to be provided for, and when all the people,
-with one consent, acquiesced in the doctrines, and practised the ritual
-of the Church.
-
-[Illustration: STEPHEN GARDINER, BISHOP OF WINCHESTER (1483(?)-1555)
-
-From an engraving of the portrait in Trinity Hall, Cambridge.]
-
-All these people, thus deprived of their livelihood, were skilled
-craftsmen. When their occupation was gone, when embroidered
-altar-cloths, copes and vestments stiff with cloth of gold, carven
-images, sacred pictures, beads and crosses and crucifixes, were no
-longer wanted, what could they do? If, at the present day, any single
-branch of industry is suddenly destroyed, what happens? It is too late
-for the people concerned to learn another trade. What happened to these
-unfortunates it is impossible to guess. One thing we know, namely, in
-general terms, that London was in a miserable condition for a quarter
-of a century after the Dissolution of the Houses; and we may fairly
-conclude that not bad trade alone, but also the great number of poor
-and forlorn creatures who had been hurled by the Reformation from
-comfort to penury, was one cause of the depression.
-
-Or, if we consider the immediate external effects of the Suppression;
-think of the unwonted silence, when all the bells of all the Monastic
-Houses were taken down: instead of the melodious pealing from forty
-chapels, there was left only the sorry tinkle of the parish bell.
-
-From the streets disappeared all the friars: those of St. Francis,
-of St. Dominic, of St. Augustine, the Carmelites, and those with the
-Iron Cross. The old familiar figures had been diminishing in numbers,
-but they were still visible when the end came: still they went about,
-opening their money-boxes in the shops, and finding nothing. Afterwards
-one met, flitting along the streets, stray and forlorn figures clad
-like craftsmen, but knowing no craft; sturdy beggars who would not
-work; men and women turned out into the stony-hearted streets, filled
-with rage and bitterness; looking always for the restoration of the
-old Order and their own return to the quiet house of ease and comfort.
-Gone, too, were the servants of the Houses; they had been known by the
-badge upon their shoulders; gone was the vast army of chantry priests,
-subdeacons, and ecclesiastics, with all the minor Orders. When Queen
-Mary restored the ancient Faith the priests appeared again, leaping
-out from unknown dens and secret places, ready to resume suddenly the
-restored service before the newly adorned altar. And as London always
-attracted the masterless and the vagabond and the criminal, so from
-all parts of England flocked to the City those whom the Reformation
-had sent out homeless and penniless. The clergy, for their part, lost
-the greater part of their fees. The baptisms, marriages, and funerals,
-it is true, continued, but the fees for masses to be said for the
-dead—the most important part of the fees—the endowments of chantries,
-post obits, and memorial days, were all swept away. There were many
-chantry priests in every parish church. Why, only a few years before
-the Reformation, on the death of Lady Jane Seymour, Sir Richard Gresham
-ordered 1200 masses to be sung in the City churches for the repose of
-her soul. And when prayers for the dead were forbidden, and what had
-been an aristocratic Heaven, open especially to the rich because they
-could buy their entrance by masses, became a democratic Heaven, open
-to the poor and lowly as much as to the high and mighty, the loss to
-the clergy from this source was very great. There was also another
-loss in the abolition of pilgrimage, and another in the abolition of
-confession, penance, and extreme unction.
-
-As for the people, they had their losses to deplore as well as their
-gains to rejoice over. They were deprived, for instance, of the most
-splendid and gorgeous spectacle open to them, the services of the
-Church with the rolling music of the organ, the singing of the choir,
-the chanting of the priests; with the illumination of the altar; the
-fragrance of the incense; the pictures on the wall; the brilliant side
-chapels; the many votive candles; the sculptured saints; and all that
-appealed to the eye and to the ear. That service had been performed
-by moving figures, they seemed not men, in wondrous robes set off
-by the bright lights. It was a service at which the hearts of men
-and women with imagination were daily, keenly, sincerely moved and
-led heavenward. All this they had to give up. In its place they were
-offered a cold and quiet service with a sermon an hour long, appealing
-to their reason and bidding them base their faith on logic and argument
-instead of the authority and the Voice of the Church, inviting them to
-trust in right doctrine rather than in the Fold of Christ. The service
-had been the chief instructor in art, music, and æsthetics. When it was
-gone what had they left? There were no more pictures for the people;
-there was no more grand and solemn music for them; only the tinkling
-of the mandoline in the tavern, or the “noise” of the whifflers who
-marched before a prisoner; there was nothing else for them. Mary’s
-martyrs made them hate the name of Catholic; they pelted her chaplains
-in the street; they hung up a dog, head shorn, to mock the tonsure;
-they hung up a cat with a wafer in its paws to mock the Elevation
-of the Host. Yet though they were no longer Catholics it cannot be
-maintained that they had got very far in Protestantism.
-
-Some of the ancient forms remained: it still continued the duty of
-every Christian, as it has always been the duty of every follower
-of the Roman Church, to attend service on Sunday morning, and to
-communicate on the great festivals of Easter, Christmas, Trinity,
-and Whit Sunday. The fast days remained: no flesh could be sold; the
-butchers’ shops were closed; none could be eaten on Fridays or in Lent;
-there were some who followed the ancient austerities so far as to
-fast on Wednesday as well. All classes, high and low, rich and poor,
-were constantly engaged in reading the New Testament for proofs of
-new doctrine, and the Old Testament for examples and for warnings. In
-every ale-house the men wrangled on points of doctrine over their pots;
-the women in the doorways discussed obscure points in the teaching of
-St. Paul; there were none so ignorant as not to be able to formulate
-a whole body of doctrines; in every barber’s shop there was a Bible;
-already men had begun to set up strange and absurd teachings, in their
-ignorant and fond attempts to discern the Truth in a weak translation;
-already some had begun to go about in sad-coloured garments, without
-ornament, colour, or decoration, even with texts ostentatiously bound
-round their hats or their sleeves, like the phylacteries of the
-Pharisees.
-
-In London the better sort of people towards the end of the century
-became infected with Puritanism. Puritans were known by their outward
-and visible signs: they wore texts on their arms; they hated starch
-and had limp cuffs; they wore no hatbands; they would not curl their
-hair, but carried it lank; those who were shopkeepers always had
-a Bible open on the counter; they hated the theatre and all other
-amusements; in church they would have no organ; they used strange
-words, calling, for instance, godfather and godmother “witnesses”; they
-spoke of Christ-tide instead of Christmas; whole trades in London went
-“solid” for Puritanism, _e.g._ the feathermen of Blackfriars; they
-were intolerant and fanatic; they desired above all things to abolish
-Episcopacy. They showed their opinions by their manner of singing,
-which was without the accompaniment of organs, and by slowly drawling
-their words. The Puritans would not greatly care for irreverence in St.
-Paul’s: they gave no reverence to a consecrated place; yet they went to
-church in order to worship and to hear godly sermons. Therefore they
-could not look on unmoved when they saw St. Paul’s crowded with people
-who went there in order to transact business, to buy and sell, to talk,
-to quarrel, to fight, to make assignations or to keep them, to display
-fine dress, to be hired in service.
-
-To a certain class, the larger class, otherwise the thing would have
-been impossible; these changes were welcomed with the greatest joy
-because they declared and emphasised the revolution of religious
-thought. For the majority the pendulum had swung round from the faith
-and trust in the Fold of the Church, to the sense of individual
-responsibility. The pendulum is always swinging backwards and forwards.
-In our own time we have witnessed a partial return to the belief in a
-Fold. The cold service with its long sermon of doctrine; the private
-study of the Scriptures; the exercise of individual judgment, free
-though unlettered, upon points of doubt and apparent contradiction;—all
-formed part of the same movement and appealed to the majority.
-
-At the same time there was another section to whom these things were
-hateful and horrible and blasphemous. This was the class which was
-ready to forget the old grievances, the intolerable burden of Church
-property; the multitudes who lived in sloth, as it appeared; the wide
-difference between practice and profession; and thought only, as so
-many at the present day think, of the haven of safety promised to the
-faithful; the beauty, splendour, and stateliness of the service; the
-ecstasy of the believer; the yielding of spirit before the Ineffable
-Presence; the visible power and authority of the Roman Catholic Church.
-These people looked and prayed daily for a return of the old Faith;
-they were recusants under Elizabeth; they concealed the priests who
-came over to concoct their conspiracies; they were Romanists first and
-Englishmen next, until the horrors of the persecution in Flanders, of
-the massacres in France, and the designs of the Spaniards upon England,
-made them Englishmen first and Catholics next.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-_A. Rischgitz._
-
-QUEEN ELIZABETH AT PRAYER
-
-Frontispiece to _Christian Prayers_, 1569. From a copy in the Lambeth
-Palace Library, which probably belonged to the Queen herself.]
-
-An irreparable loss to the world was the wholesale destruction of the
-libraries. Printing, an invention of no longer standing than fifty
-years, had as yet produced comparatively few books. When, for instance,
-the learned Anthony Brockby had written his book _Ad Fratres_ against
-the King’s Supremacy, he did not get it printed, but had a duplicate
-copy made, which he presented to the Franciscans, his brothers. By
-far the greater part of theology, philosophy, science, and literature
-remained in MS., and these MSS. formed the Monastic Libraries. When the
-Houses were suppressed, those who obtained them as a gift from the King
-for the most part cared nothing about the books: they were dispersed
-without any consideration for their use or value; if they were well
-bound, the covers were pulled off and the books thrown away, or turned
-into waste paper. Thus John Bale writes (_Antiq. English Franciscans_):—
-
-  “Covetousness was at that time so busy about private interest, that
-  public wealth was not anywhere regarded. A number of them which
-  purchased those superstitious Mansions reserved of those Library
-  Books some to serve their Jakes, some to scowr their candlesticks,
-  and some to rub their Boots, and some they sold the Grocers and
-  Soap sellers, and some they sent over sea to the Bookbinders:
-  not in small number, but, at times, whole ships full. Yea, the
-  Universities of this Realm are not all clear in this Fact; but
-  cursed is the belly which seeks to be fed with so ungodly gains,
-  and so deeply shameth his natural country. I know a Merchant man
-  (which shall at this time be nameless) that bought the Contents of
-  two noble Libraries for forty shillings price; a shame it is to be
-  spoken. This stuff hath he occupied, instead of grey paper, by the
-  space of more than these ten years, and yet he hath store enough
-  for as many years to come. A prodigious example is this, and to be
-  abhorred of all men which love their nation as they should do. Yea,
-  what may bring our realm to more shame and rebuke than to have it
-  noised abroad that we are despisers of learning? I judge this to be
-  true, and utter it with heaviness, that neither the Britons under
-  the Romans and Saxons, nor yet the English people under the Danes
-  and Normans had ever such damage of their learned Monuments as we
-  have seen in our time. Our posterity may well curse this wicked
-  fact of our age, this unreasonable spoil of England’s most noble
-  Antiquities.”... “How many admirable manuscripts of the Fathers,
-  Schoolmen, and Commentators were destroyed by this means? What
-  number of historians of all ages and Countries? The Holy Scriptures
-  themselves, as much as these Gospellers pretended to regard them,
-  underwent the fate of the rest. If a Book had a cross on it it
-  was condemned for Popery, and those with lines and circles were
-  interpreted the Black Art and destroyed for Conjuring. And thus, as
-  Fuller goes on, Divinity was profaned, Mathematicks suffered for
-  Corespondence with Evil Spirits, Physick was maimed, and a Riot
-  committed on the Law itself.”
-
-One change, one result, of the Suppression, everybody can understand.
-This was the closing of the Hospitals. London was full of Hospitals,
-but they were Religious Houses. St. Bartholomew’s, attached to the
-Priory; St. Thomas’, Southwark; St. Mary Spital; Elsing Spital for the
-blind; St. Mary of Bethlehem for the insane; the House on Tower Hill
-also for the insane; the House of St. Augustine Papey for old priests;
-the Infirmary in every Monastic House;—all these provided for the sick
-poor. I have no doubt, though on the subject I have no information,
-that the Companies, which certainly took care of their sick and their
-infirm, must have done so through the existing Hospitals. When the
-Houses were closed, what became of the sick? It is commonly believed
-that they were turned into the street, no one caring for them. This
-was certainly not the case. The Companies cared for their own; the
-City cared for its freemen and their families; would the City, which
-maintained a debtors’ prison for its freemen, so that they should not
-be confined with the general herd, suffer its sick and poor to starve?
-There was a residuum of those who were not free, namely, the vagabonds
-and masterless men and women. For them there was a time of great
-misery; when they were ill there was no one to visit them; no hospital
-where they might be taken; no hands to minister and alleviate; no voice
-to console and to fortify. And we know nothing, and cannot estimate the
-suffering because there were no journalists to publish the things they
-saw; and the sick and poor lay unheeded and starved, and died unknown
-and uncared for in the dirt and misery of the Tudor slum.
-
-There is no doubt, also, that the open house kept by such a monastery
-as the Holy Trinity, where the poor received every day the broken meat
-and a great deal more, was greatly missed and deplored by the whole
-company of the masterless. What with daily open house at the greater
-monasteries, the broken meats of the smaller, the doles and charities
-of the parish, the “mind days” with their loaves and gifts to the
-poor, bequeathed by rich citizens, a family which objected to work
-might rub along in solid and well-fed comfort all the year round. And
-this resource, looked upon as certain and unfailing like a perennial
-spring, was suddenly stopped. Then all these people had to work, or
-to beg, or to rob. The streets became pestered with sturdy beggars:
-the by-places of Elizabethan Literature present most vivid pictures of
-the companies of beggars, impostors, rogues and vagabonds. They were
-the people whom the monks and nuns had fed without asking questions;
-the folk who would not work; the people turned out of the monasteries;
-ex-friars; ex-chantry priests; former makers of images, crucifixes,
-beads, candlesticks and the rest: these were the people who felt most
-bitterly the abolition of indiscriminate charity and the cruel choice
-offered them under the new order of work; mendicancy with the whip, or
-crime with the gallows.
-
-Out of all these evils and sufferings was born, like a sweet flower on
-a heap of rubbish, the Spirit of modern Charity.
-
-The Church had taken over to herself the whole of Mediæval charity. Did
-a citizen desire to help the poor, he gave money for the purpose to the
-Church. If a poor man wanted help, it was not to a merchant that he
-went, but to a monastery.
-
-For charity, that is, for pity, for almsgiving, the world has always
-felt the most profound respect. The most popular of mediæval saints was
-the hard and austere Bishop of whom the world remembered that he had
-once divided his cloak with a beggar. There were six churches dedicated
-to St. Martin in the City of London alone.
-
-And when the friars first came over, and men, wondering, saw that they
-did not lock themselves up in their cloister to pray for the world
-like the other Religious, but that they went about among the people
-ministering, comforting, preaching, consoling; that they found no den
-too revolting, no disease too loathsome, no criminal too base, for
-their ministrations; then, indeed, there was an outburst of gratitude,
-of joy, of respect, of awe for men so saintly. They were considered the
-veritable children of God.
-
-But it was not to be thought that the poor sinners outside the
-monastery should imitate their example. Nay, St. Francis, their
-founder, had himself separated his Order from the world, they were
-called out from the rest of humanity, they were kept separate by
-vows of celibacy, poverty, obedience. Modern charity as yet did not
-exist, as we now understand it, only the respect for charity as an
-ecclesiastical institution.
-
-I believe that the early followers of St. Francis perceived the weak
-point of this separation from the world. We can hear one wiser than
-the rest saying, “There is danger that the early zeal may decline. All
-things human have in them the germs of decay; if there comes a time
-when our brethren shrink from the task they have undertaken, if their
-vows become a sham, their prayers a form, their work a pretence and
-a profession, then it would have been better for the world had St.
-Francis never existed, because we shall have taken from the layman the
-duty of personal service and killed it by our own neglect.”
-
-To meet this danger, not to take renunciation and self-sacrifice wholly
-out of the world, they created another Order, that called the _Fratres
-de Saccâ_. This Order contained men and women of the world, married
-men and married women; they were allowed to go about their daily work;
-those who were single were not forbidden to marry; they took vows, but
-not those of celibacy nor of poverty.
-
-When the Houses were suppressed, all the institutions which they had
-supported were suppressed as well. Yet it did not immediately occur
-to the people that the burden of the poor, which they had long since
-willingly laid upon the Church, was now laid upon themselves. When
-the City took over the House of the Grey Friars; the House of St.
-Bartholomew; the House of St. Mary Bethlehem; the Palace of Bridewell;
-the House of St. Thomas,—it seemed to take the place of the Church
-and to attempt, by way of taxation, all that the Monastic Houses had
-tried, or professed, to do from their own resources. We hear of sundry
-collections for the poor; we do not hear of work among the poor, or of
-responsibility for the poor, for a hundred years and more after the
-Reformation.
-
-I am not, happily, called upon in this place to attack, or to defend,
-the Dissolution. I have only to consider its effect upon London. And
-as regards the London Houses, I repeat, I can find no scandals. The
-judgment of the people, though that was not asked or regarded, seems to
-have arrived at a very clear understanding as to the actual spiritual
-value, apart from any pretension or profession, of the life of
-seclusion and celibacy. It was a very low estimate. On the other hand,
-the City does not seem to have been openly hostile to the Religious.
-They were an institution; these holy men were their own kin; the
-Monastic Houses were a part of the daily life.
-
-There were violent things published against monks and friars at this
-time, but they were written by vehement partisans and were forced
-upon the people. For example, the work of Barnabe Googe with his
-_Popish Kingdom_. Had there been any active hatred against them it
-would have shown itself by the acts and deeds of the ’prentices, who
-always reflected, roughly but surely, the direction of the current of
-contemporary opinion. Such slight indications of feeling on the subject
-as are afforded by the literature in the next generation point to
-reverence as regards the nuns; while as regards monks and friars they
-are clean forgotten—a sure sign that they were not very actively hated.
-At the same time it does seem most remarkable that the treatment of
-the Carthusians, who must have been regarded as innocent victims and
-martyrs, unless they were represented as political traitors, should not
-have excited any popular indignation. One can only suppose that the
-spectacle of a prisoner drawn on a hurdle, hanged, and quartered, was
-so familiar, that people hardly troubled to ask who the sufferer was,
-or for what crime he suffered.
-
-Let us now pass on to speak of certain Martyrs and Confessors. It is by
-this time needless to point out that the constancy shown by a Ridley
-and a Latimer for the Protestant form of doctrine was fully equalled
-by that of those who passed through the way of fire for the ancient
-faith. There was, however, this difference, that the Catholic martyrs
-were monks, priests, and men of mark like Fisher and More, while the
-Protestants included a vast number of men and women from the lower
-ranks—from the uneducated, who yet dared to hold a belief of their own
-based, as they thought, on private judgment,—really on the training of
-the sermons that they had heard.
-
-[Illustration: Twenty two PROTESTANTS _taken into Custody on account
-of their Religion and brought in one Band with Cords round their Arms,
-from Colchester to London, by order of Bloody Queen Mary_.]
-
-The case of Dr. Forest, Confessor to Queen Katherine, must not be
-forgotten when one speaks of the martyrs of this time. Forest, an
-old man, was committed to gaol, where he lay for two years among the
-common malefactors, because he refused to acknowledge the supremacy of
-the King. After two years of Newgate, two years in a close, stifling,
-and noisome prison, the venerable priest was informed that he was to
-be hanged over a fire and so slowly done to death. No more terrible
-form of death was known in England, where the horrors of the French
-and German capital punishments were never practised. It was the same
-punishment as had been meted out to Oldcastle, and it was inflicted
-on Forest for the same reason: to show the hatred and abhorrence of
-the judges for the doctrines he taught. When the unfortunate Katherine
-heard of the sentence she wrote to him. The letter, too long for
-reproduction in these pages, together with Forest’s reply, may be found
-in _The Antiquities of the English Franciscans_: they are probably
-genuine and are very pitiful. The Queen, however, was spared the misery
-of hearing of her Confessor’s torturing death: he was respited and
-continued to lie in prison. Two years after the Queen’s death, and when
-he had been confined in Newgate for four years, Forest was brought out
-for execution.
-
-[Illustration: HUGH LATIMER (1485(?)-1555)
-
-From the painting in the National Portrait Gallery, London.]
-
-On the 22nd of May 1518 they placed the old man on a sledge and dragged
-him from Newgate to Smithfield, where he was hung in chains from a
-gallows over a fire. This was the most terrible of all deaths. In
-ordinary cases, the sufferer, bound to a thick stake with iron chains,
-was enclosed up to the middle, and perhaps higher, with dry faggots: it
-would seem that the fierce flames enveloping the victim caused death by
-suffocation in a very few moments. Latimer, for instance, died in this
-manner almost immediately; if, however, the flames were blown away, the
-lower parts of the body might be slowly burned before death ensued:
-this was the case with Ridley. When, however, the sufferer was simply
-dangled over a fire, the flames blown this way and that, the agony
-might last for hours.
-
-In the case of Forest, the bystanders took pity on the old man and
-threw the gallows into the fire, so that an end was soon made. “In
-what state,” asked Latimer before the fire was lit, “will you die?”
-Whereupon the old man replied in a loud voice: “If an angel should
-come down from heaven to teach men any other doctrine than what I have
-received and believed from my youth, I would not believe him; and if
-my body should be cut joint after joint, member after member, hanged,
-burned, or whatever pain might be done to me, yet would I never turn
-from my old profession.” A brave old man!
-
-[Illustration: BISHOP RIDLEY (1500(?)-1555)
-
-From the painting in the National Portrait Gallery, London]
-
-After the Carthusians the principal sufferers seem to have been the
-Observant Friars, of whom a large number suffered for refusing to
-acknowledge the King’s supremacy. We may read in the _Antiquities of
-the English Franciscans_ a great many stories of these sufferings. One
-hopes that there is exaggeration. For some, according to this book,
-were carried about the country in chains; some were racked and then
-strangled; some were starved to death; miracles attended the death of
-some: the whole prison, in one case, became filled with a heavenly and
-miraculous light; and an earthquake, in another case, testified to the
-Divine displeasure at another martyrdom.
-
-On the 22nd day of June 1534, three days after the execution of the
-three Carthusians, Exmew, Middlemore, and Newdigate, was beheaded that
-illustrious Catholic martyr, John Fisher, Bishop of Rochester, for
-maintaining the Pope’s supremacy; and a fortnight later, that still
-more illustrious martyr, Thomas More. The witty and pleasant manner of
-his conversation was kept up to the last. Grafton thus speaks of his
-last moments:—
-
-  “Besides his learning he had a great wit, and in talking verie
-  pleasant and merie conceited, and that even to the last hower;
-  insomuch that at hys comming to the Tower, one of the officers
-  demanded his upper garment for his fee (meaning hys Gowne) and
-  he aunswered, he should haue it, and toke him his cap, saying it
-  was the uppermost garment that he had. Likewise even going to his
-  death at the Tower gate a pore woman called to him and besought
-  him to declare that he had certayn evidence of hers in the time
-  that he was in office (which after he was apprehended she could
-  not come by) and that he would intreat she might have them agayne,
-  or else she was undone. He aunswered good woman have pacience a
-  little while, for the King is so good unto me that even within
-  this half houre he will discharge me of all businesses, and help
-  thee himselfe. Also when he went up the stayres on the Scaffolde,
-  he desired one of the Shriefes officers to give him his hand to
-  help him up, and sayde, when I come downe agayne, let me shift for
-  myself as well as I can. Also the hangman kneeled downe to him
-  asking him forgivenesse of his death (as the manner is) to whome he
-  sayde I forgive thee, but I promise thee that thou shalt never have
-  honestie of the stryking of my head, my neck is so short. Also even
-  when he should lay downe his head on the block, he having a great
-  gray beard, striked out his beard and sayde to the hangman, I pray
-  you let me lay my beard over the block least ye should cut it.”
-  (_Chronicle of England_, Grafton, vol. ii. p. 454.)
-
-The martyrdom of the Carthusians was the most significant, the most
-revengeful, the most audacious act of the new Head of the Church, the
-Act by which he defied, once for all, the whole power of the Pope, of
-Spain, and even of France. The world trembled, people looked for some
-supernatural manifestation, some unmistakable sign of the Divine wrath:
-none came, and they understood that here was an act of open war, and
-that the Divine will as to the issue had not been pronounced.
-
-Let us pass to the Marian Persecution. I have called attention to the
-fact that the greater number of the martyrs belonged to the middle
-class and to the rank or status of craftsmen. Thus, Christopher Wade
-was a linen weaver; Thomas Wats a linen draper; John Warren was an
-upholsterer; John Ardeley was a husbandman; Robert Bromley was a
-grocer; Thomas Ormond was a fuller; Williams a weaver; Margery Polley
-widow of a craftsman; Dirick Carver a brewer; John Laneden a rustic;
-John Tudson an artificer; Joan Warne a maidservant. There were wives
-and widows among them, “simple women,” artificers and ’prentices,
-maid-servants and girls.
-
-[Illustration: THOMAS CRANMER (1489–1556)
-
-From the portrait in Jesus College, Cambridge. A. Rischgitz’
-Collection.]
-
-It was the sight of their own people suffering a cruel death which made
-the name of Rome hateful and horrible for three hundred years and more.
-It was the sight of the constancy of the martyrs which laid the firm
-foundations of the Protestant Faith. For none of them flinched before
-the flames, none of them feared the pains which the Lord God in His
-mercy and wisdom had ordered them to endure for the sake of the Cause.
-What was to be expected when a shoemaker such as John Noyes could die
-triumphant and rejoicing?
-
-  “On the next-day morning he was brought to the stake, where were
-  ready against his coming the foresaid justice, master Thurston, one
-  master Waller, then being under-sheriff, and master Thomas Lovel,
-  being high-constable, as is before expressed; the which commanded
-  men to make ready all things meet for that sinful purpose. Now the
-  fire in most places of the street was put out, saving a smoke which
-  was espied by the said Thomas Lovel proceeding from the top of a
-  chimney, to which house the sheriff and Grannow his man went, and
-  brake open the door, and thereby got fire, and brought the same to
-  the place of execution. When John Noyes came to the place where
-  he should be burnt, he kneeled down and said the 50th Psalm, with
-  other prayers; and then they, making haste, bound him to the stake.
-  And being bound, the said John Noyes said, ‘Fear not them that can
-  kill the body, but fear him that can kill both body and soul, and
-  cast it into everlasting fire.’
-
-  When he saw his sister weeping, and making moan for him, he bade
-  her that she should not weep for him, but weep for her sins.
-
-  Then one Nicholas Cadman, a valiant champion in the Pope’s affairs,
-  brought a faggot and set against him; and the said John Noyes took
-  up the faggot and kissed it, and said, ‘Blessed be the time that
-  ever I was born to come to this.’
-
-  Then he delivered his Psalter to the under-sheriff, desiring him to
-  be good to his wife and children, and to deliver to her that same
-  book; and the sheriff promised him that he would, notwithstanding
-  he never as yet performed his promise. Then the said John Noyes
-  said to the people, ‘They say, they can make God of a piece of
-  bread; believe them not!’
-
-  Then said he, ‘Good people, bear witness that I do believe to be
-  saved by the merits and passion of Jesus Christ, and not by mine
-  own deeds.’ And so the fire was kindled, and burnt about him. Then
-  he said, ‘Lord have mercy upon me! Christ have mercy upon me! Son
-  of David have mercy upon me!’
-
-  And so he yielded up his life. And when his body was burned, they
-  made a pit to bury the coals and ashes, and amongst the same they
-  found one of his feet that was unburnt, whole up to the ankle, with
-  the hose on; and that they buried with the rest.”
-
-Or, to take the case of Cicely Ormes. She was a very simple woman,
-the wife of a worsted weaver who lived in Norwich. She was present at
-the martyrdom of Simon Miller and Elizabeth Cooper, and there, being
-affected with their constancy, she declared that she would pledge them
-with the same cup from which they drank:—
-
-  “She was burnt the 23d day of September, between seven and eight of
-  the clock in the morning, the said two sheriffs being there, and of
-  people to the number of two hundred. When she came to the stake,
-  she kneeled down, and made her prayers to God; that being done, she
-  rose up and said:—
-
-  ‘Good people! I believe in God the Father, God the Son, and God the
-  Holy Ghost, three persons and one God. This do I not, nor will I
-  recant; but I recant utterly from the bottom of my heart the doings
-  of the Pope of Rome, and all his popish priests and shavelings. I
-  utterly refuse and never will have to do with them again, by God’s
-  grace. And, good people! I would you should not report of me that
-  I believe to be saved in that I offer myself here unto the death
-  for the Lord’s cause, but I believe to be saved by the death and
-  passion of Christ; and this my death is and shall be a witness of
-  my faith unto you all here present. Good people! as many of you as
-  believe as I believe, pray for me.’
-
-  Then she came to the stake, and laid her hand on it, and said,
-  ‘Welcome the cross of Christ.’ Which being done, she, looking on
-  her hand, and seeing it blacked with the stake, wiped it upon her
-  smock; for she was burnt at the same stake that Simon Miller and
-  Elizabeth Cooper was burnt at. Then, after she had touched it with
-  her hand, she came and kissed it, and said, ‘Welcome the sweet
-  cross of Christ’; and so gave herself to be bound thereto. After
-  the tormentors had kindled the fire to her, she said, ‘My soul doth
-  magnify the Lord, and my spirit rejoiceth in God my Saviour.’ And
-  in so saying, she set her hands together right against her breast,
-  casting her eyes and head upward; and so stood, heaving up her
-  hands by little and little, till the very sinews of her arms did
-  brast in sonder, and then they fell. But she yielded her life unto
-  the Lord as quietly as if she had been in a slumber, or as one
-  feeling no pain; so wonderfully did the Lord work with her: His
-  name therefore be praised for evermore.”
-
-Remember that the example was not only an admonition to those who saw
-her death: it was related by the spectators; it was spread through the
-length and breadth of the land; it was written down by Foxe, in whose
-hands it certainly lost nothing of eloquence or of dramatic effect,
-and it has been read ever since by countless people. Not the martyrdom
-of Cranmer, Ridley, Latimer and the rest of the bishops, priests
-and scholars, so much as those of the “very simple” women, the plain
-craftsmen, built up the Protestant Faith, scattered the Spanish Fleets,
-and changed the Englishman of the sixteenth century, so that he of the
-seventeenth became possible.
-
-[Illustration: The burning of M. Iohn Rogers, vicar of Saint Pulchers,
-and Reader of Paules in London.]
-
-The bare list of burnings in London alone, not nearly complete, as
-enumerated by Henry Machyn in his _Diary_ (1550–1563), conveys a sense
-of the overwhelming horror which filled England during this reign,
-perhaps clearer than a laboured treatise on the Lives and Deaths of
-the Martyrs. In reading the list we can see the crowds flocking to
-Smithfield: all their sympathies are with the sufferer; they see him
-dragged on his hurdle, undressed to the shirt and tied to the stake;
-they see that he flinches not nor offers to retract; the faggots are
-piled about him, Heaven grant they be of dry wood; from the flames and
-through the smoke they hear the voice of the martyr praising God and
-praying till the end comes, when his tongue swells up in his mouth and
-he can speak no more, or is suffocated with the smoke, or with the
-intensity of his agony his heart stops and merciful Death seizes him.
-Then the crowd go home again; they dare not speak to each other; but
-they remember.
-
-  “1555. The iiij day of Feybruary the bysshope of London went into
-  Nugatt and odur docturs to dysgratt (degrade) Hoper, and Rogers
-  sumtyme vycker of sant Polkers. The sam day was Rogers cared
-  be-twyn x and xj of the cloke into Smythfeld and bornyd, for
-  aronyus opinions, with a grett compene of the gard.
-
-  1555. The xvj day of Marche was a veyver (weaver) bornyd in
-  Smyth-feld dwellynge in Sordyche, for herese, by viij of the cloke
-  in the mornyng, ys nam was Tomkins.
-
-  1555. The xiiij day of Aprell, the wyche was Ester day at sant
-  Margatt parryche at Westmynster after masse was done, one of
-  the menysters, a prest of the abbay, dyd helpe hym that was the
-  menyster to the pepull who wher reseyvyng of the blessyd sacrement
-  of the Lord Jhesus Cryst, ther cam in-to the chyrche a man that
-  was a monke of Elly, the wyche was marryed to a wyff: the sam day
-  ther that sam man saud to the menyster, What doyst thow gyff them?
-  and as sone as he had spokyn he druw his wod-knyffe, and hyt the
-  prest on the hed and struck hym on the hand, and cloyffe ys hand a
-  grett way and after on the harme a grett wond; and ther was syche
-  a cry and showtt as has not byne; and after he was taken and cared
-  to presun, and after examyned wher-for he dyd ytt. The xxiij day
-  of Aprell was the sam man cared to Westmynster that dyd hurt the
-  prest, and had ys hand stryken of at the post, and after he was
-  bornyd aganst sant Margett chyrche with-owt the cherche-yerde.
-
-  1555. The sam day of May was arraigned iiij men at Powlles a-for
-  none and after-non, of Essex, and thay wher cast for heresse and
-  all iiij cast to be bornyd and so cared unto Nugat.
-
-  1555. The xxv day of May were arraigned at St. Paul’s for heresy,
-  before the bishop, master Cardmaker sometime vicar of St. Bride’s
-  in Fleet-street, and one John Warren a cloth-worker in Walbrook and
-  a-nodur of ... and cast to be brent and carried back to Nugatt.
-
-  1555. The xxx day of May was burnt in Smythfeld master Cardmaker
-  sum-tyme veker of sant Bryd, and master Varren clothworker,
-  dwellyng aganst sant John in Walbroke, an hupholster, and ys wyff
-  behyng in [Newgate].
-
-  1555. The x day of Juin was delevered owt of Nugatt vij men to be
-  cared into Essex and Suffoke to borne.
-
-  1555. The furst day of July whent into Smythfield to borne master
-  Bradford, a grett precher by Kyng Edward’s days, and a talow
-  chandler’s prentice dwellyng by Nugatt, by viij of the cloke in the
-  mornyng, with a grett compene of pepull.
-
-  1555. The viij day of July were three more delivered out of Nugate
-  and sent into the country to be burned for heretics.
-
-  1555. The xij day of July was bornyd y Canturbery iiij men for
-  herese, ij prestes and ij laye men.
-
-  1555. The ij day of August was a shumaker bornyd ay sant Edmundbere
-  in Suffoke for herese.
-
-  1555. The viij day of August, between iiij and v in the morning,
-  was a presoner delevered into the shreyff of Medyllsex to be cared
-  unto Uxbryge to be bornyd; yt was the markett day—owt of Nugatt
-  delevered.
-
-  1555. The xxiij day of August was bornyd ay Stratford of bowe, in
-  the conte of Mydyllsex, a woman, wife of John Waren, clothworker, a
-  huphulster over against sant Johns in Walbroke; the whyche ... John
-  her hosband was bornyd with on Cardmaker in Smythfield for herese
-  boyth; and the sam woman had a sune taken at her bornyng and cared
-  to Nugatt to his syster, for they will born boyth.
-
-  1555. The xxxj day of August whent out of Nugatt a man of Essex
-  unto Barnett for herese, by the shreyff of Medyllsex, to borne ther.
-
-  1555. The same day were burnt at Oxford for heresy doctor Latimer,
-  late Bishop of Worcester, and doctor Ridley, late bysshope of
-  London; they were some tyme grett prychers as ever was; and at ther
-  bornyng dyd pryche doctur Smyth, sumtyme the master of Vetyngtun
-  colege.
-
-  1555. The xviij day of Dessember be-twyn 8 & 9 of the cloke in the
-  mornyng was cared into Smythfeld to be bornyd on master Philpot,
-  archdeacon of Winchester, gentyllman, for herese.
-
-[Illustration: The description of Doctour Cranmer, howe he was plucked
-downe from the stage, by Friers and Papists, for the true Confession of
-hys Faith.]
-
-[Illustration: The burning of the Archbishop of Canturbury, Doctor
-Thomas _Cranmer, in the Towne-ditch at Oxford, with his hand first
-thrust into the_ fire, wherewith he subscribed before.]
-
-  1556. The xxij day of January whent into Smythfeld to berne betwyn
-  vij and viij in the mornyng v men and ij women; on of the men was a
-  gentyllman of the ender tempull, ys nam master Gren; and they wer
-  all bornyd by ix at iij postes; and ther wher a commonment thrughe
-  London over nyght that no yong folke shuld come ther, for ther the
-  grettest number was as has byne sene at shyche a tyme.
-
-  1556. The xxj day of Marche was bornyd at Oxford doctur Cranmer,
-  late archebysshope of Canturbere.
-
-  1556. The xv day of May was cared in a care from Nugatt thrug
-  London unto Strettford-a-bow to borne ij men; the on blyne, the
-  thodur lame; and ij tall men, the one was a penter, the thodur
-  a clothworker; the penter ys nam was Huw Loveroke, dwellyng in
-  Seythin lane; the blynd man dwellyng in sant Thomas apostylles.
-
-  1556. The xxvij day of June rod from Nugatt unto Stretford-a-bowe
-  in iiij cares xiij, xj men and ij women, and ther bornyd to iiij
-  postes, and ther wher a xx M. pepull.
-
-  1557. The iij day of April five persons out of Essex were condemned
-  for herese, iij men and ij women (one woman with a staff in her
-  hand), to be bornyd in Smythfeld.
-
-  1557. The vj day of Aprell was bornyd in Smythfeld v, iij men and
-  im women, for herese; on was a barber dwellyng in Lym-strett; and
-  on woman was the wyff of the Crane at the Crussyd-frers be-syd the
-  Towre-hylle, kepyng of a in ther.
-
-  1557. The xiiij day of May was bornyd in Chepe-syd and odur places
-  in London serten melle that was not sweet; and thay sayd that hey
-  had putt in lyme and sand to deseyffe the pepull and he was had to
-  the conter.
-
-  1557. The sam mornyng was bornyd be-yond sant George’s parryche iij
-  men for heresee, a dyssyd Nuwhyngtun.
-
-  1557. The xviij day of June was ij cared to be bornyd beyonde sant
-  Gorgeus, almost at Nuwhyngtyn for herese and odur matters.
-
-  1557. The xxij day of December were burned in Smyth-feld ij, one
-  ser John Ruffe the frere and a Skott, and a woman for herese.”
-  (_Diary of Henry Machyn._)
-
-
-
-
-                              CHAPTER II
-
-                    THE PROGRESS OF THE REFORMATION
-
-
-The question as to the proportion of Protestants to Catholics at the
-accession of Elizabeth, and at her death, has received various answers,
-depending upon the religion of the respondent. Lingard, the fairest
-of all the Catholic writers, estimates the number of Catholics at
-one-half the whole population. This was thirty years before Elizabeth’s
-accession. Dr. Allen thought they were two-thirds (Strype, iii. 415).
-A great many of the better class were Catholics. Venner (1649) says
-that fifty years before, all physicians were Catholics. This may have
-been caused by study in Italian schools of medicine. A good many people
-in London attended mass at some Ambassador’s chapel. The Spaniards
-when the Armada was projected relied upon the opinion that the half
-of England would join them. The North of England was filled with
-Catholics, yet they did not join the Rebellion of 1569. One-fourth of
-the population of Cheshire were Catholics; on the other hand, there is
-testimony to the effect that the number of Catholics had enormously
-decreased in the first thirty years of Elizabeth’s reign. In 1569 there
-were in London twelve to fifteen places where mass was regularly said.
-In 1594 a Jesuit speaks of the “little sparkle of Catholic religion
-yet reserved amongst us” as soon to be extinguished. The common-sense
-view of the case seems to be this. The people of London who, as we have
-seen, were filled with Lollardry from the beginning of the fifteenth
-century; who welcomed the Dissolution of the Religious Houses; who
-rejoiced at such a shadow of free thought as Henry afforded them; who
-shuddered with horror at the flames of Smithfield;—were overjoyed at
-the return of the Protestant Faith. But it would be wrong to suppose
-that all the scholars, all who had lived among the better-class priests
-and friars, went over to the new Faith; they did not: a large number of
-gentlewomen remained steadfast; the Government showed its good sense
-by taking no notice, or as little as possible, of recusants. Burleigh
-advised against punishing these people by death; best not make martyrs;
-there was no true method of lessening their numbers “but by preaching
-and by education of the younger under good schoolmasters.”
-
-In a word, if it is intended to make any form of faith decay, there is
-no need of persecution: it has only to be surrounded by disabilities.
-If a Roman Catholic could hold no municipal office, and no State
-office, could not enter a grammar school or the university, could not
-take a degree, could not become a lawyer, could not sit in either
-House, could not serve in the army or the navy, then the Roman Catholic
-religion would fall rapidly into decay. This is exactly what happened;
-at the present moment, though all disabilities have been removed, the
-proportion of Catholics in England and Scotland is certainly not more
-than one in twenty. The “old” Catholics were those wealthy families
-which could continue in spite of all disabilities, a few noble houses
-and a few county people. Similar results attended the disabilities of
-the Nonconformists. Dissent survived its disabilities among people who
-cared nothing for office, people at the lower end of society, people
-for the most part of small trade. Among the better class, Dissent lost
-ground and mostly disappeared till the abolition of disabilities.
-
-It is commonly believed that in the parish churches there was but one
-step from the mass to the Reformed service. This was not so (see an
-article by Mr. T. T. Micklethwaite on “Parish Churches in the year
-1548,” _Arch. Journ._ xxxv.). The Dissolution of the Religious Houses
-made at first very little difference in the churches. The guilds were
-suppressed, and therefore the lights which they kept up; the endowed
-lights were also suppressed; but people went on endowing new lights
-for the parish churches. In the year 1547 certain rules or injunctions
-were issued which commanded that all images which had been made the
-object of pilgrimage should be destroyed; that no lights should be set
-up before any picture except two wax tapers on the altar, and these
-because Christ is the Light of the World. Images which had not been
-abused were to remain “for remembrance only.” The English Bible and
-the Paraphrases of Erasmus on the Gospel were to be set up in every
-church where the people could have access to them. Shrines, pictures of
-miracles, and glass depicting miracles, were to be destroyed; a pulpit
-was to be provided, and an alms chest to be placed by the altar.
-
-As regards the services, changes were gradual. The High Mass continued,
-but the Gospel and Epistle were read in English, and a chapter from the
-New Testament was read after lessons at Matins and after Magnificat
-at Evensong. The English Litany was sung after High Mass. The Pater
-Noster, Creed, and Ten Commandments were sometimes publicly rehearsed
-in English, and Communion was refused to those who did not know them.
-
-In the year 1548 the “Order of Communion” was put forth; in 1549 the
-Prayer Book appeared. Mr. Micklethwaite has drawn up an account of
-the parish church of 1548 before the Reformed Prayer Book, and with
-the alterations made in the service up to that date. The principal
-entrance was by the south door; in the porch was a basin of holy water;
-the font stood sometimes in the middle of the nave, sometimes against
-the west side of one of the pillars; it had a cover which could be
-locked down. Near it was a locker in which were kept the oils, salt,
-etc., required for the old rite of baptism.
-
-  “At the beginning of the sixteenth century all but very poor parish
-  churches seem to have been furnished with pews, but the whole area
-  was not filled with them, as at a later date. Old pews west of the
-  doors are very rare, but they are found sometimes, as at Brington,
-  Northants. Generally all this space was left clear, and there
-  was a clear area of at least one bay, and often much more at the
-  west end. A church with aisles had nearly always four blocks of
-  pews, and the passages were broad alleys, that in the middle being
-  often more than a third of the width of the nave, and the side
-  passages were not much less. The appropriation of special places
-  to individuals seems to have been usual, and even that bugbear of
-  modern ecclesiastical reformers, the lock-up pew or closet, was not
-  unknown. These in parish churches were generally chantry chapels,
-  arranged for private services at their own altars and for use as
-  pews during the public services.”
-
-The pulpit had no fixed position: it was made movable; one of that
-period still remains at Westminster. It was ordered in 1547 that the
-priests and choir should kneel in the midst of the church and sing
-or say the Litany; the Litany desk came into use afterwards. The
-confessional had been continued in certain London churches: at St.
-Margaret Patens there was the “shrivyng pew”; at St. Christopher le
-Stock the “Shriving House.” The usual custom was for the penitent to
-kneel or stand before the priest, who sat in a chair. The Bible and the
-Paraphrases of Erasmus were chained to a desk somewhere in the nave.
-
-The Rood screen, which was a music gallery, carried a loft and the
-organ when there was one. The loft contained desks for singers; it was
-also provided with pricks for candles. The great cross rose above the
-loft. In the chancel stood the high altar; when there were no aisles
-two smaller altars stood one on either side. Above the altar was a
-reredos of carved work; at the ends of which hung curtains. There
-was generally a super altar. On the high altar stood the cross, with
-figures, reliquaries, and images to adorn it. Also they laid on the
-altar the Textus or Book of the Gospels, with the paxbrede or tablet
-for the kiss of peace. There were generally two lights on the altar.
-
-  “It is convenient to mention here the other lights, which were kept
-  in 1548, by the retention of the ceremonies with which they were
-  connected. These were the two tapers carried by boys in processions
-  at High Mass, and at other services when solemnly performed; the
-  herse light, used at Matins or Tenebres on the last three days of
-  Holy Week; the paschal candle, which stood in a tall candlestick,
-  or hung in a bason on the north side of the high altar, and was
-  lighted with much ceremony on Easter Eve, and burned at all the
-  principal services throughout Paschal tide; the torches carried in
-  the procession on Corpus Christi Day; the lantern carried before
-  the Sacrament when it was taken to the sick; the large standing
-  tapers which were placed round a corpse during the funeral service;
-  and the candle used at baptism. Most of the lights, which a little
-  earlier had been common round tombs, were endowed, and as such had
-  been taken away, but the custom of survivors placing lights round
-  the graves of their departed friends would probably be continued
-  still for a few years.”
-
-Chapels were the most usual places for tombs, but they are found in
-every part of the church. The various forms of them are too familiar
-to require description, but the use of colour gave them much more
-decorative importance in an interior than they have now. Many were
-painted, and others were covered with rich cloths. Flat gravestones
-had often carpets laid over them, and raised tombs had palls of
-cloth of gold or other costly stuff. The church of Dunstable still
-possesses such a pall: it is of crimson velvet, richly embroidered.
-Tapestries and cloths of various kinds were very much used, especially
-in chancels, as curtains and carpets, and as coverings for seats and
-desks and the like. Every church also had special hangings for Lent,
-when images and pictures were covered up generally with white or
-blue cloths, marked with crosses and the emblems of the Passion. The
-Lenten veil between the choir and the high altar seems also to have
-been retained in 1547, but in 1548 Cranmer and his party had partly
-succeeded in doing away with it. All parts of the church were more or
-less adorned with imagery and pictures on walls, in windows, or on
-furniture. None had been ordered to be taken away except such as had
-been superstitiously abused, or which were representations of “feigned
-miracles.”
-
-  “When the priest took the Sacrament to the sick he was accompanied
-  by clerks, who carried a cross, bell, and light. The Sacrament
-  itself was enclosed in a pyx, and with it was taken a cup in which
-  the priest dipped his fingers after giving the communion. The
-  chrismatory was generally a little box of metal containing three
-  little bottles for the three oils, which seem generally to have
-  been kept together. For use at funerals, every church had a cross,
-  a bier, and a handbell, the last being a good-sized bell which was
-  rung before the corpse as it was being carried to the church. It
-  was also used for ‘crying’ obits about the parish, and asking for
-  prayers for the deceased. Some churches had what was called the
-  common coffin, which was used to carry bodies to the church, the
-  most general custom being to bury without coffin. And they had
-  palls and torches for funerals, for the use of which a charge was
-  made according to the quality of the pall and the ‘waste’ of the
-  torches. At weddings it was the custom to hold a large square cloth
-  of silk or other material, called the care cloth, over the heads
-  of the bride and bridegroom whilst they received the benediction,
-  and it was kept for that use amongst the church goods. At St.
-  Margaret’s, Westminster, we find also a crown or circlet for
-  brides, which appears to have been a thing of some value.”
-
-It will be seen from these quotations that the parish church contained
-in essentials the whole of the Catholic ritual except the parts which
-were ordered to be read in English. At the same time by reading, by
-hearing sermons, by the newly awakened spirit of examination and
-discussion, the people were preparing for more drastic changes. When
-they came there was no violent revolution, and though many remained
-faithful to the old creed, the bulk of the people in London were
-Protestant at heart. The weak point of the Reformation was that as yet
-no one was sure that it was stable and assured. Nor was there any such
-assurance till the defeat of the Spanish Armada and fifty years of the
-Maiden Queen had turned Protestantism into patriotism.
-
-It is apparent (see _Archæologia_, vol. xlv.) that the ancient
-vestments were worn in some of the churches after the Reformation,
-until they fell to pieces. At the church of St. Christopher le Stock
-they were worn until the third year of Elizabeth, when being worn out,
-and no funds existing to replace them, the simple surplice was used.
-Twelve tables hung on the wall of the church: one containing the Ten
-Commandments; eleven containing prayers to the saints. The Reformers,
-therefore, did not introduce a new thing when they hung up the Table of
-the Commandments.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-_S. B. Bolas & Co., London._
-
-TOMB OF QUEEN ELIZABETH IN WESTMINSTER ABBEY]
-
-It used to be a custom in many City churches to ring the bell at 5
-A.M.; not the “apprentice bell,” but a continuation and a survival of
-the ancient practice to call the people to the early service. Thus, at
-St. Margaret’s, Lothbury, in 1573, it was “resolved that after every
-workday we shall have morning prayer at five o’clock; also to have
-a lecture every Wednesday and Friday, beginning at five o’clock and
-ending at six o’clock, the bell to toll half an hour after five every
-afternoon.” The books show a good deal of whipping of men and women.
-They were chiefly wanderers, tramps, and their great offence was in
-carrying the plague about the country.
-
-The services of the church could be made Lutheran in their character
-or Puritanic. The great difference was in the manner of singing. The
-Puritans sang in a plain tune all together; the Protestants “tossed”
-the Psalms from one side to the other with music of the organ.
-Congregational singing was one of the most important changes introduced
-by the Reformation. In September 1559 the new morning prayer “after
-Geneva fashion” was introduced at St. Antholin’s, the bell ringing at 5
-A.M.
-
-There were still some processions kept up. On St. Andrew’s Day a
-procession was conducted at St. Paul’s with one priest out of every
-parish in the City, and on the 25th of September the boys of St.
-Anthony’s school marched together from Mile End down Cornhill with
-streamers and flags, whifflers and drums.
-
-In the church of St. Christopher le Stock we find that certain old
-customs were preserved: the church was decorated at Christmas with
-holly and ivy; at Easter with “rosemary, bay, and strawings.”
-
-The parish system seems to have been well worked; the streets were kept
-clean; evildoers were not allowed to harbour within the limits; taxes
-were collected; the sick were watched and tended.
-
-The efforts of the more sober leaders were directed to change, it
-is true, but to gradual not revolutionary change. The restraint
-of the zealous, however, was in some churches very difficult;
-certain quarters of the City were far more Protestant than others:
-Blackfriars, for instance, became an early centre of Puritanism; at St.
-Martin’s-in-the-Fields, on the other hand, we find the church-wardens
-quietly obeying every new ordinance, but keeping the old things in
-boxes ready for a possible return to the old order. The Dissolution
-of the Houses brought with it certain unexpected accompaniments. The
-servants of the Commissioners took away the sacred vestments and
-used them either for their own common wear or for saddlecloths, thus
-inflicting wanton insults on the faithful and bringing into contempt,
-with the desecration of the vestments, the very doctrines of which
-they were symbolical. Again, there were the relics and the images
-which the people had so long adored; it is true that the Church would
-not acknowledge the adoration of an image, but that was the practice
-of the common people, as it is at this day in every Roman Catholic
-Church. Thus sacred objects came to be treated with the utmost scorn:
-reliquaries were emptied and the relics thrown away; images of the
-Virgin were deprived of their lovely vestments, and sent about the
-country, shapeless lumps of wood, or brought to London to be publicly
-burned. In some cases an ancient and venerable fraud was discovered
-and pitilessly exposed. Who could resist contempt for the priests and
-monks who had for many generations of simple believers made the head on
-the Holy Rood of Boxley incline benignantly and roll its eyes upon the
-kneeling multitude? With all these aids to disbelief who can wonder
-if the wave of Protestant indignation mounted steadily higher; if the
-fiery spirit of Reform seized upon town and country, upon the sober
-merchant and the hot-headed ’prentice? We hear of the young men reading
-the Bible aloud in the churches, shouting the words they read; of girls
-who carried the English Primer with them to church and studied it
-during the singing of Matins; of men who insulted the Consecration of
-the Host; who attacked the priest who carried it through the streets.
-It is certain that London itself, almost from the beginning, was for
-the Reformation. (_See_ Appendix V.)
-
-[Illustration:
-
-                 POPISH PLOTS
-                     AND
-                   TREASONS
-
-  _From the beginning of the Reign of Queen_ Elizabeth.
-  _Illustrated with Emblems and explain’d in Verse._
-
-                  _Figure 1._
-
-  The _Pope_ aloft on Armed Shoulders Rides,
-  And in vain Hopes the English spoils divides;
-  His _Leaden Bull_ ’gainst good _Eliza_, roares,
-  And Scatters dire Rebellion round our Shoars.
-  The Priest _Blesses_ the Villians, Chears them on,
-  And promises Heav’ns Crown, when her Crown’s won.
-    But God doth blast their Troops, their Counsels mock
-    And brings bold Traitors to th’ deserved _Block_.
-
-                  _Figure 2._
-
-  _Don John_, who under Spain did with proud Hand
-  The then unsever’d _Neitherlands_ Command,
-  Contrives for Englands Conquest, and does Hope
-  To Gain it by Donation from the Pope.
-  Yet to Amuse our Queen does still pretend
-  _Perpetual peace_, and needs will seem a friend;
-    But Heav’n looks through those Juggles and in’s prime,
-    Grief Cuts off Him and’s Hopes All at a time.
-
-                  _Figure 3._
-
-  Spains _King_, and _Romes_ Triple-Crown’d Pelate Joyn,
-  And with them both bold _Stukely_ does Combine
-  _Ireland_ to conquer, And the Pope has sent,
-  For that Blest work, an _Holy Regiment_;
-  But in their way at _Barbary_ they call,
-  Where at one Blow the _Moors_ destroy them All,
-    See here, what such Ambitious Traitors Gain,
-    The shame of Christians is by _Pagans_ Slain.
-
-                  _Figure 4._
-
-  The Priests, with _Crosses_ Ensigne-like displaid,
-  Prompt bloody _Desmond_ to those spoiles he made
-  On Irish Protestants, and from afar
-  Blow Triumphs to Rebellions Holy War;
-  But against Providence all Arts are vain,
-  The Crafty, in their Craft are over-tane;
-    Behold where _kill’d_ the Stubborn _Traitor_ lies,
-    Whilst to the _Woods_ his _Ghostly Father_ flies.
-
-                  _Figure 5._
-
-  What trusty Janizaries are Monks to _Rome_.
-  From their dark Cells the blackest Treasons come.
-  By the Popes License horrid Crimes they Act,
-  And Guild with piety each Treacherous Fact.
-  A seminary Priest, like Comets Blaze,
-  Doth always Blood-shed and Rebellion Raise,
-    But still the fatal Gibbet’s ready fixt
-    For such, where Treason’s with Religion mixt.
-
-                  _Figure 6._
-
-  Mad _Sommervil_, by Cruel Priests inspir’d
-  To do whatever mischiefe they requir’d,
-  Swears that he instantly will be the death
-  Of good and Gracious Queen _Elizabeth_.
-  Assaults her Guards, but Heav’ns protecting pow’r
-  Defeats his rage makes him a Prisoner:
-    Where to avoid a just, though shameful Death,
-    Self-strangling hands do Stop his loathsome breath.
-
-                  _Figure 7._
-
-  Whilst _Spains_ Embassador here Leiger lies,
-  Designs are laid the English to surprize;
-  Two Catalogues his Secretary had Got
-  The better two effect the Hellish Plot.
-  One all our Havens Names, where Foes might Land,
-  To’ther what Papists were to lend an hand.
-    For this base Trick he’s forc’d to pack to _Spain_
-    Whilst Tyrburn greets confederates that remain.
-
-  _First are describ’d the Cursed plots they laid.
-  And on the side their wretched ends displayd._
-
-                  _Figure 8._
-
-  View here a Miracle——A Priest Conveys,
-  In Spanish Bottom o’re the path-less Seas,
-  Close treacherous Notes, whilst a Dutch Ship comes by
-  And streight Engag’d her well-known Enemy;
-  The Conscious Priest his Guilty Papers tears,
-  And over-board the scatter’d fragments bears;
-    But the just winds do force them back o’th’ Decks,
-    And peice-meal all the lurking plot detects.
-
-  FOR CONTINUATION SEE BACK OF THE OTHER HALF OF THE ILLUSTRATION.]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-                _The Popes bull_
-
-                   IN NOMINE
-                     DOMINI
-                 _incipit Omne
-                     Malum_.
-]
-
-[Illustration:   _W. A. Mansell & Co._
-
-“POPISH PLOTS AND TREASONS.”
-
-For descriptions in rhyme see back.]
-
-[Illustration: CONTINUED FROM BACK OF FIRST HALF OF ILLUSTRATION.
-
-                  _Figure 9._
-
-  The Jesuites vile Doctrines do Convince
-  _Parry_ ’Tis Merit for to kill his Prince.
-  The fatal Dagger he prepares with Art,
-  And means to sheath it in her Royal Heart.
-  Oft he attemps, and is as oft put by,
-  By the Majestick Terrors of her Eye;
-    At last his Cursed Intentions he Confest
-    And So his welcom’d a fit Tyburn Guest;
-
-                  _Figure 10._
-
-  Here _Babington_ and all his desperate Band,
-  Ready prepar’d for Royal Murder stand,
-  His Motto seems to glory in the Deed,
-  _These my Companions are whom dangers lead_.
-  Cowardly Traitors, so many Combine
-  To Cut off one poor Ladies vital Twine;
-    In vain,—Heaven’s her Guard, and as for you;
-    Behold, the Hangman gives you all your due.
-
-                  _Figure 11._
-
-  Nor was’t with _Spain_ alone, Great _Betty_’s Strife;
-  Now _France_ attempts upon her pretious Life;
-  The Guises cause th’ Ambassador to Bribe
-  _Moody_, and others of the Roman Tribe,
-  To Cut her off. To which they soon Consent
-  But watchful Heav’n does that Guilt prevent.
-    _Stafford_ doth to the Councel All disclose,
-    And Home with shame perfidious _Mounsieur_ goes.
-
-                  _Figure 12._
-
-  _Spain’s_ proud _Armado_, whom the Pope did Bless,
-  Attacques our Isle, Confident of success.
-  But Heav’ns just Blast doth Scatter all their force,
-  They fly and quite round _Scotland_ take their Course:
-  So many taken, burnt, and Sunk i’th’ Main,
-  Scarce one in Ten did e’re get home Again;
-    Thus _England_ like _Noahs_ Ark, amidst the Waves
-    Indulgent providence from Danger saves.
-
-                  _Figure 13._
-
-  And now a private horrid Treason veiw
-  Hatcht by the Pope, the Devil, and a Jew
-  _Lopez_ a Doctor must by Poison do
-  What all their Plots have fail’d in hitherto
-  _What will you give me then_; the _Judas_ Cries
-  Full _fifty thousand Crowns_, t’other replies,
-    Tis done—but hold, the wretch shall miss his hope,
-    The Treasons known, and his Reward’s the Rope;
-
-                  _Figure 14._
-
-  The Great _Tyrone_ that did so oft embrew
-  _Ireland_ with Blood, and Popish Plots Renew.
-  Here vanquisht Swears upon his bended Knee
-  To the Queens Deputy fidelity
-  Yet breaks that vow, and loaded with the Guilt
-  Of perjuries and Blood which he had spilt.
-    Being forc’d at last to fly his Native Land,
-    Carries in’s Breast a sting, a Scourge in’s _hand_.
-
-                  _Figure 15._
-
-  No Sooner _James_ had blest the English Throne,
-  But Traiterous Priests Conspire to pull him down.
-  _Watson_ the poisonous Maximes does Instill,
-  And draws some Nobles to Join in the Ill:
-  But Princes then appear the most divine,
-  When they with unexpected Mercy Shine.
-    Just as the Fatal Ax attempts the Stroke,
-    Pardon steps in and does the Blow Revoke
-
-                  _Figure 16._
-
-  In this Curs’d Powder-plot we plainly see
-  The Quintessence of Romish Cruelty
-  King Lords and Commons at one Hellish Blast
-  Had been destroy’d, and half our Land laid wast,
-  See _Faux_ with his dark Lanthorn ready stands
-  To Light the fatal Train with desperate hands,
-    But Heavens All-seeing eye defeats their desire,
-    And saves us as a Brand snatcht from the fire;
-
-         •       •       •       •       •
-
-  And now let us, with chearful Hymns of praise,
-  And Hearts inflamed with love _an Altar_ raise
-  Of Gratitude to God, who doth advance
-  His out-streatcht Arm in our Deliverance,
-  Tis only He, that doth protect his Sheep,
-  Tis he alone doth this poor Island keep
-  from Romish _Wolves_, which would us soon devour,
-  If not Defended by his mighty power
-  Tis he that doth our _Church_ with freedome Crown,
-  And beats the Popish _Superstitions_ down
-  Under her _feet_, and may they never rise,
-  Nor in vile _Darkness_ Reinvolve our Eyes;
-  Since Heaven whose mercies ever are most tender
-  Hath both restor’d our _faith_ and Faiths _Defender_
-
-         •       •       •       •       •
-
-  Let us to both a strict Adherence pay,
-  And for their _preservation_ ever pray.
-    Since thus _Truths_ happy _Bark_ hath reach’d our shore,
-    O may it _never, never_ Leaves us more.
-
-  Sold by _John Garret_ at his Shop, at the _Exchange-Staires_
-  in _Cornhill_ where you may have choice
-  of all Sorts of Large and Small Maps: Drawing
-  Books, Coppy books, and Pictures for Gentlewomens
-  works; and also very good originals
-  of French and Dutch Prints.
-]
-
-A pressing difficulty, in the opening years of Elizabeth, was the
-illiterate and immoral condition of the clergy. So many refused the
-oath of supremacy that it became necessary to create lay readers.
-Indeed, the condition of England, including London, was calculated to
-fill the minds of the most ardent Protestants with dismay. During the
-first fifteen years of the reign, the House of Commons complained to
-the Queen that men were ordained who were infamous in their lives and
-conversation; the Bishop of London complained that even the Bishops
-were “sunk and lamentably disvalued by the meanest of the peoples”; the
-County of Essex represented that the new clergy were ignorant, riotous
-and drunkards; the Lords in Council represented to the Archbishop of
-Canterbury the evil lives of the clergy. Out of all the clergy in the
-City of London there were but nineteen preachers. Yet in 1559 Elizabeth
-ordered that there should be a sermon once a month on doctrine. And in
-1586 the Bishop of London ordered the clergy to write one Sermon every
-week. It is said that the clergy fell so low in esteem as to be treated
-like outcasts, incurably drunken, ignorant, and licentious.
-
-[Illustration: KNIGHT SEIZING AN ARCHBISHOP
-
-From an illuminated MS. in British Museum.]
-
-With the general charges against the Elizabethan Clergy it appears
-unnecessary to bring forward specific acts which may very well be taken
-to be isolated cases, in no way proving general corruption. There are,
-however, a few which seem to show the general condition of things.
-
-In 1562, a priest was carted through the City for saying mass.
-
-In 1554 priests, who would not leave their wives, did penance in St.
-Paul’s, and were beaten over the head with rods.
-
-In 1561 the Queen, who never approved the marriage of priests, ordered
-those who were married not to bring their wives into Colleges.
-
-In the same year there were found to be many conjurors in Westminster
-including priests, one of whom was put in pillory.
-
-In 1557 the priest of St. Ethelburga was pilloried for sedition, and
-had his ears nailed to the pillory.
-
-In 1559 there was a great burning of copes, censers, crosses, altar
-cloths, rood cloths, books, banners, etc.
-
-In 1560 a priest was hanged for cutting a purse; it was his second
-offence.
-
-The priest who sold his wife to a butcher, and was carried through the
-streets for an open shame, must hardly, one hopes, be quoted as an
-example. We picture him as a drunken and dissolute hog, lost to all
-sense of decency. The other priest who for an act of immorality was
-also carried about the streets may have been more common. When all the
-clergy married as a matter of course such scandals ceased.
-
-As I have reproduced certain charges against the clergy and Religious
-of the old Faith, it is but fair to give an example of the bad
-character of one, at least, belonging to the clergy of the Reformation.
-The following letter is addressed to the Lady Bowes:—
-
-“Right Worshipfull,
-
-I understand that one Raphe Cleaton ys curate of the chappell at
-Buxton; his wages are, out of his neighbour’s benevolence, about V^{LI}
-yearely; Sir Charles Cavendishe had the tythes there this last years,
-ether of his owne right or my Lord’s, as th’ inhabitants saye. The
-minister aforenamed differeth little from those of the worste sorte,
-and hath dipt his finger both in manslaughter and p’jurie, etc. The
-placings or displacing of the curate there resteth in Mr. Salker,
-commissarie of Bakewell, of which churche Buxton is a chappell of ease.
-
-I humbly thanke your Worship for your letter to the justices at the
-cessions; for Sir Peter Fretchvell, togither with Mr. Bainbrigg,
-were verie earnest against the badd vicar of Hope; and lykewyse Sir
-Jermane Poole, and all the benche, savinge Justice Bentley, who used
-some vaine (talk) on his behalfe, and affirmed that my Lady Bowes had
-been disprooved before Mr. Lord of Shrowesburie in reports touching
-the vicar of Hope; but such answere was made therto as his mouthe
-was stopped; yet the latter daie, when all the justic’s but himselffe
-and one other were rysen, he wold have had the said vicar lycensed to
-sell ale in his vicaredge, althoe the whole benche had comanded the
-contrarye; whereof Sir Jermane Poole being adv’tised, retyrned to the
-benchs (contradicting his speeche) whoe, with Mr. Bainbrigge, made
-their warrant to bringe before them, him, or anie other person that
-shall, for him, or in his vicaridge, brue, or sell ale, etc. He ys not
-to bee punished by the Justices for the multytude of his women, untyll
-the basterds whereof he is the reputed father bee brought in. I am
-the more boulde to wryte so longe of this sorrie matter, in respect
-you maye take so much better knowledge of Sir Jo. Bentley, and his
-p’tialytie in so vile a cause; and esteeme and judge of him according
-to that wisdome and good discretion. Thus, humbly cravinge p’don, I
-comitt your good Wors. to the everlasting Lorde, who ever keepe you.”
-This is quoted by N. Drake in _Shakespeare and his Times_, vol. i. p.
-92.
-
-And here is Ben Jonson’s portrait of the City Parson—none too
-flattering:—
-
-    “He is the prelate of the parish here
-    And governs all the dames, appoints the cheer,
-    Writes down the bills of fare, pricks all the guests,
-    Makes all the matches and the marriage feasts
-    Within the Ward; draws all the parish wills,
-    Designs the legacies, and strokes the gills
-    Of the chief mourners; and, whoever lacks,
-    Of all the kindred, he hath first his blacks.
-    Thus holds he weddings up and burials,
-    As his main tithing; with the gossips’ stalls,
-    Their pews; he’s top still at the public mess;
-    Comforts the widow and the fatherless,
-    In funeral sack; sits ’bove the alderman;
-    For of the wardmote quest, he better can
-    The mystery than the Levitic law;
-    That piece of clerkship doth his vestry awe.
-    He is as he conceives himself, a fine,
-    Well furnished, and apparelled divine.”
-
-Harrison, however, speaks up for the credit of the Reformed Clergy.
-
-The observance of Lent was maintained by law, but with difficulty, and
-the law was continually broken. It was a distinguishing mark of the
-Puritan to eat flesh on the forbidden days. Queen Elizabeth ordered
-that no flesh should be eaten on “fish days,” namely, the forty days of
-Lent, Ember Days, Rogation Days, and Fridays. Licenses, however, were
-granted for those who either on account of bodily infirmity, or any
-other cause, were forbidden to fast. The license cost, for a nobleman
-or his wife, 26s. 8d. per annum; for a knight or his wife, 13s. 4d. per
-annum; and for those of lower degree, 6s. 8d. per annum.
-
-Thus began the evasion of the law. Butchers were licensed to kill for
-those privileged to eat flesh. In 1581 the House of Lords call upon the
-Mayor to explain why forty butchers are allowed to kill during Lent,
-and how it is that the eating of flesh at that season is common in the
-City. The Mayor replies that the facts are otherwise, and that the
-number of licensed butchers is only five, viz. two for either Shambles
-and one for Southwark.
-
-In 1552 only three butchers are licensed. Evidently the Mayor tries
-strong measures. But there are more complaints from the Lords.
-
-In 1586 the House of Lords again send representations to the Mayor.
-
-In 1587 the Mayor, evidently wishing to shift responsibility, says
-that it is difficult to restrain butchers. Perhaps the House of Lords
-will undertake the duty of licensing. The House of Lords declines to
-undertake the work of the Mayor.
-
-In 1590 the Mayor complains of butchers being licensed in privileged
-places. What does this mean?
-
-In 1591 he gives licenses to six butchers. He then finds out what we
-have been suspecting all along, that cattle and sheep were killed
-outside his jurisdiction, and that flesh was brought into the City by
-the gates. He also proves that within the City itself a great deal more
-meat is killed than was wanted for Shrovetide. Here we have a proof of
-the Puritanic spirit. The unlicensed butchers, on the eve of Lent, kill
-a great deal more than is wanted for Shrovetide; the licensed butchers
-go on killing. Do they sell to none but persons who have paid for the
-privilege? And every day carcases are brought in at the gates wrapped
-up in some kind of cloth for disguise.
-
-In 1615 the Mayor gives up the attempt. He says that all butchers kill
-and sell meat in Lent, on Fridays, and that the people buy it freely on
-Fridays and on the other forbidden days.
-
-Still there is maintained the pretence of an enforced fast during Lent
-until the Civil War, after which there are no more attempts to make
-the people fast, while many of the better class, clergy and others,
-continue to abstain from meat on the forbidden days.
-
-There are grave complaints, both before and after the Reformation,
-about the behaviour of the people in church. The complaints point to
-two widely different causes. The first cause, that which operated
-before the Reformation, was undoubtedly the formalism into which
-religion had fallen. To be present at Mass, merely to be present, to
-kneel at the right time, was the whole of religion. Sir Thomas More, a
-most devout Catholic, complains bitterly of the irreverence of people
-at church service. Outward behaviour, he says, “is a plain express
-mirror or image of the mind, inasmuch as by the eyes, by the cheeks,
-by the eyelids, by the brows, by the hands, by the feet, and finally
-by the gesture of the whole body, right well appeareth how madly and
-fondly the mind is set and disposed.” He applies this observation to
-himself and the congregation. Sometimes “we solemnly get to and fro,
-and other whiles fairly and softly set us down again.” “When we have to
-kneel we do it upon one knee, or we have one cushion to kneel upon and
-another to support the elbows. We never pretend to listen: we pare our
-nails; we claw our head.”
-
-[Illustration: A ROYAL PICNIC
-
-From Turberville’s _Book of Hunting_, 1575.]
-
-The second cause was the rise of the new Religion. It was inevitable
-that with the destruction of the old forms a period of irreverence
-should set in. The churches quickly began to show signs of neglect.
-The windows were broken, the doors were unhinged, the walls fell into
-decay, the very roofs were in some places stripped of their lead.
-“The Book of God,” says Stubbes, “was rent ragged, and all be-torn.”
-Some of the churches were used for stabling horses. Armed men met in
-the churchyard, and wrangled, or shot pigeons with hand-guns over the
-graves. Pedlars sold their wares in the church porches during service.
-Morrice-dancers excited inattention and wantonness by their presence
-in costume, so as to be ready for the frolics which generally followed
-prayers. “Many there are,” said Sandys, preaching before Elizabeth even
-after her reforms, “that hear not a sermon in seven years, I might say
-in seventeen.” The friends of the new doctrine expected that all the
-evils of the time would be instantly remedied. But the work of reform
-was extremely gradual.
-
-A third reason is offered for the irreverence of the people during
-service, this time during the Anglican service. Many people walked
-about, talked and laughed. This, however, was to show their contempt
-for the new order; they were secretly attached to the ancient Faith;
-they betrayed their sympathies, not only by this intolerance, but also
-by crossing themselves and telling their beads in secret.
-
-Many of the ancient customs remained. It was long before the people,
-in London, could be persuaded to give up their old customs. Sunday
-remained the weekly holiday: the people held on Sundays their wakes,
-ales, rush-bearings, May games, bear-baitings, dancing, piping,
-picnics, and gaming; they continued so to “break the Sabbath”—which
-was first made part of the Christian week by the Puritans—until well
-into the seventeenth century. After the Commonwealth I think that there
-were very few traces of old customs lingering in the country, and only
-those, such as the hanging of garlands in the chancel when a maiden
-died, which carried with them no doctrinal significance and could prove
-no occasion for drunkenness and debauchery.
-
-Before the coming of the Puritans the funerals continued with much
-of the old ritual. The body was laid out in such state as the family
-circumstances allowed: tapers were burned round it by night and by day;
-the church bells still rang for the prayers of the people, though they
-were taught that to pray for the dead was a vain thing; the priests who
-visited the house of the dead repeated the Lord’s Prayer; if on the
-way to the churchyard the procession passed a cross, they stopped and
-knelt, and made prayers; the body was laid in the grave wrapped in a
-shroud, without a coffin; it was covered by a pall, which was decorated
-with crosses. Those of the ancient Faith would persuade the clergymen,
-if they could, to omit the service; if he persisted, they left the
-grave and walked away. Nothing was a stronger tie to the old Religion
-than its burial service, and its assurance that the dead who died in
-the Church were assured of Heaven after due purgatory, and that the
-prayers of the living were of avail to shorten the pains of prison.
-
-Machyn, the City Chronicler of this period, thus describes the
-simplicity of a Protestant funeral:—
-
-  “The iij day of Aprell was browth unto saint Thomas of Acurs in
-  Chepe from lytyll sant Barthellmuw in Lothberes masteres ... and
-  ther was a gret compene of pepull, ij and ij together, and nodur
-  prest nor clarke, the nuw prychers in ther gowne lyke leymen,
-  nodur syngyng nor sayhyng tyll they came to the grave, and a-for
-  she was pute into the grayff a collect in Englys, and then put
-  into the grayff, and after took some heythe, and caste yt on the
-  corse and red a thynge ... for the sam, and contenent cast the
-  heth into the grave, and contenent red the pystyll of sant Poll to
-  the Stesselonyans the chapter, and after thay song pater noster in
-  Englys, boyth prychers and odur and women of a nuw fassyon, and
-  after on of them whent into the pulpytt and made a sermon.”
-
-The following note by Machyn presents one of the last appearances of
-the old Sanctuary customs:—
-
-  “The vi day of December the abbot of Westminster went a procession
-  with his convent; before him went all the sanctuary men with crosse
-  keys upon their garments, and after whent iij for murder: one was
-  the Lord Dacre’s sone of the Northe was wypyd with a shett abowt
-  him for Kyllyng of on master West, sqwyre, dwellyng besyd ...; and
-  anodur theyff that dyd long to one of master comtroller ... dyd
-  kylle Recherd Eggyllston the comtroller’s tayller, and killed him
-  in the Lord Acurs, the bak-syd Charyng-crosse; and a boy that kyld
-  a byge boye that sold papers and pryntyd bokes, with horlyng of a
-  stone and yt hym under the ere in Westmynster Hall; the boy was one
-  of the chylderyn that was at the sckoll ther in the abbey; the boy
-  was a hossear [hosier] sune a-boyff London-stone.” (_Diary of Henry
-  Machyn_, p. 121.)
-
-The good old institution of Sanctuary died hard. Even after it was
-supposed to have been finished and put away it continued to linger.
-Abbot Feckenham made a vigorous appeal for its preservation. “All
-princes,” he said, “and all Lawmakers, Solon in Athens, Lycurgus
-in Lacedemon, all have had _loca refugii_, places of succour and
-safe-guard for such as have transgressed laws and deserved corporal
-pains. Since, therefore, ye mean not to destroy all sanctuaries, and if
-your purpose be to maintain any, or if any be worthy to be continued,
-Westminster, of all others, is most worthy, and that for four causes:
-the first is, the antiquity and continuance of sanctuary there;
-the second, the dignity of the person by whom it was ordained; the
-third, the worthiness of the place itself; the fourth, the profit and
-commodity that you have received thereby.”
-
-It is a common charge against the Dissolution of the Religious Houses
-that the old custom of open tables for all comers fell into disuse.
-The disuse is not without exceptions. The Houses being suppressed, of
-course the hospitality disappeared; but the practice was still kept up
-by some of the Bishops: Archbishop Parker, for instance, fed every day
-a number of poor people who waited outside the gates of Lambeth for the
-broken meats; while any one who chose to come in, whether at dinner or
-at supper, was received and entertained either at the Steward’s or the
-Almoner’s table. Order was observed; no loud talking was permitted; and
-the discourse was directed towards framing men’s manners to Religion.
-Whether the practice of indiscriminate doles should have been kept up
-is another question, and one that cannot be asked of the sixteenth
-century. The state and dignity maintained by this Archbishop were
-almost worthy of Cardinal Wolsey: the Queen gave him a patent for forty
-retainers, but his household consisted of five times that number, all
-living with him and dining at his table in Lambeth Palace.
-
-The Church House was an ecclesiastical edifice which has now entirely
-passed away. I know nothing about the Church House except what is found
-in the _Archæological Journal_, vol. xl. p. 8.
-
-“Not a single undoubted specimen has been spared to us, though it is
-not improbable that the half-timbered building attached to the west end
-of the church at Langdon, in Essex, and now called the Priest House, is
-really one of these. We have evidence from all parts of the country
-that they were once very common. There is, indeed, hardly an old
-churchwarden’s account-book which goes back beyond the changes of the
-sixteenth century that does not contain some reference to a building of
-this kind. They continued in being and to be used for church purposes
-long after the Reformation. The example at All Saints, Derby, stood in
-the churchyard and was in existence in 1747.”... “We must picture to
-ourselves then a long, low room with an ample fireplace, or rather a
-big open chimney occupying one end with a cast hearth. Here the cooking
-was done, and here the water boiled for brewing the church ale. There
-was a large oak table in the middle with benches around, and a lean-to
-building on one side to act as a cellar. This, I think, is not an
-inaccurate sketch of a building which played no unimportant part in our
-rural economy and rural pleasures. All the details are wanting, and
-we can only fill them in by drawing on the imagination. We know that
-almost all our churches were made beautiful by religious painting on
-the walls. I should not be surprised if we some day discovered that
-the church-house came in for its share of art, and that pictures, not
-religious in the narrow sense, but grotesque and humorous, sometimes
-covered the walls. It was in the church-house that the ales were held.
-They were provided for in various ways, but usually by the farmers,
-each of whom was wont to give his quota of malt. There was no malt
-tax in those days, and as a consequence there was a malt-kiln in
-almost every village. These ales were held at various times. There
-was almost always one on the Feast of the Dedication of the Church.
-Whitsuntide was also a very favourite time; but they seem to have been
-held at any convenient time when money was wanted for the church....
-Philip Stubbes, the author of the _Anatomie of Abuses_, only knew the
-Church Ales in their decline. He was, Anthony Wood informs us, a most
-rigid Calvinist, a bitter enemy to Popery, so that his picture must
-be received with allowances for exaggeration. His account of them is
-certainly not a flattering one. He tells us that ‘The Churche Wardens
-... of every parishe, with the consent of the whole parishe, provide
-halfe a score or twentie quarters of mault, wherof some they buye
-of the churche stocke, and some is given them of the parishioners
-themselves, everyone conferryng some-what, accordyng to his abilitie;
-which mault beeyng made into very strong ale or beere is sette to sale,
-either in the churche or some other place assigned to that purpose.
-Then, when this ... is sette abroche, well is he that can gette soonest
-to it and spend the most at it; for he that sitteth the closest to it
-and spendes the moste at it, he is counted the godliest man of all the
-rest, and moste in God’s favour, because it is spent uppon His church
-forsoth. But who, either for want can not, or otherwise for feare of
-God’s wrath will not sticke to it, he is counted none destitute both
-of vertue and godlines.... In this kind of practise they continue six
-weekes, a quarter of a yere, yea helfe a yeare together, swillyng
-and gullyng, night and daie, till they be as dronke as rattes, and as
-blockishe as beastes.... That money ... if all be true which they saie
-... they repair their churches and chappels with it, they buie bookes
-for service, cuppes for the celebration of the sacrements, surplesses
-for Sir John, and such other necessaries.’”
-
-[Illustration: OLD ST. PAUL’S BEFORE THE DESTRUCTION OF THE STEEPLE]
-
-The burning of St. Paul’s steeple created a great sensation, and was
-by some regarded as an act of God’s wrath for the recent changes.
-Maitland[3] quotes an original letter describing the disaster:—
-
-  “A.D. 1561, on Wednesday the 4th of June, as appears by a Letter
-  before me from Mr. Richard Jones to Sir Nicholas Throckmorton,
-  Ambassador from Queen Elizabeth to the Court of France,
-  communicated by the honourable Mr. Yorke, it rained all the Day,
-  and, towards Four of the Clock in the Afternoon, it began to
-  thunder terribly: ‘When suddenly a Thunder-bolt, with a great
-  Thunder following, hit within a Yard of the very top of the
-  Steeple, which forthwith shewed his Effect, and appeared a little
-  Fire, like unto the Light of a Torch, which, increasing towards
-  the Weather-cock, caused the same within a quarter of an hour to
-  fall down; whereby the Wind, which was great, and the more vehement
-  by reason of the opening of the Steeple and Height thereof, caused
-  the Flame so to augment, and burn the Steeple, which no Man could
-  succour, as within an Hour the high Steeple of Paul’s, which was
-  so long in building, and so renowned, was utterly consumed to the
-  very Battlements; which being of some Breadth and Strength, as was
-  needful to uphold such a weight, received most part of the Timber
-  which fell from the Spire, and began to burn with such Vehemence,
-  as all the Timber was burnt, the Iron and Bells melted and fallen
-  down upon the stairs within a short space. This was judged to be
-  the end of the effect of the lightning; when forthwith the East
-  and West roofs of the Church, partly kindled with the timber which
-  fell from the Battlements, and with the heating of the Fire whiles
-  it remained within the Stone Steeple, were on Fire, and ceased not
-  to burn so extremely, as could not be provided for by no means,
-  till that not only those ends, but the north and south ails, before
-  one of the Clock after Midnight, were consumed, and not a piece of
-  Timber left, nor Lead unmolten, upon any of the higher and cross
-  Roofs and Battlements. The side Ails, tho’ they were a little
-  touched, by reason of their Crowns, remained safe, Thanks be to
-  God. And this is all that is happened by this Misfortune, and the
-  Church within is untouched. Your Lordship may guess what Stir and
-  Removing there was in St. Paul’s Church-yard, especially towards
-  the North door, where divers Houses were pulled down, and much
-  lamentation on all sides. On the East End a Pinnacle fell down and
-  ruined a House, wherein there were seven Persons not hurt, but the
-  good man of the House a little. Many other turmoils there were, as
-  in like Cases it happens; which, as it grieves me to hear, so I
-  am loth to write the same. The French here are not sorry for the
-  Matter. All good and honest Men are sorry for it, and impute it to
-  a terrible remembrance of God’s Anger towards us for our Offences.
-  This is enough and too much of so grievous a matter; and yet I
-  thought I should perhaps satisfy your Lordship in writing thereof
-  thus largely.
-
-                                                           R. JONES.’
-
-  LONDON, _June 5th, 1561_.”
-
-As might have been expected of a time when all the world was thinking
-and talking about religious doctrine, the unlearned as well as the
-learned, but with much more confidence and presumption, arguing
-entirely on the meaning of texts, passages, and detached clauses, there
-were fanatics in plenty. I have made a selection from the cases before
-me.
-
-“William Hacket gave out that he was Jesus Christ, come to judge the
-World; which was soon proclaimed throughout the City of London by
-Edmond Coppinger and Henry Arthington, two of his Disciples; who, going
-from Hacket’s Lodgings, at Broken-Wharf, thro’ Watling-Street and the
-Old-Change, amidst an excessive Multitude, to Cheapside, they mounted
-an empty cart near the end of Gutter Lane, and proclaimed Mercy from
-Heaven to all such as should repent and believe that Christ (William
-Hacket) was come with his Fan in his hand to judge the Earth, and to
-establish the Gospel in Europe, and that he was then to be seen, with
-his glorious Body, at one Walker’s, at Broken-Wharf; and that they
-were Prophets, the one of Mercy, and the other of Judgment, sent by
-God Himself as Witnesses, and to assist in the present great Work.
-The first of whom incessantly proclaimed Mercy and Joys inexpressible
-to all such as should receive this acceptable Message; and the last
-denounced terrible Judgments against the Obdurate, which should
-not only immediately fall upon the Incredulous in this City, but
-that likewise all such were condemned to eternal Punishments; and,
-in a particular and very treasonable Manner, thundered out bitter
-invectives against the Queen and her Ministry; wherefore they were all
-apprehended, and Hacket, the pretended Messiah, soon after tried and
-convicted at the Old-Baily of Treason; whence he was carried to the
-Place of Execution in Cheapside, where, instead of shewing the least
-Sorrow for his Crimes, he committed the most horrid and execrable
-Blasphemies against God, and detestable imprecations against the Queen
-and her Ministers; and his associate, Coppinger, refusing all Manner
-of sustenance, died the next Day in Bridewell, as did Arthington, his
-Companion, some Time after in Wood Street Compter.” Evidently three
-enthusiasts all equally mad and equally obstinate.
-
-Later on, also, was the case of Anne Burnell (Sharpe, i. 552):—
-
-“The strain which the continuation of the war and the threatened
-renewal of a Spanish invasion imposed upon the inhabitants of London
-at large was a great one, and appears to have affected the mind of a
-weak and hysterical woman, Anne Burnell. She gave out that she was a
-daughter of the King of Spain, and that the arms of England and Spain
-were to be seen, like stigmata, upon her back, as was vouched for by
-her servant, Alice Digges. After medical examination, which proved her
-statement to be ‘false and proceedinge of some lewde and imposterouse
-pretence,’ she and her maid were ordered to be whipt,—‘ther backes only
-beeinge layd bare,’—at the cart’s tail through the City on a market
-day, ‘with a note in writinge uppon the hinder part of their heades
-shewinge the cawse of their saide punishmente.’”
-
-Again, there was the case of William Geffery and John Moore. These two
-unfortunate creatures were perfectly mad, and ought to have been locked
-up in Bethlehem. Said William Geffery to the other lunatic, “Christ
-is not in Heaven, John. He is on earth and like unto us.” “He is,”
-John replied, “and thou thyself, William Geffery, art none other than
-Christ.” “That,” said William, “is perfectly correct.” They therefore
-clapped John Moore in Bethlehem and William Geffery in the Marshalsea.
-This should have been enough. But it was not the fashion of the time
-ever to have enough of punishing. They therefore tied Geffery to the
-cart tail and flogged him all the way from the Marshalsea to Bethlehem,
-a matter of two miles. At the gate of Bethlehem the cart was stopped.
-Then John Moore was brought out, and Geffery was flogged again until he
-confessed his error and acknowledged that Christ was in Heaven and that
-he himself was nothing but a sinful man. They then stripped John Moore
-and tied him to the cart tail; at first he took the punishment smiling,
-but before going an arrow’s shot he begged them to stop, and confessed
-that he was wrong. So they both went back: John Moore to Bethlehem and
-William Geffery to the Marshalsea, and we hear no more of them.
-
-The Anabaptists were another perverse people who met with no mercy. On
-3rd April 1575 there was found a congregation of Anabaptists in a house
-outside Aldgate Bars. Twenty-seven in all were arrested. On the 15th
-of May four of them, bearing faggots to show that they deserved death,
-recanted at Paul’s Cross; on 22nd July two of them were burned at
-Smithfield, “who died in great horror, with roaring and crying.” Their
-recantation shows the doctrines they held.
-
-  “Whereas I.I.T.R.H. being seduced by the devil, the spirit of
-  error, and by false teachers his ministers, have fallen into
-  certain most detestable and damnable heresies, namelie:—
-
-  1. That Christ tooke not flesh of the substance of the blessed
-  Virgin Marie.
-
-  2. That infants of the faithful ought not be baptized.
-
-  3. That a Christian man may not be a magistrate, or beare the sword
-  or office of authoritie.
-
-  4. That it is not lawful for a Christian to take an oth. Now by
-  the Grace of God, and through conference with good and learned
-  ministers of Christ His church, I doo understand and acknowledge
-  the same to be most damnable and detestable heresies, and doo aske
-  God here before His church mercie for my said former errors, and
-  doo forsake them, recant and renounce them, and abjure them from
-  the botome of my heart, professing that I certainly believe:
-
-  1. That Christ tooke flesh of the substance of the blessed Virgin
-  Marie.
-
-  2. That infants of the faithfull ought to be baptized.
-
-  3. That a Christian man may be a magistrate, or beare the sword or
-  office of authoritie.
-
-  4. That it is lawful for a Christian man to take an oth. And
-  further that I confess that the whole doctrine and religion
-  established and published in this realme of England, as also that
-  which is received and preached in the Dutch Church, from henceforth
-  utterlie abandoning and forsaking all and every anabaptistical
-  error. This is my faith now, in the which I doo purpose and trust
-  to stand firme and stedfast to the end. And that I may soo doo, I
-  beseech you all to praie with me, and for me, to God the heavenlie
-  father, in the name of his son our Saviour Jesus Christ.”
-
-Before this, one man and ten women were tried in the Consistory of St.
-Paul’s and sentenced to be burned, but one woman having been converted,
-they resolved on banishing the rest, who were Dutch. Accordingly the
-nine women were led by the sheriff, and the man was tied to a cart tail
-and whipped all the way from Newgate to the river, where they were
-shipped. And there was a certain sect called the Family of Love, which
-gave some trouble through their obstinacy. In the year 1575 five of
-them recanted; in 1580 the sect were thought of sufficient importance
-to justify a proclamation against them. The tenets of the people do
-not appear, but they were accused of holding it laudable to deny their
-connection with their own sect, which made it impossible to convict
-them by their own confession.
-
-The case of Matthew Hamont, plough-wright, may conclude these cases
-of strange hallucinations and the conclusions of a disordered brain.
-He was a common man of no education, who took to thinking and reading
-about doctrines which he could not understand. He finally arrived at
-the conclusion that the New Testament, with the Gospels, is but an
-invention of man, that Christ was a mere man, and so on, shrinking
-from nothing. This poor lunatic they gravely tried, and because he had
-spoken words against the Queen, they first cut off both his ears, and
-then, after giving him a week of pain from his wounds, they burned him
-for a heretic.
-
-
-
-
-                              CHAPTER III
-
-                             SUPERSTITION
-
-
-After Religion stalks her caricature, Superstition. Now the credulities
-of London in the Elizabethan age were many and wonderful.
-
-Everybody, for instance, at that time believed in _witchcraft_. Yet
-there was not wanting an occasional protest.
-
-“I saie, that there is none which acknowledgeth God to be onlie
-omnipotent ... but will denie that the elements are obedient to
-witches, and at their commendement; or that they may at their pleasure
-send raine, haile, tempests, thunder, lightning.... Such faithlesse
-people are also persuaded that neither hale nor snowe, thunder nor
-lightening, raine nor tempestuous winds, come from the heavens at the
-commandement of God, but are raised by the cunning and power of witches
-and conjurers; inasmuch as a clap of thunder or a gale of wind is no
-sooner heard, but wither they run to ring bells, or crie out to burne
-witches, or else burne consecrated things, hoping by the smoke thereof
-to drive the devill out of the aire.”
-
-Witchcraft and magic were, however, recognised by the Government as
-real things. It was thought desirable in 1542 to pass an Act against
-these practices.
-
-“It shall be felony to practise, or cause to be practised conjurations,
-with craft, enchantment or sorcery, to get money: or to consume any
-person in his body, members, or goods; or to provoke any person to
-unlawful love; or for the despight of Christ or lucre of money to pull
-down any cross; or to declare where goods stolen,” etc.
-
-This Act of Henry VIII. was repeated or confirmed by Elizabeth twenty
-years later, and by James I. in 1603. Cranmer, in 1549, ordered the
-clergy to inquire “whether you know of any that use charms, sorcery,
-enchantment, witchcrafts, soothsaying, or any like craft invented by
-the devil.” And in 1558 Bishop Jewel, preaching before the Queen, said,
-“It may please your Grace to understand that witches and sorcerers
-within these last few years are marvellously increased within your
-Grace’s realm. Your subjects pine away even to the death; their colour
-fadeth; their flesh rotteth; their speech is benumbed; their senses are
-bereft.”
-
-The precautions used against witchcraft do not belong to London, where
-the belief in the superstition took a less active form than in the
-country. A pebble with a natural hole in it, a horseshoe picked up by
-accident and nailed up over the door, a hare’s foot in the pocket, a
-bit of witchwood, were simple precautions against the witch. I do not
-think that these superstitions were much followed in London, though
-there are examples that the terror of the witch prevailed in the City
-as well as in the country.
-
-It is remarkable that the spread of education and the toleration of
-fine thoughts in religion did not destroy this horrible superstition.
-On the contrary it increased, and the seventeenth century, when the
-greatest amount of religious freedom was practised if not allowed, only
-made the belief in witchcraft more profound.
-
-Who could choose but to believe when Ben Jonson himself could write of
-witches as follows?
-
-    “Within a gloomy dimble she doth dwell,
-    Down in a pit o’ergrown with brakes and briars,
-    Close by the ruins of a shaken abbey,
-    Torn with an earthquake down into the ground,
-    ’Mongst graves and grots, near an old charnel-house
-    Where you shall find her sitting in her form,
-    As fearful and melancholie as that
-    She is about: with caterpillars’ kells,
-    And knotty cobwebs, rounded in with spells.
-    Thence she steals forth to relief in the fogs,
-    And rotten mists, upon the fens and bogs,
-    Down to the drowned lands of Lincolnshire:
-    To make ewes cast their lambs, swine eat their farrow,
-    The housewives’ tun not work, nor the milk churn!
-    Writhe children’s wrists, and suck their breath in sleep:
-    Get vials of their blood! and where the sea
-    Casts up his slimy ooze, search for a weed
-    To open locks with, and to rivet charms,
-    Planted about her in the wicked feat
-    Of all her mischiefs, which are manifold.”
-
-We may illustrate this belief by the case of Joan Cason or Freeman (she
-was the wife of one Freeman). She was indicted and solemnly tried by a
-jury on the charge of being a witch, and of having killed by witchcraft
-one Jane Cooke, aged three years.
-
-The principal evidence was Sarah Cooke, mother of the child. She kept
-an alehouse. She was one day drawing a pot of ale for a stranger when
-he remarked the languishing condition of her child, and suggested
-that it was bewitched. “Take,” he said, “a tile from the house of the
-suspected person, lay it in the fire, and if she really is a witch
-the tile will sparkle round the cradle.” Wonderful to relate, Sarah
-Cooke took a tile from the woman’s house, laid it in the fire, and
-it did “sparkle round the house.” At that moment Joan Cason herself
-looked in, gazed upon the child, and went away. Four hours after the
-child died. What more was wanted? There was evidence corroborative.
-In the lifetime of the man Freeman there was something like a rat seen
-about her house, something that squeaked. In the end Joan was hanged,
-protesting her innocence, but confessing ill conduct with one Mason,
-who had died of the plague.
-
-There is also the case of Simon Penbrooke, living in St. George’s
-Parish, Southwark. He was suspected to be a conjurer, and was summoned
-before a court holden in the church of St. Mary Overies either for that
-or for some other case. As he was talking to a proctor, presumably
-about his defence, he suddenly fell dead, just as the Judge entered the
-church. Of course the Judge remarked that it was the just judgment of
-God towards those that used sorcery, “and a great example to admonish
-others to fear the justice of God.” They found upon him certain
-“develish” books of conjuration, with a tin man and other fearful
-things. And they were reminded of Leviticus xx. 6, “If anie soule turne
-himselfe after such as woorke with spirits and after soothsaiers, saith
-the Lorde, I will put my face against that soule, and will cut him off
-from among my people.”
-
-Another form of witchcraft was that of the professional conjurer. There
-was, for instance, the case of William Randoll, who was charged with
-conjuring to know where treasure was hid in the earth. Four others were
-charged with assisting at the conjuration. One has no doubt of the
-fact or of the means employed. Randoll used, of course, the well-known
-bent stick, the “verge de Jacob,” which is still employed all over the
-world for the discovery of water, though its properties and powers in
-revealing the existence of metals have been of late neglected, and are
-now nearly forgotten. The whole of the accused were condemned to death,
-but in the end Randoll alone was executed. There was said at the time
-to be five hundred professed conjurers in the country.
-
-The origin of touching for the King’s Evil is recounted by Stow in his
-_Annals_ in the following manner:—
-
-“A young woman was afflicted with this disorder in a very alarming
-manner, and to a most disgusting degree, feeling uneasiness and pain
-consequent upon it in her sleep, dreamt that she should be cured by
-the simple operation of having the part washed by the King’s hand.
-Application was consequently made to Edward, by her friends, who very
-humanely consented to perform the unpleasant request. A bason of water
-was brought, with which he carefully softened the tumours till they
-broke, and the contents discharged; the sign of the cross wound up the
-charm; and the female retired, with the assurance of his protection
-during the remainder of the cure, which was effected within a week.”
-
-Of talismans and amulets the sixteenth century had many. The word
-talisman is an Arabic corruption of the Greek, _i.e._ the influence
-of a planet or Zodiacal sign upon a person born under it. It was a
-symbolical figure drawn or engraved. It was supposed at once to procure
-love and to avert danger. The amulet derived from Latin _amolior_,
-to do away with, or baffle, averted danger of all kinds. Amber kept
-children from danger; a child’s caul made lawyers prosper; the Evil Eye
-was averted by certain well-known symbols, including the locust; the
-closed hand, the pine cone, and other objects were amulets. The German
-Jew at the point of death tied his head round with knotted leather.
-The Turks cured apoplexy by encircling the head with a parchment strip
-painted with signs of the Zodiac. Spells were of all kinds.
-
-Among the superstitions of the time must not be forgotten that
-favourite form of superstition known as astrology, which still
-flourishes, though it is not so commonly practised and believed as
-formerly. Many of the Fathers of the Church denounced astrology, yet
-astrologers continued. After the Reformation they became more open
-in their profession and more daring in their pretensions. The names
-of Nostradamus, Cornelius Agrippa, William Lilly, Robert Fludd, John
-Dee, and Simon Former, occur as leaders among the astrologers, some of
-whom were also alchemists. Some of the English professors of astrology
-were pupils of Cornelius Agrippa in London and at Pavia; others went
-to study the science at Strasburg. Judicial astrology was in great
-vogue in London for two hundred years after the Reformation; hundreds
-of people gained their livelihood by casting nativities for children
-in which their future was foretold. The story of Dryden and his son’s
-nativity is well known. The astrologers picked out lucky days for the
-commencement of any kind of business; they told fortunes; they resolved
-questions; they recovered stolen goods; they predicted future events.
-It is, however, apparent from their own writings that they had little
-confidence in the stars, and that the popular part of astrology,
-at least, was for the most part guesswork, not without fraud. The
-astrologers of London in the sixteenth century formed themselves into a
-Society. In the year 1550 a certain Dr. Gell preached a sermon before
-the Society of Astrologers. Ashmole also mentions his own attendance
-at certain astrological banquets. But about the Society itself very
-little is known. Newton pointed out that the sun and stars were only
-other earths which could have no power over the destiny of men. But the
-superstition decayed very slowly.
-
-Dr. Dee’s _Diary_ is a _locus classicus_ for the superstitions of his
-time—the last quarter of the sixteenth century.
-
-He hears knockings in his chamber, with a voice like the shrieking of
-an owl, but more drawn out and more soft. He is offered a sight in a
-crystal and he “saw”—what did he see? He does not tell us.
-
-A friend is strangely troubled by a “spiritual creature” about
-midnight. Robert Gardiner reveals to him a great philosophical secret,
-which is received with common prayer. He hears of an alchemist who
-gives away “great lumps” of the philosopher’s stone. He dreams that he
-is to be bereft of his books.
-
-There was trouble with Anne his nurse. She was tempted by a wicked
-spirit who possessed her. He prayed with her; he anointed her with
-“holy oil” twice, the wicked spirit resisting. Despite the power of
-the oil Anne threw herself into the well, but was dragged out in time.
-Three weeks later she evaded her keeper and cut her throat.
-
-In 1596 Dee received a message from the Queen; he was to do what he
-would in philosophy and alchemy; no one should hinder him. And so on to
-the end of the _Diary_.
-
-In the autumn of 1899 there was found in the garden of Lincoln’s
-Inn a thin leaden tablet about four inches square. On one side were
-eighty-one small squares, arranged in a large square, each with a
-number engraved upon it. On the other side were three names—Hasmodar,
-Scherchemosh, and Scharhahan, with a symbol to each. The explanation
-is as follows:—The square is a charm; the number eighty-one is the
-number of the Moon, each planet having its own number in the “science”
-of astrology. The arrangement of the numbers in the eighty-one squares
-is such that added up vertically or horizontally or diagonally the sum
-shall always be the same. In this case it is 369. Why 369 I cannot
-explain. On the other side the three names are the three spirits of the
-Moon, each with its hieroglyph.
-
-The writing is an expression of an invitation or a command to the
-spirits to work mischief on an unfortunate man. Had the sorcerer
-desired good fortune he would have used a silver plate. In either case
-it was necessary to bury the plate in some secret place, unseen and
-unsuspected.
-
-The following story is gravely told by Philip Stubbes. Perhaps he did
-not believe it himself; but it is certain that he meant his readers to
-believe it.
-
-“This gentlewoman beeyng a very riche Merchaunte mannes daughter: upon
-a tyme was invited to a Bridall or Wedding, whiche was solemnized in
-that Toune, againste whiche daie she made great preparation, for the
-plumyng of herself in gorgious arraie, that as her body was moste
-beautifull, faire, and proper, so her attire in every respecte might
-bee corespondent to the same. For the accomplishment whereof, she
-curled her haire, she died her lockes, and laied them out after the
-best maner, she coloured her face with waters and Ointmentes; but in no
-case could she gette any (so curious and daintie she was) that could
-starche and sette her Ruffes and Neckerchers to her mynde; wherefore
-she sent for a couple of Laundresses, who did the best thei could to
-please her humours, but in anywise thei could not. Then fell she to
-sweare and teare, to cursse and banne, castyng the Ruffes under feete,
-and wishyng that the Devill might take her when she weare any of those
-Neckerchers againe. In the meane tyme (through the sufferaunce of God)
-the Devill, transformyng himself into the forme of a young man, as
-brave and proper as she in every pointe in outward appearance, came
-in, fainyng himself to bee a woer or suter unto her. And seyng her thus
-agonized, and in suche a peltyng chase, he demaunded of her the cause
-thereof, who straight waie tolde hym how she was abused in the settyng
-of her Ruffes, which thyng beeyng heard of hym, he promised to please
-her minde, and thereto tooke in hande the setting of her Ruffes, whiche
-he performed to her greate contentation, and likyng, in so muche as
-she lokyng her self in a glasse (as the Devill bad her) became greatly
-inamoured with hym. This dooen, the yong man kissed her, in the doyng
-whereof he writhe her necke in sunder, so she died miserably, her
-bodie beyng metamorphosed into blacke and blewe colours most ugglesome
-to behold, and her face (whiche before was so amorous) became moste
-deformed, and fearfull to looke upon. This being knowen, preparaunce
-was made for her burial, a riche coffin was provided, and her fearfull
-bodie was laied therein, and it covered verie sumpteously. Foure men
-immediatly assaied to lifte up the corps, but could not move it, then
-sixe attempted the like, but could not once stirre it from the place
-where it stoode. Whereat the standers by marveilyng, caused the Coffin
-to bee opened, to see the cause thereof. Where thei founde the bodie
-to be taken awaie, and a blacke Catte verie leane and deformed sittyng
-in the Coffin, setting of greate Ruffes, and frizlyng of haire, to the
-greate feare and wonder of all beholders. This wofull spectacle have I
-offered to their viewe, that by looking into it, instead of their other
-looking Glasses thei might see their own filthinesse, and avoyde the
-like offence, for feare of the same, or worser judgment: whiche God
-graunt thei maie doe.”
-
-
-
-
-                          ELIZABETHAN LONDON
-
-
-
-
-                               CHAPTER I
-
-                               WITH STOW
-
-
-Let us climb the steps that lead to the City Wall at the Tower postern,
-and make a circuit by means of the Wall. We walk on the five-foot way
-designed for the archers. It is grass-grown between the stones. On the
-battlements the wall-flower grows luxuriously with the green fumitory
-and the red flowers of the kiss-me-quick. Looking over the Wall we
-perceive that the ditch is nearly filled up: all kinds of rubbish have
-been shot into it; there are small ponds of water here and there,
-and on the opposite bank are gardens in patches and what we call
-allotments. “Alas!” says our guide, who continually laments the past,
-“I remember when the ditch was full, and when the boys came to bathe
-in it and were sometimes drowned in it. Then fish abounded and men
-angled from the bank.” We begin our walk. “I remember,” our guide goes
-on, talking while he leads the way, “running along the Wall when I was
-a boy, nearly sixty years ago. It was a favourite pastime to run from
-gate to gate. That was before the suppression of the Religious.” He
-sighed—Was he then regretting that event? “All the Houses were standing
-then. One thought they would stand for ever. Yet the axe was already
-laid to the tree: there was internal decay and external contempt,
-though we boys knew nothing of it. The friars in vain searched the
-boxes put up for them in the shops: no one would give them alms; if
-they went into a house, no one would give them so much as a crust
-of bread; there were but fifteen left in Grey Friars, and they were
-selling their vessels of silver and gold when they were called upon to
-surrender. But still their churches made a brave show. All day long
-the bells were ringing—’twas a city of bells. They rang from cathedral
-and parish church; from monastery and nunnery; from college of priests
-and from chapel and from spital. They rang for festivals and fasts;
-for pageants and ridings; for births and deaths; for marriages and
-funerals; for the election of City officers; for the King’s birthday;
-for the day and the hour; they rang in the baby; they rang out the
-passing soul; they rang merrily in honour of the bride; they rang for
-work to begin and for work to cease; the streets echoed the ringing
-of bells all day long; for miles round London you could hear with the
-singing of the larks the ringing of the bells.
-
-“A third part of the City belonged to the Houses and the Church.
-Why, thousands of honest people lived by working for St. Paul’s and
-the parish churches and the monks and nuns. Look around you now.”
-We were close to Aldgate. Stow pointed to the south-east. Near
-the Tower stood a venerable church in a precinct surrounded by a
-stone wall and containing a cloister, houses round it, a garden, a
-school-house, and a burial-ground. “Behold the last of them!” he said.
-“St. Katherine’s, the smallest of all the Foundations, still exists;
-but changed—Ah!—changed. Where are the rest?” On the north of St.
-Katherine’s was another precinct marked out by a wall, and within it
-broken walls, broken windows, and rough timber store-houses. “There
-was once Eastminster,” said Stow. “Who is mindful of our Lady of Grace
-and her Cistercians? They are forgotten. Look Citywards. Yon ruins are
-those of the Crutched Friars. What is left to mark their abode of two
-hundred years and more? Their hall was converted into a glass-house
-and is burned down; their church contains now a carpenter’s shop and
-a tennis court. Turn your eyes more to the north. Those are the ruins
-of St. Helen’s Nunnery: their chapel is part of the parish church;
-their hall is now the Hall of the Leathersellers’ Company; their
-gardens also belong to that honourable Company. Or yonder, where you
-may behold the precinct of the Holy Trinity Priory. The Prior was also
-Alderman of Portsoken Ward and rode among the other Aldermen, but in
-habit ecclesiastical, as I myself have seen. The House kept open table
-for rich and poor; a noble and hospitable House it was, but in the end
-decayed by reason of too great hospitality. The church was pulled down
-and levelled with the ground—_Proh Pudor!_—the courts remain, but with
-other buildings; and now is that venerable and regal Foundation clean
-forgotten. Behold”—he pointed outside the Wall—“the place where the
-_Sorores Minores_, the sisters of St. Clare, lived for many years. The
-walls of their refectory still stand; on the site of their cloister is
-a fair and large store-house for armours and habiliments of war, with
-work-houses serving unto the same purpose. Alas! Poor Sisters! To this
-end has come their House of Peace and Prayer.”
-
-“Nevertheless, Master Stow, the City is more prosperous than before.”
-
-“I know not; I know not,” he said impatiently. “What do I know about
-wealth and prosperity? Let us go on.” So he left off talking about the
-churches and monasteries and pointed to the houses beyond the Wall.
-“The suburbs,” he said, “have not greatly increased of late years.
-There has been too much plague among us. And, indeed, it would seem
-that we are never to be rid of plague. The Queen’s Council forbade
-the building of new houses. As well forbid the rising of the tide.
-There are now—as you can plainly see—a line of cottages on both sides
-of the road as far as Whitechapel Church. But who is to hinder? There
-is a line of houses along the riverside as far as Ratcliffe and even
-Limehouse, where once were elms so noble. But who is there to hinder?
-Masterless men are they, and sea-faring men and common cheats and
-rogues, who live beside the river, beyond the jurisdiction of the Mayor
-and safe from the wholesome cart tail and the penance of pillory.
-
-[Illustration: A True and Exact Draught of the TOWER LIBERTIES,
-survey’d in the Year 1597 by _Gulielmus Haiward_ and _J. Gascoyne_.
-
-E. Gardner’s Collection.]
-
-“Pleasant it was, in those old days,” he went on, “to overlook the
-quiet nuns from the Wall. There were no whispers against those holy
-Sisters, and no scandals. We loved to look upon them in their gardens
-quiet and peaceful. They prayed for the City, the nuns of St. Clare,
-of St. Helen’s, and of Holywell. Now every man prays for himself.
-There were also the monks in their cloisters, walking and reading and
-meditating. Some there were who called the monks devourers and drones.
-I know not. Their prayers were asked for the dead and for the living.
-No one prays now for the dead, and no one asks where they lie or how
-they fare. Drones and devourers! They were gentlemen all by birth,—why
-should they work?”
-
-It was, indeed, surprising to see the ruins of the Houses, nor had I
-understood, until I walked round the Wall and observed the ruins, how
-many there were, or how great was the destruction when the masterful
-King turned out the monks and nuns and gave their houses to his
-favourites and his courtiers. “They have taken” said Stow, “all they
-wanted of the stones. What are left will vanish little by little.”
-
-“But the memory will continue.”
-
-“Nay, in the minds of scholars, not of the people. Things of the past
-are soon forgotten. No one will teach the children about the Houses of
-monks and friars. If they teach them anything at all, it will be as
-Barnabe Googe taught his generation when he gathered into one volume
-all that could be alleged or invented against those holy men, if they
-were holy,” he added, correcting himself. “Indeed a man must pay heed
-unto his words. I have been, myself, charged with Romish leanings
-because I remember things that are past and gone. What do the young
-folk now understand of what they have lost, because they never saw it?
-I am now old, and in age the mind flies back willingly to the days of
-youth.”
-
-Within the Wall we saw the ruins of the Crutched Friars, of St.
-Helen’s, of the Holy Priory, of the Austin Friars, of the Papey, of
-Elsing Spital, of St. James’s in the Wall, of the Grey Friars and of
-the Black Friars; without the Wall there were the ruins of Eastminster,
-of the Clares, of St. Mary Spital, of Holywell, of the Church House, of
-the Knights Hospitallers, of Clerkenwell Nunnery, of St. Bartholomew’s
-Priory, and of the White Friars.
-
-“The poets, doubtless,” I said, “and with them the divines, meditate
-among these ruins.”
-
-“Alas! No. The poets write songs of love and sing them; or they go
-forth to the wars and sing of them. The times are brisk. It is as if
-the world was waking up from sleep: there are new things everywhere;
-we live in the present; our ships go forth to distant lands; there is
-a new world, a Terra Incognita, to be explored and conquered; it is no
-time for meditation. When the cloister was broken down meditation fled
-beyond the seas. We live to fight and to get rich, and to watch against
-the wiles of Pope and Spaniard.”
-
-[Illustration: EAST VIEW OF CLOISTERS OF COLLEGIATE CHURCH OF ST.
-KATHERINE
-
-Taken down in July 1755.]
-
-“Do these ruins then inspire no regret?”
-
-“None. The people are forgetting fast. Only old men sometimes speak
-of what they remember; when the last stones have been taken away, the
-very names will tell them nothing. Even the names are changing. Soon
-all will be lost and forgotten. Strange! Four hundred years those monks
-lived among us, and after fifty years they are already clean forgotten
-as much as if they had never lived.”
-
-At Bishopsgate, Stow pointed northward. “Houses,” he said, “are
-stretching along the northern road, but slowly. Among the ruins of
-Holywell stands a Play house, and outside it is another. What will
-be the end of this passion for the theatre, I know not. Formerly, an
-interlude in an Inn yard, a masque in a Company’s Hall, and so enough.
-Now have ye every day a play set forth upon a stage, with songs and
-music, and boys dressed up as women.”
-
-He shook his head and led on, still following the Wall. Within the
-City on this north side there were many large and fair gardens, some
-belonging to Companies which here have their Halls, and some to
-merchants’ houses, and some that once belonged to the Monastic Houses.
-They were set with fruit-trees and with beds of flowers and sweet
-herbs. Among the gardens stood collections of craftsmen’s cottages and
-workshops, and the churches with their small green churchyards were
-almost hidden by the trees. This part of London truly had a rural look
-by reason of these gardens.
-
-We passed Moorgate, the old church of the Papey close to the Wall,
-and further along, also close to the Wall, the church of All Hallows;
-we came to Cripplegate with its church outside the Wall. And passing
-a bend to the south, continued our walk. On the other side of the
-ditch was another double line of houses. “This is Aldersgate,” said
-Stow. “The way leads to the Charter House and beyond to the village
-of Iseldon. You can now see the ruins of the House of the Knights
-Hospitallers; their noble gate yet stands, and part of their church.
-Beyond was the Priory of St. Bartholomew. From the Wall you may behold
-their cloisters; the chancel of their church is now a parish church.
-Close at hand is Smithfield. What things have been done at Smithfield!
-I was thirty years of age when Queen Mary burned her martyrs. There had
-been burnings before her time, but she outdid them all. Sir, she was
-ill-advised: she thought to make the people go back to the old Religion
-through fear. She might have led them back through love. I have seen
-the burning of those stubborn folk. Old and young, men and women, nay
-children, have I seen standing in the faggots, praying aloud while the
-flames mounted up and licked their hands and their faces. Mostly they
-died quickly, being smothered with the smoke; but sometimes the flames
-were blown away, and we saw the blackened body still in agony, and the
-lips that moved to the end in prayer. And we saw how the Lord answered,
-giving fortitude to endure or even, if we knew it, painlessness in
-the midst of fire. To see father, brother, neighbour, so die without
-fear, and as if joyously enduring torture in order to reach the gates
-of Heaven,—Believe me, sir, this it was that made the people what they
-are, and completed Henry’s work.”
-
-We came to Newgate. “Behold!” he said, “the cat, emblem of Whittington,
-who rebuilt this gate and prison. Here is Christ’s Hospital, which once
-was the House of the Grey Friars. It is London’s chiefest glory: here
-shall you find boys ruled with wisdom and taught godliness, who would
-otherwise have joined the throngs of the masterless, and roamed about
-the streets and roads.” And so on to Ludgate, where we left the Wall.
-“See,” said Stow, “there are houses with many palaces of nobles all
-the way from Bridewell to the King’s House at Westminster. And now,
-good sir, we leave the Wall, and we will visit the City within the
-Wall.”
-
-[Illustration: ST. PAUL’S CHURCH
-
-From Visscher’s _Panorama of London_.]
-
-He led me by Ludgate into the precinct of St. Paul’s, surrounded by
-a stone wall; the Cathedral looked battered and worn by the tooth of
-time; the spire, once the glory of the City, was gone never to be
-replaced; the stonework was black in parts from the smoke of the sea
-coal; the tracery was mouldering; about the towers of the west flew the
-swifts crying. “There are kites on the roof,” said Stow, “which keep
-the City clean and devour the offal.”
-
-[Illustration: LATIMER PREACHING BEFORE EDWARD VI. AT WESTMINSTER
-
-E. Gardner’s Collection.]
-
-At Paul’s Cross there was a preaching by some reverend divine: a crowd
-of women sat on benches listening; a few men were there, but it was in
-working hours. The preacher argued some difficult point of doctrine,
-comparing texts and turning over the leaves of his small brown Geneva
-Bible. I observed that his hearers listened with a critical air. “For
-fifty years,” said Stow, looking on with contempt, “they have been
-arguing and disputing on matters of doctrine and nothing settled yet;
-in the old time we were told what to believe, and we were stayed and
-comforted by our belief. These people prove one thing to-day and
-another thing to-morrow. They are pulled this way and that by the
-power of texts which they think they understand. Let us go into the
-Cathedral.”
-
-[Illustration: SOUTH FRONT OF BAYNARD’S CASTLE, ABOUT 1640]
-
-Outside, in the churchyard, everything was destroyed that formerly made
-the place venerable and beautiful: Pardon churchyard; the “Clochard;”
-the cloister with the Dance of Death; Sherrington’s Library; the
-college of the minor canons. Only Paul’s Cross remained. And the
-Cathedral, rising up alone and gaunt, bereft of her daughters, seemed
-mournful and lonely. “Perhaps,” said Stow, “a new church is wanted for
-the new Faith. St. Paul’s was not built for Protestants. They know not
-how to treat the church. Look at yonder fellows!” He pointed to two
-porters who bore boxes on their heads, and entering at the North doors
-tramped noisily through the Cathedral, going out at the South. “They
-have made a right of way, a short way, through the church. Saw one ever
-the like? Through the church itself!”
-
-We went in; the nave was a kind of noisy Exchange, yet not for
-merchants. It was full of people loudly talking of all kinds of
-business; ladies were there. “They make their assignations in the
-church,” said Stow. Gallants richly dressed swaggered up and down the
-middle aisle; servants stood waiting to be hired; scriveners had their
-stools and tables, and were busy writing letters; men disputed over
-their affairs, yea, and quarrelled loudly. The chancel was walled off
-and separated from the nave and transepts. The old glory had departed
-from the once splendid interior: of all the chapels, shrines, altars,
-chantries, paintings, lights, carved marbles, work in ivory, gold
-and silver, nothing was left. Only bare whitewashed walls and a few
-plain tombs; even the painted glass, wherever it could be reached,
-was broken. While we looked around the organ began to play; it was
-accompanied by other instruments, chiefly wind instruments. With the
-music ascended the voices of the choir, the pure sweet voices of the
-boys. My old guide’s eyes grew humid. “No,” he said, “they have not
-taken all away. The music remains with us, to remind us that Heaven
-is left although we have whitewashed the paintings that revealed its
-glories.”
-
-We left the precinct by the North gate, which opens upon the back of
-St. Michael le Querne, and turned eastward into Chepe. The breadth
-of this great market had contracted since the reign of Edward the
-Third. The houses on the south side were much higher and better built,
-with timber frames and much carving and gilding. On the north side
-the lanes, which were formerly broad spaces for stands and sheds for
-the market, were now narrow, with houses on either hand: there were
-also houses on that side, but not continuous; here were Grocers’ Hall
-and Mercers’ Hall. Round the Standard and the Cross were stalls kept
-by women; the poulterers still had their shops in the Poultry, and
-apothecaries sold their drugs and herbs in Bucklersbury.
-
-It was now evening, and supper time. My guide led me to the tavern
-called the Rose, in the Poultry. There was a goodly company assembled
-in the great room. Here there was music, and the drawers ran about
-with supper and with wine. A capon with a flask of Malmsey warmed the
-heart of my old guide. After supper we took tobacco and more wine,
-while boys sang madrigals very sweetly. The close of a summer day in
-the City of London brings with it a cessation of the noise of hammers
-and the ringing of anvils and the grinding of waggons and the shouts of
-those who quarrel over their work. The City became quiet; there was the
-tinkling of guitar and lute from the taverns and the houses; the voices
-of those who sang; the merry laugh of maidens, and the sober voice of
-age.
-
-“Come,” said Stow, “there remains the Royal Exchange. This we will see
-and so an end until to-morrow.”
-
-The Royal Exchange was lit up with candles. The upper walk or
-_pawne_[4] I found to be a collection of shops, all as light as day.
-Music was playing and the place was full of people; not the sober
-merchants, but the City madams and their daughters, the gallants, and
-the ’prentices. “In the summer,” said Stow, “the place is open till
-nine of the clock, in the winter till ten. Many come here just as they
-go to Paul’s in the morning, because they have no other place to go to
-and no money to spend in the tavern. Know you not the lines?
-
-    ‘Though little coin thy purseless pockets line,
-      Yet with great company thou’st taken up;
-    For often with Duke Humphrey thou dost dine;
-      And often with Sir Thomas Gresham sup.’”
-
-Other walks, many other walks, I have taken about London in company
-of good old John Stow: we have walked together along Thames Street,
-which is surely the very heart of the City, and in Chepe, and among
-the gardens of the northern part. In these walks about the streets,
-even then so old and so venerable, the old man waxed eloquent over the
-houses of the past where the great nobles had each his palace, which
-was also a barrack in the City of London. It was not only in and about
-Thames Street: all over the City he led me, prattling in his kindly
-garrulity. “There were kings’ palaces here once,” he said: “the Tower
-Royal where Richard’s mother dwelt; and the King’s Wardrobe—I can show
-you that; and Baynard’s Castle, which is now rebuilt and remains a
-noble house; and Crosby Hall, where the third Richard sojourned for a
-while; and the Stone House in Lombard Street that they call King John’s
-Palace, but I know not with what truth; and Cold Harbour where Prince
-Hal once lived; and the Savoy which was John of Gaunt’s. And there
-were the town houses of the noblemen. What a stately house was that of
-the Northumberlands outside Aldgate! It is now a printing-house. And
-they had another house in Aldgate Ward with broad gardens, now turned
-into bowling-greens. And there is the house called the Erber on the
-east side of Dowgate. The Earl of Warwick had it, then the Duke of
-Clarence had it, and when it was rebuilt Francis Drake had it. There is
-Gresham’s Mansion in Broad Street, which has become a noble college for
-the instruction of youths in the liberal arts, so that some say that
-London will become like unto Oxford or Cambridge. And Whittington’s
-house beside the church of St. Michael, now an almshouse, which was
-once also a college for priests. And there is the house which once
-belonged to Sir Robert Large, when Caxton was his ’prentice, at the
-corner of Old Jewry; formerly it was a Jews’ Synagogue, and afterwards
-the House of the Brethren of the Sack. Alas! most of these houses
-are now in decay and inhabited by poor folk. The nobles come no more
-to town.” Yet he showed me the house of Sir Francis Walsingham, the
-Queen’s Secretary. It was in Seething Lane. “We look for these palaces
-now, along the river, between Bridewell and Westminster,” he said.
-
-[Illustration: WEST CHEPE IN ELIZABETHAN LONDON]
-
-My old guide looked at the people as they passed with a peculiar
-benevolence, especially upon the young. “I have myself been a
-’prentice,” he said; “I know the rubs and crosses of that time; an
-impatient master, long hours of work, hard fare, hot blood that longs
-to be up and doing. Many there are who have in their latter days broken
-their indentures and fled to sail the seas with Oxenham or Drake; many
-have gone into the service of the adventurous Companies. I remember
-very well, very well,” he sighed, “the joys of the time, the dancing
-on a summer evening, the wrestling, the fighting, the pageants and
-ridings in the streets. Life lies all before the ’prentice. What boots
-it to be my Lord Mayor when life is wellnigh spent?”
-
-“Sir,” my guide added, “I have shown you our City. Go now, alone, and
-watch the ways of the people: mark the wealth of our merchants; look at
-the Port crowded with ships and the Quays cumbered with merchandise;
-talk with the mariners, and observe the spirit that is in them all.
-Like all old men I lament the past; but I needs must rejoice in the
-quickening of these latter days. And so, good sir, farewell.”
-
-[Illustration: A VIEW OF COLD HARBOUR IN THAMES STREET, ABOUT 1600]
-
-
-
-
-                              CHAPTER II
-
-                         CONTEMPORARY EVIDENCE
-
-
-Let us supplement this discourse by contemporary evidence.
-
-There is an anonymous map of London in the sixteenth century called
-“Londinium Feracissimi Angliæ Regni Metropolis.” It is in some respects
-more exact than the better known map attributed to Agas. The streets,
-gardens, and fields are laid down with greater precision, and there is
-no serious attempt to combine, as Agas does, a picture, or a panorama,
-with a map. At the same time, the surveyor has been unable to resist
-the fashion of his time to consider the map as laid down from a
-bird’s-eye view, so that he thinks it necessary to give something of
-elevation.
-
-I will take that part of the map which lies outside the walls. The
-precinct of St. Katherine stands beside the Tower with its chapel,
-court, and gardens; there are a few houses near it, apparently
-farmhouses; the convent of Eastminster had entirely vanished. Nothing
-indicates the site of the Nunnery in the Minories; yet there were ruins
-of these buildings standing here till the end of the last century;
-outside Bishopsgate houses extended past St. Mary Spital, some of whose
-buildings were still, apparently, standing. On the west side St. Mary
-of Bethlehem stood, exactly on the site of Liverpool Street Station,
-but not covering nearly so large an area; it appears to have occupied a
-single court and was probably what we should now consider a very pretty
-little cottage, like St. Edmund’s Hall, Oxford.
-
-Outside Cripplegate the houses begin again, leaving, between, the
-lower Moorfields dotted with ponds; there are houses lining the road
-outside Aldersgate. The courts are still standing of St. Bartholomew’s
-Priory, Charter House, St. John’s Priory, and the Clerkenwell Nunnery;
-Smithfield is surrounded with houses; Bridewell with its two square
-courts stands upon the river bank; Fleet Street is irregular in shape,
-the houses being nowhere in line; the courts of Whitefriars are still
-remaining. The Strand has all its great houses facing the river; their
-backs open upon a broad street with a line of mean houses on the north
-side. On the south of the river there is a line of houses on the High
-Street; a line of houses along the river bank on either side; and
-another one running near Bermondsey Abbey.
-
-Within the walls we observe that some of the Religious Houses have
-quite disappeared; Crutched Friars, for instance; there is a vacant
-space which is probably one of the courts of St. Helen’s; the Priory
-of the Holy Trinity preserves its courts, but there is no sign of
-the church; there are still visible the courts and gardens of Austin
-Friars; there is still the great court of the Grey Friars; but the
-buildings of Blackfriars seem to have vanished entirely.
-
-[Illustration: BRIDEWELL PALACE AND THE ENTRANCE TO THE FLEET RIVER AS
-THEY APPEARED IN 1660
-
-E. Gardner’s Collection.]
-
-But Sir Thomas More has left us a description of London in his time. It
-is a description in terms too vague, yet interesting. He calls the City
-Amaurote and the Thames he calls the Anyder.
-
-“The River Anyder riseth four and twenty miles above Amaurote, out of
-a little spring: but being increased by other small floods and brooks
-that run into it: and, among others, two somewhat bigger ones. Before
-the City, it is half a mile broad (hardly so much now as it was in
-former days being pent in and straitned to a narrower space, by the
-later buildings on each side): and further, broader. By all that space
-that lyeth between the Sea and the City, and a good sort of land also
-above, the water ebbs and flows six hours together, with a swift tide;
-when the sea flows in to the length of thirty miles, it fills all the
-Anyder with salt water, and drives back the fresh water of the river;
-and somewhat further, it hangeth the sweetness of fresh water with
-saltness: but a little beyond that, the river waxeth sweet, and runneth
-foreby the City fresh and pleasant; and when the sea ebbs and goes back
-again, this fresh water follows it almost to the very fall into the sea.
-
-[Illustration: LONDINIUM FERACISSIMI ANGLIÆ REGNI METROPOLIS]
-
-They have also another river, which indeed is not very great, but it
-runneth gently and pleasantly: for it riseth even out of the same hill
-that the City standeth upon, and runneth down slope through the midst
-of the City into Anyder.” [This may be the river of the Wells; in
-More’s time the Walbrook was probably covered over.] “And because it
-ariseth a little without the City, the Amaurotians have enclosed the
-head spring of it with strong fences and bulwarks; and so have joined
-it to the City: this done, to the intent that the waters should not be
-stopped nor turned away, nor poisoned, if their enemies should chance
-to come upon them. From thence the water is derived and brought down in
-Chanals or Brooks divers ways into the lower parts of the City. Where
-that cannot be done by reason that the place will not suffer it, then
-they gather the Rain Water in great Cisterns which doth them as good
-service.” [This, it seems, was all the supply of Water the City had in
-that age, which is now much more plentifully served.] “Then next for
-the situation and Walls. That it stood by the side of a low Hill, in
-fashion almost square. The breadth of it began a little beneath the
-top of the Hill, and still continued by the space of two miles, until
-it came to the river Anyder. The length of it, which lyeth by the
-river-side, was somewhat more.
-
-The City is compassed about with an high and thick wall, full of
-Turrets and Bulwarks. A dry Ditch, but deep and broad and overgrown
-with bushes, briers, and thorns, goeth about three sides or quarters of
-the City. To the fourth side, the River itself serveth for a Ditch.
-
-The streets be appointed and set forth very commodious and handsome,
-both for carriage and also against the winds. The Streets be full
-twenty foot broad. The Houses be of fair and gorgeous Buildings: and in
-the street-side, they stand joined together in a long Row through the
-whole Street, without any partition or separation. On the bankside of
-the Houses, through the whole length of the Street, lye large Gardens
-which be closed in round about with the back parts of the Street. Every
-House hath two doors, one to the street, and a Postern Door on the
-backside into the Garden. These doors be made with two leaves, never
-locked nor bolted: so easie to be opened, that they will follow the
-least drawing of a finger, and shut again of themselves.
-
-[Illustration: PLAN OF THE CITY OF WESTMINSTER IN THE TIME OF ELIZABETH]
-
-[Illustration: PLAN OF THE CITY OF LONDON IN THE TIME OF ELIZABETH]
-
-They set great store by their gardens. In these they have Vineyards
-and all manner of Fruits, Herbs, and Flowers, so pleasant, so well
-furnished, and so finely kept, that I never saw anything more fruitful,
-nor better trimmed in any place: and their study and diligence
-herein cometh not only of pleasure, but also of a certain strife
-and contention that is betwixt street and street, concerning the
-trimming, husbanding, and flourishing, of their Gardens, every man
-for his own part: and verily, you shall not lightly find in all the
-City anything that is more commodious, either for the Profit of the
-Citizens, or for pleasure. And therefore it may seem, that the first
-founder of the City minded nothing so much as he did these Gardens.
-They say, that King Utopus himself, even at his first beginning,
-appointed and drew forth the platform of the City into this fashion and
-figure that it hath now, by his gallant garnishing and the beautiful
-setting forth of it. Whereunto he saw that one man’s age would not
-suffice, that he left to his posterity.
-
-Their Chronicles, which they keep written with all diligent
-circumspection, containing the history of 1760 years, even from the
-first conquest of the Island, record and witness, that the Houses
-in the beginning were very low, and likely homely cottages, or poor
-shepherds’ houses, made at all adventures of every rude piece of wood
-that came first to hand: with Mud-walls, and ridged Roofs thatched over
-with straw. But now the Houses be curiously builded after a gorgeous
-and gallant sort, with three stories, one over another.
-
-The outside of the walls be made of either hard Flint, or of Plaister,
-or else of Brick: and the Inner-sides be well strengthened with
-Timber-Work.
-
-The Roofs be plain and flat, covered with a certain kind of Plaister
-that is of no cost: and yet so tempered that no fire can hurt or perish
-it: and notwithstandeth the violence of the weather, better than any
-lead.
-
-They keep the wind out of their windows with glass: for it is there
-much used: and some were also with fine linnen dipped in oyl or amber:
-and that for two commodities: for by this means more light cometh in,
-and the wind is better kept out.” (_Utopia._)
-
-The following notes on England were written by one Stephen Perlin in
-1558. The tract was translated for, and published in, the _Antiquarian
-Repertory_ (vol. iv.):—
-
-“The English in general are cheerful and great lovers of music, for
-there is no church, however small, but has musical service performed in
-it. They are likewise great drunkards; for if an Englishman would treat
-you, he will say in his language, _yis dring a quarta rim gasquim cim
-hespaignol, oim malvoysi_; that is, will you drink a quart of Gascoigne
-wine, another of Spanish, and another Malmsy. In drinking or eating
-they will say to you above an hundred times, _drind iou_, which is, I
-am going to drink to you; and you should answer them in their language,
-_iplaigiu_, which means, I pledge you. If you would thank them in their
-language you must say, _god tanque artelay_, which is to say, I thank
-you with all my heart. When they are drunk, they will swear blood and
-death that you shall drink all that is in your cup, and will say thus
-to you, _bigod sol drind iou agoud oin_. Now remember, if you please,
-that in this land they commonly make use of silver vessels when
-they drink wine, and they will say to you at table, _goud chere_, which
-is good cheer. The servants wait on their master bareheaded, and leave
-their caps on the buffet. It is to be noted, that in this excellent
-kingdom there is, as I have said, no kind of order; the people are
-reprobates, and thorough enemies to good manners and letters, for they
-don’t know whether they belong to God or the Devil, which St. Paul had
-reprehended in so many people, saying, be not transported with divers
-sorts of winds, but be constant and steady to your belief.
-
-[Illustration: REFERENCES.
-
-  _1. The first S^T. GILES CHURCH._
-
-  _2. Remains of the Walls, antiently enclosing the Hospital
-  precincts._
-
-  _3. Site of the Gallows and afterwards of the Pound._
-
-  _4. Way to Uxbridge. now OXFORD S^T._
-
-  _5._ ELDE-STRATE, _since called HOG-LANE_.
-
-  _6._ LE-LANE _now MONMOUTH S^T._
-
-  _7. Site of the_ SEVEN DIALS _formerly called COCK and PYE FIELDS_.
-
-  _8._ ELM CLOSE _since called LONG-ACRE_.
-
-  _9. Site of_ LINCOLNS INN FIELDS _formerly called FICKETS-FIELDS_.
-
-                              A VIEW
-                _of part of the Northwest Suburbs_
-                            OF LONDON,
-                   _as they appeared, anno 1570.
-               Including the whole of the parish of
-                     S^T. GILES in the FIELDS
-               and its immediate Neighbourhood, its_
-                        PAROCHIAL CHURCHES,
-                _erected at different periods &c._
-
-          THE PARISH OF S^t. Giles in the Fields, LONDON.
-
-_The part of the North West Suburbs of London, since called Saint
-Giles’s, was about the time of the Norman Conquest an un-built tract of
-country, or but thinly scattered with habitations.—The parish derived
-its name if not its origin from the ancient Hospital for Lepers, which
-was built on the site of the present church by MATILDA queen of King
-Henry I. and dedicated to Saint Giles: before which time there had only
-been a small Chapel or Oratory on the spot.—It is described in old
-records, as abounding with gardens and dwellings in the flourishing
-times of Saint Giles’s Hospital but declined in population and
-buildings after the suppression of that establishment, and remained
-but an inconsiderable village till the end of the reign of Elizabeth,
-after which period it was rapidly built on, and became distinguished
-for the number and rank of its inhabitants. The great increase of S^t.
-Giles’s Parish occasioned the separation of S^t. George’s Bloomsbury
-Parish from it anno 1734.—The above view (which is partly supplied by
-the great Plan of London by Ralph Aggas, and partly from authorities
-furnished by parochial documents) was taken anno 1570._]
-
-In this country, all the shops of every trade are open, like those
-of the barbers in France, and have many glass windows, as well below
-as above in the chambers, for in the chambers there are many glazed
-casements, and that in all the tradesmen’s houses in almost every town;
-and those houses are like the barbers’ shops in France, as well above
-as below, and glazed at their openings. In the windows, as well in
-cities as villages, are plenty of flowers, and at the taverns plenty of
-hay upon their wooden floors, and many cushions of tapestry, on which
-travellers seat themselves. There are many bishopricks in this kingdom,
-as I think sixteen, and some archbishopricks, of which one is esteemed
-the principal, which is Cantorbie, called in English Cantorberi, where
-there is a very fine church, of which St. Thomas is patron. England
-is remarkable for all sorts of fruits, as apricots, peaches, and
-quantities of nuts.”
-
-In the year 1598 a German traveller, Paul Hentzner by name, visited
-London. This is what he says about the streets:—
-
-“The streets in this city are very handsome and clean; but that which
-is named from the goldsmiths who inhabit it, surpasses all the rest:
-there is in it a gilt tower, with a fountain that plays. Near it on the
-farther side is a handsome house, built by a goldsmith, and presented
-by him to the city. There are besides to be seen in this street, as in
-all others where there are goldsmiths’ shops, all sorts of gold and
-silver vessels exposed to sale, as well as ancient and modern medals,
-in such quantities as must surprise a man the first time he sees and
-considers them.” (_See_ Appendix VI.)
-
-Stow furnishes a very clear account of the condition of the suburbs in
-his own time. Thus, he says that outside the Wall in the East there
-were no houses at all east of St. Katherine’s along the river until the
-middle of the sixteenth century, but that during the latter half of
-the century there had sprung up a “continual street, or filthy strait
-passage, with alleys of small tenements built, inhabited by sailors;
-victuallers, along by the river of Thames, almost to Ratcliff, a good
-mile from the Tower.”
-
-He says, further, that in his time had arisen quite a new suburb
-between East Smithfield and Limehouse; and that good houses had been
-recently built between Ratcliff and Blackwall.
-
-Outside Aldgate he mentions a “large street replenished with buildings
-to Hog Lane and the bars. Without the bars both sides of the street
-were ‘pestered’ with cottages and alleys, even up to Whitechapel
-Church and almost half a mile beyond it into the common field.” Note,
-therefore, that close to Aldgate, just beyond Whitechapel Church, was a
-common which was thus encroached upon and settled on by squatters and
-by those who made enclosures and placed laystalls, etc., upon them.
-The whole of the common was thus taken up; “in some places it scarce
-remaineth a sufficient highway for the meeting of carriages and droves
-of people,” a fact to be remembered and accounted for.
-
-[Illustration: BISHOPSGATE]
-
-Going on to Bishopsgate and its highway. Outside the gate stood St.
-Botolph’s Church; next to it the Hospital of St. Mary of Bethlehem;
-opposite certain houses; then, the liberty of Norton Folgate, belonging
-to the canons of St. Paul’s; then the site of the Holywell Nunnery;
-all along the road to St. Leonard’s, Shoreditch, except for the site
-of St. Mary Spital, a “continual building of small and base tenements,
-for the most part lately erected.” Among the cottages Stow points to a
-certain row whose history was perhaps that of many others. The row of
-cottages were almshouses belonging to St. Mary Spital; the occupants
-were appointed by that House; they paid a yearly rent of one penny, in
-acknowledgment of ownership; and on Christmas Day they were feasted by
-the Prior. When the Hospital was suppressed the cottages, for want of
-repairs, fell into decay; the new owners of the land would not take
-over the responsibility of the charitable endowment; they neither
-repaired the houses nor did they invite the tenants to a Christmas
-feast. On the other hand, they did not collect the rent of a penny.
-They were then sold, although they ought to have been continued as
-almhouses to one Russell, who rebuilt them and gave them his own name,
-and let them to tenants in the usual way.
-
-The church of St. Leonard’s contained monuments to the memory of three
-noble families at least: the Westmoreland Nevilles; the Blounts, Lords
-Mountjoy; and that of Manners, Earls of Rutland. The reason of their
-tombs and monuments being found in the church must be sought in the
-history of the manors lying north of Shoreditch.
-
-[Illustration: PLAN OF ISLINGTON
-
-From a print in the British Museum. By the courtesy of the late Marquis
-of Salisbury.]
-
-On the north side of the City the Moor Fields continued for a long time
-as waste ground, seldom visited; in 1415, however, Thomas Fawconer,
-Mayor, broke through the City Wall and built the postern called
-Moorgate; he constructed causeways over the Moor; cleansed and repaired
-the dykes or ditches with which the Moor was intersected: so that the
-place was drained and made into a pleasant walk for the citizens,
-either on summer evenings, or on their way to Iselden and Hoxton.
-Sixty years later brickfields were opened in the Moor, and bricks made
-for the repair of the City Wall. Then citizens began to make and to
-enclose gardens in the Moor; in 1498 these were all taken away and an
-archery-field made in their place. In 1512 more dykes were made for the
-drainage of the Moor, and in 1527 conduits were constructed to carry
-the waters over the Tower Ditch into the Walbrook. The point is that in
-the sixteenth century the whole of the ground lying between Moorgate
-and Bishopsgate was unoccupied by houses. The map already referred to
-shows the road running north from Moorgate, and the Moor itself crossed
-by causeways: in the east a broad ditch crossed by bridges falls into
-the Tower Ditch.
-
-The Moor formerly extended beyond Cripplegate and as far as the Fleet
-River; it was built upon by the Religious Houses; St. Bartholomew’s
-Priory and Hospital; the Charter House; the Priory of St. John; and
-the Nunnery of Clerkenwell. Between these houses and the wall were St.
-Giles’s Church, St. Botolph’s Church, Fore Street, Whitecross Street,
-and other streets, making a suburb with a population in the sixteenth
-century of 1800 householders, or 9000 souls. The last bit of the Moor
-left on the north-west of the City was brickfield.
-
-We now come to the western suburb: the earliest settled and the most
-thickly populated of all. Fleet Street and the streets north of it,
-however, belonged to the Ward of Farringdon Without.
-
-We are now in a position to show other reasons why the extension of the
-City was so slow and so limited.
-
-All round the City lay manors and estates belonging for the most part
-to the Church. St. Paul’s Cathedral possessed a great many of these
-manors; the Bishop possessed many; St. Peter’s, Westminster, possessed
-many. Finsbury, Shoreditch, Hoxton, Iselden, St. Pancras, Willesden,
-belonged to St. Paul’s. The manor of St. Peter stretched all the way
-from Millbank to the Fleet River, and from the Thames to Holborn. These
-estates belonged to the Church; when the City received the County of
-Middlesex to farm, it did not receive these manors, and the owners had
-their rights. Foremost among these rights was that they were outside
-the jurisdiction of the City; the land could not be built upon without
-permission of the owners; what the City got was the inclusion of that
-part of the land outside the Wall which was bounded and defined by
-the Bars: that is to say, it included, without the Wall—(1) The Ward
-of Portsoken, formerly the lands of the Cnihten Gild; (2) The Common
-Land of Whitechapel; (3) The Common Land of the Moor as far as to the
-Fleet River, and (4) The Ward of Farringdon Without. Why did it go no
-farther? Because at every point beyond these limits the manors of the
-Church were met. At first the encroachments of the City authorities
-into the manors met with no opposition; perhaps the ecclesiastics felt
-that it was well to have the people on their lands well governed; on
-one occasion the City acquired rights by taking a manor on lease, as
-that of Mora di Halliwell in 1315. In other cases the ecclesiastics
-interfered and made it impossible for more houses to be built on their
-lands, save on their own terms, and without acknowledgment by the City
-Authority.
-
-For these reasons, therefore,—the limited jurisdiction of the City; the
-steady opposition of the ecclesiastical owners of the manors outside;
-and the slow growth of the population,—there was little increase save
-in the direction of Bishopsgate Street Without, where the City had a
-lease of the manor, until the Dissolution of the Religious Houses and
-the change of owners in the manors.
-
-
-
-
-                              CHAPTER II
-
-                             THE CITIZENS
-
-
-There was never a time when the sober citizen was more sober, more
-responsible, more filled with a sense of his authority and dignity.
-“The man,” says the wise king, “who is diligent in business shall stand
-before princes.”
-
-[Illustration: EARL OF SOMERSET AND HIS WIFE
-
-From a print in the British Museum.]
-
-They did stand before princes, these merchants of London; as their
-prosperity leaped up increasingly year after year, they became the
-creditors, at least, of princes, for Elizabeth borrowed freely and
-repaid unwillingly—yet in spite of this too notorious weakness, she
-retained to the end the deepest affection of her people.
-
-It has been a matter of reproach to the City that it seemed at this
-time wholly given over to trade and the interests of trade. To reproach
-a city which has always been a trading city with caring chiefly for the
-interests of trade seems somewhat unreasonable. But is it true that
-London has ever been wholly devoted to trade? I cannot find such a time
-in the whole long history of the City: certainly not in the reign of
-Elizabeth, when London cheerfully raised her men and her ships for the
-repulse of the Armada; and cheerfully gave the Queen whatever money she
-asked for; at the same time, while trade became larger than before,
-while the individual merchants became of more importance, the City
-certainly lost some of its political importance and was less dreaded,
-while it was more caressed, by the Sovereign.
-
-It was, moreover, with the better class, a deeply religious age;
-men were not afraid or ashamed of proclaiming, or of showing, their
-religion. When Francis Drake saw the Atlantic on one side and the
-Pacific on the other, he fell on his knees in the sight of the company
-and prayed aloud, that God would suffer him to sail upon that unknown
-sea: if a cutpurse was hanged, he never failed to make a moving speech,
-deeply religious, while on the ladder. All classes preserved as yet the
-Catholic practice of going often to church; they studied the Bible;
-they made their ’prentices attend services; they listened patiently
-to sermons; doctrine was considered a vital point. By the end of the
-sixteenth century those who favoured the old Faith were either dead
-or silenced; to the common people the old Faith meant a return to the
-flames in Smithfield; torture at the hands of the Spanish Inquisition
-if any should haply fall into Spanish hands; and slavery under the
-Spanish King should he achieve the conquest of the country; whereas the
-new Faith meant freedom of thought, increased wealth, advancing trade,
-fighting the Spaniard and capturing the Spanish galleons. Religion,
-therefore, was allied with prosperity.
-
-I have spoken of the sober guise of the London merchant. That sober
-guise belonged to the places where the merchant was mostly found: to
-the Royal Exchange, for instance, or Thames Street, beside the quays
-and warehouses. We must not think that there was no longer brightness
-of colour and even splendour in the streets. The rich liveries of the
-great nobles were chiefly seen on the river—remember that the front
-of the Palace faced the river, that the back belonged to the Strand,
-and that the river was London’s principal highway. Their varlets
-lolled about on the river stairs or escorted their master in his
-barge, but hardly belonged to the City. A Court gallant was dressed
-as extravagantly as he could afford, or as his estate would bear. He
-carried manors on his back, broad acres in his velvet cloak, with
-golden buckles and lace trimming, a year’s rents in his fantastic
-doublet slashed and puffed, in his silken hose, in his splendid sword,
-his scabbard and the handle set with gold, in his rings, his scents,
-his gloves and in his chains. But the Court gallant seldom showed on
-Thames Street.
-
-In Norman and Plantagenet London there were no shops, nor was there
-anything sold in the streets except in the market-places, and the
-streets set aside for retail trade. But in the Tudor time Street Cries
-had already begun. We find, for instance, the following pleasant
-verses:—
-
-        “Who liveth so merry in all this land
-        As doth the poor widow that selleth the sand?
-        And ever shee singeth as I can guesse,
-        Will you buy any sand, any sand, mistress?
-
-        The broom-man maketh his living most sweet,
-        With carrying of broomes from street to street;
-        Who would desire a pleasanter thing,
-        Than all the day long to doe nothing but sing?
-
-        The chimney-sweeper all the long day,
-        He singeth and sweepeth the soote away;
-        Yet when he comes home altho’ he be weary,
-        With his sweet wife he maketh full merry.
-
-        The cobbler he sits cobbling till none,
-        And cobbleth his shoes till they be done;
-        Yet doth he not feare, and so doth say,
-        For he knows his worke will soone decay.
-
-        Who liveth so merry and maketh such sport
-        As those that be of the poorest sort?
-        The poorest sort wheresoever they be,
-        They gather together by one, two, and three.
-
-    Broomes for old shoes! pouch-rings, bootes and buskings!
-      Will yee buy any new broomes?
-    New oysters! new oysters! new new cockels!
-      Cockels nye! fresh herrings! Will yee buy any straw?
-        Hay yee any kitchen stuffe, maides?
-      Pippins fine, cherrie ripe, ripe, ripe!
-                Cherrie ripe! etc.
-
-                Hay any wood to cleave?
-                Give eare to the clocke!
-                Beware your locke!
-                Your fire and your light!
-                And God give you good night!
-                        One o’clocke!”
-
-Sumptuary laws were constantly renewed and continually broken. Yet the
-mass of the people obeyed the unwritten law by which a man’s station
-was shown by his dress. For more on this subject see the Chapter on
-Dress.
-
-The ordering of the household was strict. Early hours were kept; in
-summer servants and apprentices were up at five; in winter at six
-or seven; there were rules as to attendance at morning and evening
-prayers; there was to be no quarrelling; no striking; no profane
-language.
-
-It is said that coaches were introduced in this reign; but there had
-always been coaches, _i.e._ wheeled conveyances of a kind. Such a
-carriage, belonging to the fourteenth century, is figured in J. J.
-Jusserand’s _English Wayfaring Life in the Middle Ages_—a cumbrous
-unwieldy thing, yet still a coach. What really happened in this century
-was the introduction of a much more convenient kind of coach from
-Holland.
-
-Stow laments the mud and the splashing in the streets. “The coachman
-rideth behind the horse tails, lasheth them, and looketh not behind
-him; the drayman sitteth and sleepeth on his dray and letteth his horse
-lead him home.” Most of the City streets, however, were so narrow and
-so much obstructed by houses standing out, for as yet there was no
-alignment except in streets like Chepe, which were highways and market
-streets, that no wheeled vehicle could pass at all.
-
-[Illustration: SHOP AND SOLAR, CLARE MARKET, NOW DEMOLISHED
-
-From a photograph taken in 1895.]
-
-There was very little more lighting at night than there had been in the
-preceding centuries. If a London dame ventured out of the house after
-dark, the ’prentice carried a link before her. Some of the old shops or
-sheds with “solars” over them remained in Stow’s time; the last of them
-stood in Clare Market, and was pulled down a few years ago. See the
-accompanying photograph of it. Stow says that stalls had become sheds,
-_i.e._ roofed stalls; and then shops, _i.e._ enclosed stalls; and then
-“fair houses.” He instances a block of houses called Goldsmiths’ Row,
-between Bread Street and the Cross, which contained ten dwelling-houses
-and fourteen shops, “all in one frame, uniformly built.” They were four
-stories high. The shops seem to have been open, but perhaps the upper
-part was protected with a shutter or with glass.
-
-Inland communication was conducted by means of carts and coaches.
-Harrison[5] complains of the new fashion: “Our Princes and the
-Nobilitie have their cariage commonlie made by carts, wherby it commeth
-to passe that when the Queene’s Majestie dooth remove from anie one
-place to another, there are usuallie 400 carewanes, which amount to the
-summe of 2400 horses, appointed out of the counties adjoining, whereby
-hir cariage is conveied safelie unto the appointed place. Hereby also
-the ancient use of sumpter horses is in maner utterlie relinquished,
-which causeth the traines of our princes in their progresses to shew
-far lesse than those of the kings of other nations.”
-
-During this long reign, in spite of plague and pestilence, the
-population of London increased, and the suburbs extended, as we have
-seen, in all directions. The increase of population was due (1) to
-the increase of trade in London, which required a great accession of
-ship-builders, boat-builders, makers of the various gear required for
-ships, seamen, lightermen, porters, stevedores, and the like; (2) to
-the large number of immigrants from France and the Low Countries; and
-(3) to the number of persons released from the Religious Houses. That
-is to say, this last is generally represented as one of the causes. To
-me it seems as if the influence of these people on the population of
-London must be regarded as quite insignificant. There were some 8000
-monks, nuns, and friars who were sent into the world. Many of those who
-were in priests’ orders obtained places in parish churches, conforming
-by degrees to the changes of doctrine; the monks and nuns had pensions;
-many of the latter went abroad; of the friars many were absorbed in the
-general population; a certain number, one knows not how many, refused
-to work, and joined the company of rogues and masterless men, but there
-seems nothing to show how many of them settled in London.
-
-Here is a simple calculation of the population in 1564. There was a
-great plague in that year. The total number of deaths in the City for
-the year is stated to have been 23,660, of whom 20,136 died of plague.
-This leaves 3524 deaths from ordinary causes. Now, if the average
-mortality of the City was twenty in the thousand, we should have a
-population of 176,200. If, which is more likely, the average mortality
-was twenty-five in the thousand the population was 140,960. In the time
-of King James, but after much devastation by the plague, the population
-of London was estimated at 130,000.
-
-[Illustration: TOTTENHAM COURT
-
-By the courtesy of the late Marquis of Salisbury.
-
-For further particulars regarding this plan see Appendix XI.]
-
-It has been said that there is no street in London in which one cannot
-find a church and a tree. It is indeed remarkable to observe the
-large number of trees still existing and flourishing in the City of
-London, especially since the City churchyards have been converted into
-gardens. Of the old private gardens there are now left but few: one
-in St. Helen’s Place; one behind the Rectory of St. Andrew’s by the
-Wardrobe; the Drapers’ Gardens, much curtailed; and the churchyards
-above mentioned, which have been converted into gardens. In the
-sixteenth century, however, London was still full of gardens, in the
-north part of the City much more than in the south. Every house had
-its garden behind; for the most part narrow, yet carefully cultivated
-and full of trees and flowers. If you take the part of London that
-has been least meddled with, the north-west corner of the City, for
-instance—that part bounded by London Wall on the North; by Monkwell
-and Noble Streets on the West; by Gresham Street on the South; and by
-Moorgate on the East—you will find that the blocks between the older
-streets are intersected everywhere by courts, alleys, narrow lanes and
-buildings. These were all, including the ancient churches, taken out
-of the gardens. Formerly, for instance, between Basinghall Street and
-Coleman Street there were very long gardens behind the houses; these
-have been used for lanes of connection, and for workmen’s houses, such
-as Lilypot Lane and Oat Lane. Hidden away behind the houses is Sadler’s
-Hall; here also, hidden away behind houses, is Haberdashers’ Hall; here
-were the courtyards of inns, which formed among the gardens convenient
-ground for their great open courts and their stables. In this way the
-gardens of London gradually disappeared. In the sixteenth century,
-however, there were a great many still left: London presented an
-appearance of greenery and waving branches wherever one turned off the
-main roads. The chief authority on the gardens of the time is Harrison,
-who tells us what herbs, fruits, and roots were then grown, as well as
-the medicinal plants then so much cultivated.
-
-Harrison[6] says, speaking of the flower gardens:—
-
-  “If you look into our gardens annexed to our houses, how
-  wonderfullie is their beauty increased, not onelie with floures
-  which Colmella calleth _Terrena sydera_, saying, ‘Pingit et in
-  varios terrestria sydera flores,’ and varietie of curious and
-  costlie workmanship, but also with rare and medicinable hearbes
-  sought up in the land within these fortie yeares; so that in
-  comparison of this present, the ancient gardens were but dunghills
-  and laistowes to such as did possess them.
-
-  And even as it fareth with our gardens so dooth it with our
-  orchards, which were never furnished with so good fruit, nor with
-  such varietie as at this present. For beside that we have most
-  delicate apples, plummes, peares, walnuts, filberds, etc., and
-  those of sundrie sorts, planted within fortie yeares passed, in
-  comparison of which most of the old trees are nothing woorth; so
-  have we no less store of strange fruit, as abricotes, almonds,
-  peaches, figges, corne-trees in noblemen’s orchards. I have seen
-  capers, orenges, and lemmons, and heard of wild olives growing
-  here, beside other strange trees, brought from far, whose names I
-  know not. So that England for these commodities was never better
-  furnished, neither anie nation under their clime more plentifullie
-  indued with these and other blessings from the most high God, who
-  grant us grace withall to use the same to His honour and glorie!
-  and not as instruments and provocations unto further excesse and
-  vanitie, wherewith His displeasure may be kindled, least these
-  His benefits doo turne unto thornes and briers unto us for our
-  annoiance and punishment which He hath bestowed upon us for our
-  consolation and comfort.”
-
-The London garden was not only a place of recreation in the summer;
-it also furnished flowers for the pretty custom of decorating the
-rooms and strewing the floors; the gardens furnished pot herbs for
-the kitchen and sweet herbs for the walls and floors; branches also
-of fragrant woods, such as fir and pine, were hung up on the walls. I
-know not if this is a common custom still maintained in America; but
-in Hawthorne’s house at Concord the rooms are still decorated and made
-fragrant with branches of pine such as the writer used in his lifetime.
-The floor of the great hall was strewn with rushes, brought chiefly
-from the upper reaches and low-lying grounds of the river. These rushes
-were of various kinds: some of them were grasses, such as that called
-mat-weed, of which beds were made as well as floors strewn.
-
-The chief authorities on the London garden are Bacon in his _Essays_,
-and Gerard in his _Herbal_. Francis Bacon wrote his essays in Gray’s
-Inn, whose garden he laid out and planted by request of the Benchers.
-His essay on the garden was written, as he says himself, for the
-climate of London.
-
-  “And because the breath of flowers is far sweeter in the air (where
-  it comes and goes like the warbling of music) than in the hand,
-  therefore nothing is more fit for that delight than to know what
-  be the flowers and plants that do best perfume the air. Roses,
-  damask and red, are fast flowers of their smells, so that you may
-  walk by a whole row of them, and find nothing of their sweetness,
-  yea, though it be in a morning’s dew. Bays likewise yield no
-  smell as they grow, rosemary little, nor sweet marjoram. That
-  which above all others yields the sweetest smell in the air is
-  the violet, especially the white double violet, which comes twice
-  a year, about the middle of April and about Bartholomew-tide.
-  Next to that is the musk-rose; then the strawberry leaves dying,
-  which yield a most excellent cordial smell. Then the flower of the
-  vines; it is a little dust like the dust of a bent, which grows
-  upon the cluster in the first coming forth. Then sweetbriar, then
-  wall-flowers, which are very delightful to be set under a parlour
-  or lower chamber window. Then pinks and gilliflowers, especially
-  the matted pink and clove gilliflowers. Then the flowers of the
-  lime-tree. Then the honeysuckles, so they be somewhat afar off; of
-  bean-flowers I speak not, because they are field-flowers. But those
-  which perfume the air most delightfully, not passed by as the rest,
-  but being trodden upon and crushed, are three—that is, burnet, wild
-  thyme, and water-mints. Therefore you are to set whole alleys of
-  them, to have the pleasure when you walk or tread.”
-
-In Ordish’s _Shakespeare’s London_ will be found an excellent analysis
-of Gerard’s _Herbal_ as it deals with the gardens of the City and its
-suburbs. In it also is an enumeration of the principal gardens of the
-time, especially those of the Inns of Court. To these may be added
-the gardens belonging to those of the City Companies whose Halls were
-in the north part of the City, and those not yet built over which had
-once formed part of the monastic precincts, not to speak of the private
-gardens which were in many cases—such as the house of Sir Thomas
-Gresham in Broad Street—large and spacious. (_See_ Appendix VII.)
-
-The allusions to London and to City customs in Shakespeare are
-numerous, but not, as a rule, instructive. That is to say, he speaks
-of streets and places which we know from other sources. The Tower,
-the Bridge, Smithfield, Fish Street, St. Magnus Corner, the Savoy,
-the Tower Royal (King Richard’s Palace), Westminster Hall, Eastcheap,
-Bankside, the Temple, Cheapside, London Stone, Baynard’s Castle,
-Blackfriars, Paris Garden, are mentioned with the familiarity of one
-who lived in the City and knew all the streets intimately. It is
-pleasant to find them playing their parts in the immortal plays, but,
-as I said above, they teach us nothing.
-
-In 1568, to escape the cruelties of Alva, a vast number of Flemings
-came across the sea and were received hospitably. In order to prevent
-their arrival proving an injury to the crafts of London, they were
-scattered about, finding homes in Norwich, Colchester, Maidstone,
-Sandwich, and Southampton, as well as in London. In the next generation
-they appear to have been completely merged in the English population,
-and the custom, common among persons of foreign descent, of anglicising
-their names has made it very difficult to discover the Flemish origin
-of a family. The earlier Flemish settlers in England were regarded with
-hatred. It would seem that another colony of Flemings came over before
-this immigration in the year 1568; they were settled in Suffolk. In
-1594 a good many Portuguese came over as retainers to Don Antonio, and
-settled here. Among them was the Balthazar who became confectioner to
-King James and founded almshouses at Tottenham. There were Italians,
-probably connected with the Italian trade, for the “Lombardi,” the
-Pope’s men, were gone; they had a service at the Mercers’ Chapel every
-Sunday. There were also a great many “Dutch,” among whom were numbered
-the Flemings. Thus, in 1567, a census was taken of “foreigners” in
-London. There were found to be 4851 altogether, of whom 3838 were
-Dutch, and 720 French. A few years later the French Ambassador reports
-that there were 13,700 strangers in London, of whom a third were going
-to be turned out.
-
-Of the hatred and suspicion entertained towards foreigners by Londoners
-we have many proofs. “They scoff and laugh at foreigners,” says the
-Duke of Wurtemberg, “and, moreover, one dares not oppose them, else
-the street boys and apprentices collect together in immense crowds and
-strike to the right and left unmercifully without regard to person.”
-Isaac Casaubon in James the First’s reign complained that he had never
-been so badly treated as by the people of London: they threw stones
-at his windows; they pelted his children and himself with stones. The
-Venetian Ambassador of 1497 testifies to the same effect; in 1557 his
-successor says that it is impossible to live in London on account of
-the insolence with which foreigners are treated.
-
-At the same time it must be remembered that there were quarters
-assigned to foreigners, and that the people must have been accustomed
-to see these residents going about the streets. Perhaps they were
-only insolent to foreign nobles, and those whose dress and language
-were not familiar to them. The Hanse merchants had their house beside
-Dowgate, Petty Almaigne; the Flemings had theirs on the east side of
-the Bridge, Petty Flanders: the French had a place in Bishopsgate Ward
-called Petty France. It was in Petty Flanders that certain Jews resided
-under the guise of Flemings, just as in the fourteenth century they
-passed themselves off as Lombards. The Flemings built the Exchange: it
-was designed after the Antwerp Bourse, by a Fleming; the workmen were
-specially brought over, and appear to have been unmolested.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-_W Knight del^t._ _J^s. Basire sculp._
-
-INTERIOR VIEW OF QUEEN ELIZABETH’S BATH
-
-From _Archæologia_.]
-
-In February 1831 there was swept away, with all the buildings in the
-place called the King’s Mews, where Trafalgar Square now is, a small
-building called Queen Elizabeth’s Bath. It was a square building of
-fine brick. It was certainly a Bath, and had a groined roof ascribed by
-Mr. William Knight who sketched it to the fifteenth century. It was an
-interesting building of which nothing seems known. Nobody has noticed
-it except a writer in _Archæologia_ (vol. xxv.), who gives a plan
-and drawing of the curious place. Like the Sanctuary at Westminster
-it would have been entirely forgotten but for the hand of a single
-antiquary, who rescued it from oblivion at the last moment.
-
-
-
-
-                   GOVERNMENT AND TRADE OF THE CITY
-
-
-
-
-                               CHAPTER I
-
-                               THE MAYOR
-
-
-[Illustration: MAYOR AND ALDERMEN OF THE PERIOD
-
-From an MS. in British Museum.]
-
-In the year 1500 a change of some importance was effected by Sir John
-Shaw, Mayor of that year. Before his time the civic feasts had been
-held at the Hall of the Grocers or the Taylors. Sir John Shaw built
-kitchens and offices at the Guildhall and began the custom of holding
-the Lord Mayor’s feast in that place.
-
-The election of Sheriffs was formerly conducted by the citizens, who,
-by the Charter of King Henry IV., could appoint Sheriffs from their
-own body “according to the tenor of the Charters granted by the King’s
-progenitors and not in any other way” (_Liber Albus_, p. 148), and
-in the first book of the same work the manner of the election of the
-Sheriff is described in greater detail (_Liber Albus_, 1861 edition, p.
-39):—
-
-“As concerning the election of Sheriffs,—the Mayor, Recorder, Aldermen,
-and Commons, are to be assembled on the day of Saint Matthew the
-Apostle [21 September], in such manner as is ordained on the election
-of the Mayor; and in the first place, the Mayor shall choose, of his
-own free will, a reputable man, free of the City, to be one of the
-Sheriffs for the ensuing year; for whom he is willing to answer as
-to one half of the ferm[7] of the City due to the King, if he who is
-so elected by the Mayor shall prove not sufficient. But if the Mayor
-elect him by counsel and with the assent of the Aldermen, they also
-ought to be answerable with him. And those who are elected for the
-Common Council, themselves, and the others summoned by the Mayor for
-this purpose, as before declared, shall choose another Sheriff, for the
-commonalty; for whom all the commonalty is bound to be answerable as to
-the other half of the ferm so due to the King, in case he shall prove
-not sufficient.”
-
-The custom is illustrated by the following story concerning the
-election of William Massam as Sheriff by Sir Edward Osborne, the Mayor:—
-
-“In this year, one day in the month of July, there were two great
-feasts at London, one at Grocers’ Hall, another at Haberdashers’ Hall
-(as perhaps there was in all the rest upon some public occasion). Sir
-Edward Osborne, Mayor, and divers of his brethren the Aldermen, with
-the Recorder, were at Haberdashers’ Hall, where the said Mayor, after
-the second course was come in, toke the great standing cup, the gift
-of Sir William Garret, being full of hypocrase; and silence being
-commanded through all the tables, all men being bare-headed, my Lord
-openly with a convenient loud voice, used these words:—‘Mr. Recorder
-of London, and you my good brethren the Aldermen, bear witness, that I
-do drink unto Mr. Alderman Massam, as Sheriff of London and Middlesex,
-from Michaelmas next coming, for one whole year; and I do beseech God
-to give him as quiet and peaceable a year, with as good and gracious
-favour of her Majesty, as I myself, and my brethren the Sheriffs now
-being, have hitherto had, and as I trust shall have.’ This spoken, all
-men desired the same.
-
-The Sword-bearer in haste went to the Grocers’ feast, where Mr.
-Alderman Massam was at dinner, and did openly declare the words that my
-Lord Mayor had used; whereunto silence made, and all being hush, the
-Alderman answered very modestly in this sort:—
-
-‘First, I thank God, who, through His great goodness, hath called me
-from a very poor and mean degree unto this worshipful state. Secondly,
-I thank her Majesty for her gracious goodness in allowing to us these
-great and ample franchises. And, thirdly, I thank my Lord Mayor for
-having so honourable an opinion of this my Company of Grocers, so as
-to make choice of me, being a poor Member of the same.’ And this said,
-both he and all the Company pledged my Lord, and gave him thanks.”
-
-The Lord Mayor’s Show in the sixteenth century, conducted partly on
-horseback, and partly by water, was a far finer pageant than any
-that our generation has been enabled to witness. The following is a
-contemporary account:—
-
-“The day of St. Simon and Jude, he (the Mayor) entrethe into his
-estate and offyce; and the next daie following he goeth by water to
-Westmynster in most tryumphlyke maner. His barge beinge garnished with
-the armes of the citie; and nere the sayd barge goeth a shyppbote of
-the Queenes Majestie, beinge trymed upp, and rigged lyke a shippe of
-warre, with dyvers peces of ordinance, standards, penons, and targetts
-of the proper armes of the sayd Mayor, the armes of the Citie, of his
-company; and of the merchaunts adventurers, or of the staple, or of
-the company of the newe trades; next before hym goeth the barge of
-the lyvery of his owne company, decked with their owne proper armes,
-then the bachelers’ barge, and soo all the companies in London, in
-order, every one havinge their owne proper barge garnished with the
-armes of their company. And so passinge alonge the Thamise, landeth at
-Westmynster, where he taketh his othe in Thexcheker, beffore the judge
-there (whiche is one of the chiefe judges of England), whiche done, he
-returneth by water as afforsayd, and landeth at powles wharfe, where
-he and the reste of the Aldermen take their horses, and in great pompe
-passe through the greate streete of the citie, called Cheapside. And
-fyrste of all cometh ij great estandarts, one havinge the armes of
-the citie, and the other the armes of the Mayor’s Company; next them
-ij drommes and a flute, then an ensigne of the citie, and then about
-IXX or IXXX poore men marchinge ij and two togeather in blewe gownes,
-with redd sleeves and capps, every one bearinge a pyke and a target,
-whereon is paynted the armes of all them that have byn Mayor of the
-same company that this newe mayor is of. Then ij banners, one of the
-kynges armes, the other of the Mayor’s owne proper armes. Then a sett
-of hautboits playinge, and after them certayne wyfflers, in velvett
-cotes, and chaynes of golde, with white staves in their handes, then
-the pageant of tryumphe rychly decked, whereuppon by certayne fygures
-and wrytinges, some matter touchinge justice, and the office of a
-maiestrate is represented. Then xvj trompeters, viij and viij in a
-company, havinge banners of the Mayor’s company. Then certayne wyfflers
-in velvet cotes and chaynes, with white staves as afordsayde. Then the
-bachelers ij and two together, in longe gownen, with crymson hoodes
-on their shoulders of sattyn; which bachelers are chosen every yeare
-of the same company that the Mayor is of (but not of the lyvery) and
-serve as gentlemen on that and other festivall daies, to wayte on the
-Mayor, beinge in nomber accordinge to the quantetie of the company,
-sometimes sixty or one hundred. After them xij trompeters more, with
-banners of the Mayor’s company, then the dromme and flute of the citie,
-and an ensigne of the Mayor’s company, and after, the waytes of the
-citie in blewe gownes, redd sleeves and cappes, every one havinge his
-silver coller about his neck. Then they of the liverey in their longe
-gownes, every one havinge his hood on his lefte shoulder, halfe black
-and halfe redd, the nomber of them is accordinge to the greatnes of the
-companye whereof they are. After them followe Sheriffes officers, and
-then the Mayor’s officers, with other officers of the citie, as the
-comon sargent, and the chamberlayne; next before the Mayore goeth the
-sword-bearer, having on his headd the cappe of honor, and the sworde of
-the citie in his right hande, in a riche skabarde, sett with pearle,
-and on his left hand goeth the comon cryer of the citie, with his great
-mace on his shoulder, all gilt. The Mayor elect in a long gowne of
-skarlet, and on his lefte shoulder a hood of black velvet, and a riche
-coller of gold of SS. about his neck, and with him rydeth the olde
-Mayor also, in his skarlet gowne, hood of velvet, and a chayne of golde
-about his neck. Then all the Aldermen ij and ij together (amongst whom
-is the Recorder) all in skarlet gownes; and those that have byn Mayors,
-have chaynes of gold, the other have black velvett tippetts. The ij
-Shereffes come last of all, in their black skarlet fownes and chaynes
-of golde.
-
-In this order they passe alonge through the citie, to the Guyldhall,
-where they dyne that daie, to the number of 1000 persons, all at
-the charge of the Mayor and the ij Shereffes. This feast costeth
-£400, whereof the Mayor payeth £200 and eche of the Shereffes £100.
-Immediately after dyner, they go to the churche of St. Paule, every
-one of the aforesaid poore men bearrynge staffe torches and targetts,
-whiche torches are lighted when it is late, before they come from
-evenynge prayer.” (Drake, _Shakespeare and his Times_, vol. ii. p. 164.)
-
-The very pretty story of Edward Osborne and the rescue of his master’s
-daughter is narrated by Maitland as belonging to the year 1559, but the
-date does not matter.
-
-Sir William Hewitt, citizen and clothworker, Mayor in 1559, lived
-on London Bridge. He was himself the son of a country gentleman of
-Yorkshire; he had for apprentice one Edward Osborne, also son of a
-country gentleman, Richard Osborne, of Ashford, Kent. Hewitt had three
-sons and one daughter. It happened one day, the child being yet an
-infant, that the maid playing with her at the open window let her
-fall out of the window into the river below. The ’prentice Osborne,
-fortunately seeing the accident, boldly jumped into the river and
-saved the child. Years after, when the child was grown up, Hewitt, one
-of the richest of London merchants, refused to give her in marriage to
-the Earl of Shrewsbury and other noble suitors, but gave her to the man
-who had saved her life. Sir Edward Osborne, as he afterwards became,
-Mayor in 1583, was the ancestor of the Dukes of Leeds.
-
-[Illustration: LONDON BRIDGE
-
-From Visscher’s _Panorama of London_.]
-
-Until recently it was customary for the Lord Mayor to go on Sundays in
-state to one or other of the City churches.
-
-On these occasions the Lord Mayor was accompanied by the sheriffs and
-officials of the Corporation, and escorted by the mace-bearer and
-sword-bearer, the latter wearing the cap of maintenance, and carrying
-the state sword. It was usual for the Alderman of the Ward to be
-present with any other alderman that pleased to come, and as many as
-came brought with them their ward beadles, carrying the ward maces.
-
-Towards the latter part of the sixteenth century the practice of
-carrying the sword into church before the Lord Mayor became customary.
-It is not clear when this practice first began, but after the Fire of
-London and the rebuilding of the City it became the universal custom,
-and so continued until a comparatively recent period, when the exodus
-of the citizens made it not only inconvenient but an absolute tax upon
-the officers of the Corporation if the Lord Mayor attended church in
-state with his sword borne before him.
-
-But for the time that it lasted, that is rather more than two
-centuries, it necessitated the introduction into the City churches
-of a convenient stand or case upon which the City sword was placed.
-The State visits of the Lord Mayor having been discontinued in
-the mayoralty of Sir Robert Fowler, the consequence is that the
-sword-stands have ceased to have any use. Those stands which had
-artistic merit will no doubt be preserved.
-
-It may be taken as certain that these sword-cases or stands were not
-in use before the reign of Queen Elizabeth. There were many schedules
-of ecclesiastical furniture in existence prior to that date, but in
-none of them is there any mention of such an article as a sword-case,
-or sheath, or stand, although the list of articles is most minute. The
-earliest mention is in the Account Books of St. Michael’s, Cornhill,
-published by Mr. Alfred I. Waterlow.
-
-Under date 1574, that is, in the sixteenth year of Queen Elizabeth’s
-reign, there is the following entry:—
-
-“Paid for guylding of the case for my Lord Mayor’s swearde ... 9s.”
-
-Hawes was a resident in the parish, and was Lord Mayor in the year
-1574–1575. He had had a new pew made for him just outside the chancel
-screen a year or two before, on his being appointed Alderman of
-Cornhill Ward, and the pew was further fitted with a gilded sword-case
-on his being made Lord Mayor.
-
-The worthy Machyn has a note on a Civic hunting which reads pleasantly:—
-
-  “The xviij day of September my lord mare and my masters the
-  althermen and mony worshephull men, and dyvers of the masturs and
-  wardens of the xij compenys, rod to the condutt hedes for to se
-  them, after the old coustum; and a fore dener they hundyd and hare
-  and kyllyd, and so to dener to the hed of the condyth, for ther was
-  a nombur, and had good chere of the chamburlayn; and after dener
-  to hontyng of the fox, and ther was a goodly cry for a mylle, and
-  after the hondys kyllyd the fox at the end of sant Gylles and theyr
-  was a grett cry at the deth, and blohyng of hornes; and so rod
-  thrugh London, my lord mare Harper with all ys compene home to ys
-  owne plase in Lumberd Street.”
-
-
-
-
-                              CHAPTER II
-
-                                 TRADE
-
-
-The Tudor period begins with the lowest point reached in town and
-country of a decline and decay that had been steadily persistent for
-nearly two hundred years. The prosperity of a trading city depends upon
-the prosperity of its markets. There were many causes for this decay.
-The famines, of which there were four, in the fourteenth and fifteenth
-centuries; the Hundred Years’ War; the Civil Wars; the weakness of
-the fleet and the piracies in the Channel; the growth of the power of
-Parliament and the consequent decay of local independence; the feeble
-government of Edward II. and Henry VI.; the fearful devastation of the
-Black Death; the changes in the manorial system;—all these things
-together contributed to the decay of trade over the whole country. To
-quote a writer on the fifteenth century. Denton, in his _England in
-the Fifteenth Century_, says that the decay of England commenced soon
-after the death of Edward I. It continued, showing an increased rate of
-decay, after the death of Edward II.
-
-[Illustration: SOUTH VIEW OF THE CUSTOM-HOUSE IN THE REIGN OF
-ELIZABETH. BURNT IN THE GREAT FIRE, 1666
-
-E. Gardner’s Collection.]
-
-The country parishes everywhere, on the northern and the Welsh march,
-on the southern seaboard, and in the Eastern Counties, had to be
-exempted from payment of taxes on account of poverty; lands were
-untilled; there was loss of sheep and cattle; agriculture was at a
-standstill for fear of pirates. Or the country parishes were actually
-deserted: the people, ruined, had left the farms and the clearings; the
-churches were allowed to fall into ruin; Monastic Houses were desolate
-and empty because the Brethren had no longer any rents.
-
-In the towns there were open spaces within the walls where houses had
-once stood. One has only to visit King’s Lynn in Winchelsea for an
-example of this decay.
-
-Even in London, it has been observed, for more than a hundred years
-after the Rebellion of Jack Straw there stood in Fleet Street the
-blackened ruins of two forges which that rebel’s followers had burned.
-In all that time there was not found any who thought it worth while to
-rebuild the forge.
-
-In London during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, although the
-time was one of commercial decline, there were still rich merchants.
-It is in a time of decay that the merchants make complaints of aliens;
-that they clamour for protection; that they demand the import and
-the export of merchandise in English ships; that they would prohibit
-the sending of gold and silver out of the country; let the foreign
-merchants be paid in kind.
-
-The melancholy condition of the country at the beginning of the
-sixteenth century is described most vividly by Cunningham:—
-
-“There is less mention made of decay in the first thirty years of the
-sixteenth century; but the facts were again brought forcibly forward
-when the Parliament of Henry VIII. began to put pressure on the
-owners of houses to repair their property and to remove the rubbish
-that endangered life in the towns. Norwich had never recovered from
-the fire of 1508; the empty spaces at Lynn Bishop allowed the sea to
-do damage in other parts of the town. Many houses were ruined and
-the streets were dangerous for traffic in Nottingham, Shrewsbury,
-Ludlow, Bridgenorth, Queenborough, Northampton and Gloucester; there
-were vacant spaces heaped with filth, and tottering houses in York,
-Lincoln, Canterbury, Coventry, Bath, Chichester, Salisbury, Winchester,
-Bristol, Scarborough, Hereford, Colchester, Rochester, Portsmouth,
-Poole, Lyme, Feversham, Worcester, Stafford, Buckingham, Pontefract,
-Grantham, Exeter, Ipswich, Southampton, Great Yarmouth, Oxford, Great
-Wycombe, Guildford, Stratford, Hull, Newcastle, Bedford, Leicester
-and Berwick; as well as in Shaston, Sherborne, Bridport, Dorchester,
-Weymouth, Plymouth, Barnstaple, Tavistock, Dartmouth, Launceston,
-Lostwithiel, Liskeard, Bodmin, Truro, Helston, Bridgewater, Taunton,
-Somerton, Ilchester, Maldon and Warwick. There were similar dangers to
-the inhabitants of Great Grimsby, Cambridge, the Cinque Ports, Lewes;
-and even in the more remote provinces things were as bad, for Chester,
-Tenby, Haverfordwest, Pembroke, Caermarthen, Montgomery, Cardiff,
-Swansea, Cowbridge, New Radnor, Presteign, Brecknock, Abergavenny,
-Usk, Caerlon, Newport in Monmouthshire, Lancaster, Preston, Liverpool
-and Wigan, were taken in hand in 1544. In trying to interpret this
-evidence, however, we must remember that we are reading of attempts
-to repair, not of complaints of new decline; the mere fact that such
-attempts were made was perhaps an indication that things had reached
-their worst; and we are perhaps justified in inferring from the double
-mention of some few towns that a real improvement was effected in the
-others.” (_The Growth of English Industry._)
-
-There is thus abundant evidence concerning the decay of trade.
-Cunningham speaks of the decay of the craft gilds and their
-mismanagement. This may be considered a part of the general decay and
-a consequence. At first, the craft gilds exercised police control over
-their members and so secured good order; the old authority and power
-of the alderman in his ward had been practically taken over by the
-gilds; each master had his apprentices living with him and forming part
-of his own household. Yet the apprentices made the riot in 1517 long
-remembered as Evil May Day. Another of their objects was the production
-of honest and good work. Yet in 1437 and again in 1503 it was enacted
-that no ruler of gilds or fraternities should make any ordinances which
-were not approved by the Chancellor of the Justices of Assize. The
-third object was the securing of fair conditions for those who worked
-in the trade. Yet consider the grievances of the journeymen in 1536:—
-
-“Previous Acts relating to craft abuses are recited and the statute
-proceeds: ‘Sithen which several acts established and made, divers
-masters, wardens and fellowships of crafts, have by cautel and subtle
-means practised and compassed to defraud and delude the said good and
-wholesome statutes, causing divers apprentices or young men immediately
-after their years be expired, or that they be made free of their
-occupation or fellowship, to be sworn upon their holy Evangelist at
-their first entry, that they nor any of them after their years or term
-expired shall not set up, nor open any shop, house, nor cellar, nor
-occupy as freeman without the assent and license of the master, wardens
-or fellowship of their occupations, upon pain of forfeiting their
-freedom or other like penalty; by reason whereof the said ’prentices
-and journeymen be put to as much or more charges thereby than they
-beforetime were put unto for the obtaining and entering of their
-freedom, to the great hurt and impoverishment of the said ’prentices
-and journeymen and other their friends.’ Such restrictions naturally
-resulted in the withdrawal of the journeymen to set up shops in suburbs
-or villages where the gild had no jurisdiction; and from this they were
-not precluded, in all probability, by the terms of their oath. This
-might often be their only chance of getting employment, as the masters
-were apparently inclined to overstock their shops with apprentices,
-rather than be at the expense of retaining a full proportion of
-journeymen.” (_The Growth of English Industry._)
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  1. The Palace of Westminster.
-  2. St. Stephen’s Chapel.
-  3. Westminster Hall.
-  4. Westminster Abbey.
-  5. Old Palace Yard.
-  6. The Clock Tower.
-  7. The Gate House.
-  8. St. Margaret’s Church.
-  9. The King’s Stairs.
-  10. Star Chamber.
-  11. Lambeth Palace.
-  12. Stangate Horse Ferry.
-  13. St. James’s Hospital.
-  14. St. James’s.
-  15. Whitehall.
-  16. Holbein’s Gate.
-  17. Scotland Yard.
-  18. Charing Cross.
-  19. King’s Mews.
-  20. St. Martin’s Church.
-  21. St. Mary’s Hospital.
-  22. St. Giles’s Church.
-  23. Convent Garden.
-  24. The Strand.
-  25. York House.
-  26. Durham House.
-  27. Savoy Palace.
-  28. Somerset Place.
-  29. St. Mary le Strand.
-  30. St. Clement Dane.
-  31. Lincoln’s Inn.
-  32. Lincoln’s Inn Fields.
-  33. Gray’s Inn.
-  34. Ely House.
-  35. Fetter Lane.
-  36. Rolls Place.
-  37. St. Dunstan’s Church.
-  38. The Temple Church.
-  39. The Temple.
-  40. Fleet Street.
-  41. Grey Friars.
-  42. Palace of Bridewell.
-  43. St. Bride’s.
-  44. St. Andrew’s Church.
-  45. St. Sepulchre’s Church.
-  46. Fleet Ditch.
-  47. St. John’s Hospital.
-  48. Smithfield.
-  49. St. James’s, Clerkenwell.
-  50. Newgate.
-  51. Ludgate.
-  52. Blackfriars.
-  53. The Wardrobe.
-  54. Baynard Castle.
-  55. St. Paul’s Cathedral.
-  56. St. Paul’s Cross.
-  57. St. Bartholomew’s the Great.
-  58. Grey Friars.
-  59. Queen Hythe.
-  60. The Standard.
-  61. Rochester House.
-  62. The Stews.
-  63. Bank Side.
-
-From the Panorama of “London, Westminster, and Southwark, in 1543.” By
-Anthony Van den Vyngaerde. (Sutherland Collection, Bodleian Library.
-Oxford.) _For continuation see pp. 234 and 350._ _pp. 219, 219._ ]
-
-In 1545 Henry VIII. ordained the confiscation of the property of all
-colleges, fraternities, brotherhoods and gilds. This measure, sweeping
-in its terms, was not generally carried out. In 1547 the advisers
-of Edward VI. swept away all the craft gilds in England except the
-Companies of London and a few gilds in country towns. The statute
-provided that artisans might work where they pleased whether they were
-free of the town or not.
-
-Trade, therefore, had entered upon new conditions; this was inevitable,
-owing to the many changes—the revolutionary changes which created so
-wide a gulf between the fifteenth and the sixteenth centuries.
-
-With these preliminaries we can now proceed to the revival and
-expansion of trade and the development of enterprise in the sixteenth
-century, but more especially during the reign of Queen Elizabeth.
-
-The endowment of the City with a Bourse is generally attributed to
-the perception by Sir Thomas Gresham of the need for such a place
-of meeting,[8] though the matter had been mooted and the opinion of
-merchants taken thirty years before.
-
-In the year 1537, Sir Richard Gresham, the father of Sir Thomas
-Gresham, whose business had taken him to Antwerp, when he saw the
-Bourse frequented daily by merchants, wrote a letter to Cromwell in
-which he suggested the erection of a Bourse in Lombard Street, as the
-place most frequented by merchants. As nothing came of the proposal
-he wrote again in the following year with an estimate of the cost,
-viz. £2000. If, he said, the Lord Privy Seal would induce Alderman Sir
-George Monoux to part with certain property at cost price he, Gresham,
-would undertake to raise £1000 towards the building before he went out
-of office. Whereupon the King addressed a letter to Monoux desiring
-him to dispose of certain property in Lombard Street, which was wanted
-for the commonweal of the merchants. Monoux, with Gresham’s consent,
-referred the matter to arbitration. A yearly sum of twenty marks to be
-paid by the City was offered. Monoux at first refused to take it, but
-afterwards, at the King’s request, consented. Then, for some unknown
-reason, nothing more was done. The matter was left over for many years.
-
-At this time Thomas Gresham (son of Sir Richard by his first wife,
-Audrey, daughter of William Lynne of Southwick, Northampton) was
-nineteen years of age, and still serving his apprenticeship to his
-uncle, Sir John Gresham, Mercer. He was received into the Company in
-1543. In the same year he was acting for the King at Antwerp. In 1551
-he was appointed Royal Agent or King’s merchant, which caused him to
-reside at Antwerp during many months, and at frequent intervals. On
-the accession of Mary he was dismissed, but his services were speedily
-discovered to be necessary, and he was reappointed. Elizabeth continued
-his appointment.
-
-In 1561 his factor, Richard Clough, wrote to him from Antwerp
-expressing his astonishment that London should have gone on so long
-without a Bourse:—
-
-“Considering what a City London is; and that in so many years the same
-found not the means to make a Burse, but merchants must be contented
-to stand and walk in the rain, more like pedlars than Merchants. In
-this Country, said he (meaning Antwerp), and in all other, there is
-no kind of people that have occasion to meet but ye have a place for
-that purpose; indeed and if your business were done (here) and that I
-might have the leisure to go about it, and that I would be a means to
-Mr. Secretary to have his favour therein, I would not doubt but to make
-so fair a burse in London as the great burse is in Antwerp, without
-soliciting of any Man more than he shall be well disposed to give.”
-
-Gresham remembered the attempt made by his father in 1538 and its
-failure; he resolved to take up the matter again, and in some way
-introduced it to the Court of Aldermen, who asked him, through one of
-their body, what he proposed to give himself towards the undertaking.
-This was in 1563, two years after Clough wrote his letter. Gresham took
-time to consider. In 1565 he sent in the offer. He would himself erect
-a “comely burse” if the City would provide a suitable site.
-
-The site was found on the north side of Cornhill. Two alleys, Swan
-Alley and New St. Christopher’s, were purchased for £3532: the
-materials of the houses sold for £478. Subscriptions were invited and
-came in readily. On the 7th of June 1566 Sir Thomas was able to lay the
-foundation stone. Every one of the aldermen laid his stone or brick,
-with a piece of gold for the workmen.
-
-The architect and the design came from Flanders. The Clerk of the Work,
-Henryk, was a Fleming, and most of the workmen were foreigners, special
-permission being granted for their employment. The City gave 100,000
-bricks; the stone-work came from abroad, and “to this day” (Sharpe)
-“the Royal Exchange is paved with small blocks of Turkish hone-stones,
-believed to have been imported by Sir Thomas Gresham and to have been
-relaid after the fires of 1666 and 1838.”
-
-Observe, therefore, that to the City belonged the site, but that the
-Exchange itself was the property of Gresham.
-
-By the 22nd of December 1568 the Burse was so far complete as to
-allow of merchants meeting within its walls; but it was not till the
-23rd of January 1571 that the Queen herself visited it in state, and
-gave it the name of the Royal Exchange. From the beginning a part of
-the Exchange was set aside for Marine Insurance, not a new thing,
-because it had long been the practice of the Lombard merchants in the
-thirteenth century to give such insurances.
-
-The Royal Exchange became a place of recreation as well as of business.
-The citizens walked here on the evenings of Sundays and Holy days,
-where the City waits played from 7 P.M. till 8 P.M. up to the Feast of
-Pentecost, then they played from 8 P.M. till 9 P.M. until Michaelmas.
-In 1576 it was ordered that no games of football should be played
-within the Royal Exchange.
-
-[Illustration: SIR THOMAS GRESHAM (1519(?)-1579)]
-
-The Exchange remained the property of Sir Thomas Gresham until his
-death, when he bequeathed the building together with his mansion in
-Broad Street, after the death of his wife, on certain conditions, to
-the City and the Mercers’ Company in trust, viz.:—
-
-“The Citizens, for their Moiety of the said Edifice, are from Time
-to Time to appoint four Persons duly qualified to read Lectures of
-Divinity, Astronomy, Musick, and Geometry, in his Mansion-house
-[afterwards Gresham College], and to pay annually to each of the said
-Lecturers a Salary or Stipend of fifty Pounds. And also to pay yearly
-to his eight Alms-People in _Broad-Street_ (whom the Mayor and Citizens
-have likewise the Power of chusing) the sum of six Pounds thirteen
-Shillings and four Pence each. And besides, to pay annually to the
-Prisons of _Newgate_, _Ludgate_, _Kings-Bench_, _Marshalsey_, and
-_Wood-Street Compter_, the Sum of ten Pounds each.
-
-And the Mercers, for their Half, are, from Time to Time, to chuse
-three persons well accomplished, to read Lectures of Law, Physick, and
-Rhetorick, in the aforesaid Mansion-House called _Gresham-College_,
-with the same salaries to each of the Lecturers as to the
-above-mentioned. The said Company of Mercers are likewise obliged
-to pay the sum of one hundred Pounds per Ann. for four quarterly
-Dinners to be provided at their Hall, for the Entertainment of the
-whole Company; and also to pay to _Christ’s_, _St. Bartholomews_, the
-_Spital_, _Bethlehem_, and _St. Thomas’s_ Hospitals, and the _Poultry
-Compter_, the Sum of ten Pounds per Ann. each.” (Maitland, vol. i. pp.
-256–257.)
-
-The reversion fell in on the death of Lady Gresham in 1596, when the
-City and the Company took steps to carry out the Trust. Gresham House
-became Gresham College, and so continued until the year 1767, when the
-Crown took over the building for an Excise office, giving the City £500
-a year perpetual annuity. For some time the lectures ceased; when they
-were renewed they were delivered in the City of London School until the
-building of the present Gresham College in Basinghall Street.
-
-We have become accustomed to consider the enterprise and restless
-spirit of adventure which makes the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries
-so full of interest, as finding their sole field in the New World
-and in voyages such as those of Drake and Cavendish; and in heroes
-such as Frobisher, Gilbert, and Raleigh. We forget the expeditions of
-Willoughby and Burroughs to find a north-east passage; the courage of
-Chancellor, who opened up trade with Russia; the travels of Jenkinson,
-who first crossed Russia and sailed over the Caspian Sea; the brave
-Captains of the Levant Company, who fought their way through the
-Barbary corsairs and the galleys of Spain; those faithful servants
-of the same Company, Newbery, Fitch, and Leedes, who discovered the
-long-forgotten overland route to India; the voyages of the first ships
-of the East India Company in seas unknown, among a people strange and
-suspicious; the persistent attempts to open up the African trade; we
-have forgotten—if we ever learned—how, all over the world, along the
-shores of the Baltic, in Arctic seas, round the Cape of Good Hope, in
-the Far East, in North-West America and in the West Indies, the sails
-of England carried the gallant adventurers whose very numbers make
-their names difficult to be remembered; across the unknown plains of
-Russia, across the Great Syrian desert, unvisited by Christians since
-the days of Bohemond and Baldwin, down the Great River, even the river
-Euphrates; in the Courts of the Great Mogul, in Malay land, among the
-Red Indians of North America,—everywhere, visible to all, were found
-the men of the Western Queen, as great a name to the Czar of Muscovy as
-to Philip of Spain.
-
-[Illustration: _Christ’s Hospital._]
-
-In Hakluyt may be found written by Anthony Jenkinson, one of the most
-determined and most daring of the trading travellers of this time,
-a list of the countries which he had visited in six years. It is as
-follows:—
-
-  “The names of such countries as I Anthony Jenkinson have travelled
-  unto, from the second of October 1546, at which time I made my
-  first voyage out of England, untill the yeere of our Lord 1572,
-  when I returned last out of Russia.
-
-  First, I passed into Flanders, and travelled through all the base
-  countries, and from thence from Germanie, passing over the Alpes
-  I travelled into Italy, and from thence made my journey through
-  Piemont into France, throughout all which realme I have thoroughly
-  journied.
-
-  I have also travelled through the kingdomes of Spaine and
-  Portingal, I have sailed through the Levant seas every way, and
-  have bene in all the chiefe Islands within the same sea, as Rhodes,
-  Malta, Sicilia, Cyprus, Candie, and divers others.
-
-  I have bene in many partes of Grecia, Morea, Achaia, and where the
-  olde citie of Corinth stoode.
-
-  I have travelled through a great part of Turkie, Syria, and divers
-  other countries in Asia minor.
-
-  I have passed over the mountaines of Libanus to Damasco, and
-  travelled through Samaria, Galile, Philistine or Palestine, unto
-  Jerusalem and so through all the Holy land.
-
-  I have been in divers places of Affrica, as Algiers, Col, Bon,
-  Tripolis, the gollet within the Gulf of Tunis.
-
-  I have sailed farre Northward within the Mare glaciale, where
-  we have had continuall day; and sight of the Sunne ten weekes
-  together, and that navigation was in Norway, Lapland, Samogitia;
-  and other very strange places.
-
-  I have travelled through all the ample dominions of the Emperour
-  of Russia and Moscovis, which extende from the North sea, and the
-  confines of Norway and Lapland, even to the Mare Caspium.
-
-  I have bene in divers countries neere about the Caspian sea,
-  Gentiles, and Mahometans, as Cazan, Cremia, Rezan, Cheremisi,
-  Mordouiti, Vachin, Nagaia, with divers others of strange customs
-  and religions.
-
-  I have sailed over the Caspian Sea, and discovered all the regions
-  thereabout adjacent, as Chircassi, Comul, Shascal, Shiruan, with
-  many others.
-
-  I have travelled 40 daies journey beyond the said sea, towards
-  the Oriental India and Cathaia, through divers deserts and
-  wildernesses, and passed through 5 kingdomes of the Tartars, and
-  all the land of Turkeman and Zagatay, and so to the great city of
-  Boghar in Bactria, not without great perils and dangers sundry
-  times.
-
-  After all this, in An. 1562 I passed againe over the Caspian sea
-  another way, and landed in Armenia, at a citie called Derbent,
-  built by Alexander the Great, and from thence travelled through
-  Media, Parthia, Hircania, into Persia to the court of the great
-  Sophie, called Shaw Tomasso, unto whom I delivered letters from the
-  Queenes Majestie, and remained in his court 8 months, and returning
-  homeward, passed through divers other countries. Finally, I made
-  two voyages more after that out of England into Russia, the one in
-  the yeere 1566, and the other in the yeere 1571. And thus being
-  weary and growing old, I am content to take my seat in mine owne
-  house, chiefly comforting myselfe, in that my service hath bene
-  honourably accepted and rewarded of her majestie and the rest by
-  whom I have beene employed.”
-
-And now it was that stories of danger from frost and from storm; of
-cruelties endured at the hands of savages, and pirates; of captivity
-among Moors; of tortures inflicted by the accursed Inquisition; of
-hairbreadth escapes; of wanderings over lands never before seen; of
-great treasures lying ready for the bold adventurer,—ran up and down
-the City. The ’prentice told what he had heard to fellow ’prentice; the
-sailors told the boys upon the wharves; the ship after her successful
-voyage came up to the Pool with cloth of gold for sails and dressed
-with flying streamers. Above all, the imagination of the youth was
-fired more by the splendid stones of danger and of battle and of escape
-from captivity than by the prospect of great riches. Do you know how
-John Fox escaped from Alexandria? For my own part I do not know any
-story better told or more certain to inspire the lads who heard it with
-a burning desire to be with such a company and to be doing such things.
-It is from Hakluyt (ii. 133), and I venture to relate it here and in
-his own words, to show the kind of story which quickened the pulse and
-fired the blood of the London youth.
-
-  “Nowe these eight being armed with such weapons as they thought
-  well of, thinking themselves sufficient champions to encounter
-  a stronger enemie, and comming unto the prison, Fox opened the
-  gates and doores thereof, and called forth all the prisoners, whom
-  he set, some to ramming up the gate, some to the dressing up of
-  a certaine gallie, which was the best in all the roade, and was
-  called the captaine of Alexandria, whereinto some carried mastes,
-  sailes, oares, and other such furniture as doth belong unto a
-  gallie.
-
-  At the prison were certaine warders, whom John Fox and his
-  companie slew; in the killing of whom, there were eight more of
-  the Turks, which perceived them, and got them to the toppe of the
-  prison; unto whom John Fox, and his company, were faine to come by
-  ladders, where they found a hot skirmish. For some of them were
-  there slaine, some wounded, and some but scarred, and not hurt.
-  As John Fox was thrise shot through his appareil, and not hurt,
-  Peter Unticaro, and the other two, that had armed them with the
-  duckats, were slaine, as not able to weild themselves, being so
-  pestered with the weight and uneasie carying of the wicked and
-  prophane treasure; and also divers Christians were as well hurt
-  about that skirmish as Turkes slaine. Amongst the Turkes was one
-  thrust thorowe, who (let us not say that it was ill fortune) fell
-  off from the toppe of the prison wall, and made such a lowing, that
-  the inhabitants thereabout (as here and there scattering stoode a
-  house or two) came and dawed him, so that they understood the case,
-  how that the prisoners were paying their ransomes; wherewith they
-  raised both Alexandria which lay on the west side of the roade, and
-  a Castle which was at the Cities end, next to the roade, and also
-  an other Fortresse which lay on the north side of the roade; so
-  that nowe they had no way to escape, but one, which by man’s reason
-  (the two holdes lying so upon the mouth of the roade) might seeme
-  impossible to be a way for them. So was the read sea impossible
-  for the Israelites to passe through, the hils and rockes lay so
-  on the one side, and their enemies compassed them on the other.
-  So was it impossible that the wals of Jericho should fall downe,
-  being neither undermined, nor yet rammed at with engines, nor yet
-  any man’s wisdome, pollicie, or helpe set or put thereunto. Such
-  impossibilities can our God make possible. He that helde the Lyons
-  jawes from rending Daniel asunder, yea, or yet from once touching
-  him to his hurt; can not He hold the roring canons of this hellish
-  force? He that kept the fiers rage in the hot burning oven, from
-  the three children, that praised His name, can not He keepe the
-  fiers flaming blastes from among His elect?
-
-  Now is the roade fraught with lustie souldiers, laborers, and
-  mariners, who are faine to stand to their tackling, in setting
-  to every man his hand, some to the carying in of victuals, some
-  munitions, some oares, and some one thing, some another, but most
-  are keeping their enemie from the wall of the road. But to be
-  short, there was no time mispent, no man idle, nor any man’s labour
-  ill bestowed, or in vaine. So that in short time, this gally was
-  ready trimmed up. Whereinto every man leaped in all haste, hoyssing
-  up the sayles lustily, yeelding themselves to His mercie and grace,
-  in whose hands are both winde and weather.
-
-  Now is this gally on flote, and out of the safetie of the roade;
-  now have the two Castles full power upon the gally, now is there
-  no remedy but to sinke; how can it be avoided? the Canons let flie
-  from both sides, and the gally is even in the middest, and betweene
-  them both. What man can devise to save it? there is no man, but
-  would thinke it must needs be sunke.
-
-  There was not one of them that feared the shotts, which went
-  thundring round about their eares, nor yet were once scarred or
-  touched, with five and forty shot, which came from the Castles.
-  Here did God hold foorth His buckler, He shieldeth now this gally,
-  and hath tried their faith to the uttermost. Now commeth His
-  speciall helpe; yea, even when man thinks them past all helpe, then
-  commeth He Himselfe downe from heaven with His mightie power, then
-  is His present remedie most readie prest. For they saile away,
-  being not once touched with the glaunce of a shot, and are quickly
-  out of the Turkish canons reach. Then might they see them comming
-  downe by heapes to the water side, in companies like unto swarmes
-  of bees, making shew to come after them with gallies, in bustling
-  themselves to dresse up the gallies, which would be a swift peece
-  of worke for them to doe, for that they had neither oares, mastes,
-  sailes, gables, nor anything else ready in any gally. But yet they
-  are carying them unto them, some into one gally, and some into
-  another, so that, being such a confusion amongst them, without any
-  certaine guide, it were a thing impossible to overtake them; beside
-  that, there was no man that would take charge of a gally, the
-  weather was so rough, and there was such an amasedness [amazedness]
-  amongst them.”
-
-[Illustration: SIR FRANCIS DRAKE (1540(?)-1596)
-
-From an engraving by Elstracke in the British Museum.]
-
-The effect on London of the magnificent expeditions of the English was
-startling. Think what these things meant. The country for a long time
-could look back upon nothing but defeat, humiliation, civil war, and
-religious dissensions. There were no military achievements, no naval
-victories; no increase of trade; never was the nation more depressed
-and humbled than at the death of Queen Mary and the accession of
-Elizabeth.
-
-[Illustration: DRAKE’S “GOLDEN HIND,” IN WHICH HE SAILED ROUND THE
-WORLD, 1577–1580]
-
-Then—almost suddenly—all was changed. More than the old spirit came
-back to the Londoners, the descendants of the men who had followed
-Philpot the Mayor to the destruction of the Scottish pirate. Not only
-the sea dogs of Devon, but those of Wapping, Ratcliffe, Redriff, and
-the Cinque Ports went forth to fight the Spaniard wherever they could
-find him. Think of the career of Frobisher. Three times he essayed
-the north-west passage to Cathay; he commanded one of Drake’s ships
-in his expedition to the West Indies; he fought against the Armada;
-he was wounded, and died from wounds received at the siege of Crozan
-in Brittany. Forty years on the sea, sword in hand, sailed this brave
-captain. London possesses his body, which lies in St. Giles’s Church,
-Cripplegate. There was also Cavendish, the gentleman filibuster, who
-captured the richest prize ever known, and came home, his sails of
-damask, his sailors clad in silk, and his masts gleaming with cloth
-of gold. Or there was the defeat, the flight after battle against
-overwhelming odds, which affected the imagination even more than
-victory. Such was Sir John Hawkins’s fight at San Juan de Ulloa, five
-ships against thirteen. Even death, when death came splendidly, moved
-the hearts of the young men to brave deeds. Was there ever death finer
-than that of Sir Humphrey Gilbert? The last time he was seen by the
-people on the other ship, his companion, he was sitting on the high
-poop, his Bible in his hand. “We are as near to Heaven,” said the old
-captain, “by sea as by land.” Night fell and the men on the _Hind_
-saw the light of the _Squirrel_ suddenly disappear. She had gone down
-with all on board. And while speaking of splendid deaths, there was
-that of Sir Richard Grenville. In his ship the _Revenge_, with five
-other vessels, he was met by a Spanish fleet of fifty-three ships; his
-companions fled, and the _Revenge_ alone fought them all:—
-
-    “And the sun went down, and the stars came out, far over the summer
-        sea,
-    But never a moment ceased the fight of the one and the fifty-three.
-    Ship after ship, the whole night long, their high-built galleons
-        came,
-    Ship after ship, the whole night long, with her battle-thunder and
-        flame:
-    Ship after ship, the whole night long, drew back with her dead and
-        her shame.
-    For some were sunk and many were shatter’d, and so could fight us
-        no more—
-    God of battles, was ever a battle like this in the world before?”
-
-But at length he was captured with his crippled ship and his diminished
-crew.
-
-    “But he rose upon their decks, and he cried:
-    ‘I have fought for Queen and Faith, like a valiant man and true:
-    I have only done my duty as a man is bound to do:
-    With a joyful spirit, I, Sir Richard Grenville, die!’
-    And he fell upon their decks, and he died.”
-
-The ship in which Drake sailed round the world (_The Golden Hind_),
-when it became unfit for service, was laid up near the “Mast Dock” at
-Deptford, where it remained for a long series of years an object of
-curiosity and wonder. Hentzner, in 1598, says he saw here the ship
-of that noble pirate, Francis Drake. From a passage in one of Ben
-Jonson’s plays it appears to have become a resort for holiday people,
-the cabin being then converted into a banqueting house. Drake’s ship at
-Deptford is spoken of as one of the “sights” in some verses prefixed
-to the redoubtable Tom Coryat’s _Crudities_, 1611. When the young Duke
-of Saxe-Weimar saw the ship in 1613, but very little remained of it.
-It was then lying by the river-side in shallow water, in a dock; the
-lower part only was left, the upper part being all gone, for almost
-everybody who went there, and especially sailors, were in the habit
-of carrying off some portion of it. Philipott, _History of Kent_,
-1659, says that in a very short time nothing was left of her. And in
-Moryson’s _Itinerary_, 1617, it is noticed as follows—“Not farre from
-hence (Deptford), upon the shore, lie the broken ribs of the ship in
-which Sir Francis Drake sailed round the world, reserved for a monument
-of that great action.” A chair, made out of the wood, is to be seen in
-the gallery of the Bodleian Library at Oxford.
-
-Let us take a contemporary poet, to see how Drake’s own generation was
-affected by his exploits:—
-
-    “Awake, each Muse, awake!
-      Not one I need, but all
-    To sing of Francis Drake
-      And his companions tall.
-    One Muse may chance do well,
-    Where little is to tell;
-    But nine are all too few
-    To tell what he did do,
-      His friends and soldiers all.
-
-    Drake was made generall
-      By sea and eke by land,
-    And Christopher Carlisle
-      Did next unto him stand.
-    Brave Winter too, was there,
-    And Captain Fourbisher,
-    And Knowles, and many mo,
-    Did all together go
-      To lend a helping hand.
-
-    Three thousand Volunteers
-      Were numbered with the rest,
-    And sailors, as appears,
-      To guide them to the West,
-    To quell the Spaniard’s pride,
-    Which could not be denied;
-    But which could not be seene
-    By our most noble Queene
-      And stomach’d with the best.
-
-    In more than twenty ships
-      They sailed from the port.
-    In speed they did eclipse,
-      And took St. Jago’s fort:
-    It was a glorious day,
-    Before they came away,
-    The day of our Queen’s birth,
-    They kept with joy and mirth
-      In well beseeming sort.
-
-    Santo Domingo next
-      They took and also spoiled.
-    The Spaniard he was vext
-      To be so easy foiled.
-    No force could them resist;
-    They did as they list.
-    The Spaniards bought the town,
-    And paid the ducats down
-      For which they long had toiled.
-
-    From thence to Carthagene
-      They carried victory:
-    Upon the Spanish main
-      The city rich doth lye.
-    They took it by assault:
-    The Spaniards were in fault;
-    But they could not oppose
-    The valour of such foes,
-      And yeelded presently.
-
-    To Terra Florida
-      They did direct their course,
-    And ever by the way
-      They proved their skill and force.
-    With fear the Spaniards shook
-    While all their towne they took.
-    For barrels of bright gold
-    The towne our English sold,
-      And shewed therefore remorse.
-
-    And now they have returned
-      To Plymouth back once more,
-    And glory they have earned
-      Enough to put in store.
-    Our Queen with great delight
-    Beheld the joyous sight,
-    And thanked them every one
-    For what they thus had done
-      By sea and on the shore.
-
-    Now, welcome all and some,
-      Now welcome to our isle,
-    For Francis Drake is come
-      To London with Carlisle:
-    And many more with him
-    That ventured life and limb,
-    And fighting side by side
-    Did quell the Spaniard’s pride,
-      To cause our Queen to smile.”
-
-And if the following truly represents the spirit of the sailors, what a
-promising and cheerful spirit it was!
-
-    “Lustely, lustely, lustely let us saile forth,
-    The winde trim doth serve us, it blowes from the north.
-
-    All thinges we have ready, and nothing we want
-      To furnish our ship that rideth here by:
-    Victuals and weapons, thei be nothing skant,
-      Like worthie mariners ourselves we will trie.
-                                  Lustely, lustely, etc.
-
-    Her flagges be new trimmed, set flaunting alofte,
-      Our ship for swift swimmyng, oh, she doeth excell;
-    Wee feare no enemies, we have escaped them ofte;
-      Of all ships that swimmeth she beareth the bell.
-                                  Lustely, lustely, etc.
-
-    And here is a maister excelleth in skill,
-      And our maister’s mate he is not to seeke;
-    And here is a boteswaine will do his good will,
-      And here is a ship boye, we never had leeke.
-                                  Lustely, lustely, etc.
-
-    If fortune then faile ot, and our next vioage prove,
-      Wee will returne merely, and make good cheere,
-    And holde all together, as friends linkt in love:
-      The cannes shal be filled with wine, ale, and beere.
-                                  Lustely, lustely, etc.”
-
-But enough of songs, we must return to the more serious aspects of
-Trading England. When merchants first began to carry on foreign trade
-in association it is impossible to ascertain. But as we find “Men
-of the Emperor” and “Men of Rouen” in London in Saxon times, it is
-probable that foreign trade was from the beginning carried on by
-members of companies. These members traded each for himself; but they
-were associated for protection, and of necessity an “interloper”—as
-the private trader was afterwards called—could not carry his wares
-to a foreign city when he knew not the language, or the customs, nor
-could claim the privileges accorded to the Companies. On the other
-hand, behind the members stood a powerful corporation; this gave the
-merchants credit; this procured for them respect and protection;
-this provided the machinery of warehouses, markets, interpreters,
-and information as to laws, regulations, prices, demand, supply,
-privileges, and all the special points required to be mastered if trade
-were to be successful.
-
-The first foreign trading Company, then, was exactly like a Trades
-Guild, in which only members could follow the trade, which had its own
-quarter, made its own laws for itself, elected its own officers, yet
-every member worked for himself.
-
-The longest lived and the most important of the mediæval companies was
-the Hanseatic League, already mentioned at p. 82.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-_F. Hausstaengl_
-
-A MERCHANT OF THE STEELYARD
-
-From the portrait by Holbein at Windsor Castle.]
-
-The earliest association of London merchants for foreign trade is that
-called the Staplers’ Company. They claimed to have existed long before
-the Merchant Adventurers. There is, however, a great deal of mystery
-attached to their early history. Thus, if they were associated for
-exporting the staple wares, such as wool, lead, tin, and skins, how
-far did they overlap the Hanseatics? And were they all foreigners? The
-latter question seems answered by the law of 1253, which prohibited
-English merchants from exporting staple goods. Again, was this law
-strictly enforced? In 1362, more than a hundred years later, it was
-repealed.
-
-The Merchants of the Staple are sometimes confused with the Fraternity
-of St. Thomas à Becket, from whom sprung a much more important body—the
-Merchant Adventurers. The reason of the decay of the Staplers was the
-growth of English industries, which forbade the exports of the most
-important of the staples—wool. The Staplers, however, continued their
-trade, having their headquarters at Antwerp, Brussels, Louvain, Calais,
-and Bruges, successively. It will be remembered that Edward III.
-established the Staple of Wool at Westminster; the name of Staple Inn
-preserved the fact that the merchants had houses on that site.
-
-About the year 1358 the Fraternity of Thomas Becket received privileges
-from Louis, Count of Flanders, for fixing their staple of English
-woollen cloth at Bruges. This Fraternity gave rise to the Mercers’
-Company founded under Edward the Third. The Saint, son of a London
-mercer, was especially regarded as the protector of the Company. The
-Brotherhood was not at first possessed of exclusive rights, but if
-we suppose that they were backed by the richest traders in London,
-namely, the Mercers and the Drapers, and that no other London trader
-would compete with them, it is quite probable that they feared no
-competition. They got a Charter in 1406 when Henry the Fourth gave them
-the right of choosing their own governors; they then began to arrogate
-to themselves exclusive rights, which were confirmed by another
-Charter of 1436. So wealthy and powerful did they become that when,
-in 1444, they removed their headquarters from Middleburg to Antwerp,
-the magistrates and citizens met them outside the town, and offered
-them an entertainment. Their Secretary, John Wheeler (_Treatise of
-Commerce_, 1601), says that the “English Nation” were the real founders
-of Antwerp’s wealth. There were troubles as to the attempts of private
-merchants to trade; in 1497 it was provided by Act of Parliament that
-every Englishman should have free entrance to foreign marts on payment
-of ten marks, presumably to the Fraternity. Again, in 1505, a new
-Charter changed their name to that of the “Merchant Adventurers of
-England.” Under this Charter they held in their hands the export trade
-in woollen cloths, and were authorised to hold courts and to admit
-other merchants for a fee of ten marks to trade with them in Flanders,
-Holland, Brabant, Zeeland, and the countries adjacent under the
-Archduke’s government. The Merchant Adventurers became a power in the
-land; so great a power, indeed, that when Charles the Fifth proposed to
-establish the Inquisition in Antwerp, he was dissuaded by the Merchant
-Adventurers, who threatened to leave the City if he persisted. It is
-said that the Company then employed 50,000 persons in the Netherlands.
-At this time their limits comprised all the ports from the river Somme
-to the German ports within the Baltic. They exported white and coloured
-cloths to the value of one million sterling every year, and imported,
-among other things, wine, copper, steel, gunpowder (could we not make
-our own gunpowder?), silk, velvets, cloth of gold. This business was
-well nigh ruined by King James the First when he granted a monopoly for
-the sale of cloths dyed at home to Sir William Cockaine, Alderman. (See
-_London in the Time of the Stuarts_, p. 194.)
-
-[Illustration:
-
-_W. A. Mansell & Co._
-
-MEDALS STRUCK IN COMMEMORATION OF THE ARMADA
-
-From medals in the British Museum.
-
-_p._ 232.]
-
-As the Merchant Adventurers grew richer it became necessary, according
-to the bad practice of the time, to bribe statesmen for a continuance
-of their privileges; they also increased the fees for admission. The
-troubles between Holland and England in the seventeenth century drove
-the Adventurers to Hamburg, where they remained, and were called the
-Hamburg Company.
-
-The vast enlargement of trade and enterprise under Elizabeth was well
-begun under her father. In 1511 ships began to sail from the ports of
-London, Southampton, and Bristol to Sicily, Candia, Chio, Cyprus, and
-Tripoli; they took out woollen cloths and hides, and they brought back
-rhubarb, silk, corselets, malmsey, oil, cotton, carpets, and spices.
-An English merchant was appointed Consul at Candia; another merchant,
-a foreigner, was made Consul at Chio; in the year 1535 a ship took out
-from London a hundred persons who were settled by the English merchants
-as factors at the various centres of trade. Trade openings were made on
-the Coast of Guinea and with Morocco; ships sailed to Newfoundland and
-to Brazil. In the year 1583 was formed the first of the new Companies
-for trading purposes. This Company had an interesting but a disastrous
-beginning. It was started with a capital of £6000 in 240 shares of £25
-each; its original idea was to find a north-east passage to China and
-to open trade with the Chinese. Three vessels were fitted out under the
-command of Sir Hugh Willoughby. Would you know how the fleet started?
-Hakluyt tells the story:—
-
-  “It was thought best by the opinion of them all, that by the
-  twentieth of May, the Captaines and Mariners should take shipping,
-  and depart from Radcliffe, upon the ebbe, if it pleased God.
-  They having saluted their acquiaintance, one his wife, another
-  his children, another his kinsfolkes, and another his friends
-  deerer then his kinsfolkes, were present and ready at the day
-  appoynted; and having wayed ancre, they departed with the turning
-  of the water, and sailing easily, came first to Greenewich. The
-  greater shippes are towed downe with boates, and oares, and the
-  mariners being all apparelled in Watchet or skie coloured cloth,
-  rowed amaine, and made way with diligence. And being come neere
-  to Greenewich (where the Court then lay) presently upon the newes
-  thereof, the Courtiers came running out, and the common people
-  flockt together, standing very thicke upon the shoare; the privie
-  Counsel, they lookt out at the windowes of the Court, and the
-  rest ranne up to the toppes of the towers; the shippes hereupon
-  discharge their Ordinance, and shot off their pieces after the
-  maner of warre, and of the sea, insomuch that the tops of the
-  hilles sounded therewith, the valleys and waters gave an echo, and
-  the Mariners they shouted in such sort, that the skie rang againe
-  with the noyse thereof. One stoode in the poope of the ship, and
-  by his gestures bid farewell to his friends in the best maner
-  hee could. Another walkes upon the hatches, another climbes the
-  shrowds, another stands upon the maine yard, and another in the top
-  of the shippe. To be short, it was a very triumph (after a sort)
-  in all respects to the beholders. But (alas) the good King Edward
-  (in respect of whom principally all this was prepared) hee onely
-  by reason of his sickenesse was absent from this shewe, and not
-  long after the departure of these ships, the lamentable and most
-  sorrowfull accident of his death followed.”
-
-Other accounts of this incident represent the King as being carried out
-to see this gallant spectacle, the last he was to see upon earth.
-
-The little fleet met with bad weather off the coast of Spitzbergen; two
-of them, including the captain’s ship, ran into a harbour of Lapland,
-where the whole company were frozen to death; the third got into
-the White Sea and so to Archangel; the captain, Richard Chancellor,
-procured sledges and travelled to Moscow, where he obtained from the
-Czar permission to trade on the northern coast of Russia. Thus was
-founded the Russia Company. A few years later one of the agents of the
-Russia Company was despatched as an Ambassador from the English Court
-to the Czar, who in his turn sent an Ambassador to Whitehall. On his
-voyage the Russian Ambassador was wrecked on the coast of Scotland.
-The Russia Company, hearing of the disaster, sent a deputation with a
-supply of everything that the Ambassador might want. On his approach to
-the City he was met by a company of eighty merchants on horseback, who
-escorted him to Highgate, where he lay that night, and on the next day
-was met by Lord Montague, representing the Queen, with 300 knights and
-esquires and 140 merchants of the Russia Company. Rooms were found for
-him in Gracechurch Street, where many costly gifts awaited him.
-
-The history of this Company deserves to be written at length on
-account of the enterprise and intelligence of its agents. Indeed,
-justice has never been done to the agents and factors of the great
-London Companies. It was not the Directors, sitting at home at their
-long table, who created the Indian Empire; maintained and widened the
-English trade; carried the English flag over lands unknown and to
-peoples unheard of; it was not the Directors who opened up routes,
-stood before capricious despots, marked the resources of new countries
-and reported on their wants. These things were done by the factors and
-the agents, who encountered all risks, facing possibly prison, torture,
-disease, and sometimes a cruel death, for the enlargement of trade and
-the enrichment of their masters. They were the pioneers; sometimes they
-were the Forlorn Hope of the English trade and wealth. No Company, not
-even the East India Company, was better served by its agents than the
-Russia Company. They obtained from the Czar important privileges; they
-could trade in any part of Russia without safe conduct or licenses;
-they could not be arrested for debt; they could appoint their own
-officers and servants; and they had jurisdiction over all Englishmen
-resident in Russia. In other words, they had a monopoly of the Russian
-Trade.
-
-The Company showed a clear comprehension of these advantages; they
-continued to attempt the north-east passage; they sent ships laden
-with merchandise to Archangel, whence their agents travelled over
-Russia; they even opened communications with Persia by means of their
-agent Anthony Jenkinson, who has already in his own words given us an
-account of his adventurous career. When he sailed from the Volga
-to Astrakhan, he passed over the Caspian to the town of Boghaz, where
-he found traders from the Far East. He sent home a map of Russia, the
-first published in England. This way of trade, however, proved too
-dangerous on account of Cossack pirates who infested the Caspian Sea
-and robbed the Company’s ships. However, the Company, anxious to secure
-these advantages, procured an Act of Parliament granting them the
-exclusive trade with the countries of Persia, Armenia, and Media, as
-well as Russia.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  47. St. John’s Hospital.
-  48. Smithfield.
-  49. St. James’s, Clerkenwell.
-  54. Baynard Castle.
-  55. St. Paul’s Cathedral.
-  58. Grey Friars.
-  59. Queen Hythe.
-  60. St. Martin’s le Grand.
-  61. Aldersgate.
-  62. Jew’s Cemetery.
-  63. Cheapside.
-  64. The Standard.
-  65. Cross, Cheapside.
-  66. Rochester House.
-  67. Winchester House.
-  68. St. Mary’s Overie.
-  70. St. Thomas’s Hospital.
-  71. St. George’s Church.
-  72. Kent Road.
-  73. Suffolk House.
-  74. St. Giles’s, Cripplegate.
-  75. Cripplegate.
-  76. The Barbican.
-  77. St. Albans, Wood Street.
-  78. Bow Church.
-  79. Broken Wharf.
-  80. The Cranes.
-  81. The Steel Yard.
-  82. Cold Harbour.
-  83. Fishmongers’ Hall.
-  84. St. Thomas of Acons.
-  85. Guildhall.
-  86. Moorgate.
-  87. Austin Friars.
-  88. Bishopsgate.
-  89. Church of St. Magnus.
-  90. London Bridge.
-  91. St. Thomas’s Chapel.
-  92. Bridge House.
-  93. St. Olaves Church.
-  94. St. Agnes’s le Clare.
-  95. Hoxton.
-  96. St. Botolph, Bishopsgate.
-  97. Leadenhall.
-  98. Botolph Wharf.
-  99. Billingsgate.
-  100. St. Mary Spittal.
-  101. Walls of London.
-  127. High Street, Southwark.
-
-From the Panorama of “London, Westminster, and Southwark, in 1543.” By
-Anthony Van den Vyngaerde. (Sutherland Collection, Bodleian Library,
-Oxford.) _For continuation see pp. 350 and 351._]
-
-Internal troubles in Russia, such as the taking of Moscow by the
-Tartars, caused the Company a loss of 400,000 roubles. Pirates in the
-Baltic, and other misfortunes, greatly reduced the Company, but they
-persevered in their voyages of discovery, once more attempting the
-north-east passage, which was expected to do so much for them. They
-did not succeed, but they discovered the deep sea fisheries, and they
-brought home immense quantities of fish-oil and of dried salmon. They
-suffered from the Dutch, who followed in their wake; they obtained
-from the King of Denmark permission to put in at any of his seaports
-in Iceland or Norway; they lost their exclusive rights in Russia, but
-only for a time; they found themselves cut out by the Dutch, whose
-vessels carried more merchandise; with the authority of James the
-First, they sent armed vessels and seized on Spitzbergen in the King’s
-name, calling it King James’s Newland. They had to fight for their
-conquest, driving off Dutch, French, and Biscay sail with four English
-“interlopers.” The Dutch, however, would not admit the pretensions
-of Crown or Company, sending their ships protected by men-of-war to
-fish, despite the protests of the English. There was fighting in the
-high latitudes for some years, while even the English ports refused
-to recognise the exclusive right of the Company. Finally, the whales
-became so scarce about Spitzbergen that the trade ceased to be worth
-fighting about.
-
-We will continue the history of the Company in brief, though it runs
-far beyond the limits of our period. In the year 1620 the route by the
-Caspian was reopened by Hobbs, an agent to the Company, who took that
-way from Moscow to Ispahan. In 1623 a new treaty was concluded between
-James the First and the Czar, in which privileges, but not exclusive
-rights, were conferred upon the Company. A deadly blow was inflicted
-on the Company by the execution of Charles, an event naturally viewed
-by all sovereigns with the deepest indignation. The English merchants,
-who were masters of the Russian trade, were driven out and supplanted
-by the Dutch; and it was not until the year 1669 that the Company was
-allowed to trade with Russia on the same footing as the Dutch.
-
-The real importance of the Company was decaying when it admitted any
-one as a member on payment of a fine of £5. The conveyance of raw silk
-from Persia through Russia remained their privilege until troubles
-broke out in Persia in 1746, which stopped the trade; they still
-carried on their trade with Archangel, but when the Baltic became a
-peaceful highway, this shorter route to Russia destroyed the Archangel
-trade. The Russia Company did not, it is true, acquire for the British
-Empire any accession of territory; but its services in exploring new
-routes, opening up new lines of trade, putting Great Britain into
-communication with foreign powers previously strangers, can hardly be
-exaggerated, while it fostered and encouraged and developed that spirit
-of enterprise, adventure, and restlessness which, since the seventeenth
-century, has covered half the globe with one people and one religion.
-
-A distinction must be drawn between “regulated companies” and
-Joint-Stock Companies. In the former, every man traded for himself,
-subject to the regulations of the Company, like a Guild. In the
-“Russia,” “Turkey,” and “Eastland” Companies no one but a member could
-carry on that kind of trade. In the Joint-Stock Companies shareholders
-need not be traders and could sell or transfer their shares.
-
-The Eastland Company was first chartered in 1579. It was privileged to
-enjoy the sole trade over all those parts of the Baltic shore which
-did not belong to the Russia Company. Now there had been carried
-on, from time immemorial, a trade with the Baltic ports by private
-adventurers who wanted no charter. Many of these, no doubt, took up
-their membership with the new Company, but there were some who would
-not, or could not. These traders, driven away from their own markets,
-made loud complaints, in reply to which a proclamation was issued
-ordering that no one outside the Company was to export to these parts
-the merchandise in which the Eastland Company traded; provided always
-that the importation of corn and grain was left free. The provision
-looks like a compromise, but when we ask how corn and grain were to be
-imported except in ships, and that, if these ships were English, they
-would hardly go out in ballast, one fails to see that the enemies of
-the Eastlanders got much by their proclamation. In 1672 the whole of
-Scandinavia was thrown open to all comers; and the entrance-fee to the
-Company was reduced to £2. The opinion of Sir Josiah Child probably
-settled the fate of the Company. He said that the Eastland Company had
-only enabled the Dutch to get ten times as much trade in the Baltic as
-was carried on by the English.
-
-In the year 1581 the Turkey Company received its Charter from Queen
-Elizabeth. It was a Charter for a limited time, seven years, and it
-could be revoked at a year’s notice. The Company began very well;
-they built large and strong ships to face the storms of the Bay, for
-which they received the thanks of the Council; they introduced eastern
-commodities at a much cheaper price; but they sometimes paid dearly for
-their cargoes when they had to fight the corsairs of Barbary and the
-galleys of Spain, and to face the fiercest animosity of the Venetians.
-In 1583 some of the agents of the Company, stationed at the Aleppo
-House, made their way with merchandise to Bagdad, to the Persian
-Gulf, and thence to India and the Far East. They obtained, therefore,
-a new Charter giving them power to trade over India as well as the
-Sultan’s dominions. The entrance-fee was fixed at £25 for persons under
-twenty-six years of age, at £50 for those over twenty-six, and at £1
-for apprentices.
-
-The Company now became extremely prosperous, carrying on a most
-extensive trade. This trade, by a later order under Charles II., was
-kept entirely in the hands of the City of London, no one, unless
-a resident and a freeman, being admitted into the Company. On the
-foundation of the East India Company there arose disputes as to the
-infringement of rights. This quarrel ended without any decision.
-
-The trade of the Turkey Company declined during the seventeenth century
-from many causes, one of which was the rivalry of the French and their
-success in underselling the English goods. The Company finally closed
-its history in the year 1825.
-
-The Levant Company was another trading Company established under
-Elizabeth. By opening up direct communication with the Levant, England
-procured all the productions of the East without the intervention of
-Venice. Only one more vessel was sent to London from Venice after the
-establishment of the Company, and this with a rich cargo and many
-passengers was wrecked and destroyed on the Isle of Wight.
-
-For the repulse of the Spanish Armada, London contributed thirty-eight
-vessels, and the Society of Merchant Adventurers, ten. In 1591, or
-perhaps in 1589, the first voyage from London to the East Indies was
-undertaken. The expedition of 1591 consisted of three ships, of which
-one was never heard of again; and the other two lost many men from
-sickness. The expedition, however, led to the formation of the East
-India Company in A.D. 1600, with a capital of £72,000 in 1440 shares
-of £50 each. Their first fleet, consisting of five ships and 480 men,
-reached Sumatra and the Straits of Malacca, where they captured a
-Portuguese ship of 900 tons laden with calicoes. They settled a factory
-at Bantam and sailed homewards, returning to port in two years and
-seven months after starting.
-
-The trade of the country was greatly advanced by the immigration of
-many Flemings, Dutch, Walloons, and French Huguenots, who brought over
-with them their own trades. They were judiciously distributed about
-the country, care being taken that they should neither interfere with
-the trade of the place nor crowd too much together. Thus at Sandwich
-alone there were 350 Flemish families in the year 1582; they carried
-on the manufactory of bags. In Norwich, Dutch and Walloons settled and
-made serges and silks and bombazines. Bone lace was taken to Honiton
-from Antwerp. In London the Flemings settled at Bermondsey, where they
-made felt hats and did joiners’ work; at Bow, where they had dye-works;
-at Wandsworth, where they worked in brass; at Mortlake and Fulham,
-where they made tapestry. In other places workers in steel and iron,
-window-glass painters, cloth fullers, cloth-makers, and many other
-craftsmen were planted and carried on profitable industries. Among
-other things, sail-making was introduced into England for the first
-time. The pawnbroker’s shop was also opened in this reign. It began
-with the establishment of seven banks in as many towns, to be known as
-“Banks for the relief of Common Necessity,” which should lend money on
-pledges. This Bank is alluded to by Shakespeare when Sir John Falstaff
-urges his hostess to pawn her cups and her hangings. “Glass,” he says,
-“glass is your only drinking: and for thy walls, a pretty slight
-drollery, or the story of the Prodigal or the Germans hunting in water
-work, is worth a thousand of these bed hangings and these fly-bitten
-tapestries.”
-
-The monopoly system by which the Court rewarded favourites at the
-expense of trade and the people was regarded by Elizabeth with favour,
-as an easy way of bestowing favours costing herself nothing. Many of
-her monopolies she withdrew as manifestly injurious to trade, yet she
-left many which weighed heavily upon the enterprise of the country.
-These monopolies were multiplied in the next two reigns, and greatly
-assisted to bring about the unpopularity of Charles.
-
-Cunningham is of opinion that the borrowing of money for trading
-purposes was not a common practice; he bases this opinion on the very
-high rate of interest demanded by the usurer. There can be no doubt
-that usury was strictly forbidden by the Church, by the Ordinances of
-the City of London, and by public opinion. Yet a case quoted by him
-(_Growth of Trade_, p. 325) shows that men not only wanted to borrow
-from time to time, but that Christians, not Jews, were willing to lend
-on interest. In that case the lender wanted interest for a loan of £10
-for three months, which amounted to 80 per cent per annum. The usurer
-could not get his claim allowed. Yet it is difficult to understand how
-business could be carried on at all except in an elementary way, if
-there was neither credit nor borrowing. But was the rate of interest
-too high for trading on borrowed money? There is every reason to
-believe that the profits of trade were enormous. Malyns, in his _Centre
-of the Circle of Commerce_, gives a table showing the profits of the
-trade in spices, silk, indigo, etc., early in the seventeenth century.
-They range from 150 to 250 per cent, _i.e._ goods bought at £100 would
-sell for £250 up to £350. Of course there must be set off against this
-apparently huge profit, losses by wrecks and pirates and the expense
-of the shipping. Borrowing, Cunningham thinks, was necessary to meet
-taxation. Since taxes were not regular, but irregular; and could not be
-provided for because no one knew when a tallage would be imposed or how
-large a percentage would be demanded, the merchant or the landowner,
-though perfectly solvent, might not be able to lay his hand at once on
-the amount demanded. A person of to-day whose estate might be worth
-£120,000 would find it, very possibly, difficult to meet, within a few
-days, the King’s demand of one-fifteenth, that is £8000. If he could
-not realise in time he must borrow. If all the usury was confined to
-the lending of money to meet a sudden tax, or to a monastery for the
-building of a church, or for a baron to raise a force, what becomes
-of the popular hatred of the Jews, first as money-lenders, and of
-the Caursini and the Italians who were licensed by the Pope, next?
-And if there was no borrowing by the merchants, what was the meaning
-of that crowd which, after the massacre of the Jews in York Castle,
-rushed to the Cathedral, where they brought out the Jews’ bonds—their
-own bonds—and burned them all? Cunningham, in a note, enumerates the
-demands of certain Russians against the Jews of the present day.
-These demands express the popular belief concerning their practice,
-not the truth. One would most unwillingly accept prejudice for proof,
-especially in the case of the race which has endured so much prejudice
-for so many centuries. Cunningham says, very justly, that the real
-objection against the Jews was that they made their money by lending
-it on security, which left them no risks which could be foreseen. The
-common people, however, did not understand the objection; they saw that
-the Jews practised a trade which the Church and the State would not
-allow to Christians; they saw that the Jews grew rich rapidly; that
-they were protected by the King; that they waxed insolent and sometimes
-insulted the Christian religion; and if they lent a Christian money
-they demanded an enormous, a ruinous, interest for it. Deep, indeed,
-must have been the popular hatred of the Jews, since Shakespeare could
-stir the blood of his audience by the spectacle of a Jewish usurer,
-three hundred years after there had been Jews in the land.
-
-[Illustration: THE TOWER IN 1553
-
-From a drawing by Wyngaerde. E. Gardner’s Collection]
-
-The business of the daily life, as well as that of the mercantile life,
-cannot, in fact, be carried on without money-lending. Works cannot
-be undertaken; credit cannot be secured; cargoes cannot be bought;
-ships cannot be laden; unless money can be obtained by advance. The
-banishment of the Jews; the disappearance of the Italians; took away
-the usurers and money-lenders by profession. There were as yet no
-banks to make advances on security; and money-lending was still, as it
-remains to this day, an occupation held in the greatest loathing. The
-money-lender, therefore, disguised his calling. Thus Hall (_Society in
-the Elizabethan Age_) furnishes a sketch of the usurer of the period.
-His name was George Stoddart; by trade he was ostensibly a grocer, but
-really a money-lender. His bargains took the form of bets. Thus he
-sends J. Klynt his furred nightgown for 4s. 5d., to be paid on the day
-of Klynt’s marriage: he gives R. Leds a ring called a ryboys, which
-he values at £1:13:4, to be paid on the day of his marriage or else
-at his hour of death. For a rapier he charges 40d., to be paid at his
-day of marriage or else not. He gives a man £400 on the condition that
-during his lifetime the borrower shall pay him £80 a year. He lived
-for ten years, and so doubled that small capital of £400. It would be
-interesting to know what, if any, great City fortunes were made by this
-style of money-lending.
-
-The increase of trade and of shipping in the Port of London is
-indicated by a passage in Camden, when he speaks of the multitudes of
-ships “as a very wood of trees, disbranched to make glades and to let
-in the light: so shaded is it with masts and sails.”
-
-The watermen of London were those who lived by the river and the port.
-John Taylor, the water poet, says that 40,000 people lived by the
-labour of the oar and scull. In 1613 there was a petition from the
-Company of Watermen against the erection of a theatre on the London or
-Middlesex side of the river, because it drew away so many people who
-otherwise would have been carried across the river to the theatres on
-the south bank. John Taylor shows us that many of these watermen had
-been sailors:—
-
-  “I did briefly declare part of the services that watermen had
-  done in Queen Elizabeth’s reign of famous memory, in the voyage
-  to Portugal with the right honourable and never to be forgotten
-  Earl of Essex; then after that, how it pleased God, in that great
-  deliverance in the year 1588, to make watermen good serviceable
-  instruments with their loss of lives and limbs to defend their
-  prince and country. Moreover, many of them served with Sir Francis
-  Drake, Sir John Hawkins, Sir Martin Frobisher, and others. Besides,
-  in Cadiz action, the Island Voyage, in Ireland, in the Low
-  Countries, and in the narrow seas they have been, as in duty they
-  were bound, at continual command, so that every summer 1500 or 2000
-  of them were employed to the places aforesaid....
-
-  Afterwards the players began to play on the Bankside, and to leave
-  playing in London and Middlesex, for the most part, then there went
-  such great concourse of people by water that the small number of
-  watermen remaining at home were not able to carry them, by reason
-  of the court, the terms, the players, and other employments, so
-  that we were enforced and encouraged, hoping that this golden
-  stirring world would have lasted ever, to take and entertain men
-  and boys ... so that the number of watermen, and those that live
-  and are maintained by them, and by the only labour of the oar and
-  the scull, betwixt the bridge of Windsor and Gravesend, cannot be
-  fewer than forty thousand; the cause of the greater half of which
-  multitude, hath been the players playing on the bankside, for I
-  have known three companies besides the bear-baiting at once there,
-  to wit, the Globe, the Rose, and the Swan.”
-
-Loud complaints being made by the artificers of London that foreign
-goods were underselling theirs, the King in 1461 prohibited the
-importation or sale of the following articles—the list of which shows
-some of the manufactures at that time established in London:—
-
-[Illustration: NEAR PAUL’S WHARF
-
-E. Gardner’s Collection.]
-
-“Any manner girdles, nor any harness wrought for girdles, points, laces
-of lether, purses, pouches, pins, gloves, knives, hangers, tailors’
-shears, scissors, andirons, cobordis, tongs, fire forks, gridirons;
-stocks, locks, keyes, hinges and garnets, spurs; painted papers,
-painted focers, paynted images, painted clothes, any between gold or
-between silver, wrought in papers for painters; saddles, saddle-trees,
-horse harness, boocis, bits, stirrups, buckles, chains, laten nails
-with iron shanks, terrets, standing candlesticks, hanging candlesticks,
-holy water stoops, chafing dishes, hanging lavers, curtain rings, cards
-for wool, clasps for gloves, buckles for shoes, brooches, bells (except
-bells for hawks), spoons of tin and lead, chains of wire as well as
-of laten as of iron, gratis, horns and lantern horns, or any of these
-aforesaid wares, ready and wrought, pertaining to the said crafts above
-specified or any of them uppon payne of forfeture of all the wares.”
-(Capper’s _Port and Trade of London_.) We have seen (p. 13) how Henry
-VII. passed an Act forbidding any stranger, _i.e._ foreigner, to buy
-or sell merchandise in the City; in his reign also was passed an Act
-to compel the country people to resort to the City. For it was ordered
-that no citizen should carry goods to any market or fair out of the
-City. The people of the country represented to Parliament the great
-hardship of being obliged to travel all the way to London in order to
-procure things that could only be bought in London, viz. chalices,
-books, vestments, and other church ornaments, victuals for Lent, linen
-cloths, woollen cloths, brass, pewter, bedding, iron, flax, wax, and
-other things. The Parliament interfered and the order was removed.
-
-[Illustration: TRADESMEN OF THE PERIOD
-
-From a contemporary print.]
-
-Under Henry VII. commercial treaties were concluded with the Danes and
-with the Florentines. There was a quarrel with Burgundy and a cessation
-of commercial relations for three years. In 1497 (12 Hen. VII.) was
-passed an Act entitled “Every Englishman shall have free recourse to
-certain foreign marts, without exaction to be taken by any English
-fraternity.” The meaning of the Act was this: the Merchant Adventurers’
-Company had arrogated to themselves the right of refusing the right of
-trade in any foreign port until a fine or fee of £40 should first be
-paid to themselves. The Act defined the extent of English foreign trade
-at the time. The Merchant Adventurers sent their vessels to Spain,
-Portugal, Brittany, Flanders, Holland, Ireland, Normandy, France,
-Venice, Dantzic, Eastland, Friesland, and other parts. The Parliament
-allowed the fine, but limited it to ten marks, or £6:13:4. We have seen
-the jealousy and hatred of foreigners shown by the envious outbreak of
-“Evil May Day” in 1517 (p. 24). The complaints or the justification
-of the rioters was that there were so many foreigners employed as
-craftsmen that the English could get no work; that foreign merchants
-brought in all silk, cloth of gold, wine, etc., and that no one,
-almost, bought of an Englishman; that the foreign merchants exported
-so much wool, tin, and lead, that English adventurers could not make
-a living; that they forestalled the market, buying up everything all
-round the City, so that nothing of value came to the City markets,
-while some of them imported all kinds of goods that were made in this
-country, such as nails, locks, baskets, cupboards, stools, tables,
-chests, girdles, saddles, and printed cloths.
-
-
-
-
-                              CHAPTER III
-
-                          LITERATURE AND ART
-
-
-The earliest transcribers of MSS., that is to say, publishers of books,
-the monks, not only transcribed MSS., but they sold their copies,
-the sale of books forming part of the monastic revenues. These books
-were either plain copies for common use, as the service books and
-the school books, or they were illuminated, bound with decorations
-of gold and silver, costing very large sums. When, however, as
-happened in the fifteenth century, the demand for books increased,
-while the revenues, and therefore the numbers, of the religious in
-the monasteries decreased, the multiplication of books fell into the
-hands of laymen. In some cases the monks themselves employed laymen as
-transcribers. There grew up various branches of the book trade: the
-maker of parchment, pens, ink, colours for illumination; the writers,
-the binders, the illuminators, and the sellers. As regards the value
-of books at any time, it is impossible to estimate it, because we must
-first learn the purchasing power of money, which is very difficult
-to ascertain; _e.g._ the price of wheat, sheep, fowls, etc., is a
-very fallacious test, because we do not know the standards of the
-time. The wage test is the safest guide. For instance, six pounds
-a year was thought sufficient pay for the maintenance of a chantry
-priest—a man considered superior to the ordinary craftsman, yet not
-very high in the social scale. In addition we must know the whole
-conditions of production; the cost of materials, the time taken by
-transcribers for a page or a sheet, the demand, the competition, and
-everything else connected with the work. Some of these points have
-been cleared up, but most of them can never be cleared up. It must be
-sufficient to understand that there was a large demand for books, and
-that many collections of books were formed by princes and prelates
-and monasteries. It was a providential circumstance that the art of
-printing was well advanced at the time of the Dissolution of the
-Religious Houses. Otherwise the losses, which were great indeed, might
-have been very much greater, even irreparable.
-
-The first printers in the City of London were Caxton’s workmen,
-Wynkyn de Worde and Richard Pynson. The former set up his press in
-Fleet Street, “over against the Conduit,” which stood at the end of
-Shoe Lane; the latter, outside Temple Bar. In the course of the
-century, however, the number of printers rapidly increased, and in
-the reign of Elizabeth the number of books published in any branch
-was extraordinary. Nothing can show more conclusively the general
-avidity for learning and for the possession of books in every branch
-of knowledge. When, indeed, we consider that the yearly output of
-books in Great Britain and America now amounts to some 10,000 (a large
-number of them new editions), which at an average of 1000 each means
-10,000,000 volumes among a population of 120,000,000, who nearly all
-read, without counting India, which alone contains millions of readers,
-and when we remember that the whole reading public of England amounted
-to a few thousands, it is clear that the Elizabethan output was beyond
-comparison greater in proportion than our own.
-
-[Illustration: OLD TEMPLE BAR IN THE TIME OF JAMES I.
-
-E. Gardner’s Collection.]
-
-It could not be long before a censorship of the Press was established.
-In 1526 the printing of books against the Catholic Faith was
-prohibited. Later on, that of books defending the Catholic Faith was in
-turn prohibited.
-
-It was in 1557 that the very singular powers were conferred upon the
-Company of Stationers of suppressing and prohibiting books either
-seditious or heretical. These powers were absolute and subject to no
-appeal. Why the Company of Stationers was entrusted with powers which
-belonged to the Bishop of London and the Ecclesiastical Courts does
-not appear. However, the Company exercised this authority for two
-years, when Queen Elizabeth ordered that no book should be printed
-without a license being first obtained. She then, illogically, granted
-monopolies to certain printers and booksellers for the sale of certain
-books specified: to one for the sale of Bibles; to another for sale
-of catechism; to a third for that of music-books; and so on. To the
-Stationers she granted the monopoly of psalters, primers, almanacks, A
-B C, the “little Catechism,” and Nowell’s English and Latin Catechism.
-The printer, however, was already separating from the bookseller. As
-yet there was no such thing recognised as the author’s rights over his
-own property. In many cases he did not wish his name to appear; the
-publisher did what he pleased with the MS.
-
-Among the early booksellers was Richard Grafton, who was printer,
-bookseller, and author as well. He reprinted and continued Hall’s
-_Chronicles_. Other publishers and booksellers of the sixteenth century
-were Robert Redman, who quarrelled with Richard Pynson; Henry Pepwell,
-who died in 1539; John Day, for whom John Foxe, who wrote the _Book
-of Martyrs_, worked. He issued a Church music book. He also published
-Bibles, Sermons, and A B C’s. Day had shops successively in Holborn,
-Aldersgate Street, and St. Paul’s Churchyard. William Middleton, whose
-shop was in Fleet Street, near St. Dunstan’s Church, was both printer
-and bookseller. He published Heywood’s _Four P’s_, and an edition of
-Froissart.
-
-Henry Smyth, Redman’s son-in-law, was the publisher of Littleton’s
-_Tenures_. Richard Tottell, whose shop was within Temple Bar, published
-Tusser’s _Hundred Good Points of Agriculture_, Grafton’s _Abridgment
-of the Chronicles of England_, and Stow’s _Summary of the Chronicles
-of England_. Harrison of St. Paul’s Churchyard published Shakespeare’s
-_Venus and Adonis_ in 1593, but it was printed by Richard Field, a
-fellow-townsman of the poet. In 1594 Harrison published _The Rape of
-Lucrece_. The publication of the plays, however, belongs mostly to the
-seventeenth century. But _Romeo and Juliet_, _Richard II._, _Richard
-III_, _Henry IV._ Part I., _Love’s Labours Lost_, were published
-at this time, and in 1600 _Henry IV._ Part II., _Much Ado About
-Nothing_, _A Midsummer Night’s Dream_, _The Merchant of Venice_, _Titus
-Andronicus_, and _Henry V._ all came out. In all, eleven of the plays
-were published in the sixteenth and the rest in the seventeenth century.
-
-There was an astonishing number of printers and booksellers. Thus, in
-addition to the names mentioned above, we may note those of Middleton,
-Richard Field, Harrison, father and son, William Leake, Wise, Aspley,
-Ling, and Nathaniel Butler, Ponsonby, Edward White, Cadman, Burby,
-Warde, William Barley, Humphrey Hooper, John Budge, Thorpe, and Norton.
-
-Already the bitterness of the author against the publisher has begun.
-Drayton speaks of the booksellers as “a company of base knaves, whom
-I scorn and kick at.” Complaint was made concerning a book called _A
-Petite Palace of Petties his Pleasure_ (1576), that the printer had
-suppressed the name of the author, and his preface, and had substituted
-his own name with a preface by himself. Again, the authors complained
-of the advertising tricks employed to increase the sale of a book.
-Thus, Ben Jonson addresses his bookseller:—
-
-    “‘Thou, that mak’st gaine thy end, and wisely well
-    Call’st a book good, or bad, as it doth sell,
-    Use mine so, too: I give thee leave. But crave
-    For luck’s sake it thus much favours have,
-    To lie upon thy stall till it be sought;
-    Not offer’d, as it made suit to be bought:
-    Nor have my title-leaf on post, or walls,
-    Or in cleft-sticks, advanced to make calls
-    For termers or some clerk-like serving-man,
-    Who scarce can spell th’ hard names: whose knight scarce can;
-    If, without these vile arts it will not sell,
-    Send it to Bucklersbury, there ‘twill well.’”
-
-Unfortunately, also, the bitterness of the author against the
-bookseller was accompanied by bitterness against his fellow-craftsmen.
-Thus Barnaby Rich says:—
-
-“‘One of the diseases of this age is the multitude of books, that doth
-so overcharge the world that it is not able to digest the abundance of
-idle matter that is every day hatched and brought into the world, that
-are as divers in their forms as their authors be in their faces. It is
-but a thriftless and a thankless occupation, this writing of books:
-a man were better to sit singing in a cobbler’s shop, for his pay is
-certain a penny a patch, but a book-writer, if he gets sometimes a few
-commendations of the judicious, he shall be sure to reap a thousand
-reproaches of the malicious.’” (W. Roberts, _Earlier History of English
-Bookselling_.)
-
-This brief view of bookselling in the sixteenth century may be taken
-to include also the first twenty years of the seventeenth, after which
-certain changes appear in the trade and in the relations of author and
-publisher.
-
-Little has been said, so far, concerning the connection of London
-with literature. The history of literature belongs to the nation, not
-to London. Yet London could even before the Elizabethan age boast of
-Chaucer, Gower, Skelton, Lydgate, all of whom, at some time in their
-lives, resided in London. And what a list, what a splendid list, is
-presented of the London poets in the reign of Gloriana! This list
-alone, without counting the poets who went before or the poets who
-came after, is sufficient in itself to place England in the forefront
-of modern literature. Consider some of the names. Shakespeare, Ben
-Jonson, Marlowe, Massinger, Beaumont, Fletcher, Ford, Peele, Marston,
-Sackvile, Sylvester, Spenser, Raleigh—one could go on till the page
-became a catalogue. I have counted two hundred and forty Elizabethan
-poets whose names, with many of their works, have survived to the
-present day. In the same proportion we, who can hardly number sixty
-poets, ought to have now 5000. But in that time expression assumed the
-form of poetry first and the drama afterwards; men who had a thing to
-say, or a theory to state, said it in poetry, just as a man who had a
-tale to tell presented it in the form of a drama. Not that poetry or
-the drama were the only things. The Elizabethan age was rich in every
-form and branch of literature; it had books of chivalry, as _The Seven
-Champions_; story books, as _The Gesta Romanorum_; jest books, as
-Skogan’s, Tarleton’s, Skelton’s, Peele’s; pastoral romances, as _The
-Arcadia_; “picaresque” novels, as those of Nash and Dekker; histories,
-as those of Holinshed, Stow, Grafton; essays, as those of Bacon,
-Ascham, Sir Thomas Browne; satires, as those of Hall and Marston;
-translations from the French and the Italian. Not even in these days
-is there a better, larger, fresher supply of new literature. It was
-above all fresh; everything was new; people did not look backwards in
-literature; they lived in the present; at no other time in the history
-of the world was the present more delightful; more full of hope, more
-full of joy, more full of daring. There was a new religion, not yet
-crystallised into Puritanism: a religion in which every man, for the
-first time after more than a thousand years, stood up before his
-Maker without an interposing priest; there was a new learning, full of
-wonder and of delight; there were new arts; there was a new world, a
-larger world, full of mysteries and monsters and undiscovered marvels;
-there was a new pride sprung up among the people; new adventures were
-possible; there were new roads to riches; England held a nobler place
-among the nations; everything seemed possible; the wildest extravagance
-was permitted in talk, in song, in the drama, in enterprise. Companies
-could be formed to go anywhere, and to do everything. Countries there
-were everywhere to be conquered, or, at least, to trade with; no longer
-did ocean set bounds, no longer did continents stretch forth forbidding
-capes: the nobler spirits were arriving at a clearer grasp and
-understanding of what lay before them; the machinations of Spaniard,
-Pope, and Priest were, it seemed, finally defeated; everything was
-ready for the work of such men as Raleigh and Drake. Then, alas!
-Gloriana died, and the world of poetry sank sadly back into prose, and
-that for the most part of the tamest and the most creeping; an age
-followed when King and people were no longer in touch; when foreign
-politics were a betrayal and a surrender; when the whole dream of the
-King was not to extend and enrich his realm, but to encroach upon the
-people’s liberties, and the whole power of the people was required to
-resist the encroachments of the King. How mean and miserable is the
-policy of Charles compared with that of Elizabeth! How paltry are the
-pretensions of King and Archbishop! How wretched, save for the figure
-of the great Protector, is the history of the seventeenth century,
-compared with the history of the sixteenth under the great Queen!
-
-[Illustration: SIR FRANCIS BACON (1561–1626)
-
-From the painting by Paul Van Somer in the National Portrait Gallery,
-London.]
-
-[Illustration: WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE (1564–1616)
-
-From the Chandos portrait in the National Portrait Gallery, London.]
-
-Harrison furnishes a contemporary opinion on “the new veine of
-writing”:—
-
-  “This further is not to be omitted, to the singular commendation
-  of both sorts and sexes of our courtiers here in England, that
-  there are verie few of them, which have not the use and skill of
-  sundrie speaches, beside an excellent veine of writing before time
-  not regarded. Trulie it is a rare thing with us now, to hear of a
-  courtier which hath but his owne language. And to saie how many
-  gentlewomen and ladies there are, that beside sound knowledge of
-  the Greeke and Latine toongs, are thereto no lesse skilful in the
-  Spanish, Italian, and French or in some one of them, it resteth
-  not in me; sith I am persuaded, that as the noblemen and gentlemen
-  do surmount in this behalfe, so these come verie little or nothing
-  at all behind them for their parts, which industrie God continue,
-  and accomplish that which otherwise is wanting.”... “The ladies of
-  the court employ themselves in continuall reading either of the
-  holie scriptures, or histories of our owne or forren nations about
-  us, and diverse in writing volumes of their owne, or translating
-  of other mens into our English and Latine toongs.”... “Finallie,
-  to avoid idlenesse, and prevent sundrie transgressions, otherwise
-  likelie to be committed and doone, such order is taken, that
-  everie office hath either a bible, or the booke of the acts and
-  monuments of the church of England, or both, beside some histories
-  and chronicles lieing therein, for the exercise of such as come
-  into the same; whereby the stranger that entereth into the court
-  of England upon the sudden, shall rather imagine himselve to come
-  into some public schools of the universities, where manie give eare
-  to one that readeth, than unto a princes palace if you conferre
-  the same with those of other nations. Would to God all honorable
-  personages would take example of hir graces godlie, dealing in
-  this behalfe, and shew their conformitie unto these hir so good
-  beginnings which if they would, then should manie grievous offenses
-  (wherewith God is highlie displeased) be cut off and restreined,
-  which now doo reigne exceedinglie, in most noble and gentlemen’s
-  houses, whereof they see no paterne within hur graces gates.”
-  (Holinshed’s _Chronicles_.)
-
-Leaving the great masters, let us consider a little the more popular
-literature of the day; the kind which has its run among the people
-and is forgotten; the current literature, the books of the time, the
-works which were bought and read by those of the citizens who read at
-all, probably as large a proportion as we should find at the present
-day, when the newspaper is the only reading of multitudes. It is
-not difficult to arrive at what constituted a library. There were
-religious books, such as Hooper’s _Sermons_; there were collections of
-songs, such as _The Court of Venus_, against which the clergy spoke
-vehemently; books of chivalry and novels in great numbers, such as
-_Bevis of Hampton_, _Guy of Warwick_, _Arthur of the Round Table_,
-_Huon of Bordeaux_, _Oliver of the Castle_, _Four Sons of Aymon_,
-_The Witless Devices of Gargantua_ and _Howleglas_. There were the
-English stories, _Robin Hood_, _Adam Bell_, _Friar Rushe_, _The Foole
-of Gotham_. There were satires and fables; _Æsop_, Erasmus’s _Praise
-of Folly_, _The Schoolhouse of Women_, _The Defense of Women_, _Piers
-Plowman_, _Raynolde the Fox_, _The Palace of Pleasure_. There were
-translations, as _Virgil_, _Seneca_, and _Apulosius_; there were books
-of instruction, as _The Boke of Carvynge_, _The Boke of Cokerye_,
-_The Boke of Nurture for Men servants_, _The Boke of Fortune_, _The
-Boke of Curtesey_, _The Boke of Chesse_, and _The Hundred Points of
-Good Husserye_. These titles are taken from actual lists before me;
-the presses were extremely active and the output of books was very
-considerable during the whole of Elizabeth’s long reign. In a word,
-there was as great a variety of books for the reader’s choice as there
-is now, setting aside the modern books in science; there were poets by
-the hundred, dramatists, novelists of all kinds, historians, preachers,
-moralists, and essayists. It would take too much space and time were I
-to attempt an estimate or an account of the Elizabethan literature.
-
-[Illustration: EDMUND SPENSER (1552(?)-1599)
-
-From an engraving by George Vertue.]
-
-There was, however, one form of literature then playing a very
-important part in the education of the people which has been too much
-neglected by those who write of the sixteenth century. It was the
-ballad. In the last century, if a man had a thing to say, he wrote a
-pamphlet; at present if he has a thing to say and desires that the
-people at large should hear it, he either casts it into the form of a
-novel, or he sends it to the papers as a letter or as a communication.
-The Elizabethan, on the other hand, cast it into the form of verse;
-the ballad expressed the popular opinion; by means of the ballad
-that opinion was formed and taught; by means of the ballad events
-were recorded and remembered. Every event produced its own ballad. I
-have before me a list of a hundred ballads, taken at random from the
-registers of the Stationers’ Company, published for the Shakespeare
-Society in 1849 by Payne Collier. From these registers it is evident
-that the ballad, as sung in private houses, in taverns, at fairs, and
-where people congregated; in the streets, in the markets, and at the
-Carrefours where stood the Cross and the Conduit, taught and led the
-people as the Press now teaches and leads them. There was a great
-competition in the production of new ballads; the printers vied with
-each other in getting the latest or the most striking event turned
-into ballad form and put upon the market. These ballads were written
-on every conceivable subject. In order to illustrate their importance
-I have compiled the following list roughly classified. The titles in
-almost all cases indicate the contents and aim of the ballad. Some of
-them are very well written.
-
-                 I.—RELIGIOUS
-
-    O Lord who harte in Heaven so high.
-    The XV. Chapter of St. Paule.
-    Blessed are the Dead which dye in the Lord.
-    King Joseas.
-    Lo! here I lye a sinner.
-    The Just and Patient Job.
-    Godly, constant, wyse, Susannah.
-    Wisdom would I wish to have.
-    The Lamentation of a Damned Soul.
-    The Woman taken in Adultery.
-    Mercy’s Fort.
-
-                   II.—MORAL
-
-    Persuading Men from Swearing.
-    Against Covetousness.
-    Old Age and Youth.
-    The House of a Harlot.
-    Rustrius and Sapience.
-    Manners for Matrons.
-    The Cuckoo.
-    A Rule for Women to bring up their Daughters.
-    Have Pity on the Poor.
-    The Abuses of Wyne, Dyce, and Women.
-
-                III.—POLITICAL
-
-    Lady Jane’s Lament (_i.e._ Lady Jane Grey).
-    Guyn the chefe of that greedy garrison.
-    How a Mayde should sweep your House Clean (the “Mayde” is Queen Elizabeth).
-    News out of Kent.
-    Lady Englonde.
-
-                  IV.—TOPICAL
-
-    On the Loss of the _Greyhound_
-       (with Sir T. Finch and two hundred men).
-    Burnyng of Paule’s.
-
-        “Lament each over the blazing fire
-        That downe from Heaven came,
-        And burned S. Powles his lofty spyre
-        With lightning’s furious flame.
-        Lament, I say,
-        Both night and day,
-        Sith London’s sin did cause the same.”
-
-                  V.—GENERAL
-
-    Tom Long the Carrier.
-    Come merry home, John.
-    Patient Grissel.
-    The Bachelor.
-
-    “Hough! For the Bachelor! Merry doth he live,
-      All the day long he can daunce sing and playe:
-    His troubles are like to water in a sieve,
-      The more it floweth in, the more it will away:
-    This is the verie truth I doe declare and saye.
-      Maryed men for him may sit, sighe, and grone,
-      He is well content and letteth well alone.”
-
-    Give place ye Ladies.
-
-        “Her rosial colour comes and goes
-          With such a comely grace!
-        More ruddie, too, than doth the rose,
-          Within her lively face.”
-
-    Cruelness of Wicked Women.
-    A Fairing.
-    The Hunt is Up.
-    The Ballad of Broomes.
-
-    “New broomes, greene broomes, will you buy any?
-    Come, maidens, come quickly, let me take a penny.”
-
-    The Ballad of Milkmaids.
-
-  (The Milkmaids did not like being called Malkins. The name Malkin
-  is a diminutive of Mary, and was used in the sense of slattern or
-  country wench.)
-
-    “Passe not for rybalds which mylke maydes defame,
-      And call them not Malkins, poor Malkins by name:
-    Their trade is as good as anie we knowe
-      And that it is so I will presently showe.
-                          Downe & Downe &c.”
-
-    A Merry Rhyme concerning Butchers, Graysors,
-      Schole maisters and Tankard Bearers.
-    Ruffle, Sleeves and Hose.
-    The Nut Brown Mayd.
-    Row well ye marynors.
-    God send me a wyfe that will do as I say.
-
-This list might be multiplied indefinitely. Enough has been given to
-show that the ballad was the principal medium by which the people were
-moved and taught. One would not underrate the power of the sermon.
-At no time, not even in the seventeenth century, was the sermon more
-powerful than under Elizabeth; but the sermon chiefly treated of
-doctrine and the ballads taught morals and the conduct of life. Nay,
-in these cases, which were many, when a ballad secular, amatory,
-scandalous, or immoral, had become popular, the clergy took it in hand
-and moralised it: _i.e._ presented a religious parody of it, which they
-persuaded the people to sing instead of the first version. For example,
-here is part of a “moralised” ballad:—
-
-    “To pass the place where pleasure is
-      It ought to please one fantasie,
-    If that the pleasure be amis,
-      And to God’s Work plaine contrarie,
-    Or else we sinne, we sinne,
-    And hell we winne,
-    Great panic therein
-      All remedie gone.
-    Except in Christ alone, alone.”
-
-We must not forget to take account in this brief review of the topical
-writings of the day of the difference of dialect. It is not too much
-to say that a Norfolk countryman would not understand a Kentish lad;
-and that a Yorkshire man would talk a strange tongue to a man of the
-Midlands. Caxton says, writing a little earlier:—
-
-  “Englishe that is spoken in one shire varyeth from another;
-  insomuch, that in my dayes happened, that certain merchaunts were
-  in a ship in Tamyse, for to have sailed over the see into Zelande,
-  and for lacke of wynde they taryed att Forland, and went to land
-  for to refresh them; and one of them, named Sheffelde, a mercer,
-  came into a hows, and axed for mete, and specially he axed for
-  egges; the good wyfe answerde that she could speke no French. And
-  the merchaunt was angry, for he also could speake no French; but
-  wolde have egges, and she understode hym not. And thenne at last
-  another sayd, that he would have ceyren; thenne the good wyfe said,
-  that she understode him.”
-
-In the year 1592 was published a book in prose and verse by Richard
-Johnson, entitled _The Nine Worthies of London_, inscribed to Sir
-William Webbe, Lord Mayor of London. Its wide popularity proves that
-it presents some, at least, of the ideas current among the people.
-To begin with, the “Nine Worthies” are not by any means, with one
-exception, those ancient citizens whom we should now consider of the
-greatest renown. We do not find here the names of Thomas à Becket,
-Whittington, Philpot, or Gresham. The things worthy to be remembered
-are neither enterprise in trade, nor vigilance in guarding the
-liberties of the City, nor the acquisition of wealth, nor charities
-and endowments. The only thing worthy to be remembered, even among
-citizens of London, is prowess of arms. The “Nine Worthies” come out,
-one after the other, and relate their own achievements. It is certain
-that Richard Johnson did not himself select these men for honourable
-mention, because they are clearly referred to in a passage of the
-_Paradise of daintie Devices_:—
-
-    “The Worthies nine that were of might,
-      By travaile wonne immortal praise;
-    If they had lived like carpet knights,
-      Consuming idly all their dayes,
-    Their praises had been with them dead,
-      Where now abroad their fame is spread.”
-
-The work is reprinted in the _Harleian Miscellany_, vol. viii., from
-which I take the following extracts: first, William Walworth (p. 443):—
-
-    “But when I saw the rebells’ pride encrease,
-      And none controll and counterchecke their rage;
-    ’Twere service good (thought I) to purchase peace,
-      And malice of contentious brags asswage;
-    With this conceyt, all fear had taken flight.
-      And I alone prest to the traitor’s sight.
-
-    Their multitude could not amaze my minde,
-      Their bloudie weapons did not make me shrink;
-    True valour hath his constancie assignde,
-      The eagle at the sunne will never winke;
-    Amongst their troupes, incenst with mortall hate,
-      I did arest Wat Tiler on the pate.
-
-    The stroke was given with so good a will,
-      I made the rebell coutch unto the earth;
-    His fellows that beheld (’tis strange) were still;
-      It mar’d the manner of their former mirth;
-    I left him not, but, ere I did depart,
-      I stab’d my dagger to his damned heart.”
-
-Second, Henry Picard, or Pilchard, who entertained the four kings of
-England, Scotland, France, and Cyprus, with the Black Prince (p. 445):—
-
-    “When Edward triumpht for his victories,
-      And held three crownes within his conquering hand,
-    He brought rich trophies from his enemies,
-      That were erected in this happie land;
-    We all rejoyc’d and gave our God the praise,
-      That was the authour of those fortunate dayes.
-
-    And as from Dover, with the prince his sonne,
-      The king of Cypres, France, and Scots, did passe,
-    All captive prisoners to this mightie one,
-      Five thousand men and I the leader was;
-    All well prepared as to defend a fort;
-      Went forth to welcome him in martiall sort.
-
-    The riches of our armour, and the cost,
-      Each one bestows in honour of that day,
-    Were here to be exprest but labour lost;
-      Silke coates and chaines of golde bare little sway;
-    And thus we marcht accepted of our king
-      To whom our comming seem’d a gracious thing.
-
-    But when the citie pearde within our sights,
-      I carv’d a boune submisse upon my knee;
-    To have his grace, those kings, with earles and knights,
-      A day or two to banquet it with me;
-    The king admirde, yet thankfully replide,
-      ‘Unto my house both I and these will ride.’”
-
-Third, William Sevenoake, who went over to France with Henry V. as a
-lad just out of his apprenticeship, and there fought with the Dauphin
-(p. 447):—
-
-    “The Dolphyne then of France, a comelie knight,
-      Disguised, came by chaunce into a place,
-    Where I, well wearied with the heate of fight,
-      Had layd me downe, for warre had ceast his chace;
-    And with reproachful words, as layzie swaine
-      He did salute me, ere I long had layne.
-
-    I, knowing that he was mine enemie,
-      A bragging French-man (for we tearm’d them so)
-    Ill brookt the proud disgrace he gave to me
-      And therefore, lent the Dolphyne such a blowe,
-    As warm’d his courage well to lay about,
-      Till he was breathlesse, though he were so stout.
-
-    At last the noble prince did aske my name,
-      My birth, my calling, and my fortunes past;
-    With admiration he did heare the same,
-      And so a bagge of crownes to me he cast;
-    And when he went away, he saide to mee,
-      ‘Sevenoake, be prowd, the Dolphyne fought with thee.’”
-
-Fourth, Thomas White, who founded schools and almshouses (p. 449):—
-
-    “I cannot sing of armes and blood-red warres,
-      Nor was my collur mixt with Mars his hew;
-    I honour those that ended countrey jarres,
-      For herein subjects shew that they are trew;
-    But privately at home I shewde my selfe,
-      To be no lover of vaine worldly pelfe.
-
-    My deedes have tongues to speak, though I surcease,
-      My orators the learned strive to bee,
-    Because I twined paulmes in time of peace,
-      And gave such gifts, that made faire learning free;
-    My care did build them bowers of sweet content,
-      Where many wise their golden time have spent.
-
-    A noyse of gratefull thankes within mine eares,
-      Descending from their studies, glads my heart,
-    That I began to wish with private teares,
-      There lived more that were of White’s desert;
-    But now I looke, and spie that time is balde,
-      And Vertue comes not, being seldome calde.”
-
-Fifth, John Bonham, citizen and mercer, who went to Denmark with his
-merchandise, there was received at Court and distinguished himself at
-a tournament—the only occasion on record of a merchant fighting in a
-tournament—and finally led an army to victory over the Great Solyman,
-who made him a knight after the defeat of the Turk:—
-
-    “Then, at a parley he admirde me so;
-      He made me knight and let his armie go.”
-
-Sixth, Christopher Croker. Alas! the world has forgotten Christopher.
-He was a vintner’s ’prentice. He was loved by Doll Stodie, his master’s
-daughter; and he burned to give her a better position; he joined the
-army of the Black Prince in France; distinguished himself there; went
-with him to Spain, and returned a knight:—
-
-    “And when Don Peter, driven out of Spaine,
-      By an usurping bastard of his line,
-    He craved some helpe his crowne to re-obtaine,
-      That in his former glorie he might shine;
-    Our king ten thousand sever’d from his host;
-      My selfe was one, I speake it not in boast.
-
-    With these Don Peter put the bastard downe,
-      Each citie yielded at our first approch;
-    It was not long ere he had got the crowne;
-      And taught his wicked brother to encroch;
-    In these affaires so well I shewed my might,
-      That for my labour I was made a knight.
-
-    Thus labour never looseth his reward;
-      And he that seeks for honour sure shall speed;
-    What craven mind was ever in regard?
-      Or where consisteth manhood but in deed?
-    I speake it, that confirm’d it by my life,
-      And in the end, Doll Stodie was my wife.”
-
-Seventh, John Hawkwood, the Prince of Mercenaries. He, too, belonged to
-the Black Prince and was knighted by him.
-
-Eighth, Hugh Caverley, silk weaver, who also became a knight in France
-and signalised himself afterwards by slaying a monstrous wild boar
-which devastated Poland.
-
-Ninth, and last, Henry Maleverer, grocer, Knight Crusader and Custodian
-of Jacob’s Well:—
-
-    “And thus with love, with honour, and with fame,
-      I did return to London whence I came.”
-
-It is a curious list, and shows what legends of former citizens had
-grown up in the minds of the people. They had clean forgotten the old
-Patron Saints of London, St. Erkenwald and St. Thomas à Becket; they
-had forgotten Philpot and his splendid achievement over the pirates
-of the North Sea; they had forgotten Waleys, Mayor of Bordeaux and of
-London; they had forgotten Dick Whittington; they had even forgotten
-Gresham, and in place of the men who had made London and brought
-wealth, prosperity, and freedom to the town, they remembered mythical
-adventures and traditions of battle and of victory. One would like to
-know more about the popular belief in “London Worthies.”
-
-The wholesale destruction of MSS. and mediæval libraries, at the
-Suppression of the Religious Houses, though doubtless a heavy loss from
-an artistic point of view, considering the loss of illuminated books,
-may be considered as compensated by the increased activity of the
-press and the reconstruction of the library. What was actually lost to
-literature? John Bale tells us, Manuscripts of the Fathers, Schoolmen,
-and Commentators. Was this a loss? It is quite certain that the
-monkish commentators regarded their text from a point of view no longer
-held: the Holy Scriptures, they said, were lost. The manuscript copies
-were very likely lost, but the press multiplied copies. I think that
-the greatest loss to literature was the loss of certain chronicles,
-of which we have so many left, which relate the history of current
-events as the monkish scribe heard and understood them. In any case,
-the destruction of so many books made it impossible, henceforward, to
-consider a library as made up chiefly of manuscripts; the press rapidly
-restored the books that were wanted; and gave the world a library
-filled with printed books, while the old commentators were clean
-forgotten.
-
-The age of great folios and mighty scholars was the seventeenth,
-rather than the sixteenth, century. In the sixteenth, scholars were
-busy in putting forth new editions of the classics. Men like Dolet and
-Rabelais were not ashamed to correct for the press. The voluminous
-commentator came afterwards. Meantime, it is remarkable that we had
-no Rabelais among our writers. He, formerly a friar, came out of the
-cloister, his head filled with the old learning and eager for the new.
-His great book became at once popular, and was eagerly passed from hand
-to hand. The origins of his chapters have quite recently been explored
-and discovered in Mr. W. F. Smith’s excellent translation. They are
-shown to be chiefly extracts from gloss and commentary, burlesqued,
-imitated, and held up to the ridicule and scorn of scholars. The common
-people understood only the bubbling mirth and laughter, coupled with
-the spontaneous unseemliness of the page; the scholar understood the
-allegory and the purpose of the writer; the ecclesiastic alone, and
-one of the older type, understood the true nature of the overwhelming
-contempt and hatred of the order that was passing away—contempt and
-hatred thinly veiled and concealed except for those who knew the gloss
-and commentary of the past. We have no Rabelais; among all our friars
-there was no scholar; among our ejected monks, if there were scholars,
-they stuck by their order; among all the priests, monks, and friars,
-who joined in the Reformation, there was not one who so despised the
-old faith as to make it the theme of such a book as that of Rabelais.
-Hatred there was in plenty, after the fires of Smithfield: hatred which
-continued to flourish in our literature and still lingers; but not the
-full bitterness of hatred, fear, contempt, and restlessness which fill
-the pages of Rabelais, Étienne Dolet, and Bonaventure des Periers.
-
-Painting in London practically began with the Tudors, and was brought
-over to the City by Flemish and Dutch painters. Among these we find
-the names of Lucas and Gerard Horenbout, Volpe, Gerbud Flick, Johannes
-Corvus, Levina Terling, Susanna Horenbout, and Alice Carmillion. But
-the great name of Holbein towers above all the rest. This painter was
-born at Augsburg about 1497, went to Basle in 1516, and came to London
-in 1526. He continued in London, with the exception of three visits to
-Basle, until his death in 1543, residing first in a lodging on London
-Bridge, and next in a house in the parish of St. Andrew Undershaft,
-where he died.
-
-As regards his contemporaries and successors, we are indebted to
-the researches of the late John Gough Nichols for information on
-this point. They are embodied in a paper published by the Society of
-Antiquaries (xxxix. p. 19).
-
-[Illustration: BEN JONSON (1573(?)-1637)
-
-From the painting in the National Portrait Gallery, London, after
-Gerard Honthorst.]
-
-The earliest Court Painter to Henry VIII. was one John Browne. He
-was appointed in 1511 a Serjeant Painter with a salary of twopence
-a day and four ells of cloth, valued at 6s. 8d. an ell, annually.
-Three pounds a year is not a large salary, but probably he was paid
-in addition for any work which he might do; thus, he was paid forty
-shillings for a painted tabard of sarsenet provided by him for
-Nottingham Pursuivant. In 1522 he was elected Alderman for Farringdon
-Without, and in 1525 he was discharged from office without having been
-either Sheriff or Mayor. He gave by will to the Painter Stainers’
-Company his house for their hall: the present Hall stands upon the site
-of Browne’s bequest.
-
-John Browne was succeeded as Serjeant Painter by Andrew Wright. This
-painter received £30 for painting and decorating the King’s barge. He
-had a manufactory of “pink,” a vegetable pigment used by painters at
-that time; it was the Italian _giallo santo_ and the French _stel de
-grain_. Wright died in 1543.
-
-Vincent Volpe, a contemporary of the two preceding, supplied, in 1514,
-streamers and banners for the King’s great ship, the _Henry Grace à
-Dieu_. He is called in 1530 the “King’s Painter.” It is suggested that
-it was Volpe who painted some of the military pictures at Hampton
-Court. He also received money for the decoration of the King’s barge.
-The “King’s Painter” seems to have held a higher rank than the Serjeant
-Painter, for Volpe’s salary was £10 a year.
-
-Two other Flemish artists, Lucas and Gerard Horenbout, were also in
-the receipt of salaries from the King; their father was also, perhaps,
-a painter and a Fleming. Their sister Susanna was a painter of
-miniatures. She was the wife, first, of Henry Parker the King’s bowman,
-and, secondly, of a sculptor named Worsley.
-
-An Italian named Antonio Toto was a native of Florence, the son of a
-painter and the pupil of Ridolpho. He was architect as well as painter.
-His principal building was the strange palace of Nonsuch (see p. 89).
-Toto was, like Andrew Wright, a Serjeant Painter. For the coronation of
-Edward VI. he provided the tabards for the heralds; he also took charge
-of the masques.
-
-Another Italian attached to Henry’s Court was Bartolomo Penni. The
-names of three women have been given above: Alice Carmillion was in
-Henry’s service; Levina Terling in Edward’s, Mary’s, and Elizabeth’s
-successively.
-
-Holbein’s most illustrious successor among his contemporaries was
-Guillim Streets, or Strettes. Among other paintings by this admirable
-artist was one of the marriage of Queen Mary. The picture, however, is
-lost.
-
-Nicholas Lyzarde was Serjeant Painter to Queen Elizabeth. He died in
-1571.
-
-The names Antonio Moro and Joost van Cleef may also be added to those
-of the painters who lived in London during the sixteenth century.
-
-The decay of the London schools and of learning in general, which
-undoubtedly began in the fifteenth century and continued until far
-into the following century, is difficult to understand. One can only
-form theories and make guesses. The fact cannot be disputed. There
-were forces at work which have not been recorded. The Lollardry of the
-late fourteenth and early fifteenth centuries seems to have been in
-great measure forgotten. Yet, as I have pointed out and proved, the
-custom of making bequests to the Religious Houses declined and decayed
-until it quite died away, long before the Reformation. The old spirit
-of revolt left behind it a steady and persistent and growing spirit
-of dissatisfaction. Perhaps this spirit was shown in the decay of the
-monastic schools. We have seen how, in 1477, four of the London clergy
-asked, and obtained, permission to found additional schools in four
-parishes. The new schools could do little; the Reformation accelerated
-the decay of learning partly by the abolition of the monastic schools;
-partly by the vast reduction in the number of ecclesiastics; partly
-by the loss of the endowments by which learning had been encouraged
-and maintained: an increased trade, with foreign enterprise, also
-attracted the younger men in numbers continually increasing. So few
-were the undergraduates of Oxford that in Queen Mary’s reign only three
-took a degree in Divinity during the space of six years; in Civil Law
-only eleven; in Physic six; in Arts an average of about twenty-three.
-Anthony à Wood writes: “There were none that had any heart to put their
-children to any school, any farther than to learn to write—to make them
-Apprentices or Lawyers.”
-
-[Illustration:
-
-_Spooner & Co._
-
-HOLBEIN (1497–1543)
-
-From the portrait by himself at Hampton Court.]
-
-I would enumerate among the causes of the general decay in learning:
-(1) the unsettled nature of religious opinions; (2) the changed ideas
-concerning education; (3) the destruction of the Houses, which, if
-they turned out few scholars, offered a quiet home for the studious;
-(4) the advance in trade and enterprise, which attracted the youth of
-London far more than study; (5) the contempt into which the mass of
-the Protestant clergy had fallen; (6) a feeling of uneasiness about
-scholarship, lest it should bring one to the stake, of which there had
-been presented many terrifying examples.
-
-Of music there is a much nobler record. Never before had the people
-been such great lovers of music, and such admirable proficients. In
-every barber’s shop was hung a zither or a guitar; anybody played;
-everybody sang. Henry VIII. himself was a composer of no mean
-capability, and a performer equal to any. Elizabeth upon the virginals
-was unequalled. Many of the anthems and madrigals of the period survive
-to this day and are still sung. The music of the Chapel Royal was
-held to be better than anything of the kind in Western Europe. Would
-that the musical tastes and traditions of London had been preserved!
-They were destroyed by the Puritans. They were destroyed slowly but
-effectively. At the Restoration it was still the custom for gentlemen
-to play and sing; but not, apparently, for the trading and lower
-classes; during the last century, neither gentlefolk nor any other folk
-could play or sing; music ceased to be cultivated by the people. Nor
-have we yet, even, begun to be a people given to music; it is still
-comparatively rare to find boys who are taught to play any instrument;
-at no public school is it thought to be an essential part of education.
-Perhaps the twentieth century may witness a revival of the national
-love for music.
-
-
-
-
-                              CHAPTER IV
-
-                             GOG AND MAGOG
-
-
-It seems impossible to ascertain why these names were bestowed upon the
-City Giants. The prophet Ezekiel (chs. xxxviii. and xxxix.) prophesies
-against “Gog, the land of Magog, the Chief Prince of Meshech, and
-Tubal.” In the Book of Revelation (xx. 8) Satan goes out “to deceive
-the nations which are in the four quarters of the earth, Gog and
-Magog.” How were these names applied to City Giants? It was a common
-thing to have a City Giant who was carried in processions; there
-were giants at Chester, Salisbury, and Coventry; there were giants
-at Antwerp, Bruges, Ghent, Douai, Lille, and Brussels. The giants
-were in every case connected in some way with the legendary history
-of the City. But while every city had its own giant, who was brought
-out on festive occasions, this did not prevent the construction of
-other giants. Thus, after the victory of Agincourt, when Henry V.
-was received by a pageant of extraordinary splendour, a giant and a
-giantess stood on the Southwark end of London Bridge to greet him.
-The giant carried in his right hand an axe, and in the left the City
-keys, as if he were the porter of the town. In 1432, when Henry VI.
-came to England after his Coronation in France, there was another giant
-at London Bridge. He stood with drawn sword, and had at his side the
-following verses written out large:—
-
-    “All those that be enemies to the King,
-      I shall them clothe with confusion,
-    Make him mighty by virtuous living,
-      His mortal foes to oppress and bear them down;
-      And bid him to increase as Christ’s champion.
-    All mischiefs from him to abridge,
-    With grace of God, at the entry of this Bridge.”
-                                              _Lord Mayor’s Pageants._
-
-In 1547, when the boy-king Edward passed through the City, among the
-figures presented to him were two representing Valentine and Orson.
-
-In 1554, when Philip came to London, there was a great pageant to
-receive him with the Queen. At the drawbridge of the Tower there were
-placed the two giants, Corineus and Gogmagog, holding between them a
-scroll inscribed with Latin verses.
-
-In January 1559, when Queen Elizabeth rode through the City she was
-received with a pageant of great splendour. At Temple Bar the last show
-was that of the two City Giants, Corineus and Gogmagog, who had between
-them a recapitulation of the whole pageant. Here the singing children
-made a “noise,” while one of them, attired like a poet, bade the Queen
-farewell in the name of the City.
-
-The giants seem to have been omitted from the Royal pageants and
-processions of the seventeenth century.
-
-In 1605 the Lord Mayor’s Pageant was adorned by the presence of the
-giants.
-
-“The first Pageant was ‘The Shippe called the Royall Exchange,’ in
-which takes place a short poetical dialogue between the master, mate
-and boy, who congratulate themselves on the fortunate termination of
-their voyage at this auspicious time, the master ending the dialogue by
-a punning allusion to the Mayor’s name, when he declared his intention
-
-    ‘To make this up a cheerful _Holi-day_.’
-
-Neptune and Amphitrite appear upon a lion and camel; and Corineus and
-Gogmagog, two huge giants, ‘for the more grace and beauty of the show,’
-were fettered by chains of gold to ‘Britains Mount,’ the principal
-pageant; which they appeared to draw, and upon which children were
-seated, representing Britannia; ‘Brute’s divided kingdoms,’ Leogria,
-Cambria, and Albania; ‘Brute’ himself, his sons Locrine, Camber, and
-Albanact; Troya Nova, or London; and the Rivers Thames, Severn, and
-Humber, who each declaim in short speeches, the purport of which is
-that as England, Wales, and Scotland were first sundered by Brutus to
-supply his three sons with a kingdom each, they are now again happily
-united in ‘our second Brute,’ King James the first.” (Fairholt, _Lord
-Mayor’s Pageants_.)
-
-The giants disappeared from the Lord Mayor’s Pageants soon after this.
-In 1633, Clod, a country-man, in Shirley’s _Contention for Honour and
-Riches_, says:—
-
-“When the word is given, you march to Guildhall, with every man his
-spoon in his pocket, where you look upon the giants, and feed like
-Saracens, till you have no stomach to Paul’s in the afternoon.”
-(_Ibid._)
-
-In the Lord Mayor’s Pageant for 1673 the giants came out again. This
-pageant was designed by Thomas Jordan. It appears to have been their
-first appearance after the Fire.
-
-“I must not omit to tell you, that marching in the van of these five
-pageants, are two exceeding rarities to be taken notice of; that is,
-there are two extreme great giants, each of them at least fifteen foot
-high, that do sit and are drawn by horses in two several chariots,
-moving, talking, and taking tobacco as they ride along, to the great
-admiration and delight of all the spectators; at the conclusion of
-the show they are to be set up in Guildhall, where they may be daily
-seen all the year, and I hope never to be demolished by such dismal
-violence as happened to their predecessors; which are raised at the
-peculiar and proper cost of the city.” (_Ibid._)
-
-It would seem that in many of the pageants it was not thought necessary
-to set down the fact that the giants formed part, for in Henley’s
-Orations (1730–1755) there is one on the Lord Mayor’s Show which
-contains the following passage: “On that day, the two giants have the
-priviledge, if they think it proper, to walk out and keep holiday; one
-on each side of the great horse would aggrandize the solemnity, shew
-consisting often in bulk.” (_Ibid._)
-
-In Stow’s description of the setting of the watch on Midsummer’s Eve,
-he says: “The Mayor had, beside his giants, three pageants, whereas
-the Sheriffs had only two, besides their giants.” In Marston’s _Dutch
-Courtezan_, acted 1605, an allusion is made to the giants: “yet all
-will scarce make me so high as one of the gyant’s stilts that stalks
-before my Lord Mayor’s Pageants.”
-
-George Wither (1661) calls the giants “Big-boned Colbrant and great
-Brandsmore.”
-
-    “The giants at Guildhall ...
-       •       •       •       •       •
-    Where they have had a place to them assigned
-    At public meetings, now time out of mind.”
-
-The last appearance of the giants in a procession was in 1837, when
-they graced the Lord Mayor’s Show.
-
-The legends of the City Giants were two in number. The first related
-how Brutus, one of the Trojan heroes, wandering after the Fall of Troy,
-like Æneas, came to Britain, which he found full of giants. He fought
-with these giants and destroyed them all except two, named Gog and
-Magog, whom he brought to his new City of London and chained to the
-palace gates. Another legend relates how Corineus, brother of Brutus,
-fought the giants Gog and Magog, and, being himself stronger than his
-unwieldy antagonists, threw them headlong into the sea. The two giants
-of Guildhall, according to this legend, were Corineus and Gogmagog. The
-names of Gog and Magog were certainly taken either from Ezekiel or the
-Book of Revelation, and were applied to the giants after Corineus had
-been forgotten, as the names of princes over an infidel people: they
-were represented, not as tutelary giants, but as conquered giants. It
-will be observed that one is represented as a Roman, with helmet and
-shield, sword, spear, and armour, while the other is apparelled, after
-the artist’s imagination, as an ancient Briton.
-
-They were originally made of wicker-work; after the Great Fire, which
-destroyed them, they were reconstructed of the same materials, but in
-1707 they were made of wood, as we now see them.
-
-
-
-
-                              SOCIAL LIFE
-
-                               CHAPTER I
-
-                          MANNERS AND CUSTOMS
-
-
-In this chapter we can make a large use of contemporary literature.
-Thus, the first consideration in treating of the manners and customs of
-the people is naturally the position of the wife and the consideration
-shown to her. I do not think that in any country could either the
-position of the wife or the consideration for her surpass what was then
-in vogue in London. This point Emanuel van Meteren, writing in 1575,
-makes abundantly clear, even while he contends the exact opposite, viz.
-that the wife is entirely in the power of the husband. For he shows
-that whatever the law may be—he does not quote the law—the practice is
-that the wife has entire liberty; and custom, _i.e._ public opinion,
-against which no husband would dare to move, secures her that liberty.
-This is what he says:—
-
-“Wives in England are entirely in the power of their husbands,
-their lives only excepted. Therefore when they marry, they give up
-the surname of their father and of the family from which they are
-descended, and take the surname of their husbands, except in the
-case of duchesses, countesses, and baronesses, who, when they marry
-gentlemen of inferior degree, retain their first name and title, which,
-for the ambition of the said ladies, is rather allowed than commended.
-But although the women are entirely in the power of their husbands
-except for their lives, yet they are not kept so strictly as they are
-in Spain, or elsewhere. Nor are they shut up, but they have the free
-management of the house or housekeeping, after the fashion of those of
-the Netherlands and others their neighbours. They go to market to buy
-what they like best to eat. They are well-dressed, fond of taking it
-easy, and commonly leave the care of household matters and drudgery
-to their servants. They sit before their doors, decked out in fine
-clothes, in order to see and be seen by the passers-by. In all banquets
-and feasts they are shown the greatest honour; they are placed at
-the upper end of the table, where they are the first served; at the
-lower end they help the men. All the rest of their time they employ
-in walking and riding, in playing at cards or otherwise, in visiting
-their friends and keeping company, conversing with their equals (whom
-they term gossips) and their neighbours, and making merry with them at
-child-births, christenings, churchings, and funerals; and all this with
-the permission and knowledge of their husbands, as such is the custom.
-Although the husbands often recommend to them the pains, industry,
-and care of the German or Dutch women, who do what the men ought to
-do both in the house and in the shops, for which services in England
-men are employed, nevertheless the women usually persist in retaining
-their customs. This is why England is called the Paradise of married
-women. The girls who are not yet married are kept much more rigorously
-and strictly than in the Low Countries. The women are beautiful, fair,
-well-dressed and modest, which is seen there more than elsewhere, as
-they go about the streets without any covering either of mantle, hood,
-veil, or the like. Married women only wear a hat both on the street
-and in the house; those unmarried go without a hat, although ladies of
-distinction have lately learnt to cover their faces with silken masks
-or vizards, and feathers,—for indeed they change very easily, and that
-every year, to the astonishment of many.”
-
-If this was the ordinary life of the London merchant’s wife, the
-following is the contemporary ideal (Gervase Markham):—
-
-“Next unto her sanctity and holiness of life, it is meet that our
-English Housewife be a woman of great modesty and temperance, as well
-inwardly as outwardly; inwardly, as in her behaviour and carriage
-towards her husband, wherein she shall shun all violence of rage,
-passion and humour, coveting less to direct than to be directed,
-appearing ever unto him pleasant, amiable and delightful; and tho’
-occasion of mishaps, or the mis-government of his will may induce her
-to contrary thoughts, yet vertuously to suppress them, and with a
-mild sufferance rather to call him home from his error, than with the
-strength of anger to abate the least spark of his evil, calling into
-her mind, that evil and uncomely language is deformed, though uttered
-even to servants; but most monstrous and ugly, when it appears before
-the presence of a husband; outwardly, as in her apparel, and dyet, both
-which she shall proportion according to the competency of her husband’s
-estate and calling, making her circle rather strait than large; for it
-is a rule, if we extend to the uttermost, we take away increase; if
-we go a hair’s breadth beyond, we enter into consumption; but if we
-preserve any part, we build strong forts against the adversaries of
-fortune, provided that such preservation be honest and conscionable;
-for as lavish prodigality is brutish, so miserable covetousness is
-hellish. Let therefore the Housewife’s garments be comely and strong,
-made as well to preserve the health, as to adorn the person, altogether
-without toyish garnishes, or the gloss of bright colours, and as far
-from the vanity of new and fantastick fashions, as near to the comely
-imitation of modest matrons. Let her dyet be wholesome and cleanly,
-prepared at due hours, and cook’d with care and diligence, let it
-be rather to satisfie nature, than her affections, and apter to
-kill hunger than revive new appetites; let it proceed more from the
-provision of her own yard, than the furniture of the markets; and let
-it be rather esteemed for the familiar acquaintance she hath with it,
-than for the strangeness and rarity it bringeth from other countries.
-
-To conclude, our English Housewife must be of chaste thoughts, stout
-courage, patient, untired, watchful, diligent, witty, pleasant,
-constant in friendship, full of good neighbourhood, wise in discourse,
-but not frequent therein, sharp and quick of speech, but not bitter
-or talkative, secret in her affairs, comfortable in her counsels, and
-generally skilful in the worthy knowledges which do belong to her
-vocation.”
-
-But to set against this is the testimony of the Elizabethan satirist
-Philip Stubbes.
-
-The principal occupation of the women, he tells us—their daily life—is
-to lie in bed till nine or ten in the morning; to spend two hours in
-dressing themselves; then to go to dinner; then, “their heads pretely
-mizzeled with wine,” they walk abroad for a time; or they sit at their
-open doors showing their braveries to passers-by; or they pretend
-business in the town and carry a basket, “under what pretence pretie
-concerts are practised.” Or again they have those gardens in the fields
-outside already alluded to, whither they repair with a boy and a basket
-and meet their lovers.
-
-
-                   A WOMAN’S DAY
-
-    “Daily till ten a clocke a bed she lyes,
-    And then againe her Lady-ship doth rise,
-    Her Maid must make a fire, and attend
-    To make her ready; then for wine sheele send,
-    (A morning pinte), she sayes her stomach’s weake,
-    And counterfeits as if shee could not speake,
-    Vntill eleuen, or a little past,
-    About which time, euer she breakes her fast;
-    Then (very sullen) she wil pout and loure,
-    And sit down by the fire some halfe an houre.
-    At twelue a clocke her dinner time she keepes,
-    Then gets into her chaire, and there she sleepes
-    Perhaps til foure, or somewhat thereabout;
-    And when that lazie humour is worne out,
-    She cals her dog, and takes him in her lap,
-    Or fals a beating of her maid (perhap)
-    Or hath a gossip come to tell a tale,
-    Or else at me sheele curse, and sweare, and rale,
-    Or walk a turne or two about the Hall,
-    And so to supper and to bed: heeres all
-    This paines she takes; and yet I do abuse her:
-    But no wise man, I thinke, so kind would vse her....”
-                      STUBBES, _Anatomie of Abuses_, Part ii. p. 274.
-
-In the streets a lady of condition was preceded by a lackey carrying a
-stick or wand. Gentlemen were followed by their servants carrying the
-master’s sword. The servants were dressed in blue with the master’s
-badge in silver on the left arm. The men kept on their hats indoors
-except in warm weather. The nobles, who were mostly poor, joined
-with the merchant adventurers in their foreign enterprises; many of
-the merchants were consulted by the Sovereign and held positions of
-trust—for example, Gresham; yet the separation of City and Court was
-already beginning, as is shown by the repeated sneers of the dramatists
-at the vulgarity and ostentation of the City Madams. We get occasional
-glimpses of the lower class women and girls; they were rough in their
-manners and coarse in their conversation; we find them dancing in the
-street to the music of the tabor and the pipe; we also see them playing
-at ball up and down the street, like the ’prentices. They lived, like
-the men, on strong meat and beer; they were therefore physically
-strong, perhaps as strong as the young men their lovers. The richer
-sort of citizens had country gardens, generally small enclosures,
-either in or north of Moorfields, whither they resorted in the long
-summer evenings; their wives, it is said, used the gardens in the
-morning for assignations and the carrying on of intrigues.
-
-In the morning the haunt of the gallants was St. Paul’s Cathedral.
-(_See_ Appendix VIII.) They walked up and down the middle of the nave,
-called then the “Mediterranean,” exhibiting their new cloaks and their
-new feathers. After a few turns up and down, or when the clock struck
-eleven, they left the place and disappeared, going to some of the
-shops, the tobacconist’s, or the bookseller’s, where they took tobacco
-and talked about the new books. They then repaired to an ordinary and
-spent two or three hours over dinner, after which they went back to St.
-Paul’s and spent there the whole afternoon.
-
-The merchant had his Exchange; the citizen his tavern; the gallant had
-the apothecary’s shop, where he bought and smoked his tobacco. For
-daily discourse and business the scholar, the divine, the poet, the
-wit, had the bookseller’s shop. “He will sit you,” said Ben Jonson, “a
-whole afternoon in a bookseller’s shop, reading the Greek, Italian,
-and Spanish.” He would read, and he would talk. Remember that in the
-year 1590 or thereabouts the art of printing had only been in use a
-hundred years; all the books were new books; every poet was printed
-or translated for the first time; the booksellers’ shops contained
-editions, always new, of ancient classics; of living poets; of foreign
-writers; there was far greater interest in a new book than our age can
-understand: as we have seen there were in London alone at least 240
-poets, known and acknowledged, whose names are still remembered, and
-whose poems still remain Anthologies, and there was interest among the
-reading world in every one of them. There may have been jealousies:
-poets have always been a jealous folk; but there was appreciation, and
-there was generosity. And the bookseller’s shop was the place where all
-who valued new books could meet and talk of books—what talk is more
-delightful? What criticism more sincere than that between those who
-themselves belong to letters in an age when literature knows not yet
-the meaning of the words exhaustion or decay?
-
-Mr. Ordish (_Shakespeare’s London_, p. 233) has compiled a list of
-Elizabethan booksellers from the title-pages of the Shakespeare
-quartos. Such a list was well worth making, though it cannot be
-considered more than a small instalment. Indeed, the literary output
-was so enormous during the latter half of the sixteenth century, that
-the number of booksellers must have been proportionately greater than
-at present.
-
-The following were some of the signs:—
-
-I. In St. Paul’s Churchyard—
-
-  At the sign of the Angel, the Fox, the Flower de Luce and the
-  Crown, the Greyhound, the Green Dragon, the Holy Ghost, the Gun
-  (Edward White), the Pied Bull, the Spread Eagle.
-
-II. By St. Dunstan’s in the West—
-
-  At the sign of the White Hart; at the shop under the Dial.
-
-III. In Paternoster Row—
-
-  At the sign of the Sun.
-
-IV. Cornhill—
-
-  At the sign of the Cat and Parrots.
-
-V. In Carter Lane, near the Paul Head.
-
-Plays and masques were performed on Sunday as well as any other day;
-the feeling, however, was growing rapidly in favour of a stricter
-attention to the Sunday, which was confused with the Sabbath. In other
-words, the Puritans were fast increasing in numbers and in importance.
-
-If amusement was wanted it might also be sought in the street, where
-the juggler with his music and his tumbler had his regular round. He
-was distinguished by his thin, coloured cloak and his yellow breeches
-trimmed with blue. For a modest fee he performed for any who summoned
-him. Another form of amusement, suitable to those who could not afford
-to pay the itinerant juggler, and had to consider the expenditure in
-candles, was to sit round the fire in the evening and tell stories.
-
-                “... some mery fit
-    Of Mayde-Marian, or else of Robin Hood.”
-
-As for the girls:—
-
-    “Then is it pleasure the yonge maides amonge,
-    To watch by the fier the winter-nights longe;
-    And in the ashes some playes for to marke,
-    And cover wardes for fault of other warke;
-    To taste white shevers, to make prophet-roles;
-    And, after talke, oft times to fille the boles.”
-
-In the private houses there was a great deal of whipping; gentlemen
-had their servants whipped in the porter’s lodge; to be whipped was
-no disgrace, but a natural part of servitude, no more to be deplored
-than the necessity of death; ladies whipped their maid-servants, their
-sons and their daughters; when a child had been whipped the rod was
-tied to her girdle, with what we should perhaps consider an excess of
-admonition. Children knelt before their parents until bidden to rise.
-On their knees, too, they asked for their father’s blessing. If we
-may believe Caxton, who died in 1491, and therefore hardly belongs to
-the Tudor period, there was a great falling off in the behaviour of
-children in his own recollection. It is a mark of increasing years
-to compare things of the present with things of the past to the
-disparagement of the former.
-
-  “I see that the children ben borne within the sayd cyte encrease
-  and prouffyte not like their faders and olders; but for mooste
-  parte, after that they ben comeyn to theyr perfight yeres of
-  discretion and rypnes of age, kno well that theyre faders haue
-  lefte to them grete quantite of goodes, yet scarcely among ten two
-  thrive. O blessed Lord! when I remember this, I am al abashed;
-  I cannot judge the cause; but fayrer ne wyser, ne bet bespeken
-  children in theyre youth ben no wher than ther ben in London; but
-  at ther ful ryping, there is no carnel, ne good word found en, but
-  chaff for the most part.”
-
-As for the boys of the household, they either went to one of the City
-schools or they were instructed by a tutor at home. Probably the latter
-was unusual when schools were ready to hand. In country places the
-tutor was common, and his position was anything but pleasant.
-
-“Such is the most base and ridiculous parsimony of many of our
-Gentlemen (if I may so terme them) that if they can procure some poore
-Batchelor of Art from the Universitie to teach their children to say
-grace, will be content upon the promise of ten pounds a yeere at his
-first comming, to be pleased with five; the rest to be set off in hope
-of the next advouson (which perhaps was sold before the young man was
-born). Or if it chance to fall in his time, his lady or master tels
-him, ‘Indeed, Sir, we are beholden unto you for your paines; such a
-living is lately falne, but I had before made a promise of it to my
-butler or bailiffe, for his true and extraordinary service.’
-
-Is it not commonly seen, that the most Gentlemen will give better
-wages, and deale more bountifully with a fellow who can but a dogge,
-or reclaime a hawke, than upon an honest, learned, and well qualified
-man to bring up their children? It may be, hence it is, that dogges
-are able to make syllogismes in the fields, when their young masters
-can conclude nothing at home, if occasion of argument or discourse be
-offered at the table.”
-
-Did the great City merchant ever maintain the domestic chaplain? I have
-found no instance of such a servant in the household of a citizen.
-Bishop Hall assigns the domestic chaplains to the country gentleman:—
-
-    “A gentle squire would gladly entertain
-    Into his house some trencher-chappelain;
-    Some willing man that might instruct his sons,
-    And that would stand to good conditions.
-    First, that he lie upon the truckle-bed,
-    While his young maister lieth o’er his head;
-    Second, that he do, on no default,
-    Ever presume to sit above the salt;
-    Third, that he never change his trencher twice;
-    Fourth, that he use all common courtesies;
-    Sit bare at meals, and one half rise and wait;
-    Last, that he never his young master beat;
-    But he must aske his mother to define,
-    How manie jerks she would his breech should line.
-    All these observ’d he could contented be,
-    To give five markes, and winter livery.”
-                                              JOSEPH HALL, _Satires_.
-
-As regards the ’prentices, they were considered as servants not only
-in the shop and warehouse, but also at home, where they waited at
-dinner, and followed the ladies to church and when they went abroad in
-the evening, carrying a lantern and a stout cudgel. For the servants,
-properly so called, the following regulations will show the manner of
-their service (Drake, ii.):—
-
-  “Imprimis, That no servant bee absent from praier, at morning or
-  evening, without a lawfull excuse, to be alledged within one day
-  after, upon payne to forfeit for every tyme 2d.
-
-  2. Item, that none sweare any othe, uppon paine for every othe 1d.
-
-  3. Item, That no man leave any doore open, that he findeth shut,
-  without there bee cause, upon payne for every time 1d.
-
-  4. Item, That none of the men be in bed, from our Lady-day to
-  Michaelmas, after 6 of the clock, in the morning; nor out of his
-  bed after 10 of the clock at night; nor, from Michaelmas till our
-  Lady-day, in bed after 7 in the morning; nor out after 9 at night,
-  without reasonable cause, on paine of 2d.
-
-  5. Item, That no man’s bed be unmade, nor fire or candle-box
-  uncleane, after 8 of the clock in the morning, on paine of 1d.
-
-       •       •       •       •       •
-
-  7. Item, That no man teach any of the children any unhonest
-  speeche, or bandie word, or other, on paine of 4d.
-
-  8. Item, That no man waite at the table, without a trencher in his
-  hand, except it be uppon some good cause, on paine of 1d.
-
-  9. Item, If any man breake a glasse, hee shal answer the price
-  thereof out of his wages and, if it bee not known who breake it,
-  the buttler shall pay for it on paine of 12d.
-
-  10. Item, The table must be covered halfe an hour before 11 at
-  dinner, and 6 at supper, or before, on paine of 2d.
-
-  11. Item, That meate bee readie at 11, or before, at supper, on
-  paine of 6d.
-
-  12. That none be absent, without leave or good cause, the whole
-  day, or any part of it, on paine of 4d.
-
-  13. Item, that no man strike his fellow, on paine of losse of
-  service; nor revile or threaten, or provoke another to strike, on
-  paine of 12d.
-
-  14. Item, That no man come to the kitchen without reasonable cause,
-  on paine of 1d. and the cook likewyse to forfeit 1d.
-
-  15. Item, That none toy with the maids on paine of 4d.
-
-  16. Item, That no man weare foule shirt on Sunday, nor broken hose
-  or shooes, or dublett without buttons, on paine of 1d.
-
-  17. Item, That when any strainger goeth hence, the chamber be drest
-  up againe within 4 hours after, on paine of 1d.
-
-  18. Item, That the hall bee made cleane every day, by eight in the
-  winter, and seaven in the sommer, on paine of him that should do it
-  to forfet 1d.
-
-  19. That the court-gate bee shutt each meale, and not opened during
-  dinner and supper, without just cause, on paine the porter to
-  forfet for every time 1d.
-
-  20. Item, That all stayrs in the house, and other rooms that neede
-  shall require, bee made cleane on Fryday after dinner, on paine of
-  forfeyture of every one on whome it shall belong unto 3d.
-
-  All which sommes shalbe duly paide each quarter-day out of their
-  wages, and bestowed on the poore or other godly use.”
-
-The London merchant’s house in the sixteenth century steadily improved
-in solid comfort and even in magnificence. No one will ever be able to
-restore completely, or even approximately, the London of that century.
-We do not know the numbers of the great houses; we know only in part
-their constitutions, their pictures; their art; their carved work. In
-the streets lying off the main avenues of retail trade, especially
-in those streets near the riverside, a house was frequently at once
-a place of residence and a warehouse. One may look upon a street in
-Hildesheim, for instance, and be reminded of Bishopsgate Street,
-Aldgate, or Leadenhall Street in the time of Queen Elizabeth. That is
-to say, the greater number of houses were timbered with tiled roofs;
-the fronts all covered with carvings painted and gilded; there were
-scattered here and there substantial stone houses; there were still
-many houses whose gateway opened from some narrow city lane upon a
-spacious court, above which stood the hall; the lady’s bower; the rooms
-for apprentices and servants; and, behind all, the garden. Such a house
-on a large scale was Gray’s Inn; on a lesser scale Barnard’s Inn and
-the smaller inns. The College of Heralds still shows the general size
-of the court; Doctor’s Commons until fifty years ago also illustrated
-the old fashion of building. Bricks were coming into use, but, in the
-City of London, slowly. There were still many narrow and noisome courts
-where the hovels were of wood—making a constant danger of fire and
-filled with all manner of decaying abominations—a constant cause of
-disease.
-
-By this time all the windows were provided with glass; many of the
-poorer sort, however, were furnished with the cheap glass which
-contained the round lumps called bull’s eyes. The shops in the
-market-places had glass in the upper part, but the lower part still
-remained open, and was shut at night with a shutter. The goods were
-exposed outside the window, and the ’prentices stood beside them
-bawling, “What d’ye lack? What d’ye lack?”
-
-In the more important houses the old custom of living in the great hall
-was still kept up. In all houses the servants and apprentices sat down
-with the master and his family.
-
-The floors were still strewn with rushes, but these, on account of
-the cost of renewing, were seldom changed, so that underneath them,
-as Erasmus discovered, lay unmolested an “ancient collection of beer,
-grease, fragments of fish, and everything that is nasty.”
-
-The furniture of the rooms was very different from that of our own
-times. The following account is taken from _Archæologia_ (vol. xxx. p.
-2):—
-
-“The Furniture of the different rooms is very similar, varying
-principally in number and quality of the articles; consisting of
-sets of hangings, tables with tressels, joined forms, joined stools,
-court-cupboards, carpets, cushions, and a few chairs; also andirons,
-and other fire utensils, and several pairs of virginals in different
-rooms, besides a pair of organs in the chapel, and ‘an instrument
-musicall’ in the chamber of presence. The carpets, which are numerous,
-would scarcely appear to have been used according to modern custom
-for the floors of the apartments, Hentzner having informed us, that
-the presence-chamber of Queen Elizabeth herself was strewed with hay
-(_i.e._ rushes) but they were principally coverings for the tables,
-stools, and court-cupboards; though they may have been occasionally
-used to cover some select part of a room, as in the presence-chamber,
-for instance, where a Turkey carpet is mentioned, five yards and a half
-long, and two yards and three-quarters broad.
-
-[Illustration: STAPLE INN, HOLBORN]
-
-The court-cupboards, which are generally considered to have been
-moveable closets, answering the purpose of a sideboard, were frequently
-much ornamented, and such an article may still be seen in old mansions,
-and in collections of old furniture. They were covered with carpets or
-cupboard cloths, and set out with cups, salvers, and plate. Some of
-these carpets were very handsome. In one of the inventories in that
-valuable authority for researches of this nature, the _History of
-Hengrave_, is mentioned, ‘One carpet of black velvet, for the little
-bord, laced and fringed with silver and gould, lyned with taffita.’
-Some of these carpets also had cloths to lay over them, probably, when
-not in use, in order to protect them. In the same Inventory cushions
-are mentioned which in richness exceed those of the Archbishop, as
-‘two long cushions of plain black velvet, embroidered with roses, with
-gould and pearle all over, with tassels of gold and silk’; but the
-nature of his archi-episcopal office probably induced him to avoid too
-much splendour in his household. There is, however, in the chamber of
-presence a cushion of cloth of baudkin,[9] and in other apartments,
-several cushions of velvet and damask. The chair of cloth of gold and
-silver in the gallery was probably a State chair; and, indeed, from
-the paucity of these articles, they would seem to be intended only for
-persons of higher rank. From the ‘latten andirons’ in the chamber of
-presence being valued at forty shillings, it may be inferred that they
-were ornamented, and in some cases we know they were richly carved.
-Iachimo, describing the chamber of Imogen, says:—
-
-                        ‘Her andirons—
-    I had forgot them—were two winking Cupids
-    Of silver, each on one foot standing, nicely
-    Depending on their brands.’
-
-The pictures are chiefly portraits of royal personages, the principal
-noblemen and officers of state, and the promoters of the Reformation,
-but the list is interesting to shew the Archbishop’s selection. In some
-of the bed-rooms are truckle-beds (trundle-beds as they are called in
-some of the inventories of this age); these would seem to have been
-small beds generally appropriated to attendants, and placed at the foot
-or side of the standing or principal bed, and occasionally made to run
-under it during the day. The Host in the _Merry Wives of Windsor_,
-in answer to an inquiry after Sir John Falstaff, says, ‘There’s his
-chamber, his house, his castle, his standing-bed and truckle-bed.’
-Hudibras also makes the distinction:—
-
-    ‘If he that in the field is slain,
-    Be in the bed of honour lain.
-    He that is beaten may be said,
-    To lie in honour’s truckle-bed.’
-
-In my Lord’s chamber the bed is a field-bed, but this sort of bed may
-have been so called from being a folding-bed, as field-stool from
-fauld-stool, and not as being a camp-bed or _lit de champ_. The ‘grene
-satten of bridgs’ in the vestrye was satin of Bruges; and ’dornix,’ of
-which there are some articles mentioned, is used for ‘Tournay,’ and
-applied to the manufacture of that place. The ‘Grene saie,’ in the
-‘Grene Galery,’ and elsewhere, was probably not silk, but a species
-of fine cloth (sagum), one of the earliest productions of our woollen
-manufacture, the material of stockings, which were objected to by
-William Rufus, as being, from the price, too common for a king.”
-
-We may supplement this account by Harrison’s description (Holinshed, i.
-317):—
-
-“The furniture of our houses also exceedeth, and is growne in maner
-even to passing delicacie; for herein I doo not speake of the nobilitie
-and gentry onlie, but likewise of the lowest sort in most places of
-our south countrie, that have aniething at all to take to. Certes
-in noblemen’s houses it is not rare to see abundance of Arras, rich
-hangings of tapistrie, silver vessell, and so much other plate, as may
-furnish sundry cupbords, to the summe often times of a thousand or
-two thousand pounds at the least: whereby the value of this and the
-rest of their stuffe dooth grow to be almost inestimable. Likewise
-in the houses of knights, gentlemen, merchantmen, and some other
-wealthie citizens, it is not geson to behold generallie their great
-provision of tapistrie, Turkie worke, pewter, brasse, fine linen, and
-thereto costlie cupbords of plate, worth five or six hundred or a
-thousand pounds, to be deemed by estimation. But as herein all these
-sorts doo far exceed their elders and predecessors, and in neatnesse
-and curiositie the merchant all other; so in time past, the costlie
-furniture staied there, whereas now it is descended yet lower even
-unto the inferior artificers and manie farmers, who by vertue of their
-old and not of their new leases have for the most part learned also to
-garnish their cupbords with plate, their joined beds with tapestrie and
-silke hangings, and their tables with carpets and fine naperie, whereby
-the wealth of our countrie (God be praised therefore and give us grace
-to imploie it well) dooth infinetlie appeare. Neither doo I speak
-this in reprooch of anie man, God is my judge, but to showe that I do
-rejoise rather to see how God has blessed us with His good gifts; and
-whilest I behold how that in a time wherein all things are growen to
-most excessive prices, and what commoditie soever is to be had is daily
-plucked from the communaltie by such as looke into every trade, we do
-yet find the meanes to obtein and achive such furniture as heretofore
-hath beene unpossible. There are old men yet dwelling in the village
-where I remaine, which hath noted three things to be marvellously
-altered in England within their sound remembrance; and other three
-things too much increased. One is, the multitude of chimnies lately
-erected, whereas in their yoong daies there were not above two or
-three, of so many in most uplandish towns of the realme (the religious
-houses and manour places of their lordes alwaies excepted, and
-peradventure some great personages), but each one made his fire against
-a reredosse in the hall where he dined and dressed his meat.
-
-The second is the great (although not generall) amendment of lodging,
-for (said they) our fathers (yea and we ourselves also) have lien full
-oft upon straw pallets, on rough mats covered onlie with a sheet under
-coverlets made of dagswain or hopharlots (I use their owne terms) and
-a good round log under their heads insteed of a bolster or pillow. If
-it were so that our fathers or the good man of the house, had within
-seven yeares after his marriage purchased a matteres or flockebed, and
-thereto a sacke of chaffe to reste his head upon, he thought himselfe
-to be well lodged as the lord of the towne, that peradventure laie
-seldom in a bed of downe or whole fethers: so well were they contented,
-and with such base kind of furniture: which also is not verie much
-amended as yet in some parts of Bedfordshire, and elsewhere further off
-from our southerne parts. Pillowes (said they) were thought meet onelie
-for women in childbed. As for servants, if they had anie sheet above
-them it was well, for seldom had they anie under their bodies, to keep
-them from the pricking straws that ran oft through the canvas of the
-pallet and rased their hardened hides.
-
-The third thing they tell of, is the exchange of vessell, as of
-treene[10] platters into pewter, and wooden spoones into silver or
-tin. For so common were all sorts of treene stuffe in old time, that
-a man should hardlie find foure peeces of pewter (of which one was
-peradventure a salt) in a good farmer’s house and yet for all this
-frugalitie (if it may so be justly called) they were scarse able to
-live and paie their rents at their daies without selling of a cow,
-or an horsse, or more, although they paid but foure pounds at the
-uttermost by the year. Such also was their povertie that if some one od
-farmer or husbandman had beene at the alehouse a thing greatlie used
-in those daies, amongst six or seven of his neighbours, and there in
-a braverie to show what store he had, did cast downe his pursse, and
-therein a noble or six shillings in silver unto them (for few such men
-then cared for gold bicause it was not so readie paiment and they
-were oft inforced to give a penie for the exchange of an angell),
-it was verie likelie that all the rest could not laie downe so much
-against it; whereas in my time, although peradventure foure pounds of
-old rent be improved to fortie, fiftie, or an hundred pounds, yet will
-the farmer as another palme or date tree thinke his gaines verie small
-toward the end of his terme, if he have not six or seven yeares rent
-lieng by him, therewith to purchase a new lease, beside a faire garnish
-of pewter on his cupbord, with so much more in od vessel going about
-the house, three or foure featherbeds, so many counterlids and carpets
-of tapistrie, a silver salt, a bowle for wine (if not an whole neast)
-and a dozzen of spoones to furnish up the sute.”
-
-Or, again, to take another contemporary authority (Hall, _Society in
-the Elizabethan Age_):—
-
-“The furniture of an Elizabethan House is illustrated by an inventory
-of the Household ‘stuffe, goodes and cattelles’ belonging to Sir Henry
-Parker knight (1557–60). This inventory shows two chairs only for
-the whole house; eight stools and forms; two square framed tables;
-one joined table to say mass on; a pair of ‘playing tables’; twelve
-bedsteads; tapestry and hangings; featherbeds; blankets; bolsters;
-testors; curtains; counterpoints (counterpanes); seven cupboards;
-three carpets; andirons, fire shovels, tongs; thirteen candlesticks;
-certain cushions of tapestry, velvet, white satin and ‘Brydges’ satin;
-three great chests; utensils for the kitchen; the Brewhouse and the
-Bargehouse. The Hall was hung round with tapestry; its permanent
-furniture consisted of two square tables and one great chair of black
-velvet in which the Justice of the Peace heard cases. When the tables
-were spread for dinner or supper, forms were brought in. The ‘Great
-Chamber,’ formerly called the Lady’s Bower, contained the forms used at
-meals in the Hall, one stool of black velvet for my Lady; and nothing
-else! In the bedrooms there were the beds and their blankets and
-nothing else; not a chair or a table; nothing but the bed—what does one
-want in a bedroom but the bed to sleep upon? For decorations one room
-had over the chimney a ‘steyned cloth with Marie and Gabriell.’ Another
-had curtains of sarcenet; another, of red and green say; another, ‘old
-tapestrye worke of imagery.’ In one chamber we find a bason and ewer
-of pewter—was this the only means of washing in the whole house? In
-the buttery were a dozen of fine trenchers ‘cased’; six glasses; six
-plates for fruits; a ‘garnish’ of pewter vessels; two pewter plates for
-tarts. Nothing is said of knives—did each person still carry his own?
-Even then there must have been carving knives. Forks were not as yet in
-common use, and nothing is said about spoons.”
-
-The inventory of a farmer’s goods about the same time, given in the
-same work, shows among the household gear, two pewter dishes, three
-pewter platters, two saucers, four trencher platters, six trencher
-dishes, two brass kettles, two candlesticks and a chafing dish, eight
-bowls of wood, twelve trenchers, and twelve trencher spoons; but still
-nothing about knives. Nor in any of the numerous inventories and
-accounts given in this book is any mention made of knives. We see,
-however, in the tables laid upon trestles, the single chair, the forms
-and stools, the fine tapestry of the Hall, the carpets of the Great
-Chamber, the testers and the curtains of the bed which stands alone
-in the bedroom, a compound of state and simplicity; of meanness and
-richness. Furniture in the modern sense had not yet appeared in the
-house.
-
-To quote from Shakespeare, Gremio, in the _Taming of the Shrew_, thus
-speaks of his furniture:—
-
-                “My house within the city
-    Is richly furnished with plate and gold;
-    Basins and ewers to lave her dainty hands;
-    My hangings all of Tyrian tapestry;
-    In ivory coffers I have stuff’d my crowns;
-    In cypress chests my arras counterpoints,
-    Costly apparel, tents, and canopies,
-    Fine linen, Turkish cushions boss’d with pearl,
-    Valance of Venice gold in needlework,
-    Pewter and brass and all things that belong
-    To house or housekeeping.”
-
-Or take the following note of a lady’s room:—
-
-“Her bed-chamber was garnished with such diversities of sweete herbes,
-such varietie of fragrant flowers, such chaunge of odoriferous smelles,
-so perfumed with sweete odours, so stored with sweete waters, so
-beautified with tapestry, and decked so artificially, that I want
-memorie to rehearse it, and cunning to expresse it, so that it seemed
-her Chamber was rather some terresstriall Paradise, than a mansion for
-such a matelesse mystresse; rather a tabernacle for some Goddesse, than
-a lodging for such a loathsome carcase.”
-
-The Tudor age was strong in small points of ceremony and etiquette,
-which descended even to details of housework. For instance, the
-ceremony to be observed in making the King’s Bed, a thing which we
-might suppose left to a housemaid, was carefully laid down:—
-
-“Furste a groome or a page to take a torche and to goo to the warderobe
-of the kynges bedd, and brynge theym of the warderobe with the kynges
-stuff unto the chambr for makyng of the same bedde. Where as sught to
-be a gentylman-usher iiij yeomen of the chambr for to make the same
-bedde. The groome to stande at the bedds feete with his torche. They
-of the warderobe opennyng the kinges stuff of hys bedde upon a fayre
-sheets betwen the sayde groome and the bedds fote, iij yeomen or two
-at the lefte in every syde of the bedde. The gentylman usher and parte
-commaundyng theym what they shall doo. A yoman with a dagger to searche
-the strawe of the kynges bedde that there be none untreuth therin. And
-this yoman to caste up the bedde of downe upon that, and oon of theym
-to tomble over yt for the serche thereof. Then they to bete and tufte
-the sayde bedde, and to laye oon then the bolster without touchyng
-of the bedd where as it aught to lye. Then they of the warderobe to
-delyver theym a fusty and takyng the saye thereof. All theys yomen to
-laye theyr hands theroon at oone, that they touch not the bedd, tyll
-yt be layed as it sholde be by the commaundement of the usher. And so
-the furste sheet in lyke wyse, and then to trusse in both sheete and
-fustyan rownde about the bedde of downe. The warderoper to delyver
-the second sheete unto two yomen, they to crosse it over theyr arme,
-and to stryke the bedde as the ussher shall more playnly sheweun to
-theym. Then every yoman layeing hande upon the sheete to laye the same
-sheete upon the bedde. And so the other fustyan upon or ij with
-suche coverynge as shall content the kynge. Thus doon the ij yomen next
-to the bedde to laye down agene the overmore fustyan, the yoman of the
-warderobe delverynge theym a pane sheete, the sayde yoman therewythall
-to cover the sayde bedde: and so then to laye down the overmost sheets
-from the beddes heed. And then the say ij yomen to lay all the overmost
-clothes of a quarter of the bedde. Then the warderoper to delyver unto
-theym such pyllowes as shall please the kynge. The sayd yoman to laye
-theym upon the bolster and the heed sheet with whych the sayde yoman
-shall cover the sayd pyllowes. And so to trusse the endes of the said
-sheete under every end of the bolster. And then the sayd warderoper to
-delyver unto them ij lytle small pyllowes werwythall the squyres for
-the bodye or gentylman usher shall give te saye to the warderoper, and
-to the yoman whyche have layde on hande upon the sayd bedde. And then
-the sayd ij yomen to lay upon the sayde bedde toward the bolster as yt
-was bifore. They makyng a crosse and kissynge yt where there handes
-were. Then ij yomen next to the feete to make the seers as the usher
-shall teche theym. And so then every one of them sticke up the aungel
-about the bedde, and to lette downe the corteyns of the sayd bedde or
-sparver.
-
-[Illustration: THE MORE FAMILY
-
-From a picture in the possession of Major-General F. E. Sotheby.]
-
-Item, a squyer for the bodye or gentylman-usher aught to sett the
-kynges sword at hys beddes heede.
-
-Item, a squyer for the bodye aught to charge a secret groome or page
-to have the kepynge of the sayde bedde with a lyght, unto the tyme the
-kynge be disposed to goo to yt.
-
-Item, a groome or page aught to take a torche whyle the bedde ys yn
-makyng to feche a loof of brede, a pott with ale, a pott wyth wine for
-them that maketh the bedde, and every man.
-
-Item, the gentylman-ussher aught to forbede that no manner of man do
-sett eny dysshe uppon the kinge’s bedde for fere of hurtyng of the
-kyng’s ryche counterpoynt that lyeth therupon. And that the sayd ussher
-take goode heede, that noon man wipe or rubbe their handes uppon none
-arras of the kynges, wherby they myght be hurted, in the chambr where
-the kyng ys specially, and in all other.”
-
-The wealth of the English was not so much illustrated, as it was
-proved, by their immense stores of silver and silver-gilt plate. The
-people bought all the plate that they could afford; they put their
-savings, so to speak, in silver plate, as we put them in stocks and
-shares. Polydore Vergil says that there were few whose tables were not
-loaded with spoons, cups, and salt-cellars of silver. At the marriage
-feast of Prince Arthur there was in the great hall a cupboard five
-stages in height, set with plate valued at £1200, say £15,000 of our
-money; while in the chamber where the Princess dined there was a
-cupboard of gold plate valued at £20,000 or £240,000 in our money.
-Cardinal Wolsey must have spent enormous sums upon plate. There
-were two banqueting rooms, in each of which was a cupboard extended
-along the whole length of the apartment, piled to the top with plate,
-and every guest chamber was provided with silver ewers, basins, and
-candlesticks. Of silver spoons or dishes there were none; the dishes
-were of pewter and the plates of wood, even in the greatest houses.
-
-Lastly, on the subject of furniture, let me quote from another paper in
-_Archæologia_, vol. xxxvi. p. 284:—
-
-“The furniture of the hall is excessively scanty and plain, consisting
-of but a single table and two forms, of the total value of 4s. 6d. In
-the parlour, however, is a much greater abundance of furniture, as,
-in addition to the main table, there is the side table and another
-small table, a chair and six stools with embroidered cushions, besides
-footstools; while for the decoration of the room we find a portrait
-of Henry VIII. and hangings of green saye, and, for the amusement of
-the family and guests, a pair of virginals, a base lute, and a guitar,
-with chess and backgammon boards for those not musically inclined. The
-children’s chamber, or nursery as we should call it, is comfortably
-provided with bedding and nursery requisites, and contains a cupboard,
-two coffers, and a great wicker hamper, as receptacles for the clothes,
-etc. The allowance of blankets appears but small, being only one pair
-to a bed, either in the nursery or in the bedroom of the master of
-the house. The latter room is provided with a walnut-tree bedstead,
-adorned with green fringe, and having a coverlet of tapestry, a walnut
-table, chairs and stools, curtains for the windows of green saye,
-a warming-pan, and, as a ready means of defence against thieves or
-intruders, a pole-axe. In an inner closet, leading out of this room,
-are four stills, for the use of the lady of the house.
-
-Sir William More’s own closet is so well appointed that it might
-almost serve as a model for the morning-room of a country squire of
-the present day. On the walls hang maps of the World, of France, of
-England, and of Scotland, and a picture of Judith, a little chronicle,
-and a perpetual almanac in frames. Among the accessories are a globe, a
-slate to write on, and a counterboard and cast of counters, with which
-to make calculations and cast accounts, in the manner then in vogue. On
-the desk are a pair of scales and a set of weights, a pair of scissors,
-a penknife, a whetstone, a pair of compasses, a foot-rule, a hammer, a
-seal of many seals, and an inkstand of pewter, with a pounce-box, and
-pens both of bone and steel. Around the room is a collection of about
-120 volumes of books; among them are some of the best chronicles of the
-time, as Fabyan, Langton, Harding, Carion, etc.; translations from the
-classics, as well as some in their original language; for magisterial
-business there are the statutes of Henry VIII., Edward VI., and Mary,
-and all the statutes before, as well as the _New Book of Justices_,
-and other legal works; for medical use we find a _Book of Physic_, the
-_Glass of Health_, and a book against the Sweat, as well as a _Book
-of Medicines for Horses_; while for lighter reading there are such
-books as Chaucer, Lydgate, Skelton, and others, not only in English but
-also in French and Italian; and for religious study, besides a Bible
-and Testaments in various languages, the _Scala Perfectionis_, _Flores
-Bibliae_, etc. The whole catalogue is worthy of attentive perusal by
-the bibliographical antiquary, and affords the titles of some English
-works which are not, I believe, at present known.
-
-In the closet of the lady of the house are a few more books,
-principally of prayers, a large collection of trunks and boxes, a
-number of glass vessels of various forms and uses, and a few of enamel
-or china, with trenchers, knives, shears, graters, snuffers, moulds,
-brushes, and other miscellaneous properties of a good housewife.”
-
-Water was carried about the City from the conduits by water-carriers
-called “Cobbs,” who carried it in large tankards, each holding about
-three gallons.
-
-The palmy time of tobacco extended over the fifty years after its
-introduction. During this time the use of tobacco penetrated all ranks
-and classes of society. The grave divine, the soldier, the lawyer, the
-gallant about town, the merchant, the craftsman, the ’prentice, all
-used pipes. At the theatre the young fellow called for his pipe and for
-tobacco and began to smoke: presently he rose and walking over to the
-boxes presented his pipe to any lady of his acquaintance.
-
-People went to bed with tobacco box and pipe and candle on a table by
-the bedside in case they might wake up in the night and feel inclined
-for tobacco. After supper in a middle-class family, all the men and
-women smoked together. Nay, it is even stated that the very children
-in school took a pipe of tobacco instead of breakfast, the master
-smoking with them and instructing them how to bring the smoke through
-the nostrils in the fashion of the day. Tobacco was bought and sold in
-pennyworths.
-
-Every man carried a “tobacco box, steel, and touch.” Early in the
-seventeenth century there are said to have been 7000 tobacconists’
-shops in London. This seems incredible; perhaps there were 7000 shops
-in which tobacco was sold. For instance, all apothecaries sold tobacco.
-Many of the tobacco shops were of handsome appearance. A tobacco shop
-had a maple block for cutting the leaf; tongs for holding the coals,
-and a fire of juniper at which the pipes were lighted. Tobacco was
-so cheap that a man might fill his pocket with it for twopence. Yet
-over £300,000 a year was spent in London on tobacco, while there were
-some—but this is impossible—who were reported to spend, habitually,
-£400 a year upon tobacco alone; that is, 48,000 pocketsful every year,
-or 130 pocketsful every day; which is absurd.
-
-Expletives and oaths are changed with every generation. The
-Elizabethans had, no doubt, a great many, of which the following
-represent but a few. The old Catholic oaths “By’r Lady,” “By the
-Mass,” and so forth, vanished with the Reformation. We now find a lot
-of meaningless ejaculations, such as “God’s Wounds,” “God’s Fools,”
-“God’s Dines,” “Cocke’s Bones,” “Deuce take me,” “Bones a God,”
-and “Bones a me.” The now familiar “Damn” makes its appearance in
-literature; but indeed it had flourished in the mouths of the people
-for many generations. There is nothing really remarkable about the
-swearing of the Elizabethan period.
-
-Every merchant formerly carried a signet-ring, on which was engraved,
-not his coat-of-arms, but his mark or signet. Thus, a curious
-signet-ring was found lying in the bed of the river while digging
-the foundations of London Bridge. At first it was believed to be Sir
-Thomas Gresham’s, but that seems now to be impossible. It is engraved
-in _The London and Middlesex Notebook_ (p. 195). The device contains
-the initials of the owner, with an arrangement of lines probably not
-intended to have any meaning except that they should be recognised as
-forming part of Sir Thomas Gresham’s signet. Armed with this ring as an
-introduction, a messenger could buy and sell for the merchant—it being
-presumed that the ring never left its owner save to be used as a letter
-of recommendation and introduction. Sometimes the signet-ring was worn
-on the thumb. Other merchants’ devices are figured in the “Notebook.”
-
-Foreigners have revealed to us some very curious and rather startling
-peculiarities of the custom of kissing as practised by our ancestors.
-Thus as early as 1466 a Bohemian nobleman named Leo von Rozmital
-visited England, and in the Journal of his Travel (1577) it is noted
-that “it is the custom there, that on the arrival of a distinguished
-stranger from foreign parts, maids and matrons go to the inn and
-welcome him with gifts. Another custom is observed there, which is
-that, when guests arrive at an inn, the hostess with all her family go
-out to meet and receive them; and the guests are required to kiss them
-all, and this among the English was the same as shaking hands among
-other nations.” Erasmus, in 1499, wrote a Latin letter from England
-to his friend Fausto Anfrelini, an Italian poet, exhorting him in a
-strain of playful levity to think no more of his gout, but to betake
-himself to England; for (he remarks) “here are girls with angels’
-faces, so kind and obliging, that you would far prefer them to all
-your Muses. Besides, there is a custom here never to be sufficiently
-recommended. Wherever you come you are received with a kiss by all;
-when you take your leave you are dismissed with kisses; you return,
-kisses are repeated. They come to visit you, kisses again; they leave
-you, you kiss them all round. Should they meet you anywhere, kisses in
-abundance; in fine, wherever you move, there is nothing but kisses.” In
-1527 Cardinal Wolsey was appointed Ambassador Extraordinary to France.
-He was accompanied by George Cavendish, his gentleman usher, who wrote
-a Life of the Cardinal. Cavendish had gone forward to prepare his
-lord’s lodging. He says: “And I being there (at the Sire de Créqui’s
-Castle at Moreuil, about twelve miles from Amiens) tarrying a while, my
-lady Créqui issued out of her chamber into her dining chamber, where I
-attended her coming, who received me very gently like her noble estate,
-having a traine of twelve gentlewomen. And when she and her traine was
-come all out, she saide unto me, ‘For as much,’ quoth she, ‘as ye be an
-Englishman whose custome is to kisse all ladies and gentlemen in your
-country without offense, although it is not soe here with us in this
-realme, yet I will be so bould as kisse you, and soe ye shall doe all
-my maids.’ By meanes whereof I kissed her and all her maides.” In the
-narrative of the visit of the Spanish nobleman, the Duke de Najera,
-in 1543–44, we are told that “after the dancing was finished (which
-lasted several hours) the Queen entred again into her chamber, having
-previously called one of the noblemen who spoke Spanish, to offer in
-her name, some presents to the Duke, who again kissed her hand; and on
-his requesting the same favour of the Princess Mary, she would by no
-means permit it, but offered him her lips, and the Duke saluted her,
-and did the same to all the other ladies.” A Greek traveller, Nicander
-Nucius, came to England in 1545, and remarks: “They display great
-simplicity and absence of jealousy in their usages towards females. For
-not only do those who are of the same family and household kiss them on
-the mouth with salutations and embraces, but even those too who have
-never seen them. And to themselves this appears by no means indecent.”
-Again, when the Constable of Castile appeared at the Court of Whitehall
-on Saturday afternoon, 18th August 1604, after kissing Her Majesty’s
-hands he requested permission to salute the ladies of honour (twenty in
-number, standing in a row, and beautiful exceedingly) according to the
-custom of the country, and any neglect of which is taken as an affront.
-Whereupon the Queen having given him leave, His Excellency complied
-with the custom, much to the satisfaction of the ladies.
-
-In Shakespeare’s _Henry VIII._, at the Cardinal’s banquet, the King
-says to Anne Bullen:—
-
-                        “Sweetheart,
-    I were unmannerly, to take you out,
-    And not to kiss you.”
-
-In dancing it appears to have been the customary fee of a lady’s
-partner. A further illustration of the custom may be seen. Foreigners
-of the male sex, and especially Frenchmen, are in the more frequent
-habit of kissing each other, and probably not the ladies. Misson, a
-Frenchman who travelled in England about 1697, says: “The people of
-England, when they meet, never salute one another, otherwise than by
-giving one another their hands, and shaking them heartily; they no more
-dream of pulling off their hats, than the women do of pulling off their
-headcloths.”
-
-The sin of great cities we may pass over; that of early marriage is
-still, as it was in Stubbes’ time, a very terrible evil; the sin of
-drunkenness is with us still, and is present in every country. The
-side of charity that consists in giving doles to the poor was then
-neglected, and is now destroyed. We still suffer from money-lenders,
-though they can no longer conduct us to a life-long prison.
-
-  “Beleeve mee,” says Stubbes, “it greeveth mee to heare (walking in
-  the streats) the pitiful cryes, and miserable complaints of poore
-  prisoners in durance for debt, and like so to continue all their
-  life, destitute of libertie, meat, drink (though of the meanest
-  sorte), and clothing to their backs, lying in filthie strawe, and
-  lothsome dung, wursse than anie dogge, voide of all charitable
-  consolation and brotherly comfort in this World, wishing and
-  thyrsting after death to set them at libertie, and loose them from
-  their shackles, giues, and yron bands.” (Stubbes.)
-
-As for the boys of this century, I have always thought their favourite
-haunt was the river, or the river-side. On the river they rowed about
-among the fishermen, and the swans above Bridge; the Queen’s Barge
-swept past them with its trumpets and its hangings gorgeous to behold;
-the Lord Mayor and the Companies were borne along before them in state
-and splendour such as we have forgotten—surely nothing could have been
-more splendid than these barges with their long lines of flashing oars
-and their bows gilt and carved, and the carved work of the covered
-seat of state, and the servants in their green and gold. Below Bridge,
-in the Port, they rowed in and out among the ships as boys will about
-Portsmouth Harbour now; the name of each ship with her port was written
-on her lofty stern. The figure-head of each was bright as paint and
-gold would make it. If they were allowed to go on board there were
-sailors full of yarns, with strange things to show as well as to tell.
-If they went as far down as Deptford, there was Drake’s ship, the ship
-which had gone all round the world—all round the world! If they stayed
-ashore, there were taverns in Wapping and St. Katherine’s, where they
-could snatch the fearful joy of seeing the sailors drink and fight, the
-foreign sailors and the English sailors, and the sailors from the North
-Country, and those of London and the Cinque Ports. The river and the
-river-side were famous schools to fill the minds of London boys with an
-ardour for adventure; a yearning for the way of war; a burning desire
-to cross the seas and visit far countries; and a thirst for geography;
-and all the London boys of every class regularly attended the classes
-of this Academy.
-
-The theatre, of course, offers a fine field for the Elizabethan
-satirist, Stubbes. He cannot find words strong enough to condemn the
-playgoer. Then there is that other source and fount of laughter, the
-Lord of Misrule.
-
-  “First, all the wilde-heds of the Parish, conuenting togither,
-  chuse them a Graund Captain (of all mischeefe) whome they innoble
-  with the title of ‘my Lord of Mis-rule,’ and him they crowne with
-  great solemnitie, and adopt for their King. This king anointed
-  chuseth forth twentie, fortie, threescore or a hundred lustie
-  Guttes, like to himself, to waighte vppon his lordly Maiestie, and
-  to guarde his noble person. Then, euerie one of these his men,
-  he inuesteth with his liuerues of green, yellow, or some other
-  light wanton colour; And as though that were not baudie (gaudie)
-  enough, I should say, they bedecke them selues with scarfs,
-  ribons, and laces hanged all over with golde rings, precious
-  stones, and other jewels: this doon, they tye about either leg
-  xx. or xl. bels, with rich handkerchiefs in their hands, and
-  sometimes laid a crosse ouer their shoulders and necks, borrowed
-  for the most parte of their pretie Mopsies and loouing Besses,
-  for bussing them in the dark. Thus al things set in order, then
-  haue they their Hobby-horses, dragons and other antiques, togither
-  with their baudie Pipers and thundering Drummers to strike vp
-  the deuils daunce withall. Then marche these heathen company
-  towards the church and Churchyard, their pipers pipeing, their
-  drummers thundring, their stumps dauncing, their bels iyngling,
-  their handkerchiefs swinging about their heds like madmen, their
-  hobbie horses and other monsters skirmishing amongst the route:
-  and in this sorte they go to the Church (I say) and into the
-  Church (though the Minister be at prair or preaching), dancing and
-  swinging their handkerchiefs ouer their heds in the Church, like
-  deuils incarnate, with such a confuse noise, that no man can hear
-  his own voice. Then, the foolish people they looke, they stare,
-  they laugh, they fleer, and mount vpon fourmes and pewes to see
-  these goodly pageants solemnized in this sort. Then, after this,
-  about the Church they goe againe and againe, and so foorth into the
-  churchyard, where they haue commonly their Sommer-haules, their
-  bowers, arbors, and banqueting houses set vp, wherin they feast,
-  banquet and daunce al that day and (peradventure) all the night
-  too. And thus these terrestriall furies spend the Sabaoth day.”
-  (Stubbes, _Anatomie of Abuses_, edit, by Furnivall.)
-
-[Illustration: A SHIP OF THE TIME OF HENRY VIII.]
-
-The custom of church ales is described by Stubbes with his customary
-vigour:—
-
-  “In certaine Townes where drunken _Bachus_ beares all the sway,
-  against a Christmas, an Easter, Whitsonday, or some other time,
-  the Church-wardens (for so they call them) of euery parish, with
-  the consent of the whole Parish, prouide half a score of twenty
-  quarters of mault, wherof some they buy of the Church-stock, and
-  some is giuen them of the Parishioners them selves, euery one
-  conferring somewhat, according to his abilitie; which mault, beeing
-  made into very strong ale or beere, it is set to sale, either in
-  the Church, or some other place assigned to that purpose.
-
-  Then, when the _Nippitatum_, this Huf-cap (as they call it) and
-  this _nectar_ of lyfe, is set abroche, wel is he that can get
-  the soonest to it, and spend the most at it; for he that fitteth
-  the closest to it, and spends the moste at it, he is counted the
-  godliest man of all the rest; but who either cannot, for pinching
-  pouertie, or otherwise, wil not stick to it, he is counted one
-  destitute bothe of vertue and godlynes. In so much as you shall
-  haue many poor men make hard shift for money to spend ther at,
-  for it beeing put into this _Corban_, they are perswaded it is
-  meritorious, and a good seruice to God. In this kinde of practise
-  they continue six weeks, a quarter of a year, yea, half a year
-  togither, swilling and gulling, night and day, till they be as
-  drunke as Apes, and as blockish as beasts.” (Stubbes, _Ibid._)
-
-They pretend, he says, to repair their churches with money so got:—
-
-  “But who seeth not that they bestow this money vpon nothing lesse
-  than in building and repayring of Churches and Oratories? For in
-  most places lye they not like swyn coates? their windowes rent,
-  their dores broken, their walles fall downe, the roofe all bare,
-  and what not out of order? Who seeth not the booke of God, rent,
-  ragged, and all betorn, couered in dust, so as this _Epitaphe_ may
-  be writ with ones finger vppon it, _ecce nunc in puluere dormio_?
-  (Alas;) behold I sleep in dust and oblyuion, not once scarse looked
-  vppon, much less red vpon, and the least of all preached vppon.”
-  (Stubbes, _Ibid._)
-
-Of wakes and feasts and “the horrible vice of pestiferous dancing” we
-need say little. Nor of music, “how it allureth to vanitie”; nor of
-cards, dice, tennis, and bowls, all of which we still practise; nor of
-the bear-baiting which we have now discontinued. Of the reading of bad
-books we may still complain after the manner of Stubbes. In a word, his
-_Book of Lamentations_ would serve with slight alterations for to-day
-as well as his own age.
-
-On the exchange of English goods for foreign trifles, I find a note in
-Furnivall’s edition of Stubbes’ _Anatomy_:—
-
-    “Thou must carry beside, leather, tallow, beef, bacon, bell-metal
-        and everything:
-    And for these good commodities, trifles into England thou must
-        bring,
-    As bugles to make bables, coloured bones, glass beads to make
-        bracelets withal,
-    For every day gentlewomen of England do ask for such trifles from
-        stall to stall:
-    And you must bring more, as amber, jet, coral, crystal, and every
-        such bable
-    That is slight, pretty, and pleasant: they care not to have it
-        profitable.
-    And if they demand wherefore your wares and merchandise agree,
-    You must say ‘jet will take up a straw: amber will make one fat:
-    Coral will look pale when you be sick, and crystal staunch blood,’
-    So with lying, flattering and glosing, you must utter your ware,
-    And you shall win me to your will, if you can deceitfully swear.
-
-           •       •       •       •       •
-
-    _Lucre._ Then, Signor Mercatore, I am forthwith to send ye
-    From hence to search for some new toys in Barbary and in Turkey;
-    Such trifles as you think will please wantons best,
-    For you know in this country ’tis their chiefest request.
-
-    _Mercatore._ Indeed, de gentlewomans here buy so much vain toys
-    Dat we strangers laugh-a to tink wherein dey have their joys.”
-
-The suppressing of the Religious Houses produced, for a time, a great
-deal of hardship and difficulty. For not only were the friars turned
-out into the streets, but all the people living upon the monasteries
-were deprived of their daily bread; many of these unfortunates took
-to the road and became tramps, vagabonds, masterless men and thieves;
-many took refuge in those parts of London which were outside the
-jurisdiction of the City. London, indeed, was the place which the
-masterless man regarded as a veritable Paradise. They flocked up to
-London from all quarters; they were constantly being turned out and as
-constantly coming back again. When Queen Elizabeth once drove out to
-the country cottage of Islington, she was mobbed by a gang of vagabonds
-who accosted her with clamours; they harboured in the brick kilns
-there. In some parts close to London, as Hyde Park Corner and Lincoln’s
-Inn Fields, no one would venture after dark. Men took arms into their
-bedrooms at night, ready for use. Generally it seems that they hung
-a drawn sword at the bedside. The ’prentices, however, were the best
-protectors to a house. They slept in the shop, if there were a shop;
-or if there were no shop they slept somewhere on the ground floor, as
-is evident from the edifying revelations of “Meriton Latron,” in which
-it is shown how easily the ’prentices could get out at night for these
-riotous and profligate meetings and drinkings. I suppose it matters
-nothing that this writer belongs to the next century. In such small
-matters the world is conservative. According to this authority, it was
-common for ’prentices to rob their masters, exchanging with each other
-or holding a kind of auction in their taverns at night. The time when
-the City was most free from crimes was when the men had been called out
-to follow the flag and fight. The worst time was after the war, when
-they all came back again to their old haunts, thirsting for their old
-amusements and more disinclined for work than ever.
-
-
-
-
-                              CHAPTER II
-
-                            FOOD AND DRINK
-
-
-The manner and times of taking food under the Tudors may be summed up
-as follows:—
-
-For breakfast, those who made a meal before dinner at all, took,
-in the country, pottage, and, in town, “muskadel and eggs,” or
-bread-and-butter with a draught of small ale. The Princess Mary, in
-1533, used to eat so much meat for breakfast that she terrified her
-physicians. It does not appear, however, that the workpeople took
-anything at all unless it were a draught of small ale before their
-dinner at ten. The hour of dinner varied during the century from ten
-till twelve. For children there was “nuntion” or luncheon before dinner
-and a “bever” or slight repast between dinner and supper. Venner
-recommends no breakfast at all, but to wait for dinner. If, however,
-one cannot wait, then he advises poached eggs, with salt, pepper,
-a little vinegar, bread-and-butter and claret. When Cosmo, Duke of
-Tuscany, came to the country he visited Colonel John Nevill, and had
-breakfast with him, drinking Italian wine.
-
-The dinners were plentiful and varied. A salad was served first, then
-the beef and mutton; next fowls, and fish; game followed, woodcock
-being the most plentiful; and pastry and sweets came last. Honey was
-poured over the meat. The most important part of the meal, however, was
-the “banquet” or dessert which followed: at this part of the dinner an
-amazing quantity of sweetmeats was taken; for this every one adjourned
-to another room in winter; to the garden in summer.
-
-In the winter fresh meat was not always to be had: most people laid in
-large quantities of beef in October and November, which they salted.
-The markets, however, made up for the absence of fresh meat by the
-abundance of all kinds of birds which were brought into London; they
-were trapped, or shot with sling and stone, in the marshes along the
-lower reaches of the Thames. Pork could be had all the year round.
-Fresh fish was generally plentiful, but it was sometimes dear. At such
-times the people fell back upon stockfish, which was often bad and
-the cause of much disease. Herrings were brought by sea from Yarmouth
-in barrels, and partly salted, as they are at this day. They were a
-favourite form of food, and were made into pasties highly spiced.
-
-The food of the sixteenth century was more stimulating than our own:
-the only drink was fermented and alcoholic, even the small beer which
-was the national beverage; there was no tea or coffee; vast quantities
-of wine were taken; there were nearly a hundred different kinds, more
-than half being French. Wine of Bordeaux was sold at 8d. the gallon;
-Spanish wine at 1s. In drinking sack, the cup was half filled with
-sugar. Indeed, sugar or honey was taken with everything: with roast
-meat, with wine, and in the form of sweetmeats; so that the teeth of
-most people were black in consequence.
-
-A diet so stimulating could not fail to produce its effects in causing
-the people to be more easily moved to wrath, to love, to pity, to
-jealousy—than a diet composed of tea and coffee. There can be no doubt
-whatever that all classes of men and women were far readier with hand
-and tongue than at present; swifter to wrath; more prone to sudden
-outbursts; more quick with dagger or sword.
-
-Their tables were set out on trestles for the dinner and removed after
-dinner. People sat on stools; the floor was strewn with rushes; the
-tables, not the floors, were covered with rich carpets.
-
-A piece of the table furniture which has long since disappeared was
-the Roundel. It is supposed to have been used for fruit. A set of
-Roundels, not quite perfect, is described in _Archæologia_ (vol.
-xxxix.). They are circular and of wood, the upper side perfectly plain;
-the lower side is partly covered with black paint or dye and partly
-white. A legend, in rhyme, runs round the outer edge, and within is a
-figure with a number. The figure and letters are gilt. In this example
-nine trenchers out of the twelve represent the Courtier, the Country
-gentleman, the Lawyer, and so forth—characters of the time, the verses
-being taken from a book called _The XII. Wonders of the World_.
-
-It is pleasing to learn from Harrison of the reform introduced in his
-own time by the revival of the custom of taking vegetables of all kinds
-and plentifully. He says:—
-
-“Such herbes, fruits, and roots also as grow yeerlie out of the ground,
-of seed, have been verie plentifull in this land, in the time of the
-first Edward, and after his daies; but in processe of time they grew
-also to be neglected, so that from Henrie the fourth till the latter
-end of Henrie the seventh, and beginning of Henrie the eight, there was
-little or no use of them in England, but they remained either unknowne,
-or supposed as food more meet for hogs and savage beasts to feed upon
-than mankind. Whereas in my time their use is not onlie resumed among
-the poore commons, I mean of melons, pompions, gourds, cucumbers,
-radishes, skirets, parsneps, carrets, cabbages, nauewes, turneps, and
-all kinds of salad herbs, but also fed upon as deintie dishes at the
-tables of delicate merchants, gentlemen, and the nobilitie, who make
-their provision yearlie for new seeds out of strange countries, from
-whence they have them aboundantlie.” (Holinshed’s _Chronicles_.)
-
-The Flemings commenced the first market-gardens. Lettuce was served as
-a separate dish, and eaten at supper before meat. Capers were usually
-eaten boiled with oil and vinegar, as a salad. Eschalots were used to
-smear the plate before putting meat on it. Carrots had been introduced
-by the Flemings. Rhubarb, then called Patience, came from China about
-1573. The common people ate turnip-leaves as a salad, and roasted the
-root in wood-ashes. Watercress was believed to restore the bloom to
-young ladies’ cheeks.
-
-They used mustard and horse-radish; they took anchovies with wine;
-they took olives with wine; they had boiled oysters; boiled radishes,
-artichokes raw or boiled; they poured honey or spread sugar over their
-beef and mutton; they served pork in many ways, but if roasted, then
-with green sauce of sorrel; salmon they stuck with cloves; they ate
-porpoises; turkeys were roasted with cloves; peacocks they roasted
-while they were still under a year old; pigeons they stuffed with sour
-grapes or unripe gooseberries; rabbits were cheap and plentiful; pies
-of all kinds were very popular. They made salad out of barberries in
-pickle or with lettuces as in modern fashion. In the ordinaries and
-taverns there were no wine-glasses: people drank out of green pots made
-of white clay. They took supper at six; this was a smaller meal than
-dinner, but yet a plentiful meal. In a word, the Elizabethan Englishman
-lived much as the modern Frenchman lives: he took two meals a day and
-no more. In the principal ordinaries and inns musicians attended; even
-in the cheaper ones a viol de gamba was kept for everybody who could
-play; men dined for choice at the ordinary, which was a great deal
-cheaper than the tavern; it was not customary for the ladies to appear
-at taverns. An inn was known by its painted lattice; all kinds of
-wine could be had at most taverns, but foreign wines were sold to the
-general public by apothecaries. Waiters wore aprons. In private houses,
-but not at ordinaries and taverns, the silver fork had been introduced.
-
-            “The laudable use of forks,
-    Brought into custom here, as they are in Italy,
-          To th’ sparing o’ napkins.”
-
-And in Ben Jonson’s _Volpone_,
-
-    “Then must you learn the use
-    And handling of your silver fork at meals.”
-
-I have found inventories of household goods as late as the end of
-the seventeenth century without any mention of forks. I am inclined,
-therefore, to believe that they came into use very slowly, and that
-the old fashion of eating with a knife, fingers, and bread, lasted in
-country houses at least until the end of the seventeenth century. It
-is a survival of the old manner of eating which makes the lower class
-“eat with their knives.” Let me add that in my own recollection the
-practice has almost entirely disappeared. Forty years ago one could not
-take dinner at a tavern or an eating-house without seeing some of the
-company helping themselves with their knives.
-
-[Illustration: Tittle-Tattle; Or, the several Branches of Gossipping.
-
-From a satirical print in the British Museum.]
-
-Here is the bill of a dinner given to the Lord Treasurer, the
-Chancellor, the Lord Chief Baron, and others not named, on 4th June
-1573:—
-
-                                                              _s._  _d._
-  Imprimis  Bread, ale, and beer                                13     4
-  Item      Two sorloines of beef                               10     0
-    „       Four gees                                            7     0
-    „       Four joyntes of veale                                6     8
-    „       Six capons                                          13     8
-    „       Three quarters of lambe                              4     0
-    „       A dozen of chickens                                  5     0
-    „       A dozen of rabbites                                  4     8
-    „       Half a dozen quayles                                 6     8
-    „       For butter                                           4     0
-    „       For eggs                                             1     0
-    „       For vinegar, vergis barberius and mustard            1     0
-    „       For spices                                           1     0
-    „       For fruite                                           6     0
-    „       For rose water and swete water                       0     8
-    „       For scrill and parsley                               0     6
-    „       For White Wine                                       1     4
-    „       For flowers and strong herbes                        0     6
-    „       For sacke                                            1     0
-    „       For fier                                             5     0
-    „       For cook’s wages                                     6     0
-    „       For boote hier                                       1     4
-    „       For occupying plate, naperie and other necessaries   5     0
-
-Unfortunately these bills never contain the whole. It is of course
-impossible to believe that one shilling and fourpence represents the
-whole of the wine consumed on this occasion.
-
-Ben Jonson thus ridicules the care and thought expended upon feasting:—
-
-    “A master-cook! why, he’s the man of men
-    For a professor! he designs, he draws,
-    He paints, he carves, he builds, he fortifies,
-    Makes citadels of curious fowl and fish,
-    Some he dry-dishes, some moats round with broths:
-    Mounts marrow-bones, cuts fifty-angled custards,
-    Rears bulwark pies, and for his outer works
-    He raiseth ramparts of immortal crust;
-    And teacheth all the tactics at one dinner:
-    What ranks, what files, to put his dishes in:
-    The whole art military. Then he knows
-    The influence of the stars upon his meats,
-    And all their seasons, tempers, qualities,
-    And so to fit his relishes and sauces.
-    He had nature in a pot, ’bove all the chymists,
-    Or airy brethren of the Rosie-cross.
-    He is an architect, an engineer,
-    A soldier, a physician, a philosopher,
-    A general mathematician.”
-
-And again in his dream of luxurious living:—
-
-    “We will be brave, Puff, now we have the med’cine.
-    My meat shall all come in, in Indian shells,
-    Dishes of agate set in gold, and studded
-    With emeralds, sapphires, hyacinths, and rubies.
-    The tongues of carps, dormice, and camels’ heels,
-    Boil’d in the spirit of sol, and dissolv’d pearl,
-    Apicius’ diet, ’gainst the epilepsy;
-    And I will eat these broths with spoons of amber,
-    Headed with diamond and carbuncle.
-    My foot-boy shall eat pheasants, calver’d salmons,
-    Knots, godwits, lampreys: I myself will have
-    The beards of barbels served instead of salads.”
-                                                     _The Alchemist._
-
-And this for a more sober supper, yet not without its points of
-excellence:—
-
-    “Yet shall you have to rectify your palate,
-    An olive, capers, or some better salad
-    Ushering the mutton; with a short legg’d hen,
-    If we can get her full of eggs, and then,
-    Limons, and wine for sauce; to these, a coney
-    Is not to be despar’d of for our money;
-    And though fowl now be scarce, yet there are clerks,
-    The sky not falling, think we may have larks,
-    I’ll tell you of more, and lie, so you will come:
-    Of partridge, pheasant, woodcock, of which some
-    May yet be there; and godwit if we can:
-    Knat, rail, and ruf too, howsoe’er, my man
-    Shall read a piece of Virgil, Tacitus,
-    Livy, or of some better book to us,
-    Of which we’ll speak our minds, amidst our meat;
-    And I’ll profess no verses to repeat.
-    To this, if aught appear, which I not know of,
-    That will the pastry, not my paper, show of.
-    Digestive cheese, and fruit there sure will be;
-    But that which most doth take my muse and me,
-    Is a pure cup of rich Canary wine,
-    Which is the Mermaid’s now, but shall be mine:
-    Of which had Horace or Anacreon tasted,
-    Their lives, as do their lines, till now had lasted.
-    Tobacco, nectar, or the Thespian spring,
-    Are all but Luther’s beer to this I sing.”
-
-The greatest attention was paid to the service of the table: not only,
-for instance, must the carving be performed in manner peculiar to each
-kind of creature, but each creature had its own verb signifying its
-carving. The terms used for carving are curious and now completely
-forgotten:—
-
-“Breke that deer; lesche that brawn; rere that goose; lyfte that
-swanne; sauce that capon; spoil that hen; fruche that chekyn; unbrace
-that mallard; unlace that conye; desmembre that heron; display that
-crane; dysfygure that pecocke; unjoint that byterrne; untache that
-curlewe; allay that desande; wynge that patryche; wynge that quail;
-mynce that plover; thye that pygyon; border that pastie; thye that
-woodcocke; thye all maner of small birds; tymbre that fyre; tyere that
-egge; chyne that samon; strynge that lampreye; splatte that pyke; sauce
-that plaice; sauce that tench; splay that breme; syde that haddock;
-tuske that berbell; culpon that trout; fyne that cheven; transene that
-ele; traunche that sturgeon; under-traunch that porpus; tayme that
-crabbe; barbe that lobster. Here endeth the goodlye termes of kervynge.”
-
-The way in which the table was to be served was presented, in general
-terms, as follows:—
-
-    “Slow be the servers in serving, alwaye,
-    But swift be they after, taking meate away;
-    A special custom used is them amonge,
-    No good dishe to suffer on borde to be longe.
-    If the dishe be pleasante, whether fleshe or fishe,
-    Ten hande at once swarme in the dishe;
-    And if it be fleshe, ten knives shalt thou see
-    Mangling the fleshe, and in the platter flee;
-    Put there thy hands in peryl without fayle
-    Without a gauntlet or a glove of mayle.”
-                                     _Antiquary’s Portfolio_, p. 130.
-
-And next in minute detail. Thus including the reception of a guest. Let
-us first remember that the plates were commonly of bread, but sometimes
-of wood. When they were of bread, the loaves were first carefully
-pared; then the butler placed the salt-cellar before the principal
-guest, and in front of the salt-cellar, upon the carving knives, he
-was to place the bread. But before Grace this was to be removed, and
-replaced in thick slices one upon the other.
-
-  “Thenne the karver or sewer most asserve every disshe in his degree
-  after order, and course of service, as folowith:—
-
-    First, mustard and brawne, swete wine served thereto.
-    Potage.
-    Befe and moton, swan or geese.
-    Grete pies, capon or fesaunt, leche or fretours.
-
-  Thenne if potage be chaungebill after tyme and season of the yere,
-  as falleth, as here is rehersid: by exampel for befe and moton ye
-  shall take
-
-    Pestelles, or chynys of porke, or els
-    Tonge of befe, or
-    Tonge of the harte powdered,
-    Befe stewed,
-    Chekyns boylyd and bacon.
-
-  Then against the secunde cours be redy, and come into the place,
-  the kerver must avoyde and take upp the service of the first cours,
-  begynnynge at the lowest mete forst, and all broke cromys, bonys,
-  and trenchours, before the secunde cours and service be served.
-
-  Thenne the secunde cours shall be served in manner and forme as
-  ensample thereof, hereafter folowyng:—
-
-      Potage-pigge             Lamme stewed
-      Conye                    Kidde roosted
-      Crane                    Veneson roosted
-      Heronseue                Heronseue
-      Bitoure                  Bitoure
-      Egrete                   Pigeons
-      Curlewe                  Rabetts
-      Wodecock                 A bake meat
-      Petrigge                 Stokke dovys stewed
-      Plover                   Cony
-      Snytys                   Mallard
-      Qualys                   Gelys
-      Fretours                 Wodecock
-      Leche                    Great byrdys
-
-  After the secunde cours served, kerved, and spente, it must be
-  sene cuppys to be filled, trenchours to be voyded, thenne by goode
-  avysement the tabill must be take uppe in manner as folowith:
-  first, when tyme foloweth, the panter or boteler muste gader
-  uppe the sponys: after that done by leyser, the sewer or carver
-  shall begyne at the lowest ende, and in order take upp the lowest
-  messe, after the syde tabill be avoyded and take upp: and thenne
-  to procede to the principal tabill, and there honestly and clenly
-  avoyde and withdrawe all the service of the high tabill: therto the
-  kerver must be redy, and redely have avoyded togeder in all the
-  broke brede, trenchours, comys lying upon the tabill, levyng none
-  other thyng, save the salte selar, hole brede (if any be lefte),
-  and cuppys. After this done by good deliberacion and avysement,
-  the kerver shall take the service of the principall messe in
-  order and rule, begynnynge at the lowest and so procede in rule
-  unto the laste. And thereuppon the kerver to have redy a voyder,
-  and to avoyde all men’s trenchours, broke brede in another clene
-  disshe voyder, and cromys, which with the kervyng knyf shall be
-  avoyded from the tabill, and thus procede untill the table be
-  voyded. Thenne the kerver shall go into the cuppibord, and redresse
-  and ordeyne wafers into toweyles of raynes (table-cloth) or fine
-  napkyns, which moste be cowched fayre and honestly uppon the
-  tabill, and thenne serve the principall messe first, and thorowe
-  the tabill, i or ij if it so require. Therto moste be servid swete
-  wine: and in feriall tyme, serve cheese, scraped with sugar and
-  sauge levis, or else that it be fayre kerved hole: or frute as the
-  season of the year geveth, strawberys, chevys, peyres, appelis: and
-  in wynter, wardens, costardys roste, rosted on fisshe days with
-  blanche powder, and so serve it forth.
-
-  Thenne after wafers and frute spended, all manner of thynge shall
-  be take uppe, and avoyded, except the principall salte seler,
-  hole brede, and kervyng knyves, the which shall be redressed in
-  manner and fourme as they were first sette on the table: the which
-  principall servitours of the panter or botery, havynge his towaile,
-  shall take upp and bear it into his office, in lykewise as he first
-  brought it unto the tabill. Thenne the principall servitours, as
-  kerver and sewer, most have redy a longe towayle applied double
-  to be cowched uppon the principall ende of the tabill: and that
-  towelle must be justely drawn thorowe the tabill unto the lower
-  ende: and if servitours to awayte thereuppon, that it be mustly
-  cowchd and spred: after that done, there must be ordeyned basyns
-  and ewers, with water hot or colde as tyme of the yere requireth,
-  and to be sette upon the tabill, and to stonde unto the grace be
-  said: and incontynent after grace saide, the servitours to be redy
-  to awayte and attende to give water: first, to the principall
-  messe, and after that to the seconde: incontynent after this done,
-  the towayle and tabillclothis muste be drawen, cowched and sprad,
-  and so by littill space taken uppe in the myddis of the tabill, and
-  so to be delyvered to the office of the pantery or botery.
-
-  Thenne uprysing, servitours must attende to avoyde tabills,
-  trestellis, formys, and stoolys, and to redresse bankers and
-  quyssyons: then the butler shall avoyde the cupborde, begynnynge at
-  the loweste, procede in rule to the hyeste, and bere it into his
-  office. Thenne after mete, it most be awayted and well entended by
-  servitours, if drinke be asked: and if ther be knyght or lady, or
-  grete gentilwoman, they shall be servid upon knee with brede and
-  wyne.
-
-  Thenne it mot be sene if strangers shall be broght to chamber,
-  and that the chamber be clenly apparelled and dressed accordyng
-  to the tyme of yere: as in winter tyme fyre: in sommer tyme the
-  bedde covered with pylowes and bed shetys, in case they wolle
-  rest: and after this done, they moste have cheer of _neweltees_
-  in the chamber, as juncates, cherys, pepyns, and such neweltees
-  as the tyme of yere requereth, and swete wynes, Ypocrasse, Tyre,
-  Mustadell, bastard beruage, of the beste that may be had to the
-  honour and laude of the principall of the house.”
-
-After the dinner was eaten what remained was taken down for the
-servants, and whatever was left over when these had finished was
-bestowed upon the poor who sat outside the doors waiting their turn.
-The drink was served in silver cups and bowls, or else in goblets of
-Venetian glass from Murano; the poorer sort had pots of earthenware
-bound or set in silver and perhaps pewter. As a rule not more than two
-or three dishes were served at a gentleman’s table where there was no
-company. This, however, was not the case when a feast was provided,
-or by the merchants for themselves. Then such meat as is killed and
-provided by the butcher was rejected as not worthy of the occasion.
-
-  “In such cases also geliffes of all colours mixed with a varietie
-  in the representation of sundrie floures, herbs, trees, formes of
-  beasts, fish, foules, and fruits, and thereunto marchpaine wrought
-  with no small curiositie, tarts of diverse hewes and sundrie
-  denominations, conserves of old fruites forren and home bred,
-  suckets, codinacs, marmilats, marchpaine, sugerbread, gingerbread,
-  florentines, wild foule, venison of all sorts, and sundrie
-  outlandish confections, altogither seasoned with suger (which
-  Plinie calleth Mel ex arundinibus, a devise not common nor greatlie
-  used in old time at the table, but onlie in medicine, although
-  it grew in Arabia, India and Sicilia), doo generally beare the
-  swaie, besides infinite devises of our owne not possible for me to
-  remember.” (Holinshed, vol. i. p. 167.)
-
-Every kind of wine was served at these banquets, _e.g._ the fifty-six
-various kinds of “small wines” as Claret, White, Red, French, etc.;
-but also of the thirty kinds of Italian, German, Spanish, Canary, etc.
-And besides these here were the artificial drinks such as Hypocras and
-Wormwood wine, besides ale and beer.
-
-The craftsman lived in great plenty: his diet was commonly beef,
-mutton, veal and pork; besides which he had brawn, bacon, pies of
-fruit, fowls, cheese, butter and eggs. At weddings, purifications,
-and so forth, the friends contributed each a dish of some kind, and
-the feasting that went on was incredible. At table the custom among
-the gentry and better sort was to observe great silence during the
-dinner, and on no account to show any sign of being the worse for the
-wine they had taken. Enough grain was grown in the country to supply
-it with bread; a good deal of bread was made of oats and rye; in times
-of dearth beans, peas, and lentils were ground up. Of home-made drinks
-besides ale and beer there were cider, perry, and, especially among the
-Welsh, mead or metheglin.
-
-  “There is a kind of swish swash made also in Essex, and diverse
-  other places, with honicombs and water, which the homelie countrie
-  wives, putting some pepper and a little other spice among, call
-  mead, verie good in mine opinion for such as love to be loose
-  bodied at large, or a little eased of the cough, otherwise it
-  differeth so much from the true metheglin, as chalke from cheese.
-  Truelie it is nothing else but the washing of the combes, when
-  the honie is wroong out, and one of the best things that I know
-  belonging thereto is, that they spend but little labour and lesse
-  cost in making of the same, and therefore no great losse if it were
-  never occupied.” (Holinshed, vol. i. p. 170.)
-
-An oyster feast in the morning seems unusual and unexpected in a
-town of working men. We may read, however, how, on 30th July 1557,
-a company of citizens met in the cellar of Master Smyth and Master
-Gytton in Amber Lane, at eight o’clock in the morning. They devoured
-between them half a bushel of oysters, sitting upon hogsheads by
-candlelight; the oysters were accompanied by onions—was there no bread,
-or bread-and-butter? Only onions? And they drank with their oysters
-and onions copious bowls of red ale, claret, muscadel, and malmsey.
-It hardly seems a good beginning of the day so far as concerns work.
-In these degenerate days a repast of oysters and onions, with ale and
-muscadel, claret and malmsey, would prove a fatal feast indeed.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-_Walker & Cockerell._
-
-MARRIAGE FEAST OF SIR H. UNTON
-
-A detail from a painting in the National Portrait Gallery, London.]
-
-Here is a note on an Elizabethan ordinary:—
-
-  “It seemed that all who came thither had clocks in their bellies,
-  for they all strucke into the dyning-roome much at aboute the
-  very minute of feeding. Our traveller had all the eyes (that
-  came in) throwne upon him (as being a stranger), and he as much
-  tooke especiall notice of them. In obseruing of whom and of the
-  place, he found that an ordinary was the onely Rendeuouz for the
-  most ingenious, most terse, most trauaild and most phantastick
-  gallant: the very Exchange for newes out of all countries; the
-  only booke-sellers’ shop for conference of the best editions,
-  that if a woman (to be a Lady) would cast away herselfe upon a
-  knight, there a man should heare a catalogue of most of the richest
-  London widowes; and last that it was a schoole where they were all
-  fellowes of one forme, and that a country gentleman was of as great
-  comming as the proudest justice that sat there on the bench aboue
-  him; for hee that had the graine of the table with his bencher payd
-  no more then he that placed himselfe beneath the salt.
-
-  The bolder hauing cleered the table, cardes and dice are served
-  up to the boord; they that are full of coyne draw; they that haue
-  little stand by and give ayme; the shuffle and cut on one side,
-  the bones rattle on the other; long have they not plaide, but
-  oathes fly up and downe the roome like haile-shot; if the poore
-  dumb dice be but a little out of the square line of white, the
-  pox and a thousand plagues breake their neckes out at a window.”
-  (_Antiquary_, vol. xv.)
-
-The following is contemporary evidence. It is taken from the
-_Antiquarian Repertory_ (vol. iv. p. 512), 1558:—
-
-  “The people of London consume great quantities of beer, double and
-  single [strong and small], and do not drink it out of glasses, but
-  from earthen pots with silver handles and covers, and this even in
-  houses of persons of middling fortunes; for as to the poor, the
-  covers of their pots are only pewter, and in some places, such as
-  villages, their pots for beer are made only of wood.
-
-  They eat much whiter bread than that commonly made in France,
-  altho’ it was in my time as cheap as it is sold there. With their
-  beer they have a custom of eating very soft saffron cakes, in which
-  there are likewise raisins, which give a relish to the beer, of
-  which there was formerly at Rye some as good as I ever drank. The
-  houses of the people of this country are as well furnished as any
-  in the world. Likewise, in this country you will scarcely find any
-  nobleman, some of whose relations have not been beheaded.”
-
-A few more notes on food. They drank brewis, that is, the pot liquor
-with bread in it; they were fond of pigs’ faces washed and dressed
-by the housewife; they bought tripe in Eastcheap, and poultry in
-Gracechurch Street; they drank wines with strange names: Pedro Ximenes,
-Charnico, Eleatica. The clerks took their dinner at the cooks’ shops
-by messes of so many; the portion of the whole mess was served in a
-dish and one divided the food, after which they helped themselves by
-seniority; a yeoman’s fare was bread, beef, and beer. The poor man was
-served from the basket which stood in the hall and received broken
-meats. The Sheriffs sent such baskets and other food to the prisons.
-The citizens’ proverbial Sunday dinner was neck of beef.
-
-
-
-
-                              CHAPTER III
-
-                            DRESS—WEDDINGS
-
-
-In the Elizabethan age, the poet, satirists, and preachers are so
-full of the subject of feminine fashions that it becomes of great
-importance. The increase of wealth and the growing power of the middle
-class give a greater prominence to women’s dress, while the improvement
-in the streets and the roads, the introduction of coaches and the
-development of outdoor amusements, theatres, shows, masques, gardens,
-and water-parties bring the wives and daughters of London more into the
-open.
-
-[Illustration: Farthingale. Lady Runsdon.
-
-From Planché’s _Cyclopædia of Costume_.]
-
-It was a time of great expenditure upon clothes; the fashions were rich
-and costly; the custom was to make what we should call an ostentatious
-display of wealth. Ben Jonson and the dramatists are full of the
-extravagance of City madams. Not only did the ladies wear rich dresses;
-they prided themselves upon possessing a great number—as many as they
-could afford; in every house there was a room called the Wardrobe, in
-which the clothes of the household were hung up and carefully watched
-and kept from moth and decay.
-
-At the beginning of her reign the Queen, who set the fashion, wore a
-small ruff, with a kerchief about her neck; a kind of coat of black
-velvet and ermine fastened at the throat only; with a waistcoat and
-kirtle below of white silk or silver embroidered with black; on the
-shoulders were humps, and the sleeves were large. Stubbes abuses the
-fashion because it is “proper only to a man, yet they blush not to
-wear it.” The cap or coif was adorned with strings of pearls. Lawn and
-cambric ruffs came in shortly after Elizabeth’s accession. A Flemish
-woman named Van der Plasse came over and set up as a starcher of ruffs.
-The mere mention of starch made Stubbes furiously angry; the ruff was a
-“master devil”; the devil himself invented starch.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-LADY IN THE COURT OF QUEEN ELIZABETH, 1559. NOBLE MATRON OF ENGLAND,
-1577.
-
-From _Collection of Ancient and Modern Dresses_, 1772.]
-
-The custom of wearing whalebone to imprison the figure down to the hips
-also began early in the reign; a long stomacher descended in front, and
-from the hips stood out the farthingale, horizontally; a hideous thing
-which was perpetuated in the hoop for two hundred years. As for the
-gowns they were made, to the indignation of the satirist, “of silk,
-of velvet, of grograin, of taffata, and of fine cloth, ten, twenty,
-or forty shillings a yard”; they were decorated with lace two fingers
-broad, or with velvet edged with lace. The petticoats were also of the
-finest stuff, fringed with silk, and in addition, they had a kirtle
-also of fine stuff and fringed with lace and silk. It appears therefore
-that they had first a gown which was pulled back and showed the kirtle,
-which itself was pulled back and disclosed the petticoat.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-ENGLISH LADY OF QUALITY, 1588 ENGLISH NOBLEMAN, 1559
-
-From _Collection of Ancient and Modern Dresses_, 1772.]
-
-Their stockings were made of the finest cloth, yarn, or worsted; silk
-stockings were presented to the Queen in her third year; knitted
-worsted stockings were introduced from Italy; the stockings of the fine
-ladies were “curiously indented in every point with quicks, clocks, and
-open seams.” They wore cork shoes made, like the petticoats and kirtle,
-of anything that was costly and rare and could be embroidered.
-
-The fashions of wearing the hair were endless. It was curled in
-innumerable curls; it was crisped; it was built up over a cushion; it
-was laid out over the forehead; it was ornamented with jewels, gold,
-wreaths of silver and gold, and kept in place with hairpins; the women
-wore over their hair French hoods, hats, and caps; they wore cauls
-made of net-wire and cloth of gold and tinsel; they wore “lattice” caps
-with horns; and every merchant’s wife or mean gentlewoman indulged in
-these extravagant fashions.
-
-    “The cappe on hyre heade
-      Is lyke a sowes mawe;
-    Such another facion
-      I thynke never Jewe sawe.
-    Then fyne geare on the foreheade
-      After the newe trycke,
-    Though it coste a crowne or two,
-      What then? They may not stycke.
-    If theyr heyr wyl not take colour,
-      Then must they buy newe,
-    And laye it out in tussocks;
-      This thynge is too true,
-    At each syde a tussocke
-      As bygge as a ball.
-    Hyr face faire payned
-    To make it shine bright
-    And her bosom all bare,
-    Hyr mydle braced in
-      As small as a wande;
-    And some buy water of qyre
-      At the paste wyf’s hande.”
-
-As for the merchants’ wives, their dress is described in the following
-lines:—
-
-                      “You wore
-    Satin on solemn days, a chain of gold,
-    A velvet hood, rich borders, and sometimes
-    A dainty miniver cap, a silver pin,
-    Headed with a pearl worth threepence.”
-
-It was a common practice to entice little children into private places
-and unfrequented courts there to cut off their long hair to be made up
-into false hair for women. Long and beautiful hair was in great request
-by the fashionable dames of the time. Brides especially went to the
-altar with flowing locks, the longer the better.
-
-    “Come, come, my Lord, untie your folded thoughts,
-    And let them dangle loose as a bride’s hair.”
-
-In a word, the Elizabethan fine lady was very fine indeed; much more
-artificial than her grandmother, and much less beautiful therefore.
-She painted her face; she dyed her hair, sometimes changing the colour
-from time to time, a practice which explains the different colour
-of the hair in Queen Mary’s portraits. She used perfumes copiously;
-she carried a large feather fan with a costly handle of silver or
-ivory. She also carried a mirror hanging from her girdle with which to
-contemplate the thing she loved best—her own face, made up, painted,
-and set in the frame of ruff and cap; strings of pearls were round
-the cap and a gold chain round the throat. And she frequented, but
-secretly, the wise women—there were scores of them in the city—who
-knew secrets ineffable—secrets that were like magic; perhaps they
-were magic—for the improvement and preservation of the complexion,
-the brightness of the eyes, the gloss of the hair, the softness and
-smoothness of the arm and the throat, and everything that was open to
-the gaze of man. Ben Jonson preserves as in a phonograph the words and
-voice of the wise woman.
-
-                FOR LADIES’ COMPLEXIONS
-
-    “_Wit._                    They have
-    Water of gourds, of radish, the white beans,
-    Flowers of glass, of thistles, rose-marine,
-    Raw honey, mustard seed, and bread dough baked,
-    The crums of bread, goat’s-milk, and whites of eggs,
-    Camphire, and lily-roots, the fat of swans,
-    Marrow of veal, white pigeons, and pine-kernals,
-    The seeds of nettles, purseline, and hare’s-gall:
-    Lemons, thin-skinn’d——
-
-    _Lady E._          How her ladyship has studied
-    All excellent things!
-
-    _Wit._                But ordinary, madam:
-    No, the true rarities are the alvagada
-    And argentata of queen Isabella.
-
-    _Lady T._ Ay, what are their ingredients, gentle madam?
-
-    _Wit._ Your allum scagliola, or pol di pedra:
-    And zuccarino: turpentine of Abezzo,
-    Wash’d in nine waters: soda dilevants,
-    Or your fern ashes: benjamin di gotta:
-    Grasso di serpe: porceletto marino:
-    Oils of lentisco: zucche mugia: make
-    The admirable varnish for the face,
-    Gives the right lustre: but two drops rubb’d on
-    With a piece of scarlet, makes a lady of sixty
-    Look as sixteen. But above all, the water
-    Of the white hen, of the lady Estifania’s.
-
-    _Lady T._ O, ay, that same, good madam, I have heard of:
-    How is it done?
-
-    _Wit._              Madam, you take your hen,
-    Plume it, and skin it, cleanse it o’ the inwards:
-    Then chop it bones and all: add to four ounces:
-    Of carravicins, pipitas, soap of Cyprus,
-    Make the decoction, strain it: then distil it,
-    And keep it in your gallipot well gliddered:
-    Three drops preserves from wrinkles, warts, spots, moles,
-    Blemish, or sun-burnings: and keeps the skin
-    In decimo sexto, ever bright and smooth,
-    As any looking-glass: and indeed is call’d
-    A ceruse, neither cold or heat, oglio reale:
-    And mix’d with oil of myrrh and the red gilliflower,
-    Call’d cataputia, and flowers of rovistico,
-    Makes the best muta or dye of the whole world.”
-
-The stuffs worn by gentlemen were taffeta; mockado—an inferior velvet;
-grogram—a cheaper taffeta; quellio for the ruff; tamin; sendall; and
-many others which are now mere words. The poorer women, not to be
-outdone more than was necessary, bought the same clothes, made in the
-same style, of the fripperer, or broker, who dealt in second-hand
-clothes. Now the great danger of buying second-hand clothes was that
-you might at the same time buy the plague.
-
-Men were never so affected and so splendid in their dress as in the
-sixteenth century. They wore earrings; they wore costly brooches in
-their hats; the great nobles wore strings of pearls; they had thumb
-rings; they carried jewelled daggers; they carried a case of toothpicks
-with them; they carried their own napkins to the taverns; they had a
-favourite lock of hair, which they curled and treated tenderly, tying a
-rose to it or a bunch of ribbons; they wore their hair and their beards
-in fantastic ways, either after the French, Italian, or Spanish manner.
-As for the younger men, they played the usual tricks. That is to say,
-they tried to make the waist small; they wore “grulled calves”; they
-“bleached their hands at midnight, gumming and triding their beards.”
-Sleeves were slashed; girdles were hung with mirrors; the head was set
-in a ruff; high-heeled shoes raised the stature; men’s cloaks were of
-velvet trimmed with lace; buttons, buckles, and clasps were of gold;
-the hats were adorned with feathers.
-
-[Illustration: WEALTHY MERCHANT OF LONDON, 1588
-
-From _Collection of Ancient and Modern Dresses_, 1772.]
-
-Tavern life in the time of the Tudors was picturesque and pleasant.
-The taverns were frequented not only by gallants and merchants, but
-by ladies. Suppers, it is true, were given to bona robas; the viol de
-gamba played for companies not always the most respectable; but there
-were rooms which the City madams used as a resort for parties of their
-own friends; and that without any question of offence.
-
-[Illustration: PAGE BOY, TIME OF EDWARD VI
-
-From _Collection of Ancient and Modern Dresses_, 1772.]
-
-The City Trained Bands were gorgeous in white doublets, with the City
-arms before and behind; the men-servants wore gorgeous liveries. Dress
-to a certain extent indicated class. Law and Divinity wore black.
-Furred gowns and satin sleeves marked the Sheriff or the Alderman. The
-plain citizen wore a cloak of brown or chocolate colour; the craftsman
-wore a doublet of cloth, or leather, with a leather belt, and in winter
-an overcoat down to the knees or the ankles. The following is the
-description of a runaway page:—
-
-  “One doblet of yelow million fustian, th’one halfe therof buttoned
-  with peche-colour buttons, and th’other halfe laced downewardes;
-  one payer of peche-colour hose, laced with smale tawnye lace; a
-  graye hat with a copper edge rounde aboute it, with a bande p’cell
-  of the same hatt; a payer of watchet (blue) stockings. Likewise he
-  hath twoe clokes; th’one of vessey collor, garded with twoe gards
-  of black clothe and twisted lace of carnacion colour, and lyned
-  with crymsone bayes; and th’other is a red shipp russet colour,
-  striped about th’cape, and downe the fore face, twisted with two
-  rows of twisted lace, russet and gold buttons afore and uppon the
-  sholdier, being of the clothe itselfe, set with the said twisted
-  lace, and the buttons of russet silke and golde.”
-
-[Illustration: Sir William Russell. 1590.
-
-From Planché’s _Cyclopœdia of Costume_.]
-
-’Prentices wore a dress very much like that of the Blue Coat Boys,
-but with a flat cap. A citizen’s servant wore a blue livery. Knots of
-ribbons were tied on the shoes. The women gathered round the conduit
-and the bakehouse for gossip. The tradesmen issued their own tokens
-which passed current. Girls who served in the shops were taken on
-Sundays by their sweethearts to Islington or Pimlico. Shops were
-furnished with cudgels for the use of ’prentices in case of a fight.
-The cudgels were called by various endearing names, but the favourite
-name was a “Plymouth Cloak.” Clothes were washed at the riverside on
-wood or a flat stone. The love of fine dress is charged as a fault of
-the fair Londoners. Why they should be blamed for desiring what all
-men desire, viz. the appearance of bravery and splendour, is hard to
-understand. The sumptuary laws which were passed from time to time
-appear to have been intended not so much to prevent the gratification
-of this instinctive desire as to make different classes proclaim their
-rank and station by their dress. A tradesman, in fact, must not appear
-as a gentleman; nor a craftsman as a master. In a word, there was a
-constant feeling that rank should be indicated by outward apparel, and
-that every one should proclaim his station by his garments. Thus the
-Act of 1464 ordered
-
-  “That none below the dignity of a lord or knight of the garter, or
-  their wives, should be allowed to wear purple, or any manner of
-  cloth of gold, velvet or sable furs, under a penalty of 20 marks.
-  That none below knights, bachelors, mayors, and aldermen, and their
-  wives, should wear satin or ermine, under a penalty of 10 marks.
-  That none but such as had possessions to the amount of 40s. per
-  annum should be permitted to wear fustian, bustian, or scarlet
-  cloth, and no fur, but black or white lamb, on forfeiture of 40s.
-
-  That no yeoman, nor any under that degree, should be allowed to
-  stuff or bolster their doublets, to wear short cloaks or jackets,
-  or shoes with pikes passing the length of eleven inches, under a
-  penalty of 20s.
-
-  That no husbandman should use broad cloth at above 11s. a yard, nor
-  hose above 14d. a pair: nor their wives kerchiefs whereof the price
-  should exceed 12d. nor girdles harnessed with silver, upon pain of
-  forfeiting at every default 40d.
-
-  And because foreign kerchiefs were brought into the country, and
-  sold at such extravagant prices, it was ordained that any one
-  selling lawne, nyfell, umple, or other manner of kerchief whereof
-  the price should exceed 10s. the seller should forfeit a mark for
-  every one that he sold above that price.”
-
-[Illustration: COURT OF WARDS AND LIVERIES IN THE TIME OF ELIZABETH
-
-From Planché’s _Cyclopædia of Costume_.
-
-  The person at the head of the table appears to be Lord Burghley;
-  on either side of him is a judge, who may have been there as
-  assessors. The next on the left side is Thomas Seckford, who held
-  the office of Surveyor from 1580 to 1589. The one opposite may be
-  Richard Kingsmill, Attorney from 1582 to 1589. The third on the
-  left side may be George Goring, Receiver-General from 1583 to 1593.
-  The opposite person with a book open may be William Tooke, Auditor
-  1551 to 1588. The three persons at the lower end of the table are
-  clerks. At the left hand side next the end is the Usher with a rod.
-  In 1578 Marmaduke Servant held this office. Opposite to him on the
-  other side stands the Messenger, who in 1565 was Leonard Taylor.
-  This picture was probably made about 1585.]
-
-To those who take the worthy Philip Stubbes quite seriously and
-literally, the Elizabethan age will appear more than commonly wicked
-and unscrupulous; to those who are ready to make allowance for
-the exaggerated indignation of the satirist, the narrowness of the
-Puritan, and the real and genuine craving after equity, justice, and
-honesty, it will become manifest that the age contained, like every
-other age, grave abuses, great injustices, and much small meanness
-and trickery. Laws were passed attempting to restrain the tricks of
-clothiers, tanners, shoemakers, and “brokers,” _i.e._ pawnbrokers and
-marine store-dealers. These laws failed, as all such laws must fail,
-because men who wish to cheat will cheat in spite of any laws that may
-be passed. In truth there is very little in Stubbes but does not belong
-to every town and every age. He laments the pride of the age. So does
-every satirist. Especially he laments Pride of Apparel. Take their hats
-for instance:—
-
-  “Sometimes they use them sharp on the crowne, pearking up like a
-  spere, or shafte of a steeple, standing a quarter of a yard above
-  the crowne of their heades; some more, some lesse, as please the
-  phantasies of their inconstant mindes. Othersome be flat and broad
-  on the crowne, like the battlementes of a house. An other sort have
-  round crownes, sometymes with one kinde of bande, sometymes with
-  an other; now blacke, now white, now russet, now red, now grene,
-  now yellowe, now this, nowe that, never content with one colour or
-  fashion two daies to an ende....
-
-  And as the fashions bee rare and straunge, so is the stuffe wherof
-  their hattes be made, divers also; for some are of silke, some
-  of velvet, some of taffatie, some of sarcenet, some of wooll,
-  and, whiche is more curious, some of a certaine kind of fine
-  haire.... And so common a thinge it is, that everie servingman,
-  countrieman, and other, even all indifferently, do weare of these
-  hattes. For he is of no account or estimation amongst men, if hee
-  have not a velvet or a taffatie hatte, and that muste bee pincked
-  and cunningly carved of the beste fashion. And good profitable
-  hattes bee these, for the longer you weare them the fewer holes
-  they haue. Besides this, of late there is a new fashion of wearyng
-  their hattes sprung up amongst them, which they father upon the
-  Frenchmen, namely, to weare them without bandes; but how unseemely
-  (I will not saie how assie) a fashion that is, let the wise judge;
-  notwithstanding, howe ever it be, if it please them, it shall not
-  displease me. And an other sort (as phantasticall as the rest) are
-  content with no kinde of hat without a greate bunche of feathers
-  of divers and sundrie colours, peakyng on top of their heades, not
-  unlike (I dare not saie) Cockescombes, but as sternes of pride and
-  ensigns of vanitie.” (Stubbes, 1836 edition, p. 38.)
-
-[Illustration:
-
-Robert de Vere, Earl of Oxford. John Clinch, Chief Justice of the
-Common Pleas. 1584. Sir Edward Coke, Chief Justice of the King’s Bench.
-1613.
-
-From Planché’s _Cyclopædia of Costume_.]
-
-Marriages took place at an earlier age than is now common, both for
-men and for women. An unmarried girl of twenty was regarded as an old
-maid. Thus in the _Crowne Garland of Golden Roses_ the maiden laments
-her virginity:—
-
-    “Twenty winters have I seen,
-    And as many summers greene,
-    ’Tis long enough to breed despaire
-    So long a maidenhead to beare;
-    ’Tis a burden of such waight
-    That I would faine be eas’d of’t straight;
-    But alasse! I am afraid
-    I shall live and die a maid.”
-
-The betrothal took place forty days before the wedding:—
-
-    “A contract of eternal bond of love,
-    Confirmed by mutual joinder of your hands,
-    Attested by the holy close of lips,
-    Strengthened by interchangement of your rings;
-    And all the ceremony of this compact
-    Seal’d in my function, by my testimony.”
-
-To make the betrothal binding there were, therefore, four points to be
-observed: (1) The joining of hands; (2) the exchange of kisses; (3) the
-exchange of rings; (4) the testimony of witnesses.
-
-After the betrothal, the wedding:—
-
-  “The procession accompanying a rural bride, of some consequence,
-  or of the middle rank, to church was as follows:—The bride, being
-  attired in a gown of sheep’s russet, and a kirtle of fine worsted,
-  her hair attired with a ‘billement of gold’ (decorated with long
-  chains of gold), and her hair as yellow as gold hanging down behind
-  her, which was curiously combed and plaited, was led to the church
-  between two sweet boys, with bride laces and rosemary tied about
-  their silken sleeves. There was carried before her a fair bride-cup
-  of silver, gilt, filled with hippocras and garnished with a goodly
-  branch of rosemary, which stands for constancy. The cup was hung
-  about with silken ribbands of all colours. Musicians followed, then
-  a group of maidens, some bearing bride-cakes, others garlands of
-  wheat finely gilded; and thus they passed on to the church.”
-
-The wedding customs were very pretty. The bride, like all unmarried
-women, wore a dress which exposed a portion of her bosom—you may
-see how far the exposure went by looking at any portrait of Queen
-Elizabeth; she wore her hair flowing. Some girls married very early,
-even at fifteen, which was considered quite old enough to undertake the
-duties of a wife. On the way to and from the church, wheat was thrown
-on the head of the bride, just as rice is thrown now, as a symbol of
-fruitfulness to follow. The wedding guests wore scarves, gloves, and
-favours; cake—the bride-cake—was taken to the Church and distributed
-after the ceremony; brooches were also given to the young men and
-maidens present. Then the cup of wine was sent round: the “knitting”
-cup, or the “contracting” cup; and then, carrying in her hand a piece
-of gilt rosemary, the bride led the way home, where, for three days,
-festivities, masques, mumming, music, dancing, feasting, and drinking
-were carried on. In some of the churches special pews were provided
-for newly married couples, who sat in them and listened, while the
-preacher discoursed on “The Bride’s Bush” or “The Wedding Garment
-Beautified.”
-
-In 1584 the Puritans got in a Bill permitting to marry at all seasons
-and on every day of the year. It had been the endeavour of the Bishops
-to keep Lent as a season in which there was to be no marrying or giving
-in marriage. Meantime, the keeping of Lent remained, if only as an
-outward sign of revolt against the Puritans.
-
-When there was a christening it was conducted in the mother’s bedroom.
-After the service, the sponsors presented “Postle Spoons”; then, of
-course, they sat down to a solid feast, or, at least, a drink—nothing
-could be done without a drink; comfits were handed round with the wine,
-and it was not unusual for some of the guests to go away royally drunk.
-
-[Illustration: THE CHRISTENING OF PRINCE ARTHUR
-
-From a historical print in the British Museum.]
-
-An example of a marriage feast is that of one Coke, citizen, with the
-daughter of Mr. Nicolls, Master of London Bridge. My Lord Mayor and
-all the Aldermen, with many ladies and other worshipful men and women,
-were present at the wedding. Mr. Bacon, an eminent divine, preached
-the wedding sermon. After the discourse the company went home to the
-Bridge House to dinner, where was as good cheer as ever was known—Stow
-says so, and he knew very well—with all manner of music and dancing,
-and at night a masque till midnight. But this was only half the feast,
-for next day the wedding was again kept at the Bridge House with great
-cheer. After supper more mumming, after that more masques. One was in
-cloth of gold, the next consisted of friars, and the third of nuns.
-First the friars and the nuns danced separately, one company after the
-other, and then they danced together.
-
-At a funeral the mourners first assembled at the house where lay
-the coffin. Here the clergyman made a speech on the virtues of the
-deceased. On the coffin stood a jug or pot of wine which was passed
-round as a loving-cup. Then every one laid branches on the coffin;
-money was given to the children; to the mourners ribbons, scarves, and
-gloves were distributed; rosemary was laid in the coffin and placed
-in the mourners’ hats; as for what followed, we may take the funerals
-described by Machyn. First, the Company to which the deceased belonged,
-attended in their livery; the Company of Clerks attended the funerals
-of the better class and sang over the grave; black gowns were given
-to as many poor men and poor women as the condition of the deceased
-permitted. When a great citizen died, like Master Husee, “squire and
-a grett marchand ventorer and of Muskovia and haberdasher,” he was
-followed by a hundred mourners; he had five pennons of arms, and a
-“cotte armur,” and “two heralds of arms, Master Clarenshux and Master
-Somerset.” He was attended by the Choir of St. Paul’s and by the
-Company of Clerks; they buried him at St. Martin’s, Ludgate Hill; the
-church was hung with black and with escutcheons of arms; the Reader of
-St. Paul’s preached “both days.”
-
-[Illustration: The order and maner of burying in the Fields such as
-dyed in prison, and namely, of William Wiseman.]
-
-Master Flammock, grocer, who died in 1560, was apparently a Puritan.
-Many gowns were bestowed by his executors; he was taken to the church
-without singing or clerks, and was buried with a psalm, “after
-Genevay,” and a sermon.
-
-Lady Dobbes, the wife of Sir Richard Dobbes, was buried with a pennon
-of armes and four dozen and five escutcheons; many black gowns were
-given. “Master Recherdson mad the sermon, and the clarkes syngyng and a
-dolle of money of xx nobulles, and a grete dinner after and the compane
-of the Skynners in ther leverey.”
-
-Master Hulson, scrivener, was one of the Masters in Bridewell; so the
-Masters of Bridewell attended his funeral with green staves in their
-hands, and all their children, “and there was great syngyng as ever was
-heard.” And when we have added that after most of these notes occur
-this passage, “And all dune to the place, fir there was a great dener,”
-we have said all that need be said about a civic funeral.
-
-One detail is not mentioned by Machyn. This is the custom observed till
-quite recently in Yorkshire, of hanging a garland or wreath of ribbons
-in the chancel of a church when a girl died unmarried. This custom had
-many forms, one or other of which was certainly observed in London. It
-was considered unlucky to carry away a piece of ribbon; if the wreath
-dropped to pieces, all the pieces were buried in the churchyard.
-
-Persons of distinction continued to be buried within the walls of the
-church.
-
-Some Companies and some parish churches still preserve funeral palls
-which have been presented to them at various times for the use of the
-members and parishioners. Thus, in May 1848, Mr. William Wansey, Prime
-Warden of the Fishmongers’ Company, exhibited a funeral pall of most
-beautiful and elaborate workmanship, formed of cloth of gold richly
-embroidered.
-
-  “This interesting relic has been preserved in the possession of the
-  Fishmongers’ Company, having doubtless been originally used at the
-  interments of its more distinguished members. No account of the
-  acquisition of this fine specimen of decoration, or of the precise
-  period when it was executed, has been preserved, and the earlier
-  records of the Company were destroyed in the fire of London; its
-  date may be attributed to the earlier part of the sixteenth, or
-  the close of the previous century. The designs which decorate the
-  head and foot of the pall are precisely similar, and the two sides
-  likewise correspond exactly in design. On the former is presented
-  St. Peter, the patron of fishermen, receiving from the Saviour
-  the keys of heaven and hell; the embroideries on the two sides
-  represent St. Peter enthroned, crowned with the tiara, with angels
-  kneeling one on either side, throwing their censers towards him. On
-  each side of this subject is introduced an escutcheon of the arms
-  of the Company, with supporters. Nothing can exceed the delicacy
-  of execution displayed in this remarkable specimen of needle-work:
-  the countenances are full of expression, and the colours are
-  generally remarkable for freshness and brilliancy. Another funeral
-  pall of great beauty is in the possession of the Saddlers’ Company,
-  and has been accurately represented in Mr. Shaw’s _Dresses and
-  Decorations_.” (_Archæologia_, xxxi.)
-
-
-
-
-                              CHAPTER IV
-
-                               SOLDIERS
-
-
-[Illustration: SOLDIERS OF THE PERIOD
-
-From Meyrick’s _Inquiry into Antient Armour_.]
-
-“By an Act of Parliament, 27 Henry II., 1181, called ‘An Assize
-of Arms,’ confirmed and enlarged by 13 Edward I., 1285, every
-man, according to his estate and degree, was obliged to provide a
-determinate quantity of such arms and armour as were then in use.[11]
-Constables were provided to see that their arms were correct, and
-proper persons, at stated periods, were appointed to _muster and train_
-them.
-
-Every Freeman that had in chattels or rent to the value of sixteen
-marks was to have a coat of mail (_loricam_), a helmet (_cassidem_),
-a shield, and a lance; and so in proportion to his wealth. Another
-Assize of Arms was passed 36 Henry III., 1252, and in 1285 the Statute
-of Winchester. These made some alterations in the qualification and
-in the weapon. By 27 Edward I., 1298, armed horses were ordered to be
-provided. The Statute of 4 and 5 Philip and Mary, c. 3, 1537, changed
-the weapons for those of more modern construction. It also provided
-that all persons having an estate valued at £1000 or more should,
-after the 1st of May 1558, keep six horses and ten light horses,
-with furniture, etc. By the 33 Henry VIII., c. 5, Commissioners were
-appointed to see that the inhabitants of cities and boroughs were
-properly provided with arms, etc. Thus cities, according to their
-wealth or position, were obliged to have ready so many trained men.
-In 1335 the City of London provided twenty-five men in arms and 500
-archers for the war against France. In 1360, 1400 to serve in France.
-Henry VIII. called upon the City to supply him with 1500 men in July
-1545. The French threatening the Isle of Wight, on the 4th of August
-1545, the citizens sent 1000 soldiers to Dover. In 1557 Queen Mary
-caused a levy to be made of 1000 horsemen, 4000 footmen, and 2000
-pioneers, to assist Philip of Spain against the King of France. In
-1558 another was made to protect Calais; and in 1560 another to assist
-the Queen’s Troops against the French, who were besieging Leith,
-in Scotland. In 1562 a large number were sent to serve at Havre de
-Grace. Orders were received from the Council in 1578 to keep 2000 men
-in readiness. The Lord Mayor, in 1580, issued a precept assessing
-the Companies for providing and furnishing 1000 men. The Stationers’
-Company had to provide twenty men, thirteen shot, and seven pikemen.
-The cost of their provision, furnishing, and training was £20:10:4; and
-for powder and other charges, £11:3s. In 1585, 4000 men, with armour,
-ensigns, drums, fifes, and other furniture for the wars, the greater
-part being shot, mustered at Mile End, 14th April, and were reviewed
-by Queen Elizabeth, 18th May. In 1596 the City twice raised, in less
-than twelve hours, 1000 men, completely armed, for the relief of the
-French, besieged by the Spaniards, in Calais. In 1589, 1000 men were
-provided, fully equipped, to assist in placing Henry of Navarre on the
-French throne. In 1600, 500 men for service in Ireland. In 1624, 2000
-for the Low Countries. In 1638–40, 200 men in all, for service against
-the Scots.”
-
-There was an ancient and time-honoured march, known as the “old English
-march,” which fell into disuse some time before the accession of
-Charles the First, when Sir Edward Cecil, Lord Wimbledon, persuaded
-the King to issue a warrant, ordering it to be revived. The point
-raised is extremely interesting. The Warrant runs thus—it is dated 7th
-Feb. 1632:—“Whereas the ancient custome of Nations hath ever bene to
-use one certaine and constant forme of march in the warres, whereby
-to be distinguished one from another: and whereas the march of this
-our English Nation, so famous in all honourable achievements and
-glorious warres of this our Kingdome in forraigne parts (being, by the
-approbation of Strangers themselves, confessed and acknowledged the
-best of all Marches) was, through the negligence and carelessness of
-drummers, and by long discontinuance, so altered and changed from the
-ancient gravitie and majestie thereof, as it was in danger utterly to
-have bene lost and forgotten. It pleased our late deare brother prince
-Henry to revive and rectifie the same, by ordayning an establishment
-of one certaine Measure which was beaten in his presence at Greenwich,
-anno 1610. In confirmation whereof, wee are graciously pleased, at the
-instance and humble sute of our right trusty, etc., Edward, Viscount
-Wimbledon, etc., to set down and ordaine this present establishment
-hereunder expressed. Willing and commanding all drummers within our
-Kingdome of England and principalitie of Wales exactly and precisely to
-observe the same as well in this our Kingdome as abroad in the service
-of any forraigne prince or state without any addition or alteration
-whatsoever. To the end that so ancient, famous, and commendable a
-custome may be preserved as a patterne and precedent to all posteritie.”
-
-[Illustration: YEOMAN OF THE GUARD, TIME OF HENRY VIII.
-
-E. Gardner’s Collection.]
-
-About the time of Henry the Seventh we first find mention made of coat-
-and conduct-money, a clothing allowance and subsistence for men on
-joining the army, which was sometimes advanced by the counties where
-the men were raised, to be afterwards repaid by the Government. These
-charges varied according to the times. In 1492 the conduct-money was
-calculated at the rate of 6d. for every twenty miles each soldier
-should march, to be reckoned from his residence to the place of joining
-the army; each soldier to swear to the number of the miles marched by
-him. In 1574 it was fixed at a halfpenny per mile. In 1627, coat-money
-to have been settled at 12s. 6d., and conduct-money at 8d. per diem,
-accounting twelve miles for a day’s march. In 1640 it was 8d. per diem,
-but the day’s march was not less than fifteen miles.
-
-In dress and weapons armour had not yet disappeared, but it was much
-less cumbrous. The corselet, with a morion, or open head-piece, and
-thigh guards were still in general use; but plates of armour were
-frequently fastened to any ordinary tunic for the defence of the
-shoulders, arms, and chest. The pike-men, with their twenty-foot
-pikes, wore corselets, and were much disinclined to march more than
-five or six miles a day, owing to the weight of their dresses and
-weapons. The bill-men were in lighter armour, and their weapons were
-shorter than the pike, but very effective against cavalry. The bill
-was a hook-shaped blade fastened to a wooden staff, with a projecting
-prong at the end and back. Pike-men and bill-men were employed in
-protecting archers from cavalry and in covering such field-guns as
-were in use. Civic guards and watchmen were armed with bills. The
-archers wore a buff-padded jacket, with sometimes an under-shirt of
-light chain-armour. A jerkin, of leather or cloth, was indiscriminately
-worn by all ranks. The firearms were of two kinds, leaving out of view
-artillery. The first could be fired with a rest, and the second were
-practically very light artillery. The harquebus and the small petronel
-belonged to the first class, and the culverin, the long petronel, and
-the muschite (from the French mosquet, a hawk) to the second. Two
-men were required to handle the weapons of the second class. They
-had long barrels. They were fired with a match, the barrels resting
-on an iron fork sticking in the ground. The harquebus was originally
-a musket-stock with a bow fixed to it; but the term was now used to
-mean the long-barrelled hand-gun with a touch hole and priming pan and
-trigger on the right side, which was rapidly driving out other weapons
-and rendering armour useless.
-
-[Illustration: A KNIGHT IN ARMOUR
-
-From Meyrick’s _Inquiry into Antient Armour_.]
-
-[Illustration: PIKEMAN
-
-From Grose’s _Military Antiquities_.]
-
-Musters of the citizens were frequent in the reign of Henry the Eighth
-and Queen Elizabeth.[12] A history of the muster of the citizens on the
-8th of May 1539, the 31st of Henry the Eighth, is given at length in
-the _Records of the Corporation_, Journal 14, folio 166. “They marched
-from Mile end to Whitehall, and from thence to Leadenhall, Sir Wm.
-Forman, Knt., Lord Mayor was in bright harness, whereof the curass, the
-maynsers, gaunteletts and other parts were gilt upon the crests and
-bordures, and with that he had a coat of black velvet with a rich cross
-embroidered, and a great massy chain of gold about his neck, and on his
-head a cap of black velvet with a rich jewel, he had a goodly jennett
-richly trapped, with embroidery of gold set upon crimson velvet. About
-him attended 4 foot men, all apparelled in white satin hose and all
-puffed over with white sarcenet.” In 1559, July 2 and 3, according to
-_Stow’s Chronicle_, edit. 1615, p. 639, “the Citizens mustered before
-Queen Elizabeth in Greenwich Park, 1400 men being present; 800 pikemen
-in fine corselets; 400 harquebuts in shirts of maile, with morins; and
-200 halberters in Alman rivets.” A large number of the citizens were
-also present. The price of armour at this date, as given in several
-records, was for “a Corslett, 30s.; Harquebus complete, 8s.; a Murrion,
-6s. 8d.; Almaine rivette, 10s.; a musket, flask, touch-box and tassels,
-17s. 6d.; Gunpowder, 12d. per pound.”
-
-Here, for instance (_Archæologia_, vol. xxxii. p. 32), is an account of
-a muster before Henry the Eighth.
-
-“Than the sayd lorde mayor and hys brethren assemblyd thym selffs
-ageyn, and after longe consultac’on, they fyrst determyned, that
-no alyen, although he were a denyzen, shuld mustre, but onely mere
-Englysshmen; ffurther they thought yt not convenyent that all the hole
-number of Englysshmen shulde mustre and goo owte of the cytye for
-especyall consyderac’ons; nor that suche as had jakks, brygandynes,
-or cotes of fence, shulde goo yn the mustre, but onely they appoynted
-syche whiche were hable p’sones, & hadde whyte harnes with whyte
-cotes, bowes, arrowes, halberds, bills or polaxes; and none other
-except soche as bare moryse pykes or handgonnes, whiche onely hadde
-plents and sculls, with whyte cotes and whyte cappes with fethers;
-and all thys company was comaunded to be yn whyte hose and clenly
-shodde. Whan yt was knowen that the Kyng hymselff wolde se the Mustre,
-to se howe gladly ev’y man p’pared hym, what desyre ev’y man had
-to do hys prince s’rvice yt was a joyfull syght to beholde of ev’y
-Inglysshman. Than ev’y man of substance provyded hymself a cote of
-sylke, & garnished theyre bassenetts with turbes of sylke sett with
-broches, ouches and fethers; some had theyre harnes and polaxes
-gylted, some had theyr breastplates cov’yd with sylvr bullyon—ev’y man
-devysed to doo hys best to s’ve hys prynce and of thys sorte the most
-parte had chaynes of golde. The meaner sorte were yn cotes of white
-cotton, clenly hosed and shodde with the armes of the cytye before &
-behynde. The constables were all yn jouetts of whyte sylke over theyre
-harnes, with battayl axes gylt, & chaynes abowte theyre necks. The
-sayd lorde mayor, aldermen, recorder, shryves, & such as hadde bene
-shryeves, were yn whyte harnes, & o’vr that cotes of black velvet,
-with the armes of the cytye rychely pyrled and embroderyd upon the
-same, with great chaynes of golde about theyre necks, mountyd on good
-horsses well styrryng & rychely trapped, with battell axes yn theyre
-handes, & cappes of velvett yn theyre heddes; and ev’y alderman had
-iiij halberdars yn whyte sylke or buffe cotes attendyng on thej, with
-gylt halbards, and the mayer had xvj apparrellyd as you shall here
-hereafter; all theys were captayns of the bataylls, as you shall
-p’ceyve yn theyre settyng forward. The chamberlayn and councellors
-of the cytye, & the aldermens deputyes whiche were assigned to be
-wyffelers on horsebacke, were all yn cotes of whyte damask over theyr
-harnes, mountyd on good horsses, well trappyd, with great chaynes
-abowte theyre necks, and propre javilyns or battle axes yn theyre
-handes, with cappes of velvett on theyre heddes with ryche ouches. The
-wyffelers on fote were iiij C. propre lyght p’sones app’ellyd yn whyte
-sylke or buffe jerkyns, without harnes, or whyte hose and whyte shoes,
-every man havyng a slaugh sworde or a javelyn to kepe the people yn
-araye, with chaynes abowte theyre necks and fethers yn theyre cappes.
-The mynstrells also were all yn whyte, and so were the standard berers,
-which were the tallyst men yn ev’y warde, all app’ellyd yn sylke, for
-whome were made XXX newe standards with the devyses of the Cytye.... To
-see howe full of lordes, ladyes, and gentilwomen the wyndowes yn every
-strete were, and howe the strets of the cytye were replenysshed with
-people, many men wolde have thought that they that musteryd had rather
-byn straungers than cytezens, consydering that the stretes everywhere
-were so full of people, whiche was to straungers a great mervell. To
-reporte what good order the cytezens kept yn passing forward; what
-payne the wyffelers bothe on horseback & fote tooke yn keepyng the
-soulders yn araye; howe ryche the juells, chaynes, and app’ell were;
-how many goodly, talle, & comley men were there, & the nombre of
-the same, my wytt ys insuffycyent to exp’sse or my penne to write.
-Wherfore, I remytt theys poynts to theym that sawe and nombret them,
-and desyeryng them to remember the nombre that passed yn the muster,
-and not to forget yn theyr accompt theym that taryed at home or stode
-yn the stretes, for the one without the other sheweth not the hole
-puyssance of the cytye. But, whatsoever was doon and what payne so ever
-was takyn, all was to the cytezens a great gladness.”
-
-[Illustration: MUSKETEER
-
-From Grose’s _Military Antiquities_.]
-
-It will thus be seen that military array had arrived at a new and
-quite another kind of splendour. Armour had not gone out, but it was
-less cumbrous, and people believed less in its value. It availed to a
-certain extent against sword and pike, but not at all against bullet.
-The pikemen who carried pikes eighteen or twenty feet in length wore a
-breastplate; the billmen had lighter armour, their weapon was a hook or
-a staff. Both pikemen and billmen were employed in covering field-guns
-against cavalry. Watchmen also carried bills. The firearms were the
-harquebus or arquebus; the small petronel; the culverin; the long
-petronel and the musket. The larger kinds were fired with the barrel
-resting on a fork stuck in the ground. Swords and daggers were, of
-course, carried, and gentlemen wore expensive chain and plate armour.
-
-Henry VIII. had a wonderful suit of armour made in Germany. It was
-engraved with illustrations from the lives of martyrs and saints, some
-of which are reproduced on p. 382, from the illustrations given in
-_Archæologia_.
-
-
-
-
-                               CHAPTER V
-
-                             THE ’PRENTICE
-
-
-This chapter is inserted in the Tudor period because the ’Prentice in
-that century arrived at the height of his power and importance, chiefly
-as a disturber of the peace. The following pages sum up the regulations
-on the subject from the fifteenth to the eighteenth century, both
-inclusive.
-
-The importance of the apprentice system caused many ordinances and
-regulations to be passed from time to time. Thus in 1406 no persons
-were allowed to put out their children as apprentices who had not
-land to the value of 20 shillings a year, a regulation intended, in a
-populous town, to keep up the _status_ of trades and crafts. The Act
-was, however, found impossible to work, and was repealed in 1429 “to
-the great satisfaction of the citizens.” Later on, in 1486, another
-attempt was made to restrict the Freedom of the City, and to keep out
-“mean and improper” persons by an ordinance that no apprentice should
-be taken nor freedom given except to such as were “gentlemen born”—this
-is Maitland’s statement—“agreeable to the clause in the oath given
-to every freeman at the time he was made free, in these words, ‘Ye
-shall take none apprentice but if he be freeborn: that is to say, no
-Bondman’s son, nor the son of any alien.’” It does not appear, however,
-from the oath, that the freeman was required to be a gentleman unless
-every freeborn person is a gentleman. How could a blacksmith or a
-journeyman saddler be a gentleman?
-
-In 1527 the Common Council passed a stringent rule as to the treatment
-of Apprentices:—
-
-“‘If hereafter any Freeman or Freewoman of this City take any
-Apprentice, and within the Term of seven Years suffer the same
-Apprentice to go at his large Liberty and Pleasure; and within or
-after the said Term agree with his said Apprentice for a certain Sum
-of Money, or otherwise, for his said service, and within or after the
-End of the said Term, the said Freeman present the said Apprentice to
-the Chamberlain of the City, and by good Deliberation, and upon his
-Oath made to the same City, the same Freeman or Freewoman assureth and
-affirmeth to the said Chamberlain, that the said Apprentice hath fully
-served his said Term as Apprentice: Or if any Freeman or Freewoman of
-this City take any Apprentice which at the Time of the said taking hath
-any Wife: Or, if any Freeman or Freewoman of this City, give any Wages
-to his or her Apprentice, or suffer the said Apprentices to take any
-Part of their own Getting of Gains: Or if any Freeman or Freewoman of
-this City hereafter colour any foreign Goods, or from henceforth buy or
-sell for any Person or Persons, or with or to any Person or Persons,
-being foreign or Foreigners, Cloths, Silks, Wine, Oils, or any other
-Goods or Merchandize, whatsoever they be, whether he take any Thing or
-Things for his or their Wages or Labour, or not: Or if any Person or
-Persons being Free of this City, by any Colour or deceitful Means, from
-henceforth do buy, sell, or receive of any Apprentice within this City,
-any Money, Goods, Merchandize, or Wares, without the Assent or Licence
-of his Master or Mistress; and upon Examination duly proved before the
-Chamberlain of the said City for the Time being, and the same reported
-by the Mouth of the said Chamberlain, at a Court to be holden by the
-Mayor and the Aldermen of the same City in their Council-Chamber: That
-as well the said Master, as the said Apprentice, shall for evermore be
-disfranchised. _God save the King!_’” (Maitland, vol. i. pp. 229–230.)
-
-To which was added an admonition to the Apprentices:—
-
-“‘Ye shall constantly and devoutly on your Knees, every Day, serve God,
-Morning and Evening, and make Conscience in the due Hearing of the Word
-preached, and endeavour the right Practice thereof on your Life and
-Conversation. You shall do diligent and faithful Service to your Master
-for the Time of your Apprenticeship, and deal truly in what you shall
-be trusted. You shall often read over the Covenants of your Indenture,
-and see and endeavour yourself to perform the same, to the utmost of
-your Power. You shall avoid all evil Company, and all Occasions which
-may tend to draw you to the same; and make speedy Return when you shall
-be sent of your Masters and Mistresses Business. You shall be of fair,
-gentle, and lowly Speech and Behaviour towards all Men, and especially
-to all your Governors. And according to your Carriage, expect your
-Reward, for Good or Ill, from God and your Friends.’” (Maitland, vol.
-i. p. 230.)
-
-The history of “Evil May Day” (p. 24) is an illustration of the growing
-turbulence of the ‘Prentices and the relaxation of order and discipline
-in the City generally. The wards, in fact, had become too thickly
-populated for the old and simple rule of a peripatetic alderman and
-his sergeants: the turbulence was a sign of their weakness; yet three
-hundred years were to pass before an efficient night and day police
-could be established as the only remedy.
-
-In the year 1582 an ordinance concerning the apparel of the ‘Prentice
-shows still more clearly that he was getting out of hand. It was
-enacted by the Lord Mayor and Common Council:—
-
-“That from henceforth no Apprentice whatsoever should presume: 1. To
-wear any Apparel but what he receives from his Master. 2. To wear no
-Hat within the City and Liberty thereof, nor any thing instead thereof,
-than a Woollen Cap, without any Silk in or about the same. 3. To wear
-no Ruffles, Cuffs, loose Collar, nor other thing than a Ruff at the
-Collar, and that only of a Yard and a half long. 4. To wear no Doublets
-but what were made of canvas, Fustian, Sackcloth, English Leather, or
-Woollen Cloth, and without being enriched with any manner of Gold,
-Silver, or Silk. 5. To wear no other coloured Cloth, or Kersey, in Hose
-or Stockings, than White, Blue, or Russet. 6. To wear little Breeches,
-of the same Stuffs as the Doublets, and without being stitched, laced
-or bordered. 7. To wear a plain upper Coat of Cloth or Leather, without
-Pinking, Stitching, Edging or Silk about it. 8. To wear no other
-Surtout than a Cloth Gown or Cloak, lined or faced with Cloth, Cotton
-or Bays, with a fixed round Collar, without Stitching, Guarding, Lace
-or Silk. 9. To wear no Pumps, Slippers, nor Shoes, but of English
-Leather, without being pinked, edged or stitched, nor Girdles nor
-Garters, other than of Crewel, Woollen, Thread or Leather, without
-being garnished. 10. To wear no Sword, Dagger, or other Weapon, but a
-Knife; nor a Ring, Jewel of Gold, nor Silver, nor Silk in any Part of
-the Apparel.
-
-It was likewise further enacted, That every Apprentice offending
-against any of the above-mentioned items, was for the first offence
-to be punished at the discretion of his Master; for the second to be
-publicly whipped at the Hall of his Company; and for the third to serve
-six months longer than specified in his indentures. And every Master
-conniving at the crimes of his Apprentice committed against the tenor
-of the premises, should, for every such offence, forfeit to the poor
-of the parish wherein he dwelt six shillings and eightpence. It was
-also farther ordained, That no Apprentice should frequent, or go to any
-dancing, fencing, or musical schools; nor keep any chest, press, or
-other place for the keeping of apparel or goods, but in his Master’s
-House, under the penalties aforesaid. And every such Master permitting
-or allowing his Apprentice to offend in any of the said cases, to
-forfeit as in the case of forbidden apparel.” (Maitland, vol. i. p.
-267.)
-
-Maitland, after praising this wise ordinance, laments that in his time,
-the middle of the eighteenth century, there could not be some such good
-law passed to restrain the “more destructive practices of our modern
-Apprentices,” viz. keeping mistresses, keeping horses, frequenting
-tavern clubs and playhouses, and “their great excesses in clothes,
-Linen, periwigs, gold and silver watches, etc.” He does not tell us
-where they got the money for these expensive luxuries, but in the
-_Confession of Latroun Meriton_ (1650) the way is fully explained: it
-was, namely, by robbing their masters. In the year 1595 there were more
-troubles caused by the ’Prentices. The Queen ordered sharp measures to
-be taken:—
-
-“‘And because such Assemblies and Routs were compounded of sundry Sorts
-of base People; some known Apprentices, such as were of base manual
-Occupations; some others, wandering idle Persons, of Condition, Rogues,
-and Vagabonds; and some colouring their wandering by the Name of
-Soldiers returning from the Wars, etc., therefore she had notified her
-Pleasure to her Council, to prescribe certain Orders to be published
-in and about the said City, which she would have streightly observed;
-and, for that Purpose, that she meant to have a Provost-Marshal, with
-sufficient Authority to apprehend all such as should not be readily
-reformed and corrected by the ordinary Officers of Justice, and them
-without Delay to execute upon the Gallows by Order of Martial Law. At
-our Manor of Greenwich, the 4th of July, 1595.’” (Maitland, vol. i. pp.
-278–279.)
-
-Sir Thomas Welford, accordingly, was appointed Provost-Marshal. He
-patrolled the streets with a number of horsemen armed with pistols: he
-arrested many of the rioters, who were tried at the Guildhall. Five of
-them were executed on Tower Hill, and the rioting ceased.
-
-Of the Apprentices’ riot against the Spanish Ambassador in 1641 we have
-heard in another place (_London in the Time of the Stuarts_, p. 38).
-The Lord Mayor had a good deal of trouble in appeasing the Ambassador,
-who said that he “hardly knew how to call that a City or even a Society
-of rational creatures which was seemingly divested both of Humanity and
-Government.”
-
-At the outbreak of Civil War the ’Prentices were on the side of the
-Parliament and enjoyed many opportunities of demonstrating their
-views and opinions, not only without reproach, but rather with the
-approbation of the Parliamentary party, the leaders of which encouraged
-the young fellows to enlist in their army, as, for example, by the
-following Proclamation:—
-
-“‘Whereas in Times of common Danger and Necessity the Interests of
-private Persons ought to give way to publick, it is ordained and
-declared by the Lords and Commons in Parliament, That such Apprentices
-as have been, or shall be listed to serve as Soldiers, for the Defence
-of the Religion and Liberty of the Kingdom, his Majesty’s Royal Person,
-the Parliament, and the City of London, their Sureties, and such as
-stand engaged for them, shall be secured against their Masters, their
-Executors, and Administrators, from all Loss and Inconvenience by
-Forfeiture of Bonds, Covenants, Infranchisement, or other Ways: And
-that, after this publick Service ended, the Masters of such Apprentices
-shall be commanded and required to receive them again into their
-Service, without imposing upon them any Punishment, Loss, or Prejudice,
-for their Absence in the Defence of the Commonwealth.
-
-‘And the Lords and Commons do further declare, That if it shall appear,
-that the Masters of such Apprentices have received any considerable
-Loss by the Absence of their Apprentices, they will take Care that
-reasonable Satisfaction be made unto them out of the publick Stock of
-the Kingdom, according to Justice and Indifferency.’” (Maitland, vol.
-i. p. 361.)
-
-In 1647 two Petitions of the “Young men and apprentices” were drawn
-up and presented to the House of Lords by the two factions in the
-City, that in the interest of the King being signed by 10,000 hands,
-instigated, says Maitland, by their masters.
-
-The action and attitude of the City on this occasion belong to its
-general history.
-
-The custom and practice as concerns apprentices in the eighteenth
-century are laid down by Strype in his account of the duties and rules
-of the Chamberlain’s Court.
-
-“Before him, the said Chamberlain, all Apprentices are enrolled, and
-made free; insomuch that none can set up Shop, or follow a Trade
-within the City or Liberties, if not a Freeman, and sworn before him;
-neither can any one turn over an Apprentice, but by his License. To
-him all Complaints are brought for Differences betwixt Apprentices
-and their Masters, who reconciles their Differences, and may punish,
-by Imprisonment, those that disobey his Summons, or any Apprentice
-that misdemeans himself to his Master or Mistress; but, upon the
-Apprentice’s acknowledging his Fault, and begging Pardon, with Promise
-never to offend any more, his Fault is forgiven.
-
-Such Apprentices as have justly served their Term of seven Years, and
-not broken their Indentures by Marrying, etc., are made free.
-
-Upon the Admission of every Person into the Freedom of this City, the
-Chamberlain causeth an Oath to be administered unto him, to be true to
-the King, the Government, and observe and keep the Customs of the City;
-which said Oath hath been mentioned before, Chap. XXIII.
-
-If any Master shall refuse to make his Apprentice free, when the Term
-of his Indenture is expired, upon Complaint made to the Chamberlain,
-he will cause such Master to be summoned before him, and if he cannot
-shew good Cause to the Contrary, will make the Apprentice free. And
-if an Apprentice shall be unruly or disorderly in his Master’s House,
-or commit any notorious Fault, upon Complaint made thereof, the
-Chamberlain will send one of his Officers for such Apprentice, and send
-him to Bridewell, or otherwise punish him according to the Nature of
-the Offence.
-
-If any Master shall misuse his Apprentice, by unreasonable Beating,
-not allowing him Necessaries, or by neglecting to instruct him, or the
-like, upon Complaint thereof made, the Chamberlain will send a Summons
-for the Master to appear before him; and upon due Hearing both Parties,
-will relieve the Apprentice, if his Allegations be proved to be just,
-or else leave the Apprentice to take his remedy against his Master in
-the Lord Mayor’s Court. And if the Master refuse to appear according
-to his Summons, the Lord Mayor and Recorder, upon Complaint thereof
-made unto them, will grant a Warrant to take him, and compel him to
-appear.
-
-When an Apprentice, by the Consent of his Master, is to be turned
-over to another Master of the same trade, it must be done before the
-Chamberlain. And it is observed, that, if an Apprentice be turned over
-by the Company only of which the Master is free, it is no Obligation
-on the second Master to keep such an Apprentice; nor is the Apprentice
-compelled thereby to serve the second Master, but may depart at
-Pleasure, by suing out his Indentures against the first Master. Which
-may be done without the Privity or Knowledge of the second Master. And,
-therefore, it is absolutely necessary, that all Apprentices should
-be turned over before the Chamberlain. And thereby the first Master
-is discharged from him, and the second obliged to keep him; and the
-Apprentice will be obliged to serve the second Master, the full Term of
-his Indentures, although the same were made for nine Years, or more.
-It is the Interest of every Master and Apprentice, when any Difference
-happens between them, to refer the Matter to the Chamberlain; who will
-freely hear both Parties, and decide the Controversy, for 3s. Charge,
-viz. 1s. to the Officer for the Summons, and 2s. to the Clerk for the
-Order: Whereas, if they proceed at Law for Relief, it may probably cost
-both Parties six Pounds, or more, in Charges; and the Conclusion may be
-less satisfactory, than if decided by the Chamberlain.
-
-      THE FEES DUE TO THE CITY FOR MAKING FREE, AND THE ENROLLING
-                             APPRENTICES.
-
-  An Apprentice made free, and not enrolled, the Master pays  00  13   2
-  The Apprentice pays                                         00  02  00
-  If turned over before the Chamberlain, the Master or
-      Mistress must pay extraordinary                         00  02  00
-
-  And, by Virtue of the late Act for Orphans, over and  above
-      these usual Fees,
-  An Apprentice, when bound, must pay                         00  02  06
-  And when admitted a Freeman                                 00  05  00
-
-If an Apprentice shall omit to take his Freedom, within convenient Time
-after the Expiration of his Indentures, the Chamberlain may impose upon
-the Apprentice such a Fine, in Reason, as he shall think fit, for this
-Neglect, without just Cause to the Contrary.
-
-Every Freeman ought to take particular Care not to make an Apprentice
-free of London, by testifying for his true Service, unless such
-Apprentice shall have really served him. For, if he shall privately
-turn his Apprentice over to a Foreigner, and let his Apprentice
-serve such a Foreigner, and yet testify to the Chamberlain, that the
-Apprentice served a Freeman; in such Case, both the Master and the
-Apprentice may be disfranchised, and fined at the Discretion of the
-Recorder, and the Chamberlain, and may cause the Freeman’s Shop to be
-shut up.” (Strype, vol. ii. pp. 475–476.)
-
-As regards the ancient costume of an Apprentice, I again quote Stow and
-Strype:—
-
-“The ancient Habit of the Apprentices of London was a flat round Cap,
-Hair close cut, narrow falling Bands, coarse side Coats, close Hose,
-Cloth Stockings, and other such severe Apparel. When this Garb had
-been urged by some to the Disparagement of Apprentices, as a Token
-of Servitude, one, many a Year ago, undertaking the Defence of these
-Apprentices, wrote thus, that this imported the commendable Thrift of
-the Citizens, and was only the Mark of an Apprentice’s Vocation and
-Calling (and which anciently, no Question, was the ordinary Habit of a
-Citizen), which Point of ancient Discipline, he said, the grave common
-Lawyers do still retain in their Profession; for the Professors of
-that Learning, we see, do at this Present retain the party-coloured
-Coats of Serving-men at their Serjeants’ Feasts; and he wished, that
-the Remembrance of this ancient Livery might be preserved by the grave
-Citizens, in setting apart a particular Time or Day for the Feast of
-their Apprenticeship, when they should wear their former Apprentice’s
-Garb; making Profession in this Way, that they gloried in the Ensigns
-of their honest Apprenticeship.
-
-In the Time of Queen Mary, the Beginning of Queen Elizabeth, as well
-as many Years before, all Apprentices wore blue Clokes in the Summer,
-and blue Gowns in the Winter. But it was not lawful for any Man, either
-Servant or other, to wear their Gowns lower than the Calves of their
-Legs, except they were above threescore Years of Age; but, the Length
-of Clokes being not limited, they made them down to their shoes. Their
-Breeches and Stockings were usually of white broad Cloth, viz. round
-Slops, and their Stockings sewed up close thereto, as if they were all
-but one Piece. They also wore flat Caps both then and many Years after,
-as well Apprentices as Journey-men and others, both at Home and Abroad;
-whom the Pages of the Court in Derision called Flat-Caps.
-
-When Apprentices and Journeymen attended upon their Masters and
-Mistresses in the Night they went before them carrying a Lanthorn and
-Candle in their hands, and a great long Club on their Necks; and many
-well-grown sturdy Apprentices used to wear long Daggers in the Day-Time
-on their Backs or Sides.
-
-Anciently it was the general Use and Custom of all Apprentices in
-London (Mercers only excepted, being commonly Merchants, and of better
-Rank, as it seems,) to carry Water Tankards, to serve their Masters’
-Houses with Water, fetched either from the Thames, or the common
-Conduits of London.
-
-It was a great matter, in former Times, to give 10£ to bind a youth
-Apprentice; but, in King James the First’s Time, they gave 20, 40, 60
-and sometimes 100£ with an Apprentice; but now these prices are vastly
-enhanced, to 500, 600, or 800£.” (Strype, vol. ii.)
-
-The question in 1628 arose, and was solemnly argued, whether an
-Apprentice, who is certainly bound to obedience, who must perform
-servile offices, who is corrected by his master, clothed by his
-master, and fed by his master, is or is not in a state of bondage or a
-bondsman. The question was resolved by Philipot, Somerset Herald, to
-the effect that he could not be considered a bondsman. The reason we
-may pass over. But Strype’s remarks are interesting:—
-
-“So that Apprenticeship in London is no Dishonour, nor Degradation;
-but rather an Honour, and a Degree. He is very hardy that shall embase
-honest Industry with disgraceful Censures, and too unjust, who shall
-not cherish and encourage it with Praise and Worship, as the ancient
-Policy of England did and doth, in constituting Corporations, and
-adorning the Companies with Banners of Arms, and especial Members
-thereof with Notes of Nobility. And, as it is an Honour, so it is a
-Degree, or Order of good regular Subjects; out of whose, as it were,
-Noviceship or Colleges, Citizens are supplied from Time to Time.
-We call them Colleges, according to the old Roman Law Phrase, or
-Fellowships of Men. For so indeed they are, comprehended within several
-Corporations, or Bodies of free Persons, intended to be consociated
-together for commerce, according to Conscience and Justice, and
-named Companies. So that Apprentices, according to the Esteem of our
-Commonwealth, when first they come to be Apprentices, first begin to
-be Somebody, who before were young Men without any Vocation in the
-World. And so by other Ascents or steps come to be Freemen of London,
-or Citizens; thence to be of their Companies Liveries, Governors of
-Companies, as Wardens and Masters; and Governors in the City, as
-Common-Council-Men, Aldermen’s Deputies, Sheriffs, and Aldermen; and,
-lastly, the principal Governors, or Heads of the City, that is, Lord
-Mayors. And some also have been advanced, from being Citizens, to be
-Counsellors of State to the Prince.
-
-It is further evident, that Apprenticeship doth not deprive of Gentry;
-for no Man loseth his Right to bear Arms, or to write Gentleman, unless
-he be attainted in Law for such a Cause; the Conviction whereof doth
-immediately procure Corruption in Blood; which in this Case no Man yet
-hath dreamt of. The Apprentice hath no more lost his Title and Right
-to Gentry, than he hath done to any Goods, Chattels, Lands, Royalties,
-or any Thing else, which, if he had never been any Apprentice, either
-had, might, or ought to have come unto him. The Rights of Blood are
-more inherent than the Rights of Fortune, according to the Law Rule,
-_Jura Sanguinum nullo jure civili dirimi possunt_, i.e. The Law of
-Bloods cannot be destroyed by any civil Right. That Gentry is a Right
-of Blood, may appear by this, that no Man can truly alienate the same,
-or vest another in it, tho’ legally he may, in Case of Adoption, which
-is but a human Invention, in Imitation of Nature; and, in the Truth of
-the Thing, no Alienation at all, but a Fiction, or an Acceptation in
-Law, as if it were such. Gentry is a Quality of Blood, as Virtue and
-Learning are of one Mind.
-
-This is the Sum of what that learned Herald argued, in Confutation of
-that Opinion, that Apprenticeship extinguisheth Gentry. And he sent
-this his discourse to the Gentleman who desired his Judgment herein;
-whence, no Question, he received full Satisfaction. And the Herald took
-the more Pains in confuting this false Conceit, that it was a Thing
-unbeseeming a Gentleman to be an Apprentice to a Citizen or Burgess;
-because it had filled England with more Vices, and sacrificed more
-serviceable Bodies to odious Ends, and more Souls to sinful Lives, than
-perhaps any one other uncivil Opinion whatsoever. For they who held
-it better to rob by Land or Sea, than to beg or labour, did daily fee
-and feel, that out of Apprentices rose such as set upon them, standing
-out for lives as Malefactors; when they, a Shame and Sorrow to their
-Kindred, underwent a Fortune too unworthy.” (Strype, vol. ii. pp.
-435–436.)
-
-Apprentices in certain cases ought to be discharged:—
-
-“One was discharged from his Master, because his Master held no shop,
-and withdrew himself from the City. Another, because his Master did not
-teach him. Another, because his Master was in Ludgate, and entrusted
-him not. Another, because not enrolled within a Year. Another, because
-his Master was distracted in his Mind. Another, because his Master was
-so poor that he could not exhibit to him. Another, because his Master
-diverted himself to other Occupations than his own Mystery. Another,
-because the Master was a Leper. Another, because the Wife, after the
-Death of her Husband, taught him not. And lastly, another, because his
-Master inordinately chastised him.” (Strype, vol. ii. p. 438.)
-
-The decay of order among Apprentices may finish these notes on the
-class:—
-
-“I come, in the next place, to treat of Attornies’ Clerks, Apprentices,
-inferior Tradesmen, Coachmen, Porters, Servants, and the lowest Class
-of Men in this town, which are far the most numerous: And, first, of
-the Lawyers’ Clerks and Apprentices, I find it a general Complaint,
-that they are under no Manner of Government; before their Times are
-half out, they set up for Gentlemen, they dress, they drink, they
-game, frequent the Playhouses, and intrigue with the Women; and it is
-a common Thing with Clerks to bully their Masters, and desert their
-service for whole Days and Nights, whenever they see fit. And indeed
-People consider little else at this Day, in the Choice of Clerks or
-Apprentices, but the sums they are to have with them; one, two, or
-three Hundred Pounds are given with a Clerk or Apprentice, who may be
-looked upon rather as a Boarder than a Servant. He takes little Care of
-his Master’s Business, and the Master as little to instruct him in the
-Mystery of his Profession.” (Strype, vol. ii. p. 559.)
-
-
-
-
-                              CHAPTER VI
-
-                            THE LONDON INNS
-
-
-The town was full of inns; more especially they were established
-without the gates and in the Borough. A great change had come over the
-Inns: formerly the inn was a place of lodging; some of them, as the
-Inns of Court, Barnard’s Inn, Gray’s Inn, Staple Inn, were colleges
-of residence; the business of providing food and drink belonged to
-the tavern and the cook’s shop. We have now come to the time when the
-inn itself provided food. Fortunately, there remain two very useful
-descriptions of the Inns of this time. One of them is by Harrison in
-Holinshed, and the other by Fynes Moryson. First, let us take that of
-Harrison:—
-
-“Those townes that we call thorowfaires have great and sumptuous innes
-builded in them for the receiving of such travellers and strangers
-as passe to and fro. The manner of harbouring wherein, is not like
-to that as some other countries, in which the host or goodman of
-the house dooth chalenge a lordlie authoritie over his ghests, but
-clene otherwise, sith everie man may use his inne as his owne house
-in England, and have for his monie how great or little varietie of
-vittels, and what other service himselfe shall thinke expedient to call
-for. Our innes are also verie well furnished with naperie, bedding,
-and tapisserie, especiallie with naperie: for beside the linen used at
-the tables, which is commonlie washed dailie, is such and so much as
-belongeth unto the estate and calling of the ghest. Ech commer is sure
-to lie in cleane sheets, wherein no man hath beene lodged since they
-came from the landresse, or out of the water wherein they were last
-washed. If the traveller have an horsse, his bed doth cost him nothing,
-but if he go on foot he is sure to pay a penie for the same: but
-whether he be horseman or footman if his chamber be once appointed he
-may carie the kaie with him, as of his own house so long as he lodgeth
-there. If he loose oughts whilst he abideth in the inne, the host is
-bound by a generall custome to restore the damage, so that there is no
-greater security anie where for travellers than in the gretest ins of
-England. Their horses in like sort are walked, dressed, and looked unto
-by certeine hostelers or hired servants, appointed at the charges of
-the good man of the house, who in hope of extraordinary reward will
-deal verie diligently after outward appeerance in this their function
-and calling. Herein neverthelesse are manie of them blameworthie, in
-that they doo not onlie deceive the beast oftentimes of his allowance
-of sundrie meanes, except their owners look well to them; but also make
-such packs with slipper merchants which hunt after preie (for what
-place is sure from evill and wicked persons) that manie an honest man
-is spoiled of his goods as he travelleth to and fro, in which fear also
-the counsell of the tapsters or drawers of drinke, and chamberleins
-is not seldom behind or wanting. Certes I beleeve not that chapman or
-traveller in England is robbed by the waie without the knowledge of
-some of them, for when he commeth into the inne, and alighteth from his
-horse, the hostler forthwith is verie busie to take downe his budget
-or capcase in the yard from his sadle bow, which he peiseth slilie in
-his hand to feel the weight thereof: or he miss of this pitch when the
-ghest hath taken up his chamber, the chamberleine that looketh to the
-making of the beds, will be sure to remove it from the place where the
-owner hath set it as if it were to set it more conveniently somewhere
-else, whereby he getteth an inkling whether it be monie or other short
-wares and thereof giveth warning to such ghests as haunt the house and
-are of his confederacy to the utter undoing of manie an honest yeoman
-as he journieth by the waie. The tapster in like sort for his part
-dooth marke his behaviour and what plentie of money he draweth when he
-paieth the shot, to the like end; so that it shall be an hard matter
-to escape all their subtil practises. Some thinke it a gay matter to
-commit their budgets at their coming to the goodman of the house; but
-thereby they oft bewraie themselves. For albeit their monie be safe for
-the time that it is in his hands (for you shall not hear that a man
-is robbed in his inn) yet after their departure the host can make no
-warrantise of the same, sith his protection extendeth no further than
-the gate of his owne house; and there cannot be a surer token unto such
-as prie and watch for those booties, than to see any ghest deliver his
-capcase in such maner. In all our innes we have plenty of ale, beere,
-and sundrie kinds of wine, and such is the capacitie of some of them
-that they are able to lodge two hundred or three hundred persons, and
-their horses at ease, and thereto with a very short warning make such
-provision for their diet as to him that is unacquainted withall may
-seeme to be incredible. Howbeit of all in England there are no worse
-ins than in London, and yet manie are there far better than the best
-that I have heard of in anie forren countries, if all circumstances
-be duly considered. But to leave this and go in hand with my purpose.
-I will here set downe a table of the best thorowfaires and townes of
-greatest travell in England, in some of which there are twelve or
-sixteen such innes at the least, as I before did speak of. And it
-is a world to see how ech owner of them contendeth with other for
-goodnesse of interteinement of the ghests as about finesse and change
-of linen, furniture of bedding, beautie of rooms, service at the table,
-costlinesse of plate, strength of drinke, varietie of wines, or well
-using of horses. Finallie there is not much omitted among them as the
-gorgeousness of their verie signs at their doores wherein some doo
-consume thirtie or fortie pounds, a mere vanitie in mine opinion, but
-so vaine will they needs be and that not onelie to give some outward
-token of the inne keeper’s welth, but also to procure good ghests
-to the frequenting of their houses in hope there to be well used.”
-(Holinshed’s _Chronicles_.)
-
-Concerning the customs in English Inns, Fynes Moryson thus writes:—
-
-“For as soon as a passenger comes to an Inne, the servants run to
-him, and one takes his horse and walks him till he be cold, then
-rubs him and gives him meate, yet I must say that they are not much
-to be trusted in this last point, without the eye of the Master or
-his servant to oversee them. Another servant gives the passenger his
-private chamber, and kindles his fier, the third puls of his bootes and
-makes them cleane. Then the Host or Hostesse visits him, and if he will
-eate with the Hoste, or at a common table with others, his meale will
-coste him six pence, or in some places but four pence (yet this course
-is lesse honourable and not used by Gentlemen); but if he will eate in
-his chamber, he commands what meats he will according to his appetite,
-and as much as he thinkes fit for him and his company, yea, the kitchen
-is open to him, to command the meat to be dressed as he likes best;
-and when he sits at Table, the Host or Hostesse will accompany him, if
-they have many Guests, will at least visit him, taking it for courtesie
-to be bid sit downe; while he eates, if he have company especially, he
-shall be offerd musicke, which he may freely take or refuse, and if he
-be solitary the musicians will give him the good day with musicke in
-the morning. It is the custom and no way disgraceful to set up part
-of sypper for his breakfast. In the evening or in the morning after
-breakfast (for the common sort use not to dine, but ride from breakfast
-to supper time, yet comming early to the Inn for better resting of
-their horses) he shall have a reckoning in writing, and if it seems
-unreasonable the Host will satisfy him either for the due price, or by
-abating part, especially if the servant deceive him in any way, which
-one of experience will soon find. I will now only add that a Gentleman
-and his Man shall spend as much as if he were accompanied with another
-Gentleman and his Man, and if Gentlemen will in such sorte joyne
-together to eate at one table the expenses will be much diminished.
-Lastly, a Man cannot more freely command at home in his owne House than
-he may doe in his Inne, and at parting if he give some few pence to the
-Chamberlin and Ostler they wish him a happy journey.”
-
-And further:—
-
-“In all Innes, but especially in suspected places, let him take heed of
-his chamber fellowes, and always have his sword by his side or by his
-bedside; let him lay his purse under his pillow, but always folded with
-his garters or something hee first useth in the morning, lest he forget
-to put it on before he goe out of his chamber. And to the end he may
-leave nothing behind him in his Innes, let the visiting of his chamber
-and gathering his things together be the last thing he doth before hee
-put his foote into the stirrup.”
-
-The list of Elizabethan taverns might be compiled at great length, but
-the following signs celebrated in verse will suffice:—
-
-    “Through the Royal Exchange as I walked
-      where gallants in sattin did shine:
-    At midst of the day they parted away
-      at several places to dine.
-
-    The gentry went to the King’s Head,
-      the nobles went unto the Crown:
-    The knights unto the Golden Fleece
-      and the plowman to the Clown.
-
-    The clergy will dine at the Miter,
-      the vintners at the Three Tuns:
-    The usurers to the Devil will go,
-      and the fryers unto the Nuns.
-
-    The ladies will dine at the Feathers,
-      the Globe no captain will scorn:
-    The huntsmen will go to the Greyhound below,
-      and some townsmen to the Horn.
-
-    The plummer will dine at the Fountain,
-      the cooks at the Holy Lamb:
-    The drunkards at noon to the Man in the Moon
-      and the cuckolds to the Ram.
-
-    The rovers will dine at the Lyon,
-      the watermen at the Old Swan:
-    The bawds will to the Negro go
-      and the whores to the Naked Man.
-
-    The keepers will to the White Hart,
-      the mariners unto the Ship:
-    The beggars they must take their way
-      to the Eg-shell and the Whip.
-
-    The farier will to the Horse,
-      the blacksmith unto the Lock,
-    The butchers to the Bull will go,
-      and the carmen to Bridewell-Dock.
-
-    The fishmongers unto the Dolphin,
-      the bakers to the Cheat-loaf:
-    The Turners unto the Tabel will go
-      where they may merrily quaff.
-
-    The taylors will dine at the Sheers,
-      the shoo-makers will to the Boot:
-    The Welshmen they will take their way
-      and dine at the sign of the Goat.
-
-    The hosiers will dine at the Leg,
-      and drapers at the sign of the Brush:
-    The fletchers to Robin Hood will go,
-      and the spendthrift to Beggar’s Bush.
-
-    The pewterers to Quart Pot,
-      the coopers will dine at the Hoop:
-    The coblers to the Last will go,
-      and the bargemen to the Scoop.
-
-    The carpenters will dine at the Axe,
-      the colliers will dine at the Sack:
-    Your fruiterer he to the Cherry-tree
-      good fellows no liquor will lack.
-
-    The goldsmiths to the Three Cups,
-      their money they count as dross:
-    Your puritan to the Pewter Can,
-      and your papist to the Cross.
-
-    The weavers will dine at the Shuttle,
-      the glovers will into the Glove:
-    The maidens all to the Maidenhead,
-      and true lovers unto the Dove.
-
-    The sadlers will dine at the Saddle,
-      the painters to the Green Dragon:
-    The Dutchman will go to the sign of the Vrow,
-      where each man may drink his flagon.
-
-    The chandlers will dine at the Scales,
-      the salters at the sign of the Bag:
-    The porters take pain at the Labour-in-vain,
-      and the horse-courser to the White Nag.
-
-    Thus every man to his humour,
-      from the north unto the south:
-    But he that hath no money in his purse,
-      may dine at the sign of the Mouth.
-
-    The swaggerers will dine at the Fencers:
-      but those that have lost their wits,
-    With Bedlam Tom let there be their home,
-      and the Drum the drummer best hits.
-
-    The cheater will dine at the Chequer,
-      the pick-pocket at the Blind Ale-house:
-    Till taken and tride, up Holborn they ride,
-      and make their end at the gallows.”
-
-In a black-letter poem called “News from Bartholomew Fayre” occurs the
-following short list of taverns:—
-
-    “There hath been great sale and utterance of Wine,
-    Besides Beere, and Ale, and Ipocras fine,
-    In every country, region, and nation,
-    But chiefly in Billingsgate at the Salutation;
-    And at the Bore’s Head near London Stone;
-    The Swan at Dowgate, a tavern well knowne;
-    The Miter in Cheape, and then the Bull Head;
-    And many like places that make noses red;
-    The Bore’s Head in Old Fish Street; Three Cranes in the Vintry;
-    And now, of late, St. Martin’s in the Sentree;
-    The Windmill in Lothbury; the Ship at th’ Exchange;
-    King’s Head in New Fish Street, where roysterers do range;
-    The Mermaid in Cornhill; Red Lion in the Strand;
-    Three Tuns in Newgate Market; Old Fish Street at the Swan.”
-
-Heywood (1608) writes:—
-
-    “The Gentry to the King’s Head,
-    The Nobles to the Crown,
-    The Knights unto the Golden Fleece,
-    And to the Plough the Clown.
-    The churchman to the Mitre
-    The shepherd to the Star,
-    The gardner hies him to the Rose,
-    To the Drum the man of war;
-    To the Feathers, ladies you; the Globe
-    The seaman doth not scorn;
-    The usurer to the Devil, and
-    The townsman to the Horn.
-    The huntsman to the White Hart,
-    To the ship the merchants go,
-    But you who do the Muses love,
-    The sign called River Po.
-    The banquerout to the World’s End,
-    The Fool to the Fortune Pie,
-    Unto the Mouth the oyster-wife,
-    The fiddler to the Pie.
-    The punk unto the Cockatrice,
-    The Drunkard to the Vine,
-    The Beggar to the Bush, then meet,
-    And with Duke Humphrey dine.”
-
-It was the custom at Taverns to send presents of wine from one room to
-another with compliments.
-
-The taverns were to the sixteenth century what the coffee-houses were
-to the eighteenth. Every man frequented his tavern: clubs were held
-in the taverns; men of the same trade met in the taverns for evening
-discourse; bargains and business affairs were conducted in taverns;
-there were good and bad taverns; those like the Boar’s Head, East
-Cheap, bore a bad character; that is to say, they were laden down by
-the character of Doll Tearsheet; others, again, where Doll and her
-friends were not admitted, were frequented by the most respectable
-merchants and divines. Music was going on in most of them all day long;
-and all day long the waiters, clad in blue and wearing white aprons,
-ran about with flasks of wine and cups, and tobacco and pipes, calling
-“Anon, Anon!” and stopping to chalk a score upon the wall.
-
-It is strange that Stow mentions neither the Boar’s Head, East Cheap,
-which must have been a well-known tavern, or Shakespeare would not have
-chosen it for the haunt of the Prince and Falstaff; nor the Mermaid,
-the haunt of Ben Jonson and the poets. Presumably the worthy antiquary
-would not have felt at home in the company of the wits.
-
-The Boar’s Head stood in that part of East Cheap now swept away. The
-statue of King William IV. marks the site. It was not an ancient
-tavern. There were no taverns formerly in East Cheap according to Stow;
-the first mention of it is in the year 1537. The courtyard was large
-enough for the performance of plays; at the back it looked out upon
-St. Michael’s churchyard. The churchyard and church of St. Michael
-were swept away to make the approach to new London Bridge. Between
-St. Michael’s Lane, now Miles’s Lane, and a small alley, stood four
-taverns in a row: the Chicken, the Boar’s Head, the Plough, and the
-Three Kings. These taverns were thus in the midst of markets: the Grass
-Market in front; the Fish Market on the east; the Meat Market on the
-west. The tavern was rebuilt after the fire, in 1668: the new sign
-then made for it may be seen in the Guildhall Museum; on each side of
-the doorway was carved in wood a vine branch, rising three feet from
-the ground, loaded with leaves and clusters, and on the top of each a
-figure of Falstaff eight inches high. Before its demolition the house
-had ceased to be a tavern. Here was held a club of which Boswell was a
-member, in which every one assumed a Shakespearian character. It was
-the custom to hold convivial meetings in this house. There Falstaff
-and Dame Quickly and Doll Tearsheet and the whole merry company became
-real. Goldsmith wrote his essay, “A Reverie,” in this tavern, and here
-Washington Irving gave full play to his fancy, and restored the things
-that never were to the place that never knew Prince Hal.
-
-[Illustration: SIGN OF THE BOAR’S HEAD IN EAST CHEAP]
-
-The Mermaid Tavern stood between Friday Street and Bread Street, with
-an entrance from Cheapside as well. The tavern has been immortalised by
-a poet of the seventeenth and one of the nineteenth century.
-
-Francis Beaumont, the former, writes to Ben Jonson:—
-
-                      “What things have we seen
-    Done at the Mermaid, heard words that have been
-    So nimble, and so full of subtle flame,
-    As if that every one from whence they came
-    Had meant to put his whole wit in a jest,
-    And had resolved to live a fool the rest
-    Of his dull life; then when there hath been thrown
-    Wit able enough to justify the town
-    For three days past; wit that might warrant be
-    For the whole city to talk foolishly
-    Till that were cancelled; and when that was gone,
-    We left an air behind us, which alone
-    Was able to make the two next companies
-    (Right witty, though but downright fools) more wise.”
-
-And Keats, the latter, writes:—
-
-    “Souls of poets dead and gone,
-    What Elysium have ye known,
-    Happy field or mossy cavern
-    Choicer than the Mermaid Tavern?
-    Have ye tippled drink more fine
-    Than mine host’s Canary wine?”
-
-Or, as Fuller says of Shakespeare:—
-
-“Many were the wit-combates betwixt him and Ben Johnson, which two I
-behold like a Spanish great gallion, and an English man of War; Master
-Johnson (like the former) was built far higher in Learning; Solid, but
-Slow in his performances. Shake-spear, with the English man-of-War,
-lesser in bulk, but lighter in sailing, could turn with all tides, tack
-about and take advantage of all winds, by the quickness of his Wit and
-Invention.”
-
-Lists of old taverns are, as a rule, without interest; there are,
-however, a few of the London taverns of historic importance. Two have
-been mentioned. Thus, the Nag’s Head, at the corner of Friday Street,
-was the pretended scene of the consecration of Parker, Archbishop of
-Canterbury in 1559.
-
-At the north-west of St. Paul’s Churchyard was an ancient tavern known
-as the Mitre. Here were given the concerts of the Society of Musicians;
-and their arms, representing the lyre of Apollo, with the crest of the
-Swan, being put up in the front of the house, caused the original sign
-to be jocularly transformed into that of the Goose and Gridiron. The
-Swan with Three Necks, meant originally the Swan with three “nicks” or
-marks to denote ownership. The Belle Savage was originally the Bell,
-but its landlord being a man named Savage, the house was emblazoned
-with a bell and a savage man beside it. The Elephant and Castle
-became the Pig and Tinder Box; the “Caton Fidele”—the Governor of
-Calais—became the Cat and Fiddle.
-
-Fleet Street had many well-known taverns: like those in the City they
-were mostly approached by narrow alleys leading out of the street, as
-the Rainbow, Dick’s, and the Mitre. Dick’s stands on the site of the
-printing office of Richard Tottle, law stationer in the reign of Henry
-VIII. The Cock, later moved across the road, was one of the most famous
-of the Fleet Street taverns.
-
-The “Devil” Tavern, however, was more famous even than the Mermaid.
-Ben Jonson drew the company from the latter tavern to the Devil; he
-lived at Temple Bar in order to be near the tavern. Here he founded the
-Apollo Club and wrote his famous rules in Latin, which were translated
-into English by one of his “sons,” Brome. Near the door was placed a
-gilt bust of Apollo with a “Welcome” in flowing lines:—
-
-    “Welcome all who lead or follow
-    To the oracle of Apollo:
-    Here he speaks out of his pottle,
-    Or the tripos, his tower bottle;
-    All his answers are divine,
-    Truth itself doth flow in wine.
-    Hang up all the poor hop-drinkers,
-    Cries old Sim, the king of skinkers;
-    He the life of life abuses
-    That sits watering with the Muses.
-    Those dull girls no good can mean us;
-    Wine—it is the milk of Venus,
-    And the poet’s horse accounted:
-    Ply it, and you all are mounted.
-    ’Tis the true Phœbian liquor,
-    Cheers the brains, makes wit the quicker;
-    Pays all debts, cures all diseases,
-    And at once three senses pleases.
-    Welcome all who lead or follow
-    To the oracle of Apollo!”
-
-The merchants conducted their business in the Royal Exchange, but the
-tavern was the place where the lesser traders, and the shopkeepers, and
-the people who came up from the country met, to arrange bargains and
-business of all kinds over a flask of Canary.
-
-
-
-
-                              CHAPTER VII
-
-                               THEATRES
-
-
-The latter half of the sixteenth century presents a remarkable
-development of the Drama and of the Theatres in London. This
-development was like the rising tide: it advanced with a force that was
-irresistible. The Mayor and Aldermen did their best to drive out plays
-and players from their boundaries; they went, but they established
-themselves beyond the limits of the City jurisdiction. Preachers
-denounced the theatre; moralists wrote pamphlets against it; yet it
-flourished more and more. John Stockwood, preaching at Paul’s Cross,
-says:—
-
-“Have we not houses of purpose, built with great charges for the
-maintenance of them, and that without the liberties, as who shall
-say, ‘There, let them say what they will, we will play.’ I know not
-how I might, with the godly-learned especially, more discommend the
-gorgeous playing place erected in the Fields, than term it, as they
-please to have it called, a Theatre.” In the same sermon he asks:
-“Wyll not a fylthye playe wyth the blast of a trumpette sooner call
-thyther a thousande than an houres tolling of a bell bring to the
-sermon a hundred? Nay, even heere in the Citie, without it be at this
-place and some other certaine ordinarie audience, where shall you
-find a reasonable company? Whereas if you resorte to the Theatre, the
-Curtayne, and other places of players in the Citie, you shall on the
-Lord’s Day have these places, with many other that I cannot reckon, so
-full as possible they can throng.”
-
-[Illustration: THE BEAR GARDEN AND THE GLOBE THEATRE
-
-From Visscher’s _Panorama of London_.]
-
-The Londoners might change their religion, but they were not going to
-change their sports. They were Protestant instead of Catholic; but they
-kept up their bear-baiting, their bull-baiting, their archery, their
-wrestlings, their fencing, their quarter-staff play, their running
-at the quintain, their feats of tumbling, their Morris dances and
-mummings, their plays and interludes. But the Reformation killed the
-Miracle Play. The play of modern manners, or the tragedy, or the farce,
-took the place of the religious play. And instead of acting on a stage
-in a churchyard, the players now began to act in the broad and ample
-courtyard of the inn, whose galleries afforded room for people to look
-on. The authorities looked on the play from the beginning with eyes of
-disfavour: the actor was considered a masterless man; he had no trade;
-he was a strolling vagabond; he lived upon the largesse of those who
-looked on at his performance; he was a buffoon who would assume any
-character at will to make the people laugh and cry; he must be able to
-dance and posture like the tumblers on the road. Again, all the idle
-people in the City assembled to see the play; all the vicious people
-crowded to take advantage of the throng; in the theatre every day arose
-disorders and brawls; young men of sober parentage were seduced into
-becoming players. Witness the words of Prynne:—
-
-  “Our own experience can sufficiently inform us, that plays and
-  playhouses are the frequent causes of many murders, duels,
-  quarrels, debates; occasioned sometimes by reason of some
-  difference about a box, a seat, a place, upon the stage; sometimes
-  by intruding too boldly into some female’s company; sometimes by
-  reason of some amorous, scurrilous, or disgraceful words, that are
-  uttered of or to some female spectators; sometimes by reason of
-  some speeches or passages of the play, particularly applied to some
-  persons present or absent; sometimes by reason of some husband, or
-  co-rival’s jealousy, or affront, whose wife, or mistress, being
-  there in person, is perhaps solicited, abused, or jeared at in his
-  presence; sometimes by reason of the apprentices who resort to
-  playhouses, especially on Shrove Tuesday; sometimes by means of
-  other accidents and occasions. Many have been the murders, more
-  the quarrels, the duels, that have grown from our stage-plays,
-  whose large encomiums of rash valour, duels, fortitude,
-  generosity, impatientcy, homicides, tyranny, and revenge, do so
-  exasperate men’s raging passions, and make them so impatient of
-  the very smallest injury, that nothing can satisfy, can expiate,
-  but the offender’s blood. Hence it is that some players, some
-  play-haunters, now living, not satisfied with the murder of one,
-  have embrued their barbarous un-christian hands in the blood of
-  two, of three, if not of four several men. And so far are they
-  from ruing the odiousness of these their bloody deeds, that they
-  glory in the number of their murders as the very trophies of their
-  valour.”
-
-The Queen at the beginning of her reign issued a proclamation to
-prevent players performing without license, and from handling politics
-or religion. In 1572 the Mayor forbade the acting of plays in London
-on the ground of the Plague and the danger of infection. Harrison says:—
-
-  “Plaies are banished for a time out of London, lest the resort unto
-  them should ingender a plague, or rather disperse it, being already
-  begonne. Would to God these comon plaies were exiled altogether,
-  as seminaries of impiety, and their theatres pulled downe, as no
-  better then houses of bawdrie. It is an evident token of a wicked
-  time when plaiers waxe so riche that they can build suche houses.
-  As moche I wish also to our comon beare-baitings used oin the
-  sabaothe daies.” (Holinshed’s _Chronicles_.)
-
-In 1574 the first steps were taken towards the regulation of players
-and plays. The preamble to the ordinances is set forth by Maitland,
-with the ordinances themselves, as follows:—
-
-“The citizens in Common-Council observing, that the antient and
-innocent Recreation of Stage-Plays or Interludes, which in former Days
-ingenious Tradesmen and Gentlemen’s Servants sometimes practised, to
-expose Vice, or to represent the noble Actions of their Ancestors, at
-certain Festival Times, or in private Houses at Weddings, and at other
-Splendid Entertainments, for their own Profit, was now in process of
-Time become an Occupation; and that many there were that followed it
-for a livelihood; and, which was worse, that it was become the Occasion
-of much Sin and Evil; great Multitudes of People, especially Youth, in
-Queen _Elizabeth’s_ Reign, resorting to these Plays; and being commonly
-acted on _Sundays_ and _Festivals_, the Churches were forsaken, and the
-Playhouses thronged, and great Disorders and Inconvenience were found
-to ensue to the City thereby, forasmuch as it occasioned Frays and evil
-Practices of Incontinency; Great Inns were used for this Purpose, which
-had secret Chambers and Places, as well as open Stages and Galleries;
-where Maids, especially Orphans, and good Citizen’s Children, under
-Age, were inveigled and allured to privy and unmeet Contracts; and
-where unchaste, uncomely and unshamefaced Speeches and Doings were
-published; where there was an unthrifty Waste of the Money of the Poor;
-sundry robberies, by picking and cutting Purses, uttering of popular
-and seditious Matter, many corruptions of Youth, and other Enormities;
-besides sundry Slaughters and Maimings of the Queen’s Subjects, by
-falling of Scaffolds, Frames, and Stages, and by Engines, Weapons, and
-Powder, used in the Plays; and believing that, in the time of God’s
-Visitation by the Plague, such Assemblies of the People in Throngs
-and Presses were very dangerous for spreading the Infection; they
-regulated these Plays, lest the People, upon God’s gracious withdrawing
-of the Sickness, should, with sudden forgetting of the Visitation,
-without Fear of God’s Wrath, and without some Respect of those good and
-politick Means (as the Words of the Act ran) that were ordained for the
-Preservation of the Commonwealth and People in Health and good Order,
-return to the undue Use of such Enormities. Therefore, for the lawful,
-honest, comely Use of Plays, Pastimes, and Recreations in good Sort
-permitted by the Authority of the Common Council, it was enacted:—
-
-‘I. That no Play should be openly played within the Liberty of the
-City, wherein should be uttered any Words, Examples, or Doings of any
-Unchastity, Sedition, or such-like unfit and uncomely Matter, upon
-Pain of Imprisonment for the space of fourteen Days, and 5£ for every
-such offence. II. That no Innkeeper, Tavernkeeper, or other Person
-whatsoever, within the Liberties of the City, shall shew or play, or
-cause to be shewed or played, within his House or Yard, any Play, which
-shall not first be perused and allowed by the Lord Mayor and Court of
-Aldermen’s Order. III. No Person shall suffer any Plays to be played
-in his House or Yard, whereof he then shall have Rule, but only such
-Persons, and in such Places, as, upon good Consideration, shall be
-thereunto permitted and allowed by the Lord Mayor and Aldermen. IV. Nor
-shall take and use any such Benefit or Advantage of such Permission,
-until such person be bound to the Chamberlain of _London_, in certain
-Sums, for the Keeping of good Order, and avoiding of Discords and
-inconveniences. V. Neither shall use or exercise such Licence or
-Permission at any Time, in which the same shall be by the Lord Mayor
-and Aldermen restrained, or commanded to stay and cease, in any usual
-Time of Divine Service on the _Sunday_ or Holiday, or receive any to
-that Purpose in Time of Service, to the same, upon Pain to forfeit for
-every Offence 5£. VI. And every Person to be licensed shall, during
-the Time of such continuance of License, pay to the Use of the Poor in
-Hospitals of the City, or of the Poor visited with Sickness, such Sums
-and Payments, as between the Mayor and Aldermen, and the Person to be
-licensed, shall be agreed upon; upon Pain that, on the Want of every
-such Payment, such License shall be utterly void. VII. All sums and
-Forfeitures to be incurred for any offence against this Act, and all
-Forfeitures of Bonds, shall be employed to the Relief of the Poor of
-the Hospitals, or of the Poor infected or diseased in the City: And the
-Chamberlain, in his own Name, shall have and recover the same, to the
-Purposes aforesaid, in the Court of the outer Chamber of _Guildhall_,
-_London_, called _The Mayors Court_.
-
-‘Provided, That this Act shall not extend to Plays shewed in private
-Houses, Lodgings of a Nobleman, Citizen, or Gentleman, which shall have
-the same then played in his Presence for the Festivity of any Marriage,
-Assembly of Friends, or other like Cause, without publick or common
-collection of Money of the Auditors or Beholders.’” (Maitland, vol. i.
-pp. 262–263.)
-
-Since the players could act no more in the City, there was nothing for
-them but to go outside. In 1574, James Burbage and some of the Earl
-of Leicester’s Company obtained the Queen’s license to act plays in
-any part of England. After receiving this license Burbage proceeded
-to build the first theatre, the house called simply “The Theatre.”
-This theatre was built outside the jurisdiction of the City, close to
-the remains of the Holywell Priory. After the Dissolution the church
-of this House was pulled down with most of the buildings. Houses were
-built upon its site, and the ruins themselves gradually disappeared.
-At the south-west of these ruins, on a site now marked by Dean’s Mews,
-Holywell Lane, Burbage built his theatre at a cost of £600, the money
-being advanced by his father-in-law. The theatre was in shape either
-circular or oval, probably the former. It was built for all kind of
-shows and entertainments. If a large space was wanted the whole of
-the area could be taken by the performers; raised galleries ran round
-the house; for the performance of a play, a stage was erected in the
-middle; from the nature of the case there could be no question of
-any scenery. The house was built of wood and is said to have been
-handsomely decorated; the central area was without a roof. There were
-troubles and quarrels about the lease of the house, which was taken
-down in the year 1598–99. The wood and timber of which the house was
-built were removed to Bankside, where they were used for the erection
-of the Globe Theatre.
-
-The second theatre of London was that called The Curtain. It is a fact
-which illustrates the popularity of Finsbury Fields as a place of
-resort that there should have been a second theatre erected so close to
-the first. The Curtain Theatre was built on the south side of Holywell
-Lane, Shoreditch. In the house, too, feats of arms, sword-play,
-quarter-staff, and other games took place.
-
-The third theatre (if we count The Globe as a continuation of The
-Theatre) was The Fortune, built near Golden Lane, Cripplegate.
-
-The strongest charge against the theatres was the license allowed
-to the clowns or jesters, who between the pieces, or between the
-Acts, played “jigs” or “drolls” accompanied by songs and dances, and
-impromptu jokes which were topical, and, as may be imagined, broad
-and coarse. We may easily imagine that the civic authorities, the
-preachers, and the pamphleteers, who were always assailing the player
-and driving him from place to place, were not spared when the Clown had
-the stage all to himself, with hundreds of grinning faces in front of
-him, all of whom were egging him on with laughter and applause to say
-or do something more outrageous still, and loved nothing so much as to
-see before them acted to the life some sour Puritan who could see only
-“filthie and beastlie” stuff in the noblest play by Shakespeare, or in
-any sport.
-
-Another favourite place of resort for the citizens, especially for
-the more riotous sort, was Southwark, with its raised river-wall
-or Bankside; its numerous inns and taverns; its low-lying fields
-and its various amusements. There were amphitheatres for bear- and
-bull-baiting; in the High Street itself there was a ring for the bull;
-in Paris Gardens, on the east side of Blackfriars Bridge, were kept
-bears and dogs for the favourite, almost the national, amusement;
-there was a kind of sanctuary in Southwark: here were allowed to
-reside the “Flemish Frows” still, in spite of Henry the Seventh’s
-suppression; here were held May Day games; here was held every year
-the pageant of St. George’s Day; and here, in the time of Henry VIII.,
-were collected together idlers, vagabonds, and rogues in great numbers.
-In this place, the resort of all the young bloods and the wild element
-of London, the players settled down in force. The Rose, The Hope,
-The Globe, The Swan, all built about the same time, show the steady
-popularity of the Drama, in spite of the Puritanic attacks upon it,
-which seem to have done it no manner of harm.
-
-[Illustration: BANKSIDE, SOUTHWARK, IN 1648, WITH A VIEW OF HOLLAND’S
-LEAGUER, ONE OF THE ANCIENT STEWS OR LICENSED BROTHELS SUPPRESSED
-DURING THE REIGN OF HENRY VIII.]
-
-At one end of Bankside stood the ruins of the Monastic House and
-the Clink Prison; then followed a single row of houses, at the back
-of which were the Bull-Baiting Ground and the Bear Garden; then the
-theatres already mentioned; also the Falcon Tavern, and Paris Gardens.
-All these places were built on a low-lying and marshy ground planted
-thickly with trees, intersected with ponds, ditches, and running
-streams—for instance, the Pudding Mill stream ran round two-thirds of
-Paris Gardens. For an account of the interior of a theatre and the
-presentation of a play I quote an imaginary account, in my own words:—
-
-“The interior of the theatre was circular in shape. It contained three
-galleries, one above the other: the lowest called the ‘rooms,’ for
-seats in which we paid a shilling each, contained the better sorts. At
-each side of the stage there were boxes, one of which contained the
-music. The stage itself, a stout construction of timber, projected
-far into the pit, or, as Stow called it, the ‘yarde.’ At the back was
-another stage, supported on two columns, and giving the players a
-gallery about ten or twelve feet high, the purpose of which we were
-very soon to find out. On each side of the stage were seats for those
-who paid an additional sixpence. Here were a dozen or twenty gallants,
-either with pipes of tobacco, or playing cards or dice before the play
-began. One of them would get up quickly with a pretence of impatience,
-and push back his cloak so as to show the richness of his doublet
-below. The young men, whether at the theatre, or in Paul’s Walk, or in
-Chepe, seemed all intent upon showing the bravery of their attire: no
-girls of our day could be more vain of their dress or more critical of
-the dress worn by others. Some of them, however, I perceived among the
-groundlings—that is, the people on the ‘yarde’—gazing about the house
-upon the women in the galleries. Here there were many dressed very
-finely, like ladies of quality, in satin gowns, lawn aprons, taffeta
-petticoats, and gold threads in their hair. They seemed to rejoice in
-being thus observed and gazed upon. When a young man had found a girl
-to his taste, he went into the gallery, sat beside her, and treated her
-to pippins, nuts, or wine.
-
-It was already one o’clock when we arrived. As we took our seats the
-music played its first sounding or flourish. There was a great hubbub
-in the place: hucksters went about with baskets, crying pippins, nuts,
-and ale; in the ‘rooms’ booksellers’ boys hawked about new books;
-everybody was talking together; everywhere the people were smoking
-tobacco, playing cards, throwing dice, cheapening books, cracking nuts,
-and calling for ale. The music played a second sounding. The hubbub
-continued unabated. Then it played the third and last. Suddenly the
-tumult ceased. The piece was about to begin.
-
-The stage was decorated with blue hangings of silk between the columns,
-showing that the piece was to be—in part at least—a comedy. Across the
-railed gallery at the back was stretched a painted canvas representing
-a royal palace. When the scene was changed this canvas became the wall
-of a city, and the actors would walk on the top of the wall; or a
-street with houses; or a tavern with its red lattice and its red sign;
-or a tented field. When night was intended, the blue hangings were
-drawn up and exchanged for black.
-
-The hawkers retired and were quiet; the house settled down to listen,
-and the Prologue began. Prologue appeared dressed in a long black
-velvet cloak: he assumed a diffident and most respectful manner; he
-bowed to the ground.
-
-      ‘In Troy there lies the scene. From Isles of Greece
-    The princes orgulous, their high blood chaf’d,
-    Have to the port of Athens sent their ships.’
-
-In this way the mind of the audience was prepared for what was to
-follow. We needed no play-bill. The palace before us could be no other
-than Priam’s Palace. If there was a field with tents, it must be the
-battle-field and the camp of the Greeks; if there was a wall, it must
-be the wall of Troy. And though the scenery was rough, it was enough.
-One wants no more than the unmistakable suggestion; the poet and the
-actor find the rest. Therefore, though the intrusive gallants lay on
-the stage; though Troilus was dressed in the armour of Tudor time, and
-Pandarus wore just such a doublet as old Stow himself, we were actually
-at Troy. The boy who played Cressida was a lovely maiden. The narrow
-stage was large enough for the Council of Kings, the wooing of lovers,
-and the battle-field of heroes. Women unfaithful and perjured, lovers
-trustful, warriors fierce, the alarms of war, fighting and slaying,
-the sweet whispers of love were drowned by the blare of trumpets; the
-loss of lover forgotten in the loss of a great captain; and among
-the warriors and the kings and the lovers, the creeping creatures
-who live upon the weaknesses and the sins of their betters, played
-their parts upon these narrow boards before a silent and enraptured
-house. For three hours we were kept out of our senses. There was no
-need, I say, of better scenery: a quick shifting of the canvas showed
-a battle-field, and turned the stage into a vast plain covered with
-armies of Greeks and Romans. Soldiers innumerable, as thick as motes in
-the sun, crossed the stage fighting, shouting, challenging each other.
-While they fought, the trumpets blew and the drums beat, the wounded
-fell, and the fight continued over these prostrate bodies till they
-were carried off by their friends. The chiefs rushed to the front,
-crossed swords, and rushed off again. ‘Come both you cogging Greeks!’
-said Troilus, while our cheeks flushed and our lips parted. If the
-stage had been four times as broad, if the number of men in action
-had been multiplied by ten, we could not have felt more vividly the
-rage, the joy, the madness of the battle. When the play was finished,
-the ale, the apples, and the nuts were passed round, and the noise
-began again. Then the clown came in and began to sing, and the music
-played—but oh, how poor it seemed after the great emotions of the play!
-The old man plucked me by the sleeve and we went out, and with us most
-of the better sort.” (_London_, pp. 237–239.)
-
-In addition to the foregoing, or as confirming and supplementing that
-account, I quote the following from Drake’s _Shakespeare and his
-Times_:—
-
-“The passion for the stage continued rapidly to increase, and before
-the year 1590, not less than four or five theatres were in existence.
-The patronage of dramatic representation made an equal progress at
-Court; for though Elizabeth never, it is believed, attended a public
-theatre, yet had she four companies of children who frequently
-performed for her amusement, denominated the Children of St. Paul’s,
-the Children of Westminster, the Children of the Chapel, and the
-Children of Windsor. The public actors, too, who were sometimes,
-in imitation of these appellations, called the Children of the
-Revels, were, towards the close of Her Majesty’s reign especially,
-in consequence of a greatly acquired superiority over their younger
-brethren, often called upon to act before her at the royal theatre in
-Whitehall. Exhibitions of this kind at Court were usual at Christmas,
-on Twelfth Night, at Candlemas, and at Shrove-tide, throughout the
-reigns of Elizabeth and James, and the plays of Shakspeare were
-occasionally the entertainment of the night; thus we find _Love’s
-Labour Lost_ to have been performed before our maiden Queen during
-the Christmas-holydays, and _King Lear_ to have been exhibited
-before King James on St. Stephen’s night. On these occasions, the
-representation was generally at night, that it might not interfere
-with the performances at the regular theatre, which took place early
-in the afternoon; and we learn from the Council-books that the royal
-remuneration, in the age of Elizabeth, for the exhibition of a single
-play at Whitehall, amounted to ten pounds, of which twenty nobles, or
-six pounds, thirteen shillings, and fourpence, formed the customary
-fee; and three pounds, six shillings, and eightpence the free gift
-or bounty. If, however, the performers were required to leave the
-capital for any of the royal palaces in its neighbourhood, the fee, in
-consequence of the public exhibition of the day being prevented, was
-augmented to twenty pounds.
-
-The protection of the Drama by Elizabeth and her Ministers, though it
-did not exempt the public players, except in one instance, from the
-penalties of statutes against vagabonds, yet it induced during the
-whole of her long reign numerous instances of private patronage from
-the most opulent of her nobility and gentry, who, possessing the power
-of licensing their own domestics as comedians, and, consequently, of
-protecting them from the operation of the Act of Vagrancy, sheltered
-various companies of performers, under the denomination of their
-servants, or retainers—a privilege which was taken away, by Act of
-Parliament, on the accession of James, and, as Mr. Chalmers observes,
-‘put an end for ever to the scenic system of prior times.’”
-
-There were no fewer than fourteen companies of players, under private
-patronage, who contributed to exhilarate the people of London and the
-country. Of these, Drake furnishes a chronological enumeration. “Soon
-after the accession of Elizabeth appeared Lord Leicester’s company,
-the same which, in 1574, was finally incorporated by royal licence;
-in 1572 was formed Sir Robert Lane’s company; in the same year Lord
-Clinton’s; in 1575 companies were created by Lord Warwick, and the Lord
-Chamberlain, the name of Shakspeare being enrolled among the servants
-of the latter, who, in the first year of the subsequent reign, became
-entitled to the appellation of His Majesty’s servants; in 1576, the
-Earl of Sussex brought forward a theatrical body, and in 1577, Lord
-Howard another, neither of which, however, attained much eminence; in
-1578 the Earl of Essex mustered a company of players, and in 1579, Lord
-Strange, and the Earl of Derby, followed his example; in 1591 the Lord
-Admiral produced his set of comedians; in 1592 the Earl of Hertford
-effected a similar arrangement; in 1593 Lord Pembroke protected an
-association of actors, and at the close of Her Majesty’s reign the Earl
-of Worcester had in pay also a company of theatrical performers.”
-
-As regards the management of his property in the play the author had
-the choice of two methods. He might sell the copyright to the theatre.
-In this case, to which authors frequently had recourse in the age
-of Shakespeare, the dramatist sold outright the whole rights of the
-piece, so that the proprietors of the theatre secured its performance
-exclusively to their own company. If it was a popular piece, of course,
-they were not anxious to publish it. If, however, the author kept the
-piece in his own hands, he not only had the right of publication, but
-he had, likewise, a claim upon the theatre for a benefit. This, towards
-the termination of the sixteenth century, took place on the second day,
-and was soon afterwards, as early indeed as 1612, postponed to the
-third day.
-
-The price of a drama, when disposed of to the public players, was
-twenty nobles, or six pounds, thirteen shillings, and fourpence; but
-private companies would sometimes give more than that sum.
-
-The price of a play when published was sixpence, and the poet received
-about forty shillings of an honorarium for a dedication. It has been
-stated, however, that Shakespeare received but five pounds for his
-_Hamlet_.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  100. St. Mary Spittal.
-  102. Houndsditch.
-  103. Crutched Friars.
-  104. Priory of Holy Trinity.
-  105. Aldgate.
-  106. St. Botolph, Aldgate.
-  107.  The Minories.
-  108.  The Postern Gate.
-  109.  Great Tower Hill.
-  110. Place of Execution.
-  111. Allhallow’s Church, Barking.
-  112. The Custom House.
-  113. Tower of London.
-  114. The White Tower.
-  115. Traitors’ Gate.
-  116.  Little Tower Hill.
-  117.  East Smithfield.
-  118.  Stepney.
-  119.  St. Catherine’s Church.
-  120.  St. Catherine’s Dock.
-  121.  St. Catherine’s Hospital.
-  122. Isle of Dogs.
-  123. Monastery of Bermondsey.
-  124. Says Court, Deptford.
-  125. Palace of Placentia.
-  126. Greenwich.
-
-From the Panorama of “London, Westminster, and Southwark, in 1543.” By
-Anthony Van den Wyngaerde. (Sutherland Collection, Bodleian Library,
-Oxford.) _For continuation see pp. 234, 235._]
-
-Hentzner, the German traveller, thus speaks of the theatres:—
-
-“Without the City are some theatres, where English actors represent
-almost every day Comedies and Tragedies to very numerous audiences;
-these are concluded with variety of dances, accompanied by excellent
-music and the excessive applause of those that are present. Not far
-from one of these Theatres, which are all built of wood, lies the
-Royal Barge, close to the river Thames; it has two splendid cabins,
-beautifully ornamented with glass windows, painting and carving; it is
-kept upon dry ground and sheltered from the weather.”
-
-The entertainment offered to the French Ambassador at the Court of
-Henry VIII. at Greenwich shows that acting and dressing formed part of
-a courtly entertainment. They began with tournaments and contests on
-foot and horse; they went on to an interlude in Latin, the altars being
-all richly dressed.
-
-“This being ended,” says the author of the _Life of Wolsey_, “there
-came a great company of ladies and gentlemen, the chiefest beauties
-in the realm of England, being as richly attired as cost could make,
-or art devise, to set forth their gestures, proportions, or beauties,
-that they seemed to the beholder rather like celestial angels than
-terrestrial creatures, and in my judgment worthy of admiration, with
-whom the gentlemen of France danced and masked; every man choosing his
-lady as his fancy served; that done, and the maskers departed, came in
-another masque of ladies and gentlewomen, so richly attired as I cannot
-express; these ladies maskers tooke each of them one of the Frenchmen
-to dance; and here note, that these noblewomen spoke all of them good
-French, which delighted them much to hear the ladies speak to them in
-their own language. Thus triumphantly did they spend the whole night
-from five of the clock at the night into two or three of the clock in
-the morning; at which time the gallants drew all to their lodgings to
-take their rest.”
-
-There was a kind of show called a Prolusion. This appears to have been
-a representation of some well-known event or legend. Thus in 1587 there
-was a Prolusion set forth by Hugh Offley, merchant-adventurer and
-leather-seller, one of the Sheriffs of the year 1588. It represented
-King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table. He chose 300 good
-archers, personable men; and he dressed them in black satin doublets
-and black velvet hose; every man carried a bow of yew and a dozen waxed
-arrows. They marched in goodly array from Merchant Taylors to Mile End
-Green. Queen Elizabeth in her chariot passed them, and stopped in order
-to see the show. “In her whole life,” she said, “she had never seen a
-finer company of archers.” They all fell on their knees and prayed God
-to prosper and preserve Her Majesty. She thanked them and passed on her
-way, while the archers proceeded to attack the sham forts which had
-been set up, after which those who shot best took prizes, and Master
-Hugh Offley provided a banquet for all.
-
-It is interesting to remember that the Theatre had to contend for the
-place of honour with the stately and courtly Masque. All that artist
-could do for decoration, or stage manager could devise for machinery,
-or that poet could imagine or invent for fable, was pressed into the
-service of the Masque. The dresses the players wore were most gorgeous;
-the speeches were fine; the dances and the songs were most beautiful.
-Real mountains contained real caves; Dryads ran out of the woods;
-Naiads lay beside running streams; all the Gods and Goddesses of Ovid
-took part in the action; there were thrones of gold and silver; there
-were star-spangled skies; sea gods and river gods appeared; Tritons
-blew their shells; mermaids swam about the sea-shell of mother-of-pearl
-in which sat Venus herself. And all this time the Theatre itself had no
-scenery and no stage management and no machinery. The Masque, however,
-did not assume its full development till the next century. It will
-be found more fully treated in the chapter on the Theatre and Art in
-_London in the Time of the Stuarts_. Even more popular than the theatre
-were the sports of bear-baiting, bull-baiting, wrestling, quarter-staff
-and single-stick. The favourite place for these sports was the Paris
-Garden beyond Bankside.
-
-    “Yet everye Sondaye
-      They will surelye spende
-    One penye or two
-      The bearwardes lyvyng to mende.
-    At Paryse Garden eche Sondaye
-      A man shall not fayle
-    To fynde two or three hundreds
-      For the bearwardes vaile.
-    One halpenye a piece
-      They use for to give
-    When some have no more
-      In their purse, I believe.”
-
-You shall read contemporary accounts of bear-baiting and bull-baiting.
-
-“Some,” says John Houghton in 1694, “keep the bull on purpose for the
-sport of baiting, cutting off the tips of his horns, and with pitch,
-tow, and such like matter, fasten upon them the great horns of oxen,
-with their tips cut off, and covered with leather, least they should
-hurt the dogs. Because these papers go into several other countries,
-I’ll say something of the manner of baiting the bull, which is, by
-having a collar about his neck, fastened to a thick rope about three,
-four, or five yards long, hung to a hook, so fastened to a stake that
-it will turn round; with this the bull circulates to watch his enemy,
-which is a mastiff dog (commonly used to the sport) with a short nose,
-that his teeth may take the better hold; this dog, if right, will creep
-upon his belly, that he may, if possible, get the bull by the nose,
-which the bull as carefully strives to defend, by laying it close to
-the ground, where his horns are also ready to do what in them lies to
-toss the dog; and this is the true sport.”
-
-But if more dogs than one come at once, if they are cowardly and come
-under his legs, he will, if he can, stamp their guts out. I believe I
-have seen a dog tossed by a bull thirty, if not forty foot high; and
-when they are tossed either higher or lower, the men above strive to
-catch them on their shoulders, lest the fall might mischief the dogs.
-
-They commonly lay sand about, that if they fall upon the ground it may
-be the easier. Notwithstanding this care, a great many dogs are killed,
-more have their limbs broke, and some hold so fast, that by the bull’s
-swinging them their teeth are often broke out.
-
-To perfect the history of bull-baiting, I must tell you, that the famed
-dogs have crosses or roses of various coloured ribbon stuck with pitch
-on their foreheads, and such like the ladies are very ready to bestow
-on dogs or bull that do valiantly; and when ’tis stuck on the bull’s
-forehead, that dog is hollowed that fetches it off, though the true
-courage and art is to hold the bull by the nose ’till he roars, which a
-courageous bull scorns to do.
-
-Often the men are tossed as well as the dogs; and men, bull, and dogs,
-seem exceedingly pleased, and as earnest at the sport as if it were for
-the lives or livelihoods. Many great wagers are laid on both sides,
-and great journeys will men and dogs go for such a diversion. I knew
-a gentleman that bought a bull in Hertfordshire on purpose to go a
-progress with him, at a great charge, into most of the great towns in
-the West of England.
-
-This is a sport the English much delight in; and not only the baser
-sort, but the greatest lords and ladies.”
-
-And here is Laneham on the sport of bear-baiting:—
-
-“It waz a sport very pleazaunt of theez beasts; to see the bear with
-hiz pink eyez leering after hiz enemiez approch, the nimbleness and
-wayt of the dog to take hiz avauntage, and the fors and experiens of
-the bear agayn to avoyd the assaults; if he were bitten in one place,
-hoow he woold pynch in an oother too get free; that if he wear taken
-onez, then what shyft with byting, with clawyng, with roring, tossing
-and tumbling he woold woork too wynde hymself from them; and when he
-waz lose, to shake his earz twyse or thryse wyth the blud and slauer
-aboout his fiznamy, waz a matter of a goodly releef.”
-
-We have already heard Hentzner on theatres, he has a word to say also
-on baiting:—
-
-“There is still another place, built in the form of a Theatre, which
-serves for the baiting of bulls and bears; they are fastened behind,
-and then worried by those great English dogs and mastiffs, but not
-without great risk to the dogs from the teeth of the one and the
-horns of the other, and it sometimes happens they are killed on the
-spot; fresh ones are immediately supplied in the places of those
-that are wounded or tired. To this entertainment often follows that
-of whipping a blinded bear, which is performed by five or six men,
-standing in a circle with whips which they exercise upon him without
-any mercy; although he cannot escape from them because of his chain, he
-nevertheless defends himself vigorously, throwing down all who come
-within his reach and are not active enough to get out of it, tearing
-the whips out of their hands and breaking them. At these spectacles,
-and everywhere else, the English are constantly seen smoking the
-Nicotean weed, which in America is called Tobaca, and generally in this
-manner: they have pipes on purpose made of clay, into the farther end
-of which they put the herb, so dry that it may be rubbed into powder,
-and lighting it, they draw the smoke into their mouths, which they
-puff out again through their nostrils, along with plenty of phlegm and
-defluxion from the head. In these Theatres, fruits, such as apples,
-pears, and nuts, according to the season, are carried about to be sold,
-as well as wine and ale.”
-
-But besides these cruel forms of so-called “sport,” there were more
-legitimate pleasures such as archery.
-
-“During the holy days in summer,” Fitz Stephen says, “the young men
-exercise themselves in the sports of leaping, archery, etc.” The
-practice of archery was maintained in the City after the longbow had
-to give way before gun and cannon. As a pastime of the citizens only,
-no account of London would be complete without reference to archery.
-There were, as every one knows, two kinds of bow: the longbow and the
-crossbow. The former, for various reasons—its superiority in readiness
-of handling, lightness in carrying, range of flight and sureness of
-aim, caused it to be much more generally adopted in our armies than
-its rival. At Cressy, for instance, our men were armed with longbows,
-and the French with crossbows; when the rain fell the longbows could
-be easily covered up, the crossbow could not, so that the strings
-were wetted and the power of the weapon greatly injured. Edward the
-First, who had a great opinion of the longbow as the superior weapon,
-ordered, on the threat of war with France, every sheriff of a county
-to provide 500 white bows and as many bundles of arrows. Edward the
-Third issued repeated proclamations ordering the practice of archery.
-It would seem as if the word archery in the fourteenth century included
-the crossbow as well as the longbow, for Edward the Second, in 1314
-(Riley, _Memorials_, p. 124), commanded the City of London to furnish
-300 arbalesters “more powerful for defence,” and to provide them
-with “haketons, bacinets, collerettes, arbalests and quarels.” (The
-haketon was a jacket of quilted leather; the bacinet was a headpiece;
-the collerette, an iron collar for the protection of the throat; the
-arbalest is the crossbow; the quarel was the bolt.)
-
-Richard the Second ordered that every man in his household should
-exercise himself as occasion should permit in archery. And in 1392 an
-Act was passed obliging all servants to practise archery on holydays.
-In 1417 Henry V. ascribed his victory at Agincourt chiefly to his
-archers, and orders the Sheriffs of the counties to pluck from every
-goose six wing-feathers for the improvement of the arrow. These
-feathers were the second, third, and fourth of each wing. Edward IV.
-ordered that Englishmen in Ireland and every Irishman living with
-Englishmen should be provided with a bow of his own height, which was
-to be made of yew, wych, hazel, ash, or alder. Butts were to be erected
-in every township, and the inhabitants were to practise on every feast
-day. The same king sent a thousand archers to the Duke of Burgundy,
-who was to pay them sixpence a day, about five shillings of our money.
-Nothing can prove more conclusively the estimation in which archers
-were held. The same king provided for his war both guns and bows. A
-great deal of yew was imported at this time; it came in the Venetian
-ships from Dalmatia and the countries on the eastern shores of the
-Adriatic.
-
-In the nineteenth year of Henry VII. the King finally decided for the
-longbow against the crossbow, because “the longbow had been much used
-in this realm, whereby honour and victory had been gotten against
-outward enemies; the realm greatly defended; and much more the dread of
-all Christian Princes by reason of the same.” Henry VII. himself shot
-at the butts.
-
-There were at least five statutes issued by Henry VIII. ordering the
-practice of archery, but forbidding the crossbow.
-
-The London Archers continued to hold their yearly contests in the
-month of September, in spite of the fact that henceforth there would
-be no use for the longbow in warfare. They formed a very fine corps,
-had they been of any use; meantime, the City has always loved a show,
-and a very fine show the Archers provided. Their captain was called
-the Duke of Shoreditch; the captains of the different Companies were
-called the Marquesses of Clerkenwell, Islington, Hoxton, and the Earl
-of Pancras,[13] etc.; in the year 1583 they assembled at Merchant
-Taylors Hall to the number of 3000 all sumptuously apparelled, “nine
-hundred and forty-two having chains of gold about their necks.” They
-were escorted by whifflers and bowmen to the number of 4000, besides
-pages and footmen; and so marching through Broad Street, where the
-Duke of Shoreditch lived, they proceeded by Moorfields and Finsbury to
-Smithfield, where, after performing their evolutions, they shot at the
-target for glory.
-
-The Finsbury Archers continued to exist and to hold their meetings
-till well into the eighteenth century. Mr. Daines Barrington, writing
-for the Society of Antiquaries in 1787, mentions that there were still
-living two old men who had obtained prizes in these contests as late
-as 1753, when they ceased. The same writer gives a map of the butts or
-archers’ marks in Finsbury Fields as they were standing in the year
-1787. The distance between the marks varies from 120 feet to 300 feet.
-It may be assumed that 200 feet was a fairly average distance for an
-arrow. The proper weight for an arrow was considered to be one ounce
-only; it was to be winged by three feathers: two white being plucked
-from the gander, and one gray taken from the goose; this difference in
-colour showed the archer when the arrow was properly placed.
-
-The Artillery Company or Finsbury Archers, predecessors of the present
-Artillery Company, enjoyed certain privileges as to dress, as to
-shooting at birds, and immunity from the charge of murder should any
-one be killed by these arrows, especially after they had cried “Fast!”
-as a warning.
-
-It appears that bows and arrows were employed long after they left
-the field of battle for shooting rabbits and crows, partly because
-gunpowder was dear, but chiefly because the arrow makes no noise to
-frighten the game away. The London Archers continued, in spite of the
-fact that henceforth there would be no use of the longbow in warfare,
-to hold their yearly contests in the month of September.
-
-The Honourable Artillery Company, before it received its letters
-patent, had been in the habit of practising archery in the fields of
-Islington, Hoxton, and Shoreditch. In these fields targets or butts
-were fixed to shoot at. Two of these butts or targets were still in
-existence in 1860: one at the end of Dorchester Street, Hoxton, on the
-east side of the New North Road near the Canal Bridge, and the other in
-the brickwork of the Canal Bridge above the towing-path. Two others had
-been destroyed about the year 1845: one in the Britannia Fields, and
-the other in the ground now called Wellington Square. That standing at
-the end of Dorchester Road was called “Whitehall.” A drawing of it is
-given in the _L. and M. Arch. Society_ (vol. ii. p. 15).
-
-The other sports, feasts, and festivals of the City remained in the
-sixteenth century much as they had been before the change of Faith with
-certain exceptions, such as the Boy Bishop, the Feast of All Fools in
-the Church, and the Miracle Play with its profanity and coarseness.
-These vanished. There remained the Feasts of Christmas and Easter; the
-celebration of May Day; the Vigils of St. John, St. Peter, and St.
-Paul; and the Midsummer Watch. There were also Shrove Tuesday, Hocking
-Day, Whitsuntide, and Martinmas, with some others. The ceremonies of
-a Christmas banquet are preserved in Gerard Leigh’s _Accidence of
-Armory_, and have been reproduced by Nichols. The feast was that of the
-year 1561. The place was the Temple. The person called Palaphilos was
-the Constable and Marshall, Dudley, Earl of Leicester.
-
-  “The next day I thought for my pastime to walk to this Temple,
-  and entring in at the gates, I found the building nothing costly;
-  but many comely Gentlemen of face and person, and thereto very
-  courteous, saw I pass to and fro, so as it seemed a Prince’s port
-  to be at hand; and passing forward, entred into a Church of antient
-  building, wherein were many monuments of noble personages armd in
-  knightly habit, with their cotes depainted in ancient shields,
-  whereat I took pleasure to behold. Thus gazing as one bereft
-  with the rare sight, there came unto me an Hereaught, by name
-  Palaphilos, a King of Armes, who curteously saluted me, saying,
-  ‘For that I was a stranger, and seeming by my demeanour a lover of
-  honour, I was his guest of right’: whose curtesy (as reason was)
-  I obeyed; answering ‘I was at his commandment.’ ‘Then,’ said he,
-  ‘ye shall go to mine own lodging here within the Palace, where we
-  will have such cheer as the time and country will yield us’: where,
-  I assure you, I was so entertained, as no where I met with better
-  cheer or company, etc.
-
-  Thus talking we entred the Prince his Hall, where anon we heard the
-  noise of drum and fyfe. ‘What meaneth this drum?’ said I. Quoth
-  he, ‘This is to warn Gentlemen of the Houshold to repair to the
-  dresser; wherefore come on with me, and ye shall stand where ye may
-  best see the Hall served; and so from thence brought me into a long
-  gallery, that stretched itself along the Hall neer the Prince’s
-  table, where I saw the Prince set: a man of tall personage, a
-  manly countenance, somewhat brown of visage, strongly featured,
-  and thereto comely proportioned in all lineaments of body. At the
-  nether end of the same table were placed the Embassadors of sundry
-  Princes. Before him stood the carver, sewer, and cup-bearer, with
-  great number of gentlemen wayters attending his person; the ushers
-  making place to strangers of sundry regions that came to behold
-  the honour of this mighty Captain. After the placing of these
-  honourable guests, the Lord Steward, Treasurer, and Keeper of
-  Pallas Seal, with divers honourable personages of that Nobility,
-  were placed at a side-table neer adjoining the Prince on the
-  right hand, and at another table on the left side were placed the
-  Treasurer of the Household, Secretary, the Prince his Serjeant at
-  the Law, four Masters of the Revels, the King of Arms, the Dean of
-  the Chappel, and divers Gentlemen Pensioners to furnish the same.
-  At another table on the other side were set the Master of the Game,
-  and his Chief Ranger, Masters of Houshold, Clerks of the Green
-  Cloth and Check, with divers other strangers to furnish the same.
-  On the other side against them, began the table, the Lieutenant of
-  the Tower, accompanied with divers Captains of foot-bands and shot.
-  At the nether end of the Hall began the table, the High Butler, the
-  Panter, Clerks of the Kitchin, Master Cook of the Privy Kitchin,
-  furnished throughout with the souldiers and guard of the Prince;
-  all which, with number of inferior officers placed and served in
-  the Hall, besides the great resort of strangers I spare to write.
-
-[Illustration: ROBERT DUDLEY, EARL OF LEICESTER (1532(?)-1588)
-
-From the painting by Zuccaro in the National Portrait Gallery, London.]
-
-  The Prince so served with tender meats, sweet fruits, and dainty
-  delicates confectioned with curious cookery, as it seemed wonder a
-  world to observe the provision; and at every course the trumpetters
-  blew the couragious blast of deadly war, with noise of drum and
-  fyfe, with the sweet harmony of violins, sackbutts, recorders, and
-  cornetts, with other instruments of music, as it seemed Apollo’s
-  harp had turned their stroke. Thus the Hall was served after the
-  most ancient order of the Island; in commendation whereof I say,
-  I have also seen the service of great Princes, in solemn seasons
-  and times of triumph, yet the order hereof was not inferior to
-  any. But to proceed, this Hereaught Palaphilos, even before the
-  second course came in, standing at the high table said in this
-  manner: ‘The mighty Palaphilos, Prince of Sophie, High Constable
-  Marshall of the Knights Templars, Patron of the Honourable Order of
-  Pegasus’; and therewith cryeth ‘A Largess.’ The Prince, praysing
-  the Hereaught, bountifully rewarded him with a chain to the value
-  of an hundred talents.
-
-  I assure you, I languish for want of cunning, ripely to utter that
-  I saw so orderly handled appertaining to service; wherefore I
-  cease, and return to my purpose.
-
-  The supper ended, and tables taken up, the High Constable rose,
-  and a while stood under the place of honour, where his achievement
-  was beautifully embroidered and devised of sundry matters, with
-  the Ambassadors of foreign nations, as he thought good, till
-  Palaphilos, King of Armes, came in, his Hereaught Marshal, and
-  Pursivant before him; and after followed his messenger and Caligate
-  Knight; who putting off his coronal, made his humble obeysance to
-  the Prince, by whom he was commanded to draw neer, and understand
-  his pleasure; saying to him, in few words, to this effect:
-  ‘Palaphilos, seeing it hath pleased the high Pallas to think me
-  to demerit the office of this place; and thereto this night past
-  vouchsafed to descend from heavens to increase my further honour,
-  by creating me Knight of her Order of Pegasus; as also commanded
-  me to join in the same Society such valiant Gentlemen throughout
-  her province whose living honour hath best deserved the same,
-  the choice whereof most aptly belongeth to your skill, being the
-  watchman of their doings and register of their deserts; I will
-  ye choose as well throughout our whole armyes, as elsewhere, of
-  such special gentlemen, as the gods hath appointed, the number of
-  twenty-four, and the names of them present us: commanding also
-  those chosen persons to appear in our presence in knightly habit,
-  that with conveniency we may proceed in our purpose. This done
-  Palaphilos obeying his Prince’s commandement, with twenty-four
-  knights, all apparelled in long white vestures, with each man a
-  scarf of Pallas colours, and them presented, with their names, to
-  the Prince; who allowed well his choice, and commanded him to do
-  his office. Who, after his duty to the Prince, bowed towards these
-  worthy personages, standing every man to his antienty, as he had
-  born armes in the field, and began to shew his Prince’s pleasure;
-  with the honour of the Order.”
-
-And here is a note from Stow on Christmas Customs:—
-
-“Against the feast of Christmas, every man’s house, as also their
-parish churches, were decked with holm, ivie, bayes, and whatsoever the
-season of the yeere aforded to be greene; the conduits and standards
-in the streets were likewise garnished. Amongst the which, I read,
-that in the yeere 1444, by tempest of thunder and lightning, on the
-first of February at night, Paul’s steeple was fired, but with great
-labour quenched, and toward the morning of Candlemas day, at the Leaden
-Hall in Cornhill, a standard of tree, beeing set up in the midst of
-the pavement fast in the ground, nayled full of holme and ivy, for
-disport of Christmas to the people, was torne up and cast downe by the
-malignant spirit (as was thought), and the stones of the pavement all
-about were cast in the streetes, and into divers houses, so that the
-people were wore agast at the great tempests.”
-
-Let us pass on to the great Festival of May Day.
-
-    “Forth goeth all the court both most and lest,
-    To Fetch the floures fresh, and braunch and blome—
-    And namely hauthorn brought both page and grome
-    And than rejoysen in their great delite;
-    Eke ech at other throw the floures bright,
-    The primerose, the violete, and the gold.
-    With freshe garlants party blew and white.”
-
-Philip Stubbes says:—“Against Maie, Whitsondaie, or some other tyme
-of the yeare, every parishe, towne, and village assemble themselves
-together, bothe men, women, and children; and either goyng all
-together, or deviding themselves into companies, they goe some to the
-woodes and groves, some to the hilles and mountaines, some to one
-place, some to another, where they spend all the night in pleasant
-pastymes, and in the mornyng they returne bringing with them, birch,
-bouwes, and braunches of trees to deck their assemblies withal. But
-their chiefest jewel they bring from thence is their Maie poole, which
-they bring home with greate veneration, as thus:—They have twentie or
-fortie yoke of oxen, every oxe havyng a swete nosegaie of flowers tyed
-on the tippe of his hornes, and these oxen drawe home the Maie poole
-(this stinckyng idoll rather), which is covered all over with flowers
-and hearbes, bounde rounde aboute with stringes from the top to the
-bottome, and sometyme painted with variable colours, with two or three
-hundred men, women, and children followyng it with greate devotion.
-And thus being reared up, with handkerchiefes and flagges streamyng on
-the toppe, they strawe the grounde aboute, binde greene boughs about
-it, sett up sommer halles, bowers, and arbours hard by it; and then
-fall they to banquet and feast, to leape and daunce aboute it, as the
-heathen people did at the dedication of their idolles.... I have heard
-it credibly reported,” he sarcastically adds, “by men of great gravity,
-credite, and reputation, that of fourtie, three score, or a hundred
-maides goyng to the wood over night, there have scarcely the third
-parte of them returned home againe as they went.” (_The Anatomie of
-Abuses_, 1836 edition, p. 171.)
-
-Herrick says:—
-
-          “Get up ... and see
-          The dew bespangling herbe and tree;
-    Each flower has wept, and bow’d toward the east,
-    Above an hour since; ... it is sin,
-                  Nay profanation, to keep in;
-    When as a thousand virgins on this day,
-    Spring sooner than the larks to fetch in May!
-          Come, my Corinna, come; and comming marke
-          How each field turns a street, each street a parke
-                  Made green and trimmed with trees; see how
-                  Devotion gives each house a bough,
-                  Or branch; each porch, each doore ere this,
-                  An arke or tabernacle is,
-          Made up of white-thorn neatly interwove,
-          As if here were those cooler shades of love.
-
-    Can such delights be in the street,
-    And open fields, and we not see’t?
-    Come, we’ll abroad; and let’s obey
-    The Proclamation made for May,
-    And sin no more, as we have done, by staying.
-
-    There’s not a budding boy, or girle, this day
-    But is got up, and gone to bring in May;
-          A deale of youth, ere this, is come
-          Back, and with white-thorn laden home.
-          Some have dispatcht their cakes and creame,
-          Before that we have left to dreame;
-    And some have wept, and woo’d, and plighted troth,
-    And chose their priest, ere we can cast off sloth;
-          Many a green gown has been given;
-          Many a kisse, both odde and even;
-          Many a glance too has been sent
-          From out the eye, Love’s firmament;
-    Many a jest told of the keyes betraying
-    This night, and locks pickt, ye w’are not a Maying!”
-
-Of the festive appearance of the streets in summer, and the hospitality
-of the citizens, and the setting of the Midsummer Watch, Stow speaks at
-length (Thoms’s edition, p. 39):—
-
-“In the months of June and July, on the vigils of festival days, and
-on the same festival days in the evenings after the sun setting, there
-were usually made bonfires in the streets, every man bestowing wood or
-labour towards them; the wealthier sort also, before their doors, near
-to the said bonfires, would set out tables on the vigils, furnished
-with sweet bread and good drink, and on the festival days with meats
-and drinks plentifully, whereunto they would invite their neighbours
-and passengers also to sit and be merry with them in great familiarity,
-praising God for His benefits bestowed on them. These were called
-bonfires as well of good amity amongst neighbours that being before at
-controversy were there, by the labour of others, reconciled, and made
-of bitter enemies loving friends; and also for the virtue that a great
-fire hath to purge the infection of the air. On the vigil of St. John
-the Baptist, and on St. Peter and Paul the apostles, every man’s door
-being shadowed with green birch, long fennel, St. John’s wort, orpin,
-white lilies, and such like, garnished upon with garlands of beautiful
-flowers, had also lamps of glass, with oil burning in them all the
-night; some hung out branches of iron curiously wrought, containing
-hundreds of lamps alight at once, which made a goodly show, namely in
-New Fish Street, Thames Street, etc.”
-
-[Illustration:
-
-_Drawn by Grignon, photographed by D^r Diamond_ _J. Hale Keur Sr._
-
-A FÊTE AT HORSELYDOWN IN 159O
-
-From a picture by G. Hoffnagle at Hatfield House.]
-
-At Whitsuntide 1900 I was at Treves. It is the custom on Whit Sunday
-to hold a great procession in which, apparently, the whole population
-takes part through the principal streets to the Cathedral. The girls
-are dressed in white with white flowers in their hair; the younger
-girls carry baskets filled with white flowers; men, women, and children
-are all chanting as they go; groups of priests, boys in scarlet,
-beadles and other ecclesiastical selections, adorn the procession. If
-that were all I should not notice it in this place. But in addition
-every street through which the procession passed was decorated with
-branches. And here for the first time I understood the lines already
-quoted, how
-
-    “Each field turns a street, each street a parke
-            Made green and trimmed with trees; see how
-            Devotion gives each house a bough,
-            Or branch; each porch, each doore, ere this,
-            An arke or tabernacle is,
-    Made up of white-thorn neatly interwove.”
-
-For the decking of the house did not consist of a branch or a bunch
-over a porch or a window, but the whole ground-floor of every house was
-covered with great boughs closely placed side by side so as to look
-like a lane of trees. Herrick did not exaggerate.
-
-Stow goes on to speak of the Marching Watch:—
-
-“Besides the standing Watches all in bright Harness, in every Ward
-and Street in this city and Suburbs, there was also a Marching Watch,
-that passed through the principal Streets thereof, to wit, from the
-little conduit by Paul’s Gate to West Cheap, by the Stocks through
-Cornhill, by Leaden Hall to Aldgate, then back down Fenchurch Street,
-by Grasse church, about Grasse church conduit, and up Grasse church
-street into Cornhill, and through it into West Cheap again, and so
-broke up. The whole way ordered for this marching watch extendeth to
-three thousand two hundred Taylor’s Yards of Assize; for the furniture
-whereof with Lights, there were appointed seven hundred cressets, five
-hundred of them being found by the Companies, the other two hundred
-by the Chamber of London. Besides the which Lights every Constable in
-London, in number more than two hundred and forty, had his Cresset;
-the charge of every Cresset was in Light two shillings and fourpence,
-and every cresset had two men, one to bear or hold it, another to bear
-a Bag with Light, and to serve it, so that the Poor Men pertaining
-to the Cressets, taking Wages, besides that every one had a strawen
-Hat, with a Badge painted, and his breakfast, amounted in number to
-almost two thousand. The marching Watch contained in number about two
-thousand men, part of them being old Soldiers, of skill to be Captains,
-Lieutenants, Serjeants, Corporals, etc., Wiflers, Drummers, and Fifes,
-Standard and Ensign Bearers, Demilances on great Horses, Gunners with
-hand guns, or half Hakes, Archers in coats of white Fustian, signed
-on the breast and back with the Arms of the City, their Bows bent in
-their Hands, with Sheafs of Arrows by their Sides; Pikemen in bright
-Corslets, Burganets, etc., Halbards, the like the Billmen in Almain
-Rivets, and Aprons of Mail in great Number. There were also divers
-Pageants, Morris Dancers, Constables, the one-half, which was one
-hundred and twenty on St. John’s Eve, the other half on St. Peter’s
-Eve, in bright harness, some over Gilt, and every one a jornet of
-Scarlet thereupon, and a Chain of Gold, his henchman following him, his
-Minstrels before him, and his Cresset Light passing by him, the Waits
-of the City, the Mayor’s officers for his Guard before him, all in a
-livery of woosted, or Sea Jackets party-coloured, the Mayor himself
-well mounted on Horseback, the Swordbearer before him in fair Armour
-well mounted also, the Mayor’s Footmen, and the like Torch Bearers
-about him, Henchmen twain upon great stirring Horses, following him.
-The Sheriffs’ Watches came one after the other in like Order, but not
-so large in Number as the Mayor’s; for where the Mayor had, besides his
-Giant, three Pageants, each of the Sheriffs had, besides their Giants,
-but two Pageants; each their Morris Dance, and one Henchman, their
-Officers in jackets of woosted or Sea, party-coloured, differing from
-the Mayor’s and each from other, but having harnessed Men a great many.
-
-This Midsummer Watch was thus accustomed yearly, time out of Mind,
-until the year 1539, the 31st of Henry VIII., in which year, on the 8th
-of May, a great Muster was made by the Citizens at the Mile’s End, all
-in bright Harness, with Coats of White Silk, or Cloth and Chains of
-Gold, in three great Battels, to the number of fifteen thousand, which
-passed through London to Westminster, and so through the Sanctuary, and
-round about the Park of St. James, and returned home through Oldborne.
-King Henry, then considering the great Charges of the Citizens for the
-Furniture of this unusual Muster, forbad the Marching Watch provided
-for at Midsummer for that Year; which being once laid down, was not
-raised again till the year 1548, the 2nd of Edward VI., Sir John
-Gresham then being Mayor, who caused the Marching Watch, both on the
-eve of St. John Baptist and of St. Peter the Apostle, to be revived and
-set forth in as comely order as it hath been accustomed, which Watch
-was also beautified by the number of more than three hundred Demilances
-and light Horsemen, prepared by the citizens to be sent into Scotland
-for the rescue of the town of Haddington, and others kept by the
-Englishmen.” (Stow, vol. i.)
-
-As for dancing, never was there a time when it was more popular.
-Everybody danced: the Queen at Whitehall danced the brawl; the
-kitchen-maid in the street danced the ney. They danced the solemn
-_pavane_, the _Cassamezzo galliard_, the _canary_ dance, the _Coranto_,
-the _Cavolta_, the _jig_, the _galliard_, the _fancy_, and the _Ney_,
-and perhaps many more. They played cards: they played at primiero,
-trumpe, gleek, gresso, new cut, knave out of doors, ruff, noddy, most
-and pace; they got through the long winter evenings mainly with the
-help of cards. Bowling was a summer amusement; tournaments belonged
-to the Court; hunting was an amusement for the richer sort; the
-people also fought cocks, wrestled, practised archery, and played
-quarter-staff. The old Catholic feasts and sports—such as the Feast of
-Fools, the Boy Bishop, the Mysteries in the Churches, were abolished;
-but in their own houses they had mumming and mummers; for the ladies
-there was embroidery; there was also fine work of all kinds. And there
-was a great demand for monsters: a pig with eight legs; strange fishes
-caught in the river; a mermaid quite fresh, unfortunately dead, caught
-off the Yarmouth Roads; a calf with two backs; a lobster with six
-claws; these things were always on exhibition, for the most part, in
-Fleet Street. Their Morris dances, their Maypoles, Whitsun Ales, their
-fairs and wakes, and, in fact, every occasion for meeting together,
-singing, feasting, and dancing, this Protestant city kept up.
-
-[Illustration: THE DANCING PICTURE
-
-By Holbein and Janet, in the possession of Major-General F. E. Sotheby.]
-
-Among the amusements of the people must not be forgotten the common
-custom of telling stories. The long evenings when the family gathered
-round the fire, the only light in the room, were tedious: they could
-hardly go to bed much before eight, though they rose long before
-daybreak. Story-telling was an amusement which had long ago pleased the
-Saxons and the Danes, who recounted the great deeds of their ancestors
-to wile away the winter evening. Perhaps many of the stories which
-found their way into books during the sixteenth century served this
-purpose, while the merry jests of Skogan, and Peele, and the rest,
-certainly formed part of the story-teller’s _répertoire_.
-
-Another amusement was that of reading. We have already seen what an
-immense field was opened up for those who loved books, by the shoals
-which during Elizabeth’s reign were issued from the press.
-
-The first Lottery was set on foot in the year 1559. The drawing took
-place at the west door of St. Paul’s, and continued daily from the
-11th of January to the 6th of May following. The Lottery did not gain
-its full power until the eighteenth century. It is sufficient here
-to record the first appearance of this baleful institution, fruitful
-mother of crime.
-
-
-
-
-                             CHAPTER VIII
-
-                               THE POOR
-
-
-Harrison says that there are “four kinds of poor: the poor by
-impotence, as the fatherless child, the blind man, and the incurably
-sick man; the poor by casualty, as the wounded soldier; the thriftless
-poor, as the rioter that hath consumed all; the vagabond that will
-abide nowhere; and, finally, the rogues and strumpet which are not
-possible to be divided in sunder.”
-
-As regards the last sort. Harrison’s description tells everything that
-is wanted.
-
-“Such as are idle beggars through their owne default are of two sorts,
-and continue their estates either by casuall or meere voluntarie
-meanes: those that are such by casuall means, are in the beginning
-justlie to be referred either to the first or second sort of poore
-afore mentioned; but degenerating into the thriftlesse sort, they doo
-what they can to continue their miserie, and with such impediments as
-they have to straie and wander about, as creatures abhorring all labour
-and every honest exercise. Certes I call these casuall meanes, not in
-respect of the originall of their povertie, but of the continuance of
-the same, from whence they will not be delivered, such is their owne
-ungratious lewdnesse and froward disposition. The voluntarie meanes
-proceed from outward causes, as by making of corosives, and applieng
-the same to the more fleshie parts of their bodies; and also laieng
-of ratsbane, sperewort, crowfoot, and such like unto their whole
-members, thereby to raise pitifull and odious sores and moove the
-harts of the goers by such places where they lie, to yerne at their
-miserie and bestow large almesse upon them. How artificiallie they
-beg, what forcible speech, and how they select and choose out words of
-vehemencie, whereby they doo in maner conjure or adjure the goer by to
-pitie their cases, I passe over to remember, as judging the name of
-God and Christ to be more conversant in the mouths of none; and yet
-the presence of the heavenlie majestie further off from no men than
-from this ungracious companie. Which maketh me to think that punishment
-is farre meeter for them than liberalitie or almesse, and sith Christ
-willeth us cheeflie to have a regard to Himselfe and His poore members.
-
-Unto this nest is another sort to be referred, more sturdie than the
-rest, which having sound and perfect limbs, doo yet, notwithstanding,
-sometime counterfeit the possession of all sorts of diseases. Divers
-times in their apparell also they will be like serving-men or laborers;
-oftentimes they can plaie the mariners, and seeke for ships which they
-never lost. But in fine, they are thieves and caterpillars in the
-common-wealth, and by the word of God not permitted to eat, sith they
-doo but lick the sweat from the true labourers’ browes, and beereve
-the godly poore of that whiche is due unto them, to mainteine their
-excesse, consuming the charitie of well-disposed people bestowed upon
-them, after a most wicked and detestable manner.
-
-It is not yet full threescore yeares since this trade began; but how it
-hath prospered since that time, it is easie to judge, for they are now
-supposed, of one sex and another, to amount unto about 10,000 persons;
-as I have heard reported. Moreover, in counterfeiting the Egyptian
-rogues, they have devised a language among themselves, which they name
-Canting, but other pedlers French, a speech compact thirtie years since
-of English, and a great number of od words of their own devising,
-without all order or reason; and yet such is it as none but themselves
-are able to understand. The first deviser thereof was hanged by the
-necke, a just reward no doubt for his deserts, and a common end to all
-of that profession....
-
-The punishment that is ordeined for this kind of people is verie sharpe
-and yet it can not restreine them from their gadding; wherefore the end
-must needs be martiall law, to be exercised upon them, as upon theeves,
-robbers, despisers of all lawes, and enimies to the common-wealth and
-welfare of the land. What notable roberies, pilferies, murders, rapes,
-and stealings of yoong children, burning, breaking and disfiguring
-their lims to make them pitifull in the sight of the people, I need
-not to rehearse; but for their idle roging about the countrie, the
-law ordeineth this manner of correction. The roge being apprehended,
-committed to prison, and tried in the next assises (whether they be of
-gaole diliverie or sessions of the peace), if he happen to be convicted
-for a vagabond either by inquest of office, or the testimonie of two
-honest and credible witnesses upon their oths, he is then immediately
-adjudged to be greeviously whipped and burned through the gristle of
-the right eare, with a hot iron of the compasse of an inch about, as a
-manifestation of his wicked life, and due punishment received for the
-same. And this judgment is to be excuted upon him, except some honest
-person woorth five pounds in the queenes books in goods, or twentie
-shillings in lands, or some rich housholder to be allowed by the
-justices will be bound in recognisance to reteine him in his service
-for one whole yeare. If he be taken the second time, and proved to
-have forsaken his said service, he shall then be whipped againe, bored
-likewise through the other eare and set to service; from when if he
-depart before a yeare be expired, and happen afterwards to be attached
-againe, he is condemned to suffer paines of death as a fellon (except
-before excepted), without benefit of clergy or sanctuarie, as by the
-statute doth appeare. Among roges and idle persons finallie, we find to
-be comprised all proctors that go up and down with conterfeit licenses,
-coosiners, and such as gad about the countrie, using unlawfull games,
-practisers of physiognomie and palmestrie, tellers of fortunes,
-fensers, plaiers, minstrels, jugglers, pedlers, tinkers, pretensed
-scholars, shipmen, prisoners gathering for fees, and others so oft as
-they be taken without sufficient licence. From among which companie our
-bearewards are not excepted and just cause; for I have read that they
-have either voluntarilie, or for want of power to master their savege
-beasts, beene occasion of the death and devoration of manie children in
-sundrie countries by which they have passed, whose parents never knew
-what was become of them.” (Holinshed, vol. i.)
-
-The great increase of rogues and vagabonds of all kinds led in the year
-1561 to a proposition for a House of Correction. The plan or scheme of
-which was drawn out at full length, is published in _Archæologia_ (vol.
-xxi. p. 451).
-
-The House was to be strong and in two divisions: one for the men and
-the other for the women. It was to be built and furnished by the
-alms of the people where it was put up—in this case Westminster was
-proposed. In furnishing, care must be taken that everything should
-be simple, because “it is to be considered beforehand that ye shall
-have to do with the most desperatest people of the earth, geven to all
-spoyle and robbery and soch as will break from you and steale.”
-
-For work, it must be of a kind that they cannot steal or destroy. A
-Mill, therefore, for the men, or a Lime Kiln; and for the women a Wheel
-for cotton wool or woollen yarn. Of officers there must be six Masters:
-a clerk; a porter and keeper; two beadles, and a miller.
-
-The rations for the inmates were to be as follows:—To every four women,
-at every meal, one pound of beef, potage, bread and drink. To every two
-men working in the mill, double this allowance. The allowance of bread
-was to be sixteen ounces a day. The allowance of beer was to every
-four women one “pottell” of single beer a day, but to the men double
-that quantity. On fast days an equivalent of butter, cheese, herrings,
-“pescodes,” and such like.
-
-There were to be two pairs of stocks and shackles for the refractory.
-The Matron was to be a strong woman—the Elizabethan female of the baser
-kind did not weaken her muscles and her nerves with tea; and, which is
-very significant, it is added, “ye must be careful of fyer, for the
-people are desperate and care not what mischief they do.”
-
-I do not know whether this proposed House of Correction was erected or
-not.
-
-The present seems the best place and time to speak of systematic
-attempts at Poor Relief.
-
-The relief of the poor was a duty enjoined on all men. Almsgiving
-was considered especially a virtue becoming to kings and princes.
-Alfred gave alms continually. The Monastic Houses never turned away a
-beggar without a meal to speed him on his way. Rich and noble persons
-kept open house at Christmas, Easter, and Whitsuntide. Already the
-custom was commenced of leaving lands or money to the church or to the
-monastery saddled with the condition of alms to be bestowed on the
-anniversary of the donor. By the laws of Ethelred, which probably only
-confirmed a custom, the third part of the tithe due to the Church was
-to be set aside for the use of the poor. In the Canons of Ælfric the
-same proportion is enjoined to be so reserved. And in all the Monastic
-Houses a certain part of the revenues was expended on the Almonry or
-the Infirmary.
-
-The custom of giving indiscriminately to any vagrant who demanded
-alms, created a class of “masterless” men who would do no work and
-wandered about the country. It took some centuries of this growing evil
-before men could be brought to connect vagrancy with indiscriminate
-almsgiving. At first the efforts made to repress vagrancy were directed
-towards compulsory work. No one dared to maintain, perhaps no one dared
-to think, that it was wrong to give alms to a beggar merely because he
-was a beggar; but every one understood that the labourer must somehow
-be made to work. Had the Clergy and the Monastic Houses perceived the
-truth, vagrancy might have been reduced to a few companies of outlaws
-and marauders. But we cannot blame the clergy of the thirteenth century
-for failing to understand what the clergy of the present century are
-still unable to understand. When the law interfered, the situation was
-wellnigh desperate. The Black Death of 1348–50 had made labour scarce
-and wages high. The necessity of suppressing able-bodied begging and of
-sending the able-bodied beggar back to his native place and his proper
-work was forced upon the Government. The Labour Statutes endeavoured to
-force men to work and to keep down wages. In the fourteenth century,
-just as to-day, there was a natural limit imposed upon wages by the
-price of grain and food. The rustic who understood nothing about this
-limit, naturally desired higher and still higher wages; if he could not
-get this increase in his own parish, he went elsewhere: he begged his
-way; he found food at the monastery; he tasted the joys of food which
-was got without any work for it; he therefore easily dropped into the
-condition of the masterless man and the able-bodied beggar.
-
-In 1349 the law stepped in. No one must give alms, money, or food to
-the able-bodied, so that for lack of bread they might be compelled to
-work. The rustics, in order to escape the terrors of this law, ran
-about the country from place to place. They pretended to be lame,
-blind, dumb, paralysed; in this disguise they wandered about begging
-with impunity unless they were detected. They pretended (case of
-impostor—Riley) to go on pilgrimage: they joined companies of pilgrims,
-begging by the way, and so got along for a time without working.
-Therefore in 1388 other laws were framed. Nobody was allowed to beg at
-all without a letter granting him a license; nobody was allowed to go
-on pilgrimage without a license; nobody was to go anywhere outside his
-own part of the country without a license. If any were found without
-such warrant or permission they were clapped into the stocks. The Act
-endeavoured to put a stop not only to able-bodied vagrancy, but also to
-beggars who were crippled or afflicted, for they, too, were forbidden
-to roam.
-
-The citizens of London were especially severe on masterless men.
-
-The law, at the same time, recognised the duty of relieving the
-impotent, and the deserving poor, and the right of these to demand
-relief. Wherever they were found they were compelled to go back to the
-place to which they belonged by birth.
-
-Nothing could be better or more effectual than these laws if they could
-have been enforced. But how were they to be enforced? Where were the
-police who might patrol the roads? How were the villagers disposed
-towards laws which made them accept whatever wages the Lord of the
-Manor chose to give them? In the City of London what were the opinions
-of the working class, of the craftsmen? And how could the Alderman in
-his ward ascertain that every man was following his own craft? No doubt
-the power of arresting, punishing, and sending to their own villages
-the wandering rustic, had the effect of keeping down the number of the
-beggars. In a short time, too, the natural increase of the population
-relieved the scarcity of labour. Moreover the relief of the poor by
-each parish was ordered by the setting aside of a portion of the tithe
-for their benefit (a revival of the Saxon law); and in those cases
-where the tithes went to a monastic house, the same portion should be
-payable by the monks or nuns. The jealousy with which the religious
-Orders were already regarded is shown by the enactment of this
-provision by Richard II. and its confirmation by Henry IV.
-
-If the laws against grants of the fourteenth century had been enforced
-there would have been an end of the evil. Unfortunately, they could
-not be enforced. In the country there was no kind of Police; in London
-the City had outgrown the old government by Aldermen and Ward, and
-the people were overflowing the City boundaries and were beyond the
-jurisdiction of the Mayor. Now the control of the county would not
-be very effective, say, at Wapping or at Bermondsey, when the people
-began to settle there. During the whole of the fifteenth century the
-demand for able-bodied men for the war in France first, and the Civil
-wars next, was so great that there seem to have been few vagrants
-in the country. Indications, however, are by no means wanting of a
-“masterless” element in London.
-
-The cessation of the wars threw a large number of men out of
-employment; worse than this, it found them unwilling or unable to
-settle down again to steady work. Other causes also operated to produce
-the same result. The English nobles had ceased to maintain their large
-retinues: no longer did an Earl of Warwick ride into London with seven
-hundred gentlemen and men-at-arms; Sir Thomas More says expressly that
-the men who formerly had been in this kind of service either starved
-or became thieves. Again, the changes in the industrial condition of
-the country threw many people out of work: lands formerly arable were
-turned into pasture; sheep runs took the place of cornfields; one
-shepherd was wanted instead of half-a-dozen labourers. There was again
-a great rise in prices, owing to the influx of silver. In fifty years
-provisions of all kinds were doubled in price while wages rose only
-thirty per cent. Add to these causes the continuance of indiscriminate
-almsgiving.
-
-The evil grew continually during the whole of the sixteenth century.
-
-Early in the sixteenth century the City of London began to pass
-regulations against vagrants. They forbade able-bodied vagrants
-to beg and citizens to give money to unlicensed beggars: in other
-words, they revived and enforced the old laws. Great strictness was
-ordered. Vagrants had the letter V fastened on their breasts, and
-were driven through Cheapside to the music of a basin ringing before
-them. Four surveyors were appointed to carry out these instructions.
-There was also an officer appointed, called “Master and Chief Avoyder
-and Keeper out of this City and the liberties of the same all the
-mighty vagabonds and beggars and all other suspected persons, except
-such as wear upon them the badge of the City.” The vagrants, when
-apprehended, were whipped at the cart’s tail; they also had to wear
-collars of iron about their necks. Those who were allowed to beg had
-tokens of tin given to them by the Aldermen. As for the relief of
-the deserving poor, there were the “Companies’ stores,” granaries of
-wheat provided for emergencies; alms were asked for every Sunday at
-the church doors; the old hospitals were suppressed at the Reformation
-until St. Bartholomew’s and St. Mary of Bethlehem were granted to the
-City by Henry VIII. and reopened as hospitals. The City did not show
-to advantage in giving money to the poor; we must remember that for
-many centuries charity had been understood as indiscriminate alms given
-by the Church and by rich men. What private persons gave was for the
-advantage of their souls. Latimer and Lever thundered in vain. Latimer
-says:—
-
-  “Now what shall we say of these rich citizens of London? What shall
-  I say of them? Shall I call them proud men of London, malicious
-  men of London, merciless men of London? No, no, I may not say
-  so; they will be offended with me then. Yet must I speak. For is
-  there not reigning in London as much pride, as much covetousness,
-  as much cruelty, as much oppression and as much superstition as
-  was in Nebo? Yes I think, and much more too.... But London was
-  never so ill as it is now. In times past men were full of pity and
-  compassion, but now there is no pity; for in London their brother
-  shall die in the streets for cold, he shall lie sick at the door
-  between stock and stock ... and perish there for hunger: was there
-  ever more unmercifulness in Nebo? I think not. In times past,
-  when any rich man died in London they were wont to help the poor
-  scholars of the Universities with exhibitions. When any man died,
-  they would bequeath great sums of money towards the relief of the
-  poor. When I was a scholar in Cambridge myself I heard very good
-  report of London, and knew many that had relief of the rich men of
-  London; but now I can hear no such good report, and yet I inquire
-  of it, and hearken for it; but now charity is waxen cold, none
-  helpeth the scholar, nor yet the poor.”
-
-Lever said:—
-
-  “Nowe speakynge in the behalfe of these vile beggars, ... I wyl
-  tell the(e) that art a noble man, a worshipful man, an honest
-  welthye man, especially if thou be Maire, Sherif, Alderman, baily,
-  constable or any such officer, it is to thy great shame afore the
-  worlde, and to thy utter damnation afore God, to se these begging
-  as thei use to do in the streates. For there is never a one of
-  these but he lacketh eyther thy charitable almes to relieve his
-  neede, or els thy due correction to punysh his faute.... These sely
-  sols have been neglected throughout al England and especially in
-  London and Westminster: But now I trust that a good overseer, a
-  godly Byshop I meane, wyl see that they in these two cyties shall
-  have their neede releeved, and their faultes corrected, to the good
-  ensample of al other tounes and cities.”
-
-Then St. Thomas’s Hospital and Bridewell were obtained from the King.
-The latter was designed as a House of Instruction and Correction. It
-was to receive the child “unapt for learning”; the “sore and sick when
-they be cured”; and persons who have lost their character and either
-cannot work or cannot find any who will employ them. The children were
-to be made to work; the others were to be taught certain trades. They
-were to be such as would not interfere with the crafts carried on in
-the City.
-
-The treatment of the poor began by being the work of the towns, each
-town working out its own experimental methods. This was followed by
-legislation in Parliament.
-
-The Act of 1573, of which we have read Harrison’s account, enjoined
-boring through the ear and whipping, and at the third offence death.
-The Middlesex Sessions Rolls show that these sentences were actually
-carried out. Between 6th October and 14th December 1591, 71 vagrants
-were sentenced at the Sessions to be branded and whipped.
-
-Who were vagrants? They were defined as proctors or procurators;
-persons pretending to knowledge in “Phisnomye, Palmestrye, and other
-abused Scyences,” masterless men; “fencers, bearewardes, players,
-minstrels,”—not belonging to some noble lord; jugglers, pedlars,
-tinkers, chapmen; labourers refusing customary wages; counterfeiters
-of passes; scholars of Oxford and Cambridge who beg without license;
-sailors not licensed; discharged prisoners without license; impotent
-poor. But of these, players, bearwards, and pedlars were allowed to
-carry on their calling subject to license.
-
-In every parish the Justices of the Peace were to make a register of
-the names of the poor. Every month they were to search for strange poor.
-
-Justices in the country and Mayors in London were to assess and tax
-the people for the relief of the poor; and those who refused to pay
-were to be imprisoned. Three years later it was ordered that “stock”
-of wool, flax, hemp, iron, or other stuff, should be provided for the
-work of the poor. Between 1575 and 1597 other statutes were passed for
-the prevention of increased settlement of poor families. No more houses
-to be built within three miles of London westward except for people
-assessed at £5 in goods or £3 in land. No tenement houses to be built,
-and no inmates to be received.
-
-In 1597 there was great discussion in the House of Commons on the
-whole subject of poor relief. Finally an Act was passed by which the
-relief of the poor was placed in the hands of church-wardens and four
-overseers of Poor elected every Easter. They had to teach children and
-bind them apprentice; they provided work for the adult; they relieved
-the impotent; they built hospitals; they levied rates; they made Houses
-of Correction; they resorted to more whipping and to banishment, with
-death for return.
-
-Next there is the interference of the Privy Council ordering the
-Justices of the Peace to look after the vagrants and to report. Here is
-a brief summary.
-
-  1573. Mayor has received a second letter from the Privy Council on
-  subject of vagrants.
-
-  1579. Common Council considered the work of the poor at Bridewell
-  and referred to Lords of the Council.
-
-  1583. Privy Council recommenced prevention of Irish beggars.
-
-  1594. City meets Justices of Middlesex on subject.
-
-  _London_—1572. Mayor issued precept to Aldermen to inquire
-  about poor of every parish. Another precept to use the
-  church-wardens—thus to assess the whole ward—to make them pay who
-  had given nothing, and to make them pay more who had given too
-  little.
-
-  In 1573. Assessments proving too little, collections were made in
-  churches.
-
-  1576. Each parish was to elect a surveyor who every night for a
-  week should help the constable, beadle, and church-wardens in
-  visiting the houses and sending away vagrants.
-
-Then followed a double method—relief and repression undertaken by the
-parish and municipal authorities together. The vagrants were taken to
-Bridewell, where the sick were picked out and sent to St. Thomas’s and
-St. Bartholomew’s—thence returned to Bridewell—and made to work for
-their diet. The parish looked after the rest of the poor. The children
-were sent to Christ’s Hospital. The impotent were relieved.
-
-It seems as if so strict a system must have been successful. But it was
-not.
-
-In 1601 the Act of 1579 was reconsidered and slightly altered.
-
-  1610. An Act for building one or more Houses of Correction in every
-  county was brought in.
-
-The supply of corn for the markets occupied Parliament a great deal
-between 1610 and 1630. There were bad harvests, and general distress.
-The Privy Council tried to prevent scarcity, to find work for the poor,
-and to regulate trade in the interests of the working classes. Against
-times of scarcity of fuel, a coalyard was established in London for the
-poor. Watchmen were provided in time of plague. More almshouses existed
-then than now for the old and impotent.
-
-It is customary to speak of the time immediately following the
-Reformation as especially hard-hearted and uncharitable. For instance,
-here is a certain passage, one of many, in Stubbes’s _Anatomie_, which
-is certainly strong evidence of a lack of charity. It is as follows:—
-
-“There is a certayne citie in Ailgna (Anglia) called Munidnol
-(Londinum) where as the poore lye in the streetes, upon pallets of
-strawe, and wel if they have that too, or els in the mire and dirt,
-as commonly it is seene, having neither house to put in their heades,
-covering to keepe them from the colde, nor yet to hyde their shame
-withall, nor a pennie to by them sustenaunce, nor any thing els, but
-are suffered to dye in the streetes like dogges or beastes, without any
-mercy or compassion shewed to them at all. And if any be sicke of the
-plague (as they call it) or any other mortall disease, their maisters
-and mistresses are so impudent (having made, it shoulde seeme, a league
-with Sathan, a covenant with hell, and an obligation with the devil,
-never to have to doe with the workes of mercie) as straight way they
-throwe them out of their doores: and so being caried forth, either in
-cartes or otherwise, or laied downe eyther in the streetes, or els
-conveiyed to some olde house in the fields or gardens, where for want
-of due sustentation, they ende their lives most miserably. Truely,
-brother, if I had not seene it, I would scarsly have thought that the
-like Turkishe crueltie had bene used in all the world.”[14]
-
-I would again call attention, however, to a point which has already
-been mentioned in these pages. Before the suppression of the Religious
-Houses these places had taken over and held in their own hands the
-whole management of the poor, the sick, and the disabled, save those
-whom the City Companies took under their own care. For centuries,
-therefore, the people had been taught to regard the care of the sick
-and old, and in a great manner the feeding of the poor, as belonging
-especially to the Religious. It is part of the mediæval mind that the
-poor do so belong to the monastic orders and not to the laity. When,
-therefore, the Houses were suppressed, the modern spirit of Charity had
-to be actually created in the hearts of the people. It was then that
-the education in philanthropy began which has been going on ever since.
-
-This outburst of Stubbes is a first lesson in brotherly love. Another
-part of the same lesson is his tirade against hard-hearted creditors,
-which is quoted here, because it applies especially to the citizens of
-London, tender and compassionate in some respects, but flinty-hearted
-as regards the poor prisoners who cannot pay their debts:—
-
-  “Believe me, it greeveth me to heare (walking in the streetes)
-  the pitifull cryes and miserable complayntes of poore prisoners
-  in durance for debte, and like so to continue all their life,
-  destitute of libertie, meate, drink (though of the meanest sort),
-  and clothing to their backes, lying in filthie straw and lothsome
-  dung, worse than anie dogge, voyde of all charitable consolation
-  and brotherly comfort in this world, wishing and thirsting after
-  deathe to set them at libertie, and loose them from their shackles,
-  gives, and iron bandes. Notwithstanding, these merciless tygers
-  (the usurers) are grown to such barbarous crueltie that they blush
-  not to say ‘tush, he shall eyther pay me the whole, or else lye
-  there till his heeles rotte from his buttocks; and, before I will
-  release him, I will make dice of his bones.’ But, take heed, thou
-  devil (for I dare not call thee Christian), least the Lord say to
-  thee, as hee sayd to that wicked servant (who, having great summes
-  forgiven him, would not forgive his brother his small debt, but,
-  catching him by the throate, sayd Paie that thou owest), Binde him
-  handes and feete, and cast him into utter darknesse, where shall
-  bee weeping and gnashing of teeth.”
-
-The charities of London consisted of Hospitals for the sick,
-almshouses, schools, and doles for the poor. It was customary for great
-men, ecclesiastics, and Religious Houses, to give every day large
-quantities of food to the poor, whereby they were encouraged to remain
-poor. Stow records many instances of this mischievous and promiscuous
-charity. Henry II., for instance, to show his repentance for the death
-of the Archbishop, fed every day 10,000 persons from the first of April
-till the harvest, a time of year when food is dearest and scarcest.
-
-Let me follow Stow’s list of Foundations in chronological order.
-
-1. In very ancient times the Hospital of St. James for leprous women.
-
-2. In 1197 Domus Dei, or St. Mary Spital, outside Billingsgate.
-
-3. In 1247 the Hospital of St. Mary Bethlehem turned afterwards into a
-lunatic asylum.
-
-4. 1322 Elsing Spital for 100 poor men.
-
-5. 1337 The College of St. Laurence Poultney.
-
-6. 1358 The Almshouses of Stodies Lane.
-
-7. 1367 John Lofken’s Hospital at Kingston-on-Thames.
-
-8. 1384 John Philpot’s Almshouses for 13 poor people.
-
-9. 1400 Thomas Knoles bequeathed his house as an almshouse.
-
-10. Whittington’s College (1421), an almshouse for 13 poor men.
-
-11. John Carpenter, almshouse for 4 poor men.
-
-12. Robert Chicheley money for a dinner to 2400 poor men and twopence
-each on his “minde day.”
-
-13. Philip Malpas, numerous benefactions to prisoners, poor folk,
-girls’ marriage portions, etc.
-
-14. Richard Rawson, girls’ marriage portions.
-
-15. Henry Keble, girls’ marriage portions and seven almshouses.
-
-16. John Colet, St. Paul’s School, 353 poor men’s children.
-
-17. John Tate enlarged and increased St. Anthony’s House and Almshouses.
-
-18. George Monox, almshouses for 13 poor people at Walthamstow.
-
-19. John Milbourne, almshouses for 14 poor people.
-
-20. John Allen left rents for the use of the poor.
-
-21. Andrew Judd, almshouses.
-
-22. Richard Hills, the Merchant Taylors’ School.
-
-23. Sir Thomas Gresham, almshouses.
-
-24. Sir Thomas Rowe, almshouses.
-
-25. Ambrose Nicolas, almshouses.
-
-26. John Fuller, almshouses.
-
-27. Dame Agnes Foster, enlargement of Ludgate Hill Prison.
-
-28. Avice Gibson, almshouses.
-
-29. Margaret Danne, money to be lent to young men beginning as
-ironmongers.
-
-30. Dame Mary Ramsay, endowment of Christ’s Hospital.
-
-The following are later endowments. Thus Sir Thomas White, citizen and
-Merchant Taylor, Mayor, purchased Gloucester Hall at Oxford; he founded
-St. John’s College there; he erected schools at Bristol and Reading;
-to Bristol he gave £2000 for the purchase of lands. This would produce
-£120 a year, which was to be administered by the Mayor of Bristol. He
-gave £800 to be lent to 16 poor Clothiers at £50 apiece as security for
-ten years, and after that the money to pass to other towns, _i.e._
-
-  1579 Reading
-  1580 The Merchant Taylors’ Company
-  1581 Gloucester
-  1582 Worcester
-  1583 Exeter
-  1584 Salisbury
-  1585 Westchester
-  1586 Norwich
-  1587 Southampton
-  1588 Lincoln
-  1589 Winchester
-  1590 Oxford
-  1591 Hereford
-  1592 Cambridge
-  1593 Shrewsbury
-  1594 Lynn
-  1595 Bath
-  1596 Derby
-  1597 Ipswich
-  1598 Colchester
-  1599 Newcastle.
-
-He gave to the City of Coventry £1400 with which to purchase lands to
-the annual value of £70. Twelve poor men to have 40s. each free alms;
-then four young men were to have loans of £10 for nine years. He did
-the same thing for Northampton, for Leicester, and for Warwick. A
-worthy benefactor, indeed!
-
-In 1560 Richard Hills gave £500 towards the purchase of a house called
-the Manor of the Rose, where the Merchant Taylors founded their
-school. At the same time William Lambert, Draper, Justice of the Peace
-in Kent, founded an almshouse for the poor in East Greenwich called
-Queen Elizabeth’s Almshouses.
-
-In 1568 Sir Thomas Rowe gave the City a new burial-ground by Bethlehem
-Hospital; he also endowed a sermon every Whit Monday; gave £100 to be
-lent to eight poor men; and founded an endowment for the support of ten
-poor men, giving them four pounds a year.
-
-William Lambe was a benefactor to the City in the sixteenth century.
-He was a cloth worker by trade. In the year 1543, on the suppression
-of the Religious Houses, he obtained possession by purchase of the
-smallest of them all, the Chapel or Hermitage standing at the corner
-of the wall at the end of Monkwell Street. It was called St. James’s
-in the Wall, and was endowed by Henry the Third. Lambe repaired or
-rebuilt the Chapel, and placed in the former garden or in the ancient
-buildings certain almshouses for bedesmen. In 1577 he died, leaving
-this foundation and other sums of money to the Clothworkers. The Great
-Fire spared a part of Lambe’s Chapel and Almshouses.
-
-Lambe also drew together several springs of water near the present
-Foundling Hospital to a head, called after him Lamb’s Conduit, though
-the name is now spelt without the “e.” He then conveyed the water by
-leaden pipes to Snow Hill, where he rebuilt a ruinous conduit and laid
-in the water.
-
-“He also founded a Free Grammar School at _Sutton Valens_, the Place of
-his Nativity, in _Kent_, with a master at £20, and an Usher at £10 per
-Ann. and an Alms-house for six poor people, endowed with £10 yearly.
-He gave £10 per Ann. to the Free School at _Maidstone_ in _Kent_, for
-the Education of needy Men’s Children; three hundred pounds to the poor
-Clothiers in _Suffolk_, _Bridgnorth_ and _Ludlow_ in _Shropshire_. He
-left to the Clothworkers’ Company his Dwelling-House, a little to the
-South-West of _Cripplegate_, with Lands and Tenements to the value of
-£30 per Ann. for paying a Minister to read Divine Service on _Sundays_,
-_Wednesdays_, and _Fridays_, every week, in the Chapel adjoining to
-his House, called St. _James_, in the Wall by _Cripplegate_; and for
-Clothing twelve Men with a Frize Gown, one Lockram Shirt, and a good
-strong pair of Winter Shoes; and twelve Women with a Frize Gown, a
-Lockram Smock, and a good pair of Winter Shoes, all ready made for
-wearing; to be given to such as are poor and honest, on the first of
-October. He also gave £15 towards the Bells and Chimes of St. Giles’s
-Without _Cripplegate_; £6:13:4 yearly to the Company of Stationers,
-for the relief of twelve poor People of the Parish of St. _Faith_,
-under _Paul’s_, at the rate of 12d. in Money, and 12d. in Bread, to
-each of them, on every Friday through the year; £6 per Ann. and £100
-to purchase Land, for the Relief of Children in _Christ’s_ Hospital;
-£4 to St. _Thomas’s_ Hospital in _Southwark_; besides some other
-Charities to the Prisons, and for portioning poor Maids.” (Maitland,
-vol. i. p. 264.)
-
-It will be seen that the building of almshouses was the favourite
-method of charitable endowment. Schools were occasionally endowed
-but not so commonly as almshouses. The sight of an old man broken
-down, unable to earn his bread, is one which appeals to the most
-hard-hearted. The necessity of educating the young was less understood,
-for the simple reason that the children of the working class were
-regarded as simply growing machines for labour, just as their fathers
-were regarded as machines in active working order whose opinions or
-wishes were never so much as asked, while any effort on their part
-to express an opinion was put down at once. This view of the working
-classes, which lasted till the middle of the nineteenth century,
-explains a great deal of what we now consider apathy on the part of
-those who should have known better; it explains among other things the
-opposition to reform, and the jealousy and dread of the working class;
-and it explains why so few schools were endowed in comparison with the
-number of almshouses.
-
-
-
-
-                              CHAPTER IX
-
-                         CRIME AND PUNISHMENT
-
-
-The divers kinds of punishment and the laws are set forth by Harrison
-(Holinshed, vol. i.):—
-
-“The greatest and most greevous punishment used in England, for such
-as offend against the state, is drawing from the prison to the place
-of execution upon an hurdle or sled, where they are hanged till they
-be halfe dead, and then taken downe and quartered alive, after that
-their members and bowels are cut from their bodies and throwne into
-a fire provided neere hand and within their one sight even for the
-same purpose. Sometimes if the trespasse be not the more hainous, they
-are suffered to hang till they be quite dead. And whensoever any of
-the nobilitie are convicted of high treason by their peeres, that is
-to saie, equals (for an inquest of yeomen passeth not upon them, but
-onlie of the lords of the parliament) this maner of their death is
-converted into the losse of their heads onlie, notwithstanding that the
-sentence doo run after the former order. In triall of cases concerning
-treason, fellonie, or anie other greevous crime not confessed, the
-partie accused doth yeeld, if he be a nobleman, to be tried by an
-inquest (as I have said) and his peeres; if a gentleman, by gentlemen;
-and an inferiour by God and by the countrie, to wit the yeomanrie
-(so combat or battle is not greatlie in use) and being condemned of
-fellonie, manslaughter, etc., he is eftsoons hanged by the necke till
-he be dead, and then cut downe and buried. But if he is convicted of
-wilful murder, doone either upon pretended malice, or in anie notable
-robberie, he is either hanged alive in chains neere the place where the
-fact was committed (or else upon compassion taken first strangled with
-a rope) and so continueth till his bonds consume to nothing. We have
-use neither of the wheele nor of the barre, as in other countries, but
-when wilful manslaughter is perpetrated, beside hanging, the offender
-hath his right hand commonlie striken off before or neere unto the
-place where the act was doone, after which he is led forth to the place
-of execution, and there put to death according to the law.” (_See_
-Appendix X.)
-
-Felony was involved in various kinds of crime: such as breach of
-prison; disfiguring the person; robbery in disguise; rape; conspiracy
-against the prince; embezzlement of the master’s money; carrying
-horses into Scotland; stealing hawks’ eggs; unnatural offences;
-witchcraft, conjuring, sorcery, and digging up of crosses; prophesying
-upon arms, cognizances, names and badges; casting of slanderous bills;
-poisoning; desertion; clipping of coin; taking goods from dead men;
-highway robbery; stealing of deer; forging documents, etc., these were
-all, with some others, felony.
-
-“If a woman poison her husband she is burned alive, if the servant kill
-his master he is to be executed for petie treason, he that poisoneth
-a man is to be boiled to death either in water or lead, although the
-partie die not of the practise; in cases of murther all the accessories
-are to suffer paines of death accordingly. Perjury is punished by the
-pillorie burning in the forehead with the letter P, the rewalting[15]
-of the trees growing upon the grounds of the offendors and losse of all
-his moveables. Manie trespasses also are punished by the cutting of
-one or both eares from the head of the offendor, as the utterance of
-seditious words against the magistrates, grain makers, petie robbers,
-etc. Roges are burned through the eares, carriers of sheep out of the
-land by the loss of their hands, such as kill by poison are either
-boiled or skalded to death in lead or seething water. Heretikes are
-burned quicke, harlots and their mates by carting, ducking, and dooing
-of open penance in sheets, in churches and market steeds are often
-put to rebuke.... Roges and vagabonds are often stocked and whipped,
-scolds are ducked upon cucking stooles in the water. Such fellons as
-stand mute and speak not at their arraignement are pressed to death
-by huge weights laid upon a boord, that lieth over their brest, and a
-sharpe stone under their backs, and these commonlie hold their peace,
-thereby to save their goods unto their wives and children, which if
-they were condemned should be confiscated to the prince. Theeves that
-are saved by their bookes and cleargie, for the first offense, if they
-have stolen nothing else but oxen, sheepe, monie, or such like, which
-be no open robberies, as by the high waie side or assailing of any
-man’s house in the night, without putting him in fear of his life,
-or breaking up of his wals or doores, are burned in the left hand,
-upon the brawne of the thumb with an hot iron, so that if they be
-apprehended againe, that marke bewraieth them to have been arraigned of
-fellonie before, whereby they are sure at that time to have no mercie.
-I doo not read that this custom of saving by the book is used anywhere
-else than in England, neither doo I find (after much diligent enquirie)
-what Saxon prince ordained that law.... Our third annoiers of the
-common-wealth are roges, which doo verie great mischief in all places
-where they doo become. For whereas the rich onlie suffer injurie by
-the first two, these spare neither riche nor poore; but whether it be
-great game or small, all is fish that commeth to net with them, and yet
-I saie that both they and the rest are trussed up apace. For there is
-not one yeare commonlie, wherein three hundred or four hundred of them
-are not devoured and eaten up by the gallowes in one place and other.
-It appearth by Cardane (who writeth it upon the report of the bishop
-of Lexouia) in the geniture of King Edward the sixt, how Henrie the
-eight, executing his laws verie severelie against such idle persons, I
-meane great theeves, pettie theeves and roges, did hang up threescore
-and twelve thousand of them in his time. He seemed for a while greatlie
-to have terrified the rest; but since his death the number of them is
-so increased, yea although we have had no warres, which are a great
-occasion of their breed (for it is the custom of the more idel sort,
-having but once served or seen the other side of the sea under colour
-of service to shake hand with labour, for ever, thinking it a disgrace
-for himself to return unto his former trade) that except some better
-order be taken, or the lawes be better made to be executed, such as
-dwell in uplandish towns and little villages shall live but in small
-safety and rest. For the better apprehension also of theeves and
-mankillers, there is an old law in England very well provided, whereby
-it is ordered, that if he that is robbed, or any man complaine and give
-warning of slaughter or murder committed, the constable of the village
-whereunto he cometh and crieth for succour, is to raise the parish
-about him, and to search woods, groves, and all suspected houses and
-places, where the trespasser may be, or is supposed to lurke; and not
-finding him there, he is to give warning unto the next constable, and
-so one constable after serch made to advertise another from parish to
-parish, till they come to the same where the offender is harbored and
-found. It is also provided, that if anie parish in this business doo
-not his dutie, but suffereth the theefe (for the avoiding of trouble
-sake) in carrieng him to the gaile, if he should be apprehended, or
-other letting of their worke, to escape the same parish, is not onlie
-to make fine to the king, but also the same with the whole hundred
-wherein it standeth, to repaie the partie robbed his damages, and leave
-his estate harmlesse. Certes this is a good law, howbeit I have knowne
-by mine owne experience, fellons being taken to have escaped out of the
-stocks, being rescued by other for want of watch and ward, that theeves
-have been let passe, bicause the covetous and greedie parishoners would
-neither take the paines, nor be at the charge to carrie them to prison,
-if it were far off, that when hue and crie have beene made even to the
-faces of some constables, they have said: ‘God restore your losse, I
-have other business at this time!’ And by such meanes the meaning of
-manie a good law is left unexecuted, malefactors imboldened, and manie
-a poore man turned out of that which he hath swet and taken great
-paines for, toward the maintenance of himself and his poore children
-and familie.” (Holinshed, vol. i.)
-
-[Illustration: THE PILLORY
-
-From a historical print in the British Museum.]
-
-Among the punishments mentioned above was that of boiling alive.
-One unfortunate, named Rose, a cook in the house of the Bishop of
-Rochester, poisoned eighteen persons, of whom two died. He seems
-to have done this wilfully. He was boiled to death. This fearful
-punishment was inflicted by lowering the criminal slowly, inch by inch,
-affixed to a post into a deep caldron full of boiling water. How long
-the torture lasted before the heart stopped is not recorded.
-
-The penalty for bloodshed in the King’s Court was the loss of the right
-hand. The ceremony observed for such a punishment made a ritual of a
-remarkable and imposing ceremony.
-
-The offender, to quote Pike (_History of Crime_, vol. ii. p. 83), “was
-brought in by the Marshal, and every stage of the proceedings was under
-the direction of some member of the royal household. The first whose
-services were required was the Serjeant of the Woodyard, who brought
-in a block and cords, and bound the condemned hand in a convenient
-position. The Master Cook was there with a dressing knife, which he
-handed to the Serjeant of the Larder, who adjusted it, and held it
-‘till the execution was done.’ The Serjeant of the Poultry was close
-by with a cock, which was to have its head cut off on the block by the
-knife used for the amputation of the hand, and the body of which was
-afterwards to be used to ‘wrap about the stump.’ The Yeoman of the
-Scullery stood near, watching a fire of coals, and the Serjeant Farrier
-at his elbow to deliver the searing-irons to the surgeon. The chief
-Surgeon seared the stump, and the Groom of the Salcery held vinegar
-and cold water, to be used, perhaps, if the patient should faint. The
-Serjeant of the Ewry and the Yeoman of the Chandry attended with basin,
-cloths, and towels for the surgeon’s use. After the hand had been
-struck off and the stump seared, the Serjeant of the Pantry offered
-bread, and the Serjeant of the Cellar offered a pot of red wine, of
-which the sufferer was to partake with what appetite he might.”
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  _On the off hip of the Croupière_.
-  EXECUTION OF A SAINT
-
-  _On the near side of the Croupière_.
-  MARTYRDOM OF A SAINT
-
-  _On the off side of the Croupière_.
-  THE STORY OF ST. AGATHA
-
-  _On the off side of the Croupière_.
-  FURTHER PUNISHMENT OF ST. AGATHA
-
-  _On the near side of the Croupière_.
-  TORTURE OF ST. GEORGE
-
-  _On the near hip of the Croupière_.
-  BEHEADING OF A FEMALE SAINT
-
-From the engravings upon Henry VIII.’s Armour in the Tower of London.]
-
-Pickpockets, still called cutpurses, abounded. They formed a distinct
-profession; there was even a school for them. This educational
-establishment was carried on by a certain man named Wotton, at a house
-near Billingsgate, in the year 1585. Purses were worn at the girdle,
-attached by a chain or by a leathern string, and the pickpocket could
-be known by the horn thimble worn on the right thumb to protect it from
-the knife with which he cut the purse. Maitland says (p. 269):—
-
-  “Amongest our travells this one matter tumbled owt by the waye,
-  that one Wotton, a gentilman borne, kepte an Alehowse att Smarts
-  Keye neere Byllingsgate, and reared upp a newe trade of lyffe,
-  and in the same howse he procured all the Cuttpurses abowt this
-  Cittie to repair to his said howse. There was a Schole Howse sett
-  upp to learne younge boyes to cutt purses. There were hunge up two
-  devices, the one was a pockett, the other was a purse. The pocket
-  had in yt certen cownters, and was hunge abowte with hawkes bells,
-  and over the toppe did hannge a little sacringe bell; the purse
-  had silver in it; and he that could take owt a cownter without any
-  noyse was allowed to be a publique ffoyster, and he that could take
-  a peece of sylver owt of the purse without the noyse of any of the
-  bells, he was adjudged a judiciall Nypper. Note that a ffoyster is
-  a Pickpocte and a Nypper is termed a Pickepurse or a Cutpurse.”
-
-Among the many additions to Literature made during the Elizabethan age
-we have as detailed a description of the rogues, vagabonds, and the
-criminal class in London as we can desire. Their tricks and cheats;
-their way of living; their language or slang, can all be read in books
-of the time. Harrison, already quoted, furnishes a great deal; more
-may be read in Awdeley, Harman and Rowlands, Dekker, etc. To spare the
-curious reader a great deal of trouble, he is referred to Furnivall’s
-_Rogues and Vagabonds of Shakspere’s Youth_.
-
-Harman’s account of these cheats and rogues is full of entertaining
-anecdotes. For instance, there is the story of the robbery of his
-cauldron by the “Upryght men,” and how he recovered it:—
-
-  “I lately had standinge in my well house, which standeth on the
-  backeside of my house, a great cawdron of copper, beinge then full
-  of water, havinge in the same halfe a doson of pewter dishes, well
-  marked, and stamped with the connizance of my armes, whiche being
-  well noted when they were taken out, were set aside, the water
-  powred out, and my caudren taken awaye, being of such bygnes that
-  one man, unlesse he were of great strength, was not able far to
-  cary the same. Notwithstandynge, the same was one night within
-  this two yeares convayed more than half a myle from my house into
-  a commen or heth, and ther bestowed in a great firbushe. I then
-  immediatly the next day sent one of my men to London, and there
-  gave warning in Sothwarke, kent strete, and Barmesey streete, to
-  all the Tynckars there dwelling. That if any such Caudron came
-  thether to be sold, the bringar therof should be stayed, and
-  promised twenty shyllings for a reward. I gave also intelligence
-  to the water men that kept the ferres, that no such vessel should
-  be ether convayed to London or into essex, promysing the like
-  reward, to have understanding therof. This my doing was well
-  understand in many places about, and that the feare of espyinge
-  so troubled the conscience of the stealer, that my caudoren laye
-  untouched in the thicke firbushe more than halfe a yeare after,
-  which, by a great chaunce, was found by hunters for conneys; for
-  one chaunced to runne into the same bushe where my caudren was,
-  and being perceaved, one thrust his staffe into the same bushe,
-  and hyt my caudren a great blowe, the sound whereof dyd cause the
-  man to thinke and hope that there was some great treasure hidden,
-  wherby he thought to be the better whyle he lyved. And in farther
-  searching he found my caudren; so had I the same agayne unloked
-  for.”
-
-The Hooker or Angler was one who by day walked about the streets,
-observing the windows and what was kept in them. At night he carried a
-stick fitted with a hook. He opened the window from the outside, and
-by means of his hook got out what he wanted. Once, says Harman, the
-Hookers dragged from a bed, in which lay asleep a man and two boys, the
-blankets and upper sheets, leaving them in their shirts.
-
-[Illustration: BILLINGESGATE]
-
-The Rogue professed a part and dressed up to it. Harman tells a story
-of two rogues who wanted to break into a house but could not, because
-it was of stone, with the mullions of the windows too close for them to
-creep in. They had, however, a “horse-lock.” They woke up the tenant,
-who had with him only an old woman, and begged for alms. He opened the
-window and held out his hand with a penny in it. They seized his hand:
-he naturally thrust out the other to succour the first; they seized
-that as well, and clasped the two into the horse-lock, so that he was a
-prisoner until he gave up all the money in the house.
-
-The “wild” Rogue is a variety distinguished by greater courage. Harman
-quotes one as a beggar by inheritance. “His grandfather was a beggar;
-his father was one; and he must needs be one by good reason.”
-
-The “Prygger of Prauncers” was a horse-stealer; the Pallyard of
-Clapperdogen was one of the counterfeit sick men; he knew how to raise
-blisters, and to create a sore place by means of spearwort or ratsbane.
-The former raises a blister which passes away in a night; the latter a
-sore place that is incurable.
-
-The Frater—in the name we seem to catch a memory of the extinct
-Friar—carried at his girdle a black box, in which there was a licence
-(forged) to beg.
-
-The Abram man was one who feigned to have been mad, and to have been
-kept in Bedlam for a term of years.
-
-The Freshwater Mariner or Whipjack was a beggar who pretended to be a
-sailor on his way to get a ship; or who had recently been shipwrecked;
-or who had been robbed by pirates; and who showed a forged writing
-signed, as it seemed, by men of substance and position confirming his
-story.
-
-The Counterfeit Crank was a pretended epileptic. He carried a piece
-of white soap, which he put into his mouth to represent the epileptic
-foam. Harman draws a lively picture of such a man. He begged about the
-Temple, his face covered with blood and his rags with mud and dirt. At
-noon he repaired to the back of Clement’s Inn, where in a lane leading
-to the fields he renewed the blood on his face from a bladder which he
-had with him, and daubed his jerkin and hose again with mud. A certain
-printer watched him: in the evening he took a boat across the river;
-the printer followed him and caused him to be taken up in St. George’s
-Fields as a common beggar. They took him to the Constable’s house,
-where they stripped off his rags, showing him to be a healthy and
-comely man with no sign of any disease; in his pockets they found the
-sum of thirteen shillings, three pence, and a halfpenny; they gave him
-an old cloak of the Constable’s, in which he sat by the fire and drank
-three quarts of beer; after which he threw off the cloak and ran away
-naked. But they found out where he lived, viz. in a “pretty house, well
-stuffed, with a fair joined table, and a fair cupboard garnished with
-pewter.” So they took him to Bridewell, where they painted him, first
-in his disguise, and next in his proper attire. Then they whipped him
-through London and brought him back to Bridewell, where he stayed till
-they thought fit to let him go.
-
-The Dommerar pretended to be dumb: he carried a forged licence, and
-generally pretended to have lost his tongue. One of them was, unluckily
-for himself, caught by a surgeon, who proved that he had a tongue
-though he had neatly folded it away somewhere; and as the fellow still
-would not speak, the surgeon tortured him till he did. This done, they
-haled him before the magistrate, who administered the usual medicine.
-
-The Drunken Tinker’s career may be dismissed; so may that of the
-Pedlar; the Jackman made false writings and forgeries.
-
-The “Demander for Glymmar” was a woman who pretended to have been
-burned out, and carried a begging licence.
-
-The Basket women carried laces, pins, needles and girdles for sale.
-They bought coney skins and they stole linen from the hedges.
-
-The “Autem Morte” and the “Walking Morte” were also pedlars, and of
-evil repute.
-
-The Doxy was the companion and the confederate of the Upright Man.
-
-The Dell, the Kynchen Morte, and the Kynchen Cove were boys and girls
-in training for the life of the vagabond.
-
-Queen Elizabeth was fond of driving into the country as well as going
-upon the river. One summer evening she rode out from Aldersgate, along
-the road now called Goswell Road, towards the village of Iseldon or
-Islington. Just outside the town she was surrounded and beset by a
-number of beggars, to her great annoyance. Wherefore she sent her
-running footman, Stone, to the Mayor and to the Recorder complaining
-of this nuisance. The Recorder sent out warrants that same night to
-the quarters complained of, and into Westminster, with the result that
-seventy-four beggars were apprehended and sent to Bridewell, where they
-were “punished” (_i.e._ soundly flogged). Some of them were found to be
-very rich and usurers.
-
-The mob under Elizabeth did not venture in assemblies on acts of
-violence. One or two exceptions must be made. Once an armed company,
-headed by gentlemen, attacked Bridewell. Seeing that their object was
-the release of certain unrepentant women whose profession concerned
-the gentlemen only, it is probable that the whole of the rioters were
-gentlemen. On another occasion the ’prentices rose against foreigners.
-Instances of hatred between Spanish residents and citizens of London
-are common in the pages of Machyn. Thus on October 15, 1554, a Spaniard
-killed a servant of Sir George Gifford without Temple Bar. The cause
-of the quarrel is not stated. Ten days afterwards the unfortunate
-foreigner was hanged at Charing Cross. On the 4th of November following
-there was a great fray at Charing Cross between Spaniards and English.
-Not many were hurt, and those who began it were arrested, especially
-a blackamoor. In January another Englishman was murdered by three
-Spaniards, two of whom held him while the other ran him through. In
-April was hanged a certain person, servant to a poulterer. He robbed a
-Spaniard in Westminster Abbey, and for the offence was condemned to be
-hanged for three days, and then to be buried under the gallows. He was
-hanged in a gown of tawny frieze, and a doublet of tawny taffeta, with
-hose lined with sarcenet. Before being turned off he railed at the Pope
-and the Mass.
-
-Of street violence there was still a great deal, but not so much as
-formerly. The following letter speaks for itself.
-
-  “On Thursday laste (Feb. 13th 1587) as my Lorde Rytche was rydynge
-  in the streates, there was one Wyndam that stode in a dore, and
-  shotte a dagge at him, thynkynge to have slayne him; but God
-  provyded so for my L. Rytche that this Wyndam apoyntynge his
-  servant that mornynge to charge his dagge with 11 bulletts, the
-  fellow, doubtinge he mente to doe sum myschefe with it, charged
-  it only with powder and paper, and no bullett; and so this L.’s
-  lyfe was thereby saved, for otherwyse he had beene slayne. Wyndam
-  was presently taken by my Lord Rytche’s men, and, beynge broughte
-  before the Counsell, confessed his intende, but the cause of his
-  quarrell I knowne not; but he is commyted to the Towre. The same
-  daye also, as Sir John Conway was goynge in the streetes, Mr.
-  Lodovyke Grevell came sodenly uppon him, and stroke him on the
-  hedd with a sworde, and but for one of Sir John Conwaye’s men,
-  who warded the blow, he had cutt off his legges; yet did he hurte
-  him sumwhat on bothe his shynns; the Councelor sente for Lodovyke
-  Grevell and have commytted him to the Marchallcye.” (Drake,
-  _Shakespeare and his Times_, vol. ii.)
-
-The cucking-stool, trebucket, or tumbril, for the ducking of a scold,
-was commonly found in every village. There were several kinds of it.
-One was a chair set at the end of a braser which acted on a see-saw
-principle; one a stump put into the ground at the edge of the water.
-Another was a “standard” fixed at the entrance of a pond. To this
-was attached a long pole, at the extremity of which was fastened the
-chair. Such an one stood almost within the memory of man at the great
-reservoir in the Green Park. Another kind was a sort of cart on four
-wheels, with a braser, at the end of which was the chair. All over
-Oxford these things are found, also at Wootton Bassett, Broad Water
-Worthing, Leominster, Marlborough, Newbury, Scarborough, Warwick,
-Ipswich. In 1777 a woman was ducked at Whitchurch.
-
-The trial of Ben Jonson, an account of which has been recovered by Mr.
-John Cordy Jeafferson for the Middlesex County Record Society, began
-with the inquest on the body of one James Feake, held in Holywell
-Street, St. Leonard’s Shoreditch, in the thirty-ninth year of Queen
-Elizabeth, and on the 10th day of December. The said James Feake was
-killed in a brawl by one Gabriel Spencer, who struck him with his
-sword in its scabbard in the right eye, so that he fell down, and
-after languishing for three days, died of the wound. What was done to
-Gabriel Spencer does not appear. Perhaps the case was treated as one of
-self-defence. However, Gabriel Spencer presently met with his reward.
-For in the month of September following, viz. in 1598, the said Gabriel
-fell to quarrelling with a young man named Ben Jonson, in Shoreditch,
-or Hoxton Fields; from words they quickly came to blows, and Gabriel
-was pierced by Ben Jonson’s sword through the right side, so that he
-died immediately. Jonson was thrown into prison and was tried for
-manslaughter, not for murder. He pleaded guilty; he also pleaded his
-clergy, read his “neck-verse,” and was released in accordance with the
-statute 18 Eliz. c. 7, after being branded in the hand with what the
-London people called the Tyburn T.
-
-I have found one instance, the earliest, of a kind of transportation.
-Among Frobisher’s Company were six men condemned to death. Their
-sentence was commuted into banishment. They were sent on board
-Frobisher’s ship, to be landed on the shores of “Freezeland,” that
-is Greenland or Labrador, with weapons and provisions. They were
-instructed to win the good-will and friendship of the natives and to
-inquire into their “estate.” In other words, to find out all that could
-be learned concerning them. It is unfortunate that history makes no
-further mention of these pioneers.
-
-[Illustration: THE CUCKING-STOOL.
-
-From an old print in the British Museum.]
-
-The story of Thomas Appletree: his terrible accident; his deadly peril;
-his repentance; and his pardon, is pathetic. I suffer Stow to tell it
-in his own words:—
-
-“The seventeenth day of July, the Queenes moste excellent Maiestie,
-being in ye river of Thamis, betwixt hir Highnesse Mannour of
-Greenewiche and Detteforde, in hur privie Barge, accompanyed with
-Monsier Schemere the French Embassadour, the Earle of Lincolne, and
-Maister Vizchamberlaine, etc., with whim she entred discourse about
-waightie affaires; it chanced that one Thomas Appletree, a yong man
-and servant to Maister Henrie Carie, with two or three children of hir
-Maiesties Chappell, and one other named Barnard Acton, being in a Boate
-on the Thamis, rowing up and downe betwixte the places above named,
-the foresaide Thomas Appletree hadde a Caliver or Harquebuze, whych he
-hadde three or foure times discharged with Bullet, shooting at randone
-very rashly, who by greate misfortune shot one of the Watermen, being
-the seconde man nexte unto the Bales of the saide Barge, labouring
-with hys Oare (whyche sate wythin five feete of hir Highnesse), cleane
-through bothe hys armes; the blowe was so greate and greevous, that it
-moved him out of his place, and forced hym to crye and scritche oute
-piteouslye, supposing hymselfe to be slain, and saying, he was shot
-through the body. The man bleeding abundantly, as though he had had 100
-Daggers thrust into hym, the Queenes Maiestie showed such noble courage
-as is moste wonderfull to be heard and spoken of, for beholding hym so
-maimed, and bleding in such force, she never bashed thereat, but shewed
-effectually a prudent and magnanimous heart, and moste courteously
-comforting the pore man, she bad hym be of good cheere, and saide hee
-should want nothing that might bee for his ease, commaunding hym to
-be covered till such time as hee came to the shoare, till which time
-hee lay bathing in his owne bloud, which might have been an occasion
-to have terrified the eyes of the beholders. But such and so great
-was the courage and magnanimitie of our dread and soveraigne Ladie,
-that it never quailed. To be short, Thomas Appletree and the rest were
-apprehended and brought before her honorable Counsell, who with great
-gravitie and wisedome employed their times verie carefully, and with
-greate diligence examined the saide Appletree and his companions,
-and finding the case moste hainous and wicked, justly pronounced
-againste him the sentence of death, and commit him to the Marshalsea in
-Southwarke, from whence ye Tuisday following hee was brought through
-the Citie with the Knight Marshalles men, ledde up to the Tower Hill,
-and so to Radcliffe upp to Blackwall, and so downe to the waterside,
-where was a Gibet sett upp, directly placed betwixte Detforde and
-Greenewiche, for the execution of this malefactour, who in deed verie
-pitifully bewayled the offence hee had committed, and as well in prison
-as by the waie prepared himselfe verie penitently and willingly to
-offer his body to the death.
-
-Thus verie godly hee purposed to finish his miserable and wretched
-life, and so prepared himselfe to ascend and goe upp the Ladder, and
-being on the same, he turned himselfe, and spake to the people as
-followeth: Good people, I am come hither to die, but God is my Judge, I
-never in my life intended hurt to the Queenes Most excellent Maiestie,
-nor meant the harme of any creature, but I pray to God with all my
-heart long to prosper and keepe her Highnes in health, who blesse and
-defende her from all perilles and daungers, who prosper her in all her
-affaires, and blesse her moste Honorable Counsell, giving them grace to
-doe all things to the glorie of God, and the benefit of this realme;
-but of all things I am moste sorie for my offence, and wofully bewaile
-the same; and more, I am penitent and sorie for my good Maister,
-Maister Henrie Carie, who hath been so grieved for my fault, suffering
-rebuke for the same: I would to God I had never been borne that have
-so grievously offended him. And with that the teares gusht oute of
-his eyes verie faste. This saide, hee persuaded all men to serve God,
-and to take an example by him, and every night and morning moved them
-devoutly to say the Lord’s Prayer. And as the executioner had put the
-rope about his necke, the people cried stay, stay, stay, and with that
-came the right Honorable sir Christopher Hatton, Vizchamberlaine to
-her highnes, who enquired what hee had confessed, and being certified,
-as is before expressed, hee bailed his bonet, and declared, that the
-Queenes Maiestie had sent him thither both to make the cause open to
-them how hainous and greevous the offence of ye said Thomas Appletree
-was, and further to signify to him her gracious pleasure; and so
-continued his message, as ye may reade it printed by itself, and
-annexed to this discourse. Which, when he had declared, the hangman
-was commanded to take the roape from his necke. Appletree being come
-downe from the Ladder, received his pardon, and gave God and the Prince
-praise for so great a benefite as he had by her moste gracious bountie
-received. This done, Maister Vizchamberlaine saide: Good people pray
-for the Queenes Maiestie, and then was this prayer saide, which is
-usually reade (for the preservation of her Maiestie) in the Church: O
-Almighty and everlasting God, the Lord of Lords, and King of Kings,
-which dost fro’ thy throne behold all the dwellers of the earth, most
-heartily we beseech thee with thy favour to behold our moste gracious
-soveraigne lady Queen Elizabeth, etc. Whereunto all the people joyfully
-accorded to saye Amen, crying, God save the Queen: casting up their
-Cappes.” (Stow’s _Chronicles of England_.)
-
-One of the last cases of ordeal by battle belongs to the year 1571.
-
-“The eighteenth of June, in Trinitie terme, there was a combat
-appointed to have been fought for a certeine manour and demaine
-lands belonging thereunto in the Ile of Hartie, adjoining to the Ile
-of Shepie in Kent. Simon Low and John Kime were plaintifs, and had
-brought a writ of right against Thomas Paramore, who offered to defend
-his right by battell. Whereupon the plaintiffs aforesaid accepted to
-answer his challenge, offering likewise to defend their right to the
-same manour and lands, and to prove by battell, that Paramore had no
-right nor good title to have the same manour and lands. Hereupon the
-said Thomas Paramore brought before the judges of the common plees of
-Westminster, one George Thorne, a big, broad, strong set fellow; and
-the plaintifs Henrie Nailer, maister of defense, and servant to the
-right honourable the earle of Leicester, a proper slender man, and not
-so tall as the other. Thorne cast downe a gantlet, which Nailer tooke
-up, upon the sundaie before the battell should be tried. On the next
-morow, the matter was staied, and the parties agreed, that Paramore
-being in possession should have the land, and was bound in five hundred
-pounds to consider the plaintifs, as upon hearing the matter the judges
-should award. The queens majestie abhorring bloodshed, and (as the poet
-very well saith)
-
-    “Tristia sanguinei deuitans praelia campi”
-
-was the taker up of the matter, in this wise. It was thought good,
-that for Paramore’s assurance, the order should be kept touching
-the combat, and that the plaintifs Low and Kime should make default
-of appearance; but that yet such as were sureties for Nailer their
-champions appearance, should bring him in; and likewise those that were
-sureties for Thorne, should bring in the same Thorne, in discharge of
-their band; and that the court should sit in Tuthill Fields where was
-prepared one plot of ground of one and twentie yards square, double
-railed for the combat. Without the west square a stage being set up for
-the judges, representing the court of the common plees.
-
-All the compasse without the lists was set with scaffolds one above
-another, for people to stand and behold. There were behind the square
-where the judges sat, two tents, the one for Nailer, the other for
-Thorne. Thorne was there in the morning timelie, Nailer about seven
-of the clock came through London, apparelled in a doublet, and gallie
-gascoine breeches all of crimsin satin, cut and rased, a hat of blacke
-velvet, with a red feather and band, before him drums and fifes
-plaieng. The gantlet cast downe by George Thorne was borne before
-the said Nailer upon a sword’s point, and his baston (a staffe of an
-ell long, made taper wise, tipt with horne) with his shield of hard
-leather was borne after him, as Askam a yeoman of the queenes gard.
-He came into the place at Westminster and staieng not long before the
-hall door, came back into the king’s street, and so along thorough the
-Sanctuarie and Tuthill street into the field, where he staied till past
-nine of the clocke, and then Sir Jerome Bowes brought him to his tent:
-Thorne being in the tent with Sir Henrie Cheinie long before.
-
-About ten of the clocke, the court of common plees remooved, and came
-to the place prepared. When the Lord chief Justice, with two other his
-associates were set, then Low was called solemnlie to come in, or else
-to lose his writ of right. Then after a certeine time, the suerties of
-Henrie Nailer were called to bring in the said Nailer, champion for
-Simon Low. And shortlie thereupon, Sir Jerome Bowes, leading Nailer by
-the hand, entred with him the lists, bringing him downe that square by
-which he entred, being on the left hand of the judges, and so about
-till he came to the next square, just against the judges, and there
-making courtesie, first with one leg and then with the other, passed
-foorth till he came to the middle of the place, and then made the like
-obeisance and so passing till they came to the barre, there he made
-the like courtesie, and his shield was held up aloft over his head.
-Nailer put off his netherstocks, and so barefoot and barelegged, save
-his silke scauilones to the ankles, and his dublet sleeves tied up
-above the elbow, and bareheaded, came in, as is aforesaid. Then were
-the suerties of George Thorne called to bring in the same Thorne; and
-immediately Sir Henry Cheinie entering at the upper end on the right
-hand of the judges, used the like order in comming about by his side,
-as Nailer had before on that other side; and so comming to the barre
-with like obeisance, held up his shield. Proclamation was made that
-none should touch the barres, nor presume to come within the same,
-except such as were appointed.
-
-After all this solemne order was finished, the lord chiefe justice
-rehearsing the maner of bringing the writ of right by Simon Low, of
-the answer made thereunto by Paramore, of the proceeding therein, and
-how Paramore had challenged to defend his right to the land by battell,
-by his champion Thomas Thorne, and of the accepting the triall that
-was by Low with his champion Henrie Nailer; and then for default of
-appearance in Low he adjudged the land to Paramore, and dismissed the
-champion, acquiting the suerties of their bands. He also willed Henrie
-Nailer to render againe to George Thorne his gantlet. Whereto the
-said Nailer answered, that his lordship might command him anie thing,
-but willingly he would not render the said gantlet to Thorne except
-he could win it. And further he challenged the said Thorne to play
-with him half a score blowes, to shew some pastime to the lord chiefe
-justice and to the other there assembled. But Thorne answered, that
-he came to fight, and would not plaie. Then the lord chiefe justice
-commending Nailer for his valiant courage, commanded them both quietlie
-to depart the field, etc.” (Stow’s _Chronicles of England_.)
-
-
-
-
-                              APPENDICES
-
-
-
-
-                              APPENDIX I
-
-                             THAMES WATER
-
-
-“Peter Morice, a Dutchman, in 1580 explained before the Lord Mayor
-and Aldermen his invention for raising the Thames water high enough
-to supply the upper parts of the City, and threw a jet of water over
-the steeple of St. Magnus Church. Before this time no such thing had
-been known in England. Whereupon the City granted him a lease for 500
-years of the Thames water, and the places where his mills stood, and
-of one of the arches of old London Bridge, at 10s. yearly. Two years
-afterwards they granted him another arch on the same terms. He received
-large grants from the City to help him to complete this curious system
-of hydraulic mechanism. In the Act for rebuilding the City after the
-Great Fire it was provided that Thomas Morris should have power to
-rebuild with timber his water-house for supplying the City (18 & 19
-Charles II. c. 8). The works continued in the family till 1701, when
-they were sold for £36,000 to Richard Soames, and afterwards became the
-property of a Company. On June 23rd, 1767, the fifth arch was granted
-for the use of the Company. By Act of Parliament, 3 Geo. IV. cap. 109,
-July 26th, 1822, the Acts relating to the Company were repealed. The
-Company were to be paid £10,000, and their works to be removed by, or
-at the expense of, the New River Company.” (_Remembrancia._)
-
-This invention and the subsequent supply of the whole City with water
-laid on, killed the Company of Water-bearers.
-
-“The ‘Rules, Ordinances, and Statutes made by the Rulers, Wardens, and
-Fellowship of the Brotherhood of Saint Cristofer of the Water-bearers
-of London,’ are dated October 20th, 1496 (_Transactions of the London
-and Middlesex Archæological Society_, vol. vi. p. 55). Their hall was
-situated in Bishopsgate Street, near Sun Street, now numbered 143 and
-144, Bishopsgate Street Without:—‘Robert Donkin, Citizen and Merchant
-Taylor of London, left by his will, dated December 1st, 1570, that
-messuage or howse which he purchased of the Company of Water-bearers on
-the 9th of October, 1568.’”
-
-
-
-
-                              APPENDIX II
-
-                    SIR HUMPHREY GILBERT’S ACADEMY
-
-
-In 1570 Sir Humphrey Gilbert laid before the Queen a plan for an
-Academy or University of London.
-
-His plan was as follows:—
-
-“Seeing that young gentlemen resort most freely to London there should
-be an Academy, viz.:—
-
-  1. A master for G. and L., £40.
-  2. Four Ushers at £20.
-  3. One Hebrew at £50.
-  4. One Logic and Rhetoric, £40.
-     Exercise and instruction in English.
-  5. One Reader of Moral Phil., £100.
-  6.  „    „    „  Natural Phil., £40.
-  7. Two mathematicians ea. at £100 {1. Arith., Geom., Fort.
-                                    {2. Cosmog., Astronomy, Navigation.
-  8. Two Ushers at £40.
-  9. Riding Master.
-  10. Drill Master, £66:13:4.
-  11. Physician £100, with a garden.
-  12. Reader of Civil Law, £100.
-  13. Reader of Divinity, £100.
-  14.   „    „  Law, £100.
-  15. Teacher of French, £26; Spanish, £26; Italian, £26; Dutch, £26;
-          with Ushers at £10.
-  16. Master of Defence, £36.
-  17. Dancing and Vaulting School, £26.
-  18. Music, £26.
-  19. Steward, Cooks, Butlers, etc., £600.
-  20. Minister and Clerks, £66:13:4.
-  21. Teacher of Heraldry, £26.
-  22. Librarian, £26.
-  23. Treasurer, £100.
-  24. Rector.
-      Amounting in all to £2966:13:4 a year.
-
-“By erecting this academie, there shall be hereafter an effect, no
-gentleman within the Realm but good for something; whereas now the most
-parts of them are good for nothing. Your Majesty and your successive
-Courtes shall be for ever, instead of a nurserie of idlenes, become a
-most noble Academy of Chevallrie, Policy, and Philosophie.”
-
-
-
-
-                             APPENDIX III
-
-                        PETITION AGAINST ALIENS
-
-
-“In most pitious and lamentable wise shewing and complaining unto your
-most excellent highness, your humble, true and faithful subjects,
-and contynualle orators, that is to sey, mercers, grocers, drapers,
-goldsmythes, skynners, haberdassers, Taylers, ledyrsellers, pursers,
-poyntmakers, glovers, powchemakers, Sadlers, Cutlers, pewterers,
-Cowpers, gyrdlers, founders, Cordeners; vyntners, sporyars, joyners,
-and all other Chapmen, retailers, occupiers of every craft, mystery,
-and occupation, in all and every your Cities, ports, towns, and
-boroughs within this noble realm of England. That where your said
-realm and land is so inhabited with a great multitude, needy people,
-strangers of divers nations, as Frenchmen, galymen, pycardis, flemings,
-keteryckis, Spaynyars, Scottis, Lombards, and divers other nations,
-that your liege people, Englishmen, cannot imagine nor tell wherto
-nor to what occupation that they shalle use or put their children to
-lerne or occupy within your said cities, boroughs, ports and towns of
-this your said realm, with many other Chappmen and poor commons using
-the said crafts, mysteries, and occupation in all and every shire of
-this your said realm!... now it is so, most redoubted Sovereign lord,
-that innumerable needy people of galymen, Frenchmen and other great
-multitudes of alien strangers, do circuit, wander, go to and fro, in
-every your Cities, ports, towns, and boroughs in all places, as well
-within franchises, privileges, and liberties, as without, to every
-man door, taking up standing, and there make their shows, markets and
-sales of divers wares and merchandise to their own singular profits,
-advantage, and advails, to the great disturbance, empoverishing,
-hurt, loss, and utter undoing of your natural subjects and liege
-people in all and every city, port, borough, town, and places of your
-said realm: and also of more convenience for their advancement, the
-said Aliens strangers use to hire them servants of their own nation,
-or other strangers, or go about, wander, and retail in all cities,
-ports, towns and boroughs, and all other places to bye, sell, retail,
-and occupy seats and merchandise at their pleasure, without lawful
-authority or license, contrary to the said acts and statutes afore
-provided, and contrary to the Charters, liberties, constitutions, and
-confirmations made, given, and granted by your said noble predecessor,
-afore rehearsed: by means of which unlawful retailing so customably
-haunted, used, and occupied, your liege people and natural subjects,
-their wives, children, and servants, be utterly decayed, empoverished,
-and undone, in this world, unless your excellent and benign grace of
-your tender pity be unto your said subjects gracious at this time
-showing in this behalf. And without a short remedy be had herein, your
-said subjects be not able, nor shall not be of power to pay their
-rents nor also to maintain their poor households and to bear lot and
-scot and all other priests’ benevolences, and charges in time of need
-and war for the defence of your grace and of this your said realm,
-for the repressing, subduing, and vanquishing of your ancient enemies
-Frenchmen, and all other their adherents and banished men outwards.”
-(_Furnivall._)
-
-
-
-
-                              APPENDIX IV
-
-                       THE ORDER OF PROCESSIONS
-
-
-    “Messengers of the Court.
-    Gentlemen of lesse note.
-    Esquiers.
-    Esquiers of the Body.
-    Clarkes of the Chancery.
-    Clarkes of the Signet.
-    Clarkes of the Privy Seale.
-    Clarkes of the Counsell.
-    Masters of the Chancery.
-    Knights Batchlers.
-    Knights Banneretts.
-              Trumpets soundinge.
-    Serjeants at Law.
-    Queenes Serjeants.
-    The Queen’s Attorney and the Queen’s Solicitor together.
-    The Baron of the Exchequer.
-    The Judges of the Common Pleas.
-    The Judges of the King’s Bench.
-    The Lorde Chiefe Justice of the Common Pleas, and the Lord Chiefe
-        Justice of the Exchequer.
-    The Lord Chief Justice of England, and the Master of the Rolls.
-    The Younger Sonnes of Nobility.
-    Knight of the Privy Counsell.
-    Knights of the Garter.
-    The Principall Secretary.
-    The Treasurer of the Queen’s House, and Controller of the Queen’s
-        House.
-    The Queen’s Clarke and Hat-bearer.
-    Two Heralds.
-    The Barons two and two.
-    Two Heralds.
-    The Bishops.
-    The Vicounts.
-    Two Heralds.
-    The Earls.
-    An Herald or King of Armes.
-    The Marques, etc.
-    Places for Dukes.
-    The Lord Chancellor of England.
-    The Lord Treasurer of England.
-    The Archbishop of Canterbury.
-    Clarenciaux King of Armes.
-    The Sergeants at Armes with Staves.
-    Bearer of the Capp Royal, and the Carrier of the Marshall Rod of
-        England.
-    The Sword bearer on either side him.
-    The Great Chamberleine of England.
-    The Steward of the Queenes House on the left side.
-    Then the Queene in her Chariotte.
-    The Four Querryes of the Stable come next, with the Queen’s
-        footmen: and without them all in a rancke wayted the Pentioners
-        with their Partisans.
-    Then the Master of the Horse.
-    Then the Chamberleine of the Queenes House.
-    Then the Vice-chamberleine with many Noblewomen, Ladyes and others.
-
-In this order passing to St. Peter’s Church, in Westminster: was there
-met with the Queen’s Almoner, the Dean of Westminster with the Prebends
-and all the Quier in their Copes.”
-
-
-
-
-                              APPENDIX V
-
-                         THE CHANGES OF RITUAL
-
-
-On 28th July 1900 was published in the _Athenæum_ of that date a paper
-by the late Rev. Prebendary Kitto, Vicar of St. Martin’s in the Fields,
-on the changes effected in the rites and ceremonies of that church
-during the years 1537–1560 or thereabouts. This instructive document
-was compiled from the accounts and papers preserved in the archives of
-the church.
-
-Thus the ritual remained much the same during the reign of Henry
-VIII. as it had been before the commencement of the Reformation. They
-provided, as of old, candles, palms, incense; they hallowed sacred
-coals for Easter Eve; they provided lights for the font, for the rood
-loft, and for the altars; they set up the Easter sepulchre; they used
-the great Paschal Candle, the tabernacle, and the pyx; they maintained
-the side altars, and they not only repaired the vestments but they
-received gifts of new vestments. They had obits and “minds,” celebrated
-mass and kept up the images.
-
-In 1538 lights before images were forbidden; but a perpetual light was
-maintained at the high altar.
-
-In 1539 the Parish sold the iron and latten candlesticks which had been
-used for the images.
-
-In the same year a Bible was bought for the church. It cost 12s. 8d.
-
-In 1540 Henry is described under the title of “Defender of the Faith
-and Supreme Head, under God, of the Church of England and Ireland.”
-
-In 1547 they sold all the wax they had in stock, according to the
-injunction.
-
-In 1548 no more lights were allowed. The Parish sold the rest of their
-candlesticks, and bought a Paraphrase of the Gospel and a Communion
-Cup; they also whitewashed the church, in order, I suppose, to
-obliterate the pictures.
-
-In 1549 the altars were stripped: there were to be no more flowers or
-garlands, no incense and no lights.
-
-In 1550 they set up a box for the poor; sold their vestments; bought
-white surplices, and put a green cloth over the “Communion Table.”
-
-In 1553 they sold the “old broken stuff of the Rood Loft” and made
-“Communion Pews.”
-
-In the same year they were made to feel the mutability of things
-religious, because everything had to be restored at great expense.
-Their candlesticks, however, were of tin. They bought a cross for
-processions; a mass-book, a holy water stoup with a sprinkle; a basket
-for the holy bread; a pyx and all the other old vessels. Also, because
-under Edward they had written texts on the walls, they were now ordered
-to wipe them all out.
-
-In 1559 they began to go back again to the Edwardian time, but not
-immediately. In 1560 the Bible was restored.
-
-It is worthy of note that the parish officers were a little uncertain,
-after their melancholy experience, of the stability of things. They
-therefore kept the vessels bought in the time of Queen Mary until 1569,
-when, feeling somewhat reassured, they sold them all.
-
-
-
-
-                              APPENDIX VI
-
-                            GOLDSMITHS’ ROW
-
-
-“Opposite to the Cross in Cheapside, on the south side of the street,
-there stood a superb pile of buildings, called Goldsmiths’ Row,
-extending from the west to Bread Street. This Row was erected in 1491,
-by Thomas Wood, Goldsmith, Sheriff of London. Stow describes it in
-1598 as ‘the most beautiful frame of fair houses and shops that be
-within the walls of London, or elsewhere in England. It containeth in
-number ten fair dwelling-houses and fourteen shops, all in one frame,
-uniformly builded four stories high, beautified toward the street
-with the Goldsmith arms and the likeness of Woodmen (in memory of
-the founder’s name) riding on monstrous beasts, all of which is cast
-in lead, richly painted over and gilt.’ ‘This said front was again
-new painted and gilt over in the year 1594, Sir Richard Martin being
-then Mayor, and keeping the Mayoralty in one of them’ (Stow, edition
-1633). ‘At this time the City greatly abounded in riches and splendour,
-such as former ages were unacquainted with. Then it was beautiful
-to behold the glorious appearance of Goldsmiths’ shops in the South
-Row of Cheapside, which, in a continued course, reached from the Old
-Change to Bucklersbury, exclusive of four shops only of other trades
-in all that space’ (Maitland’s _History of London_, edition 1760,
-vol. i. p. 301). King Charles the First in 1629 issued a Proclamation
-ordering the Goldsmiths to plant themselves, for the use of their
-trade, in Cheapside or Lombard Street. The Lords of the Council, in
-1637, sent a letter to the Lord Mayor and Aldermen (_vide_ vii. 197),
-ordering them to close every shop in Cheapside and Lombard Street that
-did not carry on the trade of a Goldsmith, about twenty-four in all,
-Grove and one Widow Hill, Stationers; Dover, a Milliner; Brown, a
-Bandseller; Sanders, a Drugster; Medcalfe, a Cook; Edwards, a Girdler,
-etc.—Rushworth’s ‘State Papers.’” (_Remembrancia_, p. 106, n. 1.)
-
-
-
-
-                             APPENDIX VII
-
-                             LONDON PLANTS
-
-
-In the _Archæologia_ may be found the following enumeration of plants
-grown in an Elizabethan garden:—
-
-  Adderstong—Ophioglossum.
-  Affodyll—Narcissus Pseudo-narcissus. Affodyll Daffadilly.
-  Appyl—Apple—Pyrus Malus; and garden varieties.
-  Asche tre—Ash—Fraxinus excelsior.
-  Auans—Geum urbanum, Avance or Avens.
-  Betony—Saachys Betonica.
-  Borage—Borrago officinalis.
-  Bryswort—Bruisewort, Brusewort or Brisewort—Bellis perenni.
-  Bugull—Bugle—Ajuga reptans.
-  Bygull—Bigold—Chrysanthemom segetum.
-  Calamynte—Calamintha officinalis. “The garden mynt.”
-  Camemyl—Chamomile—Anthemis nobilis. “Camamyll.”
-  Carsyndylls? “Cars or Carses—cress.”
-  Centory—Great Centuary.
-  Clarey—Clary—Salvia sclarea.
-  Comfery—Comfrey—Symphytum officinale.
-  Coryawnder—Coriander.
-  Cowslippe—Cowslip.
-  Dytawnder—Dittander and Dittany.
-  Egrimoyne—Egremoyne.
-  Elysauwder—Smyrnium Olusatrum.
-  Feldwort—Felwort and Fieldwort.
-  Floscampi? Campion?
-  Foxglove—Digitalis purpurea.
-  Fynel—Fennel.
-  Garleke—Garlick.
-  Gladyn—Iris foetidissima or Iris Pseudacorus.
-  Gromel—Gromwell.
-  Growdyswyly—Growndyswyly—Groundswyll.
-  Hasel tre—Hazel tree.
-  Haw thorn—Hawthorn.
-  Henbane—Hyoscyamus niger.
-  Herbe Ion.
-  Herbe Robert—Geranium Robertianum.
-  Herbe Water—Herb Walter.
-  Hertystonge—Hartystonge—Hart’s-tongue.
-  Holyhocke—Althaea rosea, or Malva sylvestris or Althaea officinalis.
-  Honysoke—Honeysuckle.
-  Horehound—Marrubium vulgare.
-  Horsel—Horselle—Horsehele.
-  Hyndesall?—Hind-heal.
-  Langbefe, generally supposed to be Helminthia echioides.
-  Lavyndull—Lavandula vera.
-  Leke—Leek.
-  Letows—Lettuce.
-  Lyly—Lily.
-  Lyverwort.
-  Merege. Cannot identify.
-  Moderwort—Motherwort.
-  Mouseer—Mouse ear.
-  Myntys—Mint.
-  Nepte—Nep or Neppe or Nept.
-  Oculus Christi—Salvia verbanaca.
-  Orage—Atriplex hortensis.
-  Orpy—Orpies.
-  Ownyns and Oynet.
-  Parrow? Cannot identify? mistake for Yarrow.
-  Pelyter—Pellitory.
-  Percely—Perselye —Parsley.
-  Pere—Pear.
-  Peruynke—Periwinkle.
-  Primrole—Primrose.
-  Polypody—Polypodium vulgare.
-  Pympernold—Pimpernel.
-  Radysche—Radish.
-  Redenay. Cannot identify.
-  Rewe—Rue.
-  Rose—Rosa, red and white.
-  Rybwort—Ribwort.
-  Saferowne—Saffron.
-  Sage—Salvia officinalis.
-  Sanycle—Sanicle.
-  Sauerey—Savory.
-  Scabyas—Scabious.
-  Seueny—Seniue. Common mustard or field senive.
-  Sowthrynwode—Southernwood.
-  Sperewort—Spearwort.
-  Spynage—Spinach.
-  Strowberys—Strawberries.
-  Stychewort—Stichewort.
-  Tansay—Tansy.
-  Totesayne—Tutsan—Hypericum Androsæmum.
-  Tuncarse—Town cress.
-  Tyme—Thyme.
-  Valeryan—a general name for Valeriana.
-  Verveyn—Vervain—Verbena officinalis.
-  Violet—Viola. Generally V. odorata.
-  Vynys and Vyne tre—Vine.
-  Walwort—Walwort or Danewort of Dwarf elder.
-  Warmot—Wormwood.
-  Waterlyly—Water lily.
-  Weybrede—Plantago major.
-  Woderofe—Woodruffe.
-  Wodesour—Woodsour.
-  Wurtys—Wortys.
-  Wyldtesyl—Teazel.
-  Ysope—Hyssop. “Ysopus is ysope.”
-
-                                     (_Archæologia_, vol. 1. p. 167.)
-
-
-
-
-                             APPENDIX VIII
-
-                   THE GALLANTS’ WALK IN ST. PAUL’S
-
-
-“Your mediterranean isle is then the only gallery, wherein the pictures
-of all your true fashionate and complemental Gulls are, and ought to
-be hung up. Into that gallery carry your neat body: but take heed you
-pick out such an hour, when the main shoal of islanders are swimming
-up and down. And first observe your doors of entrance, and your exit:
-not much unlike the players at the theatres: keeping your decorums,
-even in phantasticality. As for example: if you prove to be a northern
-gentleman, I would wish you to pass through the north door, more often
-especially than any of the other: and so, according to your countries
-take note of your entrances.
-
-Now for your venturing into the walk. Be circumspect, and wary what
-pillar you come in at: and take heed in any case, as you love the
-reputation of your honour, that you avoid the serving-man’s log, and
-approach not within five fathom of that pillar: but bend your course
-directly in the middle line, that the whole body of the church may
-appear to be yours: where, in view of all, you may publish your suit
-in what manner you affect most, either with the slide of your cloak
-from the one shoulder: and then you must, as ’twere in anger, suddenly
-snatch at the middle of the inside, if it be taffeta at the least:
-and so by that means your costly lining is betrayed, or else by the
-pretty advantage of compliment. But one note by the way I do especially
-woo you to, the neglect of which makes many of our gallants cheap and
-ordinary, that by no means you be seen above four turns: but in the
-fifth make yourself away, either in some of the semsters’ shops, the
-new tobacco-office, or amongst the booksellers, where, if you cannot
-read, exercise your smoke, and inquire who has writ against this divine
-weed, etc. For this withdrawing yourself a little will much benefit
-your suit, which else, by too long walking, would be stale to the whole
-spectators: but howsoever if Paul’s jacks be once up with their elbows,
-and quarrelling to strike eleven: as soon as ever the clock has parted
-them, and ended the fray with his hammer, let not the Duke’s gallery
-contain you any longer, but pass away apace in open view: in which
-departure, if by chance you either encounter, or aloof off throw your
-inquisitive eye upon any knight or squire, being your familiar, salute
-him not by his name of Sir such a one, or so: but call him Ned, or
-Jack, etc. This will set off your estimation with great men: and if,
-though there be a dozen companies between you, ’tis the better, he call
-aloud to you, for that is most genteel, to know where he shall find
-you at two o’clock: tell him at such an ordinary or such: and be sure
-to name those that are dearest, and whither none but gallants resort.
-After dinner you may appear again, having translated yourself out of
-your English cloth cloak into a light Turkey grogram, if you have that
-happiness of shifting: and then be seen, for a turn or two, to correct
-your teeth with some quill or silver instrument, and to cleanse your
-gums with a wrought handkerchief: it skills not whether you dined, or
-no: that is best known to your stomach: or in what place you dined:
-though it were with cheese, of your mother’s own making, in your
-chamber, or study.
-
-Now if you chance to be a gallant not much crost among citizens: that
-is, a gallant in the mercer’s books, exalted for satins and velvets:
-if you be not so much blest to be crost (as I hold it the greatest
-blessing in the world to be great in no man’s books): your Paul’s walk
-is your only refuge: the Duke’s tomb is a sanctuary: and will keep
-you alive from worms, and land-rats, that long to be feeding on your
-carcass: there you may spend your legs in winter a whole afternoon:
-converse, plot, and talk any thing: jest at your creditor, even to his
-face: and in the evening, even by lamp-light, steal out: and so cozen a
-whole covey of abominable catchpolls. Never be seen to mount the steps
-into the quire, but upon a high festival day, to prefer the fashion of
-your doublet: and especially if the singing-boys seem to take note of
-you: for they are able to buzz your praises above their anthems, if
-their voices have not lost their maidenheads: but be sure your silver
-spurs dog your heels, and then the boys will swarm about you like so
-many white butterflies: when you in the open quire shall draw forth a
-perfumed embroidered purse, the glorious sight of which will entice
-many countrymen from their devotion to wondering: and quoit silver into
-the boys’ hands, that it may be heard above the first lesson, although
-it be read in a voice as big as one of the great organs.
-
-This noble and notable act being performed, you are to vanish presently
-out of the quire, and to appear again in the walk: but in any wise be
-not observed to tread there long alone: for fear you be suspected to be
-a gallant cashiered from the society of captains, and fighters.” (_The
-Gull’s Horn Book._)
-
-
-
-
-                              APPENDIX IX
-
-             MONTHLY PROVISION TABLE THROUGH THE YEAR 1605
-
-
-  +---+--------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
-  |   |              | J | F | M | A | M | J | J | A | S | O | N | D |
-  |   |              | a | e | a | p | a | u | u | u | e | c | o | e |
-  |   |              | n.| b | r | r | y | n | l | g | p | t | v | c |
-  |   |              | . | . | . | i | . | e | y | u | t | . | . | . |
-  |   |              |   |   |   | l |   | . | . | s | . |   |   |   |
-  |   |              |   |   |   | . |   |   |   | t |   |   |   |   |
-  |   |              |   |   |   |   |   |   |   | . |   |   |   |   |
-  +---+--------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
-  |   | Rooe         |...|...|...|...|...|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|
-  |   | Bucke        |...|...|...|...|...|———|———|———|———|...|...|...|
-  |   | Braune       |———|———|...|...|...|...|...|...|...|...|———|———|
-  |   | Muttone      |———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|
-  |   | Pigge        |———|———|———|———|...|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|
-  |   | Hare         |———|———|———|...|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|
-  | M | Beefe        |———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|
-  | E | Veale        |———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|
-  | A | Lambe        |———|...|———|———|———|———|———|...|...|...|———|———|
-  | T | Dowe         |———|———|...|...|...|...|...|...|...|———|———|———|
-  |   | Baconn       |———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|
-  |   | Porcke       |———|———|———|———|———|...|...|...|...|———|———|———|
-  |   | Rabbetts     |———|———|...|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|
-  |   | Hinde        |———|———|...|...|...|...|...|...|...|———|———|———|
-  |   | Kidde        |...|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|
-  |   | Stagges      |...|...|...|...|———|———|———|———|———|...|...|...|
-  |   | Gote         |...|...|...|...|...|...|...|———|———|...|———|———|
-  +---+--------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
-  |   | Bustarde     |———|———|———|———|———|...|...|...|...|———|———|———|
-  |   | Goose        |———|———|———|...|...|...|...|...|———|———|———|———|
-  |   | Green Goose  |...|...|...|...|...|———|———|———|...|...|...|...|
-  |   | Heron        |———|...|———|...|...|———|———|———|...|———|———|...|
-  |   | Egrett       |———|...|...|———|———|...|...|...|...|...|...|...|
-  |   | Widgeon      |———|———|———|...|...|...|...|...|...|———|———|———|
-  |   | Curlewiake   |———|...|...|...|...|...|...|...|...|...|...|...|
-  |   | Turkie       |———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|
-  |   | Phesaunte    |———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|
-  |   | Pullett      |———|...|...|———|———|...|...|...|———|...|———|———|
-  |   | Bayninge     |———|———|———|...|...|...|...|...|...|...|———|———|
-  |   | Ruffe        |———|...|...|...|...|...|...|...|...|———|...|...|
-  |   | Plover       |———|———|...|...|...|...|...|...|...|———|———|———|
-  |   | Snipe        |———|———|———|...|...|...|...|...|...|———|———|———|
-  |   | Partreges    |———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|
-  |   | Larckes      |———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|...|...|———|———|
-  |   | Crayne       |———|———|———|...|...|...|...|...|...|...|———|———|
-  |   | Storcke      |———|———|———|———|———|...|...|...|...|...|———|———|
-  |   | Shoveller    |———|...|...|...|...|...|...|...|———|———|———|———|
-  |   | Brue         |———|...|...|———|———|...|...|...|...|...|...|...|
-  |   | Curlewe      |———|———|———|———|...|...|...|...|...|...|———|———|
-  |   | Gull         |———|...|...|...|...|———|———|———|———|———|...|———|
-  |   | Peacocke     |———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|...|———|———|
-  |   | Henne        |———|———|———|...|...|...|...|...|...|...|...|———|
-  |   | Redshanke    |———|———|———|...|...|...|...|...|...|...|———|———|
-  |   | Knotte       |———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|
-  |   | Blankett     |———|...|...|...|...|———|...|...|...|...|...|...|
-  |   | Stockdoves   |———|———|———|...|...|...|...|...|...|...|———|———|
-  |   | Indecocke    |———|...|...|...|...|...|...|...|...|...|...|...|
-  |   | Quales       |———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|...|———|———|
-  |   | Thrush       |...|———|———|...|...|———|...|...|...|———|———|———|
-  |   | Pidgeons     |...|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|...|———|———|
-  | F | Stennts      |...|———|———|...|———|...|...|...|...|...|———|———|
-  | O | Turtells     |...|———|———|...|...|...|...|...|...|...|———|———|
-  | W | Goldnye      |...|———|———|...|...|...|...|...|...|...|...|...|
-  | L | Jedcokes     |...|———|———|...|...|...|...|...|...|———|———|...|
-  |   | Pevetts      |...|...|...|...|...|———|———|———|———|———|...|...|
-  |   | Sea Pie      |...|...|...|...|...|———|...|...|...|...|...|...|
-  |   | Pea Chicks   |...|...|...|...|...|———|...|...|...|...|...|...|
-  |   | Petterells   |...|...|...|...|...|———|———|———|———|...|...|...|
-  |   | Stares       |...|...|...|...|...|———|...|...|...|...|...|...|
-  |   | Churre       |...|...|...|...|...|———|...|...|...|...|...|...|
-  |   | Sparrows     |———|...|...|...|...|...|...|...|...|...|...|...|
-  |   | Swanne       |———|———|———|...|...|...|...|...|...|...|———|———|
-  |   | Hernne       |———|———|...|...|...|...|...|...|———|...|...|———|
-  |   | Bitter       |———|———|———|...|...|———|———|———|———|———|———|...|
-  |   | Mallarde     |———|———|———|...|...|...|...|...|...|———|———|———|
-  |   | Cudberduce   |———|...|...|...|...|...|...|...|...|...|...|———|
-  |   | Cullver      |———|———|———|...|...|...|...|...|...|———|———|———|
-  |   | Caponne      |———|...|...|———|———|———|———|———|———|...|———|———|
-  |   | Godwite      |———|———|———|———|———|...|———|———|———|———|———|———|
-  |   | Ree          |———|———|———|...|...|...|...|...|...|...|———|———|
-  |   | Dotterell    |———|...|...|———|———|———|———|———|...|...|...|...|
-  |   | Teale        |———|———|———|...|...|...|...|...|...|...|———|———|
-  |   | Woodcocke    |———|———|———|...|...|...|...|...|...|———|———|———|
-  |   | Plover       |———|...|———|...|...|...|...|...|...|...|...|...|
-  |   | Fellfaire    |———|———|———|...|...|...|...|...|———|———|———|———|
-  |   | Finshes      |———|...|...|...|...|...|...|...|...|...|...|...|
-  |   | Smalebirds   |...|———|———|...|...|...|...|...|...|...|...|———|
-  |   | Chickens     |...|...|...|———|———|———|———|———|———|...|...|...|
-  |   | Chitt        |...|...|...|...|———|...|———|———|...|...|...|...|
-  |   | Kennecis     |...|...|...|...|———|———|———|———|———|...|...|...|
-  |   | Mewe         |...|...|...|...|...|———|———|———|———|...|...|...|
-  |   | Tearne       |...|...|...|...|...|———|———|...|...|...|...|...|
-  |   | Blackbirds   |...|...|...|...|...|———|...|...|...|———|———|———|
-  |   | Young Turkies|...|...|...|...|...|———|———|———|...|...|...|...|
-  |   | Auk          |...|...|...|...|...|...|———|...|...|...|...|...|
-  |   | Martines     |...|...|...|...|...|...|———|———|...|...|...|...|
-  |   | Crouces      |...|...|...|...|...|...|———|———|———|...|...|...|
-  |   | Dunlings     |...|...|...|...|...|...|...|...|———|...|...|...|
-  |   | Railes       |...|...|...|...|...|...|...|...|———|———|...|...|
-  |   | Lapwine      |...|...|...|...|...|...|...|...|———|———|———|...|
-  |   | Golne        |...|...|...|...|...|...|...|...|...|...|———|...|
-  +---+--------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
-  |   | Kennecis     |...|...|...|...|...|...|...|...|...|...|...|...|
-  |   | Pearches     |...|———|———|...|...|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|
-  |   | Linge        |———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|
-  |   | Tunny        |———|———|———|———|———|...|...|...|...|...|———|———|
-  |   | Turbutt      |———|...|...|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|
-  |   | Whitinge     |———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|
-  |   | Soles        |———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|
-  |   | Lamprons     |———|———|———|———|———|...|...|...|...|...|———|———|
-  |   | Carpe        |———|...|...|...|...|———|...|...|———|———|———|———|
-  |   | Tench        |———|...|...|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|...|...|
-  |   | Oysters      |———|———|———|———|...|...|...|———|———|———|———|———|
-  |   | Cockells     |———|...|...|———|...|...|...|...|———|———|———|———|
-  |   | Codde        |———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|
-  |   | Porposse     |———|———|———|———|———|...|...|...|...|...|———|———|
-  |   | Haddocke     |———|———|———|———|———|...|———|———|...|...|———|———|
-  |   | Sealumpe     |———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|...|...|———|———|
-  |   | Place        |———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|...|...|
-  |   | Chevine      |———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|...|...|
-  |   | Pike         |———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|
-  |   | Eles         |———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|...|...|———|———|
-  |   | Crabbs       |———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|
-  |   | Crevices     |———|...|...|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|
-  |   | Styrgeon     |———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|
-  | F | Seals        |———|———|———|———|———|...|...|...|...|...|———|———|
-  | I | Thornebacke  |———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|
-  | S | Salmon       |———|———|———|———|———|———|...|...|...|...|———|———|
-  | H | Dace         |...|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|
-  |   | Habberdine   |...|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|
-  |   | Roche        |...|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|
-  |   | Mussels      |...|———|———|———|...|...|...|...|———|———|———|———|
-  |   | Crefishes    |...|———|———|...|...|...|...|...|...|...|...|...|
-  |   | Smeltes      |———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|...|...|...|...|
-  |   | Barbell      |———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|...|...|
-  |   | Breame       |———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|
-  |   | Rudds        |———|...|...|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|...|———|
-  |   | Lobsters     |———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|
-  |   | Praunes      |———|———|———|...|...|...|...|...|...|...|...|———|
-  |   | Herings White|...|...|...|———|...|...|...|...|...|...|...|...|
-  |   | Herings Red  |...|...|...|———|...|...|...|...|...|...|...|...|
-  |   | Herringes    |...|...|...|...|...|———|...|...|...|...|...|...|
-  |   | Britt        |...|...|...|———|...|———|———|...|...|...|...|...|
-  |   | Conger       |...|...|...|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|...|
-  |   | Cunninge     |...|...|...|———|...|———|...|...|...|...|...|...|
-  |   | Goodgions    |...|...|...|———|...|———|———|———|———|———|...|...|
-  |   | Rochetts     |...|...|...|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|...|...|
-  |   | River Trout  |...|...|...|———|———|...|...|...|...|...|...|...|
-  |   | Trout        |...|...|...|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|...|...|
-  |   | Flounders    |...|...|...|———|———|———|...|———|———|———|...|———|
-  |   | Lamprais     |...|...|...|———|———|...|...|...|...|...|...|...|
-  |   | Mades        |...|...|...|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|...|...|
-  |   | Loche        |...|...|...|———|...|...|...|...|...|...|...|...|
-  |   | Gurnard      |...|...|...|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|...|...|
-  |   | Sprates      |...|...|...|———|...|...|...|...|...|...|...|...|
-  |   | Dabes        |...|...|...|———|———|———|...|———|———|———|...|———|
-  |   | Dory         |...|...|...|———|———|———|———|———|———|———|...|...|
-  |   | Millett      |...|...|...|———|———|———|———|———|...|...|...|...|
-  |   | Perches      |...|...|...|———|———|...|...|...|...|...|...|...|
-  |   | Burbott      |...|...|...|———|———|———|...|...|...|...|...|...|
-  |   | Menewes      |...|...|...|———|...|...|...|...|...|...|...|...|
-  |   | Mackarell    |...|...|...|...|———|———|———|———|...|...|...|...|
-  |   | Shads        |...|...|...|...|———|...|———|———|...|...|...|...|
-  |   | Mopps        |...|...|...|...|...|———|...|———|———|———|...|———|
-  |   | Breate       |...|...|...|...|...|...|...|———|———|———|———|...|
-  |   | Smalcod      |...|...|...|...|...|...|...|...|...|...|———|———|
-  |   | Shrimps      |...|...|...|...|...|...|...|...|...|...|...|———|
-  |   | Perrewinkell |...|...|...|...|...|...|...|...|...|...|...|———|
-  +---+--------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
-
-Maitland gives a Table of Prices for the years 1274, 1302, 1314,
-1531, and 1550. Note that in the years 1314 and 1550 provisions were
-excessively dear.
-
-  +--------------------------+------------+---------+---------+-----------+-----------+
-  |                          |   1274.    | 1300 or |  1314.  |   1531.   |   1550.   |
-  |                          |            |  1302.  |         |           |           |
-  +--------------------------+------------+---------+---------+-----------+-----------+
-  |A Fat Cock                |...         |1½d.     |...      |¾d.        |    ...    |
-  |The best Hen              |3½d.        |...      |1½d.     |...        |    9d.    |
-  |   „     Pullet           |1¾d.        |¾d.      |...      |...        |    6d.    |
-  |   „     Capon            |2d.         |2½d.     |2½d.     |1s.        | 1s. 4d. to|
-  |                          |            |         |         |           |  1s. 8d.  |
-  |   „     Goose (according |5d. or 4d.  |4d.      |3d.      |...        | 6d. to 9d.|
-  |           to season)     |            |         |         |           |           |
-  |   „     Wild Goose       |4d.         |...      |...      |...        |    ...    |
-  |   „     Pigeon           |3 for 1d.   |...      |3 for 1d.|12 for 10d.|  12 for   |
-  |                          |            |         |         |           |  1s. 2d.  |
-  |   „     Mallard          |3½d.        |1½d.     |...      |...        |    ...    |
-  |   „     Wild Duck        |1¾d.        |...      |...      |...        |    ...    |
-  |   „     Partridge        |3½d.        |1½d.     |...      |...        |    ...    |
-  |   „     Larks (per dozen)|12 for 1d.  |...      |...      |12 for 5d. | 12 for 8d.|
-  |   „     Pheasant         |4d.         |...      |...      |...        |    ...    |
-  |   „     Heron            |6d.         |6d.      |...      |...        |  2s. 6d.  |
-  |   „     Plover           |1d.         |1d.      |...      |...        |    4d.    |
-  |   „     Swan             |3s.         |3s.      |...      |...        |  6s. 8d.  |
-  |   „     Crane            |3s.         |1s.      |...      |...        |    6s.    |
-  |   „     Peacock          |1d.         |...      |...      |...        |    ...    |
-  |   „     Coney            |4d.         |...      |...      |...        |    ...    |
-  |   „     Hare             |3½d.        |...      |...      |...        |    ...    |
-  |   „     Kid (according   |10d. or 6d. |...      |...      |...        |    ...    |
-  |           to season)     |            |         |         |           |           |
-  |   „     Lamb             |6d. or 4d.  | 1s. 4d. |...      |...        |    ...    |
-  |                          |            |  or 4d. |         |           |           |
-  |   „     Plaice           |1½d.        |...      |...      |...        |    ...    |
-  |   „     Soles (per dozen)|3d.         |...      |...      |...        |    ...    |
-  |   „     Mullet           |    2d.     |   ...   |   ...   |    ...    |    ...    |
-  |   „     Haddock          |    2d.     |   ...   |   ...   |    ...    |    ...    |
-  |   „     Conger           |    1s.     |   ...   |   ...   |    ...    |    ...    |
-  |   „     Turbot           |    6d.     |   ...   |   ...   |    ...    |    ...    |
-  |   „     Mackerel         |    1d.     |   ...   |   ...   |    ...    |    ...    |
-  |   „     Gurnard          |    1d.     |   ...   |   ...   |    ...    |    ...    |
-  |   „     Herring (accord- |6 for 1d. or|         |         |           |           |
-  |           ing to season) | 12 for 1d. |   ...   |   ...   |    ...    |    ...    |
-  |   „     Lamprey          |    4d.     |   ...   |   ...   |    ...    |    ...    |
-  |   „     Oysters          |2d. a gallon|   ...   |   ...   |    ...    |    ...    |
-  |   „     Salmon (according| 5s. or 3s. |         |         |           |           |
-  |           to season)     |            |   ...   |   ...   |    ...    |    ...    |
-  |   „     Eels             | 25 for 2d. |   ...   |   ...   |    ...    |    ...    |
-  |   „     Smelts           |100 for 1d. |   ...   |   ...   |    ...    |    ...    |
-  |A Quarter of Wheat        |     ...    |   4s.   |   ...   |    ...    |8s. to 13s.|
-  |     „       Pease        |     ...    | 2s. 6d. |   ...   |    ...    | 3s. to 5s.|
-  |     „       Oats         |     ...    |   2s.   |   ...   |    ...    |     4s.   |
-  |A Bull                    |     ...    | 7s. 6d. |   ...   |    ...    |    ...    |
-  |A Cow                     |     ...    |   6s.   |  12s.   |    ...    |    ...    |
-  |A Fat Sheep               |     ...    |   1s.   |   ...   | 2s. 10d.  | 2s. 4d. to|
-  |                          |            |         |         |           |  4s. 4d   |
-  |An Ewe                    |     ...    |   8d.   |   ...   |    ...    | 1s. 8d. to|
-  |                          |            |         |         |           |  2s. 6d.  |
-  |An Ox                     |     ...    |   ...   | £1:4s.  |  £1:6:8   | £2:5s. to |
-  |                          |            |         | or 16s. |           |  £1:8s.   |
-  |A Hog                     |     ...    |   ...   | 3s. 4d. | 3s. 8d.   |    ...    |
-  |Eggs                      |     ...    |   ...   |20 a 1d. |    ...    |    ...    |
-  +--------------------------+------------+---------+---------+-----------+-----------+
-
-
-
-
-                              APPENDIX X
-
-                              EXECUTIONS
-
-
-The following is a list of executions which took place in the thirty
-years ending 1586. It shows the various crimes which were then
-considered capital:—
-
-  1563. A soldier executed at Newhaven for drawing his weapon without
-          orders.
-  1563. A sergeant and soldier executed for drawing their weapons
-          against their captain.
-  1569. Mestrell a Frenchman, and two Englishmen, hanged for
-          counterfeiting money.
-  1569. Sixty rebels executed at Durham.
-  1569. A ’prentice hanged for murdering his master.
-  1569. Five rebels executed at York.
-  1570. Thomas and Christopher Norton executed for treason.
-  1570. John Throckmorton and five others executed for treason.
-  1570. John Felton hanged for nailing the Pope’s Bull to the Bishop
-          of London’s Palace.
-  1570. Two young men hanged for debasing coin.
-  1570. Dr. John Storie hanged for high treason.
-  1571. Rebecca Chamber burnt for poisoning her husband.
-  1572. Barneie, Mather, and Rolfe, hanged for treason.
-  1572. Martin Bullocke hanged for robbery and murder.
-  1572. Duke of Norfolk beheaded for treason.
-  1573. Percy, Earl of Northumberland, beheaded as a conspirator.
-  1573. John Hall and Oswald Wilkinson hanged for treason.
-  1573. A man hanged for murder.
-  1573. George Browne hanged for murder.
-  1573. Anne Sanders, Anne Drurie, and trustie Roger hanged as
-          accessories to murder.
-  1573. Anthonie Browne hanged for felony.
-  1574. Peter Burchet hanged for murder.
-  1575. Two Dutch Anabaptists burnt at Smithfield.
-  1575. Twenty-two pirates executed.
-  1575. Thomas Greene, goldsmith, hanged for clipping coin.
-  1576. A woman burnt at Tunbridge for poisoning her husband.
-  1576. A man hanged at Maidstone as an accessory to poisoning.
-  1577. Cuthbert Maine hanged as a Romanist.
-  1577. John Nelson and Thomas Sherewood hanged for denying the
-          Queen’s supremacy.
-  1577. John de Loy and five Englishmen executed at Norwich for
-          counterfeiting coin.
-  1577. Seven Pirates hanged at Wapping.
-  1577. An Irishman hanged on Mile End Green for murder.
-  1580. A man named Glover hanged for murder.
-  1580. Richard Dod hanged for murder.
-  1580. William Randall hanged for conjuring.
-  1581. A man hanged at St. Thomas Waterings for begging by a licence
-          signed by the Queen’s own hand counterfeited.
-  1581. Edward Hance a seminary priest hanged.
-  1581. Edmund Campion, Ralfe Sherwin, Alexander Briars, hanged for
-          high treason.
-  1581. John Paine executed at Chelmsford for high treason.
-  1581. Thomas Foord, John Shert, Robert Johnson, priests, hanged for
-          designs against Elizabeth.
-  1582. Laurence Richardson and Thomas Catcham executed for Romanism.
-  1582. Philip Prise hanged in Fleet Street for killing a Sheriff.
-  1583. Thomas Worth and Alice Shepheard hanged in Shoolane for
-          killing a ’prentice.
-  1583. Elias Shackar hanged at Bury St. Edmunds for spreading
-          seditious literature.
-  1583. Ten priests hanged.
-  1583. John Lewes burnt at Norwich for heresy.
-  1583. John Slade and John Bodie hanged for high treason.
-  1583. Ten horsedealers hanged at Smithfield for robbery.
-  1583. Edward Arden hanged for treason.
-  1583. William Carter hanged for high treason.
-  1584. Francis Throckemorton hanged for treason.
-  1584. William Parrie hanged for treason.
-  1585. Thomas Awfeld and Thomas Weblie hanged for publishing
-          seditious matter.
-  1586. Two seminary priests hanged at Tyburn.
-  1586. A witch burnt at Smithfield.
-  1586. A woman executed at Tyburn for adultery.
-  1586. Two priests hanged at Tyburn for treason.
-  1586. Jone Cason hanged for witchcraft.
-  1586. A man named Foule hanged for robbing his wife.
-  1586. Henry Elks hanged for counterfeiting the Queen’s signature.
-  1586. Seven persons condemned for treason.
-  1586. John Ballard, a priest, executed for conspiring with Anthony
-          Babington against Elizabeth. With him were executed John
-          Savage, Barnewell, Tichborne, Tilneie, Edward Abingdon,
-          Anthony Babington.
-  1586. Thomas Salisbury executed for treason. With him suffered
-          Henry Dun, Edward Jones, Charnocke, Robert Gage, Jerom
-          Bellamie.
-  1586. Three seminary priests hanged at Tyburn.
-  1563–1586—76 Executed for high treason.
-             71 Rebels.
-             17 Murder.
-              3 Military offences.
-             12 Counterfeiting and clipping coin.
-              2 Counterfeiting Queen’s signature.
-             29 Pirates.
-              2 Witchcraft and conjuring.
-              3 Heresy.
-             12 Robbery.
-              1 Adultery.
-
-
-
-
-                              APPENDIX XI
-
-                        PLAN OF TOTTENHAM COURT
-
-
-          (MARQUIS OF SALISBURY’S COLLECTION, HATFIELD HOUSE)
-
-  (Endorsed 1) The plot of Toten’am Coorte.
-  (Endorsed 2) Ap. 1591 Totenham Cort.
-
-Below the plan is written:—
-
-“M^d. [memorandum] there doth belonge to the said Scite of Tottenham
-Court two other Closes over and above the pastures mentioned in this
-plotte; And not here mentioned by reason they lye so farr distaunt
-from the said londes mentioned in this plott: Vĩz the one of the said
-Closes doth lye in Kentishe Towne in the said Countie, distaunt one
-Mile and more from the farthest part Northward of the ground mentioned
-in the said plott, late in the Tenure of Widowe Glover: And the other
-Close contayning 4 Acres by estimacõn doth lye in the parishe of St
-Pancrasse in the said Countie now or late in the Tenure of Willm̃
-Bunche, distaunt from the South part of the saied landes mentioned in
-the said plott one quarter of A myle: w^{ch} saied two Closes w^{th}
-two Tenem^{ts} there (As I am enfourmed) are demised unto Serieaunt
-[Serjeant] Haynes for certaine yeares yet enduring, by the right
-Honourable Henry late Earle of Arundell, And Robert late Earle of
-Leyester; yeelding yearley to the Cofferer of hir Ma^{ts} [Majesty’s]
-housholde—lxvi^s viii^d. The charge of the new building of one of
-the Tenem^{ts}, And the continuall Repairing thereof, hath (As I am
-enfourmed) cost Serieaunt Haynes—xxxiii^{li} vi^s viii^d. And the new
-building of the other, w^{th} the repairing thereof did coste Alexander
-Glover late Hearde there—xx^{li} or thereabouts.
-
-Also I am enfourmed, that Serieaunt Haynes doth hold the said ffowre
-Closes, lying next the said Parke pale, w^{th} thafter pasture of two
-of the same Closes, beyng the middle Closes; yeelding yearlie ffiftie
-loades of hay, to be delivered at the Muse, ffor and twords her Ma^{ts}
-[Majesty’s] provision there, cleere above all charges; every loade
-to contayne 18. hundred weight. And thafter pasture of the other two
-Closes are to be used for the feede of her Ma^{ts} Cattell untill the
-feaste of the Purification of o^r Lady following.
-
-Also I finde one Danyell Clerke one of her Ma^{ts} servaunts doth now
-dwell in the Scite of the said howse, w^{ch} is A very slender building
-of Timber and Bricke And hath beene of a larger building, then now it
-is: ffor some little parte hath been pulled downe of late, to amend
-some part of the howses now standing; w^{ch} has beene repaired of
-late, by the said Alexander Glover Heard there: And other some part
-being two Roomes, whereof the one Roome contayneth in breadth w^{th}in
-the wall 15 foote; And in lengthe 24 foote; And thother Roome is 15
-foote broade, and in length 34 foote very greatlie decaied, w^{ch} will
-coste to be repaired—lx^{li} at the least. And the said cheife howse,
-one Stable, and two barnes, And A little Close called Ponde Close,
-w^{th} the Ortcyard, And the two Closes called Murrells mentioned
-in the platt are used to be fedd w^{th} her Ma^{ts} Cattell, At the
-discretion of her Ma^{ts} Officers.
-
-                                                 6^t Aprilis 1.5.9.1
-                                               ̃p. me Willm̃ Nector.”
-
-
-
-
-              NOTE ON AGAS’S MAP AT THE END OF THE VOLUME
-
-
-Ralph Agas was born about 1540. He was a land-surveyor, and his
-chief claim to notice lies in the three maps or plans he made of
-London, Oxford, and Cambridge. Of these the one reproduced in this
-volume, entitled “A Survey of the Cities of London and Westminster,
-the Borough of Southwark and parts adjacent,” was engraved by Edward
-J. Francis, and edited by W. H. Overall, F.S.A. Mr. Overall made a
-careful examination of all the facts, and believes that the original
-map of Agas was not made earlier than the year 1591, though it has been
-commonly supposed to have been made about 1560. Of the original, two
-copies are extant—one in the Guildhall, and the other in the Pepysian
-Collection at Magdalen College, Oxford.
-
-In 1737 G. Vertue published a copy of Agas’s map, altering the original
-in many important particulars, which are enumerated by Mr. Overall in
-his account of the map. Among these may be mentioned the water-bearers
-seen off Tower Stairs and the Steelyard, filling their casks, which are
-slung across the backs of horses, by the aid of a long-handled ladle.
-In Vertue’s map this interesting detail is turned into a meaningless
-one, namely, a man driving cows into the water with a whip. In Agas
-the figures seen in the fields are in Elizabethan costume; in Vertue’s
-map they are in the costume of William III.’s reign. Other particulars
-omitted in Vertue are the royal barge in mid-stream off Baynard’s
-Castle; the Martello Tower at the mouth of the Fleet; the Chapter
-House and the Church of St. Gregory on the south side of St. Paul;
-and various other points. By noting these details, Vertue’s spurious
-reproduction can be at once distinguished from the genuine map of
-Agas.
-
-
-
-
-                                 INDEX
-
-
-  Abergavenny, 218
-
-  Abram man, the, 386
-
-  Acheley, R., 42
-
-  Acton, Barnard, 389
-
-  Africa, trade with, 222
-
-  Agas, Ralph, 186, 417
-
-  Aldermen, 8, 10, 12, 16, 20, 26, 27, 37, 40, 77, 78, 90, 98, 210, 211,
-    212, 259, 309, 313, 324, 342, 345, 371, 373, 397
-
-  Aldermen, Court of, 27, 28, 40, 220
-
-  Aldersgate Street, 58, 246
-
-  Aldersgate, Ward of, 76
-
-  Aldgate, Ward of, 76
-
-  Ale and beer, 292, 293, 300, 302, 334, 337, 368
-
-  Aliens, 13, 14, 19, 23, 24, 25, 26, 42, 59, 61, 80, 82, 203, 237, 238,
-    242, 387, 399
-
-  Allen, Cardinal, 72, 73, 119, 143
-
-  Allen, J., 376
-
-  Almshouses, 375–378
-
-  Ambassadors, the French, 23, 24, 26, 39, 351, 389;
-    the Russian, 63, 234
-
-  Amusements—Archery, 193, 343, 354–356, 363;
-    bear-baiting, 74, 241, 343, 346, 347, 352–354;
-    bowls, 181, 290, 363;
-    bucklers, 25;
-    bull-baiting, 343, 346, 347, 352, 353;
-    cards, 290, 363;
-    cock-fighting, 363;
-    dancing, 20, 153, 182, 325, 343, 363;
-    dice, 290;
-    fighting, 183;
-    hawking, 98;
-    hunting, 100, 215, 363;
-    masques, 313;
-    May-day games, 347;
-    pigeon-shooting, 153;
-    quarter-staff, 343, 352, 363;
-    quintain, 343;
-    reading, 365;
-    single-stick, 352;
-    story-telling, 364,  365;
-    tennis, 290;
-    theatres (See _Drama, Theatres_);
-    tilting and tournaments, 100, 351, 363;
-    and women, 272;
-    wrestling, 183, 343, 352, 363
-
-  Anabaptists, 160, 161
-
-  Anfrelini, Fausto, 286
-
-  Anglers, 385
-
-  Anstry, Ralph, 10
-
-  Antwerp, 219–220, 232
-
-  Apollo Club, 340
-
-  Appletree, Thomas, 82, 389–391
-
-  Apprentices, 12, 13, 80, 199, 218, 275, 276, 291, 310, 323–332, 387
-
-  Apprentice bell, the, 147
-
-  Apsley, 246
-
-  Ardeley, J., 136
-
-  Arden of Faversham, 47
-
-  Armour, 318, 319, 322
-
-  Arthington, Henry, 158, 159
-
-  Arthur, Prince, 9
-
-  Artillery Company, 356
-
-  Artillery Ground, 16
-
-  Arundell, Earl of, 39
-
-  Ascham, 248
-
-  Ashmole, 165
-
-  Askew, Anne, 31
-
-  Astrology, 165
-
-  Atwater, John, 9
-
-  Audley, Lord, 7, 8
-
-  Autem Morte, the, 387
-
-  Awdeley, 384
-
-  Aylmer, Lawrence, 12
-
-
-  Babington Conspiracy, the, 81
-
-  Bacon, Lord, 202, 248
-
-  Bainbrigg, 150
-
-  Bakewell, 150
-
-  Bale, John, 129, 130, 257
-
-  Ballads, 251, 252, 253
-
-  Balthazar, 203
-
-  Bankside, 203, 240, 346, 347, 352
-
-  Barbican, the, 100
-
-  Barges, 39, 86, 211, 259, 351, 389, 417
-
-  Barley, W., 246
-
-  “Barmesey” Street, 384
-
-  Barnard’s Inn, 276, 333
-
-  Barnet, 140
-
-  Barnstaple, 218
-
-  Barrington, Daines, 355
-
-  Barton, Elizabeth, 31, 32
-
-  Basinghall Street, 201
-
-  Basket woman, the, 387
-
-  Bassishaw, Ward of, 76
-
-  Bath, 217, 376
-
-  Bavaria, Duke of, 99, 100
-
-  Baynard’s Castle, 12, 35, 181, 203, 417;
-    Ward of, 76
-
-  Beaumont, F., 247, 339
-
-  Bedford, 217
-
-  Beds, 278, 281, 284, 333
-
-  Beggars and rogues, 19, 20, 29, 40, 41, 44, 147, 288, 291, 347,
-    366–371, 380, 381, 385, 387
-
-  Bele, Dr., 24, 25
-
-  Bellmen, 63
-
-  Bentley, Justice, 150, 151
-
-  Bermondsey, 237, 370
-
-  Berwick, 218
-
-  Betrothal, 311, 312
-
-  Bible, the, 45, 46, 70, 121, 127, 144, 178, 197, 227, 285
-
-  Billingsgate, Ward of, 76
-
-  Bishopsgate Street, 99, 195, 397
-
-  Bishopsgate, Ward of, 76, 204
-
-  Bishop of London, 30
-
-  Black Death, 369
-
-  Blackfriars, 128, 148, 203
-
-  Blackheath, 7, 26
-
-  Black Waggon, the, 26
-
-  Blackwall, 191, 390
-
-  Blackwell Hall, 43
-
-  Bodmin, 218
-
-  Boleyn, Anne, 30, 38, 39, 40
-
-  Bond, Martin, 77, 78
-
-  Bonham, John, 256
-
-  Books, sale of, 244, 245, 246, 247, 272, 273
-
-  Booksellers and authors, 247
-
-  Borough, the, 333
-
-  Boswell, 339
-
-  Bow, 238
-
-  Bowes, Sir J., 392
-
-  Bowes, Lady, 150
-
-  Boxley, Holy Rood of, 148
-
-  Boy-Bishop, the, 46, 356, 364
-
-  Boycott, the, 42
-
-  Bradford, John, 58
-
-  Bread Street, 200, 339, 403
-
-  Bread Street, Ward of, 76
-
-  Brecknock, 218
-
-  Bricks, 276
-
-  Bridewell, 185, 315
-
-  Bridewell, Palace of, 28, 48, 132, 178
-
-  Bridge foot, 53
-
-  Bridge House, the, 313
-
-  Bridge, J., 246
-
-  Bridge Within, Ward of, 76
-
-  Bridge Without, Ward of, 48
-
-  Bridgewater, 218
-
-  Bridgnorth, 217, 377
-
-  Bridport, 218
-
-  Bristol, 217, 376
-
-  Britannia Fields, 356
-
-  Brixton, 150
-
-  Broad Street, 181, 202, 221, 355
-
-  Broad Street, Ward of, 76
-
-  Broad Water Worthing, 388
-
-  Brockby, Anthony, 129
-
-  Broken Wharf, 158
-
-  Brome, 340
-
-  Bromley, R., 136
-
-  Brook, Robert, 49
-
-  Browne, John, 259
-
-  Browne, Sir T., 248
-
-  Buckingham, 217
-
-  Buckingham, Duke of, 30
-
-  Bucklersbury, 180, 403
-
-  Bunhill Fields, 16
-
-  Burbage, James, 345, 346
-
-  Burby, C., 246
-
-  Burgundy, Margaret, Duchess of, 13
-
-  Burleigh, 85, 143
-
-  Burnell, Anne, 159
-
-  Burroughs, 222
-
-  Butchers, 151, 152
-
-  Butcher Row, 44
-
-  Butler, N., 246
-
-
-  Cadman, 246
-
-  Caerleon, 218
-
-  Caermarthen, 218
-
-  Calais, 62
-
-  Cambridge, 218, 376
-
-  Camden, 240
-
-  Campeggio, Cardinal, 28, 39
-
-  Campion, Edmund, 72, 81
-
-  Candlewick, Ward of, 76
-
-  Cannon Street, 44
-
-  Canterbury, 140, 191, 217
-
-  Canting, 367
-
-  Capel, William, 12
-
-  Cardiff, 218
-
-  Cardmaker, J., 58, 140
-
-  Carey, Henry, 389
-
-  Carion, 284
-
-  Carmillion, Alice, 258, 260
-
-  Carpenter, John, 35, 375
-
-  Carpets, 277, 278, 281
-
-  Carter Lane, 273
-
-  Carthusian martyrs, the, 111, 112, 132, 136
-
-  Carver, D., 136
-
-  Carving, 297, 298
-
-  Casaubon, Isaac, 203
-
-  Cason, Joan, 163, 164
-
-  Caursini, 111
-
-  Cavendish, Sir Charles, 150
-
-  Cavendish, George, 286, 287
-
-  Cavendish, Thomas, 222, 227
-
-  Caverley, H., 257
-
-  Caxton, 182, 244, 254
-
-  Chancellor, Richard, 222, 234
-
-  Chancery Lane, 44, 83
-
-  Chaplains, domestic, 274
-
-  Chapter House, 417
-
-  Charing Cross, 155, 387
-
-  Charity, 74, 369, 374–378
-
-  Charnock Conspiracy, the, 81
-
-  Charter House, 67
-
-  Chaucer, 247
-
-  Cheapside (Cheap, Chepe), 8, 20, 23, 25, 83, 90, 91, 142, 154, 158,
-    180, 181, 203, 211, 337, 339, 347, 362, 371, 403;
-    conduit in, 20, 90, 91;
-    Cross in, 180, 403;
-    Standard in, 90, 180
-
-  Cheap, Ward of, 76
-
-  Cheinie, Sir H., 392
-
-  Chelsea, 86
-
-  Chester, 218, 263
-
-  Chicheley, R., 375
-
-  Chichester, 217
-
-  Child, Sir Josiah, 236
-
-  Children of the Chapel, 349, 389
-
-  Children of St. Paul’s, 349
-
-  Children of the Revels, 349
-
-  Children of Westminster, 349
-
-  Children of Windsor, 349
-
-  Children, treatment of, 274, 285
-
-  Chiswell Street, 44
-
-  Cholmeley, Ranulph, 91
-
-  Christmas, 356–359
-
-  Churches, 70, 290;
-    behaviour in, 152–154, 272;
-    bells, 147, 148, 171, 172;
-    burials in, 315;
-    changes in, 144–146;
-    Feast of All Fools in, 356;
-    Lord Mayor’s attendance at, 214;
-    Mysteries in, 364;
-    processions in, 148;
-    ritual, 402;
-    services in, 144, 145, 148;
-    sword-stands in, 214;
-    treatment of, 153:
-      All Hallows, 176;
-      St. Andrew’s by the Wardrobe, 201;
-      St. Antholin’s, 148;
-      St. Augustine’s, 118;
-      St. Botolph’s, 192, 194;
-      St. Bride’s, 140;
-      St. Catherine Cree, 118;
-      Chapel Royal, 262;
-      St. Christopher le Stock, 145, 147, 148;
-      St. Dunstan’s in the East, 78;
-      St. Dunstan’s in the West, 94, 273;
-      St. Ethelburga’s, 150;
-      St. Giles’s, Cripplegate, 78, 176, 194, 227, 377;
-      St. Gregory’s, 417;
-      St. Helen’s, Bishopsgate, 77, 78;
-      Holy Trinity, 118;
-      Leadenhall Chapel, 40;
-      St. Leonard’s, Shoreditch, 192, 193;
-      St. Magnus, 397;
-      St. Margaret’s, Lothbury, 147;
-      St. Margaret Patens, 145;
-      St. Margaret’s, Westminster, 58, 118, 140, 146;
-      St. Mary Overies, 164;
-      St. Mary Spital, 24;
-      Mercer’s Chapel, 203;
-      St. Michael’s, Eastcheap, 182, 339;
-      St. Michael le Querne, 180;
-      the Papey, 176;
-      St. Paul’s Cathedral, 5, 9, 16, 40, 46, 47, 53, 98, 140, 150, 157,
-        158, 177, 178, 180, 194, 212, 272, 358, 365, 407, 408;
-      St. Peter-le-Poor, 118;
-      St. Peter’s, Westminster, 194, 401;
-      St. Thomas Acon, 97, 154;
-      Westminster Abbey, 12, 20, 67, 96, 118, 387;
-      Whitechapel, 44, 192
-
-  Church ales, 290
-
-  Church House, the, 155–157
-
-  Cinque Ports, the, 218, 227
-
-  Citizens, Musters of, 37, 38, 320–322
-
-  City, the—and aliens, 13, 19, 23, 25, 42, 61, 80;
-    and apprentices, 12, 13;
-    and Cardinal Wolsey, 23;
-    and charity, 371;
-    and the companies, 17;
-    and country trade, 13;
-    and the drama, 342–345;
-    the Earl of Essex, 83;
-    and the Exchange, 220–222;
-    and its Fleet, 77;
-    fortified, 15;
-    and the freemen, 130;
-    and the French War, 23, 40, 62;
-    government of, 209–215, 370;
-    and the Great Beam, 43;
-    and Henry VII., 4, 7, 8, 10–13;
-    and Henry VIII., 16, 18–20, 38;
-    and Katherine of Aragon, 38;
-    and the manors, 194, 195;
-    and the markets, 48;
-    and the medical profession, 30;
-    and military service, 75–80;
-    and the monasteries, 40, 132;
-    and its offices, 27;
-    and the priests, 72;
-    prosperity of, 172;
-    and Protector Somerset, 49;
-    and Protestantism, 148, 149;
-    and Queen Elizabeth, 38, 84;
-    and Queen Mary, 52, 62;
-    and Roman Catholicism, 58;
-    and the Russian Ambassador, 63;
-    and sanitation, 13, 40, 42;
-    separation of, from the Court, 272;
-    and soldiers, 317;
-    and the Sovereign, 18, 68;
-    and the Spanish marriage, 57;
-    state of, at death of Henry VIII., 44;
-    and supplies of men and money, 42, 62, 75, 78;
-    and trade, 13, 197;
-    and vagrants, 370, 371
-
-  City Companies, the, 8, 13, 20, 23, 53, 62, 76, 86, 110, 130, 231,
-    234, 314, 315, 374;
-    Joint-Stock, 236;
-    Regulated, 236;
-    Clothworkers, 377;
-    Drapers, 232;
-    Fishmongers, 315;
-    Grocers, 43;
-    Leathersellers, 172;
-    Mercers, 35, 62, 221, 222, 232;
-    Merchant Adventurers, 231–233, 237, 242;
-    Merchant Taylors, 13, 35, 376, 377;
-    Painter-Stainers, 259;
-    Staplers, 231, 232;
-    Stationers, 245, 246, 251, 317, 377;
-    Water-bearers, 397
-
-  City Constables, 20
-
-  City Courts, 42
-
-  City Granary, the, 42
-
-  City Offices, 63
-
-  City Watch, the, 20
-
-  Clare Market, 199
-
-  Clarence, Duke of, 181
-
-  Cleaton, Ralph, 150
-
-  Cleef, Joost van, 260
-
-  Clement VII., Pope, 118, 119
-
-  Clement’s Inn, 386
-
-  Clergy, the, 4, 28, 30, 32, 33, 40, 42, 53, 56, 57, 64, 126, 149–151,
-    244, 261
-
-  Clerks, Company of, 314
-
-  Clinton, Lord, his Company, 350
-
-  Clochard, the, 180
-
-  Cloth, manufacture of, 43
-
-  Cloth Market, the, 43
-
-  Clough, Richard, 220
-
-  Cnihten Gild, 194
-
-  Coaches, 198–200
-
-  Coat-money, 318
-
-  Cockaine, Sir W., 233
-
-  Coinage, the, 47
-
-  Colchester, 203, 217, 376
-
-  Cold Harbour, 181
-
-  Coleman Street, 201;
-    Ward of, 76
-
-  Colet, John, 34, 35, 376
-
-  Collier, Payne, 251
-
-  Commissioners for religion, 68
-
-  Common Council, 24, 28, 48, 49, 63, 78, 323, 324, 373
-
-  Common lands, 35, 36, 37
-
-  Commons, House of, 43, 112, 149, 373
-
-  Companies’ Halls, 176, 202, 325;
-    Grocers’, 180, 209, 210;
-    Haberdashers’, 201, 210;
-    Mercers’ 180;
-    Merchant Taylors’, 26, 209, 351, 355;
-    Painter-Stainers’, 259;
-    Sadlers’, 201;
-    Water-bearers’, 397
-
-  Conscience, Court of, 42
-
-  Constables, 24
-
-  Convocation, 40, 56
-
-  Conway, Sir J., 388
-
-  Cooke, Sarah, 163, 164
-
-  Cooper, Elizabeth, 138
-
-  Coppinger, Edmond, 158, 159
-
-  Cordwainer Street, Ward of, 63, 76
-
-  Corineus, 95, 263–265
-
-  Cornelius Agrippa, 165
-
-  Cornhill, 16, 20, 148, 220, 273, 337, 358, 362;
-    Ward of, 35, 76, 214
-
-  Cornish Rebellion, the, 7, 15, 47
-
-  Corporation, the, 5, 43, 48, 77
-
-  Corvus, Johannes, 258
-
-  Coryat, Tom, 228
-
-  Cosmo, Duke of Tuscany, 292
-
-  Council, the King’s, 37, 72
-
-  Counterfeit Crank, the, 386
-
-  Coventry, 217, 263, 376
-
-  Cowbridge, 218
-
-  Craftsmen, 18, 42, 49, 136, 300, 301, 309
-
-  Cranmer, 46, 53, 142, 146, 162
-
-  Crimes, 81, 82, 367, 379–391
-
-  Cripplegate, Ward of, 76
-
-  Croker, C., 256
-
-  Cromwell, Thomas, 30, 40, 219
-
-  Crosby Hall, 181
-
-  Cucking-stool, the, 388
-
-  Cunningham, 217, 218, 238, 239
-
-
-  Dacre, Lord, 155
-
-  Dance of Death, the, 47, 180
-
-  Danne, M., 376
-
-  Dartmouth, 218
-
-  Davis, John, 100
-
-  Day, John, 246
-
-  Dean of St. Paul’s, 30
-
-  Dean’s Mews, 346
-
-  Debtors, 43, 84, 288
-
-  Dee, John, 165, 166
-
-  Dekker, 248, 384
-
-  Dell, the, 387
-
-  Demander for Glymmar, the, 387
-
-  Denton, 217
-
-  Deptford, 7, 100, 228, 288, 389, 390
-
-  Derby, 156, 376
-
-  Derby, Earl of, 39;
-    his Company, 350
-
-  Des Periers, Bonaventure, 258
-
-  Dialects, 254
-
-  Dissent, 144
-
-  Distress, 374
-
-  Dobbs, Sir R., 48
-
-  Doctor’s Commons, 276
-
-  Dogs, 40
-
-  Dolet, Etienne, 111, 258
-
-  Dominican Friars, 28
-
-  Dommerar, the, 386
-
-  Donkin, Robert, 397
-
-  Dorchester, 218
-
-  Dorchester Street, 356
-
-  Dorset, Marquis of, 39
-
-  Dover, 62
-
-  Dowgate, Ward of, 76
-
-  Doxy, the, 387
-
-  Drake, Francis, 77, 100, 181, 197, 222, 227, 228, 240, 288
-
-  Drama, the, 248, 342, 343, 344, 347
-
-  Draper, Christopher, 63
-
-  Drapers’ Gardens, 201
-
-  Drayton, Michael, 47
-
-  Dress, 37, 38, 51, 53, 77, 102, 103, 104, 197, 198, 270–273, 303–312,
-    318–320, 324, 325, 329, 338, 347, 362, 363, 377, 387, 392
-
-  Dryden, John, 165
-
-  Dudley, 12, 20, 30
-
-  Dunkirk, 62
-
-  Dunstable, 146
-
-  Dutch traders, 235
-
-
-  Eastcheap, 203, 302, 338
-
-  East India Company, 222, 237
-
-  Eastland Company, 236
-
-  Education, 34, 35, 48, 221, 222, 260, 261, 274, 377, 398
-
-  Edward VI.—state of City at his accession, 47;
-    and the schools, 48;
-    last appearance in public, 51, 233, 234;
-    death and burial, 53
-
-  Elizabeth, Queen—Accession, 64, 67;
-    birth, 38, 65;
-    at Mary’s entry into London, 52, 53;
-    dress, 304;
-    appearance, 65, 66, 103, 104;
-    learning, 66, 104;
-    character, 66;
-    and Mary, 66;
-    enters London, 67;
-    and the City, 68, 76, 78, 84;
-    and religion, 68, 70, 72, 96, 98;
-    and aliens, 82;
-    encourages trade, 83;
-    and growth of London, 83;
-    and Mary, Queen of Scots, 83, 84;
-    and debtors, 84;
-    death, 84;
-    her progresses, 85;
-    her palaces, 86, 98, 99;
-    her coronation, 96;
-    and sports, 98;
-    and monopolies, 238;
-    and Thomas Appletree, 389–391;
-    and the drama, 343, 349, 351;
-    and the beggars, 387;
-    her hospitality, 99, 100;
-    and Sir F. Drake, 100;
-    and the Maundy, 100, 101;
-    her Court at Greenwich, 102–105;
-    her portraits, 105, 106
-
-  Elizabeth, Lady (wife of Henry VII.), 5, 6
-
-  Elstow, Convent of, 115
-
-  Eltham, 59
-
-  Emperor, the, 39
-
-  Empson, 12, 20, 30
-
-  Epping Forest, 36
-
-  Erasmus, 111, 144, 250, 276, 286
-
-  Erber, the, 181
-
-  Essex, Earl of, 26, 83;
-    his Company, 350
-
-  Evil May Day, 24, 218, 242, 324
-
-  Exchange, the Royal, 181, 197, 204, 219–222, 336, 341, 357, 403
-
-  Executions, 8, 9, 20, 25, 26, 30, 31, 32, 38, 40, 47, 54, 55, 56, 57,
-    59, 72, 80, 81, 82, 132–142, 159–161, 164, 326, 367, 372, 379, 387,
-    414, 415
-
-  Execution Dock, 82
-
-  Exeter, 217, 376
-
-  Exeter, Marquis of, 30
-
-  Exmew, 136
-
-  Explorers and adventurers, 222, 224–237
-
-
-  Fabyan, Alderman, 8, 9, 284
-
-  Family of Love, the, 160
-
-  Famines, 216
-
-  Fanatics, 158–161
-
-  Farringdon Within, Ward of, 27, 76
-
-  Farringdon Without, Ward of, 35, 76, 194, 259
-
-  Fasting, 127, 151, 152
-
-  Fawconer, T., Mayor, 193
-
-  Feake, James, 388
-
-  Feast of Fools, 356, 364
-
-  Feckenham, Abbot, 155
-
-  Felton, John, 71
-
-  Fenchurch, 86
-
-  Fenchurch Street, 20, 63, 362
-
-  Ferrar, 58
-
-  Ferrers, George, 43, 44
-
-  Fetherstone, William, 59
-
-  Fetter Lane, 44
-
-  Feversham, 217
-
-  Field, Richard, 246
-
-  Finger-rings, 286
-
-  Finsbury, 194, 355
-
-  Finsbury archers, 355, 356
-
-  Finsbury Fields, 16, 346
-
-  Fish Market, 339
-
-  Fish Street, 58, 203
-
-  Fisher, Bishop, 30, 32, 111, 112,
-  133, 136
-
-  Fitch, Ralph, 222
-
-  Fitz Stephen, 354
-
-  Flammock, Attorney, 7
-
-  Fleet River, 194, 417
-
-  Fleet Street, 38, 44, 93, 185, 194, 217, 244, 340, 364
-
-  Flemish immigrants, 80, 203, 204, 220, 237, 238, 258, 294, 347
-
-  Fletcher, 247
-
-  Flick, Gerbud, 258
-
-  Flower, William, 58
-
-  Fludd, Robert, 165
-
-  Food and drink, 42, 43, 63, 77, 180, 181, 212, 292–302, 312, 313, 334,
-    335, 368, 409–413
-
-  Ford, 247
-
-  Fore Street, 194
-
-  Foreign goods, sale of, 13, 310
-
-  Forest, Dr., 133–135
-
-  Forks, 294, 295
-
-  Forman, Sir W., 320
-
-  Former, Simon, 165
-
-  Foster, Agnes, 376
-
-  Fowler, Sir R., 214
-
-  Fox, John, 225, 226
-
-  Foxe, John, 138, 246
-
-  Frater, the, 386
-
-  Fraternity of St. Thomas à Becket, 232
-
-  _Fratres de Sacca_, 132
-
-  Freemen, 130, 237, 317, 323, 327
-
-  French War of 1557, 62
-
-  Freshwater Mariners, the, 386
-
-  Fretchvell, Sir Peter, 150
-
-  Friars, the, 122–124, 126, 131, 135, 136, 291
-
-  Friday Street, 339, 340
-
-  Frobisher, Martin, 77, 78, 222, 227, 240, 388, 389
-
-  Fulham, 238
-
-  Fuller, John, 376
-
-  Fuller, Thomas, 340
-
-  Funerals, 154, 313–315
-
-  Furniture, 277–284, 293, 335
-
-
-  Gardens, 201, 202, 272
-
-  Gardiner, Robert, 165
-
-  Garret, Sir W., 210
-
-  Gates, 8;
-    Aldersgate, 176, 185, 387;
-    Aldgate, 20, 38, 42, 44, 52, 160, 172, 181, 192, 362;
-    Billingsgate, 337, 375, 384;
-    Bishopsgate, 175, 185, 192;
-    Cripplegate, 185, 194, 346, 377;
-    Dowgate, 181, 204, 337;
-    Ludgate, 176;
-    Moorgate, 193;
-    St. George’s Bar, 16;
-    Temple Bar, 16, 44, 94, 95, 245, 246, 264, 340, 387;
-    Tower Postern, 171
-
-  Geffery, William, 159, 160
-
-  Gell, Dr., 165
-
-  Gentry, and apprenticeship, 330, 331
-
-  George of Paris, 47
-
-  Gerard’s _Herbal_, 202
-
-  Giants, 95, 263–265, 363
-
-  Gibson, Avice, 376
-
-  Gifford, Sir George, 387
-
-  Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, 77, 222, 227
-
-  Gloucester, 58, 217, 376
-
-  Gog and Magog, 95, 263–265
-
-  _Golden Hind_, the, 228
-
-  Golden Lane, 346
-
-  Goldsmith, 339
-
-  Goldsmiths’ Row, 200, 403
-
-  Googe, Barnabe, 46, 132, 174
-
-  Goswell Road, 387
-
-  Goswell Street, 44
-
-  Gower, 247
-
-  Gracechurch Street, 16, 20, 87, 234, 302
-
-  Grafton, R., 4, 5, 23, 26, 36, 39, 246, 248
-
-  Grantham, 217
-
-  Grasschurch, 362
-
-  Grass Market, 339
-
-  Gravesend, 241
-
-  Gray’s Inn, 202, 276, 333
-
-  Gray’s Inn Lane, 44
-
-  Great Beam, the, 43
-
-  Great Grimsby, 218
-
-  Great Liberty Manor, 48
-
-  Great Wycombe, 217
-
-  Great Yarmouth, 217
-
-  Greenland, 389
-
-  Green Park, the, 388
-
-  Greenwich, 27, 38, 68, 100, 233, 320, 351, 377, 389, 390
-
-  Greenwich Palace, 51, 102
-
-  Grenville, Sir R., 228
-
-  Gresham, Lady, 220, 222
-
-  Gresham, Sir J., 48, 49, 220, 363
-
-  Gresham, Sir R., 126, 219
-
-  Gresham, Sir T., 99, 181, 202, 219–221, 254, 257, 272, 286, 376
-
-  Gresham Street, 201
-
-  Greville, Lodowick, 388
-
-  Grey, Lady Jane, 52–56
-
-  Groom of the Salcery, 382
-
-  Grub Street, 44
-
-  Guildable Manor, 48
-
-  Guildford, 217
-
-  Guildhall, 16, 24, 42, 49, 53, 71, 210, 212, 264, 265, 326, 345
-
-  Guilds, the, 38, 144, 218, 219
-
-  Gutter Lane, 159
-
-
-  Hackett, William, 158, 159
-
-  Hackney, 40
-
-  Haddington, 363
-
-  Hadleigh, 58
-
-  Hainault, Forest of, 36
-
-  Hakluyt, 224–226, 233
-
-  Hall, 248
-
-  Hall, Bishop, 274
-
-  Hamburg Company, the, 233
-
-  Hamont, Matthew, 161
-
-  Hampstead, 44
-
-  Hampstead Heath, 35
-
-  Hampton Court, 49, 86, 100, 260
-
-  Hanseatic League, 13, 82, 231
-
-  Harding, 284
-
-  Harman, 384, 385
-
-  Harrison, William, 200, 246, 250, 279, 293, 333, 344, 366–368, 372,
-    379, 384
-
-  Harty Island, 391
-
-  Hatfield, 67
-
-  Haverfordwest, 218
-
-  Havre, 76
-
-  Hawes, Christopher, 12
-
-  Hawes, Lord Mayor, 214
-
-  Hawkers and pedlars, 83
-
-  Hawkins, Sir John, 77, 78, 227, 240
-
-  Hawkwood, J., 257
-
-  Hawthorne, Nathaniel, 202
-
-  Helston, 218
-
-  Henley, orator, 265
-
-  Henry VII., 3–16;
-    and the Earl of Warwick, 4, 6;
-    enters London after Bosworth Field, 5;
-    coronation, 5;
-    and the Lady Elizabeth, 5, 6;
-    and the City, 7, 8, 10, 11, 12, 13;
-    and Perkin Warbeck, 9;
-    and the plague, 9;
-    builds his chapel, 12;
-    and the Flemings, 13;
-    his funeral, 16
-
-  Henry VIII.—visits City, 16;
-    and the City, 18–20, 26, 27, 28, 38, 39, 40, 42;
-    his coronation, 20;
-    his character, 21, 22;
-    his poems, 21;
-    and aliens, 24, 26;
-    receives the Emperor, 26, 39;
-    and Katherine of Aragon, 28, 38, 112;
-    and Cardinal Wolsey, 28;
-    and religion, 31, 32, 40;
-    and the poorhouses, 41, 48;
-    death 41, 44;
-    and taxes, 42;
-    Head of the Church, 112
-
-  Henryk, 220
-
-  Hentzner, Paul, 98, 99, 102, 191, 228, 277, 350
-
-  Heralds, College of, 276
-
-  Hereford, 217, 376
-
-  Herrick, 359, 362
-
-  Hertford, the Earl of, his Company, 350
-
-  Hewitt, Sir W., 212, 214
-
-  Heywood, 338
-
-  Highgate, 36, 63, 234
-
-  High Street, 44
-
-  High Street, Borough, 186, 346
-
-  Hill, Rowland, 43
-
-  Hill, Sir T., 5
-
-  Hills, R., 376, 377
-
-  _Hind_, the, 227
-
-  His Majesty’s servants, 350
-
-  Hobbs, 235
-
-  Hog Lane, 192
-
-  Holbein, 258, 259
-
-  Holborn, 44, 194, 246, 337, 363
-
-  Holidays, 356
-
-  Holinshed, 9, 10, 16, 22, 58, 248, 250, 279, 293, 294, 333
-
-  Holywell, Lane, 346
-
-  Holy Well Street, 44, 388
-
-  Honiton, 237
-
-  Hookers, 385
-
-  Hooper, Bishop, 46, 58, 140, 250
-
-  Hooper, H., 246
-
-  Horenbout, Lucas, 258, 260;
-    Gerard, 258, 260;
-    Susanna, 258, 260
-
-  Horn Alley, 58
-
-  Horne, Robert, 68
-
-  Hospitality, 155, 369
-
-  Hospitals—St. Anthony’s, 34;
-    St. Augustine Papey, 130;
-    St. Bartholomew’s, 41, 130, 194, 222, 371, 373;
-    Bethlehem, 41, 130, 159, 160, 192, 222, 371, 375, 377;
-    Bridewell, 48, 372;
-    Charter House, 176;
-    Christ’s, 176, 222, 373, 376, 377;
-    Elsing Spital, 41, 130, 375;
-    St. James’s, 375;
-    John Lofken’s, 375;
-    St. Laurence Poultney, 375;
-    St. Mary Spital, 130, 222, 375;
-    Stodies Lane, 375;
-    St. Thomas Acon, 34;
-    St. Thomas’s, 48, 130, 222, 372, 373, 378;
-    Tower Hill, 130;
-    Whittington’s College, 74, 97
-
-  Households, management of, 198
-
-  Howard, Katherine, 30
-
-  Howard, Lord, 54; his Company, 350
-
-  Hoxton, 40, 193, 194, 356
-
-  Hoxton Fields, 44, 388
-
-  Huguenots, 237
-
-  Huicke, Doctor, 68
-
-  Hull, 217
-
-  Hun, Richard, 32–34, 110
-
-  Hunsdon, 86
-
-  Huntingdon, Earl of, 39
-
-  Husbands, R., 63
-
-  Hyde Park Corner, 291
-
-
-  Ilchester, 218
-
-  Images, sacred, 144
-
-  Immigrants, 200, 203, 237, 238
-
-  Inns and taverns, 63, 180, 288, 294, 308, 309, 333–341, 343, 347, 384
-
-  Ipswich, 118, 217, 376, 388
-
-  Irving, Washington, 339
-
-  Iseldon. See _Islington_
-
-  Isle of Wight, the, 237
-
-  Islington (Iseldon), 176, 193, 194, 291, 310, 356, 387
-
-
-  Jackman, the, 386
-
-  Jenkinson, A., 222, 224, 234, 235
-
-  Jewel, Bishop, 162
-
-  Jews, 204, 238–240
-
-  Joan of Kent, 47
-
-  Joan, Sister, 114
-
-  Johnson, Richard, 254
-
-  Jonson, Ben, 151, 163, 228, 247, 272, 294, 296, 297, 303, 307, 338,
-    339, 340, 388
-
-  Jordan, Thomas, 264
-
-  Journeymen, 218, 219
-
-  Judd, A., 376
-
-  Jugglers, 273
-
-  Juries, 13, 14, 42, 61, 62
-
-
-  Katherine of Aragon, 9, 38, 134
-
-  Keats, 340
-
-  Keble, A., 376
-
-  Kenilworth, 85
-
-  Kent Street, 384
-
-  Kentish Town, 416
-
-  Kildare, Earl of, 30
-
-  Kime, John, 391–393
-
-  King John’s Palace, 181
-
-  King’s bed, the, 282, 283
-
-  King’s Court, punishment in, 382, 384
-
-  King’s Evil, the, 164
-
-  King’s Lynn, 217
-
-  King’s Manor, 48
-
-  King’s Mews, the, 205
-
-  King’s Wardrobe, the, 181
-
-  Kingston on Thames, 375
-
-  Kissing, 286, 287, 312
-
-  Knight, William, 205
-
-  Knights of the Garter, 16
-
-  Knoles, Thomas, 375
-
-  Kynchen Cove, the, 387
-
-  Kynchen Morte, the, 387
-
-
-  Labrador, 389
-
-  Lamb’s Conduit, 377
-
-  Lambarde, William, 102
-
-  Lambe, W., 377
-
-  Lambert, 31
-
-  Lambert, William, 377
-
-  Lambeth, 155
-
-  Lambeth Palace, 33
-
-  Lancaster, 218
-
-  Lane, Sir Robert, his Company, 350
-
-  Laneden, T., 136
-
-  Langbourne, Ward of, 76
-
-  Langdon, Essex, 155
-
-  Langland, Bishop, 115
-
-  Langton, 284
-
-  Large, Sir Robert, 182
-
-  Latimer, 21, 46, 133, 140, 371, 372
-
-  Launceston, 218
-
-  Leadenhall, 42, 83, 358, 362
-
-  Leadenhall Market, 43
-
-  Leadenhall Street, 20, 43
-
-  Leake, W., 246
-
-  Leedes, William, 222
-
-  Leicester, 218, 376
-
-  Leicester, Earl of, 77, 85, 356–358, 391;
-    his Company, 345, 351
-
-  Leigh, Gerard, 356
-
-  Lent, 151
-
-  Leominster, 388
-
-  Levant Company, the, 222, 237
-
-  Lever, 371, 372
-
-  Lewes, 218
-
-  Libraries, 129
-
-  Lilly, William, 165
-
-  Lilypot Lane, 201
-
-  Limehouse, 174, 191
-
-  Lime Street, 142
-
-  Lime Street, Ward of, 76
-
-  Lincoln, 217, 376
-
-  Lincoln, the Earl of, 389
-
-  Lincoln, John, 24–26
-
-  Lincoln’s Inn, 166
-
-  Lincoln’s Inn Fields, 291
-
-  Ling, 246
-
-  Lingard, 143
-
-  Liskeard, 218
-
-  Litany, the, 145
-
-  Literature, 244–258, 284, 285, 384
-
-  Liverpool, 218
-
-  Lofken, John, 375
-
-  Lollardry, 33, 45, 110, 260
-
-  Lombard Street, 24, 181, 215, 219, 403
-
-  Lombardi, 203, 221
-
-  London archers, 355
-
-  London, Bishop of, 246
-
-  London Bridge, 83, 203, 204, 259, 263, 313, 339, 397
-
-  London Cries, 83
-
-  London, growth of, 83
-
-  London, military state of, 75, 76
-
-  London, population of, 76, 77
-
-  London, Port of, 240
-
-  London Stone, 155, 203, 337
-
-  London Wall, 171–176, 188, 193, 201
-
-  London Worthies, the, 254–257
-
-  Long Lane, 44
-
-  Lord Admiral’s Company, the, 350
-
-  Lord Chamberlain, the, 16, 39, 327, 328, 329, 345;
-    his Company, 350
-
-  Lord Mayor, the, 5, 10, 12, 13, 16, 24, 26, 27, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41,
-    43, 44, 46, 49, 52, 53, 61, 62, 74, 78, 83, 86, 91, 98, 100, 151,
-    152, 209–215, 264, 265, 313, 317, 324, 328, 342, 345, 373, 387, 397
-
-  Lord Mayor’s Show, 264, 265
-
-  Lord of Misrule, 288
-
-  Lostwithiel, 218
-
-  Lothbury, 44, 337
-
-  Lotteries, 365
-
-  Low, Simon, 391–393
-
-  Ludgate Hill, 83
-
-  Ludlow, 217, 377
-
-  Lunebourg Table, the, 103
-
-  Lydgate, 247
-
-  Lyme, 217
-
-  Lynn, 376
-
-  Lynn Bishop, 217
-
-  Lynne, William, 220
-
-  Lyzarde, N., 260
-
-
-  Machyn, Henry, 139, 154, 215, 313, 387
-
-  Maidstone, 203, 377
-
-  Maitland, 13, 15, 43, 49, 54, 74, 157, 212, 323, 325, 344, 384
-
-  Maldon, 218
-
-  Maleverer, H., 257
-
-  Malpas, Philip, 375
-
-  Malt, Isabel, 58
-
-  Malt, Timothy, 59
-
-  Malyns, 238
-
-  Manorial system, the, 194, 216
-
-  Maps of London, 185, 194, 417
-
-  March, the old English, 317, 318
-
-  Marching Watch, the, 49, 362, 363
-
-  Margaret, Princess, 10
-
-  Marine Insurance, 221
-
-  Market gardens, 294
-
-  Markets and fairs, 48, 62, 63, 83
-
-  Markham, Gervase, 270
-
-  Marlborough, 388
-
-  Marlowe, 247
-
-  Marriages, 311, 312
-
-  Marshal, the, 382
-
-  Marston, 247, 248, 265
-
-  Martin, Sir R., 403
-
-  Mary, Queen—and the Act of Succession, 38;
-    enters London, 52, 53;
-    and the City, 52, 53, 54, 62;
-    coronation, 53;
-    the Spanish match, 53, 54, 59;
-    and Parliament, 56;
-    and the French War, 62;
-    loans, 62, 68;
-    death, 63;
-    burial, 67;
-    and monasteries, 68;
-    her appetite, 292
-
-  Mary, Queen of Scots, 51, 83
-
-  Masques, 351, 352
-
-  Massam, William, 210
-
-  Massinger, 247
-
-  Master-cook, the, 382
-
-  Maundy, the, 100
-
-  May Day, 358–360
-
-  Mead, 300
-
-  Meat Market, 339
-
-  Medicine, profession of, 30
-
-  Merchants, 196, 217, 271, 272, 276, 306, 341;
-     houses, 276
-
-  Meteren, E. van, 269
-
-  Micklethwaite, T. T., 144
-
-  Middlemore, 136
-
-  Middleton, William, 246
-
-  Midsummer Watch, 360, 363
-
-  Milbourne, J., 376
-
-  Mile End, 37, 148, 320
-
-  Mile End Green, 351
-
-  Miles Lane, 339
-
-  Millbank, 194
-
-  Miller, Simon, 138
-
-  Mincing Lane, 78
-
-  Miracle plays, 343, 356
-
-  Missenden, Abbey of, 116
-
-  Misson, 287
-
-  Monasteries, the—disrepute of, 110, 123;
-    dissolution of, 112, 117, 118, 120, 121, 122, 124, 125, 126-132,
-      143, 144, 148, 155, 200;
-    wealth of, 112, 113, 119, 123, 172;
-    morality of, 114, 115, 116, 117;
-    libraries, 129, 257, 258;
-    hospitals, 130;
-    and the poor, 130, 131, 155, 172
-
-  Monastic Houses, 28, 30, 68, 369, 370, 374, 375;
-    Austin Friars, 120, 174, 186;
-    St. Bartholomew’s, 120, 132, 174, 176, 185, 194;
-    Bermondsey, 6, 186;
-    Black Friars, 68, 119, 186;
-    the Charter House, 119, 185, 194;
-    the Church House, 174;
-    Clerkenwell Nunnery, 185, 195;
-    Cotham Nunnery, 116;
-    Crutched Friars, 119, 142, 172, 174, 186;
-    Daventry, 118;
-    Eastminster, 119, 172, 174, 185;
-    Elsing Spital, 174;
-    Elstow, 115;
-    _Fratres de Sacca_, 182;
-    Grey Friars, 37, 119, 132, 171, 174, 176, 186;
-    St. Helen’s, 119, 122, 172, 174, 186;
-    Holy Trinity, 119, 130, 172, 174, 186;
-    Holywell, 120, 174, 192, 346;
-    St. James’ on the Wall, 174, 377;
-    Jesus Commons, 122;
-    St. John’s Priory, 185, 194;
-    St Katherine’s by the Tower, 172, 191;
-    Knights Hospitallers, 174, 176;
-    St. Mary of Bethlehem, 132, 185;
-    St. Mary Spital, 174, 185, 192, 193;
-    Minoresses, 120;
-    Papey, 174;
-    St. Peter’s, Westminster, 122;
-    Poor Clares, 172, 174;
-    Studley, 116;
-    St. Thomas’s, 132;
-    White Friars, 120, 174, 185
-
-  Money-lending, 238–240, 288
-
-  Monks, the ejected, 122
-
-  Monkwell Street, 201, 377
-
-  Monopolies, 233, 238
-
-  Monoux, Sir G., 27, 219, 376
-
-  Montague, Lord, 63, 234
-
-  Montgomery, 218
-
-  Moore, John, 159, 160
-
-  Moorfields, 36, 42, 185, 193, 194, 272, 355
-
-  Moorgate, 201
-
-  More, Bishop, 32
-
-  More, Sir T., 30, 111, 112, 133, 136, 152, 186–190, 371
-
-  More, Sir W., 284
-
-  Morice, Peter, 397
-
-  Moro, Antonio, 260
-
-  Morris, Thomas, 397
-
-  Mortlake, 238
-
-  Moryson, Fynes, 228, 333, 335
-
-  Mundy, Sir John, 24, 25
-
-  Music, 262, 277, 290, 294, 338, 340
-
-  Muswell Hill, 36, 40, 44
-
-
-  Nailer, Henry, 391–393
-
-  Nash, 248
-
-  Nevill, Colonel John, 292
-
-  Newbery, John, 222
-
-  Newbury, 388
-
-  Newcastle, 217, 376
-
-  Newdigate, 136
-
-  New Fish Street, 337, 360
-
-  Newgate Market, 337
-
-  Newhall, Essex, 52
-
-  New North Road, 356
-
-  Newport, 218
-
-  New Radnor, 218
-
-  New St. Christopher’s Alley, 220
-
-  Newton, Sir J., 165
-
-  New Year’s gifts, 102
-
-  Nichols, J. G., 259
-
-  Nicolas, A., 376
-
-  Noblemen’s houses, 97
-
-  Noble Street, 201
-
-  Nonconformists, 59, 144
-
-  Nonsuch, 86, 260
-
-  Norfolk, Duke of, 26
-
-  North, Lord, 58
-
-  Northampton, 217, 376
-
-  Northumberland, Duke of, 51
-
-  Northumberland House, 181
-
-  Norton, 246
-
-  Norton Folgate, 192
-
-  Norwich, 203, 217, 237, 376
-
-  Nostradamus, 165
-
-  Nottingham, 217
-
-  Noyes, J., 137, 138
-
-  Nucius, Nicander, 287
-
-
-  Oat Lane, 201
-
-  Observant Friars, 135, 136
-
-  Offley, H., 351
-
-  Old Baily, the, 159
-
-  Old Change, 158
-
-  Old Fish Street, 337
-
-  Old Jewry, 182
-
-  Ordeal by battle, 391–393
-
-  Order of Communion, the, 144
-
-  Ordinaries, 294, 301, 302
-
-  Ordish, M., 273
-
-  Ormes, Cicely, 138
-
-  Ormond, T., 136
-
-  Osborne, Richard, 212
-
-  Osborne, Sir E., 210, 212
-
-  Oxenham, Sir J., 182
-
-  Oxford, 6, 118, 142, 217, 376, 388
-
-  Oxford, Earl of, 39
-
-  Oxford, University of, 261
-
-
-  Pageants, 20, 22, 23, 37–40, 51, 53, 63, 67, 86–96, 183, 211, 212,
-    263–265, 362, 363, 400, 401
-
-  Painting, 258–260
-
-  Palls, 315
-
-  Paramore, Thomas, 391–393
-
-  Pardon Churchyard, 180
-
-  Paris Gardens, 74, 203, 346, 347, 352
-
-  Parishes, 148;
-    officers, 373;
-    All Hallows the Great, 34;
-    St. Andrew’s, Holborn, 34;
-    St. Andrew Undershaft, 259;
-    St. Dunstan’s in the East, 34;
-    St. Faith’s, 377;
-    St. Giles’s, Cripplegate, 77;
-    St. Leonard’s, Shoreditch, 388;
-    St. Martin’s, 34, 148;
-    St. Mary le Bow, 34;
-    St. Paul’s, 34;
-    St. Peter’s, Cornhill, 34
-
-  Parker, Archbishop, 155, 340
-
-  Parker, Henry, 260
-
-  Parker, Sir H., 281
-
-  Parliament, 38, 48, 56
-
-  Parrat, Sir John, 90, 93
-
-  Parry, William, 81
-
-  Parsons, 72
-
-  Paternoster Row, 273
-
-  Patrick, friar, 9
-
-  Paul’s Churchyard, 93
-
-  Paul’s Cross, 77, 78, 160, 178, 180, 342
-
-  Paul’s Gate, 362
-
-  Paul’s Walk, 347
-
-  Pawnbroking, 238
-
-  Peele, 247, 248, 365
-
-  Pembroke, 218
-
-  Pembroke, Earl of, 51, 62;
-    his Company, 350
-
-  Penbrooke, Simon, 164
-
-  Penni, B., 260
-
-  Pepwell, Henry, 246
-
-  Perlin, Stephen, 190, 191
-
-  Persecution, religious, 31, 33, 34, 47, 58, 112, 133–142, 160, 161
-
-  Petty Almaigne, 204
-
-  Petty Flanders, 204
-
-  Petty France, 44, 204
-
-  Philip of Spain, 61
-
-  Philpot, Archdeacon, 140
-
-  Philpot, John, 375
-
-  Philpot, Mayor, 227, 254, 257
-
-  Philpot, Somerset Herald, 330
-
-  Physicians, 143
-
-  Physicians, College of, 30
-
-  Picard, Henry, 255
-
-  Pickpockets, School of, 384
-
-  Pie Powder, Court of, 48
-
-  Pilchard, Henry, 255
-
-  Pilgrimage of Grace, the, 39
-
-  Pillory, the, 20
-
-  Pimlico, 310
-
-  “Pink,” 259
-
-  Pirates, 82, 217, 222, 236, 257
-
-  Plague, the, 9, 29, 40, 147, 200, 216, 344, 369, 374
-
-  Plants, London, 404, 405
-
-  Plate, 283, 284
-
-  Players, 97, 349, 350
-
-  Plays, ownership of, 350;
-    price of, 350
-
-  Plymouth, 43, 78, 218
-
-  Poetry, 175
-
-  Poets, Elizabethan, 247, 248
-
-  Pole, Cardinal, 58
-
-  Polley, M., 136
-
-  Ponsonby, 246
-
-  Pontefract, 217
-
-  Poole, 217
-
-  Poole, Sir J., 150, 151
-
-  Poor, the, 130, 131, 366–378;
-    poorhouses, 41, 48;
-    overseers of, 373;
-    relief of, 368, 371–375
-
-  Pope, the, claims of, 111;
-    and Queen Elizabeth, 70–72
-
-  Population, 200
-
-  Portsmouth, 217
-
-  Portsoken, Ward of, 76, 172, 194
-
-  Portuguese, 203
-
-  Poultry, the, 180
-
-  Prayer Book, the, 144
-
-  Press, censorship of, 245, 246
-
-  Presteign, 218
-
-  Preston, 218
-
-  Printing, 244–246, 272
-
-  Prisons—Bridewell, 48, 159, 327, 373, 386, 387;
-    Clink, 347;
-    Compters, 25, 43, 63;
-    Debtors’, 130, 288;
-    Houses of Correction, 368, 373, 374;
-    King’s Bench, 48,  222;
-    Ludgate, 16, 222, 331, 376;
-    Marshalsea, 12, 48, 59, 159, 160, 222, 388, 390;
-    St. Martin’s, 25;
-    Newgate, 24, 25, 28, 44, 71, 80, 133, 134, 140, 142, 160, 176, 222;
-    Poultry Compter, 25, 222;
-    the Tower, 6, 8, 25, 38, 44, 136, 388;
-    Wood Street Compter, 25, 159, 222
-
-  Privy Council, the, 373, 374
-
-  Protestantism, 98, 121, 127, 133, 136–142, 146, 148
-
-  Provost-Marshal, the, 326
-
-  Prygger of Prauncers, the, 386
-
-  Prynne, 343
-
-  Punishments, 147, 155, 159, 160, 161, 273, 274, 325, 367, 368, 370,
-    371, 372, 373, 379–384, 386, 387, 388, 391
-
-  Puritans, 74, 121, 127, 128, 148, 262, 273, 312
-
-  Pynson, R., 244, 246
-
-
-  Queenborough, 217
-
-  Queen Elizabeth’s Bath, 205
-
-  Queenhithe, Ward of, 76
-
-
-  Rabelais, 111, 258
-
-  Raleigh, Sir W., 222, 247
-
-  Ramsay, M., 376
-
-  Randoll, William, 164
-
-  Ratcliff, 174, 191, 227, 233, 390
-
-  Rawson, R., 376
-
-  Reading, 376
-
-  Rebellions, 47, 53, 54, 62, 83
-
-  Recorder, the, 16, 37, 50, 91, 210, 328, 387
-
-  Recusants, 143
-
-  Red Cross Street, 77
-
-  Redman, Robert, 246
-
-  Redriff, 227
-
-  Reformation, the, 45, 46, 112
-
-  _Revenge_, the, 228
-
-  Rich, Barnaby, 247
-
-  Rich, Lord, 388
-
-  Richard of Almayn, 116
-
-  Richmond, 16
-
-  Richmond Palace, 86
-
-  Ridley, 46, 48, 133, 140
-
-  Riots, 13, 23–26, 37, 41, 57, 58, 243, 326, 387
-
-  Rochester, 217
-
-  Rochford, Lord, 30
-
-  Rochford, Lady, 30
-
-  Rogers, Dr. John, 46, 58, 140
-
-  Roman Catholics, 70, 143, 144
-
-  Roman Catholic emissaries, 71–74, 81
-
-  Roman Church, the, 4, 40, 112, 113
-
-  Rome, commerce with, 43
-
-  Roundels, 293
-
-  Rowe, Sir T., 376, 377
-
-  Rowlands, 384
-
-  Rozmital, Leo von, 286
-
-  Rushes, floors covered with, 276
-
-  Russia Company, the, 82, 234–236
-
-  Russia, trade with, 222
-
-  Rutland, Earl of, 39
-
-
-  Sackvile, 247
-
-  Sackville, Sir R., 68
-
-  St. David’s, 58
-
-  St. Donanverdh, 116
-
-  St. Erkenwald, 257
-
-  St. George’s Fields, 386
-
-  St. Giles’, 215
-
-  St. Helen’s Place, 201
-
-  St. James’s Palace, 86
-
-  St. James’s Park, 363
-
-  St. John’s Street, 44
-
-  St. Katherine’s, 288
-
-  St. Katherine’s Precinct, 185
-
-  St. Magnus Corner, 203
-
-  St. Martin’s-le-Grand, 42
-
-  St. Michael’s Churchyard, 338
-
-  St. Michael’s Lane, 339
-
-  St. Pancras, 194
-
-  St. Paul’s Churchyard, 71, 180, 246, 273, 340
-
-  St. Peter, Manor of, 194
-
-  St. Quentin, 62
-
-  St. Thomas à Becket, 232, 254, 257, 375
-
-  Salisbury, 7, 217, 263, 376
-
-  Salisbury, Lady, 30
-
-  Sanctuary, 155
-
-  Sanctuary, Westminster, 363
-
-  Sands, Dr., 59
-
-  Sandwich, 203, 237
-
-  Sandys, 153
-
-  Sanitation, 13, 29, 30, 40, 42
-
-  Saunders, Lawrence, 58
-
-  Savage, Mr., 68
-
-  Savoy, Duke of, 62
-
-  Savoy, Palace of, 48, 181
-
-  Savoy, the, 203
-
-  Saxe-Weimar, Duke of, 228
-
-  Scarborough, 217, 388
-
-  Schools, 260, 261, 376–378;
-    St. Anthony’s, 74, 148;
-    of London, 35, 222;
-    Sir Humphrey Gilbert’s, 398;
-    Grammar Schools, 34, 35;
-    Gresham College, 181, 182, 221, 222;
-    Grey Friars, 48;
-    Merchant Taylors’, 376, 377;
-    St. Paul’s, 93, 376;
-    Westminster Abbey, 155;
-    Whittington College, 74
-
-  Seething Lane, 142, 182
-
-  Sentree, the, 337
-
-  Serjeant-at-Arms, 43
-
-  Serjeant of the Ewry, 382
-
-  Serjeant Farrier, 382
-
-  Serjeant of the Cellar, 382
-
-  Serjeant of the Larder, 382
-
-  Serjeant of the Pantry, 384
-
-  Serjeant of the Poultry, 382
-
-  Serjeant of the Woodyard, 382
-
-  Sermons, 149, 153, 154, 178, 254
-
-  Servants, 271, 273, 275, 276, 309
-
-  Sessions of Peace, 42
-
-  Sevenoake, W., 256
-
-  Seymour, Lady Jane, 126
-
-  Seymours, the, 47
-
-  Shakespeare, 203, 238, 246, 247, 278, 281, 282, 287, 338, 340, 346,
-    349, 350
-
-  Sharpe, 53, 74, 77
-
-  Shaston, 218
-
-  Shaw, Sir John, 209
-
-  Shene, 8
-
-  Shene House, 68
-
-  Sheppey, Isle of, 391
-
-  Sherborne, 218
-
-  Sheriffs, 8, 12, 37, 42–44, 71, 210, 302, 309
-
-  Sheriff Hutton Castle, 4, 5
-
-  Sherrington’s Library, 180
-
-  Shipping, increase of, 240
-
-  Shirley, 264
-
-  Shoe Lane, 44, 244
-
-  Shops, 83, 84, 191, 198, 199, 200, 272, 276, 310, 403
-
-  Shop Signs, 273
-
-  Shoreditch, 5, 44, 192, 193, 194, 356, 388
-
-  Shrewsbury, 217, 376
-
-  Shrewsbury, Earl of, 26, 214
-
-  Sidney, Sir W., 43
-
-  Silk, trade in, 235
-
-  Simnel, Lambert, 6
-
-  Skelton, 247, 248
-
-  Skogan, 248, 365
-
-  Smithfield, 34, 44, 47, 58, 59, 68, 134, 139, 140, 142, 160, 176, 185,
-    191, 203, 355
-
-  Smyth, Henry, 246
-
-  Soames, Richard, 397
-
-  Soldiers, 316–322
-
-  Somerset House, 67, 100
-
-  Somerset, Protector, 49, 51
-
-  Somerton, 218
-
-  Southampton, 203, 217, 233, 376
-
-  Southwark, 16, 48, 164, 346, 347, 378, 384, 390
-
-  Spain, plots from, 80;
-    immigrants from, 80
-
-  Spain, war with, 43
-
-  Spaniards in London, 59, 61
-
-  Spencer, Gabriel, 388
-
-  Spenser, Edmund, 247
-
-  Spital sermon, 24
-
-  _Squirrel_, the, 227
-
-  Stadlow, George, 49
-
-  Stafford, 217
-
-  Standish, Dr., 24
-
-  Staple Inn, 232, 333
-
-  Star Chamber, 32, 62
-
-  Steelyard, the, 13, 82, 100, 417
-
-  Stocker, Sir W., 5
-
-  Stocks, the, 362
-
-  Stockwood, John, 342
-
-  Stoddart, George, 240
-
-  Stodie, Doll, 256
-
-  Stone House, the, 181
-
-  Storey, Dr. John, 81
-
-  Stow, 117, 118, 171–183, 191, 248, 265, 313, 320, 338, 347, 358, 360,
-    362, 375, 389, 390, 403
-
-  Strand, 38, 44, 186, 337
-
-  Strange, Lord, his Company, 350
-
-  Stratford, 217
-
-  Stratford-at-Bow, 140, 142
-
-  Streets—state of, 29, 30, 191, 199;
-    games in, 273; paving of, 44;
-    performances in, 273;
-    policing of, 63, 324
-
-  Street Cries, 198
-
-  Streets (Strettes) Guillim, 260
-
-  Strype, 327
-
-  Stubbes, Philip, 153, 156, 166, 271, 287, 288, 289, 290, 305, 310,
-    359, 374, 375
-
-  Suburbs, 44, 200
-
-  Succession, Act of, of 1534, 38
-
-  Suckley, H., 43
-
-  Suffolk, Duchess of, 100
-
-  Suffolk, Duke of, 26, 39, 48
-
-  Sumptuary laws, 310
-
-  Sun Street, 397
-
-  Sunday, observance of, 154, 273, 289, 343, 344, 345, 352
-
-  Superstition, 162–167, 306, 307
-
-  Surrey, Earl of, 26, 30
-
-  Sussex, Earl of, 39;
-    his Company, 350
-
-  Sutton Valence, 377
-
-  Swan Alley, 220
-
-  Swansea, 218
-
-  Swearing, 285, 286
-
-  Sweating sickness, 5, 29, 47
-
-  Sword-stands, 214
-
-  Sylvester, 247
-
-  Symon, Sir R., 6
-
-  Syon House, 68
-
-
-  Talismans, 164, 165
-
-  Tarleton, 248
-
-  Tate, John, 376
-
-  Taunton, 218
-
-  Tavistock, 218
-
-  Taxes, 40, 42, 48, 217, 372, 373
-
-  Taylor, John, 240
-
-  Taylor, Rowland, 58
-
-  Temple, the, 203, 356, 386
-
-  Tenby, 218
-
-  Terling, Levina, 258, 260
-
-  Thames, River, 11, 39, 67, 86, 100, 186, 194, 197, 211, 288, 351, 389,
-    397
-
-  Thames Street, 13, 181, 197, 360
-
-  Theatres, 175, 176, 240, 273, 288, 289, 331, 342–365;
-    interior of, 348, 349;
-    Curtain, 343, 346;
-    Fortune, 346;
-    Globe, 241, 346, 347;
-    Hope, 347;
-    Rose, 241, 347;
-    Swan, 241, 347;
-    The Theatre, 343, 346;
-    Whitehall, 349
-
-  Theobalds, 85
-
-  Thorne, George, 391–393
-
-  Thorpe, 246
-
-  Throgmorton, Nicholas, 61, 62, 157
-
-  Tilbury, 77
-
-  Tithes, 28
-
-  Tobacco, 181, 285, 348, 354
-
-  Tombs, 146
-
-  Torture, 31, 72
-
-  Tothill Fields, 391
-
-  Toto, Antonio, 260
-
-  Tottell, Richard, 246, 340
-
-  Tottenham Court, 416
-
-  Tower, the, 25, 39, 49, 67, 96, 99, 203, 263
-
-  Tower Ditch, 42, 194
-
-  Tower Hill, 9, 59, 130, 326, 390
-
-  Tower Postern, 42
-
-  Tower Royal, the, 181, 203
-
-  Tower Stairs, 417
-
-  Tower Street, 96
-
-  Tower Street, Ward of, 76
-
-  Towns, dilapidated state of, 217, 218
-
-  Trade—revival of in sixteenth century, 18, 197, 219–237;
-    and the Spanish War, 43;
-    decay of, 216–219;
-    restrictions on, 62, 63, 84;
-    and Queen Elizabeth, 83;
-    foreign trade, 83, 230–237, 241–243;
-    and aliens, 237–242;
-    and monopolies, 233, 238;
-    money-lending, 238–240, 288;
-    commercial treaties, 242
-
-  Trafalgar Square, 205
-
-  Trained Bands, 16, 39, 76–78, 309
-
-  Trees, 201
-
-  Truro, 218
-
-  Tudson, J., 136
-
-  Tumblers, 273
-
-  Turberville, 8
-
-  Turkey Company, 236, 237
-
-  Tyburn, 7, 9, 32, 59, 71
-
-
-  Uniformity, Act of, 69
-
-  Upright Men, the, 384, 387
-
-  Usk, 218
-
-  Usury, 238
-
-  Uxbridge, 140
-
-
-  Vagrants, 370–373
-
-  Venner, 143
-
-  Vergil, Polydore, 283
-
-  Vestments, 146, 147, 148
-
-  Vintry, the, 337
-
-  Vintry, Ward of, 76
-
-  Volpe, Vincent, 258, 260
-
-
-  Wade, Christopher, 136
-
-  Wages and salaries, 244, 259, 260, 296, 369
-
-  Walbrook, 140
-
-  Walbrook, River, 188, 194
-
-  Walbrook, Ward of, 76
-
-  Waleys, Mayor, 257
-
-  Walking Morte, the, 387
-
-  Walsingham, Sir F., 124, 182
-
-  Walthamstow, 376
-
-  Walworth, William, 255
-
-  Wandsworth, 238
-
-  Wapping, 227, 288, 370
-
-  Warbeck, Perkin, 6–9
-
-  Warde, 246
-
-  Wardrobe, 201
-
-  Warne, J., 136
-
-  Warren, J., 136
-
-  Warwick, 218, 376, 388
-
-  Warwick, the Earl of, 4, 6, 8, 9, 181;
-    his Company, 350
-
-  Watchmen, 374
-
-  Water Lane, 44
-
-  Watermen, 240, 241, 389
-
-  Water-supply, 40, 44, 188, 193, 194, 285, 377, 397
-
-  Watling Street, 158
-
-  Wats, T., 136
-
-  Webbe, Sir W., 254
-
-  Weddings, 304, 312, 313
-
-  Welford, Sir T., 326
-
-  Wellington Square, Hoxton, 356
-
-  Wells, river of the, 188
-
-  Wentworth, Lord, 97
-
-  Westchepe, Cross of, 12
-
-  Westchester, 376
-
-  Westminster, 38, 43, 44, 53, 58, 63, 67, 100, 211, 363, 368, 387
-
-  Westminster, Abbot of, 96
-
-  Westminster Hall, 8, 26, 31, 155, 203
-
-  Westminster Palace, 60
-
-  Weymouth, 218
-
-  Whale-fishing, 235
-
-  Wheeler, John, 232
-
-  Whipjack, 386
-
-  Whipping, 59
-
-  Whitchurch, 388
-
-  White, E., 246
-
-  White, Sir Thomas, 256, 376
-
-  Whitechapel, 194
-
-  White Cross Street, 44, 194
-
-  Whitehall, 86, 98, 99, 320
-
-  Whitsuntide, 360, 362
-
-  Whittington, 176, 182, 254, 257, 375
-
-  Wigan, 218
-
-  Wilford, Ralph, 9
-
-  Willesden, 194
-
-  William, Bishop, 98
-
-  Williams, the martyr, 136
-
-  Willoughby, Sir Hugh, 51, 222, 233
-
-  Wiltshire, Earl of, 26, 39
-
-  Wimbledon, Lord, 317
-
-  Winchelsea, 217
-
-  Winchester, 7, 217, 376
-
-  Windows, 276
-
-  Windsor, 51, 241
-
-  Windsor Castle, 86
-
-  Wine, 43, 180, 190, 210, 271, 292, 293, 294, 300, 334, 337
-
-  Wise, 246
-
-  Witchcraft, 82, 163–164
-
-  Wither, George, 265
-
-  Wolsey, Cardinal, 23, 24, 26, 27, 42, 43, 112, 118, 119, 155, 283, 286
-
-  Women—position of wives, 269, 270, 271;
-    dress, 270, 271;
-    ostentation of, 272;
-    amusements, 273;
-    and smoking, 285
-
-  Wood, Anthony à, 156, 261
-
-  Wood, Thomas, 403
-
-  Wootton Bassett, 388
-
-  Worcester, 217, 376
-
-  Worcester, Earl of, 39;
-    his Company, 350
-
-  Worsley, 260
-
-  Wotton, 384
-
-  Wright, Andrew, 259, 260
-
-  Wurtemberg, Duke of, 203
-
-  Wyatt’s Rebellion, 53, 54, 62
-
-  Wych Street, 44
-
-  Wyclyf, 4, 123
-
-  Wyndham, 388
-
-  Wynkyn de Worde, 244
-
-  Wythypool, P., 27, 28
-
-
-  Yeoman of the Chandry, 382
-
-  Yeoman of the Scullery, 382
-
-  Yeomen of the Guard, 5
-
-  Yeomen of the Laundry, 100
-
-  York, 217
-
-  York Castle, 239
-
-  York, John, 49
-
-
-                                THE END
-
-           _Printed by_ R. & R. CLARK, LIMITED, _Edinburgh_.
-
-
-[Illustration: LONDON IN THE TIME OF THE TUDORS. A REPRODUCTION,
-REDUCED, OF THE MAP BY RALPH AGAS, CIRCA 1560.
-
-_From a facsimile reproduction of the original map by Edward J.
-Francis, in the possession of John C. Francis._
-
-Lithographed by W. & A. K. Johnston Limited Edinburgh & London
-
-MAP ACCOMPANYING “LONDON IN THE TIME OF THE TUDORS BY SIR WALTER
-BESANT, PUBLISHED BY ADAM AND CHARLES BLACK, SOHO SQUARE, LONDON,
-1904]
-
-{Transcription:
-  This antient and famous City of London, was first founded by
-  _Brate_ the Trojan, in the year of the World two thousand,
-  eight hundred thirty & two, and before the Nativity of our
-  Saviour Christ, one thousand, one hundred and 30. So that since
-  the first building, it 2 thousand 6 hundred 60 & 3 years. And
-  afterward was repaired and enlarged by King _Lud._ but at the
-  present so flourisheth, that it containeth in length from the
-  East to the West about 3. English miles, from the North to the
-  South about 2 English miles. It is also so plentifully peopled,
-  that it is divided into a hundred and 22 Parishes within the
-  Liberties, besides 16 Parishes that are in the suburbs. It
-  is planted on a very good soyle: for on the one side it is
-  compassed with come & pasture ground, on the other side it is
-  inclosed with the river of Thames, which not only aboundeth in
-  all kind of fresh water-fish, but also is so navigable, that
-  it as well bringeth abundance of commodities from all parts
-  of the World, as also conveieth forth such commodities as the
-  plentifulnesse of our Contry doth yield us: which both augments
-  the fame thereof abroad, and also increaseth the riches thereof
-  at hom; so that as it is head and chief City of the whole
-  Realm, so it is likewise head and chief Chamber of the whole
-  Realm, as well for our outward and inward commodities. God
-  prosper it at his pleasure Amen.
-
-    New Troy my name: when first my fame begun
-    By Trajan Brute: who then me placed here:
-    On fruitfull soyle, where pleasant Thames doth run
-    Sith Lud my Lord, my King and Lover dear,
-    Encreast my boundes and London (far that rings
-    Through Regions large) he called then my name
-    How famous since (I stately seat of Kings)
-    Have flourish’d aye: let others that proclaim.
-    And let me joy thus happy still to see
-    This vertuous Peer my Soveraign King to be.}
-
-
-       A Companion Volume to “London in the Time of the Tudors”
-+----------------------------------------------------------------------+
-|                                                                      |
-|                             L O N D O N                              |
-|                                                                      |
-|                      IN THE TIME OF THE STUARTS                      |
-|                                                                      |
-|                         BY SIR WALTER BESANT                         |
-|                                                                      |
-|   _In One Volume, Demy 4to, Cloth, Gilt Top, 410 pages, containing   |
-|      115 Illustrations, mostly from Contemporary Prints, and a       |
-|      reproduction of Ogilby and Morgan’s Map of London, 1677._       |
-|                                                                      |
-|                           PRICE =30s.= NET                           |
-+----------------------------------------------------------------------+
-|                         SOME PRESS OPINIONS                          |
-|                                                                      |
-| ‘Most readable and interesting.... It is a mine in which the         |
-| student alike of topography and of manners and customs may dig       |
-| and dig again with the certainty of finding something new and        |
-| interesting.’—_The Times._                                           |
-|                                                                      |
-| ‘No lover of London can fail to be grateful to the late Sir Walter   |
-| for his many carefully studied pictures of its ancient life,         |
-| pictures often quaint and amusing, and bearing always the mark       |
-| of earnest and minute research.... The general reader will find      |
-| in this volume a world of interesting suggestion.’—_The Daily        |
-| Chronicle._                                                          |
-|                                                                      |
-| ‘We are again reminded of the vast debt which London owes to the     |
-| late Sir Walter Besant by the appearance of this sumptuously         |
-| printed and beautifully illustrated book, the second volume of       |
-| his great Survey of London—unquestionably his _magnum opus_, upon    |
-| which his fame will chiefly rest.... A book which should be in       |
-| the library of every one who takes an intelligent interest in the    |
-| history and development of London.’—_The Daily Telegraph._           |
-|                                                                      |
-| ‘A work of great interest, eminently readable, and full of curious,  |
-| interesting, and original matter.’—_Westminster Gazette._            |
-|                                                                      |
-| ‘The pen of the ready writer here is fluent; the picture wants       |
-| nothing in completeness. The records of the city and the kingdom     |
-| have been ransacked for facts and documents, and they are here       |
-| marshalled with consummate skill. In surveying the political         |
-| history of London from James I. to Queen Anne, Sir Walter Besant     |
-| reveals himself as an unsparing and impartial historian, and in      |
-| this respect alone the work must command our admiration and our      |
-| praise. But there is also included the most vivid presentation of    |
-| the story of the Great Plague and the Great Fire that has ever been  |
-| brought between the covers of one book.’—_The Pall Mall Gazette._    |
-|                                                                      |
-| ‘It is impossible to speak too highly of this endeavour to say all   |
-| that is worth saying about London, and to say it in a manner which   |
-| shall at once satisfy the historical student and attract public      |
-| attention.’—_Yorkshire Post._                                        |
-|                                                                      |
-| ‘Much has hitherto been written, both by way of fact and fiction,    |
-| as well as by a blend of each, to describe London in its grievous    |
-| trials of pestilence and flame; but Sir Walter Besant has here       |
-| gathered together by far the most graphic and the most trustworthy   |
-| accounts that have hitherto been penned.’—_The Guardian._            |
-|                                                                      |
-| ‘The whole work is one of singular interest because the subject      |
-| is treated with the lightness of touch and descriptive power not     |
-| always attained by antiquarian writers.’—_The Record._               |
-|                                                                      |
-| ‘This handsome volume furnishes a fascinating record, both           |
-| pictorial and literary, of seventeenth century London, such as can   |
-| be found nowhere else. To the student it will be invaluable; to the  |
-| general reader with antiquarian interests and a taste for social     |
-| history, a never-failing source of delight.’—_The Contemporary       |
-| Review._                                                             |
-|                                                                      |
-| ‘There is not a dull page in the book, and the fact that the         |
-| treatment is somewhat discursive makes the volume more delightful.   |
-| We can give no idea of its variety and its charm, but every one      |
-| who wishes to know the London of two hundred and fifty years ago     |
-| will feel, as he opens this volume, that he has stepped back into    |
-| that world of great events, and will live again through its civil    |
-| discord, its Plague, and Fire, and its strange superstitions.’—_The  |
-| London Quarterly Review._                                            |
-+----------------------------------------------------------------------+
-|                             PUBLISHED BY                             |
-|      ADAM AND CHARLES BLACK, 4, 5, & 6 SOHO SQUARE, LONDON, W.       |
-+----------------------------------------------------------------------+
-
-       A Companion Volume to “London in the Time of the Tudors”
-+----------------------------------------------------------------------+
-|                                                                      |
-|                             L O N D O N                              |
-|                                                                      |
-|                      IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY                       |
-|                                                                      |
-|                         BY SIR WALTER BESANT                         |
-|                                                                      |
-|   _In One Volume, Demy 4to, Cloth, Gilt Top, 680 pages, containing   |
-|   104 Illustrations, mostly from Contemporary Prints, and a Map._    |
-|                                                                      |
-|                           PRICE =30s.= NET                           |
-+----------------------------------------------------------------------+
-|                         SOME PRESS OPINIONS                          |
-|                                                                      |
-| ‘Turn where you will in his pages, you get some interesting          |
-| glimpse which opens up the past and illumines the present.’—_The     |
-| Contemporary Review._                                                |
-|                                                                      |
-| ‘A handsome and very interesting book is the result, for which the   |
-| curious reader and the student will alike be grateful.... Gives an   |
-| admirable impression of the times.’—_The Spectator._                 |
-|                                                                      |
-| ‘It is excellently planned and very ably and agreeably executed....  |
-| The chief charm of this work is the pleasantness of the style in     |
-| which it is written—easy, clear, and individual. To the accuracy     |
-| of the ideal historian Sir Walter added the picturesqueness of the   |
-| popular novelist.’—_The Globe._                                      |
-|                                                                      |
-| ‘It forms a sumptuous volume, and is marked, of course, by minute    |
-| research and enthusiastic interest. Will be a thoroughly engrossing  |
-| study for all those—and they are now many—to whom the past of the    |
-| Empire’s capital is a subject of the keenest fascination.’—_St.      |
-| James’s Gazette._                                                    |
-|                                                                      |
-| ‘To praise this book were superfluous. Sir Walter was ideally        |
-| suited for the task which he set himself. He was an antiquarian,     |
-| but not a Dryasdust; he had the topographical sense, but he spares   |
-| us measurements; he was pleasantly discursive; if he moralised he    |
-| was never tedious; he had the novelist’s eye for the romantic.       |
-| Above all, he loved and reverenced London. Though only a Londoner    |
-| by adoption, he bestowed upon the capital a more than filial         |
-| regard. Besant is the nineteenth century Stow, and something         |
-| more.... This remarkable volume.... It is a monument of faithful     |
-| and careful research.’—_The Daily Telegraph._                        |
-|                                                                      |
-| ‘Will be of the utmost value to every student of the life and        |
-| history of London.’—_The Standard._                                  |
-|                                                                      |
-| ‘Altogether this posthumous work of the historian of London is one   |
-| of the most fascinating books which he ever wrote.’—_The Municipal   |
-| Journal._                                                            |
-|                                                                      |
-| ‘It is a wonderfully complete history.... Will probably stand to     |
-| all time as the brightest and most authoritative book on a period    |
-| which is bound, by its very evils, to have a fascination for the     |
-| student of customs and manners, and for the student of national      |
-| development.’—_The Liverpool Post._                                  |
-|                                                                      |
-| ‘The book is engrossing and its manner delightful.’—_The Times._     |
-|                                                                      |
-| ‘A work of great value and interest; ... profoundly                  |
-| interesting.’—_The Westminster Gazette._                             |
-|                                                                      |
-| ‘Of facts and figures such as these this valuable book will be       |
-| found full to overflowing, and it is calculated, therefore, to       |
-| interest all kinds of readers, from the student to the dilettante,   |
-| from the romancer in search of matter to the most voracious student  |
-| of “Tit-Bits.”’—_The Athenæum._                                      |
-|                                                                      |
-| ‘Stimulating, edifying, interesting, horrifying, in turns, the book  |
-| has not a dull moment.... As it is the best, it will surely prove    |
-| the most prized and popular of modern books on London.’—_Notes and   |
-| Queries._                                                            |
-|                                                                      |
-| ‘The work is copiously illustrated with reproductions of old         |
-| prints, and is altogether a delightful and fascinating guide to      |
-| the Metropolis at an eventful period of its history.’—_Pall Mall     |
-| Gazette._                                                            |
-|                                                                      |
-| ‘Of the present lordly quarto volume it may be said that it fairly   |
-| represents that “Survey” which Sir Walter Besant conceived, and      |
-| which he used to refer to as his _magnum opus_. It is a worthy       |
-| literary monument to his deep knowledge and love of London.’—_The    |
-| Academy._                                                            |
-|                                                                      |
-| ‘Besant’s interesting and valuable book.’—_Manchester Guardian._     |
-|                                                                      |
-| ‘It is assuredly a delightful book to lose oneself in, and so to     |
-| think one’s way back into a simpler and perhaps, after all, a        |
-| merrier England.’—_The Bookman._                                     |
-|                                                                      |
-| ‘A book to be treasured and studied.... The work as a whole is a     |
-| notable achievement, and will stand as the classical authority on    |
-| eighteenth century London.’—_The Speaker._                           |
-+----------------------------------------------------------------------+
-|                             PUBLISHED BY                             |
-|      ADAM AND CHARLES BLACK, 4, 5, & 6 SOHO SQUARE, LONDON, W.       |
-+----------------------------------------------------------------------+
-
-
-                              FOOTNOTES:
-
-  [1] Richard Grafton, Chronicler, born _circa_ 1572.
-
-  [2] “Mortuary = a gift left by a man at his death to his parish
-  church for the recompence of his personal tythes and offerings
-  not duly paid in his lifetime” (_Johnson’s Dictionary_).
-
-  [3] _History of London_, Book I. p. 255.
-
-  [4] _Pawne_ = a gallery.
-
-  [5] William Harrison, who wrote “The Description of England”
-  for Holinshed’s _Chronicles_.
-
-  [6] Holinshed’s _Chronicles_.
-
-  [7] Or fee-farm rent.
-
-  [8] Many of these details were published for the first time in
-  Sharpe’s _London and the Kingdom_, i. 494 _et seq._
-
-  [9] A rich and precious stuff composed of silk with threads of
-  gold.
-
-  [10] Treene = wooden, especially used of plates.
-
-  [11] See _Remembrancia_, pp. 550–551.
-
-  [12] See _Remembrancia_, p. 230.
-
-  [13] These titles began with Henry VII., who seeing an
-  inhabitant of Shoreditch shoot with extraordinary skill,
-  dubbed him Duke of Shoreditch; this being copied by others, as
-  Marquesses, Earls, etc., drew such ridicule upon the Company as
-  finally brought contempt on the archery itself.
-
-  [14] _The Anatomie of Abuses_, Turnbull’s edition 1836, p. 50.
-
-  [15] Rewalt = to give up or surrender (_Century Dictionary_).
-
-
-Transcriber’s Notes:
-
- - Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_).
- - Text enclosed by ‘►◄’ is in blackletter font (►blackletter◄).
- - Blank pages have been removed.
- - A few obvious typographical errors have been silently corrected.
- - Otherwise spelling and hyphenation variations remain unchanged.
- - Illustrations: internal caption-like text is replicated in the
-   external caption. More extensive text is replicated in a
-   {Transcription: ... } block.
-
-
-
-
-
-
-End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of London in the Time of the Tudors, by 
-Sir Walter Besant
-
-*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LONDON IN THE TIME OF THE TUDORS ***
-
-***** This file should be named 62134-0.txt or 62134-0.zip *****
-This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
-        http://www.gutenberg.org/6/2/1/3/62134/
-
-Produced by Chris Curnow, Robert Tonsing, 'Junet' for
-finding, scanning and re-creating Agas' map, and the Online
-Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This
-file was produced from images generously made available
-by The Internet Archive)
-
-Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will
-be renamed.
-
-Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright
-law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works,
-so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United
-States without permission and without paying copyright
-royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part
-of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project
-Gutenberg-tm electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm
-concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark,
-and may not be used if you charge for the eBooks, unless you receive
-specific permission. If you do not charge anything for copies of this
-eBook, complying with the rules is very easy. You may use this eBook
-for nearly any purpose such as creation of derivative works, reports,
-performances and research. They may be modified and printed and given
-away--you may do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks
-not protected by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the
-trademark license, especially commercial redistribution.
-
-START: FULL LICENSE
-
-THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
-PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
-
-To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
-distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
-(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
-Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full
-Project Gutenberg-tm License available with this file or online at
-www.gutenberg.org/license.
-
-Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project
-Gutenberg-tm electronic works
-
-1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
-electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
-and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
-(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all
-the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or
-destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your
-possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a
-Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound
-by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the
-person or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph
-1.E.8.
-
-1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be
-used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
-agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few
-things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
-even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See
-paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project
-Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this
-agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm
-electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below.
-
-1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the
-Foundation" or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection
-of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual
-works in the collection are in the public domain in the United
-States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the
-United States and you are located in the United States, we do not
-claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing,
-displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as
-all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope
-that you will support the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting
-free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm
-works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the
-Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with the work. You can easily
-comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the
-same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg-tm License when
-you share it without charge with others.
-
-1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
-what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are
-in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States,
-check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this
-agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing,
-distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any
-other Project Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no
-representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any
-country outside the United States.
-
-1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
-
-1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other
-immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear
-prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work
-on which the phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the
-phrase "Project Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed,
-performed, viewed, copied or distributed:
-
-  This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
-  most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no
-  restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it
-  under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this
-  eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the
-  United States, you'll have to check the laws of the country where you
-  are located before using this ebook.
-
-1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is
-derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not
-contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the
-copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in
-the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are
-redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase "Project
-Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply
-either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or
-obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg-tm
-trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
-
-1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
-with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
-must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any
-additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms
-will be linked to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works
-posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the
-beginning of this work.
-
-1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
-License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
-work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
-
-1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
-electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
-prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
-active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
-Gutenberg-tm License.
-
-1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
-compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including
-any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access
-to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format
-other than "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official
-version posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site
-(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense
-to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means
-of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original "Plain
-Vanilla ASCII" or other form. Any alternate format must include the
-full Project Gutenberg-tm License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
-
-1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
-performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
-unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
-
-1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
-access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
-provided that
-
-* You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
-  the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
-  you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed
-  to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he has
-  agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project
-  Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid
-  within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are
-  legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty
-  payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project
-  Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in
-  Section 4, "Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg
-  Literary Archive Foundation."
-
-* You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
-  you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
-  does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
-  License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all
-  copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue
-  all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg-tm
-  works.
-
-* You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of
-  any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
-  electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of
-  receipt of the work.
-
-* You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
-  distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
-
-1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project
-Gutenberg-tm electronic work or group of works on different terms than
-are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing
-from both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and The
-Project Gutenberg Trademark LLC, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm
-trademark. Contact the Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
-
-1.F.
-
-1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
-effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
-works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project
-Gutenberg-tm collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm
-electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may
-contain "Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate
-or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other
-intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or
-other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or
-cannot be read by your equipment.
-
-1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
-of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
-Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
-Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
-Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
-liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
-fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
-LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
-PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
-TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
-LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
-INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
-DAMAGE.
-
-1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
-defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
-receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
-written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you
-received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium
-with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you
-with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in
-lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person
-or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second
-opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If
-the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing
-without further opportunities to fix the problem.
-
-1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
-in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO
-OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT
-LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
-
-1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
-warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of
-damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement
-violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the
-agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or
-limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or
-unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the
-remaining provisions.
-
-1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
-trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
-providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in
-accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the
-production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm
-electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses,
-including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of
-the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this
-or any Project Gutenberg-tm work, (b) alteration, modification, or
-additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any
-Defect you cause.
-
-Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
-
-Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
-electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of
-computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It
-exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations
-from people in all walks of life.
-
-Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
-assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
-goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
-remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project
-Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
-and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future
-generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary
-Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see
-Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at
-www.gutenberg.org
-
-
-
-Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
-
-The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
-501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
-state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
-Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
-number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary
-Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by
-U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
-
-The Foundation's principal office is in Fairbanks, Alaska, with the
-mailing address: PO Box 750175, Fairbanks, AK 99775, but its
-volunteers and employees are scattered throughout numerous
-locations. Its business office is located at 809 North 1500 West, Salt
-Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up to
-date contact information can be found at the Foundation's web site and
-official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact
-
-For additional contact information:
-
-    Dr. Gregory B. Newby
-    Chief Executive and Director
-    gbnewby@pglaf.org
-
-Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
-Literary Archive Foundation
-
-Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
-spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
-increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
-freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
-array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations
-($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
-status with the IRS.
-
-The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
-charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
-States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
-considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
-with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations
-where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND
-DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular
-state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate
-
-While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
-have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
-against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
-approach us with offers to donate.
-
-International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
-any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
-outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
-
-Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
-methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other
-ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To
-donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate
-
-Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works.
-
-Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project
-Gutenberg-tm concept of a library of electronic works that could be
-freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and
-distributed Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of
-volunteer support.
-
-Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
-editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in
-the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not
-necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper
-edition.
-
-Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search
-facility: www.gutenberg.org
-
-This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
-including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
-Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
-subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
-
diff --git a/old/62134-0.zip b/old/62134-0.zip
deleted file mode 100644
index 2781c2f..0000000
--- a/old/62134-0.zip
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h.zip b/old/62134-h.zip
deleted file mode 100644
index cee0726..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h.zip
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/62134-h.htm b/old/62134-h/62134-h.htm
deleted file mode 100644
index 6002933..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/62134-h.htm
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,25793 +0,0 @@
-<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.1//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml11/DTD/xhtml11.dtd">
-<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en">
-
-<head>
-  <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=utf-8" />
-  <meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css" />
-  <title>
-    London in the Time of the Tudors, by Walter Besant&mdash;A Project Gutenberg eBook
-  </title>
-  <link rel="coverpage" href="images/cover.jpg" />
-  <style type="text/css">
-
-    body {
-      margin-left: 10%;
-      margin-right: 10%;
-    }
-
-    h1, h2, h3, h4 {
-      text-align: center;
-      clear: both;
-    }
-
-    h1 {
-      margin-top: 10%;
-      margin-bottom: 5%;
-      font-weight: normal;
-      line-height: 200%;
-      font-size: x-large;
-    }
-
-    h2 {
-      margin-top: 5%;
-      margin-bottom: 10%;
-      letter-spacing: 0.1em;
-    }
-
-    h3 {
-      font-size: medium;
-      font-weight: normal;
-      margin-top: 5%;
-    }
-
-    h4 {
-      font-size: medium;
-      font-weight: normal;
-    }
-
-    /* === h2 Subheading === */
-    .subhead {
-      text-align: center;
-      font-size: small;
-      line-height: 1.2em;
-      margin-top: 3%;
-      display: inline-block;
-    }
-
-    p {
-      margin-top: .5em;
-      text-align: justify;
-      margin-bottom: .5em;
-      text-indent: 1em;
-    }
-
-    /* === Continuation after illo or poetry === */
-    p.noindent {
-      text-indent: 0;
-      margin-left: 0%;
-    }
-
-    .lefthang {
-      padding-left: 1em;
-      text-indent: -1em;
-    }
-
-    .lefthang2 {
-      padding-left: 2em;
-      text-indent: -2em;
-    }
-
-    .lefthang3 {
-      padding-left: 3.5em;
-      text-indent: -3.5em;
-    }
-
-    div.titlepage {
-      text-align: center;
-      page-break-before: always;
-      page-break-after: always;
-    }
-
-    div.titlepage p {
-      text-align: center;
-      text-indent: 0em;
-      font-weight: bold;
-      line-height: 1.5;
-      margin-top: 3em;
-    }
-
-    /* === Required for epub breaks === */
-    div.chapter {
-      clear: both;
-      margin-top: 10%;
-      page-break-before: always;
-    }
-
-    hr       { width: 35%; margin: 1% 32.5%; clear: both; }
-    hr.tb    { width: 45%; margin: 3% 27.5%; }
-    hr.page  { width: 65%; margin: 5% 17.5%; }
-
-    /* === Fonts === */
-    .xsmall   { font-size: x-small; }
-    .small    { font-size: small; }
-    .large    { font-size: large;}
-    .xlarge   { font-size: x-large; }
-    .xxlarge  { font-size: xx-large; }
-    .xxxlarge { font-size: 250%; }
-    .smcap    { font-variant: small-caps; }
-    .bold     { font-weight: bold; }
-    .arial    { font-family: 'Arial', 'Helvetica', sans-serif; }
-    .gothic   { font-family: 'Old English Text MT', 'Old English', serif; }
-    .gespertt1 { letter-spacing: 0.1em; margin-right: -0.1em; }
-    .gespertt2 { letter-spacing: 0.25em; margin-right: -0.25em; }
-    .rotated {
-      font-family: 'Arial', 'Helvetica', sans-serif;
-      padding-right: 0.4em;
-      text-align : center;
-      font-size: x-large;
-      line-height: 3em;
-    }
-
-    /* === Alignment === */
-    .mt1    { margin-top: 1%; }
-    .mt2    { margin-top: 2%; }
-    .mt5    { margin-top: 5%; }
-    .mt10   { margin-top: 10%; }
-    .mb2    { margin-bottom: 2%; }
-    .mb5    { margin-bottom: 5%; }
-    .mb10   { margin-bottom: 10%; }
-    .ml20   { margin-left: 26%; }
-    .ml8    { margin-left: 8%; }
-    .ml6    { margin-left: 6%; }
-    .ml4    { margin-left: 4%; }
-    .mlh    { margin-left: -1.5%; }
-    .lh1    { line-height: 1.5em; }
-    .clear  { clear: both; }
-    .center { text-align: center; }
-    .right  { text-align: right; margin-right: 2%; }
-    .pl6    { padding-left: 7em; }
-    .pl7    { padding-left: 8.1em; }
-    .pl8    { padding-left: 8.8em; }
-    .pl9    { padding-left: 9.3em; }
-    .pl10   { padding-left: 10.5em; }
-    .pl10a  { padding-left: 10.2em; }
-    .pl10b  { padding-left: 10.7em; }
-    .pl10c  { padding-left: 11em; }
-    .pl11   { padding-left: 11.9em; }
-    .pl11a  { padding-left: 12.1em; }
-    .pl12   { padding-left: 13em; }
-    .pl14   { padding-left: 15em; }
-    .pl15   { padding-left: 15.3em; }
-
-    /* === Page #s === */
-    .pagenum { /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */
-      /*  visibility: hidden;  */
-      right: 1%;
-      font-size: x-small;
-      background-color: inherit;
-      color: silver;
-      text-indent: 0;
-      text-align: right;
-      position: absolute;
-      border: thin solid silver;
-      padding: .1em .2em;
-      font-style: normal;
-      font-variant: normal;
-      font-weight: normal;
-      text-decoration: none;
-    }
-
-    /* === Bordered box === */
-    .bbox {
-      margin: 0 auto;
-      border-top: solid 2px;
-      border-left: solid 2px;
-      border-right: solid 2px;
-      padding: .3em 1em;
-      width: 60%;
-    }
-    .bboxb {
-      margin: 0 auto;
-      border: solid 2px;
-      padding: .3em 1em;
-      width: 60%;
-    }
-    .bboxxb {
-      margin: 0 auto 2% auto;
-      border: solid 2px;
-      padding: .3em 1em;
-    }
-    .bboxx {
-      margin: 0 auto;
-      border-top: solid 2px;
-      border-left: solid 2px;
-      border-right: solid 2px;
-      padding: .3em 1em;
-    }
-    .bbox2 {
-      margin: 2% auto;
-      border: solid 2px;
-      padding: .3em 1em;
-      width: 40%;
-    }
-    .bbox30 {
-      margin: 2% auto;
-      border: solid 2px;
-      padding: .3em 1em;
-      width: 20%;
-    }
-
-    /* === Lists === */
-    ul {
-      list-style-type: none;
-      text-align: left;
-    }
-
-    ul.index {
-      list-style-type: none;
-      text-align: left;
-      display: inline-block;
-      margin-top: 0;
-      margin-bottom: 0;
-    }
-
-    ul.index li {
-      padding-left: 1em;
-      text-indent: -1em;
-    }
-
-    ul.index li.sub {
-      padding-left: 2em;
-      text-indent: -1em;
-    }
-
-    ul.exec li.sub2 { padding-left: 5.5em; }
-    ul.spaced li { padding-top: 1%; }
-
-    .col33 {
-      display: inline-block;
-      width: 25%;
-      vertical-align: top; }
-
-    .inline {
-      display: inline-block;
-      text-align: left;
-    }
-
-    ol.italics { font-style: italic; }
-
-    /* === Tables === */
-    table {
-      margin-left: auto;
-      margin-right: auto;
-      min-width: 75%;
-      border-collapse: collapse;
-    }
-
-    .inline { display: inline-block; }
-
-    .header {
-      margin-top: 4%;
-      margin-bottom: 2%;
-      text-align: center;
-    }
-
-    th {
-      font-size: small;
-      text-align: center;
-    }
-
-    td {
-      padding-left: 1%;
-      padding-right: 1%;
-    }
-
-    .tdl {
-      text-align: left;
-      padding-left: 1.6em;
-      text-indent: -1.6em;
-    }
-
-    .tdl4 {
-      text-align: left;
-      padding-left: 4.6em;
-      text-indent: -4.6em;
-    }
-
-    .tdc {
-      text-align: center;
-      padding-top: 2%;
-      height: 1.6em;
-    }
-
-    .tdr {
-      padding-left: 1%;
-      vertical-align: bottom;
-      min-width: 3em;
-    }
-
-    .tdr2 {
-      padding-left: 1%;
-      vertical-align: bottom;
-      width: 35%;
-    }
-
-    .tdb {
-      vertical-align: bottom;
-      width: 15%;
-    }
-
-    .ball { border: 1px solid black; }
-    .bl { border-left: 1px solid black; }
-    .br { border-right: 1px solid black; }
-    .bb { border-bottom: 1px solid black; }
-
-    .chapnum { padding-right: 0.5em; }
-
-    .chapnum div { text-align: right; }
-    .tdr div { text-align: right; }
-    .tdr2 div { text-align: right; }
-
-    /* === Footnotes === */
-    .footnotes { border: dashed 1px; }
-    .footheader {
-      font-size: 150%;
-      text-align: center;
-      text-decoration: underline;
-    }
-    .footnote {
-      margin-left: 10%;
-      margin-right: 10%;
-      font-size: 0.9em;
-    }
-
-    .footnote .label {
-      position: absolute;
-      right: 84%;
-      text-align: right;
-    }
-
-    .fnanchor {
-      vertical-align: super;
-      font-size: .8em;
-      text-decoration: none;
-    }
-
-    /* === Poetry === */
-    .center-container {
-      text-align:center;
-      /*margin: 4% auto;*/
-    }
-
-    .poem {
-      display: inline-block;
-      text-align: left;
-      font-size: 90%;
-      padding-left: 4.5em;
-    }
-
-    .poem0 {
-      display: inline-block;
-      text-align: left;
-      font-size: 90%;
-      padding-left: 4.5em;
-    }
-
-    .stanza { margin: 3% auto 3% auto; }
-    .stanza div.i0  { text-indent: -4.5em; }
-    .stanza div.i1  { text-indent: -4.1em; }
-    .stanza div.i2  { text-indent: -3.6em; }
-    .stanza div.i3  { text-indent: -3.2em; }
-    .stanza div.i4  { text-indent: -2.7em; }
-    .stanza div.i5  { text-indent: -2.2em; }
-    .stanza div.i6  { text-indent: -1.8em; }
-    .stanza div.i8  { text-indent: -0.9em; }
-    .stanza div.i10 { text-indent: 0; }
-    .stanza div.i12 { text-indent: 0.6em; }
-    .stanza div.i14 { text-indent: 1.5em; }
-    .stanza div.i16 { text-indent: 2.4em; }
-    .stanza div.i17 { text-indent: 3.2em; }
-    .stanza div.i18 { text-indent: 4.0em; }
-    .stanza div.i20 { text-indent: 5.4em; }
-    .stanza div.i30 { text-indent: 8em; }
-    .stanza div.i40 { text-indent: 12em; }
-
-    /* === Images === */
-    .figcenter {
-      margin: 3% auto 2% auto;
-      text-align: center;
-      page-break-inside: avoid;
-    }
-
-    .caption {
-      clear: both;
-      margin-top: 1%;
-      font-size: x-small;
-      font-weight: bold;
-    }
-
-    .captionf {
-      margin-top: 1%;
-      font-size: x-small;
-      font-weight: bold;
-    }
-
-    img {
-      max-width: 100%;
-      height: auto;
-    }
-
-    .attribr {
-      float: right;
-      font-size: xx-small;
-      font-style: italic;
-      line-height: 0;
-    }
-
-    .attribl {
-      float: left;
-      font-size: xx-small;
-      font-style: italic;
-      line-height: 0;
-    }
-
-    .link {  /* for links to transcriptions */
-      font-weight: bold;
-      font-size: x-small;
-      margin-top: 1%;
-      margin-bottom: 2%;
-      text-align: center;
-    }
-
-    .transcription {
-      text-align: center;
-      font-size: large;
-      margin-top: 5%;
-      margin-bottom: 2%;
-      font-weight: bold;
-    }
-
-    .larger-version { display: inherit; }
-
-    .col { display: inline-block; }
-    .col20 { width: 19%; }
-    .col30 { vertical-align: top; width: 29%; }
-    .col35 { width: 34%; }
-    .col40 { vertical-align: top; width: 39%; }
-    .col50 { display: inline-block; width: 49%; }
-
-    .w700 { width: 700px; }
-    .w600 { width: 600px; }
-    .w565 { width: 565px; }
-    .w500 { width: 500px; }
-    .w415 { width: 415px; }
-    .w385 { width: 385px; }
-    .w365 { width: 365px; }
-    .w355 { width: 355px; }
-    .w325 { width: 325px; }
-    .w300 { width: 300px; }
-
-    /* === Transcriber's notes === */
-    .transnote {
-      background-color: #E6E6FA;
-      color: black;
-      font-size: smaller;
-      padding: 0.5em;
-      margin-bottom: 5em;
-      font-family: sans-serif, serif;
-    }
-
-    /* === Display format overrides === */
-    @media screen, print
-    {
-      .larger-version {
-        font-weight: bold;
-        font-size: x-small;
-        margin-top: 1%;
-        margin-bottom: 2%;
-        text-align: center;
-        display: inherit;
-      }
-
-      .figleft
-      {
-        float: left;
-        margin: 1% 2% 1% 0;
-        page-break-inside: avoid;
-      }
-    }
-
-    @media handheld, print
-    {
-      .larger-version { display: none; }
-    }
-
-    @media handheld
-    {
-      body { margin: 0; }
-
-      .poem {
-        display: block;
-        margin-left: 1.5em;
-      }
-
-      /* Hide chapter dividers */
-      hr.page {
-        display: none;
-        page-break-before: always;
-      }
-
-      /* Override epubmaker 'float' treatment */
-      .figleft
-      {
-        float: left;
-        margin: 1% 2% 1% 0;
-        page-break-inside: avoid;
-      }
-
-      .attribr {
-        float: right;
-        font-size: xx-small;
-        font-style: italic;
-        line-height: 0;
-      }
-
-      .attribl {
-        float: left;
-        font-size: xx-small;
-        font-style: italic;
-        line-height: 0;
-      }
-
-      .w700 { width: 700px; }
-      .w600 { width: 600px; }
-      .w565 { width: 565px; }
-      .w500 { width: 500px; }
-      .w415 { width: 415px; }
-      .w385 { width: 385px; }
-      .w365 { width: 365px; }
-      .w355 { width: 355px; }
-      .w325 { width: 325px; }
-      .w300 { width: 300px; }
-
-      .bbox {
-        margin: 0 auto;
-        border-top: solid 2px;
-        border-left: solid 2px;
-        border-right: solid 2px;
-        padding: .3em 1em;
-        min-width: 80%;
-      }
-      .bboxb {
-        margin: 0 auto;
-        border: solid 2px;
-        padding: .3em 1em;
-        min-width: 80%;
-      }
-      .bbox2 {
-        margin: 2% auto;
-        border: solid 2px;
-        padding: .3em 1em;
-        width: 60%;
-      }
-      .bbox30 {
-        margin: 2% auto;
-        border: solid 2px;
-        padding: .3em 1em;
-        width: 30%;
-      }
-    }
-
-  </style>
-</head>
-
-<body>
-
-
-<pre>
-
-Project Gutenberg's London in the Time of the Tudors, by Sir Walter Besant
-
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
-other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
-whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
-the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
-www.gutenberg.org.  If you are not located in the United States, you'll have
-to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook.
-
-Title: London in the Time of the Tudors
-
-Author: Sir Walter Besant
-
-Release Date: May 14, 2020 [EBook #62134]
-
-Language: English
-
-Character set encoding: UTF-8
-
-*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LONDON IN THE TIME OF THE TUDORS ***
-
-
-
-
-Produced by Chris Curnow, Robert Tonsing, 'Junet' for
-finding, scanning and re-creating Agas' map, and the Online
-Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This
-file was produced from images generously made available
-by The Internet Archive)
-
-
-
-
-
-
-</pre>
-
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <img id="coverpage" src="images/cover.jpg" alt="" width="615" height="800" />
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="bboxxb">
-    <div class="center"><i>UNIFORM WITH THIS VOLUME</i></div>
-
-    <div class="center arial">PRICE <span class="xlarge"><b>30/</b></span> NET EACH</div>
-
-    <div class="center mt2">
-      <div class="xlarge">LONDON</div>
-      <div class="large mt1">IN THE TIME OF THE STUARTS</div>
-      <div class="mt1"><i>With 116 Illustrations and a Reproduction of Ogilby’s Map
-        of London in 1677.</i></div>
-    </div>
-
-    <p>“It is a mine in which the student, alike of topography and of manners
-      and customs, may dig and dig again with the certainty of finding
-      something new and interesting.”—<i>The Times.</i></p>
-
-    <p>“The pen of the ready writer here is fluent; the picture wants nothing
-      in completeness. The records of the city and the kingdom have been
-      ransacked for facts and documents, and they are marshalled with
-      consummate skill.”—<i>Pall Mall Gazette.</i></p>
-
-    <hr />
-    <div class="center mt2">
-      <div class="xlarge">LONDON</div>
-      <div class="large mt1">IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY</div>
-      <div class="mt1"><i>With 104 Illustrations and a Reproduction of Rocque’s Map
-        of London in 1741–5.</i></div>
-    </div>
-
-    <p>“The book is engrossing, and its manner delightful.”—<i>The Times.</i></p>
-
-    <p>“Of facts and figures such as these this valuable book will be found
-      full to overflowing, and it is calculated therefore to interest all
-      kinds of readers, from the student to the dilettante, from the romancer
-      in search of matter to the most voracious student of Tit-Bits.”—<i>The Athenæum.</i></p>
-
-    <hr />
-
-    <div class="center mt2">
-      <div class="xlarge">LONDON</div>
-      <div><span class="large">IN MEDIÆVAL TIMES.</span>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;<i>In preparation.</i></div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-
-  <hr class="page" />
-  <div class="gothic">The Survey of London<br />
-    —————————</div>
-
-  <div class="center mt10 mb10 lh1"><span class="xlarge">LONDON</span><br />
-    IN THE TIME OF THE TUDORS
-  </div>
-
-  <hr class="page" />
-  <div class="figcenter w500">
-    <a id="i_frontis"><img src="images/i_frontis.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="700" /></a>
-    <div class="attribl"><i>Spooner &amp; Co.</i></div>
-    <div class="attribr"><i>Frontispiece.</i></div>
-    <div class="caption lh1">QUEEN ELIZABETH (1533–1603)<br />
-      From the painting by Gerard at Burleigh House.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <hr class="page" />
-  <div class="titlepage">
-    <div class="chapter mt10">
-      <h1>
-        <span class="gespertt2 xxxlarge">LONDON</span><br />
-        IN THE TIME OF THE TUDORS</h1>
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="mt10 mb10 lh1"><span class="xsmall">BY</span><br />
-      <span class="large gespertt1">SIR WALTER BESANT</span>
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="figcenter">
-      <img src="images/i_title.png" alt="" width="150" height="151" />
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="mt10 lh1">
-      <span class="gespertt1">LONDON</span><br />
-      <span class="large gespertt1">ADAM &amp; CHARLES BLACK</span><br />
-      1904
-    </div>
-  </div>
-
-  <hr class="page" />
-  <div class="chapter gespertt1" id="CONTENTS">
-    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_v">v</span>
-    <h2 class="mb2">CONTENTS</h2>
-  </div>
-
-  <table summary="Table of Contents">
-    <tbody>
-      <tr><td colspan="3"><div class="header">TUDOR SOVEREIGNS</div></td></tr>
-      <tr>
-        <th class="tdr small"><div>CHAP.</div></th>
-        <th>&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="tdr small"><div>PAGE</div></th>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="chapnum"><div>1.</div></td>
-        <td class="smcap"><a href="#CHAPTER_1a" title="Go to chapter Henry the Seventh">Henry <abbr title="the Seventh">VII</abbr>.</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>3</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="chapnum"><div>2.</div></td>
-        <td class="smcap"><a href="#CHAPTER_2a" title="Go to chapter Henry the Eighth">Henry <abbr title="the Eighth">VIII</abbr>.</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>17</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="chapnum"><div>3.</div></td>
-        <td class="smcap"><a href="#CHAPTER_3a" title="Go to chapter Edward the Sixth">Edward <abbr title="the Sixth">VI</abbr>.</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>45</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="chapnum"><div>4.</div></td>
-        <td class="smcap"><a href="#CHAPTER_4a" title="Go to chapter Mary">Mary</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>52</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="chapnum"><div>5.</div></td>
-        <td class="smcap"><a href="#CHAPTER_5a" title="Go to chapter Elizabeth">Elizabeth</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>65</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="chapnum"><div>6.</div></td>
-        <td class="smcap"><a href="#CHAPTER_6a" title="Go to chapter The Queen in Splendour">The Queen in Splendour</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>85</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr><td colspan="3"><div class="header">RELIGION</div></td></tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="chapnum"><div>1.</div></td>
-        <td class="smcap"><a href="#CHAPTER_1b" title="Go to chapter The Dissolution and the Martyrs">The Dissolution and the Martyrs</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>109</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="chapnum"><div>2.</div></td>
-        <td class="smcap"><a href="#CHAPTER_2b" title="Go to chapter The Progress of the Reformation">The Progress of the Reformation</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>143</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="chapnum"><div>3.</div></td>
-        <td class="smcap"><a href="#CHAPTER_3b" title="Go to chapter Superstition">Superstition</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>162</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr><td colspan="3"><div class="header">ELIZABETHAN LONDON</div></td></tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="chapnum"><div>1.</div></td>
-        <td class="smcap"><a href="#CHAPTER_1c" title="Go to chapter With Stow">With Stow</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>171</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="chapnum"><div>2.</div></td>
-        <td class="smcap"><a href="#CHAPTER_2c" title="Go to chapter Contemporary Evidence">Contemporary Evidence</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>185</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="chapnum"><div>3.</div></td>
-        <td class="smcap"><a href="#CHAPTER_3c" title="Go to chapter The Citizens">The Citizens</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>196</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr><td colspan="3"><div class="header">GOVERNMENT AND TRADE OF THE CITY</div></td></tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="chapnum"><div>1.</div></td>
-        <td class="smcap"><a href="#CHAPTER_1d" title="Go to chapter The Mayor">The Mayor</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>209</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="chapnum"><div>2.</div></td>
-        <td class="smcap"><a href="#CHAPTER_2d" title="Go to chapter Trade">Trade</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>216</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="chapnum"><div>3.</div></td>
-        <td class="smcap"><a href="#CHAPTER_3d" title="Go to chapter Literature and Art">Literature and Art</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>244</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="chapnum"><div>4.</div></td>
-        <td class="smcap"><a href="#CHAPTER_4d" title="Go to chapter Gog and Magog">Gog and Magog</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>209</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr><td colspan="3"><div class="header">SOCIAL LIFE</div></td></tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="chapnum"><div>1.</div></td>
-        <td class="smcap"><a href="#CHAPTER_1e" title="Go to chapter Manners and Customs">Manners and Customs</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>269</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="chapnum"><div>2.</div></td>
-        <td class="smcap"><a href="#CHAPTER_2e" title="Go to chapter Food and Drink">Food and Drink</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>292</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="chapnum"><div>3.</div></td>
-        <td class="smcap"><a href="#CHAPTER_3e" title="Go to chapter Dress—Weddings">Dress—Weddings</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>303</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="chapnum"><div>4.</div></td>
-        <td class="smcap"><a href="#CHAPTER_4e" title="Go to chapter Soldiers">Soldiers</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>316</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="chapnum"><div>5.</div></td>
-        <td class="smcap"><a href="#CHAPTER_5e" title="Go to chapter The ’Prentice">The ’Prentice</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>323</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="chapnum"><div>6.</div></td>
-        <td class="smcap"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_vi">vi</span><a href="#CHAPTER_6e" title="Go to chapter The London Inns">The London Inns</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>333</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="chapnum"><div>7.</div></td>
-        <td class="smcap"><a href="#CHAPTER_7e" title="Go to chapter Theatres and Sports">Theatres and Sports</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>342</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="chapnum"><div>8.</div></td>
-        <td class="smcap"><a href="#CHAPTER_8e" title="Go to chapter The Poor">The Poor</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>366</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="chapnum"><div>9.</div></td>
-        <td class="smcap"><a href="#CHAPTER_9e" title="Go to chapter Crime and Punishment">Crime and Punishment</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>379</div></td>
-      </tr>
-    <tr>
-      <td colspan="2"><div class="mt5 ml4"><a href="#APPENDICES" title="Go to Appendices">APPENDICES</a></div></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><div>397</div></td>
-    </tr>
-    <tr>
-      <td colspan="2"><div class="mt5 ml4"><a href="#INDEX" title="Go to Index">INDEX</a></div></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><div>421</div></td>
-    </tr>
-    </tbody>
-  </table>
-
-  <hr class="page" />
-  <div class="chapter gespertt1" id="ILLUSTRATIONS">
-    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_vii">vii</span>
-    <h2 class="mb2">ILLUSTRATIONS</h2>
-  </div>
-
-  <table summary="List of Illustrations" id="loi">
-    <tbody>
-      <tr>
-        <th class="tdl">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="tdr2"><div>PAGE</div></th>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_frontis">Queen Elizabeth</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div><i>Frontispiece</i></div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_003">Henry VII.</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>3</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_007">Perkin Warbeck</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>7</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_010">Katherine of Aragon and Arthur, Prince of Wales</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>10</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_011">The Exchequer in the time of Henry VII.</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>11</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_012">The Children of King Henry VII.</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div><i>Facing page</i> 12</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_014">Screen in Henry VII.’s Chapel, Westminster Abbey</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>14</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_015">Interior of Henry VII.’s Chapel, Westminster Abbey</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>15</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_017">Henry VIII. when young</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>17</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_018">Henry VIII.</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>18</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_019">Katherine of Aragon</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>19</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_022">Henry VIII. as a Musician</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>22</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_025">Cardinal Wolsey</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>26</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_027">Eastcheap Market</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>27</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_029">The King in Parliament</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>29</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_031">Henry VIII. granting the Barber-Surgeons’ Charter</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>31</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_033">The Burning of Anne Askew</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>33</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_034">Dean Colet</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>34</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_035">Thomas Cromwell, Earl of Essex</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>35</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_036">Dean Colet’s House, Stepney</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>37</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_037">A Procession</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>37</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_038">Henry VIII., Princess Mary, and Will Somers</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div><i>Facing page</i> 38</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_041">Embarkation of Henry VIII. at Dover</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>41</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_045">Edward VI.</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>45</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_047">Edward VI. (three-quarter length)</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>47</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_048">Edward VI. granting Charter to Bridewell</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div><i>Facing page</i> 48</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_050">The Coronation Procession of Edward VI.</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>51</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_052">Mary Tudor</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>52</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_055">Lady Jane Grey</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>56</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_057">St. Peter ad Vincula, overlooking Tower Green</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>57</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_058">Execution of Lady Jane Grey</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div><i>Facing page</i> 58</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_060a">The Persecution of John Bradford</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>60</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_060b">The Martyrdom of John Bradford</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>60</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_061">Interior of the Bell Tower</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>61</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_viii">viii</span><a href="#i_062">Philip II. of Spain</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div><i>Facing page</i> 62</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_065">Queen Elizabeth</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>65</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_067">Queen Elizabeth</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>67</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_069"><i>Feus de Joye</i> in honour of Queen Elizabeth’s Entry into London</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>69</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_071">Queen Elizabeth</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>71</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_072">Queen Elizabeth</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>72</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_073">Queen Elizabeth (full length)</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>74</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_075">Sir Philip Sidney and his brother Lord Lisle</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>75</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_076">The Spanish Armada (the first engagement)</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div><i>Facing page</i> 76</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_079">View of the House of Peers</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>79</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_081">Lord Burghley</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>81</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_085">Hampton Court</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>85</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_089">Nonsuch House</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>89</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_091">Coaches of Queen Elizabeth</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>93</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_093">Royal Procession to St. Paul’s</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>95</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_094">Queen Elizabeth going in Procession to St. Paul’s</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div><i>Facing page</i> 95</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_097">The Tower</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>97</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_098">Westminster</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>98</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_101">A Hunting Scene</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>102</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_102">Queen Elizabeth’s Funeral</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div><i>Facing page</i> 102</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_104">The Palace of Greenwich</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>105</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_105">Queen Elizabeth</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>105</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_113">Carthusian Martyrs</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>113</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_115">Sir Thomas More</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>115</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_121">Martyrs at Smithfield</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>121</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_123">Westminster Abbey</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>123</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_125">Bishop Gardiner</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>125</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_129">Queen Elizabeth at Prayer</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>129</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_133">Protestant Prisoners</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>133</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_134">Hugh Latimer</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>134</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_135">Bishop Ridley</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>135</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_137">Thomas Cranmer</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>137</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_139">The Burning of John Rogers</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>139</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_141">The Martyrdom of Archbishop Cranmer</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>141</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_147">Queen Elizabeth’s Tomb</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>147</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_148a">Popish Plots and Treasons</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div><i>Facing pages</i> 148 and 149</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_149">Knight seizing an Archbishop</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>149</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_153">A Royal Picnic</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>153</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_157">Old St. Paul’s</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>157</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_173">The Tower of London</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>173</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_175">Cloisters of St. Katherine’s</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>175</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_177">St. Paul’s Church</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>177</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_178">Latimer preaching before Edward VI. at Westminster</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>178</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_179">Baynard’s Castle</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>179</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_ix">ix</span><a href="#i_182">West Cheap in Elizabethan London</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>182</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_184">Cold Harbour</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>184</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_186">Bridewell Palace and Entrance to the Fleet River</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>186</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_187">Londinium Feracissimi Angliae Regni Metropolis</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>187</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_189a">Plan of the City of Westminster</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>189</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_189b">Plan of the City of London in the time of Elizabeth</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>189</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_190-1">Parish of St. Giles in the Fields</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div><i>Between pages</i> 190 and 191</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_192">Bishopsgate</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>192</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_193">Plan of Islington</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>193</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_196">Earl of Somerset and his Wife</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>196</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_199">Shop and Solar, Clare Market</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>199</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_200">Tottenham Court</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div><i>Facing page</i> 200</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_204">Queen Elizabeth’s Bath</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>204</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_209">Mayor and Aldermen</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>209</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_213">London Bridge</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>213</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_216">The Custom House</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>216</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_218-9">Panorama of London and Westminster</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div><i>Between pages</i> 218 and 219</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_221">Sir Thomas Gresham</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>221</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_223">Christ’s Hospital</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>223</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_226">Sir Francis Drake</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>226</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_227">Drake’s <i>Golden Hind</i></a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>227</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_231">A Merchant of the Steelyard</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>231</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_232">Medals struck in Commemoration of the Armada</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div><i>Facing page</i> 232</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_234-5">Panorama of London—London Bridge</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div><i>Between pages</i> 234 and 235</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_239">The Tower in 1553</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>239</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_241">Near Paul’s Wharf</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>241</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_242">Tradesmen of the Tudor Period</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>242</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_245">Old Temple Bar in time of James I.</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>245</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_248">Sir Francis Bacon</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>250</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_249">William Shakespeare</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>250</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_251">Edmund Spenser</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>251</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_259">Ben Jonson</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>259</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_261">Holbein</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>261</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_277">Staple Inn, Holborn</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>277</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_282">The More Family</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div><i>Facing page</i> 282</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_289">A Ship of the time of Henry VIII.</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>289</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_295">Tittle-Tattle; or, the several Branches of Gossiping</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>295</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_301">Marriage Feast of Sir H. Unton</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>301</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_303">Lady Hunsdon in a Farthingale</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>303</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_304">Lady in the Court of Queen Elizabeth</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>304</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_304">Noble Matron of England</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>304</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_305">English Lady of Quality</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>305</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_305">English Nobleman</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>305</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_308">Wealthy Merchant of London</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>308</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_x">x</span><a href="#i_309">Page Boy of the time of Edward VI.</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>309</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_310">Sir William Russell</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>310</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_310_1">Court of Wards and Liveries in the time of Elizabeth</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div><i>Facing page</i> 310</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_311a">Robert de Vere</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>311</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_311b">John Clinch, Chief Justice of the Common Pleas</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>311</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_311c">Sir Edward Coke, Chief Justice of the King’s Bench</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>311c</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_313">The Christening of Prince Arthur</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>313</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_314">Burial in the Fields</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>314</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_316">Soldiers of the Tudor Period</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>316</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_318">Yeoman of the Guard</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>318</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_319">A Knight in Armour</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>320</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_320">Pikeman</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>320</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_321">Musketeer</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>322</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_339">Sign of the Boar’s Head, East Cheap</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>339</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_342">The Bear Garden and the Globe Theatre</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>343</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_346">Bankside, Southwark, in 1648, with a view of Holland’s Leaguer</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div><i>Facing page</i> 346</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_350-1">Panorama of London—the Tower and Greenwich</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div><i>Between pages</i> 350 and 351</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_357">Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>357</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_361">A Fête at Horselydown</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>361</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_364">The Dancing Picture</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>364</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_381">The Pillory</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>382</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_383">Engravings taken from Henry VIII.’s Armour</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>383</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_385">Billingsgate</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>385</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl"><a href="#i_389">The Cucking-Stool</a></td>
-        <td class="tdr2"><div>389</div></td>
-      </tr>
-    </tbody>
-  </table>
-
-  <hr class="page" />
-  <div class="chapter mb10" id="TUDOR_SOVEREIGNS">
-    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_1">1</span>
-    <h2>TUDOR SOVEREIGNS</h2>
-  </div>
-
-  <hr class="page" />
-  <div class="chapter" id="CHAPTER_1a">
-    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_3">3</span>
-    <h3>
-      <span class="gespertt1">CHAPTER I</span><br />
-      <span class="subhead">HENRY VII</span>
-    </h3>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="i_003"><img src="images/i_003.jpg" width="312" height="414" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">HENRY VII. (1457–1509)<br />
-      From the painting in the National Portrait Gallery, London.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p class="noindent"><span class="smcap">On</span> stepping out of the fifteenth into the sixteenth century one becomes
-    conscious of a change; no such change was felt in passing from the
-    twelfth to the thirteenth century, or from the fourteenth to the
-    fifteenth. The world of Henry the Sixth was the same world as that of
-    Edward the First; it was also the same as that of Henry the Second.
-    For four hundred years no sudden, perceptible, or radical change took
-    place either in manners and customs, language, arts, or ideas. There
-    had, of course, been outbreaks; there had been passionate longings for
-    change; men before their<span class="pagenum" id="Page_4">4</span> time, like Wyclyf, had advanced new ideas
-    which sprang up like grass and presently withered away; there had
-    been changes in religious thought, but there was no change, so far,
-    in religious institutions. At the beginning of the sixteenth century,
-    however, we who know the coming events can see the change impending,
-    change already begun. Whether the Bishops and Clergy, the Monks and
-    Friars, were also conscious of impending change, I know not. It seems
-    as if they must have been uneasy, as in France men were uneasy long
-    before the Revolution. On the other hand, Rome still loomed large
-    in the imagination of the world: the Rock on which the Church was
-    established; the Throne from which there was no appeal; the hand that
-    held the Keys. We have now, however, to chronicle the part, the large
-    part, played by London in this great century of Revolution.</p>
-
-  <p>After forty years of Civil War,—with murders, exactions, executions,
-    treacheries, and perjuries innumerable, with the ruin of trade, with
-    the extinction of ancient families, with the loss of all the French
-    conquests,—the City, no less than the country at large, welcomed the
-    accession of a Prince who promised order and tranquillity at least. Of
-    all the numerous descendants of Edward the Third who might once have
-    called themselves heirs to the Crown before the Duke of Richmond, there
-    remained but two or three. Of the Lancastrians Henry alone was left,
-    and his title was derived from a branch legitimised. The two brothers
-    of Henry V. had no children; the only son of Henry VI. was dead. On
-    the Yorkist side Edward’s two sons were dead; Richard’s only son was
-    dead; there remained the young Earl of Warwick, son of Clarence.
-    He was the one dangerous person at the time of Henry’s accession.
-    Edward Plantagenet, Earl of Warwick, was not the heir to the Yorkist
-    claims—this was certainly the eldest daughter of Edward the Fourth;
-    but he was the son of George, Duke of Clarence, and the last male
-    descendant of the York line. He was now fifteen years of age, and had
-    been kept in some kind of confinement at a place called Sheriff Hutton
-    Castle, in the County of York. Considering the practice of the time,
-    and the reputation of Richard III., one wonders at his forbearance
-    in not murdering the boy. Henry sent him—it was his first act after
-    his victory—to the Tower for better safety. Grafton<a id="FNanchor_1" href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> calls this
-    unfortunate Prince “the yongling borne to perpetual captivitie.” He is
-    said to have been a simple youth, wholly ignorant of the world. Though,
-    as we shall see later on, Henry found it expedient to treat this young
-    Prince after the manner of his time. A dead Prince can never become a
-    Pretender.</p>
-
-  <p>And no other fate was possible in the long-run for one whom
-    conspirators might put up at any moment as the rightful claimant of the
-    Crown. The unfortunate youth was only one of a long chain of possible
-    claimants, all of whom paid the penalty of their inheritance by death.
-    Among them were Edward’s infant Princes; his own <span class="pagenum" id="Page_5">5</span>father; Henry’s son,
-    Edward, Prince of Wales; and later on Lady Jane Grey, and Mary Queen of
-    Scots.</p>
-
-  <p>In the same castle of Sheriff Hutton, in similar confinement, was
-    the Lady Elizabeth, Edward the Fourth’s elder daughter, whom Richard
-    proposed to marry with the sanction of the Pope, his own wife, Anne,
-    having strangely and mysteriously come to her death. Bosworth Field put
-    a stop to that monstrous design. According to Grafton, the purpose of
-    Richard was well known to the world, and was everywhere detested and
-    condemned.</p>
-
-  <p>Henry rode to London immediately after his victory. At Shoreditch
-    he was received by the Mayor, Sheriffs, and Aldermen, clothed in
-    violet and bearing a gift of a thousand marks. He then went on to
-    St. Paul’s and there deposited three standards—on one was the image
-    of St. George, on another a “red fierie dragon beaten upon white and
-    greene sarcenet,” and on the third was painted “a dun cow upon yellow
-    <i>tarterne</i>.” He also heard a Te Deum.</p>
-
-  <p>Four weeks after Henry’s entrance into the City there broke out, quite
-    suddenly, with no previous warning, a most deadly pestilence known as
-    the sweating sickness. This dreadful epidemic began with a “burning
-    sweat that invaded the body and vexed the blood, and with a most ardent
-    heat infested the stomach and the head grievously.” If any person could
-    bear the heat and pain for twenty-four hours, he recovered, but might
-    have a relapse; not one in a hundred, however, of those that took the
-    infection survived. Within a few days it killed two Mayors, namely, Sir
-    Thomas Hill and Sir William Stocker; and six Aldermen. The sickness
-    seems to have been swifter, and more deadly while it lasted, than even
-    the Plague or the Epidemic of 1349. But it went away after a time as
-    quickly as it had appeared.</p>
-
-  <p>Henry’s coronation was celebrated on the 13th of October. His
-    predecessor had disguised the weakness of his title by the splendour
-    of his coronation. Henry, on the other hand, made but a mean
-    display—perhaps to show that he was not dependent on show or
-    magnificence. Stanley perceives in this absence of ostentation a kind
-    of acknowledgment that his title to the Crown rested more upon his
-    victory than his descent. This opinion seems to me wholly fanciful;
-    Henry would never at any moment acknowledge that his title was weak.
-    On the other hand, he stoutly claimed, through his mother, to be the
-    nearest heir in the Lancastrian line. His known dislike to ostentation
-    is quite a sufficient reason to account for the comparative poverty of
-    the Coronation show—at which, however, one new feature was introduced,
-    namely, the bodyguard of the King’s person, known as the Yeomen of the
-    Guard. The King’s belief in the strength of his own title was shown in
-    his treatment of the Lady Elizabeth. He had solemnly promised to marry
-    her; he did so in January 1486, five months after his victory; but he
-    was extremely loth to crown her, lest some should say that the Queen
-    was Queen by right, and not merely the Queen consort. The coronation of
-    the Queen was postponed for two<span class="pagenum" id="Page_6">6</span> years. The celebration, however, when
-    it did take place, was accompanied by a great deal of splendour.</p>
-
-  <p>The business of Lambert Simnel shows the real peril of the King’s
-    position. The experience of the last forty years had taught the people
-    a most dangerous habit. They were ready to fly to arms on the smallest
-    provocation. Who was Henry, “the unknown Welshman,” as Richard called
-    him, that he should be allowed to sit in peace upon a throne from
-    which three occupants had been dragged down, two by murder and one by
-    battle? But the occasion of the rising was ridiculous. The young Earl
-    of Warwick was in the Tower; it was possible to see him—Henry, in
-    fact, made him ride through the City for all the world to see. Yet the
-    followers of Lambert Simnel proclaimed that he was Edward Plantagenet,
-    Earl of Warwick. Lambert’s father was a joiner of Oxford; Sir Richard
-    Symon, a priest, was his tutor. The boy, who in 1486 was about eleven
-    years of age, was of handsome appearance and of naturally good manners.</p>
-
-  <p>After the defeat of his cause, Lambert and the priest who had done the
-    mischief were taken. The priest was consigned to an ecclesiastical
-    prison for the rest of his natural life; the boy was pardoned—they
-    could not execute a child—and contemptuously thrust into the King’s
-    kitchen as a little scullion. He afterwards rose to be one of the
-    King’s falconers—the only example in history of a Pretender turning
-    out an honest man in the end. Can we not see the people about the
-    Court gazing curiously upon the handsome scullion in his white jacket,
-    white cap, and white shoes, going to and fro upon his duties, washing
-    pans with zeal and scraping trenchers? The boy had a lovely face, and
-    manners very far beyond his station. Can we not hear them whispering
-    that this young man had once been as good as King, and knew what it was
-    to exercise royal authority?</p>
-
-  <p>The Earl of Warwick was still, however, allowed to live.</p>
-
-  <p>The King, who was magnanimous when it was politic, could also exhibit
-    the opposite quality on occasion. He had never found it easy to forgive
-    Edward’s Queen for submitting herself and her daughters to Richard
-    after she had consented to Henry’s attempt upon the Crown, on the
-    condition of his marrying the eldest. He laid the matter before his
-    Council, who determined that Elizabeth, late Queen, should forfeit all
-    her lands and possessions, and should continue for the rest of her life
-    in honourable confinement in the Abbey of Bermondsey. Here, in fact,
-    she died, not long afterwards, the second Queen who breathed her last
-    in that House.</p>
-
-  <p>One Pretender removed, another arose. Perkin Warbeck professed, as we
-    know, to be the younger son of Edward IV., namely, Richard, Duke of
-    York, who, it was pretended, had escaped from the Tower. The strange
-    adventures of Perkin are told in every history of England. He is
-    connected with that of London on three occasions. The first was after
-    his abortive attempt to land in Kent. The Kentish men, refusing to join
-    him, attacked his followers, drove some of them back to their ships,
-    and took<span class="pagenum" id="Page_7">7</span> prisoners a hundred and sixty men with four Captains. These
-    prisoners were all brought to London roped together, a curious sight
-    to see. Those who lived on London Bridge saw many strange sights, but
-    seldom anything more strange than these poor prisoners, who were not
-    Englishmen but aliens, thus tied together. They were all hanged, every
-    one: some on the seashore, where their bodies might warn other aliens
-    not to come filibustering into England; and the rest at Tyburn.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="i_007"><img src="images/i_007.jpg" width="355" height="445" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">PERKIN WARBECK (1474–1499)<br />
-      From a drawing in the Municipal Library, Arras.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>The Cornish Rebellion was an episode in the history of the Perkin
-    Warbeck business. The men of Cornwall refused to pay taxes and resolved
-    to march upon London. Led by Lord Audley they advanced through
-    Salisbury and Winchester into Kent: they were there opposed, and moved
-    towards London, finally lying at Blackheath. The battle that followed
-    was chiefly fought at the bridge at Deptford Strand. Two thousand
-    of the rebels were killed; fifteen hundred were taken; Lord Audley
-    was beheaded; two demagogues who had instigated the rising, namely,
-    Flammock an attorney, and Joseph a farrier, were hanged; the rest were
-    not pursued or punished.</p>
-
-  <p>The City, meantime, showed its loyalty by a loan of £4000 to the King
-    and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_8">8</span> by putting London into a state of defence. Six Aldermen and a
-    number of representatives from the Livery Companies were deputed to
-    attend to the City ordnance; houses built close to the wall were taken
-    down; the Mayor was allowed an additional twelve men, and the Sheriffs
-    forty serjeants and forty valets to keep the peace.</p>
-
-  <p>Among those appointed to guard the City gates was Alderman Fabyan the
-    Chronicler.</p>
-
-  <p>The next episode in Perkin’s career which touches London is that ride
-    which he undertook, very much against his will, from Westminster to the
-    Tower. Everybody knows how he gave himself up to the Prior of Shene.
-    The King granted him his life, but he imposed certain conditions. He
-    was placed in the stocks opposite the entrance to Westminster Hall,
-    where he sat the whole day long, receiving “innumerable reproaches,
-    mocks and scornings.” The day after he was carried through London
-    on horseback, in sham triumph. They were ingenious in those days in
-    their methods of putting offenders to open shame. At an earlier date
-    the traitor Turberville had to ride in shameful guise; and when Lord
-    Audley, Captain of the Cornish Rebels, was led out to execution, he
-    was attired in a paper robe painted with his arms, the robe being
-    slashed and torn. No doubt Perkin was handsomely attired in coloured
-    paper, with a tinsel crown upon his head; no doubt, too, he bestrode
-    a villainous hack, while all the ’prentices of London ran after him,
-    laughing and mocking. They placed him on a scaffold by the Standard in
-    Chepe and kept him there all day long. In the course of the day he read
-    aloud his own confession, which is a very curious document.</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“First it is to be knowne, that I was borne in the towne of Turneie
-      in Flanders, and my father’s name is John Osbecke, which said
-      John Osbecke was controller of the said towne of Turneie, and my
-      moother’s name is Katherine de Faro ... againste my will they
-      made me to learn Englishe and taught me what I shoulde do or say.
-      And after this they called me Duke of Yorke.... And upon this the
-      said Water, Stephen Poitron, John Tiler, Hubert Burgh, with manie
-      others, as the aforesaid earles, entered into this false quarrell.
-      And within short time after the French king sent an ambassador into
-      Ireland, whose name was Loit Lucas, and maister Stephen Friham, to
-      advertise me to come into France. And thense I went into France,
-      and from thense into Flanders, and from Flanders into Ireland, and
-      from Ireland into Scotland and so into England.” (Grafton.)</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <p>The last occasion of his public appearance was on the day when he was
-    hanged. After his two days’ enjoyment of pillory he was taken to the
-    Tower and was contemptuously told that he would have to end his days
-    there in confinement. Here he soon brought an end upon himself. He
-    found in the Tower the young Earl of Warwick, who, as we have seen,
-    was a very simple young man. Perhaps Perkin understood very well that,
-    even if his own pretensions were hopelessly discredited, with the
-    real Earl of Warwick, Clarence’s undoubted son, grandson of the great
-    Earl, the last male representative of the House of York, there would
-    be the chance of a far greater rising than either Simnel’s or his own.
-    He was already sick of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_9">9</span> prison; the chances of a rising seemed worth
-    taking, with all its perils and dangers; he was probably desperate and
-    reckless. He accordingly bribed his keepers with promises to connive at
-    the escape of the Earl and himself. One has an instinctive feeling that
-    they only pretended to connive; that the course of the plot was daily
-    communicated to the Governor of the Tower, and by him to the King;
-    that the wretched man was encouraged and urged on in order to give an
-    opening for the greatly desired destruction of the Earl as well as his
-    own. However that may be, in the end Perkin and a fellow-conspirator,
-    one John Atwater, were placed on hurdles and drawn to Tyburn, where
-    they received the attentions reserved for traitors. Perkin died, it is
-    said, confessing his guilt. Guilty or not guilty, it was a convenient
-    way of ridding the King not only of an impudent pretender, but also
-    of a dangerous rival. Edward Plantagenet was beheaded on Tower Hill:
-    his end is said to have been suggested by the King of Spain before the
-    betrothal of Prince Arthur to Katherine of Aragon. It was sixteen years
-    after his accession that Henry caused the unlucky youth to be beheaded;
-    and now no rival was left to disturb the security of Henry’s crown.</p>
-
-  <p>There was, however, still a third personation, passed over by most
-    historians, this time by a native of London. The new Pretender was
-    named Ralph Wilford, the son of a shoemaker. He fell into the hands
-    of a scoundrel named Patrick, an Augustine friar, who taught him what
-    to say and how to say it. The two began to go about the country in
-    Kent, and to whisper among the simple country folk the same story that
-    Lambert Simnel had told. This lad was none other than the Earl of
-    Warwick. When the friar found that the thing was receiving, here and
-    there, a little credence, he began to back up the boy, and even went
-    into the pulpit and preached on the subject. But this time the matter
-    was not allowed to get to a head. There was no rebellion: both the
-    rebels were arrested, the young man was hanged at St. Thomas Waterings,
-    and the friar was put into prison for the rest of his natural life.</p>
-
-  <p>In the year 1500 was a “great death” in London and in other parts.
-    The “great death” was due to an outbreak of plague; not the sweating
-    sickness, which also returned later, but apparently some form of the
-    old plague, the “Black Death.” It is one of the many visitations which
-    fell upon the City, afflicted it for a time, filled the churchyards
-    with dead bodies, then passed away and was forgotten. Twenty thousand
-    persons, according to Fabyan, were carried off in London alone. The
-    King retired to Calais till the worst was over.</p>
-
-  <p>On the 14th November 1501, Prince Arthur, then a little over fifteen
-    years of age, was married to Katherine of Aragon, who was then three
-    years older. They were married in St. Paul’s Cathedral. Holinshed says
-    that a long stage was erected, 6 feet high, leading from the west doors
-    to the Choir; that at the end was raised a Mount on which there was
-    room for eight persons, with steps to go up and down;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_10">10</span> and that on this
-    platform stood the King and Queen and the bridegroom, and on it also
-    the Mayor and Aldermen were allowed a place.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="i_010"><img src="images/i_010.jpg" width="450" height="340" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">KATHERINE OF ARAGON AND ARTHUR, PRINCE OF WALES<br />
-      C. Butler’s Collection.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>After the ceremony a splendid feast was held, with dancing and
-    disguisings. Holinshed concludes his account of the wedding by an
-    anecdote which, if true, proves that the Princess was truly the wife of
-    Arthur. The day after, the Royal party went to Westminster, where there
-    were tournaments and great rejoicings. The Prince died five months
-    afterwards. Another royal wedding, held on the 25th January 1502,
-    caused even greater rejoicing. It was that of the Princess Margaret
-    with the King of Scotland; a marriage which promised peace and goodwill
-    between the two nations; a promise which has been fulfilled in a manner
-    unexpected, by the failure of the male line of Tudors. One observes
-    how strong the desire of Henry VII. was to conciliate the goodwill of
-    London. He borrowed money from the City over and over again, but he
-    always repaid these loans. The exactions that we find recorded are
-    chiefly those of his old age—when he was fifty-two years of age,
-    which was old for that time, when he had grown covetous. He could be
-    ostentatious when show was wanted, witness the marriage of Prince
-    Arthur with Katherine. He could also entertain with regal splendour,
-    witness the Christmas cheer he offered to the Mayor and Aldermen.</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“Henry VII., in the ninth Year of his Reign, holding his Feast
-      of Christmas at Westminster, on the twelfth Day, feasted Ralph
-      Anstry, then Mayor of London, and his Brethren the Aldermen, with
-      other<span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">11</span> Commoners in great number; and, after Dinner, dubbing the
-      Mayor Knight, caused him with his Brethren to stay and behold the
-      Disguisings and other Disports in the Night following, shewed in
-      the great Hall, which was richly hanged with Arras, and staged
-      about on both sides; which Disports being ended, in the Morning,
-      the King, the Queen, the Embassadors, and other Estates, being set
-      at a Table of Stone, sixty knights and esquires served sixty Dishes
-      to the King’s Mess, and as many to the Queen’s (neither Flesh nor
-      Fish), and served the Mayor with twenty-four Dishes to his Mess,
-      of the same manner, with sundry Wines in most plenteous wise. And,
-      finally, the King and Queen being conveyed, with great Lights, into
-      the Palace, the Mayor, with his Company, in Barges, returned and
-      came to London by Break of the next day.” (Maitland, vol. i. p.
-      218.)</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="i_011"><img src="images/i_011.jpg" width="400" height="537" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">THE EXCHEQUER IN THE TIME OF HENRY VII.<br />
-      From a print in the British Museum.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>Henry VII. was respected and feared, rather than loved. He kept his
-    word; if he borrowed he paid back; he was not savage or murderous; and
-    he was a great lover of the fine arts. But the chief glory of his reign
-    is that he enforced order<span class="pagenum" id="Page_12">12</span> throughout the realm: it is his chief glory,
-    because order is a most difficult thing to enforce at a time when the
-    people have been flying to arms on every possible occasion for forty
-    years. In the rising of Lambert Simnel; in that of Perkin Warbeck; in
-    the strange determination of the Cornishmen to march upon London,—one
-    can see the natural result of a long civil war. Men become, very
-    easily, ready to refer everything to the arbitration of battle; in
-    such arbitration anything may happen. It was such arbitration that set
-    Edward up and pulled Henry down, and then reversed the arrangement. It
-    was such arbitration that placed the crown on Henry Tudor’s head. Why
-    should not young Perkin step into a throne as Richard, Duke of York?
-    Henry accepted the arbitrament of battle, defeated his rival, and
-    dispersed the rebel armies one after the other. One would think that
-    the spirit of rebellion would be quickly daunted by so many reverses.
-    It was not so; for nearly a hundred years later there were rebellions.
-    They broke out again and again: the people could not lose that trick of
-    flying to arms; the barons could not understand that their power was
-    gone; the memory still survived of princes dragged down, and princes
-    set up, as Fortune turned the way of Victory.</p>
-
-  <p>Henry, like all the Tudors, was arbitrary: he had no intention of being
-    ruled by the City; by his agents Empson and Dudley he levied fines
-    right and left upon the wealthier merchants; he put the Mayor and the
-    Sheriffs in the Marshalsea on a trumped-up charge, and they had to pay
-    a fine of £1400 before he would let them out. He seized Christopher
-    Hawes, Alderman, and put him also in prison, but the poor man died of
-    terror and grief. He imprisoned William Capel, Alderman, who refused
-    to pay a fine of £2000 for his liberty, and remained in prison till
-    the King died. Lawrence Aylmer, ex-Mayor, was also imprisoned in the
-    Compter, where he remained till the King’s death. Henry understood very
-    clearly that with a full Treasury many things are possible that are
-    impossible with empty coffers. He accumulated, therefore, a tremendous
-    hoard: it is said to have amounted to one million eight hundred
-    thousand pounds in money, plate, and jewels.</p>
-
-  <p>The events which belong especially to London in this reign, as we
-    have seen, were not numerous, nor were they of enduring importance.
-    As regards building, the King pulled down a chapel and a house—the
-    house where Chaucer once lived—at the west end of Westminster Abbey,
-    and built the Chapel called after his name; the Cross of Westchepe
-    was finished and put up; Baynard’s Castle was rebuilt, “not after the
-    former manner with embellishments and Towers,” but more convenient. It
-    was the time when the castle was passing into the country house; it
-    became now a large and handsome palace, built round two courts facing
-    the river, much like those palaces built along the Strand, but without
-    any garden except the courts.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="i_012"><img src="images/i_012.jpg" width="700" height="591" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">Three Children of K. Henry VII  and Elizabeth his Queen.<br />
-      I. Prince Arthur II. P<sup>r</sup>. Henry III. P<sup>s</sup>. Margaret<br />
-      From the Royal Collection at Kensington Palace.</div>
-    <div class="caption">From E. Gardner’s Collection.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>The City showed more than its usual jealousy of strangers when in
-    1486 it passed an Ordinance that “no apprentice should be taken nor
-    Freedom given, but to such as were gentlemen born, agreeable to the
-    clause in the oath given to every <span class="pagenum" id="Page_13">13</span>Freeman at the time he was made
-    Free.”... “You shall take no Apprentice but if he be free born.”
-    These are Maitland’s words. The statement is surely absurd. For
-    suppose such a regulation to hold good for the wholesale distributing
-    Companies, how could it be sustained in the case of the Craft
-    Companies? Did a gentleman’s son ever become a working blacksmith or
-    a journeyman saddler? Another kind of jealousy was shown by the City
-    when they passed an Act which prohibited any citizen under penalty
-    of £100 (one-third to be given the Informer) for taking any goods or
-    merchandise to any Fair or Market within the Kingdom, for the term of
-    seven years. What did it mean? That the country merchants should come
-    to London for their wares? Parliament set aside this Regulation the
-    following year.</p>
-
-  <p>A sanitary edict was passed to the effect that no animals should be
-    killed within the City. There is no information as to the length of
-    time that this edict was obeyed, if it were ever obeyed at all.</p>
-
-  <p>In 1503 the King showed his opinion of the authority of the City
-    when he granted a Charter to the Company of Merchant Taylors which
-    practically placed them outside the jurisdiction of the Mayor. Some of
-    the other Companies, perceiving that, if this new independence were
-    granted everywhere, there would be an end of the City, joined in a
-    petition to Parliament for placing them formally under the authority of
-    the Mayor and Aldermen. The City got a Charter from the King in 1505.
-    The Charter, which cost 5000 marks, was especially levelled against
-    recent encroachments of foreigners in buying and selling, and was drawn
-    up to the same effect, and partly in the same words, as the Fifth and
-    last Charter of King Edward the Third. Thus the conclusion of Edward’s
-    Charter was as follows:—</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“We ... have granted to the said Mayor, etc., that no strangers
-      shall from henceforth sell any Wares in the same City or Suburbs
-      thereof by Retail, nor shall keep any House, nor be any Broker in
-      the said City or Suburbs thereof, saving always the merchants of
-      High Almaine, etc.”</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <p>Henry’s Charter was as follows:—</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“That of all Time, of which the Memory of Man is not to the
-      contrary, for the Commonweal of the Realm and City aforesaid,
-      it hath been used, and by Authority of Parliament approved and
-      confirmed, that no Stranger from the Liberty of the City may buy or
-      sell, from any Stranger from the Liberties of the same City, any
-      Merchandize or Wares within the Liberties of the same City, upon
-      Forfeiture of the same.”</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <p>A curious story of this reign relates how the King, to use a homely
-    proverb, cut off his nose to spite his face. For the conduct of
-    Margaret, Duchess of Burgundy, in acknowledging the Pretender, so
-    incensed him against the Flemings that he banished them all. No
-    doubt he inflicted hardship upon the Flemings, but he also—which
-    he had not intended—deprived the Merchant Adventurers of London
-    of their principal trade. The Hanseatic Merchants, perceiving the
-    possible advantage to themselves, imported vast quantities of Flemish
-    produce. Then the ’prentices rose and broke into the <i>Gildhalla
-      Teutonicorum</i>—the Steelyard—pillaging the rooms and warehouses. There
-    was a free fight in Thames Street, and after a time the rioters were<span class="pagenum" id="Page_14">14</span>
-    dispersed. Some were taken prisoners and a few hanged. As nothing more
-    is said about the Flemings, one supposes that they all came back again.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="i_014"><img src="images/i_014.jpg" width="600" height="460" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">SCREEN IN HENRY VII.’s CHAPEL, WESTMINSTER ABBEY<br />
-      E. Gardner’s Collection.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>There had been grave complaints about the perjuries of Juries in the
-    City. The Jurymen took bribes to favour one cause or the other. It was
-    therefore enacted:—</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“That, for the future, no Person or Persons be impannelled or sworn
-      into any jury or Inquest in any of the City Courts, unless he be
-      worth forty Marks; and if the Cause to be tried amount to that Sum,
-      then no Person shall be admitted as a Juror worth less than one
-      hundred Marks; and every Person so qualified, refusing to serve
-      as a Juryman, for the first Default to forfeit one Shilling, the
-      second two, and every one after to double the Sum, for the Use of
-      the City.”</p>
-
-    <p>“And when upon Trial it shall be found, that a Petty Jury have
-      brought in an unjust Verdict, then every Member of the same to
-      Forfeit twenty pounds, or more, according to the Discretion of the
-      Court of Lord-Mayor and Aldermen; and also each Person so offending
-      to suffer six Months’ imprisonment, or less, at the Discretion of
-      the said Mayor and Aldermen, without Bail or Mainprize, and for
-      ever after to be rendered incapable of serving in any jury.”</p>
-
-    <p>“And if upon Enquiry it be found, that any Juror has taken Money as
-      a Bribe, or other Reward, or Promise of Reward, to favour either
-      Plaintiff or Defendant in the Cause to be tried by him then, and
-      in every such case, the Person so offending to forfeit and pay to
-      the Party by him thus injured ten times the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_15">15</span> Value of such Sum or
-      Reward by him taken, and also to suffer imprisonment as already
-      mentioned, and besides, to be disabled from ever serving in that
-      Capacity; and that every Person or Persons guilty of bribing any
-      Juror, shall likewise forfeit ten times the value given, and suffer
-      imprisonment as aforesaid.” (Maitland, vol. i. p. 219.)</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="i_015"><img src="images/i_015.jpg" width="550" height="600" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">INTERIOR OF HENRY VII.’s CHAPEL, WESTMINSTER ABBEY<br />
-      E. Gardner’s Collection.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>Fortifications commanding roads and approaches to the City were erected
-    in the year 1496, especially on the south side, in order to defend the
-    City against the Cornish rebels. It is quite possible that some of
-    them remained, and that some of the supposed works of 1642 were only a
-    restoration or a rebuilding of forts and bastions on the same places.</p>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_16">16</span></p>
-
-  <p>In the year 1498 many gardens in Finsbury Fields were thrown into a
-    spacious Field for the use of the London Archers or Trained bands. This
-    field is now the Artillery Ground with Bunhill Fields Cemetery. In 1501
-    the Lord Mayor erected Kitchens and Offices in the Guildhall, by means
-    of which he entertained the Aldermen and the principal citizens.</p>
-
-  <p>Towards the end of his reign, the King, finding himself afflicted with
-    an incurable disease, took steps in the nature of atonement for his
-    sins. He issued a general pardon to all men for offences committed
-    against his laws—thieves, murderers, and certain others excepted. He
-    paid the fees of prisoners who were kept in gaol for want of money to
-    discharge their fees; he also paid the debts of all those who were
-    confined in the “counters” of Ludgate, <i>i.e.</i> the free men of the City,
-    for sums of forty shillings and under; and some he relieved that were
-    confined for as much as ten pounds. “Hereupon,” says Holinshed, “there
-    were processions daily in every City and parish to pray to Almighty God
-    for his restoring to health and long continuance in the same.” But in
-    vain; for the disease continued and the King died.</p>
-
-  <p>Here is a note on the first visit of Henry the Eighth to the City:—</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“Prince Henry, who afterwards succeeded his father on the throne
-      as King Henry VIII., but was at the time a child of seven years,
-      paid a visit to the City (30 Oct. 1498), where he received a hearty
-      welcome, and was presented by the Recorder, on behalf of the
-      citizens, with a pair of gilt goblets. In reply to the Recorder,
-      who in presenting this ‘litell and powre’ gift, promised to
-      remember his grace with a better at some future time, the prince
-      made the following short speech:—</p>
-
-    <p>‘Fader Maire, I thank you and your Brethren here present of this
-      greate and kynd remembraunce which I trist in tyme comyng to
-      deserve. And for asmoche as I can not give unto you according
-      thankes, I shall pray the Kynges Grace to thank you, and for my
-      partye I shall not forget yor kyndnesse.’” (Sharpe, <i>London and the
-        Kingdom</i>, vol. i. p. 334.)</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <p>The funeral of the King was most sumptuous.</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“His corpse was conveyed from Richmond to St. Paul’s on the 9th
-      May, being met on its way at St. George’s Bar, in Southwark,
-      by the mayor, aldermen, and a suite of 104 commoners, all in
-      black clothing and all on horseback. The streets were lined with
-      other members of the companies bearing torches, the lowest craft
-      occupying the first place. Next after the freemen of the city came
-      the ‘strangers’—Easterlings, Frenchmen, Spaniards, Venetians,
-      Genoese, Florentines and ‘Lukeners’—on horseback and on foot,
-      also bearing torches. These took up their position in Gracechurch
-      Street. Cornhill was occupied by the lower crafts, ordered in such
-      a way that ‘the most worshipful crafts’ stood next unto ‘Paules.’
-      A similar order was preserved the next day, when the corpse was
-      removed from Saint Paul’s to Westminster. The lowest crafts were
-      placed nearest to the Cathedral, and the most worshipful next
-      to Temple Bar, where the civic escort terminated. The mayor and
-      aldermen proceeded to Westminster by water, to attend the ‘masse
-      and offering.’ The mayor, with his mace in his hand, made his
-      offering next after the Lord Chamberlain; those aldermen who had
-      passed the chair offered next after the Knights of the Garter, and
-      before all ‘knights for the body’; whilst the aldermen who had
-      not yet served as mayor made their offering after the knights.”
-      (<i>Ibid.</i> p. 341.)</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <hr class="page" />
-  <div class="chapter" id="CHAPTER_2a">
-    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_17">17</span>
-    <h3>
-      <span class="gespertt1">CHAPTER II</span><br />
-      <span class="subhead">HENRY VIII</span>
-    </h3>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter w365">
-    <a id="i_017"><img src="images/i_017.jpg" width="365" height="450" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="attribr"><i>Spooner &amp; Co.</i></div>
-    <div class="caption">HENRY VIII. WHEN YOUNG (1491–1547)<br />
-      From a portrait by Holbein.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p class="noindent"><span class="smcap">London</span> has now changed its character: the old quarrels and rivalries of
-    Baron, Alderman, or Lord of the Manor with merchant, of merchant with
-    craftsman, of master with servant, have ceased. The Lord of the Manor
-    has disappeared in the City; the craft companies have at last gained
-    their share in the government of the City, but, so far to their own
-    advantage, they are entirely ruled by the employers and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">18</span> masters who
-    belong to them, so that the craftsmen themselves are no better off than
-    before. The authority of the King over the City is greater now than
-    at any preceding time, but it will be restrained in the future not so
-    much by charters, by bribes and gifts, as by the power of the Commons.
-    The trade of the City, which had so grievously suffered by the Civil
-    wars, is reviving again under the peace and order of the Tudor Princes,
-    though it will be once more injured by the religious dissensions.
-    Lastly, the City, like the rest of the country, is already feeling the
-    restlessness that belongs to a period of change. At Henry’s accession,
-    men were beginning to be conscious of a larger world: wider thoughts
-    possessed them; the old learning, the old Arts, were rising again from
-    the grave; the crystallised institutions, hitherto fondly thought to
-    be an essential part of religion, were ready to be broken up. Even the
-    most narrow City merchant, whose heart was in his money-bags, whose
-    soul was to be saved by a trental of masses, an anniversary, or a
-    chantry, felt the uneasiness of the time, and yearned for a simpler
-    Faith as well as for wider markets across the newly-traversed seas.
-    I propose to consider the events of this reign, which were of such
-    vast importance to London as well as the country at large, by subjects
-    instead of in chronological order as hitherto.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="i_018"><img src="images/i_018.jpg" width="301" height="400" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">HENRY VIII. (1491–1547)<br />
-      From the portrait by Holbein in Windsor Castle.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_19">19</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="i_019"><img src="images/i_019.jpg" width="367" height="475" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">KATHERINE OF ARAGON (1485–1536)<br />
-      From the painting in the National Portrait Gallery, London.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>And I will first take the relations of the City and the King.</p>
-
-  <p>They began with a manifest desire of the young King to conciliate
-    the City. Evidently in answer to some petition or representation, he
-    banished all “foreign” beggars, <i>i.e.</i> those who were not natives of
-    London; and ordered them to return to their own parishes. It is easy
-    to understand what happened: the “foreign” beggars, in obedience to
-    the proclamation, retired to their holes and corners; the streets were
-    free from them for some days; the Mayor and Sheriffs congratulated
-    themselves; then after a decent interval, and gradually, the beggars
-    ventured out again. The difficulty, in a word, of dealing with rogues
-    and vagrants and masterless men was already overwhelming. In the time
-    of Elizabeth it became a real, a threatening, danger to the town. We
-    must remember that one effect of a long war, especially a civil war,
-    which calls out a much larger proportion of the people than a foreign
-    war, is to throw upon the roads, at the close of it, a vast number of
-    those who have tasted the joys of idleness and henceforth will not
-    work. They would rather be flogged and hanged than work. They cannot
-    work. They have forgotten how to work. They rob on the high road; they
-    murder in the remote farm-houses; in the winter,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">20</span> and when they grow
-    old, they make for the towns, and they beg in the streets. However,
-    Henry greatly pleased the City by his order, and for a time there was
-    improvement. He then took a much more important step towards winning
-    the affection of the City. He committed Empson and Dudley to the Tower.
-    They were accused of a conspiracy against the Government—in reality
-    they had been the approved agents of the late King; but this it would
-    have been inconvenient to confess. They were therefore found guilty
-    and executed—these unfortunately too willing tools of a rapacious
-    sovereign. Henry offered restitution to all who had suffered at their
-    hands. It was found on subsequent inquiry that six men, all of whom had
-    been struck off the lists for perjury, had managed to get replaced, and
-    had been busy at work for Empson and Dudley in raking up false charges
-    against Aldermen or in taking bribes for concealing offences. These
-    persons, as being servants and not principals, were treated leniently.
-    They were set in pillory, and then driven out of the City.</p>
-
-  <p>The loyalty of the City showed itself on the day of the Coronation when
-    the King, with his newly married Queen, rode in magnificent procession
-    from the Tower to Westminster, where the Crowning was performed with a
-    splendour which surpassed that of all previous occasions.</p>
-
-  <p>On St. John’s Eve 1510 the King, disguised as one of his own yeomen,
-    went into the City in order to witness the finest show of the year, the
-    procession of the City Watch. He was so well pleased with the sight
-    that on St. Peter’s Eve following he brought his Queen and Court to
-    Cheapside to see the procession again:—</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“The March was begun by the City musick, followed by the
-      Lord-Mayor’s officers in Party-coloured Liveries; then the
-      Sword-Bearer on Horseback, in beautiful Armour, preceded the
-      Lord-Mayor, mounted on a stately Horse richly trapped, attended
-      by a Giant, and two Pages on Horseback, three Pageants,
-      Morrice-dancers, and Footmen; next came the Sheriffs, preceded by
-      their Officers, and attended by their Giants, Pages, Pageants,
-      and Morrice-Dancers. Then marched a great body of Demi-Lancers,
-      in bright Armour, on stately Horses; next followed a Body of
-      Carabineers, in white Fustian Coats, with a symbol of the City Arms
-      on their Backs and Breasts; then marched a Division of Archers,
-      with their Bows bent, and Shafts of Arrows by their Side; next
-      followed a Party of Pikemen in their Corslets and Helmets; after
-      them a Body of Halberdeers in Corslets and Helmets; and the March
-      was closed by a great Party of Billmen, with Helmets and Aprons of
-      Mail; and the whole Body, consisting of about two thousand Men,
-      had between every Division a certain Number of Musicians, who were
-      answered in their proper Places by the like Number of Drums, with
-      Standards and Ensigns as veteran troops. This nocturnal March was
-      illuminated by Nine hundred and forty Cressets; two hundred whereof
-      were defrayed at the City Expence, five hundred at that of the
-      Companies, and two hundred and forty by the City Constables. The
-      March began at the Conduit at the west end of Cheapside, and passed
-      through Cheapside, Cornhill, and Leadenhall Street, to Aldgate;
-      whence it returned by Fenchurch Street, Gracechurch Street,
-      Cornhill, and so back to the Conduit. During this March, the Houses
-      on each side the said streets were decorated with Greens and
-      Flowers, wrought into Garlands, and intermixed with a great number
-      of Lamps.” (Maitland, vol. i. p. 222.)</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <p>There is no more pleasant page in the whole of history than that which
-    relates the first years of King Henry’s reign. He was young; he was
-    strong; he was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">21</span> married to a woman whom he loved; he was tall, like
-    his grandfather King Edward, and of goodly countenance, like his
-    grandmother Elizabeth Woodville; he was a lover of arts, like his
-    father; and of learning, like his grandmother Margaret, Countess of
-    Richmond; he was brave, like all his race; he was masterful, as became
-    a king as well as a Tudor; he was skilful in all manly exercises. Add
-    to all this that at the time of his accession he was the richest man
-    in Europe. This accomplished Prince, according to Holinshed, used,
-    even in his progresses, to exercise himself every day in shooting,
-    singing, dancing, wrestling, casting the bar, playing on the recorders,
-    the flute, the virginals, or writing songs and ballads and setting
-    them to music. His songs are principally amorous. He wrote anthems,
-    one of which is extant. The words are taken from the Song of Solomon
-    (Vulgate). His verse is melodious and pretty:—</p>
-
-  <div class="center-container">
-    <div class="poem">
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i0">“O my hart and O my hart</div>
-        <div class="i4">My hart it is so sore!</div>
-        <div class="i0">Since I must nedys from my love depart</div>
-        <div class="i4">And know no cause wherfore.”</div>
-      </div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p class="noindent">Or a song of constancy:—</p>
-
-  <div class="center-container">
-    <div class="poem">
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i0">“Grene grouth the holy, so doth the ivie</div>
-        <div class="i1">Thow winter’s blastys blow never so hye.</div>
-        <div class="i1">As the holy growith grene and never chaungyth hew</div>
-        <div class="i1">So I am—ever hath bene—unto my lady trew.</div>
-        <div class="i16">Grene grouth, etc.</div>
-      </div>
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i1">As the holy grouth grene with ivie all alone</div>
-        <div class="i1">Whose flowerys cannot be seen and grene wode levys be gone,</div>
-        <div class="i1">Now unto my lady, promyse to her I make</div>
-        <div class="i1">From all other only to her I me betake.</div>
-        <div class="i1">Adew myne owne lady, adew my specyall</div>
-        <div class="i1">Who hath my hart trewly, be sure, and ever shall.</div>
-        <div class="i16">Grene grouth, etc.”</div>
-      </div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p class="noindent">And the song which became so popular, “Pastyme with good Company.” This
-    song was actually taken by Latimer as a text for a sermon before Edward
-    the Sixth:—</p>
-
-  <div class="center-container">
-    <div class="poem">
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i0">“Pastyme with good companye</div>
-        <div class="i1">I love and shall untyll I dye;</div>
-        <div class="i1">Gruche who list—but none denye,</div>
-        <div class="i1">So God be plesyd thus leve wyll I;</div>
-        <div class="i4">For my Pastance</div>
-        <div class="i4">Hunt, syng, and dance,</div>
-        <div class="i4">My hart is sette;</div>
-        <div class="i4">All goodly sport for my comfort</div>
-        <div class="i8">Who shall be let?</div>
-      </div>
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i1">Youth must have some dalliance,</div>
-        <div class="i1">Of good or yll sum pastance;</div>
-        <div class="i1">Companye me thynkes then best</div>
-        <div class="i1">All thoughts and fansys to dejest;</div>
-        <div class="i4">For idleness</div>
-        <div class="i4">Is chief mistress</div>
-        <div class="i4">Of vices all;</div>
-        <div class="i4">Then who can say</div>
-        <div class="i4">But myrth and play</div>
-        <div class="i8">Is best of all?</div><span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">22</span>
-      </div>
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i1">Company with honeste</div>
-        <div class="i1">Is vertu—vices to flee;</div>
-        <div class="i1">Company is good and ill,</div>
-        <div class="i1">But every man hath hys fre wyll;</div>
-        <div class="i4">The best ensew,</div>
-        <div class="i4">The worst eschew,</div>
-        <div class="i4">My Mynde shall be</div>
-        <div class="i4">Vertu to use,</div>
-        <div class="i4">Vice to refuse,</div>
-        <div class="i8">Thus shall I use me.”</div>
-      </div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="i_022"><img src="images/i_022.jpg" width="281" height="269" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">HENRY VIII. AS A MUSICIAN<br />
-      From a Royal MS. in British Museum.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>At the outset there was nothing but feasting, jousts, feats of arms,
-    masques, devices, pageants, and mummeries. At the feasts the King
-    was lavish and free of hand; at the tilting the King challenged all
-    and won the prize; at the masques and mummeries he was the best of
-    all the actors; at the dance he was the most graceful and the most
-    unwearied. There are long pages in contemporary history on this festive
-    and splendid life at the Court, when as yet all the world was young
-    to Henry, and no one had been executed except Empson and Dudley. The
-    following extract from Holinshed shows the things in which he gloried,
-    and the nature of a Court Pageant:—</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“Then there was a device or a pageant upon wheels brought in, out
-      of the which pageant issued out a gentleman richlie apparelled,
-      that shewed how in a garden of pleasure there was an arbor of gold
-      wherein were lords and ladies, much desirous to shew pastime to
-      the queene and ladies, if they might be licenced so to doo; who
-      was answered by the queene, how she and all other there were verie
-      desirous to see them and their pastime. Then a great cloth of arras
-      that did hang before the same pageant was taken away, and the
-      pageant brought more neere. It was curiouslie made and pleasant to
-      beholde, it was solemne and rich: for every post or piller thereof
-      was covered with frised gold, therein were trees of hawthorne,
-      eglantine, rosiers, vines, and other pleasant floures of diverse
-      colours, with gillofers, and other hearbs, all made of sattin,
-      damaske, silver and gold, accordinglie as the naturall trees,
-      hearbs, or floures ought to be. In this arbor were six ladies,
-      all apparelled in white satin and greene, set and embrodered full
-      of H. &amp; K. of Gold,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">23</span> knit together with laces of gold of damaske,
-      and all their garments were replenished with glittering spangels
-      gilt over, on their heads are bonets all opened at the foure
-      quarters overfrised with flat gold of damaske, and orrellets were
-      of rolles, wreathed on lampas doucke holow, so that the gold shewed
-      through the lampas doucke: the fassis of their head set full of new
-      devised fashions. In this garden also was the king and five with
-      him apparelled in garments of purple sattin, all of cuts with H.
-      &amp; K. everie edge garnished with frised gold, and everie garment
-      full of posies, made of letters of fine gold in bullion as thicke
-      as they might be, and everie person had his name in like letters
-      of massie gold. The first Cureloial, the second Bon Voloire, the
-      third Bon Espoir, the fourth Valiant Desire, the fifth Bon Foy,
-      the sixt Amour Loial, their hosen, cape, and coats were full of
-      posies, with H. &amp; K. of fine gold in bullion, so that the ground
-      could scarse appeere, and yet was in everie void place spangles of
-      gold. When time was come, the said pageant was brought foorth into
-      presence, and then descended a lord and a ladie by couples, and
-      then the minstrels which were disguised also dansed, and the lords
-      and ladies dansed, that it was a pleasure to behold. In the meane
-      season the pageant was conveyed to the end of the palace, there to
-      tarie till the danses were finished, and so to have received the
-      lords and ladies againe: but suddenlie the rude people ran to the
-      pageant, and rent, tare, and spoiled the pageant so that the lord
-      steward nor the head officers could not cause them to absteine,
-      except that they should have foughten and drawen blood and so was
-      this pageant broken. Then the king with the queene and the ladies
-      returned to his chamber, where they had a great banket, and so this
-      triumph ended with mirth and gladnes.” (Holinshed, vol. iii. p.
-      560.)</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <p>On the proclamation of war against France, the City was ordered to
-    furnish a contingent of 300 men fully armed and equipped. There seems
-    to have been no difficulty in getting the men. The money for their
-    outfit was subscribed by the Companies, who raised £405, and so the men
-    were despatched, clad in white with St. George’s Cross and Sword, and a
-    rose in front and back.</p>
-
-  <p>In June 1516 Cardinal Wolsey addressed an admonition to the City:
-    they must look to the maintenance of order; there was sedition among
-    them; the statute of apparel was neglected; vagabonds and masterless
-    men made the City their resort—an instructive commentary on the
-    King’s ordinances of seven years before. The sedition of which Wolsey
-    complained was due to the intense jealousy with which the people of
-    London always regarded the immigration of aliens. They were always
-    coming in, and the freemen—the old City families—were always dying
-    out or going away. In 1500, and again in 1516, orders were issued for
-    all freemen to return with their families to the City on pain of losing
-    their freedom. Had they, then, already begun the custom of living in
-    the suburbs and going into town every morning? The case against the
-    foreigners is strongly put by Grafton:—</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“In this season the Genowayes, Frenchmen and other straungers,
-      sayd and boasted themselves to be in suche favor with the king and
-      hys counsayle, that they set naught by the rulers of the city:
-      and the multitude of straungers was so great about London, that
-      the poore English artificers could scarce get any lyvyng: and
-      most of al the straungers were so prowde, that they disdayned,
-      mocked, and oppressed the Englishmen, which was the beginning of
-      the grudge. For among all other thinges there was a carpenter in
-      London called Wylliamson which boughte two stocke Doves in Chepe,
-      and as he was about to pay for them, a Frenchman tooke them out
-      of his hande, and sayde they were not meat for a Carpenter: well
-      sayde the Englisheman I have bought them, and now payde for them,
-      and therefore I will have them; nay sayde the Frenchman I will have
-      them for my Lorde the Ambassador, and so for better or worse, the
-      Frenchman called the Englishman knave and went away with the stock
-      Doves. The straungers came to the French Ambassador, and surmised
-      a complaint against the poore Carpenter, and the Ambassador came
-      to my<span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">24</span> Lord Maior, and sayde so much, that the Carpenter was sent
-      to prison: and yet not contented with this so complayned to the
-      king’s counsayle, that the king’s commaundement was layde on him.
-      And when syr John Baker and other worshipfull persons sued to
-      the Ambassador for him, he aunswered by the body of God that the
-      Englishe knave should loose his lyfe, for he sayde no Englisheman
-      should denie what the Frenchmen requyred, and other aunswere had
-      they none. Also a Frenchman that had slayne a man, should abjure
-      the realme and had a crosse in his hande, and then sodainely came
-      a great sort of Frenchman about him, and one of them sayde to the
-      Constable that led him, syr is thys crosse the price to kill an
-      Englisheman. The Constable was somewhat astonied and aunswered
-      not. Then sayde another Frenchman, on that price we would be
-      banished all by the masse, this saiying was noted to be spoken
-      spitefully. Howbeit the Frenchmen were not alonly oppressors of the
-      Englishemen, for a Lombard called Frances de Bard, entised a man’s
-      wyfe in Lombarde Streete to come to his Chamber with her husband’s
-      plate, which thing she did. After when her husband knew it, he
-      demanded hys wife, but answere was made he should not have her;
-      then he demanded his plate, and in like manner answere was made
-      that he should neyther have plate nor wife. And when he had sued
-      an action against the straunger in the Guyldehall, the stranger
-      so faced the Englishman that he faynted in his sute. And then the
-      Lombard arrested the poore man for his wyfes boord, while he kept
-      her from her husband in his chamber. This mocke was much noted, and
-      for these and many other oppressions done by them, there encreased
-      such a malice in the Englishmen’s hartes: that at the last it brast
-      out.” (Grafton’s <i>Chronicles</i>, vol. ii. p. 289.)</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <p>He goes on to relate that a certain John Lincoln, a broker, desired a
-    priest named Dr. Standish to move the Mayor and Aldermen at his Spital
-    sermon on Easter Monday to take part with the Commonalty against the
-    aliens. Standish refused. John Lincoln then went to a certain Dr. Bele,
-    Canon in St. Mary Spital, and represented the grievous case of the
-    people.</p>
-
-  <p>... “lamentably declared to him, how miserably the common artificers
-    lyved, and scarce could get any worke to find them, their wives and
-    children, for there were such a number of artificers straungers, that
-    toke away all their living in manner.”</p>
-
-  <p>Then followed the tumult known as Evil May Day. Dr. Bele preached
-    the Spital Sermon of Easter Tuesday. He first read Lincoln’s letter
-    representing the condition of the craftsmen thus oppressed by the
-    aliens, and then taking for his text the words, “<span lang="la">Caelum caeli Domino
-    Terram autem dedit Filiis hominum</span>”—the Heavens to the Lord of Heaven,
-    but the Earth hath he given to the Sons of Men—he plainly told the
-    people that England was their own, and that Englishmen ought to keep
-    their country for themselves, as birds defend their nests. Thus
-    encouraged, the people began to assault and molest the foreigners in
-    the City. Some of them were sent to Newgate for the offence; but they
-    continued. Then there ran about the City a rumour that on May Day
-    all the foreigners would be murdered, and many of them, hearing this
-    rumour, fled. The rumour reached the King, who ordered Cardinal Wolsey
-    to inquire into it. Thereupon the Mayor called together the Council.
-    Some were of opinion that a strong watch should be set and kept up
-    all night; others thought that it would be better to order every one
-    to be indoors from nine in the evening till nine in the morning. Both
-    opinions were sent to the Cardinal, who chose the latter. Accordingly
-    the order was proclaimed. But it was not obeyed. Some time after nine,
-    Alderman Sir John Mundy found a company of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_25">25</span> young men in Cheapside
-    playing at Bucklers. He ordered them to desist and to go home. One of
-    them asked why? For answer the Alderman seized him and ordered him to
-    be taken to the Compter. Then the tumult began. The ’prentices raised
-    the cry of “Clubs! Clubs!” and flocked together; the man was rescued;
-    the people crowded in from every quarter; they marched, a thousand
-    strong, to Newgate, where they took out the Lord Mayor’s prisoners, and
-    to the Compter, where they did the same; at St. Martin’s they broke
-    open doors and windows and “spoiled everything.” And they spent the
-    rest of the night in pulling down the houses of foreigners. When they
-    grew tired of this sport, they gradually broke up and went home, but on
-    the way the Mayor’s men arrested some three hundred of them and sent
-    them to the Tower. Another hundred rioters were arrested next day.
-    Dr. Bele was also sent to the Tower. Then began the trials. Lincoln
-    and some twenty or thirty others were found guilty and sentenced to
-    be hanged, drawn, and quartered. Ten pairs of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_26">26</span> gallows were set up in
-    different parts of the City for their execution. Lincoln, however, was
-    the only one who suffered. For the rest a reprieve was granted. Then
-    the affair was concluded in a becoming and solemn manner:—</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“Thursday the xxij day of May, the king came into Westminster
-      Hall, for whome at the upper ende was set a cloth of estate, and
-      the place hanged with arras. With him was the Cardinall, the Dukes
-      of Norfolke and Suffolke, the Earles of Shrewsbury, of Essex,
-      Wilshire and of Surrey, with manye Lordes and other of the kinges
-      Counsale. The Maior and Aldermen, and all the chief of the City,
-      were there in their best livery (according as the Cardinall had
-      them appoynted) by ix of the clocke. Then the king commaunded that
-      all the prisoners should be brought forth. Then came in the poore
-      yonglings and olde false knaves bound in ropes all along, one after
-      another in their shirtes, and every one a Halter about his necke,
-      to the number of foure hundred men and xj women. And when all were
-      come before the kinges presence, the Cardinall sore layd to the
-      Maior and commonaltie their negligence, and to the prisoners he
-      declared that they had deserved death for their offence: then all
-      the prisoners together cryed mercy gracious Lorde, mercy. Then the
-      Lordes altogether besought his grace of mercy, at whose request
-      the king pardoned them all. And then the Cardinall gave unto them
-      a good exhortation to the great gladnesse of the heerers. And when
-      the generall pardon was pronounced, all the prisoners showted at
-      once, and altogether cast up their Halters unto the Hall rooffe, so
-      that the king might perceyve they were none of the discretest sort.
-      Here is to be noted that dyvers offenders which were not taken,
-      heeryng that the king was inclined to mercys, came well apparayled
-      to Westminster, and sodainlye stryped them into their shirtes with
-      halters, and came in among the prisoners willingly, to be partakers
-      of the kinges pardon, by the which doyng, it was well knowen that
-      one John Gelson yoman of the Crowne was the first that beganne to
-      spoyle, and exhorted other to do the same, and because he fled and
-      was not taken, he came in the rope with the other prisoners, and so
-      had his pardon. This companie was after called the blacke Wagon.
-      Then were all the Galowes within the Citie taken downe, and many a
-      good prayer sayde for the king, and the Citizens tooke more heede
-      to their servants.” (Grafton’s <i>Chronicles</i>, vol. ii. p. 294.)</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="i_025"><img src="images/i_025.jpg" width="341" height="522" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">CARDINAL WOLSEY (1471–1530)<br />
-      From the painting in the National Portrait Gallery, London.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>A singular story belongs to the arrival of the French embassy charged
-    with negotiating the marriage of the King’s infant daughter and the
-    Dauphin. The ambassadors were escorted by a company of their own King’s
-    bodyguard and another of the English King’s bodyguard. They were met at
-    Blackheath by the Earl of Surrey, richly apparelled, and a hundred and
-    sixty gentlemen; four hundred archers followed; they were lodged in the
-    merchants’ houses and banqueted at Taylors’ Hall. And then, says the
-    historian, “the French hardermen opened their wares and made Taylors’
-    Hall like to the paunde of a mart. At this doing many an Englishman
-    grudged but it avayled not.” In other words, a lot of French hucksters,
-    under cover of the embassy, brought over smuggled goods and sold them
-    in the Taylors’ Hall at a lower price than the English makers could
-    afford.</p>
-
-  <p>The reception of the Emperor Charles by Henry in this year was as
-    royally magnificent as even Henry himself could desire. The procession
-    was like others of the same period and may be omitted.</p>
-
-  <p>In 1524 a curious proclamation was made by the Mayor. Evidently papers
-    or letters of importance had been lost.</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“My lorde the maire streihtly chargith and commaundith on the king
-      or soveraigne lordis behalf that if any maner of person or persons
-      that have founde a hat with certeyn lettres and other billes and
-      writinges therin enclosed, which lettres been directed to our said
-      sovereign from the parties of beyond the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">27</span> see, let hym or theym
-      bryng the said hat, lettres, and writinges unto my saide lorde
-      the maire in all the hast possible and they shalbe well rewarded
-      for their labour, and that no maner of person kepe the said hat,
-      lettres, and writinges nor noon of them after this proclamacioun
-      made, uppon payn of deth, and God save the king.” (Sharpe, <i>London
-        and the Kingdom</i>, vol. i. p. 373.)</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="i_027"><img src="images/i_027.jpg" width="600" height="335" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">EASTCHEAP MARKET<br />
-      From an old drawing in British Museum.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>Two cases, that of Sir George Monoux and that of Paul Wythypol,
-    prove that the City offices were not at this time always regarded as
-    desirable. In the former case, Sir George Monoux, Alderman and Draper,
-    was elected (1523) Mayor for the second time, and refused to serve.
-    He was fined £1000, and it was ordained by the Court of Aldermen that
-    any one in future who should refuse to serve as Mayor should be fined
-    that amount. In this case Monoux was permitted to retire, probably on
-    account of ill-health. The second case, which happened in 1537, was
-    that of Paul Wythypol, merchant-taylor. He was a man of some position
-    in the City: he had been one of the Commoners sent to confer with
-    Wolsey on the “amicable” loan (Sharpe, <i>London and the Kingdom</i>, vol.
-    i. p. 377); he attended the Coronation banquet of Anne Boleyn; he was
-    afterwards M.P. for the City, 1529–1536. They elected him Alderman
-    for Farringdon Within. For some reason he was anxious not to serve;
-    rather than pay the fine he got the King to interfere on his behalf.
-    Such interference was clearly an infringement of the City liberties;
-    the Mayor and Aldermen consulted Wolsey, who advised them to seek an
-    interview with the King, then at Greenwich. This they did, and went
-    down to Greenwich. When they arrived they were taken into the King’s
-    great chamber,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">28</span> where they waited till evening, when the King received
-    them privately. What passed is not known, but in the end Wythypol
-    remained out of office for a year afterwards. At the end of that time
-    he was again elected Alderman, and was ordered to take office or to
-    swear that his property did not amount to £1000. He refused and was
-    committed to Newgate, the King no longer offering to help him. Three
-    weeks later he appeared before the Court and offered to pay a fine of
-    £40 for three years’ exemption from office. The Court refused this
-    offer and sent him back to prison. Three months later—Wythypol must
-    have been a very stubborn person—he again appeared before the Court,
-    and was ordered to take up office at once or else swear that his
-    property was not worth £1000. If he did not, he was to be fined in a
-    sum to be assessed by the Mayor, Aldermen, and Common Council. He did
-    not take office, and it is therefore tolerably certain that he paid a
-    heavy fine.</p>
-
-  <p>In the year 1529 sat the memorable Court presided over by Cardinals
-    Campeggio and Wolsey, which was to try the validity of Henry’s marriage
-    with his brother’s widow. It was held in the great hall of the
-    Dominican Friars. No more important case was ever tried in an English
-    Court of Law, nor one which had wider or deeper consequences. Upon this
-    case depended the national Faith; the nation’s fidelity to the Pope;
-    its continued adhesion to the ecclesiastical order as it had developed
-    during fifteen hundred years. This trial belongs to the national
-    history.</p>
-
-  <p>In October of that year (1529) the King, enraged by the Legate’s delay
-    in the marriage business, deprived Wolsey of the Seals, seized his
-    furniture and plate, and ordered him to leave London. In November
-    of the same year, at a Parliament held in the Palace of Bridewell,
-    a Bill was passed by the Lords disabling the Cardinal from being
-    restored to his dignities. In February 1530 Wolsey was restored to his
-    Archbishopric but without his palace, which the King kept for himself;
-    he was summoned to London on a charge of treason, but he fell ill and
-    died on the way.</p>
-
-  <p>No Englishman before or after Wolsey has ever maintained so much state
-    and splendour; no Englishman has ever affected the popular imagination
-    so much as Cardinal Wolsey. Contemporary writers exhaust themselves in
-    dwelling upon the more than regal Court kept up by this priest. It is
-    like reading of the Court of a great king. We must, however, remember,
-    that all this state was not the ostentation of the man so much as,
-    first, the glorification of the Church and of the ecclesiastical
-    dignities, and next, a visible proof of the greatness of the King in
-    having so rich a subject.</p>
-
-  <p>Between 1527 and 1534 there were disputes on the subject of tithes and
-    offerings to the clergy. At this time began the dissolution of the
-    Monasteries, to which we will return presently.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">29</span>
-    <a id="i_029"><img src="images/i_029.jpg" width="400" height="612" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">THE KING IN PARLIAMENT<br />
-      From a print in the British Museum.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>So far as regards the relations between the King and the City. Let
-    us now return to the City itself. We have already seen that the
-    intervals of freedom from plague were growing shorter. In this reign
-    of thirty-eight years there was a return of the sweating sickness in
-    1518; a return of the plague, which lasted from 1519 to 1522; another
-    appearance of the sweating sickness in 1528; and another attack of
-    the plague in 1543. It seems strange that no physician should have
-    connected the frequency and violence of the disease with the foulness
-    and narrowness of the streets. From the beginning of the sixteenth
-    century to the Great Fire of 1666, London, crowded and confined,
-    abounded with courts and slums of the worst possible kind; it swarmed
-    with rogues and tramps and masterless men who<span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">30</span> lived as they could,
-    like swine. There were no great fires to cleanse the City. The
-    condition of the ground, with its numberless cesspools, its narrow
-    lanes into which, despite laws, everything was thrown; its frequent
-    laystalls; the refuse and remains of all the workshops; the putrefying
-    blood of the slaughtered beasts sinking into the earth,—must have
-    been truly terrible had the people realised it; but they did not.
-    Fluid matter sank into the earth and worked its wicked will unseen and
-    unsuspected; the rains washed the surface; no man saw farther than the
-    front of his own house; therefore when pestilence appeared among them
-    it did not creep, according to its ancient wont, from house to house,
-    but it flew swiftly with wings outspread over street and lane and court.</p>
-
-  <p>Steps were taken to protect and to improve the medical profession. It
-    was ordained in 1512 that no one should practise medicine or surgery
-    within the City or for seven miles outside the City walls without a
-    license from the Bishop of London or the Dean of St. Paul’s; the said
-    license only to be obtained by examination before the Bishop or the
-    Dean by four of the Faculty. Two years later surgeons were exempted
-    from serving on juries, bearing arms, or serving as constables. In 1519
-    the Physicians obtained a Charter of Incorporation, by which they were
-    allowed a common seal; to elect a President annually; to purchase and
-    hold land; and to govern all persons practising physic within seven
-    miles of London. The College of Physicians, observe, was at first only
-    considered as one of the City Companies: it had jurisdiction over
-    London and over seven miles round London, but no more. The positions of
-    both Physicians and Surgeons were enormously improved by these Acts of
-    Parliament.</p>
-
-  <p>There were in this reign, for the admiration of the people, an
-    extraordinary number of executions, both of noble lords and hapless
-    ladies, as well as of divines, monks, friars, gentlemen, gentlewomen,
-    and the common sort, for treason, heresy, and the crimes which are
-    the most commonly brought before the attention of justice. What reign
-    before this would exhibit such a list as the following? Two Queens,
-    Anne Boleyn and Katherine Howard; of others, the Marquis of Exeter,
-    the Earl of Surrey, the Earl of Kildare, the Duke of Buckingham,
-    Lord Rochford, Lady Rochford, Lady Salisbury, Fisher, More, Empson,
-    Dudley, Cromwell. Of abbots, priors, monks, friars, doctors, priests,
-    for refusing the oath of the King’s supremacy a great number; of
-    lesser persons for heresy or treason another goodly company. Some
-    were beheaded—those were fortunate; others were burned, not being so
-    fortunate; the rest were drawn on hurdles, and treated in the manner we
-    have already seen.</p>
-
-  <p>The dissolution of the Religious Houses, the changes in the Articles
-    of Religion, and their effect upon the City of London, will be found
-    in another place (see <a href="#Page_109">p. 109</a>). In this chapter a few cases are given
-    to illustrate the changes of thought and the general excitement in the
-    minds of men.</p>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_31">31</span></p>
-
-  <p>There is, first, the case of Lambert. He was a learned man and a
-    schoolmaster who denied the Real Presence in the Sacrament. The
-    case had been already brought before the Archbishop, who had given
-    a sentence against Lambert. The King, who ardently believed in the
-    Real Presence, announced his intention of arguing publicly with this
-    heretic. The argument was actually held in Westminster Hall in the
-    presence of a great number of people. In the end the King, apparently,
-    got the worst of it, for we find him becoming judge as well as
-    disputant, and ordering the unfortunate man to recant or burn. Lambert
-    would not recant—the pride and stubbornness of these heretics were
-    wonderful; in some cases, perhaps in this, the man stood for a party:
-    he would not recant for the sake of his friends as well as himself. He
-    was burned.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="i_031"><img src="images/i_031.jpg" width="600" height="365" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">HENRY VIII. GRANTING THE BARBER-SURGEONS’ CHARTER<br />
-      After the picture by Holbein in Barber-Surgeons’ Hall, London.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>The case of Anne Askew is remarkable for the introduction of torture,
-    which was then unusual either with criminals or heretics. She was so
-    miserably tortured—yet perhaps the torture was intended as a merciful
-    act, in the hope of rescuing her from worse than earthly flames—that
-    she could not stand or walk. She, like Lambert, suffered for denying
-    the Real Presence. She was a gentlewoman of very good understanding.</p>
-
-  <p>The Holy Maid of Kent, Elizabeth Barton, was a woman of a much lower
-    order. She was hysterical and weak-minded. At the present day she would
-    be<span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">32</span> looked after and gently cared for. She had fits and convulsions,
-    during which her face and her body were drawn, and she talked rambling
-    nonsense. That she was unintelligible was quite enough to make the
-    ignorant country folk flock about her, listening for inspired words in
-    her hysterical ejaculations. She passed among them for one to whom God
-    had sent a new revelation of His Will and Intentions. She was taken to
-    see Bishops Fisher and More, who do not seem to have regarded her as a
-    person of the slightest importance. But certain priests—it is said so;
-    one may believe it or not—obtained influence over her and persuaded
-    her to prophesy—no doubt she believed what they told her—that if the
-    King took another wife he would not remain King for another year. Henry
-    was not the man to be turned aside from his fixed purpose by such a
-    gross cheat. He arrested the Maid and her accomplices. They were all
-    brought to the Star Chamber and examined; they all confessed. They were
-    then exposed on a scaffold at St. Paul’s and publicly confirmed their
-    confessions. Her confederates included six ecclesiastics, of whom two
-    were monks of Canterbury and one a Friar Observaunt; two were private
-    gentlemen; one was a serving-man. Confession made, they were taken
-    back to the Tower and their case laid before Parliament, which met
-    after Christmas. They were all sentenced to the same traitor’s death
-    and, after being kept in prison for three months, were carried out to
-    Tyburn. The last words of the girl if they are correctly reported are
-    very pathetic and to the purpose. But they look as if they had been
-    written for her.</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“Hether am I come to die, and I have not beene the onele cause of
-      mine owne death, which most justly I have deserved, but also I am
-      the cause of the death of all these persons which at thys time here
-      suffer: and yet to saye the truth I am not so much to be blamed,
-      consydering it was well known unto these learned men that I was
-      a poore wenche, without learnyng, and therefore they might have
-      easily perceyved that the thinges that were done by me could not
-      proceede in no suche sort, but their capacities and learning coulde
-      right well judge from whence they were proceeded, and that they
-      were altogether fayned: but because the things which I fayned was
-      profitable unto them, and therefore they much praised mee and bare
-      me in hande that it was the holy ghost, and not that I did them,
-      and then being puffed up with their prayses, fell into a certaine
-      pride and foolish phantasie with my self, and thought I might fayne
-      what I would, which thing hath brought me to this case, and for the
-      which now I crye God and the King’s highnesse most hartely mercie,
-      and desire all you good people to pray to God to have mercie on me,
-      and all them that here suffer with me.”</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <p>One cannot refrain in this place from remarking on the change which
-    has come over the temper of the people as regards the sacred person
-    of the priest. Henry the Seventh would not send to execution even
-    those mischievous priests who invented and carried out the impudent
-    personations. Yet his son, thirty years later, sends to block, stake or
-    gallows, bishops, abbots, priors, priests, monks, and friars, by the
-    dozen.</p>
-
-  <p>The story of Richard Hun illustrates the condition of popular feeling
-    which made these executions of ecclesiastics possible. He was a
-    citizen of good position and considerable wealth, a merchant-taylor by
-    calling; he was greatly respected by<span class="pagenum" id="Page_33">33</span> the poorer sort on account of
-    his charitable disposition. “He was a good almesman and relieved the
-    needy.” It happened that one of his children, an infant, died and was
-    buried. The curate asked for the “bearing sheet” as a “mortuary.”<a id="FNanchor_2" href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a>
-    Richard Hun replied that the child had no property in the sheet. The
-    reply shows either bad feeling towards the curate or bad feeling
-    towards the clergy generally. Most likely it was the latter, as the
-    sequel shows.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="i_033"><img src="images/i_033.jpg" width="600" height="503" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">The order and manner of the burning of <i>Anne Askew</i>,
-      <i>John Lacels</i>, <i>John Adams</i>, <i>Nicholas Belenian</i>, with certaine of the
-      Councell sitting in Smithfield.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>The priest cited him before the spiritual court. He replied by counsel,
-    suing the curate in a praemunire. In return Hun was arrested on a
-    charge of Lollardry and put into Lambeth Palace. And here shortly
-    afterwards he was found dead. He had hanged himself, said the Bishop
-    and Chancellor. The people began to murmur. Hanged himself? Why should
-    so good a man hang himself? A coroner’s inquest was held upon the body.
-    The jury indicted the Chancellor and <span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">34</span>two men, the bell-ringer and the
-    summoner, for murdering Richard Hun. The King’s attorney, however,
-    would go no further in the matter. By the Bishop’s orders the body was
-    burned at Smithfield. But the murder—if it was a murder—of Richard
-    Hun was not forgotten. Nor was it forgotten that without a trial his
-    body was burned as a heretic’s. These things lay in the minds of the
-    people. And they rankled.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="i_034"><img src="images/i_034.jpg" width="327" height="419" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">DEAN COLET (1467–1519)<br />
-      From an engraved portrait in Holland’s <i>Heroologia</i>.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>In the reign of Henry VI. (1447), four new grammar schools had been
-    established in the City: viz. in the parishes of All Hallows the
-    Great; St. Andrew’s Holborn; St. Peter’s Cornhill; and in St. Thomas
-    Acons’ Hospital. Nine years later, five other parish schools had been
-    founded or restored, namely, that of St. Paul’s; of St. Martin’s; of
-    St. Mary le Bow; of St. Dunstan’s in the East; and of St. Anthony’s
-    Hospital. All these schools seem to have fallen more or less into decay
-    during the next hundred years. But very little indeed is known as to
-    the condition of education during this period. There is, however, no
-    doubt that in the year 1509 the Dean of St. Paul’s, John Colet, found
-    the condition of St. Paul’s School very much decayed. He was himself
-    a man of large means, being the son of a rich merchant who had been
-    Sheriff in 1477, Mayor in 1486, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">35</span> Alderman, first of Farringdon Ward
-    Without, and afterwards of Castle Baynard and Cornhill successively.
-    The Dean resolved upon building a new school and endowing it. He
-    therefore bought a piece of land on the east side of the Cathedral;
-    there placed a school and entrusted the revenues with which he endowed
-    it to the Mercers’ Company, saying, that though there was nothing
-    sacred in human affairs, he yet found the “least corruption” among
-    them. Later on, the Merchant Taylors founded a school; the Mercers
-    founded another school; and John Carpenter, Clerk, founded the City of
-    London School. The educational endowments founded by London citizens
-    amount to nearly a hundred.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="i_035"><img src="images/i_035.jpg" width="364" height="480" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">THOMAS CROMWELL, EARL OF ESSEX (1485(?)-1540)</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>The enclosure of common lands has always been a temptation to those
-    who live in the neighbourhood and a grievance to those who are thus
-    robbed of their common property. Both in the north and south of London
-    there stretched wide common lands in which the people possessed rights
-    of pasture, cutting wood, and other things. Many of these common lands
-    still remain, though greatly shorn of their former proportions. On
-    the north Hampstead Heath is all that is left of land which began at<span class="pagenum" id="Page_36">36</span>
-    Moorfields and stretched northwards as far as Muswell Hill and Highgate
-    and eastward to include the Forests of Epping and Hainault. In a map of
-    London of the sixteenth century these common lands must be laid down
-    as a special and very fortunate possession of the City, where people
-    could in a few minutes find themselves in pure country air. Early in
-    the century, however, there were murmurings on account of the enclosure
-    of the fields north of London. “Before this time,” says Grafton, “the
-    townes about London, as Islington, Hoxton, Shordyche, and other, had
-    enclosed the common fields with hedges and ditches that neyther the
-    yonge men of the City might shoote, nor the auncient persons might
-    walk for their pleasure in the fields, except eyther their bowes and
-    arrows were broken or taken away, or the honest and substantiall
-    persons arrested or indicted, saiving that no Londoner should goe oute
-    of the City but in the high wayes.” It is not stated how long this
-    grievance lasted; probably it grew gradually: field after field was
-    cut off; one enclosure after another was made; until the Londoners
-    rubbed their eyes and asked each other what had become of their ancient
-    grounds—especially the delightful fields called the Moor, on whose
-    shallow ponds they skated and slid in winter, and where they practised
-    the long bow, while the elders looked on, in the summer. They were
-    gone: in their place were fields hedged and ditched, with narrow
-    lanes in which two people might walk abreast. How long they looked
-    on considering this phenomenon we know not. At length, however, the
-    pent-up waters overflowed. “Suddenly this yere” (1514) a great number
-    of people assembled in the City, and a “Turner” attired in a fool’s
-    coat ran about among them crying, “Shovels and Spades.” Everybody knew
-    what was meant. In an incredibly short time the whole population of
-    the City were outside the walls, armed with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_37">37</span> shovels and spades. Then
-    the ditches were filled in, and hedges cut down, and the fields laid
-    open again. The King’s Council, hearing of the tumult, came to the Grey
-    Friars and sent for the Mayor to ascertain the meaning, for a tumult in
-    the City might become a very serious thing indeed. When, however, they
-    heard the cause and meaning of it they “dissimuled” the matter with a
-    reasonable admonition to attempt no more violence, and went home again.
-    But the fields were not hedged in or ditched round any more.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="i_036"><img src="images/i_036.jpg" width="401" height="289" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">DEAN COLET’S HOUSE, STEPNEY</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>In 1532 there was held a general Muster of all the citizens aged
-    from sixteen to sixty. The City, never slow to display its strength
-    and wealth, turned out in great force. The men mustered at Mile End,
-    probably because it was the nearest place which afforded a broad
-    space for marshalling the troops. They were dressed in white uniforms
-    with white caps and white feathers; the Mayor, Sheriffs, Aldermen,
-    and Recorder wore white armour, having black velvet jackets with the
-    City arms embroidered on them, and gold chains. Before each Alderman
-    marched four halberdiers, each with a gilt halberd. Before the Lord
-    Mayor marched sixteen men in white satin jackets, with chains of gold
-    and long gilt halberds; four footmen in white satin; and two pages
-    in crimson velvet, with gold brocade waistcoats; two stately horses
-    carrying, the one the Mayor’s helmet, the other the Mayor’s pole-axe.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="i_037"><img src="images/i_037.jpg" width="600" height="296" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">a Description of the Solemn JUSTS held at Westminster the 13<sup>th</sup> day
-      of February in the first year of King HENRY y<sup>e</sup> VIII, in honor of his
-      Queen KATHERIN upon the Birth of their eldest Son Prince HENRY, A.D.
-      1510. taken from the Original Roll now in the College of Armes, London.</div>
-    <div class="caption">PROCESSION. TIME OF HENRY VIII.<br />
-      E. Gardner’s Collection.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>All citizens of distinction on such occasions wore white satin
-    jackets and gold chains. The vast expenditure of money on a single
-    day’s pageant such as this, was quite common at this time and in the
-    preceding age. It may perhaps be explained by certain considerations.
-    Thus: it was an age of great show and external<span class="pagenum" id="Page_38">38</span> splendour; the
-    magnificence of dress, festivals, masques, ridings, and pageants,
-    is difficult to realise in this sober time. Wealth, rank, position,
-    privileges, were in fact marked by display. We have seen the splendour
-    of the Baron who rode to his town house with an army of 500 followers
-    all richly dressed. And it has been observed that it was not wholly the
-    mere love of magnificence that caused a nobleman or an ecclesiastic
-    to keep up this great state. So, in preparing this martial show,
-    with 15,000 men of arms all fully and richly equipped, the Mayor and
-    Aldermen intended to illustrate to the King and his Ministers the power
-    of the City, the wealth of the City, and the resolution of the City to
-    defend their liberties. And I have no doubt that this intention was
-    thoroughly understood by Henry and taken to heart. The March began at
-    nine in the morning. The troops marched through Aldgate, through the
-    City, and so to Westminster by Fleet Street and the Strand—a little
-    over four miles. At five in the evening the last company marched past
-    the King. That part of the business therefore must have lasted about
-    six hours.</p>
-
-  <p>In the matter of the King’s divorce the City, or the populace, had
-    taken a very strong side in favour of Queen Katherine. It may indeed
-    be true that the King’s conscience was awakened after all these years
-    of marriage as to the legality of marrying his brother’s widow: he saw
-    perhaps in the failure of male heirs a sign of the Divine displeasure;
-    that may be: it is not possible to understand all the motives which
-    guide a man. To the outside world the simplest motive seems always the
-    certain motive. Katherine was no longer young, no longer beautiful.
-    Anne Boleyn was both. When the second marriage was announced, the
-    citizens were greatly displeased: partly on account of their sympathy
-    with Katherine, partly because they remembered that Anne was the
-    grand-daughter of a mayor, one of themselves. No honour is ever felt
-    to be conferred upon the people by the marriage of a Prince with one
-    of themselves, but quite the reverse. Edward IV. and James II. are
-    examples, as well as Henry VIII. So much did the citizens show their
-    disgust, that at an Easter sermon some of them went out of the church
-    before the prayers for the Queen were read. The King sent word to the
-    Mayor about it. He called the guilds together and bade them cease
-    murmuring against the King’s marriage, and cause their journeymen and
-    apprentices and even their wives to offend no more.</p>
-
-  <p>On the 29th of May the Queen passed from Greenwich to the Tower, and
-    on the 31st from the Tower to Westminster. The City hastened on this
-    occasion to show their loyalty by preparing a splendid reception for
-    the Queen. The Pageant is described below.</p>
-
-  <p>The Princess Elizabeth was born in September of the same year (1533).
-    In the spring of the following year Parliament passed an Act of
-    Succession declaring that she, and not Mary, was heir to the Crown; the
-    whole of the citizens took the oath in acknowledgment of this Act. If
-    any were so hardy as to refuse, they were executed.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="i_038"><img src="images/i_038.jpg" width="700" height="555" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">HENRY VIII., PRINCESS MARY, AND WILL SOMERS<br />
-      From Earl Spencer’s Collection.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_39">39</span></p>
-
-  <p>Of Pageants and Ridings no reign ever saw so many, nor was the City
-    ever more honoured in the part which it was invited to take in them.
-    Here, for instance, is a list of the more important: the Coronation
-    in 1509; the reception of the French Ambassadors in 1518; that of the
-    Legate Cardinal Campeggio; that of the Emperor Charles in 1522; the
-    Coronation of Anne Boleyn;—every one an occasion for the display of
-    sumptuous raiment, tapestry, gold chains and allegorical groups. Two
-    of these functions stand out above all others: the Coronation of Anne
-    and the Christening of her child. Let us take the account of the Water
-    Pageant as furnished by Grafton:—</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“The xix day of May the Maior and his brethren all in Scarlet, and
-      such as were knightes had collers of Esses and the remnaunt havyng
-      good chaynes, and the counsayle of the Citie with them assembled
-      at saint Marie Hyll, and at one of the clocke dissended to the
-      Newstayre to their Barge, which was garnished with many goodly
-      Banners and instruments, which continually made goodly armony.
-      After that the Maior and his brethren were in their Barge seing
-      that al the companies to the number of fiftie Barges were readie to
-      wayte upon them. They gave commaundement to the companies that no
-      Barge should rowe neerer to another then twise the length of the
-      Barge upon a great paine. And to see the order kept, there were
-      three light Wheryes prepared, and in every one of them two officers
-      to call on them to keepe their order, after which commaundement
-      given they set foorth in order as hereafter is described. First
-      before the Maior’s Barge was a Foyst or Wafter full of ordynaunce,
-      in which Foyst was a great Dragon contynually moovyng, and casting
-      wilde fyre: and round about the sayde Foyst stood terrible monsters
-      and wilde men casting fire, and making hideous noyses: next after
-      the Foyst a good distaunce came the Maior’s Barge, on whose right
-      hand was the Batchelers’ Barge, in the which were Trumpets and
-      divers other melodious Instruments. The deckes of the sayde Barge
-      and the sailyardes and the top Castels were hanged with riche cloth
-      of Golde and silke. At the foreship and the sterne were two great
-      banners riche beaten with the armes of the King and the Quene, and
-      on the top Castell also was a long streamer newely beaten with the
-      sayde armes.</p>
-
-    <p>At three of the clock the Queene appered in riche clothe of Gold
-      and entered into her Barge accompanied with divers Ladies and
-      gentlewomen, and incontinent the Citizens set forwardes in their
-      order, their Musicians continually plaiyng, and the Batchelers’
-      Barge goyng on the Queenes right hande, which she toke great
-      pleasure to behold. About the Queenes Barge were many Noblemen,
-      as the Duke of Suffolke, the Marques Dorset, the Erie of Wilshire
-      her father, the Erles of Arrondell, Darby, Rutland, Worcester,
-      Huntyngton, Sussex, Oxford, and many Bishoppes and noblemen, every
-      one in his Barge which was a goodly sight to behold. Shee thus
-      being accompanied rowed toward the Tower, and in the meane waye the
-      shippes which were commaunded to lye on the shore for lettyng of
-      the Barges shot divers peales of Gonnes, and or shee landed there
-      was a marvailous shot out of the Tower as ever was harde there.
-      And at her landing there met with her the Lorde Chamberlaine with
-      the officers of armes and brought her to the king, which received
-      her with lovyng countenance at the posterne by the waterside, and
-      kyssed her, and then she turned back againe and thanked the Maior
-      and the citizens with many goodly words and so entered the Tower.”
-      (Grafton’s <i>Chronicles</i>, vol. ii. p. 448.)</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <p>The Insurrection in the North, called the Pilgrimage of Grace, the most
-    dangerous rising in this reign, caused the King to look to the City for
-    assistance. The Mayor sent him 300 men fully armed and equipped.</p>
-
-  <p>The Mayor took another step in the interests of the Crown and of order.
-    Although the suppression of the Houses was only begun, the intention of
-    the King was manifest, and the rising in the North showed the temper of
-    some part of the people. It is probable that in the City the popular
-    voice was with the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">40</span> King. But there was a minority consisting of some
-    of the monks and friars ejected, some of the people who had lost their
-    occupation and their service, some partisans of the old order; and
-    these were dangerous. The Court of Aldermen, therefore, deprived every
-    priest, monk, friar, and religious person of every kind, of all weapons
-    except their meat knives. A rising of the Religious, maddened with rage
-    and fear, joined by one knows not how many of lay partisans, hot-heads
-    and ribalds always anxious for a row, might have been a very serious
-    thing indeed. We may be quite sure that there were many within and
-    without the walls who would have desired nothing so much as the sack
-    and pillage of the rich merchants’ houses in the sacred name of the
-    Holy Church. Perhaps one of the reasons of the City’s acquiescence in
-    the destruction of the Religious Houses was the knowledge that such a
-    rebellion would have produced some kind of alliance with the rogues and
-    vagabonds of their lanes and slums.</p>
-
-  <p>The execution of Anne Boleyn and the succession of Henry’s queens may
-    be passed over here as belonging to the national history.</p>
-
-  <p>In June and July 1536 a Convocation was held at St. Paul’s, presided
-    over by Cromwell, the King’s Vicar-General. A more important assembly
-    was never held in this country. For this Convocation separated the
-    Church of England altogether from Rome: it held that the King, as
-    Supreme Head of the Church, ought to disregard all citations from
-    the Pope. Once before the Pope’s citations had been disregarded and
-    scoffed at, viz. by John; but that was on his own authority, apart
-    from his Clergy and his people. In this case Henry kept up the show of
-    consultation with his Clergy. Not he, but Convocation, decided that he
-    was wholly independent of the Pope.</p>
-
-  <p>In the year 1543 the plague appeared and carried off a great many. The
-    City Authorities ordered all infected houses to be marked with a cross;
-    all infected persons who recovered were to remain in quarantine for a
-    month; all straw and rushes from infected houses were to be carried
-    away and burned; and infected clothes were to be carried out of the
-    City. Dogs, except watch-dogs, were to be killed. It proved, happily,
-    to be a short though sharp visitation.</p>
-
-  <p>In 1544 the City sent 1000 men to aid Henry in his war with France,
-    in two contingents of 500 each; and in the following year a third
-    contingent of 2000 men was sent to France. In 1545 a tax for
-    two-fifteenths was imposed for the purpose of bringing water from
-    Hackney, Muswell Hill, and Hoxton, into the City. The conclusion of the
-    war with France in 1546 was celebrated by a Procession which was solemn
-    and magnificent. It marched from St. Paul’s to Leadenhall Chapel and
-    back again. First came men carrying the silver crosses of the Parish
-    Churches; then all the Parish Clerks, Choristers and Priests in London;
-    then the Choir of St. Paul’s, in their school caps: they were followed
-    by the City Companies in their liveries. Last of all marched the Lord
-    Mayor and Aldermen in scarlet robes.</p>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_41">41</span></p>
-
-  <p>Peace, however, brought with it an invasion of disbanded soldiers,
-    riotous, and given to acts of robbery and violence. They were
-    accompanied by their camp-followers, whose character may be guessed.
-    The Mayor gave orders that the old soldiers should be allowed to beg
-    for a certain number of days, but that the vagabond followers should be
-    driven out of the City. So I suppose they got rid of a few while the
-    greater number remained behind—an addition to the rogues and beggars
-    of the City, who had already become a most dangerous element. (See
-    <a href="#Page_366">p. 366</a>.)</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="i_041"><img src="images/i_041.jpg" width="600" height="483" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">EMBARKATION OF HENRY VIII. AT DOVER</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>In the last year of Henry’s reign (1546) he bestowed an endowment of
-    500 marks a year on the City Poorhouses on condition that the City
-    itself raised as much. He also gave the City, only a few days before
-    his death, the Hospital of St. Bartholomew, to be called the House of
-    the Poor; the House of the Grey Friars, and the House or Hospital of
-    Bethlehem. Henry died on the 28th of January 1547 at his Palace of
-    Whitehall.</p>
-
-  <p>I will now discuss a few more incidents in the history of this reign.</p>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_42">42</span></p>
-
-  <p>In 1511 Roger Acheley, Mayor, caused the City Granary of Leadenhall to
-    be stored with grain for prevention in time of scarcity. This Mayor
-    also caused Moor fields to be levelled, and bridges and causeways to be
-    erected thereon.</p>
-
-  <p>In 1512 the Sheriffs were, by Act of Parliament, empowered to empanel
-    Juries for the City Courts. Every Juryman was to be a citizen worth
-    100 marks. If he failed to appear upon the first summons he was to
-    forfeit one shilling and eightpence; for the second, three shillings
-    and fourpence—and so on, the penalty being doubled for each occasion.</p>
-
-  <p>In 1517 the Court of Conscience was first established. Two Aldermen
-    and four “discreet” Commoners were appointed every month to sit at
-    the Guildhall twice a week, on Wednesday and Saturday, to hear causes
-    between citizens and freemen of debts not exceeding forty shillings.
-    The Act was passed for two years only; but as it proved highly
-    serviceable it was continued by repeated Acts of Council until the
-    Court was confirmed by James I.</p>
-
-  <p>In 1519 the King by Charter removed the Sessions of Peace from St.
-    Martin’s le Grand to the Guildhall, to the great contentment of the
-    citizens.</p>
-
-  <p>In 1519 the Tower Ditch, between Aldgate and the Tower Postern, was
-    scoured and cleansed—the work cost £95:3:4. The Chief Ditcher was
-    paid 7d. a day; the second Ditcher 6d.; the rest 5d.; the “Vagabonds,”
-    <i>i.e.</i> men pressed into the work, got a penny and their food. It
-    follows from this that the wage of a working man was then 5d. or 6d. a
-    day. The pay of a chantry priest was in most cases £6 a year, or about
-    4d. a day. So that the craftsman received, to support himself and his
-    family, very little more than the priest for the support of himself.
-    This fact shows that even the despised chantry priest occupied a much
-    higher social position than the craftsman.</p>
-
-  <p>In 1525 Wolsey proposed to levy a tax of one-sixth of all the goods
-    and chattels of the laity, and a fourth of those of the clergy.
-    There was so much indignation at this tax that the King gave way,
-    sending a letter to the Mayor in which he stated that he would never
-    exact anything of his people by compulsion, but would rely on their
-    benevolence. It appeared, however, when Wolsey sent for the Mayor and
-    Aldermen to confer with them upon the subject, that the City was not
-    disposed to grant any benevolence at all, relying on a statute of
-    Richard III. abolishing such benevolences. It was in vain that Wolsey
-    pointed out to them the facts that Richard was a murderer and a tyrant:
-    the City stood by the Law, and the benevolence was dropped.</p>
-
-  <p>In 1526 occurs an early example of the boycott. The City found that
-    certain foreign merchants had purchased license to import woad contrary
-    to law. It was therefore resolved that no London citizen should have
-    any dealings with any foreign merchant who should import woad.</p>
-
-  <p>About the year 1527 there was an attempt made by Wolsey to pass laws in
-    the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">43</span> teeth of the simple rule of supply and demand. The war with Spain
-    caused great losses to the manufacturers of cloth, who were obliged to
-    dismiss their servants and to stop the production. Wolsey thereupon
-    sent for the principal merchants of the City and ordered them to go
-    on buying from the manufacturers as usual; in other words, to ruin
-    themselves and their own servants in order to prevent the dismissal of
-    the factory hands. Should they disobey, the great Cardinal threatened
-    to remove the cloth market from Blackwell Hall to Westminster.
-    “However,” Maitland remarks quietly, “it was neither in the power
-    of the King, nor in that of his Minister, to execute the aforesaid
-    injunction: wherefore commerce continued on the same footing as before,
-    till the conclusion of a Peace.”</p>
-
-  <p>In 1529, after the meeting of Convocation already mentioned, a
-    Proclamation was passed in London prohibiting all commercial
-    intercourse with Rome.</p>
-
-  <p>In the same year the City recovered the right of the Great Beam. The
-    King had taken over this important right with all the profits belonging
-    to it and had conveyed it to Sir William Sidney. For ten years the
-    City had been endeavouring to recover their rights even by bribing,
-    but without success. In 1531 a compromise was arrived at, by which
-    Sir William Sidney continued to hold the Beam at an annual rent, and
-    by Royal Charter the right was once more conveyed to the Mayor and
-    Corporation, the Grocers’ Company having the privilege of appointing
-    the weighers.</p>
-
-  <p>Another attempt was made to regulate the price of food. It was
-    complained that butchers who were not freemen had put up stalls along
-    Leadenhall Street where they sold their meat before the doors of the
-    houses. The Mayor made them all go into Leadenhall Market, where they
-    had to pay rent to the Corporation. He also fixed the price of beef
-    at a half-penny a pound, and of mutton at three-farthings. As a whole
-    sheep could be bought for 2s. 10d., it would seem as if the whole sheep
-    weighed only 45 lbs. It was discovered, however, that the regulation
-    only made meat dearer. Therefore it was not enforced. At this time
-    French wine was sold at 8d. a gallon; Malmsey and other sweet wines at
-    a shilling.</p>
-
-  <p>In 1542 occurred the business of George Ferrers. He was M.P. for
-    Plymouth, and he was arrested for debt in the City and lodged in the
-    Compter, a manifest infringement of the privileges of the House. The
-    Serjeant-at-Arms was therefore ordered by the House to proceed to the
-    City and to demand the release of the prisoner. The Sheriffs—Rowland
-    Hill and Henry Suckley—in their zeal for the privileges of Parliament,
-    not only refused to obey, but abused the serjeant and maltreated him.
-    Upon which he returned to Westminster and informed the House of what
-    had been done. The House therefore ordered the serjeant to return
-    and to demand the prisoner without writ or warrant. Meanwhile the
-    Sheriffs had learned the meaning of their action and were beginning
-    to feel uncomfortable. They released the prisoner and, accompanied
-    by the creditor, one White, they attended at the Bar<span class="pagenum" id="Page_44">44</span> of the House.
-    The Sheriffs and the creditor and one of their clerks were sent to
-    the Tower; the arresting clerk and four others to Newgate. And in
-    this melancholy plight they continued for some days, until they were
-    released by the intercession of the Mayor. This was an example to all
-    future Sheriffs not to take too much upon themselves.</p>
-
-  <p>About this time also the principal streets of the suburbs were first
-    completely paved: viz. Holborn, High Street, Aldgate as far as
-    Whitechapel Church, Chancery Lane, Gray’s Inn Lane, Shoe Lane, Fetter
-    Lane, White Cross Street, Chiswell Street, Grub Street, Shoreditch,
-    Goswell Street, St. John’s Street, Cannon Street, Wych Street,
-    Holy Well Street (by Clement Danes), the Strand; Petty France in
-    Westminster; Water Lane in Fleet Street; Long Lane in Smithfield; and
-    Butcher Row without Temple Bar. The paving was not yet the flat slab of
-    stone introduced later, but the round cobble stone, with a channel or
-    gutter running down the middle.</p>
-
-  <p>In 1543 an Act was passed empowering the City to bring water from
-    Hampstead and Muswell Hill, and two years later a conduit was set up in
-    Lothbury with water from Hoxton Fields. (<a href="#APPENDIX_I">Appendix I.</a>)</p>
-
-  <p>The death of Henry left the City in a condition of the greatest
-    confusion and disorder. The streets were full of returned soldiers, and
-    of the idle vagabonds who follow the army: in holes and corners there
-    were lurking unfrocked friars and people turned out of their work in
-    the Religious Houses; there were no hospitals for the sick; none for
-    the blind; none for the insane. If these were the fruits of the King’s
-    supremacy, then, men whispered to each other, it were better to return
-    to the old superstitions.</p>
-
-  <hr class="page" />
-  <div class="chapter" id="CHAPTER_3a">
-    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">45</span>
-    <h3>
-      <span class="gespertt1">CHAPTER III</span><br />
-      <span class="subhead">EDWARD VI</span>
-    </h3>
-  </div>
-
-  <p class="noindent"><span class="smcap">The</span> City presents few points of interest during this reign which do not
-    belong to the national history. The Progress of the Reformation is the
-    subject which more especially belongs to and interests the world in
-    this young King’s short reign.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="i_045"><img src="images/i_045.jpg" width="295" height="417" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">EDWARD VI. (1537–1553)<br />
-      From a portrait by Holbein at Windsor Castle.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>There can be no doubt whatever that just as in the reign of Richard II.
-    the City was saturated with Lollardry, so in the last years of Henry
-    VIII. it was filled with the new ideas. The connection with the Pope
-    severed; the religious Orders clean swept away; the reading of the
-    Bible rapidly spreading; the teaching and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_46">46</span> example of men like Cranmer,
-    Latimer, Rogers, Ridley, Hooper, and others; the derision poured upon
-    the old things such as pilgrimages, image worship, repeated services
-    and monasticism; the popular attack on the Religious by such writers
-    as Fish in the <i>Supplicacyon of Beggars</i> and Barnabe Googe in his
-    <i>Popish Kingdom</i>; the lectures and sermons carefully composed with the
-    design of overthrowing and casting contempt upon the old Faith; the
-    natural instinct of men to see in new ideas a certain remedy for old
-    ills;—these things made it inevitable that the new thoughts should
-    spread and take root. We hear no more, for instance, of the Mayor
-    disarming men who had been monks and friars.</p>
-
-  <p>The new ideas, again, appealed to the nobler and more generous part of
-    humanity. To stand erect before the Creator without the intervention
-    of a priest; no longer to be called upon to believe that which the
-    Bible would not allow to be believed; the introduction of Reason into
-    the domain of Doctrine; the abandonment of childish pilgrimages to the
-    tombs of fallible and sinful mortals; the abolition of the doctrine
-    that pardons, indulgences, Heaven itself, can be bought with money; no
-    longer to believe that fasting and the observance of days may avail to
-    salvation;—these things caught hold of men’s minds and ran rapidly
-    from class to class. And then there was the reading of the Bible for
-    themselves by the folk who could do no more than read. There are no
-    means of deciding how far the old English Version had been read and
-    passed from hand to hand.</p>
-
-  <p>In the reign of Edward VI. we see the first-fruits of the new ideas.
-    Already, however, there were signs of change other than those ordered
-    and authorised by the most autocratic of sovereigns. The Mayor
-    abolished the service of the Boy Bishop at St. Paul’s; sober citizens
-    were haled before the courts charged with blaspheming the mass; men
-    rose in their places and made a noise in church during celebration;
-    one, a boy, threw his cap at the Host during the time of elevation:
-    “at this tyme” (<i>Grey Friars Chron.</i>) “was moche spekyng agayn the
-    Sacrament of the Auter, that some called it Jack of the boxe, with
-    divers other shameful names.”</p>
-
-  <p>Thus the new reign began.</p>
-
-  <p>It was a time of great uncertainty and trouble in religious matters. We
-    see the citizens, ignorant of Greek, disputing over the interpretation
-    of a text; over the conditions of salvation; over matters too high for
-    them—one grows hot and says things that ought not to be said. The
-    informer in the crowd—there is always an informer—steals away and
-    lays information. Then the hasty citizen is lucky if he gets off with
-    a fine. They whisper thus and thus concerning the intentions of the
-    Protector and the opinions of the Archbishop. It is rumoured that the
-    new Bishop of this or that will not be consecrated in his robes; it is
-    rumoured that there will be more changes in the Articles of Religion;
-    it is rumoured that there will be a vast rising of the ejected priests
-    and the starving friars; it is rumoured that they have already risen in
-    the East and in the West. The air is full of rumours. Trade is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">47</span> very
-    bad. There is no money anywhere; the coinage is debased: a shilling
-    is worth no more than sixpence; a groat is twopence; a penny is a
-    half-penny; and the price of provisions is certainly double what it
-    was! It is a strange, perplexed time.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="i_047"><img src="images/i_047.jpg" width="378" height="482" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">EDWARD VI. (1537–1553)<br />
-      From a portrait by Holbein at Windsor Castle.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>There were other events connected with the City besides these constant
-    alarms about the change of Faith. Traitors were executed, notably the
-    two Seymours; rebels were drawn, hanged and quartered, notably the four
-    Captains of the Cornish Rising; the sweating sickness appeared again
-    in 1550 and lasted for six months, carrying off men only and sparing
-    women and children. The cloister of St. Paul’s, commonly called the
-    Dance of Death, and the Charnel House of St. Paul’s, were destroyed and
-    carried away; there were risings in Cornwall, Norfolk, and Yorkshire;
-    a woman named Joan of Kent was burned at Smithfield for heresy; then
-    happened the famous murder of Arden of Faversham, for which his wife,
-    his maid, and one of the murderers were all burned; three men and one
-    woman hanged; a Dutchman named George of Paris was burned for heresy in
-    Smithfield.</p>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_48">48</span></p>
-
-  <p>An important acquisition, however, was gained by the City in 1550. The
-    Borough of Southwark consisted of three manors, the Guildable Manor,
-    the King’s Manor, and the Great Liberty Manor. Edward III. had granted
-    the first of these to the City. Edward IV. had confirmed and amplified
-    this grant, giving the City the right of holding a yearly Fair in the
-    month of September together with a Court of Pie Powder. The City next
-    claimed the right of holding a market twice a week in Southwark. On
-    this claim there were disputes. Finally the City bought all the rights
-    of the Crown in Southwark for the sum of £647:2:1. They thus obtained
-    a recognised right to hold four weekly markets, and to administer the
-    whole borough excepting the two prisons of the Marshalsea and the
-    King’s Bench, and the Duke of Suffolk’s House.</p>
-
-  <p>A very curious difference was made between the new Ward of Bridge
-    Without, then founded, and the other wards. It is this: that in the
-    election of Aldermen the people of the Ward have never had any voice
-    and have never taken any part. And they are not represented in the
-    Common Council.</p>
-
-  <p>In one respect the civic history of this reign is very fine—the
-    citizens grappled manfully with the question of the poor and the
-    sick. We have seen how Henry gave them Grey Friars, Bartholomew’s,
-    and Bethlehem. In aid of the former they levied on the City a tax of
-    one-half of a fifteenth, <i>i.e.</i> a thirtieth. And the memory of the
-    old Religious Fraternities lingered still, for we find them founding
-    a Brotherhood for the Relief of the Poor, to which Sir John Gresham,
-    then Mayor, and most of the Aldermen belonged. Nor was this all. They
-    obtained by purchase, at the cost of £2500, the Hospital of St. Thomas
-    in Southwark.</p>
-
-  <p>After the poor, the children. Grey Friars House was taken in hand and
-    altered to convert it into a school. In a few months 400 children were
-    admitted. This was the work of Sir Richard Dobbs as Mayor. When Ridley
-    was lying in prison, shortly before his death he wrote to Dobbs in
-    these words:—“Oh Dobbs, Dobbs, Alderman and Knight, thou in thy year
-    didst win my heart for evermore, for that honourable act, that most
-    blessed work of God, of the erection and setting up of Christ’s Holy
-    Hospitals and truly Religious Houses which by thee and through thee
-    were begun.”</p>
-
-  <p>After the sick and the children come those who cannot work and those
-    who will not work. In 1553 the young King consented to give his disused
-    Palace of Bridewell for the purpose of turning it into a Work-house
-    or hospital for those who could work no longer, and for a House of
-    Correction to those who would not work (see also <a href="#Page_368">p. 368</a>). The King
-    gave also 700 marks and all the beds and bedding of the Palace of the
-    Savoy. The very last act of Edward VI. was a Charter of Incorporation,
-    appointing the Mayor, Aldermen, and Commonalty, Governors of these
-    Royal Hospitals in the City.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-  <a id="i_048"><img src="images/i_048.jpg" width="700" height="599" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">EDWARD VI. GRANTING CHARTER TO BRIDEWELL<br />
-      From E. Gardner’s Collection.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>In the first year of Edward the House of Commons passed an Act which
-    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_49">49</span>showed that the old spirit of independence and the desire to form
-    Unions were not dead among the craftsmen of London. They enacted:—</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“That if any Artificers, Workmen, or Labourers do conspire,
-      covenant, or promise together, that they shall not make or do
-      their work but at a certain Price or Rate, or shall not enterprize
-      nor take upon them to finish that work which another hath begun,
-      or shall do but a certain work in a day, or shall not work but
-      at certain Hours or Times; that then every Person so conspiring,
-      covenanting, or offending, being thereof convicted by Witnesses,
-      Confession, or otherwise, shall forfeit for the first offence
-      £10 or twenty days’ Imprisonment; for the second offence £20 or
-      Pillory; and for a third offence £40 or to sit on the Pillory,
-      and to have one Ear cut off, besides being rendered infamous and
-      incapable of ever giving Evidence upon Oath.” (Maitland, vol. i. p.
-      239.)</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <p>The Act is explained to apply especially to butchers, bakers, brewers,
-    poulterers, cooks, etc.—in a word, to those who provided the daily
-    necessaries of life.</p>
-
-  <p>In 1548 the Marching Watch was revived by Sir John Gresham, after being
-    in abeyance for many years. It was London’s finest show. (See <a href="#Page_362">p. 362</a>.)</p>
-
-  <p>The Deposition and trial of the Protector are matters of national
-    history. The part taken by the City is not generally recorded by the
-    historian. It is told by Maitland:—</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“The Earl of <i>Warwick</i>, and divers Lords of the Privy-Council,
-      being highly dissatisfied with the Administration of <i>Edward
-        Seymer</i>, Duke of <i>Somerset</i>, the Protector, withdrew from Court,
-      associated, and armed themselves and Domesticks, and secured
-      the Tower of <i>London</i> by a Stratagem of the Lord Treasurer’s,
-      without the Effusion of Blood; and, having removed the Governor,
-      substituted one of their Friends to succeed him. Having luckily
-      succeeded in their first Attempt, <i>Warwick</i> removed into the City,
-      and lodged at the House of <i>John York</i>, one of the Sheriffs of
-      <i>London</i>.</p>
-
-    <p>Upon advice of these proceedings at <i>London</i>, the Protector was
-      so greatly intimidated, that he instantly removed with the King
-      from <i>Hampton-Court</i> to <i>Windsor</i>, and began strongly to fortify
-      the Castle. In the Interim the Lords at <i>London</i> had a Conference
-      with the Lord-Mayor and Aldermen, whom they earnestly importuned
-      to provide a Power sufficient for Defence of the City: Which being
-      assented to, the several Companies were ordered alternately to
-      mount Guard, to be ready to oppose all Attempts that might be
-      made against them. They likewise desired a Supply of five hundred
-      Men, to enable them to bring the Protector to Justice. To which
-      Answer was returned, That nothing could be done in that Affair
-      without consulting the Common-Council; to which End, the Lord-Mayor
-      summoned all the Members thereof to assemble the next Day in
-      <i>Guildhall</i>.</p>
-
-    <p>In the mean time the Lords convened in the Mayor’s House; where
-      after having drawn up a trifling charge against the Protector,
-      they caused it to be proclaimed in divers parts of the City.
-      After which they conferred with the Mayor and Aldermen in the
-      Council-Chamber (before they met the Commons) and, having come
-      to several Resolutions, the Mayor and Aldermen repaired to the
-      Common-Council; where, in a full Assembly, they produced a Letter
-      from the King, commanding them immediately to send him five hundred
-      Men completely armed to <i>Windsor</i>. However, <i>Robert Brook</i>, the
-      Recorder, earnestly exhorted them rather to supply the Lords with
-      that Number, by whose assistance they would be enabled to call the
-      Protector to an Account, and thereby redress the Grievances of an
-      injured Nation; without which the City was not only in Danger of
-      being ruined, but likewise the whole Kingdom to become a Prey to
-      his insatiable Avarice. This Speech, instead of having the desired
-      Effect, occasioned a profound Silence; which greatly amazing the
-      Orator, he reassumed his Discourse, and seriously pressed them for
-      an Answer: Whereupon <i>George Stadlow</i>, a prudent and judicious
-      Citizen, rose up, and spoke as followeth:—</p>
-
-    <p>‘I remember,’ sayth he, ‘in a Story written in Fabian’s Chronicle,
-      of the Warre betweene the King and his Barons, which was in the
-      time of King <i>Henry</i> III. and the same Time the Barons, as our
-      Lordes do now, demaunded Ayde of the Maior and Citie of <i>London</i>,
-      and that in a rightful Cause for the Commonweale, <span class="pagenum" id="Page_50">50</span>which was for
-      the Execution of divers good Lawes, whereunto the King before
-      had geven his Consent, and after would not suffer them to take
-      Place; and the Citie did ayde the Lords, and it came to an open
-      Battayl, wherein the Lordes prevayled, and toke the King and his
-      sonne Prisoners, and upon certaine Condycions the Lordes restored
-      againe the King and his Sonne to their Liberties; and, amonge other
-      Condycions, this was one, That the King should not only graunt his
-      Pardon to the Lordes, but also to the Citezens of <i>London</i>; which
-      was graunted, yea, and the same was ratified by Act of Parliament:
-      But what followed of it? Was it forgotten? No, surely, nor forgiven
-      during the King’s life; the Lyberties of the City were taken away,
-      Straungers appointed to be our Heades and Gouvernors, the Citezens
-      geven away<span class="pagenum" id="Page_51">51</span> Bodye and Goodes, and from one Persecution to another
-      were most miserably afflicted. Such it is to enter into the Wrath
-      of a Prince, as <i>Solomon</i> sayth, <i>The Wrath and Indignation of a
-        Prince is Death</i>. Wherefore, forasmuch as this Ayd is requyred of
-      the King’s Majestie, whose Voyce we ought to hearken unto, for he
-      is our high Shepherd, rather than unto the Lords; and yet I would
-      not with the Lords to be clearly shaken off, but that they with
-      us, and we with them, may joyne in Sute, and make our most humble
-      Petition to the King’s Majestie, that it would please his Highness
-      to heere suche Complaynt against the Government of the Lorde
-      Protector, as maye be justly alleged and proved; and, I doubt not,
-      but this Matter will be pacefied, that neither shall the King, nor
-      yet the Lordes, have Cause to seeke for further Ayde, neyther we to
-      offend any of them bothe.’” (Maitland, vol. i. p. 240.)</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="i_050"><img src="images/i_050.jpg" width="477" height="650" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">THE CORONATION PROCESSION OF EDWARD VI.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>It would seem that the nobles had resumed the old custom of having a
-    great train of followers. For at the departure of Mary Queen of Scots
-    from London, where she had been entertained for four days, the Duke
-    of Northumberland attended her with a hundred mounted men, of whom
-    forty were dressed in black velvet, with velvet hats and feathers,
-    and had gold chains about their necks. The Earl of Pembroke was there
-    with a hundred and twenty men, also in hats and feathers; and the
-    Lord Treasurer had a hundred gentlemen and yeomen. The last glimpse
-    which London had of the young King was when Sir Hugh Willoughby sailed
-    down the river on that voyage which was to discover a N.E. passage
-    through the ice and snow of North Siberia. The ships were dressed
-    with streamers; trumpeters stood in the bows; guns were fired for a
-    farewell salute as they passed Greenwich Palace, and the dying Prince
-    was brought out for one more look upon the glory of his realm in the
-    courage and enterprise of his subjects.</p>
-
-  <hr class="page" />
-  <div class="chapter" id="CHAPTER_4a">
-    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_52">52</span>
-    <h3>
-      <span class="gespertt1">CHAPTER IV</span><br />
-      <span class="subhead">MARY</span>
-    </h3>
-  </div>
-
-  <p class="noindent"><span class="smcap">The</span> proclamation of Lady Jane Grey as Queen, the short-lived and
-    ill-fated period of that usurpation, belong to the history of the
-    country, not to that of London.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="i_052"><img src="images/i_052.jpg" width="316" height="419" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">MARY TUDOR (1516–1558)<br />
-      From a woodcut of the portrait by Antonio Moro, in Prado, Madrid.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>It was on the evening of the 3rd of August that Mary made her entry
-    into the City accompanied by her half-sister Elizabeth. She came
-    from Newhall in Essex where, a few days before, she had received a
-    deputation from the City with a present of £500 in gold. At the Bars
-    of Aldgate she was met by the Mayor, who gave her the City Sword. The
-    order of the procession is related by a contemporary as follows:—</p>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_53">53</span></p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“First, the citizens’ children walked before her magnificently
-      dressed; after followed gentlemen habited in velvets of all sorts,
-      some black, others in white, yellow, violet and carnation; others
-      wore satins or taffety, and some damasks of all colours, having
-      plenty of gold buttons; afterwards followed the Mayor, with the
-      City Companies, and the chiefs or masters of the several trades;
-      after them, the Lords, richly habited, and the most considerable
-      knights; next came the ladies, married and single, in the midst of
-      whom was the Queen herself, mounted on a small white ambling nag,
-      the housings of which were fringed with gold thread; about her
-      were six lacqueys, habited in vests of cloth of gold. The Queen
-      herself was dressed in violet velvet, and was then about forty
-      years of age, and ‘rather fresh-coloured.’ Before her were six
-      lords bareheaded, each carrying in his hand a golden mace, and some
-      others bearing the arms and crown. Behind her followed the archers,
-      as well of the first as the second guard.... She was followed by
-      her sister, named Madame Elizabeth, in truth a beautiful princess,
-      who was also accompanied by ladies both married and single. Then
-      might you hear the firing of divers pieces of artillery, bombards
-      and canons, and many rejoicings made in the City of London; and
-      afterwards the Queen, being in triumph and royal magnificence in
-      her palace and castle of Oycemestre [Westminster], took it into
-      her head to go and hear mass at Paules, that is to say, at the
-      church of St. Paul, and she was attended by six hundred guards,
-      besides the cere, that is to say the servants of lords and nobles.”
-      (<i>Antiquarian Repertory.</i>)</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <p>On the 10th of August the remains of the late King were buried
-    according to the forms of the Book of Common Prayer. It was not long,
-    however, before every one understood clearly the mind of the Queen.</p>
-
-  <p>On the 1st of October Mary rode through the City to Westminster for her
-    Coronation. Sharpe notes the significant fact that the daily service
-    at St. Paul’s was not held because all the priests not suspended for
-    Protestantism were wanted at Westminster Abbey.</p>
-
-  <p>Queen Mary was crowned with every possible care to return to the old
-    ritual. Fresh oil, blessed by the Bishop of Arras, had been brought
-    over; she was afraid that St. Edward’s Chair had been polluted by her
-    brother, the Protestant, sitting in it; she had therefore another chair
-    sent by the Pope. The death of Edward took place on the 6th of July
-    1553, the Coronation of Mary on the 1st of October. The Queen must have
-    requested the Pope to send her the chair immediately on her accession
-    if that chair had arrived within eighty-five days.</p>
-
-  <p>In November Lady Jane Grey, her husband, two of his brothers, and
-    Cranmer, were tried at the Guildhall and sentenced to death; but
-    execution was delayed. Probably in the case of Lady Jane Grey the
-    sentence would never have been carried out had it not been for Wyatt’s
-    Rebellion in January 1554. The ostensible cause was the Spanish match,
-    which was regarded with the greatest dislike and suspicion by the whole
-    people—“Yea, and thereat allmost eche man was abashed, looking daylie
-    for worse matters to grow shortly after.” When the Rebellion broke
-    out the City stood loyally by the Queen: the Companies set watch; no
-    munitions of war were allowed to go out of the City; chains were set
-    up at the Bridge foot; and 500 men were hurriedly raised and equipped.
-    Mary herself showed the courage of her race. She rode into the City and
-    met the citizens at the Guildhall, making them a very spirited speech.
-    She spoke in a loud voice so that everyone <span class="pagenum" id="Page_54">54</span>should hear. No action
-    in her reign shows her nearly so well as this natural and courageous
-    speech.</p>
-
-  <p>The following is Mary’s speech as given by Maitland:—</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“In my owne Person I am come unto you, to tell you that which
-      yourselves already doe see and know; I mean, the traiterous and
-      seditious Number of the <i>Kentish Rebels</i>, that are assembled
-      against Us and You: Their Pretence, as they say, is to resist a
-      Marriage between Us and the Prince of <i>Spain</i>. Of all their Plots,
-      pretended Quarrels and evil-contrived Articles, you have been made
-      privy.... What I am, loving Subjects, you right well know, your
-      Queene, to whom at my Coronation, when I was wedded to the Realme,
-      and to the Lawes of the same (the Spousal Ring whereof I have on
-      my Finger, which never hitherto was, nor hereafter shall be left
-      off), ye promised your Allegeance and Obedience unto me; and that
-      I am the right and true Inheritor to the <i>English</i> Crown, I not
-      only take all <i>Christendome</i> to Witness, but also your Acts of
-      Parliaments confirming the same.</p>
-
-    <p>And this I say further unto you in the Word of a Prince, I cannot
-      tell how naturally a Mother loveth her Children, for I was never
-      the Mother of any; but certainly, if a Prince and Governour may as
-      naturally love their Subjects, as the Mother doth her Child, then
-      assure yourselves, that I, being your Soveraigne Lady and Queene,
-      doe as earnestly and tenderly love and favour you; and I, thus
-      loving you, cannot but thinke, that you as heartily and faithfully
-      love me againe; and so, this Love bound together in the Knot of
-      Concord, we shall be able, I doubt not, to give these Rebels a
-      short and speedy Overthrow....</p>
-
-    <p>But if, as my Progenitors have done before, it might please God
-      that I might leave some Fruit of my Body to be your Governour, I
-      trust you would not only rejoice thereat, but also I know it would
-      be to your great Comfort; and certainly if I either did know or
-      thinke that this Marriage should either turne to the Danger or Loss
-      of any of you, my loving Subjects, or to the Detriment of any Part
-      of the Royal Estate of this <i>English</i> Realme, I would never consent
-      thereunto, neither would I ever marry, whilst I lived.</p>
-
-    <p>Wherefore, good Subjects, plucke up your Hearts, and, like true
-      Men, stand fast with your lawful Prince against these Rebels, both
-      ours and yours, and fear them not, for I assure you, I do not, and
-      will leave with you my Lord <i>Howard</i> and my Lord Treasurer, to be
-      assistant with my Lord-Maior, for the Safe-guard of the City from
-      Spoile and Sackage, which is the onely Scope of this rebellious
-      Company.” (Maitland, vol. i. p. 249.)</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <p>The failure of the revolt was due to the spirited and prompt action of
-    the City.</p>
-
-  <p>All this belongs to the history of the country. Yet we cannot pass
-    over the execution of Lady Jane Grey. It is the most melancholy of
-    all the many tragedies which belong to the Tower during the fifteenth
-    and sixteenth centuries. Perhaps it seemed necessary at the time, in
-    order to prevent other risings like that of Wyatt, in the same way that
-    it had seemed necessary to Henry VII. that the young Earl of Warwick
-    should be removed; and later to Elizabeth that Mary Queen of Scots
-    should no longer be an occasion of conspiracy. At the same time it is
-    wonderful that it should have been thought even possible to bring to
-    the scaffold this girl of sixteen who had been made to play a part.
-    The story of her execution and of her noble words, told with simple
-    directness by Holinshed, cannot be read without tears:—</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“By this time was there a scaffold made upon the greene over
-      against the White Tower, for the ladie Jane to die upon, who being
-      nothing at all abashed, neither with feare of hir owne death, which
-      then approched, neither with the sight of the dead carcasse of
-      hir husband when he was brought into the chapell, came forth, the
-      lieutenant leading hir, with countenance nothing abashed, nor hir
-      eies anything<span class="pagenum" id="Page_55">55</span> moistened with teares, with a booke in hir hand,
-      wherein she praied untill she came to the said scaffold. Whereon
-      when she was mounted, this noble yoong lady as she was indued with
-      singular gifts both of learning and knowledge so was she as patient
-      and mild as anie lambe at hir execution, and a little before hir
-      death uttered these words:—</p>
-
-    <p>‘Good people I am come hither to die, and by a law I am condemned
-      to the same. My offence against the queenes highness was onelie in
-      consent to the device of other, which now is deemed treason: but
-      it was never of my seeking, but by counsell of those who should
-      seem to have further understanding of things than I, which knew
-      little of the law and much lesse of the titles to the crowne.
-      But touching the procurement and desire thereof by me, or on my
-      behalfe, I doo wash my hands in innocencie thereof before God,
-      and the face of all you (good Christian people) this daie.’ And
-      therewith she wroong her hands wherein she had hir booke. Then
-      (said she) ‘I praie you all good Christian people, to beare me
-      witnesse that I die a true Christian woman and that I looke to be
-      saved by none other meanes, but onlie by the mercie of God, in the
-      bloud of his onlie sonne Jesus Christ: and I confesse that when I
-      did know the word of God, I neglected the same, and loved myselfe
-      and the world, and therefore this plague and punishment is justlie
-      and worthlie happened unto me for my sins, and yet I thanke God of
-      his goodnesse, that he hath given me a time and respit to repent.
-      And now, good people, while I am alive I praie you<span class="pagenum" id="Page_56">56</span> assist me with
-      your praiers.’ Then kneeling downe she said the psalme of <i>Miserere
-        mei Deus</i> in English, and then stood up and gave hir maid (called
-      mistress Ellin) hir gloves and handkercher, and hir booke she also
-      gave to maister Bridges the lieutenant of the Tower, and so untied
-      her gowne: and the executioner pressed to helpe her off with it,
-      but she desired him to let hir alone, and turned hir toward hir
-      two gentlewomen, who helped hir off therewith, and with hir other
-      attires, and they gave hir a faire handkercher to put about hir
-      eies. Then the executioner kneeled downe and asked her forgiveness,
-      whom she forgave most willinglie. Then he willed her to stand upon
-      the straw, which doone, she saw the blocke and then she said, I
-      praie you dispatch me quickly. Then she kneeled down saieng, Will
-      you take it off before I laie me downe? Whereunto the executioner
-      answered, No, Madame. Then tied she the handkercher about her eies
-      and feeling for the blocke she said, Where is it? Where is it? One
-      of the standers by guided her thereunto and she laid downe hir head
-      upon the blocke and then stretched forth her bodie and said, Lord,
-      into thy hands I commend my spirit; and so finished hir life.”
-      (Holinshed, vol. iv. p. 22.)</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="i_055"><img src="images/i_055.jpg" width="344" height="517" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">LADY JANE GREY (1537–1554)<br />
-      After the portrait in the Collection of the Earl of Stamford and Warrington</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>Mary’s first Parliament met with the celebration of mass, which was
-    ominous; but it was not too compliant: it was ready to restore the
-    situation as it was in the last years of Henry VIII.; it was unwilling
-    to submit to Rome; and it refused absolutely to restore the Church
-    property. Further, it presented a petition against the proposed foreign
-    marriage. Mary’s second Parliament, more obedient to the will of the
-    Queen, gave its consent to the proposed marriage, but refused to
-    re-enact the statute for the burning of heretics. Her third Parliament
-    went a step farther: it re-enacted the statute for the burning of
-    heretics; it agreed to reconciliation with Rome; but it refused, like
-    its predecessors, to sanction the surrender of Church lands. They were
-    ready to obey their sovereign in matters of faith: the soul may always
-    be left to the care of the Church; but property—property—that, if
-    you please, belongs to the Lay mind. Convocation, on the other hand,
-    was very thorough: it denounced the Book of Common Prayer; it demanded
-    the suppression of the Catechism; it recommended violent measures
-    against the clergy who should deny the Real Presence and against those
-    who should not put away their wives. This meant Revolution. Hosts of
-    priests, and those who still survived from the monasteries, rejoiced
-    to say mass once more, even in the ruined and desecrated churches that
-    were left to them. It meant Restoration. Priests sprang up everywhere
-    from the ground—how had they lived for ten years? Priests in the
-    villages and the parish churches put on their old robes; dragged out
-    the censing vessels; replaced the Host. Ex-monks who had been pensioned
-    from the monasteries; ex-friars who had received no pensions but had
-    been simply turned into the street; ecclesiastics from abroad;—all
-    came, eager to revive the forbidden worship. They looked around them
-    ruefully at the dishonoured shrines and the ruined chapels: it would
-    take centuries to make everything as it had been; but still—one must
-    try.</p>
-
-  <p>Meantime, think, if you can, of the deadly hatred which these priests
-    must have felt towards those who had done these mischiefs; think of
-    the silent satisfaction with which even the best of them would witness
-    the execution of one who had been a leader—a Hooper or a Latimer—in
-    bringing about this destruction. But the destruction was stayed. Holy
-    Church was back again, and of course for ever. The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_57">57</span> Great Rebellion,
-    they thought, was ended. As for the beneficed clergy in possession,
-    many conformed for fear and for safety; very few indeed gave up their
-    wives; happy were the contumacious if their contumacy brought no worse
-    consequence than to beg their bread on the road; happy if it did not
-    lead to a speedy trial, conviction, and the certainty of becoming a
-    fiery example. They might have made up their minds at the outset that
-    Mercy was not a quality for which Mary would be conspicuous. Before the
-    Fires of Smithfield began there were the executions for the Rebellion
-    of Wyatt. It was an excellent opportunity for winning the hearts of
-    the people; Lady Jane Grey’s party never had the smallest chance: she
-    herself might have been allowed to be at liberty with no danger to the
-    Queen, while to execute her boy-husband was as barbarous and useless
-    as to execute herself. Fifty persons, however, officers, knights, and
-    gentlemen, were put to death in consequence of the Rebellion. Four
-    hundred common men were hanged about London. Fifty were hanged on
-    gibbets, and there left to hang a great part of the summer.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="i_057"><img src="images/i_057.jpg" width="600" height="399" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">ST. PETER AD VINCULA, OVERLOOKING TOWER GREEN<br />
-      E. Gardner’s Collection.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>Meantime, the people of London—partly exasperated by the sight of
-    these gibbets; partly hating the Spanish marriage; partly hating the
-    break-up of the Reformation—showed their minds in every possible way.
-    They shot at preachers of Papistry; they dressed up a cat like a Roman
-    Priest, and hanged it on a gallows<span class="pagenum" id="Page_58">58</span> in Cheapside; they found a girl
-    who pretended to receive messages from a spirit. It was called the
-    Spirit in the Wall. When the Eucharist was carried through Smithfield
-    a man tried to knock the holy elements out of the priest’s hands. And
-    on Easter Day a priest saying mass in St. Margaret’s, Westminster, was
-    attacked by a man with a knife.</p>
-
-  <p>The Marian Persecution began in January 1555. The Queen issued a
-    proclamation that bonfires should be lit in various places in the City
-    to show the people’s joy and gladness for the abolition of heresies.
-    This was the signal for the martyrdoms. John Rogers, Prebendary of
-    St. Paul’s, was burned, to begin with, at Smithfield; Hooper, at
-    Gloucester; Ferrar at St. David’s; Rowland Taylor at Hadleigh; Lawrence
-    Saunders at Coventry; William Flower at Westminster; John Cardmaker at
-    Smithfield; John Bradford at Smithfield. It is enough to state that
-    the martyrs of this Persecution were two hundred and eighty-eight in
-    number: including five Bishops, twenty-one clergy, fifty-five women,
-    four children, and two hundred and three laymen. Of the laymen, only
-    eight were gentlemen. I will invite consideration of this fact later on.</p>
-
-  <p>The flames of martyrdom lasted till within a month of Mary’s end. It is
-    difficult to understand how the Bishops could believe that the burning
-    of this kind of heretic stamped out heresy. Hundreds, nay, thousands,
-    of families went in perpetual mourning for the death of brother or
-    cousin, a martyr faithful to the end. The Bishops might have understood
-    the signs of the times: they might have seen the Mayor and Aldermen
-    trying vainly to show conviction rather than obedience in attending
-    all the processions and functions of the Church at which the people
-    looked on sullenly and with murmurs; they might have listened to the
-    wisdom of Cardinal Pole, who pointed out to the Queen and the Council
-    that these severities were destructive to the Catholic Faith in the
-    country. The Persecution reads like the revenge of a revengeful woman.
-    “Burn! Burn! Burn!” she cries. “To avenge the tears of my mother; to
-    avenge the unhappiness of my childhood; to avenge the act that made me
-    illegitimate; to avenge the marriage of Anne Boleyn. Burn! Burn! Burn!”</p>
-
-  <p>Everybody knows the eager hopes and expectation with which Mary looked
-    forward to the birth of a child. The tales of the common people about
-    the Queen’s supposed pregnancy are illustrated by a story in Holinshed.</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“There came to see me, whome I did both heare and see, one Isabel
-      Malt, a woman dwelling in Aldersgate Street in Horne allie, not
-      farre from the house where this present book was printed, who
-      before witnesse made this declaration unto us, that she being
-      delivered of a man-child upon Whitsuntide in the morning, which was
-      the eleventh daie of June Anno 1555, there came to hir the Lord
-      North, and another lord to her unknowne, dwelling then about old
-      Fish Street, demanding of hir if she would part with hir child, and
-      would swear that she never knew nor had no such child. Which if
-      she would, hir sonne (they said) should be well provided for, she
-      should take no care for it, with manie faire offers if she would
-      part with the child. After that came other women also, of whome one
-      (she said) should have been the rocker:<span class="pagenum" id="Page_59">59</span> but she in no wise would
-      let go hir sonne, who at the writing hereof, being alive and called
-      Timothie Malt, was of the age of thirteene yeares and upward. Thus
-      much (I saie) I heard of the woman hirself. What credit is to be
-      given to hir relation, I deale not withall, but leave it to the
-      libertie of the reader to believe it they that list: to them that
-      list not, I have no further warrant to assure them.” (Vol. iv. p.
-      83.)</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <div class="figcenter w600">
-    <a id="i_058"><img src="images/i_058.jpg" width="600" height="452" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="attribr"><i>W.A. Mansell &amp; Co.</i></div>
-  </div>
-  <div class="center caption">EXECUTION OF LADY JANE GREY<br />
-    From the painting by Paul Delaroche in the Tate Gallery, London.</div>
-
-  <p>The same Chronicler gives us a glimpse of the divided state of
-    the popular mind on the occasion of the removal of Dr. Sands,
-    Vice-Chancellor of Cambridge, to London, to be tried for heresy. As he
-    left Cambridge the Papists came out to jeer at him, and his friends
-    to mourn for him. When he got to London, one like a milk-wife hurled
-    a stone at him, which struck him in the breast. When he came to Tower
-    Hill a woman cried out, “Fie on thee, thou knave, thou traitor, thou
-    heretic!” For which she was upbraided by another woman who called out,
-    “Good gentleman: God be thy comfort and give thee strength to stand in
-    God’s cause even to the end!” When, after some weeks, they brought him
-    from the Tower to the Marshalsea the people had gone round already, and
-    “poperie was unsaverie.” Everywhere they prayed to God to comfort him
-    and to strengthen him in the truth. In the Marshalsea, Sands fell into
-    the hands of a Protestant keeper, who gave him all the indulgence he
-    could. And in the end he escaped into Holland, and there stayed till
-    the death of Mary.</p>
-
-  <p>The examples of Henry the Seventh’s reign were not likely to be lost so
-    soon. A lad of eighteen named William Fetherstone, a miller’s son, was
-    reported to be at Eltham in Kent giving himself out for King Edward,
-    who, he declared, was not dead at all. Was the boy mad? It is not
-    known. He himself declared that he had been made to say this: it is
-    quite possible that certain hot-headed Protestants thought to set up
-    King Edward again, and so to get back the new religion. Such a thing
-    can never be attempted without encouragement—perhaps the lad was soft
-    and easily moulded. Being brought before the Council he rambled in his
-    talk; wherefore he was committed to the Marshalsea as a lunatic. That
-    conclusion did not prevent them from whipping the boy all round the
-    Palace at Westminster and all the way from Westminster to Smithfield.
-    They then packed him off to his birthplace in the North, where he might
-    have rested in peace; but the unlucky wretch began to talk again about
-    Edward VI., who, he said, was still alive. Therefore they brought him
-    up to London and hanged him at Tyburn.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_60">60</span>
-    <a id="i_060a"><img src="images/i_060a.jpg" width="600" height="448" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">Certaine Bishops talking with Master Bradford in prison.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="i_060b"><img src="images/i_060b.jpg" width="600" height="474" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">The description of the burning of Master Iohn Bradford
-      Preacher, and Iohn Lease a Prentice.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>To return to the other points connected with London during this reign.
-    They are not many. One of the difficulties was the rush into London of
-    Spaniards who came over after the marriage of Philip and Mary. It is
-    interesting to note how with every consort of foreign origin the people
-    of the country to which he or she belonged flocked over to London in
-    multitudes. After the Norman Conquest came troops of Normans; after the
-    accession of Henry II. came Angevins; after the arrival of Eleanor of
-    Provence came men of Provence; and now came Spaniards. Was
-    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_61">61</span>London,
-    then, always considered a Promised Land to those who lived outside?
-    It was but a poor Land of Promise in these years, when all the world
-    was torn by civil and religious wars. However, the Spaniards were
-    everywhere: “a man should have mete in the streets for one Englishman
-    above iiij Spanyardes”; the Court was crammed with Spaniards; and
-    Philip, so far from attempting to win the hearts of the English nobles,
-    held himself aloof with Castilian ceremony. We hear little more of
-    the Spaniards after Philip’s departure: probably they found London an
-    unfavourable soil for a permanent settlement and withdrew; the Spanish
-    element as shown in the names of the Londoners at the present day, or
-    in the Parish Registers, is small indeed.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="i_061"><img src="images/i_061.jpg" width="600" height="376" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">INTERIOR OF THE BELL TOWER, WHERE PRINCESS ELIZABETH WAS
-      IMPRISONED BY HER SISTER QUEEN MARY<br />
-      E. Gardner’s Collection.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>The jealousy of foreigners, especially of Spaniards, caused trouble in
-    the City throughout this reign. There were rumours that thousands of
-    Spaniards were coming over; the old jealousy of the Hanseatic League
-    was renewed: the Mayor gave orders that work should not be given to
-    foreigners; they were forbidden to open shops in the City; they were
-    not allowed to keep school; their shutters were forcibly closed. One
-    feels that the situation of the foreigner in the City was anything but
-    pleasant, especially if he were a Spaniard.</p>
-
-  <p>The submission of Juries to the Judges was expected in matters of
-    treason, if not in other things. The case of Nicholas Throgmorton,
-    charged with high<span class="pagenum" id="Page_62">62</span> treason and complicity in the Rebellion of Wyatt,
-    proves this. Doubtless it was in opposition to the Judge’s charge
-    that the Jury brought in a verdict of Not Guilty. For this they were
-    summoned before the Star Chamber, where four of the twelve made
-    submission; the remaining eight were sent to prison, where they
-    remained for six months. They were then brought before the Star Chamber
-    again, where they defended their finding as being in accordance with
-    their own consciences. As if Juries in matters of treason could have
-    consciences! So they were sent back to prison, and only got out by
-    paying a fine—some of £44, some of £60 apiece.</p>
-
-  <p>In 1556 the City gave Mary a loan of £6000.</p>
-
-  <p>War with France was declared in June 1557. The City was instructed
-    to put its munitions of war on a sound and serviceable footing.
-    It complied, and raised a force of 500 men, which joined the army
-    commanded by Lord Pembroke. In less than a month the Queen sent a
-    letter to the Mayor informing him of the departure of Philip and
-    commanding him to raise another force of 1000 men. After a good deal
-    of protest and grumbling, and after vain appeals to the liberties and
-    franchises of the City respecting the sending of men on active service,
-    submission was made and the men were got together. This was early in
-    August. But it does not seem that they were sent. On 27th August the
-    French were defeated at St. Quentin. Towards the end of the year it was
-    known that Calais was in a dangerous position. On 2nd January a message
-    arrived from the Queen, ordering the despatch of 500 men at once. They
-    were wanted for the relief of Calais. But Calais fell on the 7th. Then
-    the City was called upon to furnish another 2000 men. On the 13th the
-    Queen wrote to say that a violent storm had crippled her fleet—the men
-    were to be kept back, but in readiness. Then it was heard that Philip’s
-    forces were on their way to Flanders, under the Duke of Savoy, and that
-    the Channel was kept open by a Spanish fleet. A regiment of 500 was
-    therefore sent off to Dover in order to be shipped for Dunkirk.</p>
-
-  <p>In March 1558 Mary raised a loan of £20,000 on the security of the
-    Crown lands, from the City Companies. The greater Companies contributed
-    £16,983:6:3, the rest being made up by the smaller Companies. The
-    Mercers gave £3275; the smaller Companies sums varying from £50 to £300.</p>
-
-  <p>For the better regulation of trade an Act of Parliament was passed in
-    1554 by which non-residents were not allowed to sell their wares in any
-    town.</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“Whereas the Cities, Boroughs, Towns Corporate and Market Towns,
-      did heretofore flourish, where Youth were well educated, and
-      civilly brought up, and were highly serviceable to the Government;
-      but were brought to great Decay, and were like to come to utter
-      Ruin and Destruction, by Reason that Persons dwelling out of the
-      said Cities and Towns came and took away the Relief and Subsistence
-      of the said Cities and Towns by selling their Wares there: For
-      Remedy whereof, be it enacted, That no Person or Persons dwelling
-      any where out of the said Cities or Towns (the Liberties of the two
-      Universities only excepted) shall hereafter sell, or cause to be
-      sold, by Retail, any Woollen and Linnen Cloth (except of their<span class="pagenum" id="Page_63">63</span>
-      own making), or any Haberdashery, Grocery, or Mercery Ware, at
-      or within any of the said Cities, Boroughs, Towns Corporate, or
-      Market Towns within this Realm (except in open Fairs), on Pain to
-      forfeit and lose, for every Time so offending, six shillings and
-      eight Pence, and the whole Wares so sold, offered or profered to be
-      sold.” (Maitland, vol. i. p. 251.)</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="i_062"><img src="images/i_062.jpg" width="362" height="700" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">PHILIP II. OF SPAIN (1527–1598)<br />
-      From the painting by Alonso Sanchez Coello in the Berlin Museum.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>An attempt was made to reduce the number of Taverns in London and
-    Westminster. There were to be no more than forty in the City and three
-    in Westminster. But the law was not enforced nor obeyed.</p>
-
-  <p>In this reign we first hear of the abuse of prisons. One of the two
-    Compters then stood in Bread Street. The warden or keeper, one Richard
-    Husbands, was accused of maltreating his prisoners barbarously; also
-    of receiving men and women of criminal and disreputable character,
-    and giving them lodging within the prison for fourpence a night. The
-    Corporation therefore built a larger and more convenient compter in
-    Wood Street, to which they removed the prisoners, appointing a new
-    keeper in place of Husbands.</p>
-
-  <p>In January 1557 one Christopher Draper, Alderman of Cordwainer Street
-    Ward, employed a man to walk nightly about the streets of the Ward,
-    ringing a bell and calling on the people to take care of their fires
-    and lights; to help the poor; and to pray for the dead. This was the
-    origin of the office of Bellman.</p>
-
-  <p>In this year arrived the first Ambassador from Russia. He was wrecked
-    on the coast of Scotland. The Russia Company sent officers into Holland
-    with money and necessaries, and with orders to bring him to London.
-    On his arrival he was met by eighty merchants on horseback, richly
-    accoutred and with gold chains round their necks, and was taken to a
-    house in Highgate, where he was royally entertained for the night.
-    Next day he rode into the City and was received by the Mayor and Lord
-    Montague, who escorted him to his quarters in Fenchurch Street. During
-    the whole of his stay his charges were defrayed by the Russia Company.</p>
-
-  <p>The profuse expenditure expected of the Mayor and Sheriffs during their
-    year of office, made many citizens who ought to have filled these
-    posts, retire into the country rather than put themselves to such great
-    expense.</p>
-
-  <p>The Common Council took up the matter: in a very curious array of
-    ordinances it was provided among other things</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“That thenceforth the Mayor should have no more than one course
-      either at Dinner or Supper; and that on a Festival, being a Flesh
-      Day, to consist of no more than seven Dishes, whether hot or cold;
-      and on every Festival, being a Fish Day, eight Dishes; and on every
-      common Flesh Day, six Dishes; and on every common Fish Day, seven
-      Dishes, exclusive of Brawn, Collops with Eggs, Sallads, Pottage,
-      Butter, Cheese, Eggs, Herrings, Sprats and Shrimps, together with
-      all sorts of Shell-fish and Fruits: That the Aldermen and Sheriffs
-      should have one Dish less than the above-mentioned; and all the
-      City Companies at their several Entertainments the same number of
-      Dishes as the Aldermen and Sheriffs; but with this Restriction, to
-      have neither Swan, Crane, nor Bustard, upon the Penalty of forty
-      Shillings; etc. etc. etc.”</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <p>On the 17th of November 1558 Mary died. The bonfires which hailed the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_64">64</span>
-    accession of her sister were fires of rejoicing over the death of the
-    unhappy Queen. The whole City was united in joy, with the exception of
-    the Bishops and the Priests. Not only was religion concerned, but the
-    domination of Spain; the immigration of Spaniards; the humiliation of
-    the country. The general rejoicing was marked by the keeping the day
-    of Elizabeth’s accession as a holiday for a hundred and fifty years to
-    come.</p>
-
-  <hr class="page" />
-  <div class="chapter" id="CHAPTER_5a">
-    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_65">65</span>
-    <h3>
-      <span class="gespertt1">CHAPTER V</span><br />
-      <span class="subhead">ELIZABETH</span>
-    </h3>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter w365">
-    <a id="i_065"><img src="images/i_065.jpg" width="370" height="471" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="attribr"><i>Walker &amp; Cockerell.</i></div>
-    <div class="caption">QUEEN ELIZABETH (1533–1603)<br />
-      From a painting, attributed to Zuccaro, in the National Portrait
-      Gallery, London.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p class="noindent">“<span class="smcap">My</span> Lady Elizabeth,” the Venetian Ambassador writes in the lifetime
-    of Queen Mary, “the daughter of Henry VIII. and Anne Boleyn, was
-    born in 1533 (in the month of September—so that she is at present
-    twenty-three years of age). She is a lady of great elegance both of
-    body and mind, although her face may be called<span class="pagenum" id="Page_66">66</span> rather pleasing than
-    beautiful; she is tall and well made; her complexion fine though rather
-    sallow; her eyes, but, above all, her hands, which she takes care not
-    to conceal, are of superior beauty. In her knowledge of the Greek and
-    Italian languages she surpasses the Queen. She excels the Queen in the
-    knowledge of languages; for, in addition to Latin, she has acquired no
-    small acquaintance with Greek. She speaks Italian, which the Queen does
-    not. In this language she takes such delight, that in the presence of
-    Italians it is her ambition not to converse in any other. Her spirits
-    and understanding are admirable, as she has proved by her conduct in
-    the midst of suspicion and danger, when she concealed her religion and
-    comported herself like a good Catholic. She is proud and dignified
-    in her manners; for, though her mother’s condition is well-known to
-    her, she is also aware that this mother of hers was united to the King
-    in wedlock, with the sanction of the Holy Church and the concurrence
-    of the Primate of the realm; and though misled with regard to her
-    religion, she is conscious of having acted with good faith; nor can
-    this latter circumstance reflect upon her birth, since she was born in
-    the same faith as that professed by the Queen. Her father’s affection
-    she shared at least in equal measure with her sister; it is said
-    that she resembles her father more than the Queen does, and the King
-    considered them equally in his will, settling on both of them 10,000
-    <i>scudi</i> per annum. Yet with this allowance she is always in debt.
-    And she would be much more so if she did not studiously abstain from
-    enlarging her establishment, and so giving greater offence to the
-    Queen. For indeed there is not a knight or a gentleman in the kingdom
-    who has not sought her service, either for himself or for some son or
-    brother; such is the affection and love that she commands. This is one
-    reason why her expenses are increased. She always alleges her poverty
-    as an excuse to those who wish to enter her service, and by this means
-    she has cleverly contrived to excite compassion, and at the same time a
-    greater affection; because there is no one to whom it does not appear
-    strange that she—the daughter of a king—should be treated in so
-    miserable a manner. She is allowed to live in one of her houses about
-    twelve miles distant from London, but she is surrounded by a number of
-    guards and spies, who watch her narrowly and report every movement to
-    the Queen. Moreover, the Queen, though she hates her most sincerely,
-    yet treats her in public with every outward sign of affection and
-    regard, and never converses with her but on pleasing and agreeable
-    subjects. She has also contrived to ingratiate herself with the King of
-    Spain, through whose influence the Queen is prevented from bastardising
-    her, as she certainly has it in her power to do by means of an Act of
-    Parliament, which would exclude her from the throne. It is believed
-    that but for this interference of the King, the Queen would without
-    more remorse chastise her in the severest manner; for whatever plots
-    against the Queen are discovered, my Lady Elizabeth or some of her
-    people may always be sure to be mentioned among the persons concerned
-    in them.”</p>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_67">67</span></p>
-
-  <p>Attention has already been called to the rejoicings of the people on
-    the death of Mary and the uplifting of that long-continued cloud. The
-    bells of the City were rung; bonfires were lit; loaded tables open for
-    all comers were spread in the streets—yea, even in that dark night of
-    November. A week later the new Queen rode from Hatfield to the Charter
-    House, where she stayed for five days; on the 28th she rode in state
-    to the Tower; here she remained till the 5th of December, when she
-    went by water to Somerset House. On the 17th of December, the body of
-    Mary was laid in Westminster Abbey, with the Roman Catholic Service;
-    on the 12th of January, the Queen returned to the Tower, and thence
-    on the following day she rode to Westminster. The reader has probably
-    remarked, in the course of this history, that neither King nor Queen,
-    nor Mayor nor people, ever paid the slightest regard for weather or for
-    season. A Royal Riding with Pageants and red cloth and tapestry, and a
-    procession in boats, was undertaken as readily in January, when there
-    is generally hard frost; in April, when there is generally east wind;
-    in July, when there is generally the heat of summer; or in October,
-    when there is generally fine weather with the repose of autumn. Season
-    and weather, sunshine or frost, made no difference. In her desire to
-    win the hearts of the people, Elizabeth probably paid no heed to the
-    weather, whether it was cold or not.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter w385">
-    <a id="i_067"><img src="images/i_067.jpg" width="384" height="479" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="attribr"><i>Walker &amp; Cockerell.</i></div>
-    <div class="caption">QUEEN ELIZABETH (1533–1603)<br />
-      From a painting in the National Portrait Gallery, London. &nbsp; &nbsp;Painter unknown.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_68">68</span>We have remarked a great change in the temper and attitude of the City
-    towards the Sovereign. We hear from time to time murmurings about the
-    City liberties; but nothing of importance. The reasons are several:
-    the Tudor sovereigns carefully respected those liberties which, so
-    to speak, made the most show; they abstained from interference with
-    the City elections; they would not interfere with the City Courts. As
-    regards the point of real importance to themselves—the raising of
-    money and men—their demands were generally arbitrary; witness the
-    calls of Mary for men and still more men. Another cause for cheerful
-    loyalty was that when the religious discussions were at length
-    appeased, it was incumbent on everybody to do his utmost for the
-    Protestant Cause, which became the National Cause. For these reasons we
-    find the City cheerfully giving to Elizabeth what it reluctantly gave,
-    or refused to give, to Henry the Third or Richard the Second.</p>
-
-  <p>It was understood by those who welcomed the Queen so joyously that
-    her first care must be the restoration of the Reformed Faith. Every
-    craftsman who threw up his cap expected so much. Fortunately, the
-    events of the last reign had turned the hearts of most people wholly
-    away from the mass. Elizabeth was fully informed as to the opinion of
-    the majority of her subjects; as for her own opinion, it is said that
-    she favoured the old Church. Perhaps so; that is to say, she would
-    rather, as a matter of choice, listen to the Roman Mass than to the
-    English Litany—it is certainly more beautiful; at the same time, one
-    cannot but believe that she was sincere in making her choice and in
-    keeping steadfast to it. Her kindness to the Catholic Faith was shown
-    in the relaxation of persecution. She would not at first persecute any
-    for believing what she herself publicly professed not to believe. Her
-    first step, however, clearly showed the direction of future law. She
-    put forth a royal proclamation ordering the cessation of disputations
-    and sermons, and ordered in their place the reading of the Epistle
-    and Gospel for the Day, with the Ten Commandments, in the vulgar
-    tongue. She also appointed, in the first year of her reign, certain
-    Commissioners, whose duty it was to visit every diocese, for the
-    establishment of religion according to the new Act of Parliament. Those
-    for London were Sir Richard Sackville, knight; Robert Horne, Doctor of
-    Divinity; Doctor Huicke; and Master Savage. The Commissioners visited
-    every parish, calling before them persons of every sort, whom they
-    instructed and admonished. They suppressed all the Religious Houses
-    that Mary had established—the Abbey of Westminster, Syon House, the
-    House of Shene, the Black Friars of Smithfield and those of Greenwich.
-    They further pulled down all the new roods and images, and burned all
-    the vestments, altar cloths, banners, mass books, and rood lofts. In
-    fact, the people showed very plainly that their minds were all for the
-    Protestant religion.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_69">69</span>
-    <a id="i_069"><img src="images/i_069.jpg" width="559" height="700" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">REPRESENTATION DES FEVS DE IOYE QVIFVRENT FAICTS SVR
-      LEAV DANS LONDRES A L’HONNEVR DE LA REYNE LA NVICT DVIOVR DE SON ENTREE<br />
-      E. Gardner’s Collection.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_70">70</span>An Act of Uniformity followed, which forbade the use of any form of
-    public prayer other than that of the Prayer Book of Edward VI. with one
-    or two slight alterations. This book was replaced in the churches, and
-    service was conducted in accordance with it on Whit Sunday 1559. What
-    happened immediately after? A pulling out of Bibles from hiding-places;
-    a return to the old talk, restrained for five years for fear of
-    informers; an enjoyable plunge into the anti-Scriptural aspects of the
-    Roman Creed; and a rush for the ornaments, roods, tombs, the vestments
-    and the incense vessels and the candles in all the City churches. In
-    some cases the wafers, vestments, and altar cloths, books, banners,
-    and other ornaments of the churches were burned—things which had cost
-    thousands when they were renewed under Queen Mary. All this happened,
-    and an incredible amount of mischief was done before the destruction
-    was stopped.</p>
-
-  <p>There appears to have been little strength of feeling or spirit of
-    martyrdom among the Roman Catholics in London. They submitted; more
-    than this, they made no attempt to maintain their religion; their
-    children, if not themselves, became wholly Anglican; such Roman
-    Catholic worship as survived lurked in holes and corners, or was
-    maintained secretly by a few nobles and gentlemen. Before long,
-    however, the Government had to deal with that advanced form of
-    Protestantism which had been brought over from the Continent. In 1565
-    an order was issued that all the clergy were to wear the surplice.
-    A good number of them refused, and left their churches, with their
-    congregations. This was the beginning of Nonconformity. But Elizabeth
-    made no attempt to enforce obedience or to persecute those who
-    dissented.</p>
-
-  <p>On the 25th of May 1570, the temper of the people was plainly indicated
-    by their reception of a Bull from the Pope, which was actually
-    found nailed to the door of the Bishop of London’s Palace in Paul’s
-    Churchyard. It was in Latin. Holinshed gives both text and translation.</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“Pius, Bishop, servant of God’s servants, etc. Queene Elizabeth
-      hath cleane put awaie the sacrifice of the masse, praiers,
-      fastings, choise or difference of meats and single life. She
-      invaded the kingdome, and by usurping monstrouslie the place of
-      the supreme head of the Church in all England, and the cheefe
-      authoritie and jurisdiction of the same, hath againe brought the
-      said realem into miserable destruction. Shee hath remooved the
-      noble men of England from the king’s councell. Shee hath made
-      hir councell of poore, darke, beggerlie fellows, and hath placed
-      them over the people. These councellors are not onlie poore and
-      beggerlie, but also heretikes. Unto hir all such as are the
-      woorst of the people resort, and are by hir received into safe
-      protection, etc. We make it knowne that Elizabeth aforesaid, and
-      as manie as stand on hir side in the matters abovenamed, have run
-      into the danger of our cursse. We make it also knowen that we have
-      deprived hir from that right shee pretended to have in the kingdome
-      aforesaid, and also from all and every hir authoritie, dignity,
-      and privilege. We charge and forbid all and every the nobles and
-      subjects, and people, and others aforesaid, that they be not so
-      hardie as to obey hir or hir will, or commandements or laws,
-      upon paine of the like accursse upon them. We pronounce that all
-      whosoever by anie occasion<span class="pagenum" id="Page_71">71</span> have taken their oth unto hir, are for
-      ever discharged of such their oth, and also from all fealtie and
-      service, which was due to hir by reason of hir government, etc.”
-      (vol. iv. p. 253).</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <p>The crime was brought home to one John Felton, who on 4th August,
-    three months later, was arraigned at the Guildhall on the charge of
-    affixing the said Bull. Four days later he was drawn from Newgate to
-    St. Paul’s Churchyard and there duly hanged, cut down alive, bowelled,
-    and quartered. On the same day—which shows that their office was not
-    an easy one—the Sheriffs of London, after seeing the end of Felton,
-    had to accompany two young men, who had been found guilty of coining,
-    to Tyburn, where they suffered the same horrible punishment.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter w385">
-    <a id="i_071"><img src="images/i_071.jpg" width="383" height="474" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="attribr"><i>Walker &amp; Cockerell.</i></div>
-    <div class="caption">QUEEN ELIZABETH (1533–1603)<br />
-      From a painting in the National Portrait Gallery, London.  &nbsp; &nbsp;Painter unknown.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>Meantime the Catholic enemy never relaxed his attempt to effect the
-    reconversion, or, failing that, the subjugation, of this country. Not
-    by Bulls alone did he work. Seminary priests were sent over to work
-    secretly upon the people and so, it was hoped, gradually to make them
-    ready for conversion. After the tender mercies of the last reign one
-    would believe that the task was hopeless: one is persuaded that even
-    if the secret missionaries had been allowed to put an advertisement<span class="pagenum" id="Page_72">72</span>
-    in the windows openly proclaiming their object they could have done no
-    harm. But the Queen’s Council, whether wisely or not, were extremely
-    jealous of these priests. They charged the City Authorities to try
-    every means of laying hands on them: they were to arrest all persons
-    who did not attend church; and to banish all strangers who did not go
-    to church; they were to make every stranger subscribe the Articles.
-    A proclamation was issued ordering English parents to remove their
-    children from foreign colleges; declaring that to harbour Jesuit
-    priests was to harbour rebels; imposing a fine upon those who did not
-    attend church; which involved a strict watch upon all the parishes to
-    find out what persons kept away. The two chief conspirators moving
-    about England were two priests, named Campion and Parsons. Campion was
-    presently arrested and, after undergoing torture, was executed in the
-    usual manner. Parsons got back to the Continent, where he continued in
-    his machinations. Catholic historians are eloquent on the sufferings of
-    the Catholics during this reign; we must, however, acknowledge that the
-    conspiracies and intrigues of such men as Campion, Allen, and Parsons
-    went far to explain the persecution to which they were liable.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="i_072"><img src="images/i_072.jpg" width="346" height="418" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">QUEEN ELIZABETH (1533–1603)<br />
-      From the “Ermine” portrait in the possession of the Marquis of Salisbury.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>The failure of the Armada: the failure of Philip’s second attempt,
-    destroyed by<span class="pagenum" id="Page_73">73</span> tempest; the fact that the Catholic cause was now in
-    the minds of the people the Spanish cause, and therefore execrable;
-    the manifest proofs that the heart of the nation was sound for the
-    Queen and the Protestant religion;—did not put a stop to Catholic
-    spies and Catholic conspirators. The emissaries are always called
-    “Spanish,” though they were generally English by birth; it is probable
-    that Cardinal Allen found the emissaries, whose work Philip certainly
-    did not discourage. These emissaries were ecclesiastics, who came
-    over-disguised in every possible way. Those who were young called
-    themselves, or became, students at Oxford and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_74">74</span> Cambridge; those who
-    were older rode about the country disguised as simple gentlemen,
-    merchants, physicians; they worked secretly, everywhere with the
-    design of sapping the loyalty of the people towards the Queen and the
-    Protestant Faith. They did so at great peril, with the certainty of
-    tortures if they were caught; and their courage in facing the dangers
-    was so great that it elevates their conspiracies into the propaganda of
-    a sacred cause. The greatest exertions were made for their detection,
-    and chief among these was the means already mentioned of noting those
-    who did not go to church. However, it does not appear that many were
-    caught, and perhaps the numbers were exaggerated. Sharpe has found a
-    description of one whom they desired to arrest in 1596 (i. 550):—</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“A yonge man of meane and slender stature, aged about xxvj, with a
-      high collored face, red nose, a warte over his left eye, havinge
-      two greate teeth before, standinge out very apparant, he nameth
-      himselffe Edward Harrison, borne in Westmerland; apparelled in
-      a crane collored fustian dublet, rounde hose, after the frenche
-      facion, an olde paire of yollowe knit neather stockes, he escaped
-      without either cloake, girdle, garters or shoes.”</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="i_073"><img src="images/i_073.jpg" width="392" height="622" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">QUEEN ELIZABETH (1533–1603)<br />
-      From the engraving by Isaac Oliver. &nbsp; &nbsp;A. Rischgitz’ Collection.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>The constant discussion of religious matters and agitation on points of
-    Faith produced the natural phenomenon of religious enthusiasts, strange
-    sects, and mad beliefs.</p>
-
-  <p>The growth of the Puritan spirit is shown by a letter written by the
-    Lord Mayor on the 14th of January 1583. A large number of people
-    were assembled one Sunday for Sport, <i>i.e.</i> Bear-baiting, in Paris
-    Gardens; they were standing round the pit on twelve scaffolds, when the
-    scaffolds all fell down at once, so that many were killed and wounded.
-    The Mayor wrote as follows to the Lord Treasurer:—</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“That it gave great occasion to acknowledge the hand of God, for
-      such abuse of his Sabbath-day; and moved him in Conscience to
-      beseech his Lordship to give Order for Redress of such Contempt
-      of God’s service. And that he had for that end treated with some
-      Justices of Peace of that County, who shewed themselves to have
-      very good Zeal, but alledged Want of Commission; which they humbly
-      referred to his honourable Wisdom.” (Maitland, vol. i. p. 267.)</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <p>After Religion, Charity. The bequests to religious purposes had become
-    fewer and of smaller importance during the fifteenth century: they
-    were almost discontinued in the reign of Henry VII.; they ceased under
-    Henry VIII. and his son; and they hardly revived during the reign
-    of Mary. There can be no surer indication of the change of thought.
-    Under Elizabeth we have not only a complete change of thought but the
-    commencement of a new era in Charity. We now enter upon the period of
-    Endowed Charities. Not that they were before unknown, but that they
-    were grafted upon and formed part of Religious Endowments, as St.
-    Anthony’s School, which belonged to the Religious House of that name,
-    and Whittington’s Bedesmen, who formed part of Whittington’s College.
-    The Religious element now disappears except for the erection of a
-    chapel for the Bedesmen. The list of Charitable Endowments founded in
-    this century is large and very laudable. They<span class="pagenum" id="Page_75">75</span> consist of colleges,
-    schools, and almshouses, not in London only, but by London citizens for
-    their native places, for Oxford, and for Cambridge.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="i_075"><img src="images/i_075.jpg" width="421" height="629" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">SIR PHILIP SIDNEY AND HIS BROTHER LORD LISLE<br />
-      From the picture in the possession of Lord De L’Isle and Dudley, Penshurst Place, Kent.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>Of London as a City of Soldiers we hear much less under Elizabeth,
-    despite the contingent sent to fight the Spanish invader, than under
-    any king. London no longer sallies forth ten thousand strong for this
-    claimant or that. She finds, however, the money for ships, and on
-    occasion she raises and equips for foreign service, 400 men, 600 men,
-    1000 men, at the order of the Queen.</p>
-
-  <p>The first appearance of Londoners under arms was a mere parade, to
-    which the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_76">76</span> City sent 1400 men. They were equipped by the twelve
-    principal Companies, who also supplied officers from their own body.
-    In 1562 the Queen asked the City for a force of 600 men. These were
-    raised. Next year she applied again for 1000 men for the holding of
-    Havre; only 400, however, were wanted. These sailed for Havre, but the
-    garrison being attacked by the plague there was no fighting, and the
-    town surrendered.</p>
-
-  <p>In 1572 the Queen in a letter to the Mayor commanded him to raise a
-    large body of men, young and strong, for instruction in the Military
-    Arts. Accordingly the Companies chose young men to the number of 3000;
-    armed them; placed officers of experience over them, and instructed
-    them. This appears to have been the beginning of the London Trained
-    Bands. In May of the same year they were reviewed by the Queen. In
-    1574 the City was called upon to furnish 400 soldiers for the Queen’s
-    service.</p>
-
-  <p>In 1578 the City was ordered to provide 2000 arquebusiers. Scarcely
-    had the order been received when there came another for 2000 men to be
-    raised and kept in readiness.</p>
-
-  <p>On the 8th March 1587, the Queen sent a letter, followed by one from
-    the Privy Council, to the same effect, informing the Mayor that certain
-    intelligence had been received of warlike preparations being made in
-    foreign parts, and calling upon the City to provide a force of 10,000
-    men fully armed and equipped, of whom 6000 were to be enrolled under
-    Captains and Ensigns and to be trained at times convenient.</p>
-
-  <p>The men were raised in the following numbers from each ward:—</p>
-
-  <table summary="Men raised per ward">
-    <tbody>
-      <tr>
-        <td>Farringdon Ward Within</td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>807</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td>Bassishaw</td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>177</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td>Bread Street</td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>386</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td>Dowgate</td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>384</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td>Lime Street</td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>99</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td>Farringdon Without</td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>1264</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td>Aldgate Ward</td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>347</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td>Billingsgate</td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>365</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td>Aldersgate</td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>232</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td>Cornhill</td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>191</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td>Cheap</td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>358</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td>Cordwainer</td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>301</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td>Langbourne</td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>349</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td>Coleman Street Ward</td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>229</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td>Broad Street</td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>373</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td>Bridge Ward Within</td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>383</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td>Castle Baynard</td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>551</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td>Queenhithe</td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>404</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td>Tower Street</td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>444</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td>Walbrook</td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>290</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td>Vintry</td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>364</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td>Portsoken</td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>243</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td>Candlewick</td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>215</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td>Cripplegate</td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>925</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td>Bishopsgate</td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>326</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td>&nbsp;</td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>———</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td>Total</td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>10,007</div></td>
-      </tr>
-    </tbody>
-  </table>
-
-  <p>We may apply this total in order to make a guess at the population
-    of London in 1587. Thus supposing <i>x</i> to be the percentage of the
-    population taken from each ward to fill the ranks, since the population
-    of each ward = the number taken, multiplied by 100, and divided by <i>x</i>,</p>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_77">77</span></p>
-
-  <p>Therefore the whole population of the City</p>
-
-  <div class="ml8">
-  = whole number taken, multiplied by 100, and divided by <i>x</i><br />
-  = 1,000,700 ÷ <i>x</i>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>If 10 per cent of the population were taken we should have a total of
-    100,070 or roughly 100,000.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter w600">
-    <a id="i_076"><img src="images/i_076.jpg" width="600" height="370" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="attribr"><i>W. A. Mansell &amp; Co.</i></div>
-  </div>
-  <div class="center caption">THE SPANISH ARMADA (THE FIRST ENGAGEMENT)<br />
-    From Pine’s engravings of the House of Lords tapestry hangings.</div>
-
-  <p>The City also supplied a fleet of sixteen ships, the largest in the
-    river, fully found, with four light pinnaces, and paid the men during
-    their services. It was with these ships that Drake ran into Cadiz and
-    Lisbon, destroyed a great quantity of shipping, and threw into the sea
-    the military materials that had been accumulated there.</p>
-
-  <p>The Earl of Leicester, who was in command at Tilbury, received 1000 of
-    the London force only, and that on condition that they brought their
-    own provisions.</p>
-
-  <p>The London men wore a uniform of white with white caps, and the City
-    arms in scarlet on back and front. Some carried arquebuses; some were
-    halberdiers; some were pikemen. They marched in companies according to
-    their arms. Their officers rode beside the men dressed in black velvet.
-    They were preceded by billmen, corresponding to the modern pioneers; by
-    a company of whifflers, i.e. trumpeters; and in the midst marched six
-    Ensigns in white satin faced with black sarsenet, and rich scarves. The
-    dress of officers and men was just as useless and unfit for continued
-    work as could well be devised. It is melancholy to find that the Earl
-    of Leicester, who was in command at Tilbury, held a very poor opinion
-    of the London contingent. “I see,” he writes to Walsingham, “that their
-    service will be little, except they have their own captains, and having
-    them I look for none at all by them when we shall meet the enemy.”
-    Most fortunately there was no enemy to meet, and the heroism of the
-    Londoners remains unchallenged. The Captain of the London Trained Bands
-    was Martin Bond, citizen, whose tomb remains at St. Helen’s Church.</p>
-
-  <p>When the danger was over, the Aldermen looked to it that the price of
-    provisions should not be raised when the sick and wounded were brought
-    home. But it was some time before the welcome news was received of the
-    final dispersion of the invading fleet. The first public notification
-    was made in a sermon preached at Paul’s Cross by the Dean of St.
-    Paul’s, in the presence of the Mayor and Aldermen and the Livery
-    Companies in their best gowns.</p>
-
-  <p>On the 18th November the Queen rode into the City in state and attended
-    a Thanksgiving Service.</p>
-
-  <p>Sharpe calls attention to the fact that two at least of the great naval
-    commanders were well-known in the City:—</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“Both Frobisher and Hawkins owned property in the City, and in all
-      probability resided there, like their fellow-seaman and explorer,
-      Sir Humphrey Gilbert, who was living in Red Cross Street, in the
-      parish of St. Giles, Cripplegate, in 1583, the year that he met
-      his death at sea. The same parish claims<span class="pagenum" id="Page_78">78</span> Frobisher, whose remains
-      (excepting his entrails, which were interred at Plymouth, where
-      he died) lie buried in St. Giles’s Church, and to whom a mural
-      monument was erected by the Vestry in 1888, just three centuries
-      after the defeat of the Armada, to which he had contributed so
-      much. If Hawkins himself did not reside in the City, his widow had
-      a mansion house in Mincing Lane. He, too, had probably lived there;
-      for although he died and was buried at sea, a monument was erected
-      to his memory and to that of Katherine, his first wife, in the
-      church of St. Dunstan-in-the-East. There is one other—a citizen of
-      London and son of an alderman—whose name has been handed down as
-      having taken an active part in the defence of the kingdom at this
-      time, not at sea, but on land. A monument in the recently restored
-      church of St. Helen, Bishopsgate, tells us that Martin Bond, son of
-      Alderman William Bond, ‘was captaine in ye yeare 1588 at ye campe
-      at Tilbury, and after remained chief captaine of ye trained bands
-      of this Citty until his death.’ The monument represents him as
-      sitting in a tent guarded by two sentinels, with a page holding a
-      horse.” (Sharpe, vol. i. pp. 544–545.)</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <p>In 1591 a further contingent of 400 men was ordered. In 1594 the
-    City was called upon to raise 450 men. In 1596 a message came to the
-    Mayor and Aldermen from the Queen. They were listening to a sermon
-    at Paul’s Cross. The letter commanded them to raise a thousand men
-    immediately. They rose and left the sermon, and instantly set to work.
-    Before eight of the clock they had raised their men. But the order
-    was countermanded, and the men were disbanded. On Easter Day in the
-    morning another message came to the same effect, and then—it is a
-    curious story—the Mayor and Aldermen went round to the churches in
-    the respective wards. Remember that on such a day every man in the
-    City would be in church. The Mayor shut the doors, picked his men,
-    and before noon had raised his thousand men. This order also was
-    countermanded, and the men returned home. A strange interruption of an
-    Easter morning’s service!</p>
-
-  <p>In the same year the Queen asked for more men. Then the City Common
-    Council expostulated. On the sea service alone, they pointed out, the
-    City had spent 10,000 marks within the last few years. In 1597 they
-    raised first 500 men, then 300 more, and sent the Queen £60,000 on
-    mortgage. In 1598, on a new alarm of another Spanish invasion, the City
-    found sixteen ships and a force of 6000 men.</p>
-
-  <p>It will thus be seen that during this reign the City furnished over
-    6000 fully equipped soldiers for active service; that it raised at
-    an hour’s notice, on two separate occasions, 1000 men ready for
-    immediate service; that it raised a force of Trained Bands 3000
-    strong; that on occasion it could increase this number to 10,000;
-    that it could fit out for sea a fleet of twenty or thirty ships.
-    I do not think that the expenditure of the City on these military
-    services has ever been published, but it must have been very great.
-    A corresponding expenditure at the present time would be enormous;
-    it would be expressed in many millions. This simple fact both proves
-    and illustrates the tried loyalty of the City. The time, however, had
-    gone by when the Londoners could, and did, send out an army capable
-    of deposing one king and setting up another. That power and that
-    spirit died with the accession of the Tudors. In the beginning of
-    Elizabeth’s reign the citizens even prayed to be excused the practice
-    of arms even as a volunteer force, seeing that “the most parte of
-    those our apprentices and handy craftesmen who continually are kept at
-    work; who also, if they should have that libertie to be trayned and
-    drawn from their workes in these matters, wolde thereby fall into such
-    idleness and insolency that many would never be reduced agayne into any
-    good order or service.”</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_79">79</span>
-    <a id="i_079"><img src="images/i_079.jpg" width="427" height="700" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption"><i>A</i> View <i>of the</i> House <i>of</i> Peers, Queen Elizabeth <i>on
-      the Throne, the</i> Commons <i>attending</i>.<br />
-      <i>Taken from a Painted Print in the Cottonian Library.</i><br />
-      <i>The Knights of Shires &amp; Burgesses (as they call them) which constitute
-      y<sup>e</sup> lower house of Parliament presenting their Speaker.</i></div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_80">80</span>We have seen repeated proofs that the City was never friendly towards
-    foreigners. At this time there were many causes beside the old trade
-    jealousy why the people should view strangers with an unfriendly eye.
-    During the last reign the City swarmed with Spaniards; from the very
-    first day of this long reign until the very last, Spain never ceased
-    plotting, conspiring, and carrying on war with the Queen and the new
-    Religion. In the foreign merchants’ houses the conspirators found a
-    refuge. There were, again, thousands of immigrants from Flanders or
-    Spain, flying from religious persecution; and though many of the people
-    settled down to steady industry, there were many who were by no means
-    the virtuous, law-abiding persons, such as the present age would expect
-    of Huguenots.</p>
-
-  <p>From time to time, partly in order to allay the jealousy and terror
-    of the people, partly for the sake of getting at the facts, there was
-    a numbering of the strangers. Thus, in 1567, such a numbering showed
-    45 Scots; 428 French; 45 Spaniards and Portuguese; 140 Italians;
-    2030 Dutch; 44 Burgundians; two Danes; and one Liégeois: in all 2735
-    persons. In 1580 another census of aliens was taken; wherein it was
-    shown that there were 2302 Dutch; 1838 French; 116 Italians; 1542
-    English born of foreign parents; of other nations not specified
-    447; and of persons not certified 217: in all 6462. In 1593 a third
-    census showed 5259 strangers in London. These figures are not without
-    interest. In the first year we find a large number of Dutch; they are
-    fugitives. In the next we find that the whole number of strangers has
-    more than doubled: there has been a large accession of Huguenots; in
-    the third census the numbers have gone down a little. In our time a
-    great outcry has been raised over the invasion of the Town by 50,000
-    Polish Jews; that means a proportion of one in a hundred. In 1560 there
-    were 6500 for a population of, say, 120,000, which means one in twenty
-    (approximately). Now, one in twenty is a large fraction out of the
-    general population.</p>
-
-  <p>At one time the hatred of the Apprentices grew so irrepressible that a
-    conspiracy like that of Evil May Day was formed among the Apprentices,
-    with the design of murdering all the foreigners. The conspiracy was
-    happily discovered, and the conspirators laid by the heels in Newgate.
-    A Petition to the Queen against the grievous encroachments of aliens
-    will be found in <a href="#APPENDIX_III">Appendix III.</a></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_81">81</span>
-    <a id="i_081"><img src="images/i_081.jpg" width="364" height="454" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">WILLIAM CECIL, FIRST BARON BURGHLEY (1520–1598)<br />
-      From the painting by Marc Gheeraedts (?) in the National Portrait Gallery, London.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>The domestic history of Elizabeth’s reign is crammed full of hangings,
-    burnings, and the executions of traitors, with all the barbarity
-    of that punishment. There are so many, that in order to make this
-    remarkable shedding of blood intelligible, I have compiled a list of
-    the executions mentioned by Holinshed and Stow during one part of her
-    reign. The list will be found in <a href="#APPENDIX_X">Appendix X.</a>, (Executions, 1563–1586).
-    This list, which principally concerns London and is apparently
-    incomplete, even within its narrow limits shows that between the years
-    1563 and 1586, there were in all 64 executions at which 228 persons
-    suffered. Of these, seventy-one were rebels hanged on two occasions;
-    seventeen were executed for murder; three for military offences;
-    twelve for counterfeiting, clipping, or debasing the coinage; two for
-    counterfeiting the Queen’s signature; twenty-nine were pirates; two
-    were executed for witchcraft or conjuring; twelve for robbery; one for
-    adultery; three for heresy, and seventy-six for high treason. Among
-    the traitors were Dr. John Storey; Edmund Campion; William Parry; the
-    Babington conspirators; the Charnock conspirators; and many Roman
-    Catholic priests. There can be no doubt that the priests who came over
-    with secret designs for the conversion of the country constituted a
-    real and ever-present danger; if anything could justify the barbarities
-    committed upon them when they were caught these conspiracies were
-    enough. That the people at large did not condemn these<span class="pagenum" id="Page_82">82</span> barbarities
-    is proved by the fact that there was no feeling of sympathy for the
-    sufferers; that the common opinion was that for treason no punishment
-    could be too severe; and that the country after Elizabeth’s reign
-    was concluded was far more Protestant than at the beginning. The
-    conspiracies and secret goings in and out of Catholic priests came to
-    an end in the reign of James, for the best of all reasons, viz. that
-    there was no one left with whom a priest could conspire or whom he
-    could convert. Two women were burned for poisoning their husbands—a
-    most dreadful offence, and one which called for the direst terrors
-    of the law; one woman was burned for witchcraft; another was only
-    hanged for the same offence—but such differences in sentences are
-    not unknown at the present day. One more point occurs. Were the last
-    dying speeches correctly reported? If so, since they are always so
-    moving, and sometimes so eloquent, why did they elicit no response of
-    sympathy or indignation among the bystanders? When Thomas Appletree
-    was to be hanged for firing a gun accidentally into the Queen’s barge
-    (see <a href="#Page_389">p. 389</a>), the people wept, and the culprit wept, but the justice
-    of the sentence was not questioned. Now in the Marian Persecution the
-    people looked on indignant and sympathetic, being restrained from
-    demonstrations by force and fear. Whether the dying speeches are
-    correctly reported or invented, matters very little. They show one
-    thing, that there was no unmanly terror observed at the last moment:
-    every one, guilty or innocent, mounted the ladder with an intrepid
-    countenance. Death has no terrors either for the arch-conspirator
-    Storey, or for the pirate hanged at Execution Dock.</p>
-
-  <p>The privileges granted to the foreign merchants of the Steelyard and
-    the Hanseatic League were finally withdrawn by Queen Elizabeth.</p>
-
-  <p>This withdrawal had been in preparation for nearly two hundred years.
-    In the time of Henry IV. English merchants began to trade in the
-    Baltic and with Norway and other parts. This aroused the jealousy
-    of the Hanseatic League, which seized upon several of the English
-    ships. Complaints were laid before the King, who withdrew such of
-    the privileges enjoyed by the League as interfered with the carrying
-    on of trade by his own merchants. He also granted a charter to the
-    merchants trading to the Eastlands. This charter was renewed and
-    enlarged by Edward IV. In the first and second of Philip and Mary a
-    charter was granted to the Russia Company—we have seen how the first
-    Russian Ambassador came to England in the reign of Mary. This Company
-    obtained a confirmation of their charter under Queen Elizabeth. Now,
-    although our people enjoyed many more privileges than of old, yet the
-    Hanseatic League still had the advantage over them by means of their
-    well-regulated Societies and their privileges, insomuch that when the
-    Queen wanted hemp, pitch, tar, powder, and other munitions of war, she
-    had to buy them of the foreign merchants at their own price. The Queen,
-    therefore, began to encourage her own people to become merchants: she
-    assisted them to form<span class="pagenum" id="Page_83">83</span> companies; she gave them Charters; she withdrew
-    all the privileges from the Hansa. Not the least of the debt which
-    England owes to this great Queen is her wisdom in the encouragement of
-    foreign trade.</p>
-
-  <p>The strange and foolish rising of the Earl of Essex belongs to national
-    history. It was, however, met and repressed in the first outbreak by
-    the City. Not one person offered to join the Earl; he was proclaimed
-    traitor in Cheapside; the Bishop of London raised, in all haste, the
-    force which stopped him on Ludgate Hill.</p>
-
-  <p>Towards the end of Queen Elizabeth’s reign there were great complaints
-    of hawkers and pedlars—in fact we begin to hear of the London Cries.
-    These street cries did great harm to London tradesmen. We have seen
-    that there were no shops at all originally, except in the appointed
-    markets; these hawkers, with their itinerant barrows and baskets,
-    brought the market into every part of London. Steps were taken to
-    prevent this nuisance; but they were unavailing.</p>
-
-  <p>In 1580 the Queen issued a Proclamation against the building of new
-    houses and the further increase of London:—</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“To the preservation of her People in Health, which may seem
-      impossible to continue, though presently, by God’s Goodness, the
-      same is perceived to be in better Estate universally than hath
-      beene in Man’s Memorie; yet where there are such great Multitudes
-      of People brought to inhabite in small Roomes, whereof a great Part
-      are seene very poore, yea, such as must live of begging, or by
-      worse Means, and they heaped up together, and in a sort smothered
-      with many families of Children and Servants in one House or small
-      Tenement; it must needes followe, if any Plague or popular Sicknes
-      should, by God’s Permission, enter amongst those Multitudes, that
-      the same would not only spread itself and invade the whole Citie
-      and Confines, but that a great Mortalitie would ensue the same,
-      where her Majesties personal Presence is many times required.</p>
-
-    <p>For Remedie whereof, as Time may now serve, until by some further
-      good Order be had in Parliament or otherwise, the same may be
-      remedied; her Majestie, by good and deliberate advice of her
-      Counsell, and being also thereto moved by the considerate opinions
-      of the Lord-Mayor, Aldermen, and other the grave wise men in and
-      about the Citie, doth charge and straightly command all manner of
-      Persons, of what Qualitie soever they be, to desist and forbeare
-      from any new Buildings of any House or Tenement within three miles
-      from any of the Gates of the sayde Citie of <i>London</i>, to serve
-      for Habitation or Lodging for any Person, where no former House
-      hath bene knowen to have bene in the Memorie of such as are now
-      living; and also to forbeare from letting or setting, or suffering
-      any more Families than one onely to be placed, or to inhabite from
-      henceforth in any one House that heretofore hath bene inhabited.”</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <p>On the 6th of December 1586, a very solemn and tragic ceremony was
-    performed, first in Cheapside; then in Leadenhall; then at the end of
-    London Bridge, and lastly at the south end of Chancery Lane; where
-    the Mayor with the Aldermen, and attended by many of the Nobility and
-    eighty of the principal citizens in chains of gold, proclaimed the
-    sentence of death passed upon the unfortunate Mary Queen of Scots.</p>
-
-  <p>The importance of the act; the publicity given to it; the formalities
-    attending the Proclamation,—show the desire of the Queen and her
-    Council that the people<span class="pagenum" id="Page_84">84</span> should understand the dreadful necessity of
-    removing this cause of endless intrigue and conspiracy.</p>
-
-  <p>One more trade regulation closes the history of London in the reign
-    of Elizabeth. A practice had grown up among hucksters and others of
-    setting up stalls in the streets in front of the shops, in consequence
-    of which the trade of the shopkeepers was greatly injured, insomuch
-    that many of them were obliged to employ these very people to sell
-    their wares for them. It was therefore ordered that no one should
-    erect any stall, or stand, before any house under a penalty of twenty
-    shillings.</p>
-
-  <p>One of the last things done in the name of the Queen was the offer to
-    all Debtors in prison of freedom if they would volunteer to serve on
-    board the fleet newly raised for the suppression of Spanish pirates.</p>
-
-  <p>On the death of the Queen, the City, which was always most truly loyal
-    and faithful to her, put up in most churches a tablet or a statue to
-    her memory.</p>
-
-  <p>This brief and bald account of the relations between the Crown and the
-    City is not proffered as a history of London during the Tudor period.
-    This history will, it is hoped, be found in the following pages. I
-    have only hinted at the creation of the Trading Companies and the
-    connection of the great Sea Captains with London. The Poor Law of 1572;
-    the granting of monopolies; the wonderful outburst of Literature;
-    the troubles caused by the substitution of pasture for agriculture;
-    the growth of Puritanism and the beginnings of the High Church,—all
-    these things belong to the history of London. The diplomacy; the Court
-    intrigues; the rise and fall of Ministers; the anxieties concerning the
-    Succession,—these things do not belong to the history of London.</p>
-
-  <hr class="page" />
-  <div class="chapter" id="CHAPTER_6a">
-    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_85">85</span>
-    <h3>
-      <span class="gespertt1">CHAPTER VI</span><br />
-      <span class="subhead">THE QUEEN IN SPLENDOUR</span>
-    </h3>
-  </div>
-
-  <p class="noindent"><span class="smcap">The</span> Court of Queen Elizabeth was almost as itinerant as that of Henry
-    the Second. The Queen understood thoroughly that for a sovereign to be
-    at once loyally served and wholesomely feared it is not enough to sit
-    still in one place. She must be seen by her people: they must realise
-    by ocular demonstration how great is her power and authority; they must
-    learn it by the sight of her person glittering with jewels and all
-    glorious with silk and velvet; by the splendour of her train; by the
-    noble lords who attend her; by the magnificence of the entertainment
-    she receives. Nearly every year of her long reign was marked by one or
-    more Progresses; some of her nobles she visited more than once: she was
-    the guest of Cecil at Theobalds on twelve different occasions, each
-    visit costing the host two or three thousand pounds; three times she
-    visited Leicester at Kenilworth. These Progresses, though they belong
-    not to the history of London, must be borne in mind in thinking of this
-    long and glorious reign.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="i_085"><img src="images/i_085.jpg" width="600" height="258" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">HAMPTON COURT<br />
-      From a print in the British Museum.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_86">86</span></p>
-
-  <p>When Elizabeth was not travelling she resided at Whitehall, at St.
-    James’s, at Greenwich, at Hampton Court, Windsor, Richmond, Nonsuch,
-    Chelsea, Hunsdon. In moving from one palace to another a huge quantity
-    of plate and furniture had to be carried about. And during the change
-    of residence the City bells were set ringing. If the Queen went by
-    river, or from Westminster to Greenwich, she was attended by the barges
-    of the Mayor and the Companies, all newly painted and beautified: they
-    had artillery on board, and there was a great shooting of guns; also
-    there was “great and pleasant melodie of instruments which plaed in
-    most sweet and heavenly manner.”</p>
-
-  <p>On the day before her coronation the Queen received the Pageant devised
-    in her honour by the City of London.</p>
-
-  <p>A full account of this Pageant is preserved in a tract first printed
-    in 1604, and reproduced in Nichols’s <i>Progresses of Queen Elisabeth</i>.
-    It is too long to quote in full. The following, therefore, is greatly
-    abridged from the original:—</p>
-
-  <p>“Entryng the Citie was of the People received marveylous entirely, as
-    appeared by the assemblie, prayers, wishes, welcomminges, cryes, tender
-    woordes, and all other signs, which argue a wonderfull earnest love
-    of most obedient subjectes towarde theyr soveraigne. And on thother
-    side, her Grace, by holding up her hand and merie countenance to such
-    as stode farre of, and most tender and gentle language to those that
-    stode nigh to her Grace, did declare herselfe no leswe thankefully to
-    receive her Peoples good wyll than they lovingly offered it unto her.
-    To all that wyshed her Grace well, she gave heartie thankes, and to
-    such as bade God save her Grace, she sayde agayne God save them all,
-    and thanked them with all her heart: so that on eyther syde there
-    was nothing but gladnes, nothing but prayer, nothing but comfort.
-    The Quenes Majestie rejoysed marveilously to see that so exceadingly
-    shewed towarde her Grace, which all good Princes have ever desyred. I
-    meane so earnest love of subjectes, so evidently declared even to her
-    Grace’s owne person, being carried in the middest of them.”... “Thus
-    therefore the Quenes Majestie passed from the Towre till she came to
-    Fanchurche, the people on eche side joyously beholdyng the viewe of so
-    gracious a Ladye theyr Quene, and her Grace no lesse gladly notyng and
-    observing the same. Nere unto Fanchurch was erected a scaffolde richely
-    furnished, whereon stode a noyes of instrumentes and a chylde in costly
-    apparell, which was appoynted to welcome the Quenes Majestie in the
-    hole Cities behalfe. Against which place when her Grace came, of her
-    owne wyll she commaunded the chariot to be stayde, and that the noyes
-    might be appeased tyll the chylde had uttered his welcome oration,
-    which he spake in English meter as here followeth:—</p>
-
-  <div class="center-container">
-    <div class="poem">
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i0">‘O pereles Soveraygne Quene, behold what this thy Town</div>
-        <div class="i1">Hath thee presented with at thy fyrst entraunce here:</div>
-        <div class="i1">Behold with how riche hope she ledeth thee to thy Crown,</div>
-        <div class="i1">Beholde with what two gyftes she comforteth thy chere.</div><span class="pagenum" id="Page_87">87</span>
-      </div>
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i1">The first is blessing tonges which many a welcome say,</div>
-        <div class="i1">Which pray thou mayst do wel, which praise thee to the sky,</div>
-        <div class="i1">Which wish to thee long lyfe, which blesse this happy day</div>
-        <div class="i1">Which to thy kingdomes heapes, all that in tonges can lye.</div>
-      </div>
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i1">The second is true hertes which love thee from their roote,</div>
-        <div class="i1">Whose sute is tryumphe now, and ruleth all the game.</div>
-        <div class="i1">Which faithfulness have wone, and all untruthe driven out,</div>
-        <div class="i1">Which skip for joy when as they heare thy happy name.</div>
-      </div>
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i1">Welcome therefore, O Quene, as much as herte can thinke;</div>
-        <div class="i1">Welcome agayn, O Quene, as much as tong can tell;</div>
-        <div class="i1">Welcome to joyous tonges, and hartes that will not shrink.</div>
-        <div class="i1">God thee preserve we praye and wishe thee ever well.’</div>
-      </div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p class="noindent">At which wordes of the last line the hole People gave a great shout,
-    wishing with one assent, as the chylde had said. And the Quenes
-    Majestie thanked most heartely both the Citie for this her gentle
-    receiving at the first, and also the People for confirming the same.”</p>
-
-  <p>In Gracious (Gracechurch Street) was erected a “gorgeous and sumptuous
-    Arke”:—</p>
-
-  <p>“A stage was made whiche extended from th’one syde of the streate to
-    th’other, richely vawted with battlementes conteining three portes,
-    and over the middlemost was avaunced three severall stages in degrees.
-    Upon the lowest stage was made one seate Royall, wherein were placed
-    two personages representyng Kyng Henrie the Seventh, and Elyzabeth
-    his wyfe, doughter of Kyng Edward the Fourth, eyther of these two
-    Princes sitting under one cloth of estate in their seates, no otherwyse
-    divided, but that th’one of them, whiche was King Henrie the Seventh,
-    proceeding out of the House of Lancastre, was enclosed in a Redde Rose,
-    and th’other, which was Quene Elizabeth, being heire to the House of
-    Yorke, enclosed with a Whyte Rose, eche of them Royally crowned, and
-    decently apparailled as apperteinted to Princes, with Sceptours in
-    their hands, and one vawt surmounting their heades, wherein aptly were
-    placed two tables, eche conteining the title of those two Princes. And
-    these personages were so set, that the one of them joined handes with
-    th’other, with the ring of matrimonie perceived on the finger. Out of
-    the which two Roses sprang two branches gathered into one, which were
-    directed upward to the second stage or degree, wherein was placed one,
-    representing the valiant and noble Prynce, King Henry the Eight, which
-    sprong out of the former stock, crowned with a Crown Imperial, and by
-    him sate one representing the right worthy Ladie Quene Ann, wife to the
-    said King Henry the Eight, and Mother to our most soveraign Ladie Quene
-    Elizabeth that now is, both apparelled with Sceptours and Diademes, and
-    other furniture due to the state of a King and Queene, and two tables
-    surmounting their heades, wherein were written their names and titles.
-    From their seate also proceaded upwardes one braunche directed to the
-    thirde and uppermost stage or degree, wherein lykewyse was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_88">88</span> planted
-    a seate Royall, in the whiche was sette one representyng the Queenes
-    most excellent Majestie Elizabeth nowe our moste dradde Soveraigne
-    Ladie, crowned and apparalled as th’other Prynces were. Out of the
-    forepart of this Pageaunt was made a standyng for a chylde, whiche at
-    the Quenes Majesties comeing declared unto her the hole meaning of the
-    said Pageaunt. The two sides of the same were filled with loud noyses
-    of musicke. And all emptie places thereof were furnished with sentences
-    concerning unitie. And the hole Pageant garnished with Redde Roses and
-    White, and in the forefront of the same Pageant in a faire Wreathe,
-    was written the name and title of the same, which was, ‘The uniting
-    of the two Howses of Lancastre and Yorke.’ Thys Pageant was grounded
-    upon the Quenes Majesties name. For like as the long warre between the
-    two Houses of Yorke and Lancastre then ended, when Elizabeth doughter
-    to Edward the Fourth matched in marriage with Henry the Seventhe,
-    heyre to the Howse of Lancastre: so since that the Quenes Majesties
-    name was Elizabeth, and forsomuch as she is the onelye heire of Henrye
-    the Eighth, which came of bowthe the howses, as the knitting up of
-    concorde, it was devised, that like as Elizabeth was the first occasion
-    of concorde, so she, another Elizabeth, myght maintaine the same among
-    her subjectes, so that unitie was the ende whereat the whole devise
-    shotte as the Ouenes Majesties name moved the first grounde.</p>
-
-  <p>The childe appoynted in the standing above named to open the meaning of
-    the said Pageant, spake these wordes unto her Grace:—</p>
-
-  <div class="center-container">
-    <div class="poem">
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i0">‘The two Princes that sit under one cloth of state,</div>
-        <div class="i2">The Man in the Redde Rose, the Whoman in the White,</div>
-        <div class="i0">Henry the VII. and Quene Elizabeth his Mate,</div>
-        <div class="i2">By ring of marriage as Man and Wife unite.</div>
-      </div>
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i0">Both heires to both their bloodes, to Lancastre the Kyng,</div>
-        <div class="i2">The Queene to Yorke, in one the two Howses did knit:</div>
-        <div class="i0">Of whom as heire to both, Henry the Eighth did spring,</div>
-        <div class="i2">In whose seat, his true heire, thou, Quene Elizabeth doth sit.</div>
-      </div>
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i0">Therefore as civill warre, and fuede of blood did cease</div>
-        <div class="i2">When these two Houses were united into one,</div>
-        <div class="i0">So now that jarrs shall stint, and quietnes encrease,</div>
-        <div class="i2">We trust, O noble Quene, thou wilt be cause alone.’</div>
-      </div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p class="noindent">The which also were written in Latin verse, and both drawn in two
-    tables upon the forefront of the saide Pageant.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_89">89</span>
-    <a id="i_089"><img src="images/i_089.jpg" width="462" height="469" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">NONSUCH HOUSE<br />
-      From an old print.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>These verses and other pretie sentences were drawen in voide places
-    of thys Pageant, all tending to one ende, that quietness might be
-    mainteyned, and all dissention displaced, and that by the Quenes
-    Majestie, heire to agrement and agreing in name with her, which tofore
-    had joyned those Houses, which had been th’occasion of much debate and
-    civill warre within thys Realme, as may appeare to such as will searche
-    Cronicles, but be not to be touched in thys treatise, openly declaring
-    her Graces passage through the Citie, and what provisyon the Citie
-    made therfore. And ere the Quenes Majestie came wythin hearing of
-    thys Pageaunt, she sent certaine, as also at all other Pageauntes, to
-    require the People to be silent. For her Majestie was disposed to heare
-    all that shoulde be sayde unto her. When the Quenes Majestie had hearde
-    the chylde’s oration, and understoode the meanyng of the Pageant at
-    large, she marched forward toward Cornehill, alway received with lyke
-    rejoysing of the People: and there, as her Grace passed by the Conduit,
-    which was curiously trimmed agaynst that tyme with riche banners
-    adourned, and a noyse of loude instrumentes upon the top thereof, she
-    espyed the seconde Pageant: and because she feared for the People’s
-    noyse that she shoulde not heare the child which dyd expound the same,
-    she enquired what that Pageant was ere that she came to it: and there
-    understoode that there was a chylde representing her Majesties person,
-    placed in a seate of Government, supported by certayn vertues, which
-    suppressed their contrarie vyces under their feete, and so forthe.”...
-    “Against Soper Lane ende was extended from th’one side of the streate
-    to th’other a Pageant, which had three gates, all open. Over the
-    middlemost whereof wer erected three severall stages, whereon sate
-    eight children, as hereafter followeth: On the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_90">90</span> uppermost one childe,
-    on the middle three, on the lowest foure, eche having the proper name
-    of the blessing that they did represent written in a table, and placed
-    above their heades. In the forefront of this Pageant, before the
-    children which did represent the blessings, was a convenient standing,
-    cast out for a chylde to stand, which did expownd the sayd Pageant
-    unto the Quenes Majestie as was done in th’other tofore. Everie of
-    these children wer appointed and apparelled according unto the blessing
-    which he did represent. And on the forepart of the sayde Pageant was
-    written, in fayre letters, the name of the said Pageant, in this maner
-    following:—</p>
-
-  <div class="center small">
-        ‘The eight Beatitudes expressed in the V chapter of the Gospel of St. Matthew<br />
-        applyed to our Soveraigne Lady Quene Elizabeth.’
-  </div>
-
-  <p class="noindent">Over the two syde portes was placed a noyse of instrumentes. And
-    all voyde places in the Pageant were furnished with prety sayinges,
-    commending and touching the meaning of the said Pageant, which was
-    the promises and blessinges of Almightie God to his People.”... “At
-    the Standard in Cheape, which was dressed fayre agaynste the tyme,
-    was placed a noyse of trumpettes, with banners and other furniture.
-    The Crosse lykewyse was also made fayre and well trimmed. And neare
-    unto the same, uppon the porche of Saint Peter’s church dore, stode
-    the waites of the Citie, which did geve a pleasant noyse with their
-    instrumentes as the Quenes Majestie did passe by, whiche on every saide
-    cast her countenance and wished well to all her most loving people.
-    Sone after that her Grace passed the Crosse, she had espyed the Pageant
-    erected at the Little Conduit in Cheape, and incontinent required to
-    know what it might signifye. And it was tolde her Grace, that there was
-    placed Tyme. ‘Tyme?’ quoth she, ‘and Tyme hath brought me hether.’ And
-    so forth the hole matter was opened to her Grace: as hereafter shalbe
-    declared in the description of the Pageant. But in the opening when her
-    Grace understode that the Byble in Englyse shoulde be delivered unto
-    her by Trueth which was therin represented by a chylde: she thanked the
-    Citie for that gyft, and sayde that she would oftentymes reade over
-    that booke, commaunding Sir John Parrat, one of the Knightes which
-    helde up her canapy, to goe before, and to receive the booke. But
-    learning that it shoulde be delivered unto her Grace downe by a silken
-    lace, she caused him to staye, and so passed forward till she came
-    agaynste the Aldermen in the hyghe ende of Cheape tofore the Little
-    Conduite, where the companies of the Citie ended, whiche beganne at
-    Fanchurche and stoode along the streates, one by another enclosed with
-    rayles, hanged with clothes, and themselves well apparelled with many
-    riche furres, and their livery whodes uppon their shoulders, in comely
-    and semely maner, having before them sondry persones well apparelled
-    in silkes and chaines of golde, as wyflers and garders of the sayd
-    companies, beside a number of riche<span class="pagenum" id="Page_91">91</span> hangings, as well of tapistrie,
-    arras, clothes of golde, silver, velvet, damaske, sattin, and other
-    silkes, plentifullye hanged all the way as the Quenes Highnes passed
-    from the Towre through the Citie. Out at the windowes and penthouses
-    of every house did hang a number of ryche and costlye banners and
-    streamers, tyll her Grace came to the upper ende of Cheape. And there,
-    by appoyntment, the Right Worshipfull Maister Ranulph Cholmeley,
-    Recorder of the Citie, presented to the Quenes Majestie a purse of
-    crimeson sattin richely wrought with gold, wherin the Citie gave unto
-    the Quenes Majestie a thousand markes in gold, as maister Recorder did
-    declare brieflie unto the Quenes Majestie: whose woordes tended to this
-    ende, that the Lorde Maior, his brethren, and Comminaltie of the Citie,
-    to declare their gladnes and good wille towardes the Quenes Majestie
-    dyd present her Grace with that golde, desyering her Grace to continue
-    theyr good and gracious Queen, and not to esteeme the value of the
-    gift, but the mynd of the gevers. The Quenes Majestie, with both her
-    handes, tooke the purse, and answered to hym againe mervelous pithilie:
-    and so pithilie, that the standers by, as they embraced entirely her
-    gracious answer, so they mervailed at the cowching thereof: which was
-    in wordes truely reported these: ‘I thanke my Lorde Maior, his Brethren
-    and you all. And wheras your request is that I shoulde continue your
-    good Ladie and Quene, be ye ensured, that I will be as good unto you
-    as ever Quene was to her People. No wille in me can lacke, neither doe
-    I trust shall ther lacke any power. And perswade your selves, that
-    for the safetie and quietnes of you all I will not spare, if need be,
-    to spend my blood. God thanke you all.’ Which answere of so noble an
-    hearted Pryncesse, if it moved a mervaylous showte and rejoysing, it
-    is nothyng to be mervayled at, since both the heartines thereof was
-    so wonderfull and the woordes so joyntly knytte. When her Grace hadde
-    thus answered the Recorder, she marched toward the Little Conduit,
-    where was erected a Pageant with square proporcion standynge directly
-    before the same Conduite, with battlementes accordyngelye. And in the
-    same Pageant was advaunced two hylles or mountaynes of convenient
-    heyghte. The one of them beyng on the North syde of the same Pageaunt,
-    was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_92">92</span> made cragged, barreyn, and stonye: in the whiche was erected
-    one tree, artificiallye made, all withered and deade, with braunches
-    accordinglye. And under the same tree, at the foote thereof, sate one
-    in homely and rude apparell, crokedlye, and in mourning maner, havynge
-    over hys headde, in a table, written in Laten and Englyshe, hys name,
-    whiche was, ‘Ruinosa Respublica,’ ‘A Decayed Commonweale.’ And upon the
-    same withered tree were fixed certayne tables, wherein were written
-    proper sentences, expressing the causes of the decaye of a Commonweale.
-    The other hylle, on the South syde, was made fayre, fresh grene, and
-    beawtifull, the grounde thereof full of flowers and beawtie: and on the
-    same was erected also one tree very fresh and fayre, under the whiche
-    stoode uprighte one freshe personage, well apparayled and appoynted,
-    whose name also was written bothe in Englyshe and Latin, whiche was,
-    ‘Respublica bene instituta,’ ‘A florishyng Commonweale.’ And uppon the
-    same tree also were fixed certayne tables, conteyning sentences which
-    expressed the causes of a flourishing Commonweale. In the middle,
-    between the sayde hylles, was made artificially one hollow place or
-    cave, with doore and locke enclosed: oute of the whiche, a lyttle
-    before the Quenes Highness commynge thither, issued one personage,
-    whose name was Tyme, apparaylled as an olde man, with a sythe in his
-    hande, havynge wynges artificiallye made, leadinge a personage of
-    lesser stature than himselfe, whiche was fynely and well apparaylled,
-    all cladde in whyte silke, and directlye over her head was set her name
-    and tytle, in Latin and Englyshe, ‘Temporis filia,’ ‘The Daughter of
-    Tyme.’ Which two so appoynted, went forwarde toward the South syde of
-    the Pageant. And on her brest was written her propre name, whiche was
-    ‘Veritas,’ ‘Trueth,’ who helde a booke in her hande, upon the whiche
-    was written, ‘Verbum Veritatis,’ ‘The Woorde of Trueth.’ And out of the
-    South syde of the Pageaunt was cast a standynge for a childe, which
-    shoulde enterprete the same Pageant. Against whom when the Quenes
-    Majestie came, he spake unto her Grace these woordes:—</p>
-
-  <div class="center-container">
-    <div class="poem">
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i0">‘This olde man with the sythe olde Father Tyme they call,</div>
-        <div class="i2">And her his daughter Truth, which holdeth yonder boke:</div>
-        <div class="i0">Whom he out of his rocke hath brought forth to us all,</div>
-        <div class="i2">From hence for many yeres she durst not once out loke.</div>
-      </div>
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i0">The ruthful wight that sitteth ynder the barren tree,</div>
-        <div class="i2">Resembleth to us the fourme when Commonweales decay:</div>
-        <div class="i0">But when they be in state tryumphant, you may see</div>
-        <div class="i2">By him in freshe attyre that sitteth under the baye.</div>
-      </div>
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i0">Now since that Time again his daughter Truth hath brought</div>
-        <div class="i2">We trust, O worthy Quene, thou wilt this Truth embrace:</div>
-        <div class="i0">And since thou understandst the good estate and nought,</div>
-        <div class="i2">We trust wealth thou wilt plant, and barrenness displace.</div>
-      </div>
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i0">But for to heale the sore, and cure that is not seene,</div>
-        <div class="i2">Which thing the boke of Truth doth teache in writing playn,</div>
-        <div class="i0">She doth present to thee the same, O worthy Quene,</div>
-        <div class="i2">For that, that wordes do flye, but wryting doth remayn.’</div>
-      </div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_93">93</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="i_091"><img src="images/i_091.jpg" width="600" height="166" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">COACHES OF QUEEN ELIZABETH<br />
-      From <i>Archæologia</i>.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>When the childe had thus ended his speache, he reached his booke
-    towardes the Quenes Majestie, whiche, a little before, Trueth had let
-    downe unto him from the hill: whiche Sir John Parrat was received,
-    and delivered unto the Quene. But she, as soone as she had receyved
-    the booke, kissed it, and with both her handes helde up the same, and
-    so laid it upon her breast, with great thankes to the Citie thereof.
-    And so went forward towardes Paules Churchyarde.... When she was come
-    over against Paules Scole, a childe appointed by the scolemaster
-    thereof pronounced a certein oration in Latin, and certein verses,
-    which also wer there written.”... “In this maner, the people on either
-    side rejoysing, her Grace went forwarde, towarde the Conduite in
-    Flete-street, where was the fifte and last Pageaunt erected, in forme
-    following: From the Conduite, which was bewtified with painting, unto
-    the North side of the strete, was erected a stage, embattelled with
-    foure towres, and in the same a square platte rising with degrees, and
-    uppon the uppermost degree was placed a chaire, or seate royall, and
-    behynde the same seate, in curious and artificiall maner, was erected
-    a tree of reasonable height, and so farre advaunced above the seate as
-    it did well and semelye shadow the same, without endomaging the syght
-    of any part of the Pageant: and the same tree was bewtified with leaves
-    as greene as arte could devise, being of a convenient greatnes, and
-    conteining therupon the fruite of the date, and on the toppe of the
-    same<span class="pagenum" id="Page_94">94</span> tree, in a table, was set the name thereof, which was ‘A palme
-    tree’: and in the aforesaide seate, or chaire, was placed a semelie
-    and mete personage, richlie apparelled in Parliament robes, with a
-    sceptre in her hand, as a Quene crowned with an open crowne, whose name
-    and title was in a table fixed over her head, in this sort: ‘Debora
-    the judge and restorer of the House of Israel, Judic. iv.’ And the
-    other degrees, on either side, were furnished with vi personages: two
-    representing the Nobilitie, two the Clergie, and two the Comminaltye.
-    And before these personages was written, in a table, ‘Debora with her
-    estates, consulting for the good Government of Israel.’ At the feete of
-    these, and the lowest part of the Pageant, was ordeined a convenient
-    rome for a childe to open the meaning of the Pageant. When the Quenes
-    Majestie drew nere unto this Pageant, and perceived, as in the other,
-    the childe readie to speake, her Grace required silence, and commaunded
-    her chariot to be removed nigher, that she myght plainlie heare the
-    childe speake, whych said as hereafter foloweth:—</p>
-
-  <div class="center-container">
-    <div class="poem">
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i0">‘Jaben of Canaan King had long by force of armes</div>
-        <div class="i0">Opprest the Israleites which for God’s People went:</div>
-        <div class="i0">But God minding at last for to redresse their harmes,</div>
-        <div class="i0">The worthy Deborah as judge among them sent.</div>
-      </div>
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i0">In war she, through God’s aide, did put her foes to fright,</div>
-        <div class="i0">And with the dint of sworde the hande of bondage brast;</div>
-        <div class="i0">In peace she, through God’s aide, did alway mainteine right,</div>
-        <div class="i0">And judges Israell till fourty yeres were past.</div>
-      </div>
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i0">A worthie President, O worthie Queen, thou hast,</div>
-        <div class="i0">A worthie woman judge, a woman sent for staie.</div>
-        <div class="i0">And that the like to us endure alway thou maist,</div>
-        <div class="i0">Thy loving subjectes will with true hearts and tonges prai.’</div>
-      </div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p class="noindent">Which verses were written upon the Pageant: and the same in Latin also.
-    The voide places of the Pageant were filled with pretie sentences
-    concerning the same matter. Thys ground of this last Pageant was,
-    that forsomuch as the next Pageant before had set before her Grace’s
-    eyes the florishing and desolate states of a Commonweale, she might
-    by this be put in remembrance to consult for the worthy Government of
-    her People: considering God oftimes sent women nobly to rule among
-    men: as Debora, whych governed Israell in peas the space of xl years:
-    and that it behoved both men and women so ruling to use advise of good
-    counsell. When the Quenes Majestie had passed this Pageant, she marched
-    toward Templebarre: but at St Dunstones church, where the children of
-    thospitall wer appointed to stand with their governours, her Grace
-    perceiving a childe offred to make an oration unto her, stayed her
-    chariot and did cast up her eyes to heaven, as who should saye: ‘I here
-    see thys mercyfull worke towarde the poore, whom I muste in the middest
-    of my royaltie nedes remembre!’ And so turned her face towarde the
-    childe, which, in Latin, pronounced an oracion. The childe, after he
-    had ended his oracion, kissed the paper wherein the same was written,
-    and <span class="pagenum" id="Page_95">95</span>reached it to the Quenes Majestie, whych received it graciouslye
-    both with woordes and countenance, declaring her gracious mynde
-    towarde theyr reliefe. From thence her Grace came to Temple Barre,
-    which was dressed fynelye with the two ymages of Gotmagot the Albione,
-    and Corineus the Briton, two gyantes bigge in stature, furnished
-    accordingly: which held in their handes, even above the gate, a table,
-    wherin was writen, in Latin verses, the effect of all the Pageantes
-    which the Citie before had erected. Which versis wer also written in
-    Englishe meter, in a lesse table, as hereafter foloweth:—</p>
-
-  <div class="center-container">
-    <div class="poem">
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i0">‘Behold here in one view thou mayst see all that payne,</div>
-        <div class="i0">O Princesse, to this thy people the onely stay:</div>
-        <div class="i0">What echewhere thou hast seen in this wide town again</div>
-        <div class="i0">This one arche whatsoever the rest conteynd doth say.</div>
-      </div>
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i0">The first arche, as true heyre unto thy father dere,</div>
-        <div class="i0">Did set thee in the throne where thy graundfather satte:</div>
-        <div class="i0">The second did confirme thy seate as Princesse here.</div>
-        <div class="i0">Vertues now bearing swaye, and Vyces bet down flatte.</div>
-      </div>
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i0">The third, if that thou wouldst goe on as thou began,</div>
-        <div class="i0">Declared thee to be blessed on every syde;</div>
-        <div class="i0">The fourth did open Trueth and also taught thee whan</div>
-        <div class="i0">The Commonweale stoode well, and when it did thence slide.</div>
-      </div>
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i0">The fifth as Debora, declared thee to be sent,</div>
-        <div class="i0">From Heaven, a long comfort to us thy subjectes all:</div>
-        <div class="i0">Therefore goe on, O Quene, on whom our hope is bent,</div>
-        <div class="i0">And take with thee this wishe of thy town as finall:</div>
-      </div>
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i0">Live long, and as long raygne, adourning thy countrie</div>
-        <div class="i0">With Vertues, and mayntayne thy people’s hope of thee:</div>
-        <div class="i0">For thus, thus Heaven is won: thus must you pearce the sky.</div>
-        <div class="i0">This is by Vertue wrought, all other must nedes dye.’</div>
-      </div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="i_093"><img src="images/i_093.jpg" width="600" height="368" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">ROYAL PROCESSION TO ST. PAUL’S<br />
-      From a picture painted in 1616, in the possession of the Society of
-      Antiquaries. E. Gardner’s Collection.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter w600">
-    <a id="i_094"><img src="images/i_094.jpg" width="600" height="375" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="attribr"><i>W. A. Mansell &amp; Co.</i></div>
-  </div>
-  <div class="center caption">QUEEN ELIZABETH GOING IN PROCESSION FROM SOMERSET HOUSE TO ST. PAUL’S
-    CHURCH, TO RETURN THANKS FOR THE DEFEAT OF THE SPANISH ARMADA, NOVEMBER 24, 1588<br />
-    From an engraving in British Museum.</div>
-
-  <p class="noindent">On the South side was appoynted by the Citie a noyse of singing
-    children: and one childe richely attyred as a poet, which gave the
-    Quenes Majestie her farewell, in the name of the hole Citie, by these
-    wordes:—</p>
-
-  <div class="center-container">
-    <div class="poem">
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i0">‘As at thyne entraunce first, O Prince of high renown,</div>
-        <div class="i0">Thou wast presented with tonges and heartes for thy fayre;</div>
-        <div class="i0">So now, sith thou must nedes depart out of this towne,</div>
-        <div class="i0">This citie sendeth thee firme hope and earnest prayer.</div>
-      </div>
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i0">For all men hope in thee, that all vertues shall reygne,</div>
-        <div class="i0">For all men hope that thou none errour wilt support,</div>
-        <div class="i0">For all men hope that thou wilt trueth restore agayne,</div>
-        <div class="i0">And mend that is amisse, to all good mennes comfort.</div>
-      </div>
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i0">And for this hope they pray thou mayst continue long</div>
-        <div class="i0">Our Quene amongst us here, all vyce for to supplant:</div>
-        <div class="i0">And for this hope they pray, that God may make thee strong</div>
-        <div class="i0">As by His grace puissant so in his trueth constant.</div>
-      </div>
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i0">Farewell, O worthy Quene, and as our hope is sure</div>
-        <div class="i0">That into Errour’s place thou wilt now Truth restore:</div>
-        <div class="i0">So trust we that thou wilt our Soveraigne Quene endure,</div>
-        <div class="i0">And loving Lady stand, from henceforth evermore.’</div>
-      </div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p class="noindent">Whyle these woordes were in saying, and certeine wishes therein repeted
-    for<span class="pagenum" id="Page_96">96</span> maintenaunce of Trueth and rooting out of Errour, she now and
-    then helde up her handes to heavenwarde, and willed the people to say
-    Amen. When the child had ended she said, ‘Be ye well assured I will
-    stande your good Quene.’ At whiche saying her Grace departed forth
-    through Temple Barre towarde Westminster with no lesse shoutyng and
-    crying of the People, then she entred the Citie, with a noyse of
-    ordinance, whiche the Towre shot of at her Grace’s entraunce first into
-    Towre-streate. The childes saying was also in Latin verses, wrytten in
-    a table which was hanged up there. Thus the Quenes Hyghnesse passed
-    through the Citie, whiche, without any forreyne persone, of itselfe
-    beawtifyed itselfe, and receyved her Grace at all places, as hath
-    been before mentioned, with most tender obedience and love, due to
-    so gracious a Quene and Soveraigne Ladie. And her Grace lykewise of
-    her side, in all her Grace’s passage, shewed herselfe generally an
-    ymage of a woorthye Ladie and Governour: but privately these especiall
-    poyntes wer noted in her Grace as synges of a most princelyke courage,
-    wherby her loving subjectes maye ground a sure hope for the rest of her
-    gracious doinges hereafter.”</p>
-
-  <p>The most beautiful thing about the accession and coronation of
-    Elizabeth was the moment when she passed out of the gates of the Tower,
-    where once before she had lain in daily expectation of death. Her
-    carriage waited for her. She stood looking round her; in the clear,
-    cold, winter light she saw the City rising before her with its spires
-    and gables—her City—filled with hearts that longed above all things
-    for the restoration of the new Faith. And she raised her eyes to heaven
-    and cried:—</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“O Lord, Almighty and Everlasting God, I give Thee most humble
-      thanks, that Thou hast been so merciful unto me as to spare me to
-      behold this joyful day; and I acknowledge that Thou hast dealt
-      wonderfully and mercifully with me. As Thou didst with thy servant
-      Daniel the prophet, whom Thou deliveredst out of the den from the
-      cruelty of the raging lions, even so was I overwhelmed, and only
-      by Thee delivered. To Thee, therefore, only be thanks, honour, and
-      praise for ever. Amen.”</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <p>The Service in the Abbey was the Coronation Mass; but the Litany was
-    read in English, and the Gospel and Epistle both in Latin and in
-    English. All the Bench of Bishops were absent except one; and the Abbot
-    of Westminster took his part in the Service for the last time. Yet a
-    few weeks and all England knew that the Reformation had come back to
-    them. For this gift the people never ceased to love and venerate Queen
-    Elizabeth. There has been no English sovereign save Queen Victoria who
-    was so wholly and unfeignedly loved by the English people as she. This
-    is a commonplace, but it is well, in such a work as this, to remind
-    ourselves how the citizens of London, one and all, and throughout her
-    long reign, were ready to fight and to die for their beloved Queen.
-    She was sometimes hard; she was always inflexible; she was sometimes
-    vindictive; but above all things people delight in a strong king. Henry
-    the First; Henry the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_97">97</span> Second; Edward the First; Henry the Fifth; Henry
-    the Eighth; Elizabeth; William the Third,—have been the best loved of
-    all the English sovereigns, because of their strength and courage. In
-    the woman’s heart of the Maiden Queen lay all the courage and all the
-    strength of her masterful father.</p>
-
-  <p>The new opinions made rapid and, for the most part, unchecked advance.
-    It was observed how, at the burial of a certain gentlewoman in St.
-    Thomas Acons, no priests or singing clerks were present, but in their
-    stead the new preachers in their gowns, who neither spoke nor sang
-    until they came to the church, and when the body was lowered into the
-    grave, a Collect was read in English, instead of Latin, and a chapter
-    of St. Paul was read—probably the same chapter which is now read at
-    funerals. The spirit of the time was also marked by a Proclamation
-    forbidding the players of whatever Company to play any more for a
-    certain time.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="i_097"><img src="images/i_097.jpg" width="600" height="393" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">THE TOWER<br />
-      From Visscher’s <i>Panorama of London</i>.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>It has been observed that there were few noblemen left in the City:
-    we observe, however, that Lord Wentworth when he was acquitted for
-    the loss of Calais, went to live at Whittington College. At the
-    funeral service held for the death of King Henry II. of France the
-    sermon, preached by the Bishop-elect of Hereford, turned upon Funeral
-    Ceremonies, pointing out the simplicity of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_98">98</span> Primitive Church—a
-    sermon pointing to change; after the sermon the Communion was
-    administered both of wine and of bread.</p>
-
-  <p>In August, on St. Bartholomew’s Day, there was a great burning of
-    roods, copes, crosses, altar cloths, rood cloths, books, banners, and
-    other church gear, in London. In May, six months after the Queen’s
-    accession, the English service was ordered to be held in all the
-    churches. And the Mayor and Aldermen who had been accustomed to go in
-    procession to St. Paul’s, there to pray at the tomb of Bishop William,
-    with other ceremonies, changed this practice into hearing a sermon.
-    Early in 1560 we find the people all together singing a Psalm in metre,
-    the custom having been brought from abroad by the Protestant refugees.
-    By this time the Protestant form of worship seems to have been firmly
-    established, though it wanted the Spanish Armada and the risings and
-    conspiracies in favour of the old Faith to make it impossible that the
-    great mass of the people should desire a return.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="i_098"><img src="images/i_098.jpg" width="583" height="298" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">WESTMINSTER<br />
-      From an engraving by Hollar.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>Meantime not only by her Progresses, but by her evenings on the river,
-    her presence at jousts and tilts, her personal reviewing of troops and
-    trained-bands, Queen Elizabeth kept herself continually in evidence.
-    (<i>See</i> <a href="#APPENDIX_IV">Appendix IV.</a>) The people crowded after her, especially on the
-    river, where in her honour they fired off guns and blew trumpets, beat
-    drums, played lutes, and threw squibs into the air. The Queen even
-    took part in the rough national sports, sitting for whole afternoons
-    with the Foreign Ambassadors, looking on at the baiting of bears and
-    bulls, and hawking was a favourite amusement of hers. A description of
-    Whitehall Palace and its treasures is given by the German traveller
-    Hentzner.</p>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_99">99</span></p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“In Whitehall are the following things worthy of observation:—</p>
-
-    <p>I. The Royal Library, well stored with Greek, Latin, Italian,
-      and French books: amongst the rest, a little one in French, upon
-      parchment, in the handwriting of the present reigning Queen
-      Elizabeth, thus inscribed: ‘To the most High, Puissant, and
-      Redoubted Prince, Henry VIII. of the Name, King of England, France,
-      and Ireland, Defender of the Faith: Elizabeth his most humble
-      daughter, Health &amp; Obedience.’ All these books are bound in velvet
-      of different colours, though chiefly red, with clasps of gold and
-      silver: some of pearls and precious stones set in their bindings.</p>
-
-    <p>II. Two little silver cabinets of exquisite work, in which the
-      Queen keeps her paper, and which she uses for writing-boxes.</p>
-
-    <p>III. The Queen’s bed, ingeniously composed of woods of different
-      colours, with quilts of silk, velvet, gold, silver, and embroidery.</p>
-
-    <p>IV. A little chest, ornamented all over with pearls, in which
-      the Queen keeps her bracelets, ear-rings, and other things of
-      extraordinary value.</p>
-
-    <p>V. Christ’s Passion in painted glass.</p>
-
-    <p>VI. Portraits: among which are Queen Elizabeth at sixteen years
-      old; Henry, Richard, Edward, Kings of England; Rosamond; Lucrece;
-      a Grecian Bride, in her nuptial habit; the Genealogy of the Kings
-      of England; a picture of King Edward VI. representing at first
-      sight something quite deformed, till, by looking through a small
-      hole in the cover, which is put over it, you see it in its true
-      proportions; Charles V., Emperor; Charles Emanuel Duke of Savoy,
-      and Catherine of Spain his wife; Ferdinand Duke of Florence, with
-      his Daughters; one of Philip King of Spain when he came into
-      England and married Mary; Henry VII., Henry VIII. and his Mother;
-      besides many more of illustrious men and women, and a picture of
-      the Siege of Malta.</p>
-
-    <p>VII. A small hermitage, half hid in rock, finely carved in wood.</p>
-
-    <p>VIII. Variety of emblems, on paper, cut in the shape of shields,
-      with mottoes, used by the nobility at tilts and tournaments, hung
-      up here for a memorial.</p>
-
-    <p>IX. Different instruments of music, upon one of which two persons
-      may perform at the same time.</p>
-
-    <p>X. A piece of clock-work, an Aethiop riding upon a rhinoceros, with
-      four attendants, who all make their obeisance when it strikes the
-      hour: these are all put into motion, by winding up the machine. At
-      the entrance into the park from Whitehall is this inscription:—</p>
-
-    <div class="center-container">
-      <div class="poem">
-        <div class="stanza">
-          <div class="i0">The Fisherman who has been wounded learns though late to beware</div>
-          <div class="i10">But the unfortunate Actaeon always presses on.</div>
-          <div class="i16">The chaste Virgin naturally pitied:</div>
-          <div class="i10">But the powerful Goddess revenged the wrong.</div>
-          <div class="i16">Let Actaeon fall a prey to his dogs</div>
-          <div class="i20">An example to Youth</div>
-          <div class="i16">A disgrace to those that belong to him.</div>
-          <div class="i17">May Diana live the care of Heaven</div>
-          <div class="i20">The delight of mortals</div>
-          <div class="i16">The security of those that belong to her.</div>
-        </div>
-      </div>
-    </div>
-
-    <p>In a garden joining to this Palace, there is a Jet d’eau with a
-      sun-dial, which, while strangers are looking at, a quantity of
-      water, forced by a wheel, which the gardiner turns at a distance,
-      through a number of little pipes, plentifully sprinkles those that
-      are standing round.”</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <p>The entertainment of a noble visitor was hospitable and generous. This
-    is shown in the case of John Casimir, Count Palatine of the Rhine and
-    Duke of Bavaria. He arrived about seven of the clock on the evening of
-    22nd January 1579. He landed at the Tower, and was there received by
-    divers noblemen and others, who conveyed him by cresset and torchlight
-    to the house of Sir Thomas Gresham in Bishopsgate Street, where he
-    was received with the sounding of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_100">100</span> trumpets, drums, fifes, and other
-    instruments, and a great concourse of people; here he rested for
-    some days. He was then taken by some of the nobility to the Queen at
-    Westminster, and lodged at Somerset House. The week after he hunted
-    at Hampton Court. On Sunday the first of February he was entertained
-    with a great tilting at Westminster; on Monday with a sword-fight at
-    barriers. On Tuesday he dined with the Mayor; on Wednesday with the
-    Duchess of Suffolk at the Barbican; on Thursday at the Steelyard. On
-    February the 8th he was made a Knight of the Garter. And when he went
-    away he took with him presents worth 3000 crowns.</p>
-
-  <p>The tiltings at Westminster attracted an immense number of spectators:
-    in the year 1581 so great was the concourse and so crowded were the
-    scaffolds that they broke down, and many persons were injured or killed.</p>
-
-  <p>April the 4th, 1581, was a day to be remembered. On that day the Queen
-    came from Greenwich by water to Deptford, where there was moored a
-    certain ship newly returned from a voyage round the world, the first
-    made by an Englishman. The ship was called <i>The Golden Hind</i>, the
-    Captain, Francis Drake. The Queen examined the ship, questioned the
-    Captain, looked at the charts, and saw the things collected and brought
-    home. Then she graciously dined on board, and after dinner conferred
-    the honour of knighthood upon the Captain. An immense number of persons
-    were gathered to see the Queen, and to gaze upon the ship which had
-    been all round the world. A wooden bridge on which one hundred persons
-    were standing broke, but happily none were killed. The ship was laid
-    up in Deptford Dockyard, till she was cut to pieces by visitors taking
-    each a piece of her timbers away. When she was at length broken up, a
-    chair was made out of the wood, and given by a Mr. John Davis to the
-    University of Oxford.</p>
-
-  <p>The observance of the Maundy was held in great state:—</p>
-
-  <p>First, the Hall was prepared with a long table on each side, and forms
-    set by them; on the edges of which tables and under those forms were
-    laid carpets and cushions for her Majesty to kneel, when she washed
-    the poor. There was also another table laid across the upper end of
-    the Hall, where the Chaplain stood. A little beneath the middle of the
-    Hall a stool and “cushion of estate” were placed for her Majesty to
-    kneel at during service time. This done, the holy-water basons, alms,
-    and other things, being brought into the Hall, and the Chaplain and the
-    poor women, the recipients of the Queen’s bounty, having taken their
-    places, the Yeoman of the Laundry, armed with a fair towel, and taking
-    a silver bason filled with warm water and flowers, washed their feet,
-    all, one after another, wiped the same with his towel, and so, making
-    a cross a little above the toes, kissed them. After them followed the
-    Sub-Almoner, doing likewise, and after him the Almoner himself also;
-    so that the feet of the poor folk were three times washed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_101">101</span> before the
-    Queen appeared. When she came into the Hall, they sang certain psalms
-    and read certain prayers, together with the Gospel of Christ’s washing
-    His disciples’ feet; then thirty-nine gentlewomen [in accordance with
-    the Queen’s age—this account refers to the year 1572] presented
-    themselves with aprons and towels to wait upon her Majesty; and she,
-    kneeling down upon the cushions and carpets under the feet of the poor
-    women, first washed one foot of every one of them in so many several
-    basons of warm water, and sweet flowers, brought to her severally by
-    the said ladies and gentlewomen, then wiped, crossed, and kissed them,
-    as the Almoner and others had done before. When her Majesty had thus
-    gone through the whole number of thirty-nine (of which twenty sat on
-    the one side of the Hall and nineteen on the other) she began again
-    with the first, and gave to each one certain yards of broad cloth.
-    This done, she again began with the first, giving to each in turn a
-    pair of shoes. Fourthly, to each of them she gave a wooden<span class="pagenum" id="Page_102">102</span> platter,
-    wherein were laid a side of salmon, with an equal weight of ling, six
-    red herring, and two loaves of bread. Fifthly, she began with the
-    first again, and gave to each of them a white wooden bason filled with
-    wine. Sixthly, she received of each Waiting Gentlewoman her towel and
-    apron, and gave one towel and apron to each poor woman. After this the
-    Treasurer of the Chamber came to her Majesty with thirty-nine small
-    white purses wherein were also thirty-nine pence according to the
-    number of the years of her Majesty’s age; and of him she received and
-    distributed them severally; which done, she received of him the same
-    number of red leather purses, each containing twenty shillings, for the
-    redemption of her Majesty’s gown, which, by ancient custom, should have
-    been given to some one of them at her pleasure; the Queen, however,
-    had changed that reward into money, to be equally divided amongst them
-    all, namely, twenty shillings apiece; and those she also delivered
-    particularly to each one of the whole company; and “so, taking her
-    ease upon the cushion of state, and hearing the choir a little while,
-    her Majesty withdrew herself and the company departed; for it was by
-    that time the sun-setting.” This account is taken from that of William
-    Lambarde an Antiquary, who is quoted by John Nichols in his <i>Progresses
-      of Queen Elizabeth</i> (vol. i.).</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="i_101"><img src="images/i_101.jpg" width="430" height="527" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">“HOW TO FLEE THE HEARON”<br />
-      From Turberville’s <i>Booke of Falconrie</i>, 1575.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>The custom of making New Year’s gifts to the Queen was duly honoured
-    every year. The list of the gifts for 1562 as presented by Nichols
-    contains the names of all the noble lords and great ladies in the
-    kingdom, the Bishops, and the Court: nearly two hundred in number.
-    These gifts are of all kinds: gold boxes; purses of money; embroidered
-    sleeves; sugar loaves; ginger; sweetmeats; a smock of silk;
-    handkerchiefs “garnished with gold, silver, and silk”; carved coffers;
-    sleeves embroidered with gold; silk hose—two such gifts; fine glass;
-    gilt cups; tankards, bowls, spoons, and salts; and so on. On the other
-    hand, the gifts which the Queen had to make constantly to Ambassadors,
-    to her officers, to the christening and marriage feasts of the people
-    about the Court, would seem to run away with most of these presents. It
-    is worthy of note that in all the long list of gifts of 1562 there is
-    not one single picture or statue.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="i_102"><img src="images/i_102.jpg" width="700" height="267" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">The Chariott drawne by foure Horses upon which chariot
-      stood the Coffin covered w<sup>th</sup> purple velvett and upon
-      that the representation. The Canapy borne by six Knights.</div>
-    <div class="caption">QUEEN ELIZABETH’S FUNERAL<br />
-      A section from a contemporary MS. scroll in British Museum.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>The following is Hentzner’s account of the Queen’s Court at Greenwich
-    (Nichols vol. ii.):—</p>
-
-  <p>“We next arrived at the Royal Palace of Greenwich, reported to have
-    been originally built by Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester, and to have
-    received very magnificent additions from Henry VII. It was here
-    Elizabeth, the present Queen, was born, and here she generally resides,
-    particularly in Summer, for the delightfulness of its situation.
-    We were admitted, by an order Mr. Rogers procured from the Lord
-    Chamberlain, into the Presence Chamber, hung with rich tapestry, and
-    the floor after the English fashion strewed with hay, through which
-    the Queen commonly passes on her way to Chapel; at the door stood a
-    Gentleman <span class="pagenum" id="Page_103">103</span>dressed in velvet, with a gold chain, whose office was
-    to introduce to the Queen any person of distinction that came to wait
-    on her; it was Sunday, when there is usually the greatest attendance
-    of Nobility. In the same Hall were the Archbishop of Canterbury, the
-    Bishop of London, a great number of Counselors of State, Officers of
-    the Crown, and Gentlemen, who waited the Queen’s coming out: which
-    she did from her own apartment when it was time to go to prayers,
-    attended in the following manner: First went Gentlemen, Barons, Earls,
-    Knights of the Garter, all richly dressed and bareheaded; next came the
-    Chancellor, bearing the seals in a red silke purse, between two; one of
-    which carried the Royal Sceptre, the other the Sword of State, in a red
-    scabbard, studded with golden fleurs-de-lis, the point upwards; next
-    came the Queen, in the sixty-fifth year of her age, as we are told,
-    very majestic: her face oblong, fair, but wrinkled; her eyes small, yet
-    black and pleasant; her nose a little hooked; her lips narrow and her
-    teeth black (defect the English seem subject to from their too great
-    use of sugar); she had in her ears two pearls, with very rich drops;
-    she wore false hair and that red; upon her head she had a small crown,
-    reported to be made of some of the gold of the celebrated Lunebourg
-    Table. Her bosom was uncovered, as all the English Ladies have it till
-    they marry; and she had on a necklace of exceeding fine jewels; her
-    hands were small, her fingers long, and her stature neither tall nor
-    low; her air was stately, her manner of speaking mild and obliging.
-    That day she was dressed in white silk, bordered with pearls of the
-    size of beans, and over it a mantle of black silk, shot with silver
-    threads; her train was very long, the end of it borne by a Marchioness;
-    instead of a chain, she had an oblong collar of gold and jewels. As
-    she went along in all this state and magnificence, she spoke very
-    graciously, first to one, then to another, whether foreign ministers
-    or those who attended for different reasons, in English, French, and
-    Italian; for, besides being well skilled in Greek, Latin, and the
-    languages I have mentioned, she is mistress of Spanish, Scotch, and
-    Dutch; whoever speaks to her, it is kneeling; now and then she raises
-    some with her hand. While we were there, W. Slawata, a Bohemian Baron,
-    had letters to present to her; and she, after pulling off her glove,
-    gave him her right hand to kiss, sparkling with rings and jewels, a
-    mark of particular favour; wherever she turned her face as she was
-    going along, everybody fell down on their knees. The ladies of the
-    Court followed next to her, very handsome and well-shaped, and for
-    the most part dressed in white; she was guarded on each side by the
-    Gentlemen Pensioners, fifty in number, with gilt battle-axes. In the
-    anti-chapel next the Hall, where we were, petitions were presented
-    to her, and she received them most graciously, which occasioned the
-    acclamation of ‘Long live Queen Elizabeth!’ She answered it with, ‘I
-    thank you, my good people.’ In the Chapel was excellent music; as soon
-    as it and the service was over, which scarce exceeded<span class="pagenum" id="Page_104">104</span> half an hour,
-    the Queen returned in the same state and order, and prepared to go to
-    dinner. But while she was still at prayers, we saw her table set out
-    with the following solemnity: A Gentleman entred the room bearing a
-    rod, and along with him another who had a table-cloth, which, after
-    they had both kneeled three times with the utmost veneration, he spread
-    upon the table, and after kneeling again they both retired. Then came
-    two others, one with the rod again, the other with a salt-cellar, a
-    plate, and bread; when they had both kneeled, as the others had done,
-    and placed what was brought upon the table, they too retired with the
-    same ceremonies performed by the first. At last came an unmarried
-    lady (we were told she was a Countess) and along with her a married
-    one, bearing a tasting knife; the former was dressed in white silk,
-    who, when she had prostrated herself three times in the most graceful
-    manner, approached the table, and rubbed the plates with bread and
-    salt, with as much awe as if the Queen had been present; when they
-    had waited there a little while, the Yeomen of the Guard entered,
-    bare-headed, cloathed in scarlet, with a golden rose upon their backs,
-    bringing in at each turn a course of twenty-four dishes, served in
-    plate, most of it gilt; these dishes were received by a gentleman in
-    the same order they were brought, and placed upon the table, while
-    the lady-taster gave to each of the guards a mouthful to eat, of the
-    particular dish he had brought, for fear of any poison. During the time
-    that this guard, which consists of the tallest and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_105">105</span> stoutest men that
-    can be found in all England, being carefully selected for the service,
-    were bringing dinner, twelve trumpets and two kettle-drums made the
-    hall ring for half an hour together. At the end of this ceremonial, a
-    number of unmarried ladies appeared, who, with particular solemnity,
-    lifted the meat off the table, and conveyed it into the Queen’s inner
-    and more private chamber, where, after she has chosen for herself, the
-    rest goes to the Ladies of the Court. The Queen dines and sups alone,
-    with very few attendants; and it is very seldom that anybody, foreigner
-    or native, is admitted at that time, and then only at the intercession
-    of somebody in power.”</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="i_104"><img src="images/i_104.jpg" width="600" height="360" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">THE PALACE OF GREENWICH (PLACENTIA)</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter w355">
-    <a id="i_105"><img src="images/i_105.jpg" width="355" height="473" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="attribr"><i>Walker &amp; Cockerell.</i></div>
-    <div class="caption">QUEEN ELIZABETH (1533–1603)<br />
-      From a painting in the National Portrait Gallery. &nbsp; &nbsp;Painter unknown, but
-      probably Marc Gheeraedts.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>The great popularity of the Queen, and the affection with which she
-    was regarded by all classes, is shown by the following Proclamation
-    issued in the year 1563, relating to persons making portraits of Queen
-    Elizabeth:—</p>
-
-  <p>“Forasmuch as thrugh the natural desire that all sorts of subjects and
-    peple, both noble and mean, have to procure the portrait and picture of
-    the Queen’s Majestie, great nomber of Paynters, and some Printers and
-    gravers, have alredy and doe dayly<span class="pagenum" id="Page_106">106</span> attempt to make in divers manners
-    portraietures of hir Majestie in paynting, graving, and prynting,
-    wherein is evidently shewn that hytherto none hath sufficiently
-    expressed the naturall representation of hir Majesties person, favor,
-    or grace, but for the most part have also erred therein, as thereof
-    dayly complaints are made amongst hir Majesties loving subjectes, in so
-    much that for redres hereof hir Majestie hath lately bene so instantly
-    and so importunately sued unto by the Lords of hir Consell and others
-    of hir nobility, in respect of the great disorder herein used, not only
-    to be content that some speciall conning payntor might be permitted
-    by access to hir Majestie to take the natural representation of hir
-    Majestie, whereof she hath bene allwise of her own right disposition
-    very unwillyng, but also to prohibit all manner of other persons to
-    draw, paynt, grave, or pourtrayet hir Majesties personage or visage for
-    a time, untill by some perfect patron and example the same may be by
-    others followed. Therfor hir Majestie, being herein as it were overcome
-    with the contynuall requests of so many of hir Nobility and Lords,
-    whom she cannot well deny, is pleased that for their contentations,
-    some coning person mete therefor shall shortly make a pourtrait of
-    hir person or visage to be participated to others for satisfaction of
-    hir loving subjects, and furthermore commandeth all manner of persons
-    in the mean tyme to forbear from payntyng, graving, printing, or
-    making of any pourtraits of hir Majestie, until some speciali person
-    that shall be by hir allowed shall have first finished a pourtraiture
-    thereof, after which fynished, hir Majestie will be content that all
-    other painters, printers, or gravers, that shall be known men of
-    understanding, and so thereto licensed by the hed officers of the
-    plaices where they shall dwell (as reason it is that every person
-    should not without consideration attempt the same) shall and maye at
-    their pleasures follow the sayd patron or first portraiture. And for
-    that hir Majestie perceiveth that a grete nomber of hir loving subjects
-    are much greved and take great offence with the errors and deformities
-    allredy committed by sondry persons in this behalf, she straitly
-    chargeth all hir officers and ministers to see to the due observation
-    hereof, and as soon as may be to reform the errors already committed,
-    and in the meantime to forbid and prohibit the shewing or publication
-    of such as are apparently deformed, until they may be reformed which
-    are reformable.”</p>
-
-  <hr class="page" />
-  <div class="chapter mb10" id="RELIGION">
-    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_107">107</span>
-    <h2>RELIGION</h2>
-  </div>
-
-  <hr class="page" />
-  <div class="chapter" id="CHAPTER_1b">
-    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_109">109</span>
-    <h3>
-      <span class="gespertt1">CHAPTER I</span><br />
-      <span class="subhead">THE DISSOLUTION AND THE MARTYRS</span>
-    </h3>
-  </div>
-
-  <p class="noindent"><span class="smcap">In</span> speaking of the Dissolution of the Religious Houses it must be
-    understood that I am considering this momentous step with reference to
-    London only. The influences of the Continental movement; the lessons
-    of history; the turn taken by theological controversy; the unedifying
-    spectacle of Rome in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries; the
-    talk of scholars; the strength of the conservatism which rallied
-    about the Church at first; the apparent power of the Church, which
-    seemed, indeed, able to crush every opponent, whatever his rank and
-    station;—these things moved not, consciously at least, the man of
-    London. He became acquiescent in the changes imposed upon him by
-    other considerations. And I believe that had not his acquiescence
-    been understood as certain to follow, these changes would not have
-    been attempted. Henry VIII. was the most masterful sovereign of
-    his time; but a king cannot outrage and trample upon the settled
-    religious faith of his subjects. The Old Faith had gone to pieces when
-    Constantine proclaimed the New. The New, in its turn, now grown old and
-    incrustated, and hidden by a thousand additions, superstitions, and
-    superfluities, was in its turn ready for departure, in Northern Europe
-    at least, when Henry effected the separation from Rome which began the
-    Reformation in England.</p>
-
-  <p>Among an ignorant and an uncritical people the ancient Faith passed
-    unquestioned—was it not the Faith of all those in authority? Its
-    doctrines were supported less by teaching than by outward forms,
-    ceremonies, pageants, splendours and traditional conventions. In every
-    church the story of the Gospels was partly represented, but overlaid
-    with stories of the Saints; the Christian virtues were never, even
-    at the lowest point of Church History, forgotten, yet their practice
-    had become crystallised; almsgiving was part of the Rule of every
-    Religious Order, but it was indiscriminate; mercy towards the criminal
-    had become a refuge for those who continued in their evil practices
-    under cover of Sanctuary; the tradition of austerity no longer
-    brought respect to the Benedictine; the tradition of self-sacrifice
-    no longer brought love to the Franciscan: to the former, as to the
-    College of All Souls, Oxford, the members were <i>bene nati</i>, and, I
-    believe, for the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_110">110</span> most part <i>bene morati</i> and <i>moderate docti</i>; in
-    the more secluded religious communities discipline was relaxed and
-    scandals had crept in; for a hundred years and more the people had
-    been gradually ceasing to endow the Religious Houses with bequests.
-    At the commencement of the sixteenth century they had wholly ceased
-    the practice, formerly universal. Monk and Nun; Friar and Sister;
-    Hermit, Anchorite, Anchress, now received no more bequests; of all the
-    Religious Orders none had fallen into disrepute so hopelessly as the
-    Franciscans: they were selling the lead off the roofs of their stately
-    churches; they were selling their sacred vessels of silver gilt; their
-    boxes, hung up in the shops—if the shopkeepers admitted them—received
-    no more offerings; they were insulted in the streets; their numbers
-    were dwindling daily. Now all these things were like an open book in
-    which those who passed along the way might read daily, and did read
-    unconsciously, so that their minds were moulded and directed, they
-    could not tell why or how.</p>
-
-  <p>As for the spread of the ideas called Lollardry, one knows not how far
-    they survived the persecution under Henry V. and the disturbances of
-    the Civil Wars. But such ideas, whose strength lies in the exercise
-    of reason, so far as men can reason, do not easily die; the case of
-    Richard Hun (<a href="#Page_32">p. 32</a>) shows that they were still alive. The socialistic
-    side of Lollardry had vanished, but some, at least, of the religious
-    side survived.</p>
-
-  <p>Yet the old things went on apparently undisturbed. Nothing could
-    surpass the external splendour of a Cardinal Archbishop: no authority
-    was greater in appearance than his. The rich endowments of the greater
-    Abbeys made the Houses magnificent and the Brethren proud, generous,
-    and profuse in hospitality and in alms. Who could be more dignified
-    than the Abbot of St. Peter’s, Westminster? Still the Church seemed to
-    rule in everything: the Fraternities continued; they still attracted
-    members; they still marched in procession, each with its chaplain and
-    its singing men, its banners and its brethren, through the streets on
-    its appointed day; the City Companies were incorporated as Religious as
-    well as Trade Societies; the Manger and the Holy Tomb still adorned the
-    churches on the great Festivals; the Angel still flew over the people
-    from the roof on the Day of Pentecost; the pictures on the wall in
-    every church recorded the martyrdom of the Saint of Dedication and the
-    miracles which commanded his canonisation. No one could have dreamed,
-    no one could have prophesied, when the scholarly young King thundered
-    against Luther that the old order was drawing to its allotted end, and
-    that for Rome, as well as Northern Europe, Reform was at hand.</p>
-
-  <p>In many ways the Church had long lost its former hold. No longer were
-    the architects Churchmen; no longer were the bridge builders a distinct
-    fraternity; the lawyers were clerks, indeed, but not in Holy Orders;
-    the King’s Ministers were no longer necessarily of the Clergy; scholars
-    were no longer of necessity<span class="pagenum" id="Page_111">111</span> ordained priests or deacons; physicians
-    were laymen; the clergy were allowed to practise surgery, provided
-    that they did not use fire or steel—in other words, did not conduct
-    operations; in trade the lending of money—formerly in the hands of
-    the Jews and afterwards in those of the so-called “Caursini,” Italians
-    licensed by the Popes—was now recognised as necessary, and was carried
-    on more or less openly by merchants; in a word, the daily life of the
-    world, which had been shot through and through, like a piece of silk
-    with its coloured threads, by Religion, had long been emancipating
-    itself, by slow and gradual steps, from the control of the Church and
-    the interference of the priest.</p>
-
-  <p>How much these things were understood at the time it is not necessary
-    to inquire. Probably the people, who knew no history, had been
-    unconsciously moulded and changed, and were far from realising the
-    great gulf which now divided them from their ancestors.</p>
-
-  <p>Yet there were other signs of change, could they have been rightly
-    interpreted. Scholars, like Erasmus, openly derided the adoration of
-    relics; some of them, under new Pagan influence, denied the Christian
-    faith itself; the scholars of France, like Rabelais and Étienne Dolet,
-    scoffed at the Pope and the Papal pretensions; yet Rabelais did not
-    dare to publish in his lifetime the most daring and the most deadly
-    part of his work.</p>
-
-  <p>Add to these things the long-standing disaffection towards the
-    Roman authority. For centuries the Pope had been attempting fresh
-    encroachments, claiming new powers, demanding more contributions.
-    All travellers to Rome brought back the same story of corruption and
-    laxity; men asked themselves why they should submit to the oppression
-    of an Italian prince. In 1529 the House of Commons drew up a petition
-    in which, while they did not ask for a change of doctrine, they
-    complained of the independent legislation claimed by Convocation, the
-    number of officers, the exorbitant fees of ecclesiastical courts, the
-    granting of benefices to children, pluralities, non-residence and other
-    grievances. Surely such a man as Wolsey must have discerned in all
-    these symptoms a warning, clear and loud, that their house must be set
-    in order. Perhaps not, however: nothing is more difficult than for the
-    ecclesiastical mind to see, outside its fences of doctrine and usage,
-    the questioning people, and to hear and understand the awakened mind.</p>
-
-  <p>The action of Henry, which, on the face of it, seems the most masterful
-    thing ever attempted by a king, was, on the contrary, approved and
-    accepted by the great mass of the people; especially by the people of
-    London, by the scholars, and by the clergy. There were few who emulated
-    the constancy of the unfortunate Carthusians or the martyrdom of More
-    and Fisher; the old order crumbled and fell to pieces at a touch;
-    out of the débris, among the fallen monarchs of the forest, rose up
-    a tangled mass of vegetation, from which the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_112">112</span> nobler kinds had to be
-    separated by trial and proof, by persecution and by cultivation.</p>
-
-  <p>The first direct step towards the Reformation was, assuredly, not
-    considered as such. It was the suppression by Cardinal Wolsey of
-    certain small houses with whose revenues he endowed his Colleges.</p>
-
-  <p>The second direct step was the Petition of the House of Commons, which
-    also passed the Upper House, in 1529.</p>
-
-  <p>In January 1531 the House of Commons, in demanding of the clergy the
-    payment of £118,000—an enormous sum, representing more than a million
-    of our money—gave Henry the title of Head of the Church. This was
-    before the break with Rome; so far it meant only that the civil power
-    should be superior to the ecclesiastical.</p>
-
-  <p>Then followed the Bill for the abolition of <i>annales</i> or payment to the
-    Pope of the first year’s income of benefice or see. This was at first
-    held <i>in terrorem</i> over the head of the Pope.</p>
-
-  <p>The divorce of Katherine and the King’s marriage with Anne Boleyn
-    in spite of the opposition of the Pope completed the separation.
-    Henceforth the King was Head of the Church within his own realm.</p>
-
-  <p>It was to show to the whole world that he was in earnest and that he
-    meant indeed to be Head of the Church, that Henry caused the execution
-    of the Carthusian monks, of Bishop Fisher, and Sir Thomas More. All
-    Christendom shuddered when those holy men were dragged forth to suffer
-    the degrading and horrible death of traitors; yet all Christendom
-    recognised that there was a King in England who would brook no
-    interference, who knew his own mind, and would work his own will.</p>
-
-  <p>I need not follow the course and the development of the Reformation,
-    for its history belongs to the whole country. As regards London, two or
-    three points present themselves for consideration: as, for instance,
-    the condition of the Houses; the manners and morality of the Religious;
-    and the mind of the people.</p>
-
-  <p>Let us consider these points from the position of a contemporary
-    Londoner, so far as is possible. First, as to the condition of the
-    Houses.</p>
-
-  <p>The enormous wealth of the Church could not fail to impress every one
-    with the incongruity of ecclesiastical professions and practices.
-    The sight of those scores of able-bodied men, most of them with no
-    pretensions to be considered scholars, or divines, or even gentlemen—a
-    qualification which, at the time, might have been sufficient
-    justification for living on the work of others—but men of low origin
-    and of narrow attainments, lounging about the streets and in the
-    taverns—some, as the friars, with no apparent duties at all; some,
-    like the chantry priests, with half an hour’s work every day; many
-    of them without the least pretence to piety or virtue—could not but
-    become a powerful aid in the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_113">113</span> popular approval of the Dissolution. In
-    London alone, a very large part of the City belonged to the Church.
-    The streets swarmed with ecclesiastics who, in the midst of a busy and
-    industrial population, seemed idle and useless.</p>
-
-  <p>In the Italian <i>Relations of England</i> the writer speaks of the vast
-    wealth of the Church and the power of the ecclesiastics. “I for my
-    part,” he says, “believe that the English priests would desire nothing
-    better than what they have got, were it not they are obliged to assist
-    the Crown in time of war, and also to keep many poor gentlemen, who are
-    left beggars in consequence of the inheritance devolving to the eldest
-    son. And if the Bishops were to decline this expense they would be
-    considered infamous, nor do I believe that they would be safe in their
-    own churches.”</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="i_113"><img src="images/i_113.jpg" width="600" height="516" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">CARTHUSIAN MARTYRS<br />
-      From a historical print in the British Museum.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>There is surely some confusion here. It is true that younger sons
-    attached themselves to the following of the great Lords Spiritual as
-    well as Temporal,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_114">114</span> but I have nowhere else found it stated that it was
-    the duty of the Church to keep them. Also many of them, as we have
-    seen, had City connections and embarked in trade. For “Church” we
-    should perhaps read “the Monastic Houses.”</p>
-
-  <p>If we come to consider the condition of the Religious on the score
-    of morality, all that can be said concerning those of London is that
-    we hear nothing against them. It is true that the details of the
-    Visitations of London have not been revealed. But there could not
-    have been anything very bad, or it would have been laid hold of and
-    enlarged upon, and pointed out for the execration of the people, by the
-    preachers of the new religion.</p>
-
-  <p>Froude, in his paper on the Dissolution of the Monasteries, argues
-    that the evidence of immorality on the part of certain Religious
-    Houses is overwhelming. His case against that of St. Albans is
-    certainly convincing, so far as that House alone is concerned. And
-    it is difficult not to believe that in other cases about the country
-    the evidence of the visitors, even granting that their own private
-    character left a good deal to be desired, is much too detailed for pure
-    invention.</p>
-
-  <p>But, as regards the Religious of London, I am not aware that there is
-    any evidence to prove that they were either notoriously or secretly
-    corrupt or luxurious. Considering the pristine standard of the Rule,
-    they were doubtless degenerate, just as in a College of Oxford or
-    Cambridge fifty years ago, the Fellows who should have carried on
-    the lamp of learning spent their time in the study of Port and the
-    practice of Whist. Father Gasquet argues in favour of the whole body
-    of nuns—London or country—when he cites the case of Sister Joan. In
-    the year 1535 the Archbishop of York visited a certain convent in his
-    diocese and learned that one of the nuns had been guilty of unchastity.
-    He inflicted upon her a sentence of great severity: she was to be
-    kept in prison for two years, without speaking to any one but the
-    Prioress; she was to fast altogether on Wednesday and Friday; and on
-    every Friday she was to be taken to the Chapter House, there to receive
-    discipline—<i>i.e.</i> to be whipped. Is it possible, Father Gasquet asks,
-    that the nunneries of England could be grossly and openly immoral—even
-    secretly immoral—when such a severe punishment was meted out to an
-    offender by the visiting archbishop? One might point out that a severe
-    punishment may tell of two things: either of horror at a rare and
-    heinous offence, or of a determination, by severe measures, to put down
-    a too frequent breaking of the vows of chastity.</p>
-
-  <p>Concerning, therefore, the morals of the London Religious, there has
-    been no special charge, so far as I know, brought against the whole
-    body. We may remember, however, that the number of persons bound by
-    vows of celibacy was very large; that even at the present time, when
-    there is certainly more self-restraint, it would be impossible for
-    these vows to be kept by so large a proportion<span class="pagenum" id="Page_115">115</span> of the people; and that
-    the clergy, in morals and in practice, have never been more than a
-    little in advance of the laity.</p>
-
-  <p>The many acts of unchastity of which one reads in the books were
-    perhaps scattered and solitary instances. I refer, however, to
-    certain documents which prove, not the common prevalence of vice, but
-    relaxation of the Rule. They are a collection of papers, the charges of
-    Langland, Bishop of Lincoln, early in the sixteenth century, published
-    in <i>Archæologia</i> (vol. xlvii.). They point to laxity, not to vice.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="i_115"><img src="images/i_115.jpg" width="317" height="420" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">SIR THOMAS MORE (1478–1535)<br />
-      From the painting by Holbein in the National Portrait Gallery, London.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>The first is a charge to the Abbess and Convent of Elstow, near
-    Bedford. In this House the Sisters, instead of assembling in the
-    Fratry for their meals, were accustomed to gather together in what
-    they called their “Households”; apparently messes of two or more, at
-    which secular men, women, and children were allowed to be present. This
-    has to be amended. Henceforth they may repair to the Misericorde, but
-    only one or two at a time, and then under charge of an elderly sister.
-    Their attendance at the services in the “Quire” has become irregular,
-    henceforth they are all to attend every service; they are not to look
-    about the church upon the people during service, for which purpose
-    a door is to be constructed shutting off the choir. They had become
-    irregular about their<span class="pagenum" id="Page_116">116</span> dress, henceforth they are not to wear their
-    dresses cut low. As for the Lady Abbess, she herself is ordered to get
-    up and attend matins with the rest, and not to break her fast nor to
-    sup with the steward or any secular man.</p>
-
-  <p>Clearly, a House requiring reformation, yet not blameworthy of the
-    grosser sins.</p>
-
-  <p>There was the Priory of Studley, a Benedictine Nunnery in the Parish of
-    Beckley, Oxfordshire, the burial-place of the British Saint Donanverdh,
-    and one of the residences of Richard of Almayn, brother of Henry. The
-    Prioress is warned to dismiss a certain steward, named Marten Whighill;
-    she is not to suffer her ladies to become godmothers, nor to go out
-    on visits to their kinsfolk “onles it be for their comforte in tyme
-    of ther syknesse, and yett nott then onlesse it shal seme to you,
-    ladye priores, to be behoveful and necessarye, seeing that undre such
-    pretence muche insolency have bene used in religion.” Considering,
-    further, that the House is in great debt, the Prioress is to grant no
-    more corrodies, <i>i.e.</i> right of board and lodging in the House; to have
-    fewer servants; and to live “in a scarcer manour.” She is to look more
-    carefully after the food of the Sisters; she is to see that they wear
-    their robes; and she is to admit more ladies.</p>
-
-  <p>The Prioress of Cotham, in Lincolnshire, is to see that there is more
-    order in the singing of the novices. This House has grown very lax. The
-    kinsfolk of the Sisters were no longer to be admitted; the Chaplain was
-    not to be allowed the key of the church; the Lord of Misrule was not to
-    be admitted at Christmas. Then, some of the Sisters had been allowed to
-    go out into the world under pretence of pilgrimage, which license had
-    caused great scandals. Henceforth they were not to be allowed out of
-    the House for the night, nor out of the House at all unless accompanied
-    by a devout Sister. Again, the Sisters had been allowed to go on visits
-    to Thornton, Newsome, Hull (where there were other nunneries), and the
-    Bishop speaks strongly of the reproach, rebuke, and shame which the
-    rumours of their conduct had brought upon them. This House is the worst
-    case of the four. Certain persons named are absolutely forbidden within
-    the walls. Sir John Warde, Sir Richard Calverley, Sir William Johnson,
-    the Parson of Skotton, and Sir William Sele, are those who have brought
-    upon themselves by their misconduct this prohibition. Lastly, since the
-    House had been reduced to miserable poverty, the Prioress must diminish
-    her servants, grant no more corrodies, sell no more plate, and get the
-    necessary repairs effected as speedily as possible.</p>
-
-  <p>The last of the charges is one to the Abbot of Missenden, in
-    Buckinghamshire. This House, also, has fallen into poverty; there must
-    be a diminished number of servants and a simpler table; there must
-    be no more granting of corrodies; the House must be put into repair.
-    There was no school for the novices; a man learned in grammar must be
-    appointed at once; the boys must be kept apart; in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_117">117</span> future the monks
-    must not be allowed to wander about outside, day and night, as had been
-    the case. And no women were to be admitted either by day or by night.
-    John Compton was to be turned out of the monastery at once—he was
-    probably the steward; and Dom John Slithurst was to be put in prison
-    and kept there.</p>
-
-  <p>These accounts indicate very clearly the decay of discipline in the
-    Houses. The Prioress eats and drinks with her steward; the Sisters
-    entertain their kinsfolk within the walls; the church plate is sold to
-    pay debts; the Sisters get outside on any pretext—then come scandals.
-    Certain persons are so much mixed up with these scandals that they must
-    never be allowed within the House at all; the Sisters adopt as much of
-    the fashions of the world as they can; they shirk the services; they
-    relieve the monotony of their lives by going on pilgrimages. As to the
-    monks they get out alone, all night long. What scandals made the Bishop
-    so determined upon keeping women out of the House altogether? And
-    what had Dom Slithurst done, more than his fellows, that he was to be
-    clapped into prison and kept there?</p>
-
-  <p>It will be replied that these are all Houses in the country. That is
-    quite true; yet I think that, considering the attacks on the Religious;
-    the decay of the Friars; the withdrawal of bequests from monks and
-    friars alike,—the London Houses must have been open at least to
-    charges of laxity; and I would not press against them anything more
-    severe. In the admonition of the Dean of St. Paul’s to the Nuns of
-    St. Helen’s, laxity, not vice, was the principal complaint. Those
-    who believe that graver charges might be brought may read the famous
-    accusation against the Abbot of St. Albans—a thing, to my mind,
-    impossible to get over. True, St. Albans is not London, which is a
-    saving clause.</p>
-
-  <p>Enough about the condition of the Houses and the morality of the
-    Religious. I hear certain whispers where men congregate: they
-    murmur—<i>tacenda</i>. I have no proof that they are true; but I understand
-    that the holiness of the Religious is no longer accepted as a matter of
-    course; it is enough for one that this is so. The work of the Houses
-    is done when the people no longer desire the prayers of brethren
-    <i>inclusi</i>, and sisters immured; and no longer expect the pristine
-    devotion of the Friars.</p>
-
-  <p>The suppression of the Religious Houses and its immediate effects in
-    London are passed over by Stow, in his <i>Survey</i>, with great brevity.
-    It is a pity; we should like so much to have a clear understanding of
-    how the people at large received these measures. Now this historian was
-    born in 1525; he could remember, therefore, not only the Dissolution,
-    but also the condition of the City under the old <i>régime</i>. It is much
-    to be lamented, further, that though he could find time and space
-    to give whole pages to the Coronation of Anne Boleyn, he could not
-    give more than a brief note on the suppression of one House after<span class="pagenum" id="Page_118">118</span>
-    another. He remembered the Franciscans going in and about everywhere
-    in their grey gowns; the Dominicans in black; the Carmelites in white;
-    he remembered the riding apparel of the monks; he remembered—he
-    notices, in fact—the hospitality of the richer houses; he remembered
-    the stately churches towering above the humble parish churches, as
-    Westminster above St. Margaret’s; St. Augustine’s over Peter le Poor;
-    the Holy Trinity over St. Catherine Cree; their peals of bells;
-    their organs; their treasures of gold and silver plate; their church
-    furniture, sumptuous with cloth of gold and velvet. He remembered the
-    splendour, wealth, authority, and power of the old ecclesiastics. Their
-    authority seemed rooted in the solid rock, never to be destroyed; and
-    he remembered how this substantial ecclesiastical structure vanished
-    at a word, at a touch, leaving behind it nothing but ruined cloisters;
-    churches desecrated; carvings and marbles broken up. In his old age he
-    sat alone and marvelled over these things. But he spoke not. Perhaps it
-    was dangerous, even for a historian, to speak—Stow had already been
-    accused of being a favourer, at least, of the old Order; regrets were
-    accounted traitorous; sympathy with the outcast monk was heresy—or,
-    which was as dangerous, was <i>lèse Majesté</i>. Not every one desired
-    the crown of martyrdom: to most people it was disagreeable to be
-    burned—one would avoid this method of extinction if possible; almost
-    as disagreeable was it to be dragged on a hurdle, half hanged, cut
-    down, and then quartered. So Stow wrote nothing about the old time as
-    compared with that which followed.</p>
-
-  <p>In a single passage, however, Stow does allow us to understand
-    something of his opinion as to the whole business. No doubt many people
-    looked about for some mark of the Divine displeasure upon those who
-    took an active part in the Dissolution. To this day, certain persons
-    whisper about the families which succeeded to the monastic houses; if
-    anything happens to them it is put down to the vengeance which must
-    be expected to follow upon the sacrilegious occupation of monastic
-    property; nothing is said, of course, as to the long prosperity which
-    has attended most of the families which still occupy the old monastic
-    lands.</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“About such time as Cardinall Wolsey was determined to erect
-      his new Colledges in Oxford and Ipswich, he obtayned licence
-      and authoritie of Pope Clement the Seventh to suppresse about
-      the number of fortie Monasteries of good fame, and bountifull
-      hospitalitie, wherin the King bearing with all his doings, neyther
-      Bishop nor temporall Lorde in this Realme durst saye any worde to
-      the contrarie.</p>
-
-    <p>In the executing of this business, five persons were his chiefe
-      instruments, who on a time made a demaunde to the Prior and
-      Convent of the Monasterie of Daintrie, for occupying of certayne
-      of theyr groundes, but the Monkes refusing to satisfie their
-      requests, streightway they picked a quarrel agaynst the house,
-      and gave information to the Cardinall agaynste them, who taking a
-      small occasion, commaunded the house to bee dissolved, and to bee
-      converted to hys new Colledge, but of thys irreligious robberie,
-      done of no conscience, but to patch up pride, whiche private wealth
-      coulde not furnishe, what punishmente hath since ensued at God’s
-      hande (sayeth myne Author) partly ourselves have seene, for of
-      those fyve persons, two fell at discorde betweene themselves, and
-      the one slewe the other, for the which the survivor was hanged;
-      the thirde drowned himselfe in a well; the fourth beeing well
-      knowne, and valued worth two<span class="pagenum" id="Page_119">119</span> hundred pounde, became in three
-      yeares so poore, that hee begged to hys dying day; and the fifth
-      called Doctor Allane, beeyng chiefe executor of these doyngs, was
-      cruelly maymed in Irelande, even at suche tyme as hee was a Bishop;
-      the Cardinall falling after into the King’s greevous displeasure,
-      was deposed, and dyed miserably; the Colledges whiche hee meante
-      to have made so glorious a building, came never to good effect;
-      and Pope Clement himselve, by whose authoritie these houses were
-      throwne downe to the ground was after enclosed in a dangerous siege
-      within the Castell of Saint Angell in Rome by the Emperialles; the
-      Citie of Rome was pitifully sacked; and himselfe narrowly escaped
-      with his life.”</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <p>I have repeatedly spoken of the falling off in bequests to the various
-    Religious Orders during the hundred years preceding the Reformation.
-    The fact, indeed, seems to be most important in considering the
-    attitude of the citizens. That it is a fact may be proved by the
-    following table, compiled from the <i>Calendar of Wills</i>. I have already
-    made some extracts from the Wills in proof of the change of popular
-    opinion in this respect; this table considers the fact from another
-    point of view.</p>
-
-  <p>Of course we have not, in these pages, all the Wills, nor anything
-    more than a small fraction of the Wills made by the Citizens during
-    the centuries covered by the contents of these two volumes. But they
-    may be taken as representative wills, in whatever manner they present
-    contemporary opinion. Now, as regards bequests to Religious Houses, I
-    have made the following analysis. I take three periods. (1) from 1250
-    to 1350; (2) from 1350 to 1450; (3) from 1450 to the Dissolution, say
-    1538; covering nearly three centuries. During these three periods the
-    following is the number of bequests:—</p>
-
-  <table summary="Bequests to Religious Houses">
-    <tbody>
-      <tr>
-        <td>1. To the various Orders of Friars for 1250–1350</td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>20</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="pl15">1350–1450</td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>12</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="pl15">1450–1540</td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>4</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td>2. To the Charter House for the 1st period, not founded.</td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>&nbsp;</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="pl12">2nd &nbsp; &nbsp;„</td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>31</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="pl12">3rd &nbsp; &nbsp;„</td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>14</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td>3. To the Grey Friars for the 1st period, bequests included among the various Orders.</td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>&nbsp;</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="pl11">2nd &nbsp; &nbsp;„</td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>20</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="pl11">3rd &nbsp; &nbsp;„</td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>none</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td>4. To the Black Friars 1st period, included among various Orders.</td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>&nbsp;</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="pl9">2nd &nbsp; &nbsp;„</td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>10</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="pl9">3rd &nbsp; &nbsp;„</td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>1</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td>5. To the Holy Trinity Priory for the 1st period</td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>17</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="pl14">2nd &nbsp; &nbsp;„</td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>46 (?)</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td>6. To Eastminster for the 1st period, not yet founded.</td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>&nbsp;</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="pl10">2nd &nbsp; &nbsp;„</td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>7</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="pl10">3rd &nbsp; &nbsp;„</td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>2</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td>7. To St. Helen’s for the 1st period</td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>18</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="pl10a">2nd &nbsp; &nbsp;„</td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>12</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="pl10a">3rd &nbsp; &nbsp;„</td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>none</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td>8. Crutched Friars for the 1st period</td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>13</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="pl10b">2nd &nbsp; &nbsp;„</td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>10</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="pl10b">3rd &nbsp; &nbsp;„</td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>1</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td><span class="pagenum" id="Page_120">120</span>9. Carmelite or White Friars, 1st period</td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>15</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="pl11a">2nd &nbsp; &nbsp;„</td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>11</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="pl11a">3rd &nbsp; &nbsp;„</td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>1</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td>10. Austin Friars for 1st period </td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>13</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="pl8">2nd &nbsp; &nbsp;„</td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>13</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="pl8">3rd &nbsp; &nbsp;„ &nbsp; &nbsp;for masses</td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>2</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td>11. St. Bartholomew’s for 1st period</td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>14</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="pl10c">2nd &nbsp; &nbsp;„</td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>13</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="pl10c">3rd &nbsp; &nbsp;„</td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>2</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td>12. Haliwell for 1st period</td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>12</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="pl6">2nd &nbsp; &nbsp;„</td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>20</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="pl6">3rd &nbsp; &nbsp;„</td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>2</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td>13. Minoresses for 1st period</td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>9</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="pl7">2nd &nbsp; &nbsp;„</td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>18</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="pl7">3rd &nbsp; &nbsp;„</td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>3</div></td>
-      </tr>
-    </tbody>
-  </table>
-
-  <p>These figures show most unmistakably that the monastic life was no
-    longer regarded as it had been by the people of London. By the friars
-    especially, <i>i.e.</i> by those who could read the signs of the time, it
-    must have been understood that the end was very near. Not the alleged
-    immorality of the Religious, but the decay of their numbers, the
-    wasting of their property, the withdrawal of support by the laity,
-    might have warned those under vows that a change was nigh at hand. I do
-    not suppose that many of them heard this warning. Who could believe,
-    standing in the great church, glittering with lights, with gold and
-    silver, rich with colour, splendid with carved work, that the axe was
-    already laid to the root?</p>
-
-  <p>The people of London were not, it is true, consulted. Henry was not
-    the kind of man to consult the illiterate on points of Theology or
-    Spiritual Government. They were, however, filled with a vague unrest
-    of new ideas; we know not what survivals of the old Lollardry lingered
-    and were whispered about, or spoken openly; we know not how widely the
-    ballads and satirical verses against monks and friars were repeated
-    and sung and made the subject of merriment in the taverns. We do know,
-    however, that the King ordered and that the people of London obeyed.
-    I think it incredible that even the most masterful of English kings
-    should have dared to force changes so radical upon an unwilling city.
-    London was never remarkable for meekness, and in matters religious was
-    never uncertain. The King must have known that the people of London,
-    at least, would be with him. London, therefore, obeyed; the people
-    looked on while the Pope of Rome vanished; they made no protest when
-    they saw Monks, Nuns, and Friars turned out of doors and their Houses
-    closed; they looked on without a murmur even when the Carthusians
-    were dragged to a horrible doom. Was this callousness? Was it fear?
-    Was it acquiescence in the Revolution, with the hope of larger things
-    to follow? For my own part, looking at the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_121">121</span> attitude of the citizens
-    during the successive reigns of Henry, Edward, Mary, and Elizabeth, I
-    think there can be no doubt as to the general opinion at the time, and
-    that it was from the outset in favour of the Dissolution of the Houses
-    and the Dispersion of the Religious; in favour of denying the authority
-    of the Pope; eager for the free readings of the Holy Scriptures in the
-    vulgar tongue and for the right of that private interpretation which
-    seems so easy to the illiterate. As regards ritual, the changes, as
-    will be explained later, were gradual; the introduction of distinctive
-    Protestant doctrine was not brought about in a day; the genesis of the
-    Puritanic spirit does not belong to the Revolution under Henry.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="i_121"><img src="images/i_121.jpg" width="600" height="400" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">MARTYRS AT SMITHFIELD<br />
-      E. Gardner’s Collection.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>Let us endeavour to realise something of the extraordinary change which
-    the Suppression of the Houses brought about in London. Fortunately the
-    work was carried on by successive Acts, covering a period of fifteen
-    years or so; it was not until 1548, for instance, that the whole of the
-    chantries, colleges, etc., were suppressed.</p>
-
-  <p>The point of departure is, naturally, the expulsion and the dispersion
-    of the Religious of all Orders. At this point most historians stop. Yet
-    this was only the beginning.</p>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_122">122</span></p>
-
-  <p>Consider, then, the number of those turned out of the London Houses.
-    We may arrive at an approximation of the number by the following
-    considerations. There were 202 Houses, not counting Friaries, dissolved
-    in 1538–1540.</p>
-
-  <p>They contained, in all, 3221 Monks and Canons. This gives an average of
-    16 Brethren to each House. Now there were in London some twenty Houses
-    great and small—say from St. Peter’s, Westminster, to Jesus Commons.
-    In the same proportion there would thus be 300 Monks and Canons. In the
-    same proportion, also, there would be about a fourth of that number of
-    Nuns. Now, these monks and nuns were not sent out into a cold world
-    empty-handed. Not at all. They received pensions. The nuns of St.
-    Helen’s, for instance, received pensions of £2:14:4 each. The chantry
-    priests of the same place, whose stipends had been £6:13:4 and £7
-    respectively, obtained pensions of £5 each. We must, in fact, put aside
-    altogether the generally received notion of the Dissolution as an Act
-    which drove thousands of holy men and women out of their homes—abodes
-    of piety and virtue—to starve. There was no starvation at all: the
-    pensions though small were intended to be sufficient; we have therefore
-    the fact that some 400 Religious of London were made to lay down the
-    habit of their Profession and to go forth into the world on pensions
-    large enough to maintain them. What became of them? Many of the older
-    monks and nuns doubtless felt acutely the change of habit; the loss of
-    the former life—its quiet, its self-centred interests, its community;
-    some of the younger men, we cannot doubt, willingly turned themselves
-    to secular pursuits; some lived quietly, keeping up privately, two or
-    three together, some manner of religious life; some were concealed
-    in the country and a few, perhaps, in town, and led the life of the
-    Rule in a clandestine manner; some, again, the restraint of their vows
-    being withdrawn, ran into excesses and fell into the mire; some haunted
-    taverns, to the disgrace of their former calling. But of suffering or
-    privation I cannot discover that there was much, if any, either for
-    monks or nuns. It is pretended that the pensions were irregularly paid.
-    The evidence seems to me insufficient; in regard to the nuns of St.
-    Helen’s, we have positive evidence pointing in the opposite direction.</p>
-
-  <p>The greatest sufferers were, as we have seen, the friars. For them
-    there was no pity; for them there were no pensions; no one believed
-    in them any longer; their day was done. There appeared, a short time
-    ago, a book written by one who had been for twelve years a friar:
-    he came out of the House; he laid down his frock and renounced his
-    vows; and he wrote a book in which he described the life of his late
-    brethren. It is not an exaggerated or an ill-natured book; it is simply
-    a plain statement of the manner of life led by the friars of these
-    days. Looking through its pages one begins unconsciously to consider
-    the friars of the early sixteenth century—the friars in their last
-    days—by the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_123">123</span> light of this revelation. Now the modern friar is a man
-    of some education and some culture. Take away his education and his
-    culture in order to get at the friar of the Tudor time. Place him in a
-    time much rougher and coarser in manners; give him nothing to do: no
-    work either of mental or physical kind; and to the general futility
-    and unreality of life in a modern friary add the temptations, almost
-    irresistible to the uneducated mind of the ordinary friar, of the world
-    around him. In this way one may succeed, perhaps, in understanding the
-    reasons for the unpopularity of the friars.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="i_123"><img src="images/i_123.jpg" width="600" height="399" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption"><i>The North Prospect of Westminster Abbey</i><br />
-      From an engraving by G. Collins.  &nbsp; &nbsp;A. Rischgitz’ Collection.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>It is generally stated that riches flowed in upon the friars as a
-    consequence of the respect in which they were held. That is not the
-    case: they were never rich. They owned a few houses built within the
-    limits of their own precinct, the rent of which went to maintain the
-    fabric of the church, and the service. For themselves the friars
-    possessed no great buildings, except the Church, the Library, and the
-    Hall: and they lived on charity at the end of their time as at the
-    beginning. Wyclyf makes much of their churches. “Freres bylden mony
-    grete churches and costily houses, and cloystris as hit were castels
-    and that withoute nede. Grete houses make not men holy, and onely by
-    holiness is God wel served.”</p>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_124">124</span></p>
-
-  <p>The friars were not rich, but they were proud: they arrogated power and
-    sanctity for their very robe. Those who died in the Franciscan habit
-    could never, they said, be carried away by the devil. Walsingham, who
-    had, perhaps, the jealousy of a monk, thus wrote of them:—</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“The friars, unmindful of their profession, have even forgotten
-      to what end their Orders were instituted; for the holy men their
-      lawgivers desired them to be poor and free of all kind of temporal
-      possessions, that they should not have anything which they might
-      fear to lose on account of saying the truth. But now they are
-      envious of possessors, approve the crimes of the great, induce
-      the commonalty into error, and praise the sins of both; and with
-      the intent of acquiring possessions, they who had renounced
-      possessions, with the intent of gathering money, they who had sworn
-      to persevere in poverty, call good evil and evil good, leading
-      astray princes by adulation, the people by lies, and drawing both
-      with themselves out of the straight path.”</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <p>They disappeared. What became of them? It is impossible to say. Some
-    of the Sisters went to Flanders; some of those who were in priests’
-    orders obtained benefices; some took up honest work; for many, work was
-    impossible. If a man gets to thirty or so without doing any work, it
-    becomes impossible that he should ever do any work.</p>
-
-  <p>The Brethren, however, were not the only people who lived upon
-    the revenues of the House. Every Monastic Foundation had its own
-    establishment and was complete in itself. Of course, the superfluity
-    of officers and the general waste of work were, from a modern point of
-    view, deplorable. Every House had its mill, its brewery, its bakery,
-    its still-rooms, its gardens, orchards, fish-ponds, vineyards; its
-    servants of all kinds, including bailiffs, serjeants, scriveners,
-    illuminators, carvers, gilders, singing men, singing schools, huntsmen,
-    farmers, carpenters, plumbers, gardeners, agriculturists, sextons,
-    gate-porters, rent-collectors, lawyers, stewards, and one knows not
-    what besides. When the House was closed all these people were turned
-    adrift, certainly, without pensions. Thousands of families, for these
-    people were not under vows and were married, were suddenly deprived of
-    their means of livelihood. What could they do? The ordinary craftsmen
-    would make shift: their Companies helped them; but the better sort,
-    the scriveners, limners, illuminators, painters, carvers, gilders; the
-    bailiffs, lawyers, stewards,—what could they do? For fifteen years
-    London was flooded with the people of the monasteries turned adrift to
-    find a means of living; they were not people who swelled the ranks of
-    the vagabond and the masterless; they were respectable and honest folk.
-    Their struggles and their sufferings, if we could get at them, must
-    have been very real and, in many cases, very terrible.</p>
-
-  <p>There were, next, the people who lived by the making and selling
-    of things no longer wanted under the new order. There were the
-    makers of ecclesiastical vestments and robes; altar cloths; wax
-    tapers; instruments required in the celebration of Mass; crosses and
-    crucifixes; beads, reliquaries, images, and all<span class="pagenum" id="Page_125">125</span> the “properties”
-    required for the old Faith. Also all those who sold tapers, beads,
-    crosses, images, relics, books of hours, mass books, censers and
-    every kind of church vessel. One has only to look at the shops in the
-    vicinity of a French cathedral to understand the extent of the business
-    when not a single cathedral, but a hundred and fifty parish churches,
-    and monastic chapels, had to be provided for, and when all the people,
-    with one consent, acquiesced in the doctrines, and practised the ritual
-    of the Church.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="i_125"><img src="images/i_125.jpg" width="413" height="494" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">STEPHEN GARDINER, BISHOP OF WINCHESTER (1483(?)–1555)<br />
-      From an engraving of the portrait in Trinity Hall, Cambridge.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>All these people, thus deprived of their livelihood, were skilled
-    craftsmen. When their occupation was gone, when embroidered
-    altar-cloths, copes and vestments stiff with cloth of gold, carven
-    images, sacred pictures, beads and crosses and crucifixes, were no
-    longer wanted, what could they do? If, at the present day, any single
-    branch of industry is suddenly destroyed, what happens? It is too late
-    for the people concerned to learn another trade. What happened to these
-    unfortunates it is impossible to guess. One thing we know, namely, in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_126">126</span>
-    general terms, that London was in a miserable condition for a quarter
-    of a century after the Dissolution of the Houses; and we may fairly
-    conclude that not bad trade alone, but also the great number of poor
-    and forlorn creatures who had been hurled by the Reformation from
-    comfort to penury, was one cause of the depression.</p>
-
-  <p>Or, if we consider the immediate external effects of the Suppression;
-    think of the unwonted silence, when all the bells of all the Monastic
-    Houses were taken down: instead of the melodious pealing from forty
-    chapels, there was left only the sorry tinkle of the parish bell.</p>
-
-  <p>From the streets disappeared all the friars: those of St. Francis,
-    of St. Dominic, of St. Augustine, the Carmelites, and those with the
-    Iron Cross. The old familiar figures had been diminishing in numbers,
-    but they were still visible when the end came: still they went about,
-    opening their money-boxes in the shops, and finding nothing. Afterwards
-    one met, flitting along the streets, stray and forlorn figures clad
-    like craftsmen, but knowing no craft; sturdy beggars who would not
-    work; men and women turned out into the stony-hearted streets, filled
-    with rage and bitterness; looking always for the restoration of the
-    old Order and their own return to the quiet house of ease and comfort.
-    Gone, too, were the servants of the Houses; they had been known by the
-    badge upon their shoulders; gone was the vast army of chantry priests,
-    subdeacons, and ecclesiastics, with all the minor Orders. When Queen
-    Mary restored the ancient Faith the priests appeared again, leaping
-    out from unknown dens and secret places, ready to resume suddenly the
-    restored service before the newly adorned altar. And as London always
-    attracted the masterless and the vagabond and the criminal, so from
-    all parts of England flocked to the City those whom the Reformation
-    had sent out homeless and penniless. The clergy, for their part, lost
-    the greater part of their fees. The baptisms, marriages, and funerals,
-    it is true, continued, but the fees for masses to be said for the
-    dead—the most important part of the fees—the endowments of chantries,
-    post obits, and memorial days, were all swept away. There were many
-    chantry priests in every parish church. Why, only a few years before
-    the Reformation, on the death of Lady Jane Seymour, Sir Richard Gresham
-    ordered 1200 masses to be sung in the City churches for the repose of
-    her soul. And when prayers for the dead were forbidden, and what had
-    been an aristocratic Heaven, open especially to the rich because they
-    could buy their entrance by masses, became a democratic Heaven, open
-    to the poor and lowly as much as to the high and mighty, the loss to
-    the clergy from this source was very great. There was also another
-    loss in the abolition of pilgrimage, and another in the abolition of
-    confession, penance, and extreme unction.</p>
-
-  <p>As for the people, they had their losses to deplore as well as their
-    gains to rejoice over. They were deprived, for instance, of the most
-    splendid and gorgeous<span class="pagenum" id="Page_127">127</span> spectacle open to them, the services of the
-    Church with the rolling music of the organ, the singing of the choir,
-    the chanting of the priests; with the illumination of the altar; the
-    fragrance of the incense; the pictures on the wall; the brilliant side
-    chapels; the many votive candles; the sculptured saints; and all that
-    appealed to the eye and to the ear. That service had been performed
-    by moving figures, they seemed not men, in wondrous robes set off
-    by the bright lights. It was a service at which the hearts of men
-    and women with imagination were daily, keenly, sincerely moved and
-    led heavenward. All this they had to give up. In its place they were
-    offered a cold and quiet service with a sermon an hour long, appealing
-    to their reason and bidding them base their faith on logic and argument
-    instead of the authority and the Voice of the Church, inviting them to
-    trust in right doctrine rather than in the Fold of Christ. The service
-    had been the chief instructor in art, music, and æsthetics. When it was
-    gone what had they left? There were no more pictures for the people;
-    there was no more grand and solemn music for them; only the tinkling
-    of the mandoline in the tavern, or the “noise” of the whifflers who
-    marched before a prisoner; there was nothing else for them. Mary’s
-    martyrs made them hate the name of Catholic; they pelted her chaplains
-    in the street; they hung up a dog, head shorn, to mock the tonsure;
-    they hung up a cat with a wafer in its paws to mock the Elevation
-    of the Host. Yet though they were no longer Catholics it cannot be
-    maintained that they had got very far in Protestantism.</p>
-
-  <p>Some of the ancient forms remained: it still continued the duty of
-    every Christian, as it has always been the duty of every follower
-    of the Roman Church, to attend service on Sunday morning, and to
-    communicate on the great festivals of Easter, Christmas, Trinity,
-    and Whit Sunday. The fast days remained: no flesh could be sold; the
-    butchers’ shops were closed; none could be eaten on Fridays or in Lent;
-    there were some who followed the ancient austerities so far as to
-    fast on Wednesday as well. All classes, high and low, rich and poor,
-    were constantly engaged in reading the New Testament for proofs of
-    new doctrine, and the Old Testament for examples and for warnings. In
-    every ale-house the men wrangled on points of doctrine over their pots;
-    the women in the doorways discussed obscure points in the teaching of
-    St. Paul; there were none so ignorant as not to be able to formulate
-    a whole body of doctrines; in every barber’s shop there was a Bible;
-    already men had begun to set up strange and absurd teachings, in their
-    ignorant and fond attempts to discern the Truth in a weak translation;
-    already some had begun to go about in sad-coloured garments, without
-    ornament, colour, or decoration, even with texts ostentatiously bound
-    round their hats or their sleeves, like the phylacteries of the
-    Pharisees.</p>
-
-  <p>In London the better sort of people towards the end of the century
-    became infected with Puritanism. Puritans were known by their outward
-    and visible<span class="pagenum" id="Page_128">128</span> signs: they wore texts on their arms; they hated starch
-    and had limp cuffs; they wore no hatbands; they would not curl their
-    hair, but carried it lank; those who were shopkeepers always had
-    a Bible open on the counter; they hated the theatre and all other
-    amusements; in church they would have no organ; they used strange
-    words, calling, for instance, godfather and godmother “witnesses”; they
-    spoke of Christ-tide instead of Christmas; whole trades in London went
-    “solid” for Puritanism, <i>e.g.</i> the feathermen of Blackfriars; they
-    were intolerant and fanatic; they desired above all things to abolish
-    Episcopacy. They showed their opinions by their manner of singing,
-    which was without the accompaniment of organs, and by slowly drawling
-    their words. The Puritans would not greatly care for irreverence in St.
-    Paul’s: they gave no reverence to a consecrated place; yet they went to
-    church in order to worship and to hear godly sermons. Therefore they
-    could not look on unmoved when they saw St. Paul’s crowded with people
-    who went there in order to transact business, to buy and sell, to talk,
-    to quarrel, to fight, to make assignations or to keep them, to display
-    fine dress, to be hired in service.</p>
-
-  <p>To a certain class, the larger class, otherwise the thing would have
-    been impossible; these changes were welcomed with the greatest joy
-    because they declared and emphasised the revolution of religious
-    thought. For the majority the pendulum had swung round from the faith
-    and trust in the Fold of the Church, to the sense of individual
-    responsibility. The pendulum is always swinging backwards and
-    forwards. In our own time we have witnessed a partial return to the
-    belief in a Fold. The cold service with its long sermon of doctrine;
-    the private study of the Scriptures; the exercise of individual
-    judgment, free though unlettered, upon points of doubt and apparent
-    contradiction;—all formed part of the same movement and appealed to
-    the majority.</p>
-
-  <p>At the same time there was another section to whom these things were
-    hateful and horrible and blasphemous. This was the class which was
-    ready to forget the old grievances, the intolerable burden of Church
-    property; the multitudes who lived in sloth, as it appeared; the wide
-    difference between practice and profession; and thought only, as so
-    many at the present day think, of the haven of safety promised to the
-    faithful; the beauty, splendour, and stateliness of the service; the
-    ecstasy of the believer; the yielding of spirit before the Ineffable
-    Presence; the visible power and authority of the Roman Catholic Church.
-    These people looked and prayed daily for a return of the old Faith;
-    they were recusants under Elizabeth; they concealed the priests who
-    came over to concoct their conspiracies; they were Romanists first and
-    Englishmen next, until the horrors of the persecution in Flanders, of
-    the massacres in France, and the designs of the Spaniards upon England,
-    made them Englishmen first and Catholics next.</p>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_129">129</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter w300">
-    <a id="i_129"><img src="images/i_129.jpg" width="302" height="468" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="attribr"><i>A. Rischgitz.</i></div>
-  </div>
-  <div class="center caption">QUEEN ELIZABETH AT PRAYER<br />
-    Frontispiece to <i>Christian Prayers</i>, 1569. From a copy in the Lambeth
-    Palace Library, which probably belonged to the Queen herself.</div>
-
-  <p>An irreparable loss to the world was the wholesale destruction of the
-    libraries. Printing, an invention of no longer standing than fifty
-    years, had as yet produced comparatively few books. When, for instance,
-    the learned Anthony Brockby had written his book <i>Ad Fratres</i> against
-    the King’s Supremacy, he did not get it printed, but had a duplicate
-    copy made, which he presented to the Franciscans, his brothers. By
-    far the greater part of theology, philosophy, science, and literature
-    remained in MS., and these MSS. formed the Monastic Libraries. When
-    the Houses were suppressed, those who obtained them as a gift from
-    the King for the most part cared nothing about the books: they were
-    dispersed without any consideration for their use or value; if they
-    were well bound, the covers were pulled off and the books thrown away,
-    or turned into waste paper. Thus John Bale writes (<i>Antiq. English
-      Franciscans</i>):—</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“Covetousness was at that time so busy about private interest, that
-      public wealth was not anywhere regarded. A number of them which
-      purchased those superstitious Mansions reserved of those Library
-      Books some to serve their Jakes, some to scowr their candlesticks,
-      and some to rub their Boots, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_130">130</span> some they sold the Grocers and
-      Soap sellers, and some they sent over sea to the Bookbinders:
-      not in small number, but, at times, whole ships full. Yea, the
-      Universities of this Realm are not all clear in this Fact; but
-      cursed is the belly which seeks to be fed with so ungodly gains,
-      and so deeply shameth his natural country. I know a Merchant man
-      (which shall at this time be nameless) that bought the Contents of
-      two noble Libraries for forty shillings price; a shame it is to be
-      spoken. This stuff hath he occupied, instead of grey paper, by the
-      space of more than these ten years, and yet he hath store enough
-      for as many years to come. A prodigious example is this, and to be
-      abhorred of all men which love their nation as they should do. Yea,
-      what may bring our realm to more shame and rebuke than to have it
-      noised abroad that we are despisers of learning? I judge this to be
-      true, and utter it with heaviness, that neither the Britons under
-      the Romans and Saxons, nor yet the English people under the Danes
-      and Normans had ever such damage of their learned Monuments as we
-      have seen in our time. Our posterity may well curse this wicked
-      fact of our age, this unreasonable spoil of England’s most noble
-      Antiquities.”... “How many admirable manuscripts of the Fathers,
-      Schoolmen, and Commentators were destroyed by this means? What
-      number of historians of all ages and Countries? The Holy Scriptures
-      themselves, as much as these Gospellers pretended to regard them,
-      underwent the fate of the rest. If a Book had a cross on it it
-      was condemned for Popery, and those with lines and circles were
-      interpreted the Black Art and destroyed for Conjuring. And thus, as
-      Fuller goes on, Divinity was profaned, Mathematicks suffered for
-      Corespondence with Evil Spirits, Physick was maimed, and a Riot
-      committed on the Law itself.”</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <p>One change, one result, of the Suppression, everybody can understand.
-    This was the closing of the Hospitals. London was full of Hospitals,
-    but they were Religious Houses. St. Bartholomew’s, attached to the
-    Priory; St. Thomas’, Southwark; St. Mary Spital; Elsing Spital for the
-    blind; St. Mary of Bethlehem for the insane; the House on Tower Hill
-    also for the insane; the House of St. Augustine Papey for old priests;
-    the Infirmary in every Monastic House;—all these provided for the sick
-    poor. I have no doubt, though on the subject I have no information,
-    that the Companies, which certainly took care of their sick and their
-    infirm, must have done so through the existing Hospitals. When the
-    Houses were closed, what became of the sick? It is commonly believed
-    that they were turned into the street, no one caring for them. This
-    was certainly not the case. The Companies cared for their own; the
-    City cared for its freemen and their families; would the City, which
-    maintained a debtors’ prison for its freemen, so that they should not
-    be confined with the general herd, suffer its sick and poor to starve?
-    There was a residuum of those who were not free, namely, the vagabonds
-    and masterless men and women. For them there was a time of great
-    misery; when they were ill there was no one to visit them; no hospital
-    where they might be taken; no hands to minister and alleviate; no voice
-    to console and to fortify. And we know nothing, and cannot estimate the
-    suffering because there were no journalists to publish the things they
-    saw; and the sick and poor lay unheeded and starved, and died unknown
-    and uncared for in the dirt and misery of the Tudor slum.</p>
-
-  <p>There is no doubt, also, that the open house kept by such a monastery
-    as the Holy Trinity, where the poor received every day the broken meat
-    and a great deal more, was greatly missed and deplored by the whole
-    company of the masterless. What with daily open house at the greater
-    monasteries, the broken meats of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_131">131</span> smaller, the doles and charities
-    of the parish, the “mind days” with their loaves and gifts to the
-    poor, bequeathed by rich citizens, a family which objected to work
-    might rub along in solid and well-fed comfort all the year round. And
-    this resource, looked upon as certain and unfailing like a perennial
-    spring, was suddenly stopped. Then all these people had to work, or
-    to beg, or to rob. The streets became pestered with sturdy beggars:
-    the by-places of Elizabethan Literature present most vivid pictures of
-    the companies of beggars, impostors, rogues and vagabonds. They were
-    the people whom the monks and nuns had fed without asking questions;
-    the folk who would not work; the people turned out of the monasteries;
-    ex-friars; ex-chantry priests; former makers of images, crucifixes,
-    beads, candlesticks and the rest: these were the people who felt most
-    bitterly the abolition of indiscriminate charity and the cruel choice
-    offered them under the new order of work; mendicancy with the whip, or
-    crime with the gallows.</p>
-
-  <p>Out of all these evils and sufferings was born, like a sweet flower on
-    a heap of rubbish, the Spirit of modern Charity.</p>
-
-  <p>The Church had taken over to herself the whole of Mediæval charity. Did
-    a citizen desire to help the poor, he gave money for the purpose to the
-    Church. If a poor man wanted help, it was not to a merchant that he
-    went, but to a monastery.</p>
-
-  <p>For charity, that is, for pity, for almsgiving, the world has always
-    felt the most profound respect. The most popular of mediæval saints was
-    the hard and austere Bishop of whom the world remembered that he had
-    once divided his cloak with a beggar. There were six churches dedicated
-    to St. Martin in the City of London alone.</p>
-
-  <p>And when the friars first came over, and men, wondering, saw that they
-    did not lock themselves up in their cloister to pray for the world
-    like the other Religious, but that they went about among the people
-    ministering, comforting, preaching, consoling; that they found no den
-    too revolting, no disease too loathsome, no criminal too base, for
-    their ministrations; then, indeed, there was an outburst of gratitude,
-    of joy, of respect, of awe for men so saintly. They were considered the
-    veritable children of God.</p>
-
-  <p>But it was not to be thought that the poor sinners outside the
-    monastery should imitate their example. Nay, St. Francis, their
-    founder, had himself separated his Order from the world, they were
-    called out from the rest of humanity, they were kept separate by
-    vows of celibacy, poverty, obedience. Modern charity as yet did not
-    exist, as we now understand it, only the respect for charity as an
-    ecclesiastical institution.</p>
-
-  <p>I believe that the early followers of St. Francis perceived the weak
-    point of this separation from the world. We can hear one wiser than
-    the rest saying, “There is danger that the early zeal may decline. All
-    things human have in them the germs of decay; if there comes a time
-    when our brethren shrink from the task they have<span class="pagenum" id="Page_132">132</span> undertaken, if their
-    vows become a sham, their prayers a form, their work a pretence and
-    a profession, then it would have been better for the world had St.
-    Francis never existed, because we shall have taken from the layman the
-    duty of personal service and killed it by our own neglect.”</p>
-
-  <p>To meet this danger, not to take renunciation and self-sacrifice wholly
-    out of the world, they created another Order, that called the <i>Fratres
-      de Saccâ</i>. This Order contained men and women of the world, married
-    men and married women; they were allowed to go about their daily work;
-    those who were single were not forbidden to marry; they took vows, but
-    not those of celibacy nor of poverty.</p>
-
-  <p>When the Houses were suppressed, all the institutions which they had
-    supported were suppressed as well. Yet it did not immediately occur
-    to the people that the burden of the poor, which they had long since
-    willingly laid upon the Church, was now laid upon themselves. When
-    the City took over the House of the Grey Friars; the House of St.
-    Bartholomew; the House of St. Mary Bethlehem; the Palace of Bridewell;
-    the House of St. Thomas,—it seemed to take the place of the Church
-    and to attempt, by way of taxation, all that the Monastic Houses had
-    tried, or professed, to do from their own resources. We hear of sundry
-    collections for the poor; we do not hear of work among the poor, or of
-    responsibility for the poor, for a hundred years and more after the
-    Reformation.</p>
-
-  <p>I am not, happily, called upon in this place to attack, or to defend,
-    the Dissolution. I have only to consider its effect upon London. And
-    as regards the London Houses, I repeat, I can find no scandals. The
-    judgment of the people, though that was not asked or regarded, seems to
-    have arrived at a very clear understanding as to the actual spiritual
-    value, apart from any pretension or profession, of the life of
-    seclusion and celibacy. It was a very low estimate. On the other hand,
-    the City does not seem to have been openly hostile to the Religious.
-    They were an institution; these holy men were their own kin; the
-    Monastic Houses were a part of the daily life.</p>
-
-  <p>There were violent things published against monks and friars at this
-    time, but they were written by vehement partisans and were forced
-    upon the people. For example, the work of Barnabe Googe with his
-    <i>Popish Kingdom</i>. Had there been any active hatred against them it
-    would have shown itself by the acts and deeds of the ’prentices, who
-    always reflected, roughly but surely, the direction of the current
-    of contemporary opinion. Such slight indications of feeling on the
-    subject as are afforded by the literature in the next generation point
-    to reverence as regards the nuns; while as regards monks and friars
-    they are clean forgotten—a sure sign that they were not very actively
-    hated. At the same time it does seem most remarkable that the treatment
-    of the Carthusians, who must have been regarded as innocent victims and
-    martyrs, unless they were represented as political traitors, should not
-    have excited any popular indignation.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_133">133</span> One can only suppose that the
-    spectacle of a prisoner drawn on a hurdle, hanged, and quartered, was
-    so familiar, that people hardly troubled to ask who the sufferer was,
-    or for what crime he suffered.</p>
-
-  <p>Let us now pass on to speak of certain Martyrs and Confessors. It is by
-    this time needless to point out that the constancy shown by a Ridley
-    and a Latimer for the Protestant form of doctrine was fully equalled
-    by that of those who passed through the way of fire for the ancient
-    faith. There was, however, this difference, that the Catholic martyrs
-    were monks, priests, and men of mark like Fisher and More, while the
-    Protestants included a vast number of men and women from the lower
-    ranks—from the uneducated, who yet dared to hold a belief of their own
-    based, as they thought, on private judgment,—really on the training of
-    the sermons that they had heard.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="i_133"><img src="images/i_133.jpg" width="600" height="365" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">Twenty two PROTESTANTS <i>taken into Custody on account
-      of their Religion and brought in one Band with Cords round their Arms,
-      from Colchester to London, by order of Bloody Queen Mary</i>.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>The case of Dr. Forest, Confessor to Queen Katherine, must not be
-    forgotten when one speaks of the martyrs of this time. Forest, an
-    old man, was committed to gaol, where he lay for two years among the
-    common malefactors, because he refused to acknowledge the supremacy of
-    the King. After two years of Newgate, two years in a close, stifling,
-    and noisome prison, the venerable priest was informed that he was to
-    be hanged over a fire and so slowly done to death. No more terrible
-    form of death was known in England, where the horrors of the French
-    and German capital punishments were never practised. It was the same
-    punishment as had been meted out to Oldcastle, and it was inflicted
-    on<span class="pagenum" id="Page_134">134</span> Forest for the same reason: to show the hatred and abhorrence of
-    the judges for the doctrines he taught. When the unfortunate Katherine
-    heard of the sentence she wrote to him. The letter, too long for
-    reproduction in these pages, together with Forest’s reply, may be found
-    in <i>The Antiquities of the English Franciscans</i>: they are probably
-    genuine and are very pitiful. The Queen, however, was spared the misery
-    of hearing of her Confessor’s torturing death: he was respited and
-    continued to lie in prison. Two years after the Queen’s death, and when
-    he had been confined in Newgate for four years, Forest was brought out
-    for execution.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="i_134"><img src="images/i_134.jpg" width="355" height="483" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">HUGH LATIMER (1485(?)–1555)<br />
-      From the painting in the National Portrait Gallery, London.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>On the 22nd of May 1518 they placed the old man on a sledge and dragged
-    him from Newgate to Smithfield, where he was hung in chains from a
-    gallows over a fire. This was the most terrible of all deaths. In
-    ordinary cases, the sufferer, bound to a thick stake with iron chains,
-    was enclosed up to the middle, and perhaps higher, with dry faggots: it
-    would seem that the fierce flames enveloping the victim caused death by
-    suffocation in a very few moments. Latimer, for<span class="pagenum" id="Page_135">135</span> instance, died in this
-    manner almost immediately; if, however, the flames were blown away, the
-    lower parts of the body might be slowly burned before death ensued:
-    this was the case with Ridley. When, however, the sufferer was simply
-    dangled over a fire, the flames blown this way and that, the agony
-    might last for hours.</p>
-
-  <p>In the case of Forest, the bystanders took pity on the old man and
-    threw the gallows into the fire, so that an end was soon made. “In
-    what state,” asked Latimer before the fire was lit, “will you die?”
-    Whereupon the old man replied in a loud voice: “If an angel should
-    come down from heaven to teach men any other doctrine than what I have
-    received and believed from my youth, I would not believe him; and if
-    my body should be cut joint after joint, member after member, hanged,
-    burned, or whatever pain might be done to me, yet would I never turn
-    from my old profession.” A brave old man!</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="i_135"><img src="images/i_135.jpg" width="328" height="423" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">BISHOP RIDLEY (1500(?)–1555)<br />
-      From the painting in the National Portrait Gallery, London</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>After the Carthusians the principal sufferers seem to have been the
-    Observant Friars, of whom a large number suffered for refusing to
-    acknowledge the King’s supremacy. We may read in the <i>Antiquities of
-      the English Franciscans</i> a great many stories of these sufferings. One
-    hopes that there is exaggeration.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_136">136</span> For some, according to this book,
-    were carried about the country in chains; some were racked and then
-    strangled; some were starved to death; miracles attended the death of
-    some: the whole prison, in one case, became filled with a heavenly and
-    miraculous light; and an earthquake, in another case, testified to the
-    Divine displeasure at another martyrdom.</p>
-
-  <p>On the 22nd day of June 1534, three days after the execution of the
-    three Carthusians, Exmew, Middlemore, and Newdigate, was beheaded that
-    illustrious Catholic martyr, John Fisher, Bishop of Rochester, for
-    maintaining the Pope’s supremacy; and a fortnight later, that still
-    more illustrious martyr, Thomas More. The witty and pleasant manner of
-    his conversation was kept up to the last. Grafton thus speaks of his
-    last moments:—</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“Besides his learning he had a great wit, and in talking verie
-      pleasant and merie conceited, and that even to the last hower;
-      insomuch that at hys comming to the Tower, one of the officers
-      demanded his upper garment for his fee (meaning hys Gowne) and
-      he aunswered, he should haue it, and toke him his cap, saying it
-      was the uppermost garment that he had. Likewise even going to his
-      death at the Tower gate a pore woman called to him and besought
-      him to declare that he had certayn evidence of hers in the time
-      that he was in office (which after he was apprehended she could
-      not come by) and that he would intreat she might have them agayne,
-      or else she was undone. He aunswered good woman have pacience a
-      little while, for the King is so good unto me that even within
-      this half houre he will discharge me of all businesses, and help
-      thee himselfe. Also when he went up the stayres on the Scaffolde,
-      he desired one of the Shriefes officers to give him his hand to
-      help him up, and sayde, when I come downe agayne, let me shift for
-      myself as well as I can. Also the hangman kneeled downe to him
-      asking him forgivenesse of his death (as the manner is) to whome he
-      sayde I forgive thee, but I promise thee that thou shalt never have
-      honestie of the stryking of my head, my neck is so short. Also even
-      when he should lay downe his head on the block, he having a great
-      gray beard, striked out his beard and sayde to the hangman, I pray
-      you let me lay my beard over the block least ye should cut it.”
-      (<i>Chronicle of England</i>, Grafton, vol. ii. p. 454.)</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <p>The martyrdom of the Carthusians was the most significant, the most
-    revengeful, the most audacious act of the new Head of the Church, the
-    Act by which he defied, once for all, the whole power of the Pope, of
-    Spain, and even of France. The world trembled, people looked for some
-    supernatural manifestation, some unmistakable sign of the Divine wrath:
-    none came, and they understood that here was an act of open war, and
-    that the Divine will as to the issue had not been pronounced.</p>
-
-  <p>Let us pass to the Marian Persecution. I have called attention to the
-    fact that the greater number of the martyrs belonged to the middle
-    class and to the rank or status of craftsmen. Thus, Christopher Wade
-    was a linen weaver; Thomas Wats a linen draper; John Warren was an
-    upholsterer; John Ardeley was a husbandman; Robert Bromley was a
-    grocer; Thomas Ormond was a fuller; Williams a weaver; Margery Polley
-    widow of a craftsman; Dirick Carver a brewer; John Laneden a rustic;
-    John Tudson an artificer; Joan Warne a maidservant. <span class="pagenum" id="Page_137">137</span>There were wives
-    and widows among them, “simple women,” artificers and ’prentices,
-    maid-servants and girls.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="i_137"><img src="images/i_137.jpg" width="307" height="427" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">THOMAS CRANMER (1489–1556)<br />
-      From the portrait in Jesus College, Cambridge. A. Rischgitz’ Collection.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>It was the sight of their own people suffering a cruel death which made
-    the name of Rome hateful and horrible for three hundred years and more.
-    It was the sight of the constancy of the martyrs which laid the firm
-    foundations of the Protestant Faith. For none of them flinched before
-    the flames, none of them feared the pains which the Lord God in His
-    mercy and wisdom had ordered them to endure for the sake of the Cause.
-    What was to be expected when a shoemaker such as John Noyes could die
-    triumphant and rejoicing?</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“On the next-day morning he was brought to the stake, where were
-      ready against his coming the foresaid justice, master Thurston, one
-      master Waller, then being under-sheriff, and master Thomas Lovel,
-      being high-constable, as is before expressed; the which commanded
-      men to make ready all things meet for that sinful purpose. Now the
-      fire in most places of the street was put out, saving a smoke which
-      was espied by the said Thomas Lovel proceeding from the top of a
-      chimney, to which house the sheriff and Grannow his man went, and
-      brake open the door, and thereby got fire, and brought the same to
-      the place of execution. When John Noyes came to the place where
-      he should be burnt, he kneeled down and said the 50th Psalm, with
-      other prayers; and then they, making haste, bound him to the stake.
-      And being bound, the said John Noyes said, ‘Fear not them that can
-      kill the body, but fear him that can kill both body and soul, and
-      cast it into everlasting fire.’</p>
-
-    <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_138">138</span></p>
-
-    <p>When he saw his sister weeping, and making moan for him, he bade
-      her that she should not weep for him, but weep for her sins.</p>
-
-    <p>Then one Nicholas Cadman, a valiant champion in the Pope’s affairs,
-      brought a faggot and set against him; and the said John Noyes took
-      up the faggot and kissed it, and said, ‘Blessed be the time that
-      ever I was born to come to this.’</p>
-
-    <p>Then he delivered his Psalter to the under-sheriff, desiring him to
-      be good to his wife and children, and to deliver to her that same
-      book; and the sheriff promised him that he would, notwithstanding
-      he never as yet performed his promise. Then the said John Noyes
-      said to the people, ‘They say, they can make God of a piece of
-      bread; believe them not!’</p>
-
-    <p>Then said he, ‘Good people, bear witness that I do believe to be
-      saved by the merits and passion of Jesus Christ, and not by mine
-      own deeds.’ And so the fire was kindled, and burnt about him. Then
-      he said, ‘Lord have mercy upon me! Christ have mercy upon me! Son
-      of David have mercy upon me!’</p>
-
-    <p>And so he yielded up his life. And when his body was burned, they
-      made a pit to bury the coals and ashes, and amongst the same they
-      found one of his feet that was unburnt, whole up to the ankle, with
-      the hose on; and that they buried with the rest.”</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <p>Or, to take the case of Cicely Ormes. She was a very simple woman,
-    the wife of a worsted weaver who lived in Norwich. She was present at
-    the martyrdom of Simon Miller and Elizabeth Cooper, and there, being
-    affected with their constancy, she declared that she would pledge them
-    with the same cup from which they drank:—</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“She was burnt the 23d day of September, between seven and eight of
-      the clock in the morning, the said two sheriffs being there, and of
-      people to the number of two hundred. When she came to the stake,
-      she kneeled down, and made her prayers to God; that being done, she
-      rose up and said:—</p>
-
-    <p>‘Good people! I believe in God the Father, God the Son, and God the
-      Holy Ghost, three persons and one God. This do I not, nor will I
-      recant; but I recant utterly from the bottom of my heart the doings
-      of the Pope of Rome, and all his popish priests and shavelings. I
-      utterly refuse and never will have to do with them again, by God’s
-      grace. And, good people! I would you should not report of me that
-      I believe to be saved in that I offer myself here unto the death
-      for the Lord’s cause, but I believe to be saved by the death and
-      passion of Christ; and this my death is and shall be a witness of
-      my faith unto you all here present. Good people! as many of you as
-      believe as I believe, pray for me.’</p>
-
-    <p>Then she came to the stake, and laid her hand on it, and said,
-      ‘Welcome the cross of Christ.’ Which being done, she, looking on
-      her hand, and seeing it blacked with the stake, wiped it upon her
-      smock; for she was burnt at the same stake that Simon Miller and
-      Elizabeth Cooper was burnt at. Then, after she had touched it with
-      her hand, she came and kissed it, and said, ‘Welcome the sweet
-      cross of Christ’; and so gave herself to be bound thereto. After
-      the tormentors had kindled the fire to her, she said, ‘My soul doth
-      magnify the Lord, and my spirit rejoiceth in God my Saviour.’ And
-      in so saying, she set her hands together right against her breast,
-      casting her eyes and head upward; and so stood, heaving up her
-      hands by little and little, till the very sinews of her arms did
-      brast in sonder, and then they fell. But she yielded her life unto
-      the Lord as quietly as if she had been in a slumber, or as one
-      feeling no pain; so wonderfully did the Lord work with her: His
-      name therefore be praised for evermore.”</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <p>Remember that the example was not only an admonition to those who saw
-    her death: it was related by the spectators; it was spread through the
-    length and breadth of the land; it was written down by Foxe, in whose
-    hands it certainly lost nothing of eloquence or of dramatic effect,
-    and it has been read ever since by countless people. Not the martyrdom
-    of Cranmer, Ridley, Latimer and the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_139">139</span> rest of the bishops, priests
-    and scholars, so much as those of the “very simple” women, the plain
-    craftsmen, built up the Protestant Faith, scattered the Spanish Fleets,
-    and changed the Englishman of the sixteenth century, so that he of the
-    seventeenth became possible.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="i_139"><img src="images/i_139.jpg" width="600" height="488" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">The burning of M. Iohn Rogers, vicar of Saint Pulchers,
-      and Reader of Paules in London.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>The bare list of burnings in London alone, not nearly complete, as
-    enumerated by Henry Machyn in his <i>Diary</i> (1550–1563), conveys a sense
-    of the overwhelming horror which filled England during this reign,
-    perhaps clearer than a laboured treatise on the Lives and Deaths of
-    the Martyrs. In reading the list we can see the crowds flocking to
-    Smithfield: all their sympathies are with the sufferer; they see him
-    dragged on his hurdle, undressed to the shirt and tied to the stake;
-    they see that he flinches not nor offers to retract; the faggots are
-    piled about him, Heaven grant they be of dry wood; from the flames and
-    through the smoke they hear the voice of the martyr praising God and
-    praying till the end comes, when his tongue swells up in his mouth and
-    he can speak no more, or is suffocated with the smoke, or with the
-    intensity of his agony his heart stops and merciful Death<span class="pagenum" id="Page_140">140</span> seizes him.
-    Then the crowd go home again; they dare not speak to each other; but
-    they remember.</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“1555. The iiij day of Feybruary the bysshope of London went into
-      Nugatt and odur docturs to dysgratt (degrade) Hoper, and Rogers
-      sumtyme vycker of sant Polkers. The sam day was Rogers cared
-      be-twyn x and xj of the cloke into Smythfeld and bornyd, for
-      aronyus opinions, with a grett compene of the gard.</p>
-
-    <p>1555. The xvj day of Marche was a veyver (weaver) bornyd in
-      Smyth-feld dwellynge in Sordyche, for herese, by viij of the cloke
-      in the mornyng, ys nam was Tomkins.</p>
-
-    <p>1555. The xiiij day of Aprell, the wyche was Ester day at sant
-      Margatt parryche at Westmynster after masse was done, one of
-      the menysters, a prest of the abbay, dyd helpe hym that was the
-      menyster to the pepull who wher reseyvyng of the blessyd sacrement
-      of the Lord Jhesus Cryst, ther cam in-to the chyrche a man that
-      was a monke of Elly, the wyche was marryed to a wyff: the sam day
-      ther that sam man saud to the menyster, What doyst thow gyff them?
-      and as sone as he had spokyn he druw his wod-knyffe, and hyt the
-      prest on the hed and struck hym on the hand, and cloyffe ys hand a
-      grett way and after on the harme a grett wond; and ther was syche
-      a cry and showtt as has not byne; and after he was taken and cared
-      to presun, and after examyned wher-for he dyd ytt. The xxiij day
-      of Aprell was the sam man cared to Westmynster that dyd hurt the
-      prest, and had ys hand stryken of at the post, and after he was
-      bornyd aganst sant Margett chyrche with-owt the cherche-yerde.</p>
-
-    <p>1555. The sam day of May was arraigned iiij men at Powlles a-for
-      none and after-non, of Essex, and thay wher cast for heresse and
-      all iiij cast to be bornyd and so cared unto Nugat.</p>
-
-    <p>1555. The xxv day of May were arraigned at St. Paul’s for heresy,
-      before the bishop, master Cardmaker sometime vicar of St. Bride’s
-      in Fleet-street, and one John Warren a cloth-worker in Walbrook and
-      a-nodur of ... and cast to be brent and carried back to Nugatt.</p>
-
-    <p>1555. The xxx day of May was burnt in Smythfeld master Cardmaker
-      sum-tyme veker of sant Bryd, and master Varren clothworker,
-      dwellyng aganst sant John in Walbroke, an hupholster, and ys wyff
-      behyng in [Newgate].</p>
-
-    <p>1555. The x day of Juin was delevered owt of Nugatt vij men to be
-      cared into Essex and Suffoke to borne.</p>
-
-    <p>1555. The furst day of July whent into Smythfield to borne master
-      Bradford, a grett precher by Kyng Edward’s days, and a talow
-      chandler’s prentice dwellyng by Nugatt, by viij of the cloke in the
-      mornyng, with a grett compene of pepull.</p>
-
-    <p>1555. The viij day of July were three more delivered out of Nugate
-      and sent into the country to be burned for heretics.</p>
-
-    <p>1555. The xij day of July was bornyd y Canturbery iiij men for
-      herese, ij prestes and ij laye men.</p>
-
-    <p>1555. The ij day of August was a shumaker bornyd ay sant Edmundbere
-      in Suffoke for herese.</p>
-
-    <p>1555. The viij day of August, between iiij and v in the morning,
-      was a presoner delevered into the shreyff of Medyllsex to be cared
-      unto Uxbryge to be bornyd; yt was the markett day—owt of Nugatt
-      delevered.</p>
-
-    <p>1555. The xxiij day of August was bornyd ay Stratford of bowe, in
-      the conte of Mydyllsex, a woman, wife of John Waren, clothworker, a
-      huphulster over against sant Johns in Walbroke; the whyche ... John
-      her hosband was bornyd with on Cardmaker in Smythfield for herese
-      boyth; and the sam woman had a sune taken at her bornyng and cared
-      to Nugatt to his syster, for they will born boyth.</p>
-
-    <p>1555. The xxxj day of August whent out of Nugatt a man of Essex
-      unto Barnett for herese, by the shreyff of Medyllsex, to borne ther.</p>
-
-    <p>1555. The same day were burnt at Oxford for heresy doctor Latimer,
-      late Bishop of Worcester, and doctor Ridley, late bysshope of
-      London; they were some tyme grett prychers as ever was; and at ther
-      bornyng dyd pryche doctur Smyth, sumtyme the master of Vetyngtun
-      colege.</p>
-
-    <p>1555. The xviij day of Dessember be-twyn 8 &amp; 9 of the cloke in the
-      mornyng was cared into Smythfeld to be bornyd on master Philpot,
-      archdeacon of Winchester, gentyllman, for herese.</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_141">141</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="i_141"><img src="images/i_141a.jpg" width="600" height="509" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">The description of Doctour Cranmer, howe he was plucked
-      downe from the stage, by Friers and Papists, for the true Confession of
-      hys Faith.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_141b.jpg" width="600" height="457" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption">The burning of the Archbishop of Canturbury, Doctor
-      Thomas <i>Cranmer, in the Towne-ditch at Oxford, with his hand first
-      thrust into the</i> fire, wherewith he subscribed before.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_142">142</span></p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>1556. The xxij day of January whent into Smythfeld to berne betwyn
-      vij and viij in the mornyng v men and ij women; on of the men was a
-      gentyllman of the ender tempull, ys nam master Gren; and they wer
-      all bornyd by ix at iij postes; and ther wher a commonment thrughe
-      London over nyght that no yong folke shuld come ther, for ther the
-      grettest number was as has byne sene at shyche a tyme.</p>
-
-    <p>1556. The xxj day of Marche was bornyd at Oxford doctur Cranmer,
-      late archebysshope of Canturbere.</p>
-
-    <p>1556. The xv day of May was cared in a care from Nugatt thrug
-      London unto Strettford-a-bow to borne ij men; the on blyne, the
-      thodur lame; and ij tall men, the one was a penter, the thodur
-      a clothworker; the penter ys nam was Huw Loveroke, dwellyng in
-      Seythin lane; the blynd man dwellyng in sant Thomas apostylles.</p>
-
-    <p>1556. The xxvij day of June rod from Nugatt unto Stretford-a-bowe
-      in iiij cares xiij, xj men and ij women, and ther bornyd to iiij
-      postes, and ther wher a xx M. pepull.</p>
-
-    <p>1557. The iij day of April five persons out of Essex were condemned
-      for herese, iij men and ij women (one woman with a staff in her
-      hand), to be bornyd in Smythfeld.</p>
-
-    <p>1557. The vj day of Aprell was bornyd in Smythfeld v, iij men and
-      im women, for herese; on was a barber dwellyng in Lym-strett; and
-      on woman was the wyff of the Crane at the Crussyd-frers be-syd the
-      Towre-hylle, kepyng of a in ther.</p>
-
-    <p>1557. The xiiij day of May was bornyd in Chepe-syd and odur places
-      in London serten melle that was not sweet; and thay sayd that hey
-      had putt in lyme and sand to deseyffe the pepull and he was had to
-      the conter.</p>
-
-    <p>1557. The sam mornyng was bornyd be-yond sant George’s parryche iij
-      men for heresee, a dyssyd Nuwhyngtun.</p>
-
-    <p>1557. The xviij day of June was ij cared to be bornyd beyonde sant
-      Gorgeus, almost at Nuwhyngtyn for herese and odur matters.</p>
-
-    <p>1557. The xxij day of December were burned in Smyth-feld ij, one
-      ser John Ruffe the frere and a Skott, and a woman for herese.”
-      (<i>Diary of Henry Machyn.</i>)</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <hr class="page" />
-  <div class="chapter" id="CHAPTER_2b">
-    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_143">143</span>
-    <h3>
-      <span class="gespertt1">CHAPTER II</span><br />
-      <span class="subhead">THE PROGRESS OF THE REFORMATION</span>
-    </h3>
-  </div>
-
-  <p class="noindent"><span class="smcap">The</span> question as to the proportion of Protestants to Catholics at the
-    accession of Elizabeth, and at her death, has received various answers,
-    depending upon the religion of the respondent. Lingard, the fairest
-    of all the Catholic writers, estimates the number of Catholics at
-    one-half the whole population. This was thirty years before Elizabeth’s
-    accession. Dr. Allen thought they were two-thirds (Strype, iii. 415).
-    A great many of the better class were Catholics. Venner (1649) says
-    that fifty years before, all physicians were Catholics. This may have
-    been caused by study in Italian schools of medicine. A good many people
-    in London attended mass at some Ambassador’s chapel. The Spaniards
-    when the Armada was projected relied upon the opinion that the half
-    of England would join them. The North of England was filled with
-    Catholics, yet they did not join the Rebellion of 1569. One-fourth of
-    the population of Cheshire were Catholics; on the other hand, there is
-    testimony to the effect that the number of Catholics had enormously
-    decreased in the first thirty years of Elizabeth’s reign. In 1569 there
-    were in London twelve to fifteen places where mass was regularly said.
-    In 1594 a Jesuit speaks of the “little sparkle of Catholic religion
-    yet reserved amongst us” as soon to be extinguished. The common-sense
-    view of the case seems to be this. The people of London who, as we have
-    seen, were filled with Lollardry from the beginning of the fifteenth
-    century; who welcomed the Dissolution of the Religious Houses; who
-    rejoiced at such a shadow of free thought as Henry afforded them; who
-    shuddered with horror at the flames of Smithfield;—were overjoyed at
-    the return of the Protestant Faith. But it would be wrong to suppose
-    that all the scholars, all who had lived among the better-class priests
-    and friars, went over to the new Faith; they did not: a large number of
-    gentlewomen remained steadfast; the Government showed its good sense
-    by taking no notice, or as little as possible, of recusants. Burleigh
-    advised against punishing these people by death; best not make martyrs;
-    there was no true method of lessening their numbers “but by preaching
-    and by education of the younger under good schoolmasters.”</p>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_144">144</span></p>
-
-  <p>In a word, if it is intended to make any form of faith decay, there is
-    no need of persecution: it has only to be surrounded by disabilities.
-    If a Roman Catholic could hold no municipal office, and no State
-    office, could not enter a grammar school or the university, could not
-    take a degree, could not become a lawyer, could not sit in either
-    House, could not serve in the army or the navy, then the Roman Catholic
-    religion would fall rapidly into decay. This is exactly what happened;
-    at the present moment, though all disabilities have been removed, the
-    proportion of Catholics in England and Scotland is certainly not more
-    than one in twenty. The “old” Catholics were those wealthy families
-    which could continue in spite of all disabilities, a few noble houses
-    and a few county people. Similar results attended the disabilities of
-    the Nonconformists. Dissent survived its disabilities among people who
-    cared nothing for office, people at the lower end of society, people
-    for the most part of small trade. Among the better class, Dissent lost
-    ground and mostly disappeared till the abolition of disabilities.</p>
-
-  <p>It is commonly believed that in the parish churches there was but one
-    step from the mass to the Reformed service. This was not so (see an
-    article by Mr. T. T. Micklethwaite on “Parish Churches in the year
-    1548,” <i>Arch. Journ.</i> xxxv.). The Dissolution of the Religious Houses
-    made at first very little difference in the churches. The guilds were
-    suppressed, and therefore the lights which they kept up; the endowed
-    lights were also suppressed; but people went on endowing new lights
-    for the parish churches. In the year 1547 certain rules or injunctions
-    were issued which commanded that all images which had been made the
-    object of pilgrimage should be destroyed; that no lights should be set
-    up before any picture except two wax tapers on the altar, and these
-    because Christ is the Light of the World. Images which had not been
-    abused were to remain “for remembrance only.” The English Bible and
-    the Paraphrases of Erasmus on the Gospel were to be set up in every
-    church where the people could have access to them. Shrines, pictures of
-    miracles, and glass depicting miracles, were to be destroyed; a pulpit
-    was to be provided, and an alms chest to be placed by the altar.</p>
-
-  <p>As regards the services, changes were gradual. The High Mass continued,
-    but the Gospel and Epistle were read in English, and a chapter from the
-    New Testament was read after lessons at Matins and after Magnificat
-    at Evensong. The English Litany was sung after High Mass. The Pater
-    Noster, Creed, and Ten Commandments were sometimes publicly rehearsed
-    in English, and Communion was refused to those who did not know them.</p>
-
-  <p>In the year 1548 the “Order of Communion” was put forth; in 1549 the
-    Prayer Book appeared. Mr. Micklethwaite has drawn up an account of
-    the parish church of 1548 before the Reformed Prayer Book, and with
-    the alterations<span class="pagenum" id="Page_145">145</span> made in the service up to that date. The principal
-    entrance was by the south door; in the porch was a basin of holy water;
-    the font stood sometimes in the middle of the nave, sometimes against
-    the west side of one of the pillars; it had a cover which could be
-    locked down. Near it was a locker in which were kept the oils, salt,
-    etc., required for the old rite of baptism.</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“At the beginning of the sixteenth century all but very poor parish
-      churches seem to have been furnished with pews, but the whole area
-      was not filled with them, as at a later date. Old pews west of the
-      doors are very rare, but they are found sometimes, as at Brington,
-      Northants. Generally all this space was left clear, and there
-      was a clear area of at least one bay, and often much more at the
-      west end. A church with aisles had nearly always four blocks of
-      pews, and the passages were broad alleys, that in the middle being
-      often more than a third of the width of the nave, and the side
-      passages were not much less. The appropriation of special places
-      to individuals seems to have been usual, and even that bugbear of
-      modern ecclesiastical reformers, the lock-up pew or closet, was not
-      unknown. These in parish churches were generally chantry chapels,
-      arranged for private services at their own altars and for use as
-      pews during the public services.”</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <p>The pulpit had no fixed position: it was made movable; one of that
-    period still remains at Westminster. It was ordered in 1547 that the
-    priests and choir should kneel in the midst of the church and sing
-    or say the Litany; the Litany desk came into use afterwards. The
-    confessional had been continued in certain London churches: at St.
-    Margaret Patens there was the “shrivyng pew”; at St. Christopher le
-    Stock the “Shriving House.” The usual custom was for the penitent to
-    kneel or stand before the priest, who sat in a chair. The Bible and the
-    Paraphrases of Erasmus were chained to a desk somewhere in the nave.</p>
-
-  <p>The Rood screen, which was a music gallery, carried a loft and the
-    organ when there was one. The loft contained desks for singers; it was
-    also provided with pricks for candles. The great cross rose above the
-    loft. In the chancel stood the high altar; when there were no aisles
-    two smaller altars stood one on either side. Above the altar was a
-    reredos of carved work; at the ends of which hung curtains. There
-    was generally a super altar. On the high altar stood the cross, with
-    figures, reliquaries, and images to adorn it. Also they laid on the
-    altar the Textus or Book of the Gospels, with the paxbrede or tablet
-    for the kiss of peace. There were generally two lights on the altar.</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“It is convenient to mention here the other lights, which were kept
-      in 1548, by the retention of the ceremonies with which they were
-      connected. These were the two tapers carried by boys in processions
-      at High Mass, and at other services when solemnly performed; the
-      herse light, used at Matins or Tenebres on the last three days of
-      Holy Week; the paschal candle, which stood in a tall candlestick,
-      or hung in a bason on the north side of the high altar, and was
-      lighted with much ceremony on Easter Eve, and burned at all the
-      principal services throughout Paschal tide; the torches carried in
-      the procession on Corpus Christi Day; the lantern carried before
-      the Sacrament when it was taken to the sick; the large standing
-      tapers which were placed round a corpse during the funeral service;
-      and the candle used at baptism. Most of the lights, which a little
-      earlier had been common round tombs, were endowed, and as such had
-      been taken away, but the custom of survivors placing lights round
-      the graves of their departed friends would probably be continued
-      still for a few years.”</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_146">146</span></p>
-
-  <p>Chapels were the most usual places for tombs, but they are found in
-    every part of the church. The various forms of them are too familiar
-    to require description, but the use of colour gave them much more
-    decorative importance in an interior than they have now. Many were
-    painted, and others were covered with rich cloths. Flat gravestones
-    had often carpets laid over them, and raised tombs had palls of
-    cloth of gold or other costly stuff. The church of Dunstable still
-    possesses such a pall: it is of crimson velvet, richly embroidered.
-    Tapestries and cloths of various kinds were very much used, especially
-    in chancels, as curtains and carpets, and as coverings for seats and
-    desks and the like. Every church also had special hangings for Lent,
-    when images and pictures were covered up generally with white or
-    blue cloths, marked with crosses and the emblems of the Passion. The
-    Lenten veil between the choir and the high altar seems also to have
-    been retained in 1547, but in 1548 Cranmer and his party had partly
-    succeeded in doing away with it. All parts of the church were more or
-    less adorned with imagery and pictures on walls, in windows, or on
-    furniture. None had been ordered to be taken away except such as had
-    been superstitiously abused, or which were representations of “feigned
-    miracles.”</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“When the priest took the Sacrament to the sick he was accompanied
-      by clerks, who carried a cross, bell, and light. The Sacrament
-      itself was enclosed in a pyx, and with it was taken a cup in which
-      the priest dipped his fingers after giving the communion. The
-      chrismatory was generally a little box of metal containing three
-      little bottles for the three oils, which seem generally to have
-      been kept together. For use at funerals, every church had a cross,
-      a bier, and a handbell, the last being a good-sized bell which was
-      rung before the corpse as it was being carried to the church. It
-      was also used for ‘crying’ obits about the parish, and asking for
-      prayers for the deceased. Some churches had what was called the
-      common coffin, which was used to carry bodies to the church, the
-      most general custom being to bury without coffin. And they had
-      palls and torches for funerals, for the use of which a charge was
-      made according to the quality of the pall and the ‘waste’ of the
-      torches. At weddings it was the custom to hold a large square cloth
-      of silk or other material, called the care cloth, over the heads
-      of the bride and bridegroom whilst they received the benediction,
-      and it was kept for that use amongst the church goods. At St.
-      Margaret’s, Westminster, we find also a crown or circlet for
-      brides, which appears to have been a thing of some value.”</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <p>It will be seen from these quotations that the parish church contained
-    in essentials the whole of the Catholic ritual except the parts which
-    were ordered to be read in English. At the same time by reading, by
-    hearing sermons, by the newly awakened spirit of examination and
-    discussion, the people were preparing for more drastic changes. When
-    they came there was no violent revolution, and though many remained
-    faithful to the old creed, the bulk of the people in London were
-    Protestant at heart. The weak point of the Reformation was that as yet
-    no one was sure that it was stable and assured. Nor was there any such
-    assurance till the defeat of the Spanish Armada and fifty years of the
-    Maiden Queen had turned Protestantism into patriotism.</p>
-
-  <p>It is apparent (see <i>Archæologia</i>, vol. xlv.) that the ancient
-    vestments were<span class="pagenum" id="Page_147">147</span> worn in some of the churches after the Reformation,
-    until they fell to pieces. At the church of St. Christopher le Stock
-    they were worn until the third year of Elizabeth, when being worn out,
-    and no funds existing to replace them, the simple surplice was used.
-    Twelve tables hung on the wall of the church: one containing the Ten
-    Commandments; eleven containing prayers to the saints. The Reformers,
-    therefore, did not introduce a new thing when they hung up the Table of
-    the Commandments.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter w385">
-    <a id="i_147"><img src="images/i_147.jpg" width="382" height="468" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="attribr"><i>S. B. Bolas &amp; Co., London.</i></div>
-    <div class="caption">TOMB OF QUEEN ELIZABETH IN WESTMINSTER ABBEY</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>It used to be a custom in many City churches to ring the bell at 5
-    <span class="smcap">A.M.</span>; not the “apprentice bell,” but a continuation and a
-    survival of the ancient practice to call the people to the early
-    service. Thus, at St. Margaret’s, Lothbury, in 1573, it was “resolved
-    that after every workday we shall have morning prayer at five o’clock;
-    also to have a lecture every Wednesday and Friday, beginning at five
-    o’clock and ending at six o’clock, the bell to toll half an hour after
-    five every afternoon.” The books show a good deal of whipping of men
-    and women. They were chiefly wanderers, tramps, and their great offence
-    was in carrying the plague about the country.</p>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_148">148</span></p>
-
-  <p>The services of the church could be made Lutheran in their character
-    or Puritanic. The great difference was in the manner of singing. The
-    Puritans sang in a plain tune all together; the Protestants “tossed”
-    the Psalms from one side to the other with music of the organ.
-    Congregational singing was one of the most important changes introduced
-    by the Reformation. In September 1559 the new morning prayer “after
-    Geneva fashion” was introduced at St. Antholin’s, the bell ringing at 5
-    <span class="smcap">A.M.</span></p>
-
-  <p>There were still some processions kept up. On St. Andrew’s Day a
-    procession was conducted at St. Paul’s with one priest out of every
-    parish in the City, and on the 25th of September the boys of St.
-    Anthony’s school marched together from Mile End down Cornhill with
-    streamers and flags, whifflers and drums.</p>
-
-  <p>In the church of St. Christopher le Stock we find that certain old
-    customs were preserved: the church was decorated at Christmas with
-    holly and ivy; at Easter with “rosemary, bay, and strawings.”</p>
-
-  <p>The parish system seems to have been well worked; the streets were kept
-    clean; evildoers were not allowed to harbour within the limits; taxes
-    were collected; the sick were watched and tended.</p>
-
-  <p>The efforts of the more sober leaders were directed to change, it
-    is true, but to gradual not revolutionary change. The restraint
-    of the zealous, however, was in some churches very difficult;
-    certain quarters of the City were far more Protestant than others:
-    Blackfriars, for instance, became an early centre of Puritanism; at St.
-    Martin’s-in-the-Fields, on the other hand, we find the church-wardens
-    quietly obeying every new ordinance, but keeping the old things in
-    boxes ready for a possible return to the old order. The Dissolution
-    of the Houses brought with it certain unexpected accompaniments. The
-    servants of the Commissioners took away the sacred vestments and
-    used them either for their own common wear or for saddlecloths, thus
-    inflicting wanton insults on the faithful and bringing into contempt,
-    with the desecration of the vestments, the very doctrines of which
-    they were symbolical. Again, there were the relics and the images
-    which the people had so long adored; it is true that the Church would
-    not acknowledge the adoration of an image, but that was the practice
-    of the common people, as it is at this day in every Roman Catholic
-    Church. Thus sacred objects came to be treated with the utmost scorn:
-    reliquaries were emptied and the relics thrown away; images of the
-    Virgin were deprived of their lovely vestments, and sent about the
-    country, shapeless lumps of wood, or brought to London to be publicly
-    burned. In some cases an ancient and venerable fraud was discovered
-    and pitilessly exposed. Who could resist contempt for the priests and
-    monks who had for many generations of simple believers made the head on
-    the Holy Rood of Boxley incline benignantly and roll its eyes upon the
-    kneeling multitude? With all these aids to disbelief who can wonder
-    if the wave of Protestant indignation mounted steadily higher; if the
-    fiery spirit of Reform seized upon town and country, upon the sober
-    merchant and the hot-headed ’prentice? We hear of the young men reading
-    the Bible aloud in the churches, shouting the words they read; of girls
-    who carried the English Primer with them to church and studied it
-    during the singing of Matins; of men who insulted the Consecration of
-    the Host; who attacked the priest who carried it through the streets.
-    It is certain that London itself, almost from the beginning, was for
-    the Reformation. (<i>See</i> <a href="#APPENDIX_V">Appendix V.</a>)</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="i_148a"><img src="images/i_148a.jpg" width="595" height="700" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">FOR CONTINUATION SEE BACK OF THE OTHER HALF OF THE ILLUSTRATION.</div>
-    <div class="link"><a href="#trans_148a">Go to transcription of text</a></div>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter w415">
-    <a id="i_148b"><img src="images/i_148b.jpg" width="417" height="700" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="attribr"><i>W. A. Mansell &amp; Co.</i></div>
-    <div class="caption">“POPISH PLOTS AND TREASONS.”<br />
-      For descriptions in rhyme see back.</div>
-    <div class="link"><a href="#trans_148b">Go to transcription of text</a></div>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="i_148c"><img src="images/i_148c.jpg" width="528" height="700" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">CONTINUED FROM BACK OF FIRST HALF OF ILLUSTRATION.</div>
-    <div class="link"><a href="#trans_148c">Go to transcription of text</a></div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>A pressing difficulty, in the opening years of Elizabeth, was the
-    illiterate and immoral condition of the clergy. So many refused the
-    oath of supremacy that it became necessary to create lay readers.
-    Indeed, the condition of England, including London, was calculated to
-    fill the minds of the most ardent Protestants with dismay. During the
-    first fifteen years of the reign, the House of Commons complained to
-    the Queen that men were ordained who were infamous in their lives and
-    conversation; the Bishop of London complained that even the Bishops
-    were “sunk and lamentably disvalued by the meanest of the peoples”; the
-    County of Essex represented that the new clergy were ignorant, riotous
-    and drunkards; the Lords in Council represented to the Archbishop of
-    Canterbury the evil lives of the clergy. Out of all the clergy in the
-    City of London there were but nineteen preachers. Yet in 1559 Elizabeth
-    ordered that there should be a sermon once a month on doctrine. And in
-    1586 the Bishop of London ordered the clergy to write one Sermon every
-    week. It is said that the clergy fell so low in esteem as to be treated
-    like outcasts, incurably drunken, ignorant, and licentious.</p>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_149">149</span></p>
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="i_149"><img src="images/i_149.jpg" width="371" height="267" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">KNIGHT SEIZING AN ARCHBISHOP<br />
-      From an illuminated MS. in British Museum.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_150">150</span></p>
-
-  <p>With the general charges against the Elizabethan Clergy it appears
-    unnecessary to bring forward specific acts which may very well be taken
-    to be isolated cases, in no way proving general corruption. There are,
-    however, a few which seem to show the general condition of things.</p>
-
-  <p>In 1562, a priest was carted through the City for saying mass.</p>
-
-  <p>In 1554 priests, who would not leave their wives, did penance in St.
-    Paul’s, and were beaten over the head with rods.</p>
-
-  <p>In 1561 the Queen, who never approved the marriage of priests, ordered
-    those who were married not to bring their wives into Colleges.</p>
-
-  <p>In the same year there were found to be many conjurors in Westminster
-    including priests, one of whom was put in pillory.</p>
-
-  <p>In 1557 the priest of St. Ethelburga was pilloried for sedition, and
-    had his ears nailed to the pillory.</p>
-
-  <p>In 1559 there was a great burning of copes, censers, crosses, altar
-    cloths, rood cloths, books, banners, etc.</p>
-
-  <p>In 1560 a priest was hanged for cutting a purse; it was his second
-    offence.</p>
-
-  <p>The priest who sold his wife to a butcher, and was carried through the
-    streets for an open shame, must hardly, one hopes, be quoted as an
-    example. We picture him as a drunken and dissolute hog, lost to all
-    sense of decency. The other priest who for an act of immorality was
-    also carried about the streets may have been more common. When all the
-    clergy married as a matter of course such scandals ceased.</p>
-
-  <p>As I have reproduced certain charges against the clergy and Religious
-    of the old Faith, it is but fair to give an example of the bad
-    character of one, at least, belonging to the clergy of the Reformation.
-    The following letter is addressed to the Lady Bowes:—</p>
-
-  <p>“Right Worshipfull,</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; I understand that one Raphe Cleaton ys curate of the
-      chappell at Buxton; his wages are, out of his neighbour’s benevolence,
-      about V<sup>LI</sup> yearely; Sir Charles Cavendishe had the tythes there this
-      last years, ether of his owne right or my Lord’s, as th’ inhabitants
-      saye. The minister aforenamed differeth little from those of the worste
-      sorte, and hath dipt his finger both in manslaughter and p’jurie, etc.
-      The placings or displacing of the curate there resteth in Mr. Salker,
-      commissarie of Bakewell, of which churche Buxton is a chappell of ease.</p>
-
-    <p>I humbly thanke your Worship for your letter to the justices at the
-      cessions; for Sir Peter Fretchvell, togither with Mr. Bainbrigg,
-      were verie earnest against the badd vicar of Hope; and lykewyse Sir
-      Jermane Poole, and all the benche, savinge Justice Bentley, who used
-      some vaine (talk) on his behalfe, and affirmed that my Lady Bowes had
-      been disprooved before Mr. Lord of Shrowesburie in reports touching
-      the vicar of Hope; but such answere was made therto as his<span class="pagenum" id="Page_151">151</span> mouthe
-      was stopped; yet the latter daie, when all the justic’s but himselffe
-      and one other were rysen, he wold have had the said vicar lycensed to
-      sell ale in his vicaredge, althoe the whole benche had comanded the
-      contrarye; whereof Sir Jermane Poole being adv’tised, retyrned to the
-      benchs (contradicting his speeche) whoe, with Mr. Bainbrigge, made
-      their warrant to bringe before them, him, or anie other person that
-      shall, for him, or in his vicaridge, brue, or sell ale, etc. He ys not
-      to bee punished by the Justices for the multytude of his women, untyll
-      the basterds whereof he is the reputed father bee brought in. I am
-      the more boulde to wryte so longe of this sorrie matter, in respect
-      you maye take so much better knowledge of Sir Jo. Bentley, and his
-      p’tialytie in so vile a cause; and esteeme and judge of him according
-      to that wisdome and good discretion. Thus, humbly cravinge p’don, I
-      comitt your good Wors. to the everlasting Lorde, who ever keepe you.”
-      This is quoted by N. Drake in <i>Shakespeare and his Times</i>, vol. i. p.
-      92.</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <p>And here is Ben Jonson’s portrait of the City Parson—none too
-    flattering:—</p>
-
-  <div class="center-container">
-    <div class="poem">
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i0">“He is the prelate of the parish here</div>
-        <div class="i1">And governs all the dames, appoints the cheer,</div>
-        <div class="i1">Writes down the bills of fare, pricks all the guests,</div>
-        <div class="i1">Makes all the matches and the marriage feasts</div>
-        <div class="i1">Within the Ward; draws all the parish wills,</div>
-        <div class="i1">Designs the legacies, and strokes the gills</div>
-        <div class="i1">Of the chief mourners; and, whoever lacks,</div>
-        <div class="i1">Of all the kindred, he hath first his blacks.</div>
-        <div class="i1">Thus holds he weddings up and burials,</div>
-        <div class="i1">As his main tithing; with the gossips’ stalls,</div>
-        <div class="i1">Their pews; he’s top still at the public mess;</div>
-        <div class="i1">Comforts the widow and the fatherless,</div>
-        <div class="i1">In funeral sack; sits ’bove the alderman;</div>
-        <div class="i1">For of the wardmote quest, he better can</div>
-        <div class="i1">The mystery than the Levitic law;</div>
-        <div class="i1">That piece of clerkship doth his vestry awe.</div>
-        <div class="i1">He is as he conceives himself, a fine,</div>
-        <div class="i1">Well furnished, and apparelled divine.”</div>
-      </div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>Harrison, however, speaks up for the credit of the Reformed Clergy.</p>
-
-  <p>The observance of Lent was maintained by law, but with difficulty, and
-    the law was continually broken. It was a distinguishing mark of the
-    Puritan to eat flesh on the forbidden days. Queen Elizabeth ordered
-    that no flesh should be eaten on “fish days,” namely, the forty days of
-    Lent, Ember Days, Rogation Days, and Fridays. Licenses, however, were
-    granted for those who either on account of bodily infirmity, or any
-    other cause, were forbidden to fast. The license cost, for a nobleman
-    or his wife, 26s. 8d. per annum; for a knight or his wife, 13s. 4d. per
-    annum; and for those of lower degree, 6s. 8d. per annum.</p>
-
-  <p>Thus began the evasion of the law. Butchers were licensed to kill for
-    those privileged to eat flesh. In 1581 the House of Lords call upon the
-    Mayor to explain why forty butchers are allowed to kill during Lent,
-    and how it is that the eating of flesh at that season is common in the
-    City. The Mayor replies that<span class="pagenum" id="Page_152">152</span> the facts are otherwise, and that the
-    number of licensed butchers is only five, viz. two for either Shambles
-    and one for Southwark.</p>
-
-  <p>In 1552 only three butchers are licensed. Evidently the Mayor tries
-    strong measures. But there are more complaints from the Lords.</p>
-
-  <p>In 1586 the House of Lords again send representations to the Mayor.</p>
-
-  <p>In 1587 the Mayor, evidently wishing to shift responsibility, says
-    that it is difficult to restrain butchers. Perhaps the House of Lords
-    will undertake the duty of licensing. The House of Lords declines to
-    undertake the work of the Mayor.</p>
-
-  <p>In 1590 the Mayor complains of butchers being licensed in privileged
-    places. What does this mean?</p>
-
-  <p>In 1591 he gives licenses to six butchers. He then finds out what we
-    have been suspecting all along, that cattle and sheep were killed
-    outside his jurisdiction, and that flesh was brought into the City by
-    the gates. He also proves that within the City itself a great deal more
-    meat is killed than was wanted for Shrovetide. Here we have a proof of
-    the Puritanic spirit. The unlicensed butchers, on the eve of Lent, kill
-    a great deal more than is wanted for Shrovetide; the licensed butchers
-    go on killing. Do they sell to none but persons who have paid for the
-    privilege? And every day carcases are brought in at the gates wrapped
-    up in some kind of cloth for disguise.</p>
-
-  <p>In 1615 the Mayor gives up the attempt. He says that all butchers kill
-    and sell meat in Lent, on Fridays, and that the people buy it freely on
-    Fridays and on the other forbidden days.</p>
-
-  <p>Still there is maintained the pretence of an enforced fast during Lent
-    until the Civil War, after which there are no more attempts to make
-    the people fast, while many of the better class, clergy and others,
-    continue to abstain from meat on the forbidden days.</p>
-
-  <p>There are grave complaints, both before and after the Reformation,
-    about the behaviour of the people in church. The complaints point to
-    two widely different causes. The first cause, that which operated
-    before the Reformation, was undoubtedly the formalism into which
-    religion had fallen. To be present at Mass, merely to be present, to
-    kneel at the right time, was the whole of religion. Sir Thomas More, a
-    most devout Catholic, complains bitterly of the irreverence of people
-    at church service. Outward behaviour, he says, “is a plain express
-    mirror or image of the mind, inasmuch as by the eyes, by the cheeks,
-    by the eyelids, by the brows, by the hands, by the feet, and finally
-    by the gesture of the whole body, right well appeareth how madly and
-    fondly the mind is set and disposed.” He applies this observation to
-    himself and the congregation. Sometimes “we solemnly get to and fro,
-    and other whiles fairly and softly set us down again.” “When we have to
-    kneel we do it upon one knee, or we have one cushion to kneel upon<span class="pagenum" id="Page_153">153</span> and
-    another to support the elbows. We never pretend to listen: we pare our
-    nails; we claw our head.”</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="i_153"><img src="images/i_153.jpg" width="427" height="526" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">A ROYAL PICNIC<br />
-      From Turberville’s <i>Book of Hunting</i>, 1575.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>The second cause was the rise of the new Religion. It was inevitable
-    that with the destruction of the old forms a period of irreverence
-    should set in. The churches quickly began to show signs of neglect.
-    The windows were broken, the doors were unhinged, the walls fell into
-    decay, the very roofs were in some places stripped of their lead.
-    “The Book of God,” says Stubbes, “was rent ragged, and all be-torn.”
-    Some of the churches were used for stabling horses. Armed men met in
-    the churchyard, and wrangled, or shot pigeons with hand-guns over the
-    graves. Pedlars sold their wares in the church porches during service.
-    Morrice-dancers excited inattention and wantonness by their presence
-    in costume, so as to be ready for the frolics which generally followed
-    prayers. “Many there are,” said Sandys, preaching before Elizabeth even
-    after her reforms, “that hear<span class="pagenum" id="Page_154">154</span> not a sermon in seven years, I might say
-    in seventeen.” The friends of the new doctrine expected that all the
-    evils of the time would be instantly remedied. But the work of reform
-    was extremely gradual.</p>
-
-  <p>A third reason is offered for the irreverence of the people during
-    service, this time during the Anglican service. Many people walked
-    about, talked and laughed. This, however, was to show their contempt
-    for the new order; they were secretly attached to the ancient Faith;
-    they betrayed their sympathies, not only by this intolerance, but also
-    by crossing themselves and telling their beads in secret.</p>
-
-  <p>Many of the ancient customs remained. It was long before the people,
-    in London, could be persuaded to give up their old customs. Sunday
-    remained the weekly holiday: the people held on Sundays their wakes,
-    ales, rush-bearings, May games, bear-baitings, dancing, piping,
-    picnics, and gaming; they continued so to “break the Sabbath”—which
-    was first made part of the Christian week by the Puritans—until well
-    into the seventeenth century. After the Commonwealth I think that there
-    were very few traces of old customs lingering in the country, and only
-    those, such as the hanging of garlands in the chancel when a maiden
-    died, which carried with them no doctrinal significance and could prove
-    no occasion for drunkenness and debauchery.</p>
-
-  <p>Before the coming of the Puritans the funerals continued with much
-    of the old ritual. The body was laid out in such state as the family
-    circumstances allowed: tapers were burned round it by night and by day;
-    the church bells still rang for the prayers of the people, though they
-    were taught that to pray for the dead was a vain thing; the priests who
-    visited the house of the dead repeated the Lord’s Prayer; if on the
-    way to the churchyard the procession passed a cross, they stopped and
-    knelt, and made prayers; the body was laid in the grave wrapped in a
-    shroud, without a coffin; it was covered by a pall, which was decorated
-    with crosses. Those of the ancient Faith would persuade the clergymen,
-    if they could, to omit the service; if he persisted, they left the
-    grave and walked away. Nothing was a stronger tie to the old Religion
-    than its burial service, and its assurance that the dead who died in
-    the Church were assured of Heaven after due purgatory, and that the
-    prayers of the living were of avail to shorten the pains of prison.</p>
-
-  <p>Machyn, the City Chronicler of this period, thus describes the
-    simplicity of a Protestant funeral:—</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“The iij day of Aprell was browth unto saint Thomas of Acurs in
-      Chepe from lytyll sant Barthellmuw in Lothberes masteres ... and
-      ther was a gret compene of pepull, ij and ij together, and nodur
-      prest nor clarke, the nuw prychers in ther gowne lyke leymen,
-      nodur syngyng nor sayhyng tyll they came to the grave, and a-for
-      she was pute into the grayff a collect in Englys, and then put
-      into the grayff, and after took some heythe, and caste yt on the
-      corse and red a thynge ... for the sam, and contenent cast the
-      heth into the grave, and contenent red the pystyll of sant Poll to
-      the Stesselonyans the chapter, and after thay song pater noster in
-      Englys, boyth prychers and odur and women of a nuw fassyon, and
-      after on of them whent into the pulpytt and made a sermon.”</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_155">155</span></p>
-
-  <p>The following note by Machyn presents one of the last appearances of
-    the old Sanctuary customs:—</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“The vi day of December the abbot of Westminster went a procession
-      with his convent; before him went all the sanctuary men with crosse
-      keys upon their garments, and after whent iij for murder: one was
-      the Lord Dacre’s sone of the Northe was wypyd with a shett abowt
-      him for Kyllyng of on master West, sqwyre, dwellyng besyd ...; and
-      anodur theyff that dyd long to one of master comtroller ... dyd
-      kylle Recherd Eggyllston the comtroller’s tayller, and killed him
-      in the Lord Acurs, the bak-syd Charyng-crosse; and a boy that kyld
-      a byge boye that sold papers and pryntyd bokes, with horlyng of a
-      stone and yt hym under the ere in Westmynster Hall; the boy was one
-      of the chylderyn that was at the sckoll ther in the abbey; the boy
-      was a hossear [hosier] sune a-boyff London-stone.” (<i>Diary of Henry
-        Machyn</i>, p. 121.)</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <p>The good old institution of Sanctuary died hard. Even after it was
-    supposed to have been finished and put away it continued to linger.
-    Abbot Feckenham made a vigorous appeal for its preservation. “All
-    princes,” he said, “and all Lawmakers, Solon in Athens, Lycurgus
-    in Lacedemon, all have had <i>loca refugii</i>, places of succour and
-    safe-guard for such as have transgressed laws and deserved corporal
-    pains. Since, therefore, ye mean not to destroy all sanctuaries, and if
-    your purpose be to maintain any, or if any be worthy to be continued,
-    Westminster, of all others, is most worthy, and that for four causes:
-    the first is, the antiquity and continuance of sanctuary there;
-    the second, the dignity of the person by whom it was ordained; the
-    third, the worthiness of the place itself; the fourth, the profit and
-    commodity that you have received thereby.”</p>
-
-  <p>It is a common charge against the Dissolution of the Religious Houses
-    that the old custom of open tables for all comers fell into disuse.
-    The disuse is not without exceptions. The Houses being suppressed, of
-    course the hospitality disappeared; but the practice was still kept up
-    by some of the Bishops: Archbishop Parker, for instance, fed every day
-    a number of poor people who waited outside the gates of Lambeth for the
-    broken meats; while any one who chose to come in, whether at dinner or
-    at supper, was received and entertained either at the Steward’s or the
-    Almoner’s table. Order was observed; no loud talking was permitted; and
-    the discourse was directed towards framing men’s manners to Religion.
-    Whether the practice of indiscriminate doles should have been kept up
-    is another question, and one that cannot be asked of the sixteenth
-    century. The state and dignity maintained by this Archbishop were
-    almost worthy of Cardinal Wolsey: the Queen gave him a patent for forty
-    retainers, but his household consisted of five times that number, all
-    living with him and dining at his table in Lambeth Palace.</p>
-
-  <p>The Church House was an ecclesiastical edifice which has now entirely
-    passed away. I know nothing about the Church House except what is found
-    in the <i>Archæological Journal</i>, vol. xl. p. 8.</p>
-
-  <p>“Not a single undoubted specimen has been spared to us, though it is
-    not improbable that the half-timbered building attached to the west end
-    of the church at Langdon, in Essex, and now called the Priest House, is
-    really one of these.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_156">156</span> We have evidence from all parts of the country
-    that they were once very common. There is, indeed, hardly an old
-    churchwarden’s account-book which goes back beyond the changes of the
-    sixteenth century that does not contain some reference to a building of
-    this kind. They continued in being and to be used for church purposes
-    long after the Reformation. The example at All Saints, Derby, stood in
-    the churchyard and was in existence in 1747.”... “We must picture to
-    ourselves then a long, low room with an ample fireplace, or rather a
-    big open chimney occupying one end with a cast hearth. Here the cooking
-    was done, and here the water boiled for brewing the church ale. There
-    was a large oak table in the middle with benches around, and a lean-to
-    building on one side to act as a cellar. This, I think, is not an
-    inaccurate sketch of a building which played no unimportant part in our
-    rural economy and rural pleasures. All the details are wanting, and
-    we can only fill them in by drawing on the imagination. We know that
-    almost all our churches were made beautiful by religious painting on
-    the walls. I should not be surprised if we some day discovered that
-    the church-house came in for its share of art, and that pictures, not
-    religious in the narrow sense, but grotesque and humorous, sometimes
-    covered the walls. It was in the church-house that the ales were held.
-    They were provided for in various ways, but usually by the farmers,
-    each of whom was wont to give his quota of malt. There was no malt
-    tax in those days, and as a consequence there was a malt-kiln in
-    almost every village. These ales were held at various times. There
-    was almost always one on the Feast of the Dedication of the Church.
-    Whitsuntide was also a very favourite time; but they seem to have been
-    held at any convenient time when money was wanted for the church....
-    Philip Stubbes, the author of the <i>Anatomie of Abuses</i>, only knew the
-    Church Ales in their decline. He was, Anthony Wood informs us, a most
-    rigid Calvinist, a bitter enemy to Popery, so that his picture must
-    be received with allowances for exaggeration. His account of them is
-    certainly not a flattering one. He tells us that ‘The Churche Wardens
-    ... of every parishe, with the consent of the whole parishe, provide
-    halfe a score or twentie quarters of mault, wherof some they buye
-    of the churche stocke, and some is given them of the parishioners
-    themselves, everyone conferryng some-what, accordyng to his abilitie;
-    which mault beeyng made into very strong ale or beere is sette to sale,
-    either in the churche or some other place assigned to that purpose.
-    Then, when this ... is sette abroche, well is he that can gette soonest
-    to it and spend the most at it; for he that sitteth the closest to it
-    and spendes the moste at it, he is counted the godliest man of all the
-    rest, and moste in God’s favour, because it is spent uppon His church
-    forsoth. But who, either for want can not, or otherwise for feare of
-    God’s wrath will not sticke to it, he is counted none destitute both
-    of vertue and godlines.... In this kind of practise they continue six
-    weekes, a quarter of a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_157">157</span> yere, yea helfe a yeare together, swillyng
-    and gullyng, night and daie, till they be as dronke as rattes, and as
-    blockishe as beastes.... That money ... if all be true which they saie
-    ... they repair their churches and chappels with it, they buie bookes
-    for service, cuppes for the celebration of the sacrements, surplesses
-    for Sir John, and such other necessaries.’”</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="i_157"><img src="images/i_157.jpg" width="600" height="424" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">OLD ST. PAUL’S BEFORE THE DESTRUCTION OF THE STEEPLE</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>The burning of St. Paul’s steeple created a great sensation, and was
-    by some regarded as an act of God’s wrath for the recent changes.
-    Maitland<a id="FNanchor_3" href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> quotes an original letter describing the disaster:—</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“<span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1561, on Wednesday the 4th of June, as appears
-      by a Letter before me from Mr. Richard Jones to Sir Nicholas
-      Throckmorton, Ambassador from Queen Elizabeth to the Court of
-      France, communicated by the honourable Mr. Yorke, it rained all
-      the Day, and, towards Four of the Clock in the Afternoon, it
-      began to thunder terribly: ‘When suddenly a Thunder-bolt, with a
-      great Thunder following, hit within a Yard of the very top of the
-      Steeple, which forthwith shewed his Effect, and appeared a little
-      Fire, like unto the Light of a Torch, which,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_158">158</span> increasing towards
-      the Weather-cock, caused the same within a quarter of an hour to
-      fall down; whereby the Wind, which was great, and the more vehement
-      by reason of the opening of the Steeple and Height thereof, caused
-      the Flame so to augment, and burn the Steeple, which no Man could
-      succour, as within an Hour the high Steeple of Paul’s, which was
-      so long in building, and so renowned, was utterly consumed to the
-      very Battlements; which being of some Breadth and Strength, as was
-      needful to uphold such a weight, received most part of the Timber
-      which fell from the Spire, and began to burn with such Vehemence,
-      as all the Timber was burnt, the Iron and Bells melted and fallen
-      down upon the stairs within a short space. This was judged to be
-      the end of the effect of the lightning; when forthwith the East
-      and West roofs of the Church, partly kindled with the timber which
-      fell from the Battlements, and with the heating of the Fire whiles
-      it remained within the Stone Steeple, were on Fire, and ceased not
-      to burn so extremely, as could not be provided for by no means,
-      till that not only those ends, but the north and south ails, before
-      one of the Clock after Midnight, were consumed, and not a piece of
-      Timber left, nor Lead unmolten, upon any of the higher and cross
-      Roofs and Battlements. The side Ails, tho’ they were a little
-      touched, by reason of their Crowns, remained safe, Thanks be to
-      God. And this is all that is happened by this Misfortune, and the
-      Church within is untouched. Your Lordship may guess what Stir and
-      Removing there was in St. Paul’s Church-yard, especially towards
-      the North door, where divers Houses were pulled down, and much
-      lamentation on all sides. On the East End a Pinnacle fell down and
-      ruined a House, wherein there were seven Persons not hurt, but the
-      good man of the House a little. Many other turmoils there were, as
-      in like Cases it happens; which, as it grieves me to hear, so I
-      am loth to write the same. The French here are not sorry for the
-      Matter. All good and honest Men are sorry for it, and impute it to
-      a terrible remembrance of God’s Anger towards us for our Offences.
-      This is enough and too much of so grievous a matter; and yet I
-      thought I should perhaps satisfy your Lordship in writing thereof
-      thus largely.</p>
-
-    <div class="right"><span class="smcap">R. Jones.</span>’</div>
-
-    <p><span class="smcap">London</span>, <i>June</i> 5<i>th</i>, 1561.”</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <p>As might have been expected of a time when all the world was thinking
-    and talking about religious doctrine, the unlearned as well as the
-    learned, but with much more confidence and presumption, arguing
-    entirely on the meaning of texts, passages, and detached clauses, there
-    were fanatics in plenty. I have made a selection from the cases before
-    me.</p>
-
-  <p>“William Hacket gave out that he was Jesus Christ, come to judge the
-    World; which was soon proclaimed throughout the City of London by
-    Edmond Coppinger and Henry Arthington, two of his Disciples; who, going
-    from Hacket’s Lodgings, at Broken-Wharf, thro’ Watling-Street and the
-    Old-Change, amidst an excessive<span class="pagenum" id="Page_159">159</span> Multitude, to Cheapside, they mounted
-    an empty cart near the end of Gutter Lane, and proclaimed Mercy from
-    Heaven to all such as should repent and believe that Christ (William
-    Hacket) was come with his Fan in his hand to judge the Earth, and to
-    establish the Gospel in Europe, and that he was then to be seen, with
-    his glorious Body, at one Walker’s, at Broken-Wharf; and that they
-    were Prophets, the one of Mercy, and the other of Judgment, sent by
-    God Himself as Witnesses, and to assist in the present great Work.
-    The first of whom incessantly proclaimed Mercy and Joys inexpressible
-    to all such as should receive this acceptable Message; and the last
-    denounced terrible Judgments against the Obdurate, which should
-    not only immediately fall upon the Incredulous in this City, but
-    that likewise all such were condemned to eternal Punishments; and,
-    in a particular and very treasonable Manner, thundered out bitter
-    invectives against the Queen and her Ministry; wherefore they were all
-    apprehended, and Hacket, the pretended Messiah, soon after tried and
-    convicted at the Old-Baily of Treason; whence he was carried to the
-    Place of Execution in Cheapside, where, instead of shewing the least
-    Sorrow for his Crimes, he committed the most horrid and execrable
-    Blasphemies against God, and detestable imprecations against the Queen
-    and her Ministers; and his associate, Coppinger, refusing all Manner
-    of sustenance, died the next Day in Bridewell, as did Arthington, his
-    Companion, some Time after in Wood Street Compter.” Evidently three
-    enthusiasts all equally mad and equally obstinate.</p>
-
-  <p>Later on, also, was the case of Anne Burnell (Sharpe, i. 552):—</p>
-
-  <p>“The strain which the continuation of the war and the threatened
-    renewal of a Spanish invasion imposed upon the inhabitants of London
-    at large was a great one, and appears to have affected the mind of a
-    weak and hysterical woman, Anne Burnell. She gave out that she was a
-    daughter of the King of Spain, and that the arms of England and Spain
-    were to be seen, like stigmata, upon her back, as was vouched for by
-    her servant, Alice Digges. After medical examination, which proved her
-    statement to be ‘false and proceedinge of some lewde and imposterouse
-    pretence,’ she and her maid were ordered to be whipt,—‘ther backes
-    only beeinge layd bare,’—at the cart’s tail through the City on a
-    market day, ‘with a note in writinge uppon the hinder part of their
-    heades shewinge the cawse of their saide punishmente.’”</p>
-
-  <p>Again, there was the case of William Geffery and John Moore. These two
-    unfortunate creatures were perfectly mad, and ought to have been locked
-    up in Bethlehem. Said William Geffery to the other lunatic, “Christ
-    is not in Heaven, John. He is on earth and like unto us.” “He is,”
-    John replied, “and thou thyself, William Geffery, art none other than
-    Christ.” “That,” said William, “is perfectly correct.” They therefore
-    clapped John Moore in Bethlehem and William Geffery in the Marshalsea.
-    This should have been enough. But it was not the fashion of the time
-    ever to have enough of punishing. They therefore <span class="pagenum" id="Page_160">160</span>tied Geffery to the
-    cart tail and flogged him all the way from the Marshalsea to Bethlehem,
-    a matter of two miles. At the gate of Bethlehem the cart was stopped.
-    Then John Moore was brought out, and Geffery was flogged again until he
-    confessed his error and acknowledged that Christ was in Heaven and that
-    he himself was nothing but a sinful man. They then stripped John Moore
-    and tied him to the cart tail; at first he took the punishment smiling,
-    but before going an arrow’s shot he begged them to stop, and confessed
-    that he was wrong. So they both went back: John Moore to Bethlehem and
-    William Geffery to the Marshalsea, and we hear no more of them.</p>
-
-  <p>The Anabaptists were another perverse people who met with no mercy. On
-    3rd April 1575 there was found a congregation of Anabaptists in a house
-    outside Aldgate Bars. Twenty-seven in all were arrested. On the 15th
-    of May four of them, bearing faggots to show that they deserved death,
-    recanted at Paul’s Cross; on 22nd July two of them were burned at
-    Smithfield, “who died in great horror, with roaring and crying.” Their
-    recantation shows the doctrines they held.</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“Whereas I.I.T.R.H. being seduced by the devil, the spirit of
-      error, and by false teachers his ministers, have fallen into
-      certain most detestable and damnable heresies, namelie:—</p>
-
-    <p>1. That Christ tooke not flesh of the substance of the blessed
-      Virgin Marie.</p>
-
-    <p>2. That infants of the faithful ought not be baptized.</p>
-
-    <p>3. That a Christian man may not be a magistrate, or beare the sword
-      or office of authoritie.</p>
-
-    <p>4. That it is not lawful for a Christian to take an oth. Now by
-      the Grace of God, and through conference with good and learned
-      ministers of Christ His church, I doo understand and acknowledge
-      the same to be most damnable and detestable heresies, and doo aske
-      God here before His church mercie for my said former errors, and
-      doo forsake them, recant and renounce them, and abjure them from
-      the botome of my heart, professing that I certainly believe:</p>
-
-    <p>1. That Christ tooke flesh of the substance of the blessed Virgin
-      Marie.</p>
-
-    <p>2. That infants of the faithfull ought to be baptized.</p>
-
-    <p>3. That a Christian man may be a magistrate, or beare the sword or
-      office of authoritie.</p>
-
-    <p>4. That it is lawful for a Christian man to take an oth. And
-      further that I confess that the whole doctrine and religion
-      established and published in this realme of England, as also that
-      which is received and preached in the Dutch Church, from henceforth
-      utterlie abandoning and forsaking all and every anabaptistical
-      error. This is my faith now, in the which I doo purpose and trust
-      to stand firme and stedfast to the end. And that I may soo doo, I
-      beseech you all to praie with me, and for me, to God the heavenlie
-      father, in the name of his son our Saviour Jesus Christ.”</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <p>Before this, one man and ten women were tried in the Consistory of St.
-    Paul’s and sentenced to be burned, but one woman having been converted,
-    they resolved on banishing the rest, who were Dutch. Accordingly the
-    nine women were led by the sheriff, and the man was tied to a cart tail
-    and whipped all the way from Newgate to the river, where they were
-    shipped. And there was a certain sect called the Family of Love, which
-    gave some trouble through their obstinacy. In the year 1575 five of
-    them recanted; in 1580 the sect were thought of sufficient importance
-    to justify a proclamation against them. The tenets of the people do
-    not appear, but they were accused of holding it laudable to deny their
-    connection<span class="pagenum" id="Page_161">161</span> with their own sect, which made it impossible to convict
-    them by their own confession.</p>
-
-  <p>The case of Matthew Hamont, plough-wright, may conclude these cases
-    of strange hallucinations and the conclusions of a disordered brain.
-    He was a common man of no education, who took to thinking and reading
-    about doctrines which he could not understand. He finally arrived at
-    the conclusion that the New Testament, with the Gospels, is but an
-    invention of man, that Christ was a mere man, and so on, shrinking
-    from nothing. This poor lunatic they gravely tried, and because he had
-    spoken words against the Queen, they first cut off both his ears, and
-    then, after giving him a week of pain from his wounds, they burned him
-    for a heretic.</p>
-
-  <hr class="page" />
-  <div class="chapter" id="CHAPTER_3b">
-    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_162">162</span>
-    <h3>
-      <span class="gespertt1">CHAPTER III</span><br />
-      <span class="subhead">SUPERSTITION</span>
-    </h3>
-  </div>
-
-  <p class="noindent"><span class="smcap">After</span> Religion stalks her caricature, Superstition. Now the credulities
-    of London in the Elizabethan age were many and wonderful.</p>
-
-  <p>Everybody, for instance, at that time believed in <i>witchcraft</i>. Yet
-    there was not wanting an occasional protest.</p>
-
-  <p>“I saie, that there is none which acknowledgeth God to be onlie
-    omnipotent ... but will denie that the elements are obedient to
-    witches, and at their commendement; or that they may at their pleasure
-    send raine, haile, tempests, thunder, lightning.... Such faithlesse
-    people are also persuaded that neither hale nor snowe, thunder nor
-    lightening, raine nor tempestuous winds, come from the heavens at the
-    commandement of God, but are raised by the cunning and power of witches
-    and conjurers; inasmuch as a clap of thunder or a gale of wind is no
-    sooner heard, but wither they run to ring bells, or crie out to burne
-    witches, or else burne consecrated things, hoping by the smoke thereof
-    to drive the devill out of the aire.”</p>
-
-  <p>Witchcraft and magic were, however, recognised by the Government as
-    real things. It was thought desirable in 1542 to pass an Act against
-    these practices.</p>
-
-  <p>“It shall be felony to practise, or cause to be practised conjurations,
-    with craft, enchantment or sorcery, to get money: or to consume any
-    person in his body, members, or goods; or to provoke any person to
-    unlawful love; or for the despight of Christ or lucre of money to pull
-    down any cross; or to declare where goods stolen,” etc.</p>
-
-  <p>This Act of Henry VIII. was repeated or confirmed by Elizabeth twenty
-    years later, and by James I. in 1603. Cranmer, in 1549, ordered the
-    clergy to inquire “whether you know of any that use charms, sorcery,
-    enchantment, witchcrafts, soothsaying, or any like craft invented by
-    the devil.” And in 1558 Bishop Jewel, preaching before the Queen, said,
-    “It may please your Grace to understand that witches and sorcerers
-    within these last few years are marvellously increased within your
-    Grace’s realm. Your subjects pine away even to the death; their colour
-    fadeth; their flesh rotteth; their speech is benumbed; their senses are
-    bereft.”</p>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_163">163</span></p>
-
-  <p>The precautions used against witchcraft do not belong to London, where
-    the belief in the superstition took a less active form than in the
-    country. A pebble with a natural hole in it, a horseshoe picked up by
-    accident and nailed up over the door, a hare’s foot in the pocket, a
-    bit of witchwood, were simple precautions against the witch. I do not
-    think that these superstitions were much followed in London, though
-    there are examples that the terror of the witch prevailed in the City
-    as well as in the country.</p>
-
-  <p>It is remarkable that the spread of education and the toleration of
-    fine thoughts in religion did not destroy this horrible superstition.
-    On the contrary it increased, and the seventeenth century, when the
-    greatest amount of religious freedom was practised if not allowed, only
-    made the belief in witchcraft more profound.</p>
-
-  <p>Who could choose but to believe when Ben Jonson himself could write of
-    witches as follows?</p>
-
-  <div class="center-container">
-    <div class="poem">
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i0">“Within a gloomy dimble she doth dwell,</div>
-        <div class="i1">Down in a pit o’ergrown with brakes and briars,</div>
-        <div class="i1">Close by the ruins of a shaken abbey,</div>
-        <div class="i1">Torn with an earthquake down into the ground,</div>
-        <div class="i1">’Mongst graves and grots, near an old charnel-house</div>
-        <div class="i1">Where you shall find her sitting in her form,</div>
-        <div class="i1">As fearful and melancholie as that</div>
-        <div class="i1">She is about: with caterpillars’ kells,</div>
-        <div class="i1">And knotty cobwebs, rounded in with spells.</div>
-        <div class="i1">Thence she steals forth to relief in the fogs,</div>
-        <div class="i1">And rotten mists, upon the fens and bogs,</div>
-        <div class="i1">Down to the drowned lands of Lincolnshire:</div>
-        <div class="i1">To make ewes cast their lambs, swine eat their farrow,</div>
-        <div class="i1">The housewives’ tun not work, nor the milk churn!</div>
-        <div class="i1">Writhe children’s wrists, and suck their breath in sleep:</div>
-        <div class="i1">Get vials of their blood! and where the sea</div>
-        <div class="i1">Casts up his slimy ooze, search for a weed</div>
-        <div class="i1">To open locks with, and to rivet charms,</div>
-        <div class="i1">Planted about her in the wicked feat</div>
-        <div class="i1">Of all her mischiefs, which are manifold.”</div>
-      </div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>We may illustrate this belief by the case of Joan Cason or Freeman (she
-    was the wife of one Freeman). She was indicted and solemnly tried by a
-    jury on the charge of being a witch, and of having killed by witchcraft
-    one Jane Cooke, aged three years.</p>
-
-  <p>The principal evidence was Sarah Cooke, mother of the child. She kept
-    an alehouse. She was one day drawing a pot of ale for a stranger when
-    he remarked the languishing condition of her child, and suggested
-    that it was bewitched. “Take,” he said, “a tile from the house of the
-    suspected person, lay it in the fire, and if she really is a witch
-    the tile will sparkle round the cradle.” Wonderful to relate, Sarah
-    Cooke took a tile from the woman’s house, laid it in the fire, and
-    it did “sparkle round the house.” At that moment Joan Cason herself
-    looked in, gazed upon the child, and went away. Four hours after the
-    child died. What<span class="pagenum" id="Page_164">164</span> more was wanted? There was evidence corroborative.
-    In the lifetime of the man Freeman there was something like a rat seen
-    about her house, something that squeaked. In the end Joan was hanged,
-    protesting her innocence, but confessing ill conduct with one Mason,
-    who had died of the plague.</p>
-
-  <p>There is also the case of Simon Penbrooke, living in St. George’s
-    Parish, Southwark. He was suspected to be a conjurer, and was summoned
-    before a court holden in the church of St. Mary Overies either for that
-    or for some other case. As he was talking to a proctor, presumably
-    about his defence, he suddenly fell dead, just as the Judge entered the
-    church. Of course the Judge remarked that it was the just judgment of
-    God towards those that used sorcery, “and a great example to admonish
-    others to fear the justice of God.” They found upon him certain
-    “develish” books of conjuration, with a tin man and other fearful
-    things. And they were reminded of Leviticus xx. 6, “If anie soule turne
-    himselfe after such as woorke with spirits and after soothsaiers, saith
-    the Lorde, I will put my face against that soule, and will cut him off
-    from among my people.”</p>
-
-  <p>Another form of witchcraft was that of the professional conjurer. There
-    was, for instance, the case of William Randoll, who was charged with
-    conjuring to know where treasure was hid in the earth. Four others were
-    charged with assisting at the conjuration. One has no doubt of the
-    fact or of the means employed. Randoll used, of course, the well-known
-    bent stick, the “verge de Jacob,” which is still employed all over the
-    world for the discovery of water, though its properties and powers in
-    revealing the existence of metals have been of late neglected, and are
-    now nearly forgotten. The whole of the accused were condemned to death,
-    but in the end Randoll alone was executed. There was said at the time
-    to be five hundred professed conjurers in the country.</p>
-
-  <p>The origin of touching for the King’s Evil is recounted by Stow in his
-    <i>Annals</i> in the following manner:—</p>
-
-  <p>“A young woman was afflicted with this disorder in a very alarming
-    manner, and to a most disgusting degree, feeling uneasiness and pain
-    consequent upon it in her sleep, dreamt that she should be cured by
-    the simple operation of having the part washed by the King’s hand.
-    Application was consequently made to Edward, by her friends, who very
-    humanely consented to perform the unpleasant request. A bason of water
-    was brought, with which he carefully softened the tumours till they
-    broke, and the contents discharged; the sign of the cross wound up the
-    charm; and the female retired, with the assurance of his protection
-    during the remainder of the cure, which was effected within a week.”</p>
-
-  <p>Of talismans and amulets the sixteenth century had many. The word
-    talisman is an Arabic corruption of the Greek, <i>i.e.</i> the influence
-    of a planet or Zodiacal sign upon a person born under it. It was a
-    symbolical figure drawn or engraved. It was supposed at once to procure
-    love and to avert danger. The amulet<span class="pagenum" id="Page_165">165</span> derived from Latin <i>amolior</i>,
-    to do away with, or baffle, averted danger of all kinds. Amber kept
-    children from danger; a child’s caul made lawyers prosper; the Evil Eye
-    was averted by certain well-known symbols, including the locust; the
-    closed hand, the pine cone, and other objects were amulets. The German
-    Jew at the point of death tied his head round with knotted leather.
-    The Turks cured apoplexy by encircling the head with a parchment strip
-    painted with signs of the Zodiac. Spells were of all kinds.</p>
-
-  <p>Among the superstitions of the time must not be forgotten that
-    favourite form of superstition known as astrology, which still
-    flourishes, though it is not so commonly practised and believed as
-    formerly. Many of the Fathers of the Church denounced astrology, yet
-    astrologers continued. After the Reformation they became more open
-    in their profession and more daring in their pretensions. The names
-    of Nostradamus, Cornelius Agrippa, William Lilly, Robert Fludd, John
-    Dee, and Simon Former, occur as leaders among the astrologers, some of
-    whom were also alchemists. Some of the English professors of astrology
-    were pupils of Cornelius Agrippa in London and at Pavia; others went
-    to study the science at Strasburg. Judicial astrology was in great
-    vogue in London for two hundred years after the Reformation; hundreds
-    of people gained their livelihood by casting nativities for children
-    in which their future was foretold. The story of Dryden and his son’s
-    nativity is well known. The astrologers picked out lucky days for the
-    commencement of any kind of business; they told fortunes; they resolved
-    questions; they recovered stolen goods; they predicted future events.
-    It is, however, apparent from their own writings that they had little
-    confidence in the stars, and that the popular part of astrology,
-    at least, was for the most part guesswork, not without fraud. The
-    astrologers of London in the sixteenth century formed themselves into a
-    Society. In the year 1550 a certain Dr. Gell preached a sermon before
-    the Society of Astrologers. Ashmole also mentions his own attendance
-    at certain astrological banquets. But about the Society itself very
-    little is known. Newton pointed out that the sun and stars were only
-    other earths which could have no power over the destiny of men. But the
-    superstition decayed very slowly.</p>
-
-  <p>Dr. Dee’s <i>Diary</i> is a <i>locus classicus</i> for the superstitions of his
-    time—the last quarter of the sixteenth century.</p>
-
-  <p>He hears knockings in his chamber, with a voice like the shrieking of
-    an owl, but more drawn out and more soft. He is offered a sight in a
-    crystal and he “saw”—what did he see? He does not tell us.</p>
-
-  <p>A friend is strangely troubled by a “spiritual creature” about
-    midnight. Robert Gardiner reveals to him a great philosophical secret,
-    which is received with common prayer. He hears of an alchemist who
-    gives away “great lumps” of the philosopher’s stone. He dreams that he
-    is to be bereft of his books.</p>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_166">166</span></p>
-
-  <p>There was trouble with Anne his nurse. She was tempted by a wicked
-    spirit who possessed her. He prayed with her; he anointed her with
-    “holy oil” twice, the wicked spirit resisting. Despite the power of
-    the oil Anne threw herself into the well, but was dragged out in time.
-    Three weeks later she evaded her keeper and cut her throat.</p>
-
-  <p>In 1596 Dee received a message from the Queen; he was to do what he
-    would in philosophy and alchemy; no one should hinder him. And so on to
-    the end of the <i>Diary</i>.</p>
-
-  <p>In the autumn of 1899 there was found in the garden of Lincoln’s
-    Inn a thin leaden tablet about four inches square. On one side were
-    eighty-one small squares, arranged in a large square, each with a
-    number engraved upon it. On the other side were three names—Hasmodar,
-    Scherchemosh, and Scharhahan, with a symbol to each. The explanation
-    is as follows:—The square is a charm; the number eighty-one is the
-    number of the Moon, each planet having its own number in the “science”
-    of astrology. The arrangement of the numbers in the eighty-one squares
-    is such that added up vertically or horizontally or diagonally the sum
-    shall always be the same. In this case it is 369. Why 369 I cannot
-    explain. On the other side the three names are the three spirits of the
-    Moon, each with its hieroglyph.</p>
-
-  <p>The writing is an expression of an invitation or a command to the
-    spirits to work mischief on an unfortunate man. Had the sorcerer
-    desired good fortune he would have used a silver plate. In either case
-    it was necessary to bury the plate in some secret place, unseen and
-    unsuspected.</p>
-
-  <p>The following story is gravely told by Philip Stubbes. Perhaps he did
-    not believe it himself; but it is certain that he meant his readers to
-    believe it.</p>
-
-  <p>“This gentlewoman beeyng a very riche Merchaunte mannes daughter: upon
-    a tyme was invited to a Bridall or Wedding, whiche was solemnized in
-    that Toune, againste whiche daie she made great preparation, for the
-    plumyng of herself in gorgious arraie, that as her body was moste
-    beautifull, faire, and proper, so her attire in every respecte might
-    bee corespondent to the same. For the accomplishment whereof, she
-    curled her haire, she died her lockes, and laied them out after the
-    best maner, she coloured her face with waters and Ointmentes; but in no
-    case could she gette any (so curious and daintie she was) that could
-    starche and sette her Ruffes and Neckerchers to her mynde; wherefore
-    she sent for a couple of Laundresses, who did the best thei could to
-    please her humours, but in anywise thei could not. Then fell she to
-    sweare and teare, to cursse and banne, castyng the Ruffes under feete,
-    and wishyng that the Devill might take her when she weare any of those
-    Neckerchers againe. In the meane tyme (through the sufferaunce of God)
-    the Devill, transformyng himself into the forme of a young man, as
-    brave and proper as she in every pointe in outward appearance,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_167">167</span> came
-    in, fainyng himself to bee a woer or suter unto her. And seyng her thus
-    agonized, and in suche a peltyng chase, he demaunded of her the cause
-    thereof, who straight waie tolde hym how she was abused in the settyng
-    of her Ruffes, which thyng beeyng heard of hym, he promised to please
-    her minde, and thereto tooke in hande the setting of her Ruffes, whiche
-    he performed to her greate contentation, and likyng, in so muche as
-    she lokyng her self in a glasse (as the Devill bad her) became greatly
-    inamoured with hym. This dooen, the yong man kissed her, in the doyng
-    whereof he writhe her necke in sunder, so she died miserably, her
-    bodie beyng metamorphosed into blacke and blewe colours most ugglesome
-    to behold, and her face (whiche before was so amorous) became moste
-    deformed, and fearfull to looke upon. This being knowen, preparaunce
-    was made for her burial, a riche coffin was provided, and her fearfull
-    bodie was laied therein, and it covered verie sumpteously. Foure men
-    immediatly assaied to lifte up the corps, but could not move it, then
-    sixe attempted the like, but could not once stirre it from the place
-    where it stoode. Whereat the standers by marveilyng, caused the Coffin
-    to bee opened, to see the cause thereof. Where thei founde the bodie
-    to be taken awaie, and a blacke Catte verie leane and deformed sittyng
-    in the Coffin, setting of greate Ruffes, and frizlyng of haire, to the
-    greate feare and wonder of all beholders. This wofull spectacle have I
-    offered to their viewe, that by looking into it, instead of their other
-    looking Glasses thei might see their own filthinesse, and avoyde the
-    like offence, for feare of the same, or worser judgment: whiche God
-    graunt thei maie doe.”</p>
-
-  <hr class="page" />
-  <div class="chapter mb10" id="ELIZABETHAN_LONDON">
-    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_169">169</span>
-    <h2>ELIZABETHAN LONDON</h2>
-  </div>
-
-  <hr class="page" />
-  <div class="chapter" id="CHAPTER_1c">
-    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_171">171</span>
-    <h3>
-      <span class="gespertt1">CHAPTER I</span><br />
-      <span class="subhead">WITH STOW</span>
-    </h3>
-  </div>
-
-  <p class="noindent"><span class="smcap">Let</span> us climb the steps that lead to the City Wall at the Tower postern,
-    and make a circuit by means of the Wall. We walk on the five-foot
-    way designed for the archers. It is grass-grown between the stones.
-    On the battlements the wall-flower grows luxuriously with the green
-    fumitory and the red flowers of the kiss-me-quick. Looking over the
-    Wall we perceive that the ditch is nearly filled up: all kinds of
-    rubbish have been shot into it; there are small ponds of water here
-    and there, and on the opposite bank are gardens in patches and what
-    we call allotments. “Alas!” says our guide, who continually laments
-    the past, “I remember when the ditch was full, and when the boys came
-    to bathe in it and were sometimes drowned in it. Then fish abounded
-    and men angled from the bank.” We begin our walk. “I remember,” our
-    guide goes on, talking while he leads the way, “running along the
-    Wall when I was a boy, nearly sixty years ago. It was a favourite
-    pastime to run from gate to gate. That was before the suppression of
-    the Religious.” He sighed—Was he then regretting that event? “All
-    the Houses were standing then. One thought they would stand for ever.
-    Yet the axe was already laid to the tree: there was internal decay
-    and external contempt, though we boys knew nothing of it. The friars
-    in vain searched the boxes put up for them in the shops: no one would
-    give them alms; if they went into a house, no one would give them so
-    much as a crust of bread; there were but fifteen left in Grey Friars,
-    and they were selling their vessels of silver and gold when they were
-    called upon to surrender. But still their churches made a brave show.
-    All day long the bells were ringing—’twas a city of bells. They rang
-    from cathedral and parish church; from monastery and nunnery; from
-    college of priests and from chapel and from spital. They rang for
-    festivals and fasts; for pageants and ridings; for births and deaths;
-    for marriages and funerals; for the election of City officers; for the
-    King’s birthday; for the day and the hour; they rang in the baby; they
-    rang out the passing soul; they rang merrily in honour of the bride;
-    they rang for work to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_172">172</span> begin and for work to cease; the streets echoed
-    the ringing of bells all day long; for miles round London you could
-    hear with the singing of the larks the ringing of the bells.</p>
-
-  <p>“A third part of the City belonged to the Houses and the Church.
-    Why, thousands of honest people lived by working for St. Paul’s and
-    the parish churches and the monks and nuns. Look around you now.”
-    We were close to Aldgate. Stow pointed to the south-east. Near
-    the Tower stood a venerable church in a precinct surrounded by a
-    stone wall and containing a cloister, houses round it, a garden, a
-    school-house, and a burial-ground. “Behold the last of them!” he said.
-    “St. Katherine’s, the smallest of all the Foundations, still exists;
-    but changed—Ah!—changed. Where are the rest?” On the north of St.
-    Katherine’s was another precinct marked out by a wall, and within it
-    broken walls, broken windows, and rough timber store-houses. “There
-    was once Eastminster,” said Stow. “Who is mindful of our Lady of Grace
-    and her Cistercians? They are forgotten. Look Citywards. Yon ruins are
-    those of the Crutched Friars. What is left to mark their abode of two
-    hundred years and more? Their hall was converted into a glass-house
-    and is burned down; their church contains now a carpenter’s shop and
-    a tennis court. Turn your eyes more to the north. Those are the ruins
-    of St. Helen’s Nunnery: their chapel is part of the parish church;
-    their hall is now the Hall of the Leathersellers’ Company; their
-    gardens also belong to that honourable Company. Or yonder, where you
-    may behold the precinct of the Holy Trinity Priory. The Prior was also
-    Alderman of Portsoken Ward and rode among the other Aldermen, but in
-    habit ecclesiastical, as I myself have seen. The House kept open table
-    for rich and poor; a noble and hospitable House it was, but in the end
-    decayed by reason of too great hospitality. The church was pulled down
-    and levelled with the ground—<i>Proh Pudor!</i>—the courts remain, but
-    with other buildings; and now is that venerable and regal Foundation
-    clean forgotten. Behold”—he pointed outside the Wall—“the place where
-    the <i>Sorores Minores</i>, the sisters of St. Clare, lived for many years.
-    The walls of their refectory still stand; on the site of their cloister
-    is a fair and large store-house for armours and habiliments of war,
-    with work-houses serving unto the same purpose. Alas! Poor Sisters! To
-    this end has come their House of Peace and Prayer.”</p>
-
-  <p>“Nevertheless, Master Stow, the City is more prosperous than before.”</p>
-
-  <p>“I know not; I know not,” he said impatiently. “What do I know about
-    wealth and prosperity? Let us go on.” So he left off talking about the
-    churches and monasteries and pointed to the houses beyond the Wall.
-    “The suburbs,” he said, “have not greatly increased of late years.
-    There has been too much plague among us. And, indeed, it would seem
-    that we are never to be rid of plague. The Queen’s Council forbade the
-    building of new houses. As well forbid the
-    rising of the tide. There
-    are now—as you can plainly see—a line of cottages on both sides of
-    the road as far as Whitechapel Church. But who is to hinder? There
-    is a line of houses along the riverside as far as Ratcliffe and even
-    Limehouse, where once were elms so noble. But who is there to hinder?
-    Masterless men are they, and sea-faring men and common cheats and
-    rogues, who live beside the river, beyond the jurisdiction of the Mayor
-    and safe from the wholesome cart tail and the penance of pillory.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_173">173</span>
-    <a id="i_173"><img src="images/i_173.jpg" width="700" height="524" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">A True and Exact Draught of the TOWER LIBERTIES,
-      survey’d in the Year 1597 by <i>Gulielmus Haiward</i> and <i>J. Gascoyne</i>.<br />
-      E. Gardner’s Collection.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_174">174</span>“Pleasant it was, in those old days,” he went on, “to overlook the
-    quiet nuns from the Wall. There were no whispers against those holy
-    Sisters, and no scandals. We loved to look upon them in their gardens
-    quiet and peaceful. They prayed for the City, the nuns of St. Clare,
-    of St. Helen’s, and of Holywell. Now every man prays for himself.
-    There were also the monks in their cloisters, walking and reading and
-    meditating. Some there were who called the monks devourers and drones.
-    I know not. Their prayers were asked for the dead and for the living.
-    No one prays now for the dead, and no one asks where they lie or how
-    they fare. Drones and devourers! They were gentlemen all by birth,—why
-    should they work?”</p>
-
-  <p>It was, indeed, surprising to see the ruins of the Houses, nor had I
-    understood, until I walked round the Wall and observed the ruins, how
-    many there were, or how great was the destruction when the masterful
-    King turned out the monks and nuns and gave their houses to his
-    favourites and his courtiers. “They have taken” said Stow, “all they
-    wanted of the stones. What are left will vanish little by little.”</p>
-
-  <p>“But the memory will continue.”</p>
-
-  <p>“Nay, in the minds of scholars, not of the people. Things of the past
-    are soon forgotten. No one will teach the children about the Houses of
-    monks and friars. If they teach them anything at all, it will be as
-    Barnabe Googe taught his generation when he gathered into one volume
-    all that could be alleged or invented against those holy men, if they
-    were holy,” he added, correcting himself. “Indeed a man must pay heed
-    unto his words. I have been, myself, charged with Romish leanings
-    because I remember things that are past and gone. What do the young
-    folk now understand of what they have lost, because they never saw it?
-    I am now old, and in age the mind flies back willingly to the days of
-    youth.”</p>
-
-  <p>Within the Wall we saw the ruins of the Crutched Friars, of St.
-    Helen’s, of the Holy Priory, of the Austin Friars, of the Papey, of
-    Elsing Spital, of St. James’s in the Wall, of the Grey Friars and of
-    the Black Friars; without the Wall there were the ruins of Eastminster,
-    of the Clares, of St. Mary Spital, of Holywell, of the Church House, of
-    the Knights Hospitallers, of Clerkenwell Nunnery, of St. Bartholomew’s
-    Priory, and of the White Friars.</p>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_175">175</span></p>
-
-  <p>“The poets, doubtless,” I said, “and with them the divines, meditate
-    among these ruins.”</p>
-
-  <p>“Alas! No. The poets write songs of love and sing them; or they go
-    forth to the wars and sing of them. The times are brisk. It is as if
-    the world was waking up from sleep: there are new things everywhere;
-    we live in the present; our ships go forth to distant lands; there is
-    a new world, a Terra Incognita, to be explored and conquered; it is no
-    time for meditation. When the cloister was broken down meditation fled
-    beyond the seas. We live to fight and to get rich, and to watch against
-    the wiles of Pope and Spaniard.”</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="i_175"><img src="images/i_175.jpg" width="600" height="351" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">EAST VIEW OF CLOISTERS OF COLLEGIATE CHURCH OF ST. KATHERINE<br />
-      Taken down in July 1755.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>“Do these ruins then inspire no regret?”</p>
-
-  <p>“None. The people are forgetting fast. Only old men sometimes speak
-    of what they remember; when the last stones have been taken away, the
-    very names will tell them nothing. Even the names are changing. Soon
-    all will be lost and forgotten. Strange! Four hundred years those monks
-    lived among us, and after fifty years they are already clean forgotten
-    as much as if they had never lived.”</p>
-
-  <p>At Bishopsgate, Stow pointed northward. “Houses,” he said, “are
-    stretching along the northern road, but slowly. Among the ruins of
-    Holywell stands a Play house, and outside it is another. What will
-    be the end of this passion for the theatre, I know not. Formerly, an
-    interlude in an Inn yard, a masque in a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_176">176</span> Company’s Hall, and so enough.
-    Now have ye every day a play set forth upon a stage, with songs and
-    music, and boys dressed up as women.”</p>
-
-  <p>He shook his head and led on, still following the Wall. Within the
-    City on this north side there were many large and fair gardens, some
-    belonging to Companies which here have their Halls, and some to
-    merchants’ houses, and some that once belonged to the Monastic Houses.
-    They were set with fruit-trees and with beds of flowers and sweet
-    herbs. Among the gardens stood collections of craftsmen’s cottages and
-    workshops, and the churches with their small green churchyards were
-    almost hidden by the trees. This part of London truly had a rural look
-    by reason of these gardens.</p>
-
-  <p>We passed Moorgate, the old church of the Papey close to the Wall,
-    and further along, also close to the Wall, the church of All Hallows;
-    we came to Cripplegate with its church outside the Wall. And passing
-    a bend to the south, continued our walk. On the other side of the
-    ditch was another double line of houses. “This is Aldersgate,” said
-    Stow. “The way leads to the Charter House and beyond to the village
-    of Iseldon. You can now see the ruins of the House of the Knights
-    Hospitallers; their noble gate yet stands, and part of their church.
-    Beyond was the Priory of St. Bartholomew. From the Wall you may behold
-    their cloisters; the chancel of their church is now a parish church.
-    Close at hand is Smithfield. What things have been done at Smithfield!
-    I was thirty years of age when Queen Mary burned her martyrs. There had
-    been burnings before her time, but she outdid them all. Sir, she was
-    ill-advised: she thought to make the people go back to the old Religion
-    through fear. She might have led them back through love. I have seen
-    the burning of those stubborn folk. Old and young, men and women, nay
-    children, have I seen standing in the faggots, praying aloud while the
-    flames mounted up and licked their hands and their faces. Mostly they
-    died quickly, being smothered with the smoke; but sometimes the flames
-    were blown away, and we saw the blackened body still in agony, and the
-    lips that moved to the end in prayer. And we saw how the Lord answered,
-    giving fortitude to endure or even, if we knew it, painlessness in the
-    midst of fire. To see father, brother, neighbour, so die without fear,
-    and as if joyously enduring torture in order to reach the gates of
-    Heaven,—Believe me, sir, this it was that made the people what they
-    are, and completed Henry’s work.”</p>
-
-  <p>We came to Newgate. “Behold!” he said, “the cat, emblem of Whittington,
-    who rebuilt this gate and prison. Here is Christ’s Hospital, which once
-    was the House of the Grey Friars. It is London’s chiefest glory: here
-    shall you find boys ruled with wisdom and taught godliness, who would
-    otherwise have joined the throngs of the masterless, and roamed about
-    the streets and roads.” And so on to Ludgate, where we left the Wall.
-    “See,” said Stow, “there are houses with many palaces of nobles all
-    the way from Bridewell to the King’s House at Westminster. And now,
-    good sir, we leave the Wall, and we will visit the City within the
-    Wall.”</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_177">177</span>
-    <a id="i_177"><img src="images/i_177.jpg" width="494" height="700" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">ST. PAUL’S CHURCH<br />
-      From Visscher’s <i>Panorama of London</i>.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_178">178</span>He led me by Ludgate into the precinct of St. Paul’s, surrounded by
-    a stone wall; the Cathedral looked battered and worn by the tooth of
-    time; the spire, once the glory of the City, was gone never to be
-    replaced; the stonework was black in parts from the smoke of the sea
-    coal; the tracery was mouldering; about the towers of the west flew the
-    swifts crying. “There are kites on the roof,” said Stow, “which keep
-    the City clean and devour the offal.”</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="i_178"><img src="images/i_178.jpg" width="600" height="369" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">LATIMER PREACHING BEFORE EDWARD VI. AT WESTMINSTER<br />
-      E. Gardner’s Collection.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>At Paul’s Cross there was a preaching by some reverend divine: a crowd
-    of women sat on benches listening; a few men were there, but it was in
-    working hours. The preacher argued some difficult point of doctrine,
-    comparing texts and turning over the leaves of his small brown Geneva
-    Bible. I observed that his hearers listened with a critical air. “For
-    fifty years,” said Stow, looking on with contempt, “they have been
-    arguing and disputing on matters of doctrine and nothing settled yet;
-    in the old time we were told what to believe, and we were stayed and
-    comforted by our belief. These people prove one thing to-day and
-    another thing to-morrow. They are pulled this way and that by the
-    power of texts which they think they understand. Let us go into the
-    Cathedral.”</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_179">179</span>
-    <a id="i_179"><img src="images/i_179.jpg" width="700" height="445" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">SOUTH FRONT OF BAYNARD’S CASTLE, ABOUT 1640</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>Outside, in the churchyard, everything was destroyed that formerly made
-    the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_180">180</span>
-    place venerable and beautiful: Pardon churchyard; the “Clochard;”
-    the cloister with the Dance of Death; Sherrington’s Library; the
-    college of the minor canons. Only Paul’s Cross remained. And the
-    Cathedral, rising up alone and gaunt, bereft of her daughters, seemed
-    mournful and lonely. “Perhaps,” said Stow, “a new church is wanted for
-    the new Faith. St. Paul’s was not built for Protestants. They know not
-    how to treat the church. Look at yonder fellows!” He pointed to two
-    porters who bore boxes on their heads, and entering at the North doors
-    tramped noisily through the Cathedral, going out at the South. “They
-    have made a right of way, a short way, through the church. Saw one ever
-    the like? Through the church itself!”</p>
-
-  <p>We went in; the nave was a kind of noisy Exchange, yet not for
-    merchants. It was full of people loudly talking of all kinds of
-    business; ladies were there. “They make their assignations in the
-    church,” said Stow. Gallants richly dressed swaggered up and down the
-    middle aisle; servants stood waiting to be hired; scriveners had their
-    stools and tables, and were busy writing letters; men disputed over
-    their affairs, yea, and quarrelled loudly. The chancel was walled off
-    and separated from the nave and transepts. The old glory had departed
-    from the once splendid interior: of all the chapels, shrines, altars,
-    chantries, paintings, lights, carved marbles, work in ivory, gold
-    and silver, nothing was left. Only bare whitewashed walls and a few
-    plain tombs; even the painted glass, wherever it could be reached,
-    was broken. While we looked around the organ began to play; it was
-    accompanied by other instruments, chiefly wind instruments. With the
-    music ascended the voices of the choir, the pure sweet voices of the
-    boys. My old guide’s eyes grew humid. “No,” he said, “they have not
-    taken all away. The music remains with us, to remind us that Heaven
-    is left although we have whitewashed the paintings that revealed its
-    glories.”</p>
-
-  <p>We left the precinct by the North gate, which opens upon the back of
-    St. Michael le Querne, and turned eastward into Chepe. The breadth
-    of this great market had contracted since the reign of Edward the
-    Third. The houses on the south side were much higher and better built,
-    with timber frames and much carving and gilding. On the north side
-    the lanes, which were formerly broad spaces for stands and sheds for
-    the market, were now narrow, with houses on either hand: there were
-    also houses on that side, but not continuous; here were Grocers’ Hall
-    and Mercers’ Hall. Round the Standard and the Cross were stalls kept
-    by women; the poulterers still had their shops in the Poultry, and
-    apothecaries sold their drugs and herbs in Bucklersbury.</p>
-
-  <p>It was now evening, and supper time. My guide led me to the tavern
-    called the Rose, in the Poultry. There was a goodly company assembled
-    in the great room. Here there was music, and the drawers ran about
-    with supper and with wine. A capon with a flask of Malmsey warmed the
-    heart of my old guide. After<span class="pagenum" id="Page_181">181</span> supper we took tobacco and more wine,
-    while boys sang madrigals very sweetly. The close of a summer day in
-    the City of London brings with it a cessation of the noise of hammers
-    and the ringing of anvils and the grinding of waggons and the shouts of
-    those who quarrel over their work. The City became quiet; there was the
-    tinkling of guitar and lute from the taverns and the houses; the voices
-    of those who sang; the merry laugh of maidens, and the sober voice of
-    age.</p>
-
-  <p>“Come,” said Stow, “there remains the Royal Exchange. This we will see
-    and so an end until to-morrow.”</p>
-
-  <p>The Royal Exchange was lit up with candles. The upper walk or
-    <i>pawne</i><a id="FNanchor_4" href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> I found to be a collection of shops, all as light as day.
-    Music was playing and the place was full of people; not the sober
-    merchants, but the City madams and their daughters, the gallants, and
-    the ’prentices. “In the summer,” said Stow, “the place is open till
-    nine of the clock, in the winter till ten. Many come here just as they
-    go to Paul’s in the morning, because they have no other place to go to
-    and no money to spend in the tavern. Know you not the lines?</p>
-
-  <div class="center-container">
-    <div class="poem">
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i0">‘Though little coin thy purseless pockets line,</div>
-        <div class="i2">Yet with great company thou’st taken up;</div>
-        <div class="i1">For often with Duke Humphrey thou dost dine;</div>
-        <div class="i2">And often with Sir Thomas Gresham sup.’”</div>
-      </div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>Other walks, many other walks, I have taken about London in company
-    of good old John Stow: we have walked together along Thames Street,
-    which is surely the very heart of the City, and in Chepe, and among
-    the gardens of the northern part. In these walks about the streets,
-    even then so old and so venerable, the old man waxed eloquent over the
-    houses of the past where the great nobles had each his palace, which
-    was also a barrack in the City of London. It was not only in and about
-    Thames Street: all over the City he led me, prattling in his kindly
-    garrulity. “There were kings’ palaces here once,” he said: “the Tower
-    Royal where Richard’s mother dwelt; and the King’s Wardrobe—I can show
-    you that; and Baynard’s Castle, which is now rebuilt and remains a
-    noble house; and Crosby Hall, where the third Richard sojourned for a
-    while; and the Stone House in Lombard Street that they call King John’s
-    Palace, but I know not with what truth; and Cold Harbour where Prince
-    Hal once lived; and the Savoy which was John of Gaunt’s. And there
-    were the town houses of the noblemen. What a stately house was that of
-    the Northumberlands outside Aldgate! It is now a printing-house. And
-    they had another house in Aldgate Ward with broad gardens, now turned
-    into bowling-greens. And there is the house called the Erber on the
-    east side of Dowgate. The Earl of Warwick had it, then the Duke of
-    Clarence had it, and when it was rebuilt Francis Drake had it. There is
-    Gresham’s Mansion in Broad Street, which has become a noble college for
-    the instruction of youths in the <span class="pagenum" id="Page_182">182</span>liberal arts, so that some say that
-    London will become like unto Oxford or Cambridge. And Whittington’s
-    house beside the church of St. Michael, now an almshouse, which was
-    once also a college for priests. And there is the house which once
-    belonged to Sir Robert Large, when Caxton was his ’prentice, at the
-    corner of Old Jewry; formerly it was a Jews’ Synagogue, and afterwards
-    the House of the Brethren of the Sack. Alas! most of these houses
-    are now in decay and inhabited by poor folk. The nobles come no more
-    to town.” Yet he showed me the house of Sir Francis Walsingham, the
-    Queen’s Secretary. It was in Seething Lane. “We look for these palaces
-    now, along the river, between Bridewell and Westminster,” he said.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="i_182"><img src="images/i_182.jpg" width="600" height="415" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">WEST CHEPE IN ELIZABETHAN LONDON</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>My old guide looked at the people as they passed with a peculiar
-    benevolence, especially upon the young. “I have myself been a
-    ’prentice,” he said; “I know the rubs and crosses of that time; an
-    impatient master, long hours of work, hard fare, hot blood that longs
-    to be up and doing. Many there are who have in their latter days broken
-    their indentures and fled to sail the seas with Oxenham or Drake; many
-    have gone into the service of the adventurous Companies. I remember
-    very well, very well,” he sighed, “the joys of the time, the dancing
-    on a summer evening,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_183">183</span> the wrestling, the fighting, the pageants and
-    ridings in the streets. Life lies all before the ’prentice. What boots
-    it to be my Lord Mayor when life is wellnigh spent?”</p>
-
-  <p>“Sir,” my guide added, “I have shown you our City. Go now, alone, and
-    watch the ways of the people: mark the wealth of our merchants; look at
-    the Port crowded with ships and the Quays cumbered with merchandise;
-    talk with the mariners, and observe the spirit that is in them all.
-    Like all old men I lament the past; but I needs must rejoice in the
-    quickening of these latter days. And so, good sir, farewell.”</p>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_184">184</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="i_184"><img src="images/i_184.jpg" width="700" height="454" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">A VIEW OF COLD HARBOUR IN THAMES STREET, ABOUT 1600</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <hr class="page" />
-  <div class="chapter" id="CHAPTER_2c">
-    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_185">185</span>
-    <h3>
-      <span class="gespertt1">CHAPTER II</span><br />
-      <span class="subhead">CONTEMPORARY EVIDENCE</span>
-    </h3>
-  </div>
-
-  <p class="noindent"><span class="smcap">Let</span> us supplement this discourse by contemporary evidence.</p>
-
-  <p>There is an anonymous map of London in the sixteenth century called
-    “Londinium Feracissimi Angliæ Regni Metropolis.” It is in some respects
-    more exact than the better known map attributed to Agas. The streets,
-    gardens, and fields are laid down with greater precision, and there is
-    no serious attempt to combine, as Agas does, a picture, or a panorama,
-    with a map. At the same time, the surveyor has been unable to resist
-    the fashion of his time to consider the map as laid down from a
-    bird’s-eye view, so that he thinks it necessary to give something of
-    elevation.</p>
-
-  <p>I will take that part of the map which lies outside the walls. The
-    precinct of St. Katherine stands beside the Tower with its chapel,
-    court, and gardens; there are a few houses near it, apparently
-    farmhouses; the convent of Eastminster had entirely vanished. Nothing
-    indicates the site of the Nunnery in the Minories; yet there were ruins
-    of these buildings standing here till the end of the last century;
-    outside Bishopsgate houses extended past St. Mary Spital, some of whose
-    buildings were still, apparently, standing. On the west side St. Mary
-    of Bethlehem stood, exactly on the site of Liverpool Street Station,
-    but not covering nearly so large an area; it appears to have occupied a
-    single court and was probably what we should now consider a very pretty
-    little cottage, like St. Edmund’s Hall, Oxford.</p>
-
-  <p>Outside Cripplegate the houses begin again, leaving, between, the
-    lower Moorfields dotted with ponds; there are houses lining the road
-    outside Aldersgate. The courts are still standing of St. Bartholomew’s
-    Priory, Charter House, St. John’s Priory, and the Clerkenwell Nunnery;
-    Smithfield is surrounded with houses; Bridewell with its two square
-    courts stands upon the river bank; Fleet Street is irregular in shape,
-    the houses being nowhere in line; the courts of Whitefriars are still
-    remaining. The Strand has all its great houses facing the river; their
-    backs open upon a broad street with a line of mean houses on the north
-    side.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_186">186</span> On the south of the river there is a line of houses on the High
-    Street; a line of houses along the river bank on either side; and
-    another one running near Bermondsey Abbey.</p>
-
-  <p>Within the walls we observe that some of the Religious Houses have
-    quite disappeared; Crutched Friars, for instance; there is a vacant
-    space which is probably one of the courts of St. Helen’s; the Priory
-    of the Holy Trinity preserves its courts, but there is no sign of
-    the church; there are still visible the courts and gardens of Austin
-    Friars; there is still the great court of the Grey Friars; but the
-    buildings of Blackfriars seem to have vanished entirely.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="i_186"><img src="images/i_186.jpg" width="600" height="326" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">BRIDEWELL PALACE AND THE ENTRANCE TO THE FLEET RIVER AS
-      THEY APPEARED IN 1660<br />
-      E. Gardner’s Collection.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>But Sir Thomas More has left us a description of London in his time. It
-    is a description in terms too vague, yet interesting. He calls the City
-    Amaurote and the Thames he calls the Anyder.</p>
-
-  <p>“The River Anyder riseth four and twenty miles above Amaurote, out of
-    a little spring: but being increased by other small floods and brooks
-    that run into it: and, among others, two somewhat bigger ones. Before
-    the City, it is half a mile broad (hardly so much now as it was in
-    former days being pent in and straitned to a narrower space, by the
-    later buildings on each side): and further, broader. By all that space
-    that lyeth between the Sea and the City, and a good sort of land also
-    above, the water ebbs and flows six hours together, with a swift tide;
-    when the sea flows in to the length of thirty miles, it fills all the
-    Anyder with salt water, and drives back the fresh water of the river;
-    and somewhat further, it hangeth<span class="pagenum" id="Page_188">188</span>
-    the sweetness of fresh water with
-    saltness: but a little beyond that, the river waxeth sweet, and runneth
-    foreby the City fresh and pleasant; and when the sea ebbs and goes back
-    again, this fresh water follows it almost to the very fall into the sea.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="i_187"><img src="images/i_187.jpg" width="700" height="479" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">LONDINIUM FERACISSIMI ANGLIÆ REGNI METROPOLIS</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>They have also another river, which indeed is not very great, but it
-    runneth gently and pleasantly: for it riseth even out of the same hill
-    that the City standeth upon, and runneth down slope through the midst
-    of the City into Anyder.” [This may be the river of the Wells; in
-    More’s time the Walbrook was probably covered over.] “And because it
-    ariseth a little without the City, the Amaurotians have enclosed the
-    head spring of it with strong fences and bulwarks; and so have joined
-    it to the City: this done, to the intent that the waters should not be
-    stopped nor turned away, nor poisoned, if their enemies should chance
-    to come upon them. From thence the water is derived and brought down in
-    Chanals or Brooks divers ways into the lower parts of the City. Where
-    that cannot be done by reason that the place will not suffer it, then
-    they gather the Rain Water in great Cisterns which doth them as good
-    service.” [This, it seems, was all the supply of Water the City had in
-    that age, which is now much more plentifully served.] “Then next for
-    the situation and Walls. That it stood by the side of a low Hill, in
-    fashion almost square. The breadth of it began a little beneath the
-    top of the Hill, and still continued by the space of two miles, until
-    it came to the river Anyder. The length of it, which lyeth by the
-    river-side, was somewhat more.</p>
-
-  <p>The City is compassed about with an high and thick wall, full of
-    Turrets and Bulwarks. A dry Ditch, but deep and broad and overgrown
-    with bushes, briers, and thorns, goeth about three sides or quarters of
-    the City. To the fourth side, the River itself serveth for a Ditch.</p>
-
-  <p>The streets be appointed and set forth very commodious and handsome,
-    both for carriage and also against the winds. The Streets be full
-    twenty foot broad. The Houses be of fair and gorgeous Buildings: and in
-    the street-side, they stand joined together in a long Row through the
-    whole Street, without any partition or separation. On the bankside of
-    the Houses, through the whole length of the Street, lye large Gardens
-    which be closed in round about with the back parts of the Street. Every
-    House hath two doors, one to the street, and a Postern Door on the
-    backside into the Garden. These doors be made with two leaves, never
-    locked nor bolted: so easie to be opened, that they will follow the
-    least drawing of a finger, and shut again of themselves.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_189">189</span>
-    <a id="i_189a"><img src="images/i_189a.jpg" width="600" height="350" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">PLAN OF THE CITY OF WESTMINSTER IN THE TIME OF ELIZABETH</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="i_189b"><img src="images/i_189b.jpg" width="600" height="350" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">PLAN OF THE CITY OF LONDON IN THE TIME OF ELIZABETH</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>They set great store by their gardens. In these they have Vineyards
-    and all manner of Fruits, Herbs, and Flowers, so pleasant, so well
-    furnished, and so finely kept, that I never saw anything more fruitful,
-    nor better trimmed in any place: and their study and diligence
-    herein cometh not only of pleasure, but also of a certain strife
-    and contention that is betwixt street and street, concerning the
-    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_190">190</span>
-    trimming, husbanding, and flourishing, of their Gardens, every man
-    for his own part: and verily, you shall not lightly find in all the
-    City anything that is more commodious, either for the Profit of the
-    Citizens, or for pleasure. And therefore it may seem, that the first
-    founder of the City minded nothing so much as he did these Gardens.
-    They say, that King Utopus himself, even at his first beginning,
-    appointed and drew forth the platform of the City into this fashion and
-    figure that it hath now, by his gallant garnishing and the beautiful
-    setting forth of it. Whereunto he saw that one man’s age would not
-    suffice, that he left to his posterity.</p>
-
-  <p>Their Chronicles, which they keep written with all diligent
-    circumspection, containing the history of 1760 years, even from the
-    first conquest of the Island, record and witness, that the Houses
-    in the beginning were very low, and likely homely cottages, or poor
-    shepherds’ houses, made at all adventures of every rude piece of wood
-    that came first to hand: with Mud-walls, and ridged Roofs thatched over
-    with straw. But now the Houses be curiously builded after a gorgeous
-    and gallant sort, with three stories, one over another.</p>
-
-  <p>The outside of the walls be made of either hard Flint, or of Plaister,
-    or else of Brick: and the Inner-sides be well strengthened with
-    Timber-Work.</p>
-
-  <p>The Roofs be plain and flat, covered with a certain kind of Plaister
-    that is of no cost: and yet so tempered that no fire can hurt or perish
-    it: and notwithstandeth the violence of the weather, better than any
-    lead.</p>
-
-  <p>They keep the wind out of their windows with glass: for it is there
-    much used: and some were also with fine linnen dipped in oyl or amber:
-    and that for two commodities: for by this means more light cometh in,
-    and the wind is better kept out.” (<i>Utopia.</i>)</p>
-
-  <p>The following notes on England were written by one Stephen Perlin in
-    1558. The tract was translated for, and published in, the <i>Antiquarian
-      Repertory</i> (vol. iv.):—</p>
-
-  <p>“The English in general are cheerful and great lovers of music, for
-    there is no church, however small, but has musical service performed in
-    it. They are likewise great drunkards; for if an Englishman would treat
-    you, he will say in his language, <i>yis dring a quarta rim gasquim cim
-      hespaignol, oim malvoysi</i>; that is, will you drink a quart of Gascoigne
-    wine, another of Spanish, and another Malmsy. In drinking or eating
-    they will say to you above an hundred times, <i>drind iou</i>, which is, I
-    am going to drink to you; and you should answer them in their language,
-    <i>iplaigiu</i>, which means, I pledge you. If you would thank them in their
-    language you must say, <i>god tanque artelay</i>, which is to say, I thank
-    you with all my heart. When they are drunk, they will swear blood and
-    death that you shall drink all that is in your cup, and will say thus
-    to you, <i>bigod sol drind iou agoud oin</i>. Now remember, if you please,
-    that in this land they commonly make <span class="pagenum" id="Page_191">191</span>use of silver vessels when
-    they drink wine, and they will say to you at table, <i>goud chere</i>, which
-    is good cheer. The servants wait on their master bareheaded, and leave
-    their caps on the buffet. It is to be noted, that in this excellent
-    kingdom there is, as I have said, no kind of order; the people are
-    reprobates, and thorough enemies to good manners and letters, for they
-    don’t know whether they belong to God or the Devil, which St. Paul had
-    reprehended in so many people, saying, be not transported with divers
-    sorts of winds, but be constant and steady to your belief.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="i_190-1"><img src="images/i_190-1.jpg" width="700" height="530" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">THE PARISH OF</span> S<sup>t</sup>. Giles in the Fields, <span class="smcap">LONDON</span>.</div>
-    <div class="link"><a href="#trans_190-1">Go to transcription of text</a></div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>In this country, all the shops of every trade are open, like those
-    of the barbers in France, and have many glass windows, as well below
-    as above in the chambers, for in the chambers there are many glazed
-    casements, and that in all the tradesmen’s houses in almost every town;
-    and those houses are like the barbers’ shops in France, as well above
-    as below, and glazed at their openings. In the windows, as well in
-    cities as villages, are plenty of flowers, and at the taverns plenty of
-    hay upon their wooden floors, and many cushions of tapestry, on which
-    travellers seat themselves. There are many bishopricks in this kingdom,
-    as I think sixteen, and some archbishopricks, of which one is esteemed
-    the principal, which is Cantorbie, called in English Cantorberi, where
-    there is a very fine church, of which St. Thomas is patron. England
-    is remarkable for all sorts of fruits, as apricots, peaches, and
-    quantities of nuts.”</p>
-
-  <p>In the year 1598 a German traveller, Paul Hentzner by name, visited
-    London. This is what he says about the streets:—</p>
-
-  <p>“The streets in this city are very handsome and clean; but that which
-    is named from the goldsmiths who inhabit it, surpasses all the rest:
-    there is in it a gilt tower, with a fountain that plays. Near it on the
-    farther side is a handsome house, built by a goldsmith, and presented
-    by him to the city. There are besides to be seen in this street, as in
-    all others where there are goldsmiths’ shops, all sorts of gold and
-    silver vessels exposed to sale, as well as ancient and modern medals,
-    in such quantities as must surprise a man the first time he sees and
-    considers them.” (<i>See</i> <a href="#APPENDIX_VI">Appendix VI.</a>)</p>
-
-  <p>Stow furnishes a very clear account of the condition of the suburbs in
-    his own time. Thus, he says that outside the Wall in the East there
-    were no houses at all east of St. Katherine’s along the river until the
-    middle of the sixteenth century, but that during the latter half of
-    the century there had sprung up a “continual street, or filthy strait
-    passage, with alleys of small tenements built, inhabited by sailors;
-    victuallers, along by the river of Thames, almost to Ratcliff, a good
-    mile from the Tower.”</p>
-
-  <p>He says, further, that in his time had arisen quite a new suburb
-    between East Smithfield and Limehouse; and that good houses had been
-    recently built between Ratcliff and Blackwall.</p>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_192">192</span></p>
-
-  <p>Outside Aldgate he mentions a “large street replenished with buildings
-    to Hog Lane and the bars. Without the bars both sides of the street
-    were ‘pestered’ with cottages and alleys, even up to Whitechapel
-    Church and almost half a mile beyond it into the common field.” Note,
-    therefore, that close to Aldgate, just beyond Whitechapel Church, was a
-    common which was thus encroached upon and settled on by squatters and
-    by those who made enclosures and placed laystalls, etc., upon them.
-    The whole of the common was thus taken up; “in some places it scarce
-    remaineth a sufficient highway for the meeting of carriages and droves
-    of people,” a fact to be remembered and accounted for.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="i_192"><img src="images/i_192.jpg" width="600" height="365" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">BISHOPSGATE</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>Going on to Bishopsgate and its highway. Outside the gate stood St.
-    Botolph’s Church; next to it the Hospital of St. Mary of Bethlehem;
-    opposite certain houses; then, the liberty of Norton Folgate, belonging
-    to the canons of St. Paul’s; then the site of the Holywell Nunnery;
-    all along the road to St. Leonard’s, Shoreditch, except for the site
-    of St. Mary Spital, a “continual building of small and base tenements,
-    for the most part lately erected.” Among the cottages Stow points to a
-    certain row whose history was perhaps that of many others. The row of
-    cottages were almshouses belonging to St. Mary Spital; the occupants
-    were appointed by that House; they paid a yearly rent of one penny, in
-    acknowledgment of ownership; and on Christmas Day they were feasted by
-    the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_193">193</span> Prior. When the Hospital was suppressed the cottages, for want of
-    repairs, fell into decay; the new owners of the land would not take
-    over the responsibility of the charitable endowment; they neither
-    repaired the houses nor did they invite the tenants to a Christmas
-    feast. On the other hand, they did not collect the rent of a penny.
-    They were then sold, although they ought to have been continued as
-    almhouses to one Russell, who rebuilt them and gave them his own name,
-    and let them to tenants in the usual way.</p>
-
-  <p>The church of St. Leonard’s contained monuments to the memory of three
-    noble families at least: the Westmoreland Nevilles; the Blounts, Lords
-    Mountjoy; and that of Manners, Earls of Rutland. The reason of their
-    tombs and monuments being found in the church must be sought in the
-    history of the manors lying north of Shoreditch.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="i_193"><img src="images/i_193.jpg" width="600" height="306" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">PLAN OF ISLINGTON<br />
-      From a print in the British Museum. By the courtesy of the late Marquis
-      of Salisbury.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>On the north side of the City the Moor Fields continued for a long time
-    as waste ground, seldom visited; in 1415, however, Thomas Fawconer,
-    Mayor, broke through the City Wall and built the postern called
-    Moorgate; he constructed causeways over the Moor; cleansed and repaired
-    the dykes or ditches with which the Moor was intersected: so that the
-    place was drained and made into a pleasant walk for the citizens,
-    either on summer evenings, or on their way to Iselden and Hoxton.
-    Sixty years later brickfields were opened in the Moor, and bricks made
-    for the repair of the City Wall. Then citizens began to make and to
-    enclose gardens in the Moor; in 1498 these were all taken away and an
-    archery-field made in their place. In 1512 more dykes were made for the
-    drainage of the Moor,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_194">194</span> and in 1527 conduits were constructed to carry
-    the waters over the Tower Ditch into the Walbrook. The point is that in
-    the sixteenth century the whole of the ground lying between Moorgate
-    and Bishopsgate was unoccupied by houses. The map already referred to
-    shows the road running north from Moorgate, and the Moor itself crossed
-    by causeways: in the east a broad ditch crossed by bridges falls into
-    the Tower Ditch.</p>
-
-  <p>The Moor formerly extended beyond Cripplegate and as far as the Fleet
-    River; it was built upon by the Religious Houses; St. Bartholomew’s
-    Priory and Hospital; the Charter House; the Priory of St. John; and
-    the Nunnery of Clerkenwell. Between these houses and the wall were St.
-    Giles’s Church, St. Botolph’s Church, Fore Street, Whitecross Street,
-    and other streets, making a suburb with a population in the sixteenth
-    century of 1800 householders, or 9000 souls. The last bit of the Moor
-    left on the north-west of the City was brickfield.</p>
-
-  <p>We now come to the western suburb: the earliest settled and the most
-    thickly populated of all. Fleet Street and the streets north of it,
-    however, belonged to the Ward of Farringdon Without.</p>
-
-  <p>We are now in a position to show other reasons why the extension of the
-    City was so slow and so limited.</p>
-
-  <p>All round the City lay manors and estates belonging for the most part
-    to the Church. St. Paul’s Cathedral possessed a great many of these
-    manors; the Bishop possessed many; St. Peter’s, Westminster, possessed
-    many. Finsbury, Shoreditch, Hoxton, Iselden, St. Pancras, Willesden,
-    belonged to St. Paul’s. The manor of St. Peter stretched all the way
-    from Millbank to the Fleet River, and from the Thames to Holborn. These
-    estates belonged to the Church; when the City received the County of
-    Middlesex to farm, it did not receive these manors, and the owners had
-    their rights. Foremost among these rights was that they were outside
-    the jurisdiction of the City; the land could not be built upon without
-    permission of the owners; what the City got was the inclusion of that
-    part of the land outside the Wall which was bounded and defined by
-    the Bars: that is to say, it included, without the Wall—(1) The Ward
-    of Portsoken, formerly the lands of the Cnihten Gild; (2) The Common
-    Land of Whitechapel; (3) The Common Land of the Moor as far as to the
-    Fleet River, and (4) The Ward of Farringdon Without. Why did it go no
-    farther? Because at every point beyond these limits the manors of the
-    Church were met. At first the encroachments of the City authorities
-    into the manors met with no opposition; perhaps the ecclesiastics felt
-    that it was well to have the people on their lands well governed; on
-    one occasion the City acquired rights by taking a manor on lease, as
-    that of Mora di Halliwell in 1315. In other cases the ecclesiastics
-    interfered and made it impossible for more houses to be built on their
-    lands, save on their own terms, and without acknowledgment by the City
-    Authority.</p>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_195">195</span></p>
-
-  <p>For these reasons, therefore,—the limited jurisdiction of the City;
-    the steady opposition of the ecclesiastical owners of the manors
-    outside; and the slow growth of the population,—there was little
-    increase save in the direction of Bishopsgate Street Without, where the
-    City had a lease of the manor, until the Dissolution of the Religious
-    Houses and the change of owners in the manors.</p>
-
-  <hr class="page" />
-  <div class="chapter" id="CHAPTER_3c">
-    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_196">196</span>
-    <h3>
-      <span class="gespertt1">CHAPTER III</span><br />
-      <span class="subhead">THE CITIZENS</span>
-    </h3>
-  </div>
-
-  <p class="noindent"><span class="smcap">There</span> was never a time when the sober citizen was more sober, more
-    responsible, more filled with a sense of his authority and dignity.
-    “The man,” says the wise king, “who is diligent in business shall stand
-    before princes.”</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="i_196"><img src="images/i_196.jpg" width="356" height="426" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">EARL OF SOMERSET AND HIS WIFE<br />
-      From a print in the British Museum.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>They did stand before princes, these merchants of London; as their
-    prosperity leaped up increasingly year after year, they became the
-    creditors, at least, of princes, for Elizabeth borrowed freely and
-    repaid unwillingly—yet in spite of this too notorious weakness, she
-    retained to the end the deepest affection of her people.</p>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_197">197</span></p>
-
-  <p>It has been a matter of reproach to the City that it seemed at this
-    time wholly given over to trade and the interests of trade. To reproach
-    a city which has always been a trading city with caring chiefly for the
-    interests of trade seems somewhat unreasonable. But is it true that
-    London has ever been wholly devoted to trade? I cannot find such a time
-    in the whole long history of the City: certainly not in the reign of
-    Elizabeth, when London cheerfully raised her men and her ships for the
-    repulse of the Armada; and cheerfully gave the Queen whatever money she
-    asked for; at the same time, while trade became larger than before,
-    while the individual merchants became of more importance, the City
-    certainly lost some of its political importance and was less dreaded,
-    while it was more caressed, by the Sovereign.</p>
-
-  <p>It was, moreover, with the better class, a deeply religious age;
-    men were not afraid or ashamed of proclaiming, or of showing, their
-    religion. When Francis Drake saw the Atlantic on one side and the
-    Pacific on the other, he fell on his knees in the sight of the company
-    and prayed aloud, that God would suffer him to sail upon that unknown
-    sea: if a cutpurse was hanged, he never failed to make a moving speech,
-    deeply religious, while on the ladder. All classes preserved as yet the
-    Catholic practice of going often to church; they studied the Bible;
-    they made their ’prentices attend services; they listened patiently
-    to sermons; doctrine was considered a vital point. By the end of the
-    sixteenth century those who favoured the old Faith were either dead
-    or silenced; to the common people the old Faith meant a return to the
-    flames in Smithfield; torture at the hands of the Spanish Inquisition
-    if any should haply fall into Spanish hands; and slavery under the
-    Spanish King should he achieve the conquest of the country; whereas the
-    new Faith meant freedom of thought, increased wealth, advancing trade,
-    fighting the Spaniard and capturing the Spanish galleons. Religion,
-    therefore, was allied with prosperity.</p>
-
-  <p>I have spoken of the sober guise of the London merchant. That sober
-    guise belonged to the places where the merchant was mostly found: to
-    the Royal Exchange, for instance, or Thames Street, beside the quays
-    and warehouses. We must not think that there was no longer brightness
-    of colour and even splendour in the streets. The rich liveries of the
-    great nobles were chiefly seen on the river—remember that the front
-    of the Palace faced the river, that the back belonged to the Strand,
-    and that the river was London’s principal highway. Their varlets
-    lolled about on the river stairs or escorted their master in his
-    barge, but hardly belonged to the City. A Court gallant was dressed
-    as extravagantly as he could afford, or as his estate would bear. He
-    carried manors on his back, broad acres in his velvet cloak, with
-    golden buckles and lace trimming, a year’s rents in his fantastic
-    doublet slashed and puffed, in his silken hose, in his splendid sword,
-    his scabbard and the handle set with gold, in his rings, his scents,
-    his<span class="pagenum" id="Page_198">198</span> gloves and in his chains. But the Court gallant seldom showed on
-    Thames Street.</p>
-
-  <p>In Norman and Plantagenet London there were no shops, nor was there
-    anything sold in the streets except in the market-places, and the
-    streets set aside for retail trade. But in the Tudor time Street Cries
-    had already begun. We find, for instance, the following pleasant
-    verses:—</p>
-
-  <div class="center-container">
-    <div class="poem">
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i3">“Who liveth so merry in all this land</div>
-        <div class="i4">As doth the poor widow that selleth the sand?</div>
-        <div class="i4">And ever shee singeth as I can guesse,</div>
-        <div class="i4">Will you buy any sand, any sand, mistress?</div>
-      </div>
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i4">The broom-man maketh his living most sweet,</div>
-        <div class="i4">With carrying of broomes from street to street;</div>
-        <div class="i4">Who would desire a pleasanter thing,</div>
-        <div class="i4">Than all the day long to doe nothing but sing?</div>
-      </div>
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i4">The chimney-sweeper all the long day,</div>
-        <div class="i4">He singeth and sweepeth the soote away;</div>
-        <div class="i4">Yet when he comes home altho’ he be weary,</div>
-        <div class="i4">With his sweet wife he maketh full merry.</div>
-      </div>
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i4">The cobbler he sits cobbling till none,</div>
-        <div class="i4">And cobbleth his shoes till they be done;</div>
-        <div class="i4">Yet doth he not feare, and so doth say,</div>
-        <div class="i4">For he knows his worke will soone decay.</div>
-      </div>
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i4">Who liveth so merry and maketh such sport</div>
-        <div class="i4">As those that be of the poorest sort?</div>
-        <div class="i4">The poorest sort wheresoever they be,</div>
-        <div class="i4">They gather together by one, two, and three.</div>
-      </div>
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i0">Broomes for old shoes! pouch-rings, bootes and buskings!</div>
-        <div class="i2">Will yee buy any new broomes?</div>
-        <div class="i0">New oysters! new oysters! new new cockels!</div>
-        <div class="i2">Cockels nye! fresh herrings! Will yee buy any straw?</div>
-        <div class="i4">Hay yee any kitchen stuffe, maides?</div>
-        <div class="i2">Pippins fine, cherrie ripe, ripe, ripe!</div>
-        <div class="i12">Cherrie ripe! etc.</div>
-      </div>
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i12">Hay any wood to cleave?</div>
-        <div class="i12">Give eare to the clocke!</div>
-        <div class="i12">Beware your locke!</div>
-        <div class="i12">Your fire and your light!</div>
-        <div class="i12">And God give you good night!</div>
-        <div class="i18">One o’clocke!”</div>
-      </div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>Sumptuary laws were constantly renewed and continually broken. Yet the
-    mass of the people obeyed the unwritten law by which a man’s station
-    was shown by his dress. For more on this subject see the Chapter on
-    Dress.</p>
-
-  <p>The ordering of the household was strict. Early hours were kept; in
-    summer servants and apprentices were up at five; in winter at six
-    or seven; there were rules as to attendance at morning and evening
-    prayers; there was to be no quarrelling; no striking; no profane
-    language.</p>
-
-  <p>It is said that coaches were introduced in this reign; but there had
-    always been coaches, <i>i.e.</i> wheeled conveyances of a kind. Such a
-    carriage, belonging<span class="pagenum" id="Page_199">199</span> to the fourteenth century, is figured in J. J.
-    Jusserand’s <i>English Wayfaring Life in the Middle Ages</i>—a cumbrous
-    unwieldy thing, yet still a coach. What really happened in this century
-    was the introduction of a much more convenient kind of coach from
-    Holland.</p>
-
-  <p>Stow laments the mud and the splashing in the streets. “The coachman
-    rideth behind the horse tails, lasheth them, and looketh not behind
-    him; the drayman sitteth and sleepeth on his dray and letteth his horse
-    lead him home.” Most of the City streets, however, were so narrow and
-    so much obstructed by houses standing out, for as yet there was no
-    alignment except in streets like Chepe, which were highways and market
-    streets, that no wheeled vehicle could pass at all.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="i_199"><img src="images/i_199.jpg" width="476" height="467" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">SHOP AND SOLAR, CLARE MARKET, NOW DEMOLISHED<br />
-      From a photograph taken in 1895.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>There was very little more lighting at night than there had been in the
-    preceding centuries. If a London dame ventured out of the house after
-    dark, the ’prentice carried a link before her. Some of the old shops or
-    sheds with “solars” over them remained in Stow’s time; the last of them
-    stood in Clare Market, and was pulled down a few years ago. See the
-    accompanying photograph of it. Stow says that stalls had become sheds,
-    <i>i.e.</i> roofed stalls; and then shops,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_200">200</span> <i>i.e.</i> enclosed stalls; and then
-    “fair houses.” He instances a block of houses called Goldsmiths’ Row,
-    between Bread Street and the Cross, which contained ten dwelling-houses
-    and fourteen shops, “all in one frame, uniformly built.” They were four
-    stories high. The shops seem to have been open, but perhaps the upper
-    part was protected with a shutter or with glass.</p>
-
-  <p>Inland communication was conducted by means of carts and coaches.
-    Harrison<a id="FNanchor_5" href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> complains of the new fashion: “Our Princes and the
-    Nobilitie have their cariage commonlie made by carts, wherby it commeth
-    to passe that when the Queene’s Majestie dooth remove from anie one
-    place to another, there are usuallie 400 carewanes, which amount to the
-    summe of 2400 horses, appointed out of the counties adjoining, whereby
-    hir cariage is conveied safelie unto the appointed place. Hereby also
-    the ancient use of sumpter horses is in maner utterlie relinquished,
-    which causeth the traines of our princes in their progresses to shew
-    far lesse than those of the kings of other nations.”</p>
-
-  <p>During this long reign, in spite of plague and pestilence, the
-    population of London increased, and the suburbs extended, as we have
-    seen, in all directions. The increase of population was due (1) to
-    the increase of trade in London, which required a great accession of
-    ship-builders, boat-builders, makers of the various gear required for
-    ships, seamen, lightermen, porters, stevedores, and the like; (2) to
-    the large number of immigrants from France and the Low Countries; and
-    (3) to the number of persons released from the Religious Houses. That
-    is to say, this last is generally represented as one of the causes. To
-    me it seems as if the influence of these people on the population of
-    London must be regarded as quite insignificant. There were some 8000
-    monks, nuns, and friars who were sent into the world. Many of those who
-    were in priests’ orders obtained places in parish churches, conforming
-    by degrees to the changes of doctrine; the monks and nuns had pensions;
-    many of the latter went abroad; of the friars many were absorbed in the
-    general population; a certain number, one knows not how many, refused
-    to work, and joined the company of rogues and masterless men, but there
-    seems nothing to show how many of them settled in London.</p>
-
-  <p>Here is a simple calculation of the population in 1564. There was a
-    great plague in that year. The total number of deaths in the City for
-    the year is stated to have been 23,660, of whom 20,136 died of plague.
-    This leaves 3524 deaths from ordinary causes. Now, if the average
-    mortality of the City was twenty in the thousand, we should have a
-    population of 176,200. If, which is more likely, the average mortality
-    was twenty-five in the thousand the population was 140,960. In the time
-    of King James, but after much devastation by the plague, the population
-    of London was estimated at 130,000.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="i_200"><img src="images/i_200.jpg" width="700" height="469" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">TOTTENHAM COURT<br />
-      By the courtesy of the late Marquis of Salisbury.<br />
-      For further particulars regarding this plan see <a href="#APPENDIX_XI">Appendix XI.</a></div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>It has been said that there is no street in London in which one cannot
-    find <span class="pagenum" id="Page_201">201</span>a church and a tree. It is indeed remarkable to observe the
-    large number of trees still existing and flourishing in the City of
-    London, especially since the City churchyards have been converted into
-    gardens. Of the old private gardens there are now left but few: one
-    in St. Helen’s Place; one behind the Rectory of St. Andrew’s by the
-    Wardrobe; the Drapers’ Gardens, much curtailed; and the churchyards
-    above mentioned, which have been converted into gardens. In the
-    sixteenth century, however, London was still full of gardens, in the
-    north part of the City much more than in the south. Every house had
-    its garden behind; for the most part narrow, yet carefully cultivated
-    and full of trees and flowers. If you take the part of London that
-    has been least meddled with, the north-west corner of the City, for
-    instance—that part bounded by London Wall on the North; by Monkwell
-    and Noble Streets on the West; by Gresham Street on the South; and by
-    Moorgate on the East—you will find that the blocks between the older
-    streets are intersected everywhere by courts, alleys, narrow lanes and
-    buildings. These were all, including the ancient churches, taken out
-    of the gardens. Formerly, for instance, between Basinghall Street and
-    Coleman Street there were very long gardens behind the houses; these
-    have been used for lanes of connection, and for workmen’s houses, such
-    as Lilypot Lane and Oat Lane. Hidden away behind the houses is Sadler’s
-    Hall; here also, hidden away behind houses, is Haberdashers’ Hall; here
-    were the courtyards of inns, which formed among the gardens convenient
-    ground for their great open courts and their stables. In this way the
-    gardens of London gradually disappeared. In the sixteenth century,
-    however, there were a great many still left: London presented an
-    appearance of greenery and waving branches wherever one turned off the
-    main roads. The chief authority on the gardens of the time is Harrison,
-    who tells us what herbs, fruits, and roots were then grown, as well as
-    the medicinal plants then so much cultivated.</p>
-
-  <p>Harrison<a id="FNanchor_6" href="#Footnote_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> says, speaking of the flower gardens:—</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“If you look into our gardens annexed to our houses, how
-      wonderfullie is their beauty increased, not onelie with floures
-      which Colmella calleth <i>Terrena sydera</i>, saying, ‘Pingit et in
-      varios terrestria sydera flores,’ and varietie of curious and
-      costlie workmanship, but also with rare and medicinable hearbes
-      sought up in the land within these fortie yeares; so that in
-      comparison of this present, the ancient gardens were but dunghills
-      and laistowes to such as did possess them.</p>
-
-    <p>And even as it fareth with our gardens so dooth it with our
-      orchards, which were never furnished with so good fruit, nor with
-      such varietie as at this present. For beside that we have most
-      delicate apples, plummes, peares, walnuts, filberds, etc., and
-      those of sundrie sorts, planted within fortie yeares passed, in
-      comparison of which most of the old trees are nothing woorth; so
-      have we no less store of strange fruit, as abricotes, almonds,
-      peaches, figges, corne-trees in noblemen’s orchards. I have seen
-      capers, orenges, and lemmons, and heard of wild olives growing
-      here, beside other strange trees, brought from far, whose names I
-      know not. So that England for these commodities was never better
-      furnished, neither anie nation under their clime more plentifullie
-      indued with these and other blessings from the most high God, who
-      grant us grace withall to use the same to His honour and glorie!
-      and not as instruments and provocations unto<span class="pagenum" id="Page_202">202</span> further excesse and
-      vanitie, wherewith His displeasure may be kindled, least these
-      His benefits doo turne unto thornes and briers unto us for our
-      annoiance and punishment which He hath bestowed upon us for our
-      consolation and comfort.”</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <p>The London garden was not only a place of recreation in the summer;
-    it also furnished flowers for the pretty custom of decorating the
-    rooms and strewing the floors; the gardens furnished pot herbs for
-    the kitchen and sweet herbs for the walls and floors; branches also
-    of fragrant woods, such as fir and pine, were hung up on the walls. I
-    know not if this is a common custom still maintained in America; but
-    in Hawthorne’s house at Concord the rooms are still decorated and made
-    fragrant with branches of pine such as the writer used in his lifetime.
-    The floor of the great hall was strewn with rushes, brought chiefly
-    from the upper reaches and low-lying grounds of the river. These rushes
-    were of various kinds: some of them were grasses, such as that called
-    mat-weed, of which beds were made as well as floors strewn.</p>
-
-  <p>The chief authorities on the London garden are Bacon in his <i>Essays</i>,
-    and Gerard in his <i>Herbal</i>. Francis Bacon wrote his essays in Gray’s
-    Inn, whose garden he laid out and planted by request of the Benchers.
-    His essay on the garden was written, as he says himself, for the
-    climate of London.</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“And because the breath of flowers is far sweeter in the air (where
-      it comes and goes like the warbling of music) than in the hand,
-      therefore nothing is more fit for that delight than to know what
-      be the flowers and plants that do best perfume the air. Roses,
-      damask and red, are fast flowers of their smells, so that you may
-      walk by a whole row of them, and find nothing of their sweetness,
-      yea, though it be in a morning’s dew. Bays likewise yield no
-      smell as they grow, rosemary little, nor sweet marjoram. That
-      which above all others yields the sweetest smell in the air is
-      the violet, especially the white double violet, which comes twice
-      a year, about the middle of April and about Bartholomew-tide.
-      Next to that is the musk-rose; then the strawberry leaves dying,
-      which yield a most excellent cordial smell. Then the flower of the
-      vines; it is a little dust like the dust of a bent, which grows
-      upon the cluster in the first coming forth. Then sweetbriar, then
-      wall-flowers, which are very delightful to be set under a parlour
-      or lower chamber window. Then pinks and gilliflowers, especially
-      the matted pink and clove gilliflowers. Then the flowers of the
-      lime-tree. Then the honeysuckles, so they be somewhat afar off; of
-      bean-flowers I speak not, because they are field-flowers. But those
-      which perfume the air most delightfully, not passed by as the rest,
-      but being trodden upon and crushed, are three—that is, burnet,
-      wild thyme, and water-mints. Therefore you are to set whole alleys
-      of them, to have the pleasure when you walk or tread.”</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <p>In Ordish’s <i>Shakespeare’s London</i> will be found an excellent analysis
-    of Gerard’s <i>Herbal</i> as it deals with the gardens of the City and its
-    suburbs. In it also is an enumeration of the principal gardens of the
-    time, especially those of the Inns of Court. To these may be added
-    the gardens belonging to those of the City Companies whose Halls were
-    in the north part of the City, and those not yet built over which had
-    once formed part of the monastic precincts, not to speak of the private
-    gardens which were in many cases—such as the house of Sir Thomas
-    Gresham in Broad Street—large and spacious. (<i>See</i> <a href="#APPENDIX_VII">Appendix VII.</a>)</p>
-
-  <p>The allusions to London and to City customs in Shakespeare are
-    numerous,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_203">203</span> but not, as a rule, instructive. That is to say, he speaks
-    of streets and places which we know from other sources. The Tower,
-    the Bridge, Smithfield, Fish Street, St. Magnus Corner, the Savoy,
-    the Tower Royal (King Richard’s Palace), Westminster Hall, Eastcheap,
-    Bankside, the Temple, Cheapside, London Stone, Baynard’s Castle,
-    Blackfriars, Paris Garden, are mentioned with the familiarity of one
-    who lived in the City and knew all the streets intimately. It is
-    pleasant to find them playing their parts in the immortal plays, but,
-    as I said above, they teach us nothing.</p>
-
-  <p>In 1568, to escape the cruelties of Alva, a vast number of Flemings
-    came across the sea and were received hospitably. In order to prevent
-    their arrival proving an injury to the crafts of London, they were
-    scattered about, finding homes in Norwich, Colchester, Maidstone,
-    Sandwich, and Southampton, as well as in London. In the next generation
-    they appear to have been completely merged in the English population,
-    and the custom, common among persons of foreign descent, of anglicising
-    their names has made it very difficult to discover the Flemish origin
-    of a family. The earlier Flemish settlers in England were regarded with
-    hatred. It would seem that another colony of Flemings came over before
-    this immigration in the year 1568; they were settled in Suffolk. In
-    1594 a good many Portuguese came over as retainers to Don Antonio, and
-    settled here. Among them was the Balthazar who became confectioner to
-    King James and founded almshouses at Tottenham. There were Italians,
-    probably connected with the Italian trade, for the “Lombardi,” the
-    Pope’s men, were gone; they had a service at the Mercers’ Chapel every
-    Sunday. There were also a great many “Dutch,” among whom were numbered
-    the Flemings. Thus, in 1567, a census was taken of “foreigners” in
-    London. There were found to be 4851 altogether, of whom 3838 were
-    Dutch, and 720 French. A few years later the French Ambassador reports
-    that there were 13,700 strangers in London, of whom a third were going
-    to be turned out.</p>
-
-  <p>Of the hatred and suspicion entertained towards foreigners by Londoners
-    we have many proofs. “They scoff and laugh at foreigners,” says the
-    Duke of Wurtemberg, “and, moreover, one dares not oppose them, else
-    the street boys and apprentices collect together in immense crowds and
-    strike to the right and left unmercifully without regard to person.”
-    Isaac Casaubon in James the First’s reign complained that he had never
-    been so badly treated as by the people of London: they threw stones
-    at his windows; they pelted his children and himself with stones. The
-    Venetian Ambassador of 1497 testifies to the same effect; in 1557 his
-    successor says that it is impossible to live in London on account of
-    the insolence with which foreigners are treated.</p>
-
-  <p>At the same time it must be remembered that there were quarters
-    assigned to foreigners, and that the people must have been accustomed
-    to see these residents<span class="pagenum" id="Page_204">204</span> going about the streets. Perhaps they were
-    only insolent to foreign nobles, and those whose dress and language
-    were not familiar to them. The Hanse merchants had their house beside
-    Dowgate, Petty Almaigne; the Flemings had theirs on the east side of
-    the Bridge, Petty Flanders: the French had a place in Bishopsgate Ward
-    called Petty France. It was in Petty Flanders that certain Jews resided
-    under the guise of Flemings, just as in the fourteenth century they
-    passed themselves off as Lombards. The Flemings built the Exchange: it
-    was designed after the Antwerp Bourse, by a Fleming; the workmen were
-    specially brought over, and appear to have been unmolested.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter w600">
-    <a id="i_204"><img src="images/i_204.jpg" width="600" height="598" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="attribl"><i>W Knight del<sup>t</sup>.</i></div>
-    <div class="attribr"><i>J<sup>s</sup>. Basire sculp.</i></div>
-  </div>
-  <div class="center caption">INTERIOR VIEW OF QUEEN ELIZABETH’S BATH<br />
-    From <i>Archæologia</i>.</div>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_205">205</span></p>
-
-  <p>In February 1831 there was swept away, with all the buildings in the
-    place called the King’s Mews, where Trafalgar Square now is, a small
-    building called Queen Elizabeth’s Bath. It was a square building of
-    fine brick. It was certainly a Bath, and had a groined roof ascribed by
-    Mr. William Knight who sketched it to the fifteenth century. It was an
-    interesting building of which nothing seems known. Nobody has noticed
-    it except a writer in <i>Archæologia</i> (vol. xxv.), who gives a plan
-    and drawing of the curious place. Like the Sanctuary at Westminster
-    it would have been entirely forgotten but for the hand of a single
-    antiquary, who rescued it from oblivion at the last moment.</p>
-
-  <hr class="page" />
-  <div class="chapter mb10" id="GOVERNMENT_AND_TRADE_OF_THE_CITY">
-    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_207">207</span>
-    <h2>GOVERNMENT AND TRADE OF THE CITY</h2>
-  </div>
-
-  <hr class="page" />
-  <div class="chapter" id="CHAPTER_1d">
-    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_209">209</span>
-    <h3>
-      <span class="gespertt1">CHAPTER I</span><br />
-      <span class="subhead">THE MAYOR</span>
-    </h3>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="i_209"><img src="images/i_209.jpg" width="441" height="539" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">MAYOR AND ALDERMEN OF THE PERIOD<br />
-      From an MS. in British Museum.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p class="noindent"><span class="smcap">In</span> the year 1500 a change of some importance was effected by Sir John
-    Shaw, Mayor of that year. Before his time the civic feasts had been
-    held at the Hall of the Grocers or the Taylors. Sir John Shaw built
-    kitchens and offices at the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_210">210</span> Guildhall and began the custom of holding
-    the Lord Mayor’s feast in that place.</p>
-
-  <p>The election of Sheriffs was formerly conducted by the citizens, who,
-    by the Charter of King Henry IV., could appoint Sheriffs from their
-    own body “according to the tenor of the Charters granted by the King’s
-    progenitors and not in any other way” (<i>Liber Albus</i>, p. 148), and
-    in the first book of the same work the manner of the election of the
-    Sheriff is described in greater detail (<i>Liber Albus</i>, 1861 edition, p.
-    39):—</p>
-
-  <p>“As concerning the election of Sheriffs,—the Mayor, Recorder,
-    Aldermen, and Commons, are to be assembled on the day of Saint Matthew
-    the Apostle [21 September], in such manner as is ordained on the
-    election of the Mayor; and in the first place, the Mayor shall choose,
-    of his own free will, a reputable man, free of the City, to be one of
-    the Sheriffs for the ensuing year; for whom he is willing to answer as
-    to one half of the ferm<a id="FNanchor_7" href="#Footnote_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> of the City due to the King, if he who is
-    so elected by the Mayor shall prove not sufficient. But if the Mayor
-    elect him by counsel and with the assent of the Aldermen, they also
-    ought to be answerable with him. And those who are elected for the
-    Common Council, themselves, and the others summoned by the Mayor for
-    this purpose, as before declared, shall choose another Sheriff, for the
-    commonalty; for whom all the commonalty is bound to be answerable as to
-    the other half of the ferm so due to the King, in case he shall prove
-    not sufficient.”</p>
-
-  <p>The custom is illustrated by the following story concerning the
-    election of William Massam as Sheriff by Sir Edward Osborne, the
-    Mayor:—</p>
-
-  <p>“In this year, one day in the month of July, there were two great
-    feasts at London, one at Grocers’ Hall, another at Haberdashers’ Hall
-    (as perhaps there was in all the rest upon some public occasion). Sir
-    Edward Osborne, Mayor, and divers of his brethren the Aldermen, with
-    the Recorder, were at Haberdashers’ Hall, where the said Mayor, after
-    the second course was come in, toke the great standing cup, the gift
-    of Sir William Garret, being full of hypocrase; and silence being
-    commanded through all the tables, all men being bare-headed, my Lord
-    openly with a convenient loud voice, used these words:—‘Mr. Recorder
-    of London, and you my good brethren the Aldermen, bear witness, that I
-    do drink unto Mr. Alderman Massam, as Sheriff of London and Middlesex,
-    from Michaelmas next coming, for one whole year; and I do beseech God
-    to give him as quiet and peaceable a year, with as good and gracious
-    favour of her Majesty, as I myself, and my brethren the Sheriffs now
-    being, have hitherto had, and as I trust shall have.’ This spoken, all
-    men desired the same.</p>
-
-  <p>The Sword-bearer in haste went to the Grocers’ feast, where Mr.
-    Alderman Massam was at dinner, and did openly declare the words that my
-    Lord Mayor had <span class="pagenum" id="Page_211">211</span>used; whereunto silence made, and all being hush, the
-    Alderman answered very modestly in this sort:—</p>
-
-  <p>‘First, I thank God, who, through His great goodness, hath called me
-    from a very poor and mean degree unto this worshipful state. Secondly,
-    I thank her Majesty for her gracious goodness in allowing to us these
-    great and ample franchises. And, thirdly, I thank my Lord Mayor for
-    having so honourable an opinion of this my Company of Grocers, so as
-    to make choice of me, being a poor Member of the same.’ And this said,
-    both he and all the Company pledged my Lord, and gave him thanks.”</p>
-
-  <p>The Lord Mayor’s Show in the sixteenth century, conducted partly on
-    horseback, and partly by water, was a far finer pageant than any
-    that our generation has been enabled to witness. The following is a
-    contemporary account:—</p>
-
-  <p>“The day of St. Simon and Jude, he (the Mayor) entrethe into his
-    estate and offyce; and the next daie following he goeth by water to
-    Westmynster in most tryumphlyke maner. His barge beinge garnished with
-    the armes of the citie; and nere the sayd barge goeth a shyppbote of
-    the Queenes Majestie, beinge trymed upp, and rigged lyke a shippe of
-    warre, with dyvers peces of ordinance, standards, penons, and targetts
-    of the proper armes of the sayd Mayor, the armes of the Citie, of his
-    company; and of the merchaunts adventurers, or of the staple, or of
-    the company of the newe trades; next before hym goeth the barge of
-    the lyvery of his owne company, decked with their owne proper armes,
-    then the bachelers’ barge, and soo all the companies in London, in
-    order, every one havinge their owne proper barge garnished with the
-    armes of their company. And so passinge alonge the Thamise, landeth at
-    Westmynster, where he taketh his othe in Thexcheker, beffore the judge
-    there (whiche is one of the chiefe judges of England), whiche done, he
-    returneth by water as afforsayd, and landeth at powles wharfe, where
-    he and the reste of the Aldermen take their horses, and in great pompe
-    passe through the greate streete of the citie, called Cheapside. And
-    fyrste of all cometh ij great estandarts, one havinge the armes of
-    the citie, and the other the armes of the Mayor’s Company; next them
-    ij drommes and a flute, then an ensigne of the citie, and then about
-    IXX or IXXX poore men marchinge ij and two togeather in blewe gownes,
-    with redd sleeves and capps, every one bearinge a pyke and a target,
-    whereon is paynted the armes of all them that have byn Mayor of the
-    same company that this newe mayor is of. Then ij banners, one of the
-    kynges armes, the other of the Mayor’s owne proper armes. Then a sett
-    of hautboits playinge, and after them certayne wyfflers, in velvett
-    cotes, and chaynes of golde, with white staves in their handes, then
-    the pageant of tryumphe rychly decked, whereuppon by certayne fygures
-    and wrytinges, some matter touchinge justice, and the office of a
-    maiestrate is represented. Then xvj trompeters, viij and viij in a
-    company, havinge banners of the Mayor’s company. Then certayne wyfflers
-    in velvet cotes<span class="pagenum" id="Page_212">212</span> and chaynes, with white staves as afordsayde. Then the
-    bachelers ij and two together, in longe gownen, with crymson hoodes
-    on their shoulders of sattyn; which bachelers are chosen every yeare
-    of the same company that the Mayor is of (but not of the lyvery) and
-    serve as gentlemen on that and other festivall daies, to wayte on the
-    Mayor, beinge in nomber accordinge to the quantetie of the company,
-    sometimes sixty or one hundred. After them xij trompeters more, with
-    banners of the Mayor’s company, then the dromme and flute of the citie,
-    and an ensigne of the Mayor’s company, and after, the waytes of the
-    citie in blewe gownes, redd sleeves and cappes, every one havinge his
-    silver coller about his neck. Then they of the liverey in their longe
-    gownes, every one havinge his hood on his lefte shoulder, halfe black
-    and halfe redd, the nomber of them is accordinge to the greatnes of the
-    companye whereof they are. After them followe Sheriffes officers, and
-    then the Mayor’s officers, with other officers of the citie, as the
-    comon sargent, and the chamberlayne; next before the Mayore goeth the
-    sword-bearer, having on his headd the cappe of honor, and the sworde of
-    the citie in his right hande, in a riche skabarde, sett with pearle,
-    and on his left hand goeth the comon cryer of the citie, with his great
-    mace on his shoulder, all gilt. The Mayor elect in a long gowne of
-    skarlet, and on his lefte shoulder a hood of black velvet, and a riche
-    coller of gold of SS. about his neck, and with him rydeth the olde
-    Mayor also, in his skarlet gowne, hood of velvet, and a chayne of golde
-    about his neck. Then all the Aldermen ij and ij together (amongst whom
-    is the Recorder) all in skarlet gownes; and those that have byn Mayors,
-    have chaynes of gold, the other have black velvett tippetts. The ij
-    Shereffes come last of all, in their black skarlet fownes and chaynes
-    of golde.</p>
-
-  <p>In this order they passe alonge through the citie, to the Guyldhall,
-    where they dyne that daie, to the number of 1000 persons, all at
-    the charge of the Mayor and the ij Shereffes. This feast costeth
-    £400, whereof the Mayor payeth £200 and eche of the Shereffes £100.
-    Immediately after dyner, they go to the churche of St. Paule, every
-    one of the aforesaid poore men bearrynge staffe torches and targetts,
-    whiche torches are lighted when it is late, before they come from
-    evenynge prayer.” (Drake, <i>Shakespeare and his Times</i>, vol. ii. p. 164.)</p>
-
-  <p>The very pretty story of Edward Osborne and the rescue of his master’s
-    daughter is narrated by Maitland as belonging to the year 1559, but the
-    date does not matter.</p>
-
-  <p>Sir William Hewitt, citizen and clothworker, Mayor in 1559, lived
-    on London Bridge. He was himself the son of a country gentleman of
-    Yorkshire; he had for apprentice one Edward Osborne, also son of a
-    country gentleman, Richard Osborne, of Ashford, Kent. Hewitt had three
-    sons and one daughter. It happened one day, the child being yet an
-    infant, that the maid playing with her at the open window let her
-    fall out of the window into the river below. The ’prentice Osborne,
-    fortunately seeing the accident, boldly jumped into the river and
-    saved the child. Years after, when the child was grown up, Hewitt, one
-    of the richest of London merchants, refused to give her in marriage to
-    the Earl of Shrewsbury and other noble suitors, but gave her to the man
-    who had saved her life. Sir Edward Osborne, as he afterwards became,
-    Mayor in 1583, was the ancestor of the Dukes of Leeds.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_213">213</span>
-    <a id="i_213"><img src="images/i_213.jpg" width="700" height="521" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">LONDON BRIDGE<br />
-      From Visscher’s <i>Panorama of London</i>.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_214">214</span>Until recently it was customary for the Lord Mayor to go on Sundays in
-    state to one or other of the City churches.</p>
-
-  <p>On these occasions the Lord Mayor was accompanied by the sheriffs and
-    officials of the Corporation, and escorted by the mace-bearer and
-    sword-bearer, the latter wearing the cap of maintenance, and carrying
-    the state sword. It was usual for the Alderman of the Ward to be
-    present with any other alderman that pleased to come, and as many as
-    came brought with them their ward beadles, carrying the ward maces.</p>
-
-  <p>Towards the latter part of the sixteenth century the practice of
-    carrying the sword into church before the Lord Mayor became customary.
-    It is not clear when this practice first began, but after the Fire of
-    London and the rebuilding of the City it became the universal custom,
-    and so continued until a comparatively recent period, when the exodus
-    of the citizens made it not only inconvenient but an absolute tax upon
-    the officers of the Corporation if the Lord Mayor attended church in
-    state with his sword borne before him.</p>
-
-  <p>But for the time that it lasted, that is rather more than two
-    centuries, it necessitated the introduction into the City churches
-    of a convenient stand or case upon which the City sword was placed.
-    The State visits of the Lord Mayor having been discontinued in
-    the mayoralty of Sir Robert Fowler, the consequence is that the
-    sword-stands have ceased to have any use. Those stands which had
-    artistic merit will no doubt be preserved.</p>
-
-  <p>It may be taken as certain that these sword-cases or stands were not
-    in use before the reign of Queen Elizabeth. There were many schedules
-    of ecclesiastical furniture in existence prior to that date, but in
-    none of them is there any mention of such an article as a sword-case,
-    or sheath, or stand, although the list of articles is most minute. The
-    earliest mention is in the Account Books of St. Michael’s, Cornhill,
-    published by Mr. Alfred I. Waterlow.</p>
-
-  <p>Under date 1574, that is, in the sixteenth year of Queen Elizabeth’s
-    reign, there is the following entry:—</p>
-
-  <p>“Paid for guylding of the case for my Lord Mayor’s swearde ... 9s.”</p>
-
-  <p>Hawes was a resident in the parish, and was Lord Mayor in the year
-    1574–1575. He had had a new pew made for him just outside the chancel
-    screen a year or two before, on his being appointed Alderman of
-    Cornhill Ward, and the pew was further fitted with a gilded sword-case
-    on his being made Lord Mayor.</p>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_215">215</span></p>
-
-  <p>The worthy Machyn has a note on a Civic hunting which reads
-    pleasantly:—</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“The xviij day of September my lord mare and my masters the
-      althermen and mony worshephull men, and dyvers of the masturs and
-      wardens of the xij compenys, rod to the condutt hedes for to se
-      them, after the old coustum; and a fore dener they hundyd and hare
-      and kyllyd, and so to dener to the hed of the condyth, for ther was
-      a nombur, and had good chere of the chamburlayn; and after dener
-      to hontyng of the fox, and ther was a goodly cry for a mylle, and
-      after the hondys kyllyd the fox at the end of sant Gylles and theyr
-      was a grett cry at the deth, and blohyng of hornes; and so rod
-      thrugh London, my lord mare Harper with all ys compene home to ys
-      owne plase in Lumberd Street.”</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <hr class="page" />
-  <div class="chapter" id="CHAPTER_2d">
-    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_216">216</span>
-    <h3>
-      <span class="gespertt1">CHAPTER II</span><br />
-      <span class="subhead">TRADE</span>
-    </h3>
-  </div>
-
-  <p class="noindent"><span class="smcap">The</span> Tudor period begins with the lowest point reached in town and
-    country of a decline and decay that had been steadily persistent for
-    nearly two hundred years. The prosperity of a trading city depends
-    upon the prosperity of its markets. There were many causes for this decay.
-    The famines, of which there were four, in the fourteenth and fifteenth
-    centuries; the Hundred Years’ War; the Civil Wars; the weakness of
-    the fleet and the piracies in the Channel; the growth of the power of
-    Parliament and the consequent decay of local independence; the feeble
-    government of Edward II. and Henry VI.; the fearful devastation of the
-    Black Death; the changes in the manorial system;—all these<span class="pagenum" id="Page_217">217</span> things
-    together contributed to the decay of trade over the whole country. To
-    quote a writer on the fifteenth century. Denton, in his <i>England in
-      the Fifteenth Century</i>, says that the decay of England commenced soon
-    after the death of Edward I. It continued, showing an increased rate of
-    decay, after the death of Edward II.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="i_216"><img src="images/i_216.jpg" width="600" height="362" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">SOUTH VIEW OF THE CUSTOM-HOUSE IN THE REIGN OF
-      ELIZABETH. BURNT IN THE GREAT FIRE, 1666<br />
-      E. Gardner’s Collection.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>The country parishes everywhere, on the northern and the Welsh march,
-    on the southern seaboard, and in the Eastern Counties, had to be
-    exempted from payment of taxes on account of poverty; lands were
-    untilled; there was loss of sheep and cattle; agriculture was at a
-    standstill for fear of pirates. Or the country parishes were actually
-    deserted: the people, ruined, had left the farms and the clearings; the
-    churches were allowed to fall into ruin; Monastic Houses were desolate
-    and empty because the Brethren had no longer any rents.</p>
-
-  <p>In the towns there were open spaces within the walls where houses had
-    once stood. One has only to visit King’s Lynn in Winchelsea for an
-    example of this decay.</p>
-
-  <p>Even in London, it has been observed, for more than a hundred years
-    after the Rebellion of Jack Straw there stood in Fleet Street the
-    blackened ruins of two forges which that rebel’s followers had burned.
-    In all that time there was not found any who thought it worth while to
-    rebuild the forge.</p>
-
-  <p>In London during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, although the
-    time was one of commercial decline, there were still rich merchants.
-    It is in a time of decay that the merchants make complaints of aliens;
-    that they clamour for protection; that they demand the import and
-    the export of merchandise in English ships; that they would prohibit
-    the sending of gold and silver out of the country; let the foreign
-    merchants be paid in kind.</p>
-
-  <p>The melancholy condition of the country at the beginning of the
-    sixteenth century is described most vividly by Cunningham:—</p>
-
-  <p>“There is less mention made of decay in the first thirty years of the
-    sixteenth century; but the facts were again brought forcibly forward
-    when the Parliament of Henry VIII. began to put pressure on the
-    owners of houses to repair their property and to remove the rubbish
-    that endangered life in the towns. Norwich had never recovered from
-    the fire of 1508; the empty spaces at Lynn Bishop allowed the sea to
-    do damage in other parts of the town. Many houses were ruined and
-    the streets were dangerous for traffic in Nottingham, Shrewsbury,
-    Ludlow, Bridgenorth, Queenborough, Northampton and Gloucester; there
-    were vacant spaces heaped with filth, and tottering houses in York,
-    Lincoln, Canterbury, Coventry, Bath, Chichester, Salisbury, Winchester,
-    Bristol, Scarborough, Hereford, Colchester, Rochester, Portsmouth,
-    Poole, Lyme, Feversham, Worcester, Stafford, Buckingham, Pontefract,
-    Grantham, Exeter, Ipswich, Southampton, Great Yarmouth, Oxford, Great
-    Wycombe, Guildford, Stratford, Hull, Newcastle, Bedford,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_218">218</span> Leicester
-    and Berwick; as well as in Shaston, Sherborne, Bridport, Dorchester,
-    Weymouth, Plymouth, Barnstaple, Tavistock, Dartmouth, Launceston,
-    Lostwithiel, Liskeard, Bodmin, Truro, Helston, Bridgewater, Taunton,
-    Somerton, Ilchester, Maldon and Warwick. There were similar dangers to
-    the inhabitants of Great Grimsby, Cambridge, the Cinque Ports, Lewes;
-    and even in the more remote provinces things were as bad, for Chester,
-    Tenby, Haverfordwest, Pembroke, Caermarthen, Montgomery, Cardiff,
-    Swansea, Cowbridge, New Radnor, Presteign, Brecknock, Abergavenny,
-    Usk, Caerlon, Newport in Monmouthshire, Lancaster, Preston, Liverpool
-    and Wigan, were taken in hand in 1544. In trying to interpret this
-    evidence, however, we must remember that we are reading of attempts
-    to repair, not of complaints of new decline; the mere fact that such
-    attempts were made was perhaps an indication that things had reached
-    their worst; and we are perhaps justified in inferring from the double
-    mention of some few towns that a real improvement was effected in the
-    others.” (<i>The Growth of English Industry.</i>)</p>
-
-  <p>There is thus abundant evidence concerning the decay of trade.
-    Cunningham speaks of the decay of the craft gilds and their
-    mismanagement. This may be considered a part of the general decay and
-    a consequence. At first, the craft gilds exercised police control over
-    their members and so secured good order; the old authority and power
-    of the alderman in his ward had been practically taken over by the
-    gilds; each master had his apprentices living with him and forming part
-    of his own household. Yet the apprentices made the riot in 1517 long
-    remembered as Evil May Day. Another of their objects was the production
-    of honest and good work. Yet in 1437 and again in 1503 it was enacted
-    that no ruler of gilds or fraternities should make any ordinances which
-    were not approved by the Chancellor of the Justices of Assize. The
-    third object was the securing of fair conditions for those who worked
-    in the trade. Yet consider the grievances of the journeymen in 1536:—</p>
-
-  <p>“Previous Acts relating to craft abuses are recited and the statute
-    proceeds: ‘Sithen which several acts established and made, divers
-    masters, wardens and fellowships of crafts, have by cautel and subtle
-    means practised and compassed to defraud and delude the said good and
-    wholesome statutes, causing divers apprentices or young men immediately
-    after their years be expired, or that they be made free of their
-    occupation or fellowship, to be sworn upon their holy Evangelist at
-    their first entry, that they nor any of them after their years or term
-    expired shall not set up, nor open any shop, house, nor cellar, nor
-    occupy as freeman without the assent and license of the master, wardens
-    or fellowship of their occupations, upon pain of forfeiting their
-    freedom or other like penalty; by reason whereof the said ’prentices
-    and journeymen be put to as much or more charges thereby than they
-    beforetime were put unto for the obtaining and entering of their
-    freedom, to the great hurt and impoverishment of the said ’prentices
-    and journeymen and other their friends.’ Such restrictions naturally
-    resulted in the withdrawal of the journeymen to set up shops in suburbs
-    or villages where the gild had no jurisdiction; and from this they were
-    not precluded, in all probability, by the terms of their oath. This
-    might often be their only chance of getting employment, as the masters
-    were apparently inclined to overstock their shops with apprentices,
-    rather than be at the expense of retaining a full proportion of
-    journeymen.” (<i>The Growth of English Industry.</i>)</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="i_218-9">
-    <img src="images/i_218-9.jpg" width="700" height="405" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption"></div>
-    <ul class="xsmall bold clear col33">
-      <li>&nbsp; &nbsp; 1. The Palace of Westminster.</li>
-      <li>&nbsp; &nbsp; 2. St. Stephen’s Chapel.</li>
-      <li>&nbsp; &nbsp; 3. Westminster Hall.</li>
-      <li>&nbsp; &nbsp; 4. Westminster Abbey.</li>
-      <li>&nbsp; &nbsp; 5. Old Palace Yard.</li>
-      <li>&nbsp; &nbsp; 6. The Clock Tower.</li>
-      <li>&nbsp; &nbsp; 7. The Gate House.</li>
-      <li>&nbsp; &nbsp; 8. St. Margaret’s Church.</li>
-      <li>&nbsp; &nbsp; 9. The King’s Stairs.</li>
-      <li>&nbsp; 10. Star Chamber.</li>
-      <li>&nbsp; 11. Lambeth Palace.</li>
-      <li>&nbsp; 12. Stangate Horse Ferry.</li>
-      <li>&nbsp; 13. St. James’s Hospital.</li>
-      <li>&nbsp; 14. St. James’s.</li>
-      <li>&nbsp; 15. Whitehall.</li>
-      <li>&nbsp; 16. Holbein’s Gate.</li>
-      <li>&nbsp; 17. Scotland Yard.</li>
-      <li>&nbsp; 18. Charing Cross.</li>
-      <li>&nbsp; 19. King’s Mews.</li>
-      <li>&nbsp; 20. St. Martin’s Church.</li>
-      <li>&nbsp; 21. St. Mary’s Hospital.</li>
-    </ul>
-    <ul class="xsmall bold col33">
-      <li>&nbsp; 22. St. Giles’s Church.</li>
-      <li>&nbsp; 23. Convent Garden.</li>
-      <li>&nbsp; 24. The Strand.</li>
-      <li>&nbsp; 25. York House.</li>
-      <li>&nbsp; 26. Durham House.</li>
-      <li>&nbsp; 27. Savoy Palace.</li>
-      <li>&nbsp; 28. Somerset Place.</li>
-      <li>&nbsp; 29. St. Mary le Strand.</li>
-      <li>&nbsp; 30. St. Clement Dane.</li>
-      <li>&nbsp; 31. Lincoln’s Inn.</li>
-      <li>&nbsp; 32. Lincoln’s Inn Fields.</li>
-      <li>&nbsp; 33. Gray’s Inn.</li>
-      <li>&nbsp; 34. Ely House.</li>
-      <li>&nbsp; 35. Fetter Lane.</li>
-      <li>&nbsp; 36. Rolls Place.</li>
-      <li>&nbsp; 37. St. Dunstan’s Church.</li>
-      <li>&nbsp; 38. The Temple Church.</li>
-      <li>&nbsp; 39. The Temple.</li>
-      <li>&nbsp; 40. Fleet Street.</li>
-      <li>&nbsp; 41. Grey Friars.</li>
-      <li>&nbsp; 42. Palace of Bridewell.</li>
-    </ul>
-    <ul class="xsmall bold col33">
-      <li>&nbsp; 43. St. Bride’s.</li>
-      <li>&nbsp; 44. St. Andrew’s Church.</li>
-      <li>&nbsp; 45. St. Sepulchre’s Church.</li>
-      <li>&nbsp; 46. Fleet Ditch.</li>
-      <li>&nbsp; 47. St. John’s Hospital.</li>
-      <li>&nbsp; 48. Smithfield.</li>
-      <li>&nbsp; 49. St. James’s, Clerkenwell.</li>
-      <li>&nbsp; 50. Newgate.</li>
-      <li>&nbsp; 51. Ludgate.</li>
-      <li>&nbsp; 52. Blackfriars.</li>
-      <li>&nbsp; 53. The Wardrobe.</li>
-      <li>&nbsp; 54. Baynard Castle.</li>
-      <li>&nbsp; 55. St. Paul’s Cathedral.</li>
-      <li>&nbsp; 56. St. Paul’s Cross.</li>
-      <li>&nbsp; 57. St. Bartholomew’s the Great.</li>
-      <li>&nbsp; 58. Grey Friars.</li>
-      <li>&nbsp; 59. Queen Hythe.</li>
-      <li>&nbsp; 64. The Standard.</li>
-      <li>&nbsp; 66. Rochester House.</li>
-      <li>&nbsp; 69. The Stews.</li>
-      <li>128. Bank Side.</li>
-    </ul>
-    <div class="caption">From the Panorama of “London, Westminster, and Southwark, in 1543.” By
-      Anthony Van den Vyngaerde. (Sutherland Collection, Bodleian Library.
-      Oxford.) <i>For continuation see pp. <a href="#i_234-5">234</a> and <a href="#i_350-1">350</a>.</i></div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_219">219</span>In 1545 Henry VIII. ordained the confiscation of the property of all
-    colleges, fraternities, brotherhoods and gilds. This measure, sweeping
-    in its terms, was not generally carried out. In 1547 the advisers
-    of Edward VI. swept away all the craft gilds in England except the
-    Companies of London and a few gilds in country towns. The statute
-    provided that artisans might work where they pleased whether they were
-    free of the town or not.</p>
-
-  <p>Trade, therefore, had entered upon new conditions; this was inevitable,
-    owing to the many changes—the revolutionary changes which created so
-    wide a gulf between the fifteenth and the sixteenth centuries.</p>
-
-  <p>With these preliminaries we can now proceed to the revival and
-    expansion of trade and the development of enterprise in the sixteenth
-    century, but more especially during the reign of Queen Elizabeth.</p>
-
-  <p>The endowment of the City with a Bourse is generally attributed to
-    the perception by Sir Thomas Gresham of the need for such a place
-    of meeting,<a id="FNanchor_8" href="#Footnote_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> though the matter had been mooted and the opinion of
-    merchants taken thirty years before.</p>
-
-  <p>In the year 1537, Sir Richard Gresham, the father of Sir Thomas
-    Gresham, whose business had taken him to Antwerp, when he saw the
-    Bourse frequented daily by merchants, wrote a letter to Cromwell in
-    which he suggested the erection of a Bourse in Lombard Street, as the
-    place most frequented by merchants. As nothing came of the proposal
-    he wrote again in the following year with an estimate of the cost,
-    viz. £2000. If, he said, the Lord Privy Seal would induce Alderman Sir
-    George Monoux to part with certain property at cost price he, Gresham,
-    would undertake to raise £1000 towards the building before he went out
-    of office. Whereupon the King addressed a letter to Monoux desiring
-    him to dispose of certain property in Lombard Street, which was wanted
-    for the commonweal of the merchants. Monoux, with Gresham’s consent,
-    referred the matter to arbitration. A yearly sum of twenty marks to be
-    paid by the City was offered. Monoux at first refused to take it, but
-    afterwards, at the King’s request, consented. Then, for some unknown
-    reason, nothing more was done. The matter was left over for many years.</p>
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_220">220</span></p>
-
-  <p>At this time Thomas Gresham (son of Sir Richard by his first wife,
-    Audrey, daughter of William Lynne of Southwick, Northampton) was
-    nineteen years of age, and still serving his apprenticeship to his
-    uncle, Sir John Gresham, Mercer. He was received into the Company in
-    1543. In the same year he was acting for the King at Antwerp. In 1551
-    he was appointed Royal Agent or King’s merchant, which caused him to
-    reside at Antwerp during many months, and at frequent intervals. On
-    the accession of Mary he was dismissed, but his services were speedily
-    discovered to be necessary, and he was reappointed. Elizabeth continued
-    his appointment.</p>
-
-  <p>In 1561 his factor, Richard Clough, wrote to him from Antwerp
-    expressing his astonishment that London should have gone on so long
-    without a Bourse:—</p>
-
-  <p>“Considering what a City London is; and that in so many years the same
-    found not the means to make a Burse, but merchants must be contented
-    to stand and walk in the rain, more like pedlars than Merchants. In
-    this Country, said he (meaning Antwerp), and in all other, there is
-    no kind of people that have occasion to meet but ye have a place for
-    that purpose; indeed and if your business were done (here) and that I
-    might have the leisure to go about it, and that I would be a means to
-    Mr. Secretary to have his favour therein, I would not doubt but to make
-    so fair a burse in London as the great burse is in Antwerp, without
-    soliciting of any Man more than he shall be well disposed to give.”</p>
-
-  <p>Gresham remembered the attempt made by his father in 1538 and its
-    failure; he resolved to take up the matter again, and in some way
-    introduced it to the Court of Aldermen, who asked him, through one of
-    their body, what he proposed to give himself towards the undertaking.
-    This was in 1563, two years after Clough wrote his letter. Gresham took
-    time to consider. In 1565 he sent in the offer. He would himself erect
-    a “comely burse” if the City would provide a suitable site.</p>
-
-  <p>The site was found on the north side of Cornhill. Two alleys, Swan
-    Alley and New St. Christopher’s, were purchased for £3532: the
-    materials of the houses sold for £478. Subscriptions were invited and
-    came in readily. On the 7th of June 1566 Sir Thomas was able to lay the
-    foundation stone. Every one of the aldermen laid his stone or brick,
-    with a piece of gold for the workmen.</p>
-
-  <p>The architect and the design came from Flanders. The Clerk of the Work,
-    Henryk, was a Fleming, and most of the workmen were foreigners, special
-    permission being granted for their employment. The City gave 100,000
-    bricks; the stone-work came from abroad, and “to this day” (Sharpe)
-    “the Royal Exchange is paved with small blocks of Turkish hone-stones,
-    believed to have been imported by Sir Thomas Gresham and to have been
-    relaid after the fires of 1666 and 1838.”</p>
-
-  <p>Observe, therefore, that to the City belonged the site, but that the
-    Exchange itself was the property of Gresham.</p>
-
-  <p>By the 22nd of December 1568 the Burse was so far complete as to
-    allow of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_221">221</span> merchants meeting within its walls; but it was not till the
-    23rd of January 1571 that the Queen herself visited it in state, and
-    gave it the name of the Royal Exchange. From the beginning a part of
-    the Exchange was set aside for Marine Insurance, not a new thing,
-    because it had long been the practice of the Lombard merchants in the
-    thirteenth century to give such insurances.</p>
-
-  <p>The Royal Exchange became a place of recreation as well as of business.
-    The citizens walked here on the evenings of Sundays and Holy days,
-    where the City waits played from 7 <span class="smcap">P.M.</span> till 8 <span class="smcap">P.M.</span>
-    up to the Feast of Pentecost, then they played from 8 <span class="smcap">P.M.</span>
-    till 9 <span class="smcap">P.M.</span> until Michaelmas. In 1576 it was ordered that no
-    games of football should be played within the Royal Exchange.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="i_221"><img src="images/i_221.jpg" width="292" height="349" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">SIR THOMAS GRESHAM (1519(?)–1579)</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>The Exchange remained the property of Sir Thomas Gresham until his
-    death, when he bequeathed the building together with his mansion in
-    Broad Street, after the death of his wife, on certain conditions, to
-    the City and the Mercers’ Company in trust, viz.:—</p>
-
-  <p>“The Citizens, for their Moiety of the said Edifice, are from Time
-    to Time to appoint four Persons duly qualified to read Lectures of
-    Divinity, Astronomy, Musick, and Geometry, in his Mansion-house
-    [afterwards Gresham College], and to pay annually to each of the said
-    Lecturers a Salary or Stipend of fifty Pounds. And also to pay yearly
-    to his eight Alms-People in <i>Broad-Street</i> (whom the Mayor and Citizens
-    have likewise the Power of chusing) the sum of six Pounds thirteen
-    Shillings and four Pence each. And besides, to pay annually to the
-    Prisons<span class="pagenum" id="Page_222">222</span> of <i>Newgate</i>, <i>Ludgate</i>, <i>Kings-Bench</i>, <i>Marshalsey</i>, and
-    <i>Wood-Street Compter</i>, the Sum of ten Pounds each.</p>
-
-  <p>And the Mercers, for their Half, are, from Time to Time, to chuse
-    three persons well accomplished, to read Lectures of Law, Physick, and
-    Rhetorick, in the aforesaid Mansion-House called <i>Gresham-College</i>,
-    with the same salaries to each of the Lecturers as to the
-    above-mentioned. The said Company of Mercers are likewise obliged
-    to pay the sum of one hundred Pounds per Ann. for four quarterly
-    Dinners to be provided at their Hall, for the Entertainment of the
-    whole Company; and also to pay to <i>Christ’s</i>, <i>St. Bartholomews</i>, the
-    <i>Spital</i>, <i>Bethlehem</i>, and <i>St. Thomas’s</i> Hospitals, and the <i>Poultry
-      Compter</i>, the Sum of ten Pounds per Ann. each.” (Maitland, vol. i. pp.
-    256–257.)</p>
-
-  <p>The reversion fell in on the death of Lady Gresham in 1596, when the
-    City and the Company took steps to carry out the Trust. Gresham House
-    became Gresham College, and so continued until the year 1767, when the
-    Crown took over the building for an Excise office, giving the City £500
-    a year perpetual annuity. For some time the lectures ceased; when they
-    were renewed they were delivered in the City of London School until the
-    building of the present Gresham College in Basinghall Street.</p>
-
-  <p>We have become accustomed to consider the enterprise and restless
-    spirit of adventure which makes the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries
-    so full of interest, as finding their sole field in the New World
-    and in voyages such as those of Drake and Cavendish; and in heroes
-    such as Frobisher, Gilbert, and Raleigh. We forget the expeditions of
-    Willoughby and Burroughs to find a north-east passage; the courage of
-    Chancellor, who opened up trade with Russia; the travels of Jenkinson,
-    who first crossed Russia and sailed over the Caspian Sea; the brave
-    Captains of the Levant Company, who fought their way through the
-    Barbary corsairs and the galleys of Spain; those faithful servants
-    of the same Company, Newbery, Fitch, and Leedes, who discovered the
-    long-forgotten overland route to India; the voyages of the first ships
-    of the East India Company in seas unknown, among a people strange and
-    suspicious; the persistent attempts to open up the African trade; we
-    have forgotten—if we ever learned—how, all over the world, along the
-    shores of the Baltic, in Arctic seas, round the Cape of Good Hope, in
-    the Far East, in North-West America and in the West Indies, the sails
-    of England carried the gallant adventurers whose very numbers make
-    their names difficult to be remembered; across the unknown plains of
-    Russia, across the Great Syrian desert, unvisited by Christians since
-    the days of Bohemond and Baldwin, down the Great River, even the river
-    Euphrates; in the Courts of the Great Mogul, in Malay land, among the
-    Red Indians of North America,—everywhere, visible to all, were found
-    the men of the Western Queen, as great a name to the Czar of Muscovy as
-    to Philip of Spain.</p>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_223">223</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="i_223"><img src="images/i_223.jpg" width="700" height="454" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption"><i>Christ’s Hospital.</i></div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_224">224</span></p>
-
-  <p>In Hakluyt may be found written by Anthony Jenkinson, one of the most
-    determined and most daring of the trading travellers of this time,
-    a list of the countries which he had visited in six years. It is as
-    follows:—</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“The names of such countries as I Anthony Jenkinson have travelled
-      unto, from the second of October 1546, at which time I made my
-      first voyage out of England, untill the yeere of our Lord 1572,
-      when I returned last out of Russia.</p>
-
-    <p>First, I passed into Flanders, and travelled through all the base
-      countries, and from thence from Germanie, passing over the Alpes
-      I travelled into Italy, and from thence made my journey through
-      Piemont into France, throughout all which realme I have thoroughly
-      journied.</p>
-
-    <p>I have also travelled through the kingdomes of Spaine and
-      Portingal, I have sailed through the Levant seas every way, and
-      have bene in all the chiefe Islands within the same sea, as Rhodes,
-      Malta, Sicilia, Cyprus, Candie, and divers others.</p>
-
-    <p>I have bene in many partes of Grecia, Morea, Achaia, and where the
-      olde citie of Corinth stoode.</p>
-
-    <p>I have travelled through a great part of Turkie, Syria, and divers
-      other countries in Asia minor.</p>
-
-    <p>I have passed over the mountaines of Libanus to Damasco, and
-      travelled through Samaria, Galile, Philistine or Palestine, unto
-      Jerusalem and so through all the Holy land.</p>
-
-    <p>I have been in divers places of Affrica, as Algiers, Col, Bon,
-      Tripolis, the gollet within the Gulf of Tunis.</p>
-
-    <p>I have sailed farre Northward within the Mare glaciale, where
-      we have had continuall day; and sight of the Sunne ten weekes
-      together, and that navigation was in Norway, Lapland, Samogitia;
-      and other very strange places.</p>
-
-    <p>I have travelled through all the ample dominions of the Emperour
-      of Russia and Moscovis, which extende from the North sea, and the
-      confines of Norway and Lapland, even to the Mare Caspium.</p>
-
-    <p>I have bene in divers countries neere about the Caspian sea,
-      Gentiles, and Mahometans, as Cazan, Cremia, Rezan, Cheremisi,
-      Mordouiti, Vachin, Nagaia, with divers others of strange customs
-      and religions.</p>
-
-    <p>I have sailed over the Caspian Sea, and discovered all the regions
-      thereabout adjacent, as Chircassi, Comul, Shascal, Shiruan, with
-      many others.</p>
-
-    <p>I have travelled 40 daies journey beyond the said sea, towards
-      the Oriental India and Cathaia, through divers deserts and
-      wildernesses, and passed through 5 kingdomes of the Tartars, and
-      all the land of Turkeman and Zagatay, and so to the great city of
-      Boghar in Bactria, not without great perils and dangers sundry
-      times.</p>
-
-    <p>After all this, in An. 1562 I passed againe over the Caspian sea
-      another way, and landed in Armenia, at a citie called Derbent,
-      built by Alexander the Great, and from thence travelled through
-      Media, Parthia, Hircania, into Persia to the court of the great
-      Sophie, called Shaw Tomasso, unto whom I delivered letters from the
-      Queenes Majestie, and remained in his court 8 months, and returning
-      homeward, passed through divers other countries. Finally, I made
-      two voyages more after that out of England into Russia, the one in
-      the yeere 1566, and the other in the yeere 1571. And thus being
-      weary and growing old, I am content to take my seat in mine owne
-      house, chiefly comforting myselfe, in that my service hath bene
-      honourably accepted and rewarded of her majestie and the rest by
-      whom I have beene employed.”</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <p>And now it was that stories of danger from frost and from storm; of
-    cruelties endured at the hands of savages, and pirates; of captivity
-    among Moors; of tortures inflicted by the accursed Inquisition; of
-    hairbreadth escapes; of wanderings over lands never before seen; of
-    great treasures lying ready for the bold adventurer,—ran up and down
-    the City. The ’prentice told what he had heard to fellow ’prentice; the
-    sailors told the boys upon the wharves; the ship after her successful
-    voyage came up to the Pool with cloth of gold for sails and dressed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_225">225</span>
-    with flying streamers. Above all, the imagination of the youth was
-    fired more by the splendid stones of danger and of battle and of escape
-    from captivity than by the prospect of great riches. Do you know how
-    John Fox escaped from Alexandria? For my own part I do not know any
-    story better told or more certain to inspire the lads who heard it with
-    a burning desire to be with such a company and to be doing such things.
-    It is from Hakluyt (ii. 133), and I venture to relate it here and in
-    his own words, to show the kind of story which quickened the pulse and
-    fired the blood of the London youth.</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“Nowe these eight being armed with such weapons as they thought
-      well of, thinking themselves sufficient champions to encounter
-      a stronger enemie, and comming unto the prison, Fox opened the
-      gates and doores thereof, and called forth all the prisoners, whom
-      he set, some to ramming up the gate, some to the dressing up of
-      a certaine gallie, which was the best in all the roade, and was
-      called the captaine of Alexandria, whereinto some carried mastes,
-      sailes, oares, and other such furniture as doth belong unto a
-      gallie.</p>
-
-    <p>At the prison were certaine warders, whom John Fox and his
-      companie slew; in the killing of whom, there were eight more of
-      the Turks, which perceived them, and got them to the toppe of the
-      prison; unto whom John Fox, and his company, were faine to come by
-      ladders, where they found a hot skirmish. For some of them were
-      there slaine, some wounded, and some but scarred, and not hurt.
-      As John Fox was thrise shot through his appareil, and not hurt,
-      Peter Unticaro, and the other two, that had armed them with the
-      duckats, were slaine, as not able to weild themselves, being so
-      pestered with the weight and uneasie carying of the wicked and
-      prophane treasure; and also divers Christians were as well hurt
-      about that skirmish as Turkes slaine. Amongst the Turkes was one
-      thrust thorowe, who (let us not say that it was ill fortune) fell
-      off from the toppe of the prison wall, and made such a lowing, that
-      the inhabitants thereabout (as here and there scattering stoode a
-      house or two) came and dawed him, so that they understood the case,
-      how that the prisoners were paying their ransomes; wherewith they
-      raised both Alexandria which lay on the west side of the roade, and
-      a Castle which was at the Cities end, next to the roade, and also
-      an other Fortresse which lay on the north side of the roade; so
-      that nowe they had no way to escape, but one, which by man’s reason
-      (the two holdes lying so upon the mouth of the roade) might seeme
-      impossible to be a way for them. So was the read sea impossible
-      for the Israelites to passe through, the hils and rockes lay so
-      on the one side, and their enemies compassed them on the other.
-      So was it impossible that the wals of Jericho should fall downe,
-      being neither undermined, nor yet rammed at with engines, nor yet
-      any man’s wisdome, pollicie, or helpe set or put thereunto. Such
-      impossibilities can our God make possible. He that helde the Lyons
-      jawes from rending Daniel asunder, yea, or yet from once touching
-      him to his hurt; can not He hold the roring canons of this hellish
-      force? He that kept the fiers rage in the hot burning oven, from
-      the three children, that praised His name, can not He keepe the
-      fiers flaming blastes from among His elect?</p>
-
-    <p>Now is the roade fraught with lustie souldiers, laborers, and
-      mariners, who are faine to stand to their tackling, in setting
-      to every man his hand, some to the carying in of victuals, some
-      munitions, some oares, and some one thing, some another, but most
-      are keeping their enemie from the wall of the road. But to be
-      short, there was no time mispent, no man idle, nor any man’s labour
-      ill bestowed, or in vaine. So that in short time, this gally was
-      ready trimmed up. Whereinto every man leaped in all haste, hoyssing
-      up the sayles lustily, yeelding themselves to His mercie and grace,
-      in whose hands are both winde and weather.</p>
-
-    <p>Now is this gally on flote, and out of the safetie of the roade;
-      now have the two Castles full power upon the gally, now is there
-      no remedy but to sinke; how can it be avoided? the Canons let flie
-      from both sides, and the gally is even in the middest, and betweene
-      them both. What man can devise to save it? there is no man, but
-      would thinke it must needs be sunke.</p>
-
-    <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_226">226</span></p>
-
-    <p>There was not one of them that feared the shotts, which went
-      thundring round about their eares, nor yet were once scarred or
-      touched, with five and forty shot, which came from the Castles.
-      Here did God hold foorth His buckler, He shieldeth now this gally,
-      and hath tried their faith to the uttermost. Now commeth His
-      speciall helpe; yea, even when man thinks them past all helpe, then
-      commeth He Himselfe downe from heaven with His mightie power, then
-      is His present remedie most readie prest. For they saile away,
-      being not once touched with the glaunce of a shot, and are quickly
-      out of the Turkish canons reach. Then might they see them comming
-      downe by heapes to the water side, in companies like unto swarmes
-      of bees, making shew to come after them with gallies, in bustling
-      themselves to dresse up the gallies, which would be a swift peece
-      of worke for them to doe, for that they had neither oares, mastes,
-      sailes, gables, nor anything else ready in any gally. But yet they
-      are carying them unto them, some into one gally, and some into
-      another, so that, being such a confusion amongst them, without any
-      certaine guide, it were a thing impossible to overtake them; beside
-      that, there was no man that would take charge of a gally, the
-      weather was so rough, and there was such an amasedness [amazedness]
-      amongst them.”</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="i_226"><img src="images/i_226.jpg" width="356" height="455" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">SIR FRANCIS DRAKE (1540(?)–1596)<br />
-      From an engraving by Elstracke in the British Museum.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>The effect on London of the magnificent expeditions of the English was
-    startling. Think what these things meant. The country for a long time
-    could look back upon nothing but defeat, humiliation, civil war, and
-    religious dissensions. There were no military achievements, no naval
-    victories; no increase of trade;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_227">227</span> never was the nation more depressed
-    and humbled than at the death of Queen Mary and the accession of
-    Elizabeth.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="i_227"><img src="images/i_227.jpg" width="375" height="294" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">DRAKE’S “GOLDEN HIND,” IN WHICH HE SAILED ROUND THE
-        WORLD, 1577–1580</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>Then—almost suddenly—all was changed. More than the old spirit came
-    back to the Londoners, the descendants of the men who had followed
-    Philpot the Mayor to the destruction of the Scottish pirate. Not only
-    the sea dogs of Devon, but those of Wapping, Ratcliffe, Redriff, and
-    the Cinque Ports went forth to fight the Spaniard wherever they could
-    find him. Think of the career of Frobisher. Three times he essayed
-    the north-west passage to Cathay; he commanded one of Drake’s ships
-    in his expedition to the West Indies; he fought against the Armada;
-    he was wounded, and died from wounds received at the siege of Crozan
-    in Brittany. Forty years on the sea, sword in hand, sailed this brave
-    captain. London possesses his body, which lies in St. Giles’s Church,
-    Cripplegate. There was also Cavendish, the gentleman filibuster, who
-    captured the richest prize ever known, and came home, his sails of
-    damask, his sailors clad in silk, and his masts gleaming with cloth
-    of gold. Or there was the defeat, the flight after battle against
-    overwhelming odds, which affected the imagination even more than
-    victory. Such was Sir John Hawkins’s fight at San Juan de Ulloa, five
-    ships against thirteen. Even death, when death came splendidly, moved
-    the hearts of the young men to brave deeds. Was there ever death finer
-    than that of Sir Humphrey Gilbert? The last time he was seen by the
-    people on the other ship, his companion, he was sitting on the high
-    poop, his Bible in his hand. “We are as near to Heaven,” said the old
-    captain, “by sea as by land.” Night fell and the men on the <i>Hind</i>
-    saw the light of the <i>Squirrel</i> suddenly disappear. She had gone down
-    with all on board. And while speaking of splendid deaths, there was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_228">228</span>
-    that of Sir Richard Grenville. In his ship the <i>Revenge</i>, with five
-    other vessels, he was met by a Spanish fleet of fifty-three ships; his
-    companions fled, and the <i>Revenge</i> alone fought them all:—</p>
-
-  <div class="center-container">
-    <div class="poem">
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i0">“And the sun went down, and the stars came out, far over the summer sea,</div>
-        <div class="i1">But never a moment ceased the fight of the one and the fifty-three.</div>
-        <div class="i1">Ship after ship, the whole night long, their high-built galleons came,</div>
-        <div class="i1">Ship after ship, the whole night long, with her battle-thunder and flame:</div>
-        <div class="i1">Ship after ship, the whole night long, drew back with her dead and her shame.</div>
-        <div class="i1">For some were sunk and many were shatter’d, and so could fight us no more—</div>
-        <div class="i1">God of battles, was ever a battle like this in the world before?”</div>
-      </div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p class="noindent">But at length he was captured with his crippled ship and his diminished crew.</p>
-
-  <div class="center-container">
-    <div class="poem">
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i0">“But he rose upon their decks, and he cried:</div>
-        <div class="i1">‘I have fought for Queen and Faith, like a valiant man and true:</div>
-        <div class="i1">I have only done my duty as a man is bound to do:</div>
-        <div class="i1">With a joyful spirit, I, Sir Richard Grenville, die!’</div>
-        <div class="i1">And he fell upon their decks, and he died.”</div>
-      </div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>The ship in which Drake sailed round the world (<i>The Golden Hind</i>),
-    when it became unfit for service, was laid up near the “Mast Dock” at
-    Deptford, where it remained for a long series of years an object of
-    curiosity and wonder. Hentzner, in 1598, says he saw here the ship of
-    that noble pirate, Francis Drake. From a passage in one of Ben Jonson’s
-    plays it appears to have become a resort for holiday people, the cabin
-    being then converted into a banqueting house. Drake’s ship at Deptford
-    is spoken of as one of the “sights” in some verses prefixed to the
-    redoubtable Tom Coryat’s <i>Crudities</i>, 1611. When the young Duke of
-    Saxe-Weimar saw the ship in 1613, but very little remained of it. It
-    was then lying by the river-side in shallow water, in a dock; the lower
-    part only was left, the upper part being all gone, for almost everybody
-    who went there, and especially sailors, were in the habit of carrying
-    off some portion of it. Philipott, <i>History of Kent</i>, 1659, says
-    that in a very short time nothing was left of her. And in Moryson’s
-    <i>Itinerary</i>, 1617, it is noticed as follows—“Not farre from hence
-    (Deptford), upon the shore, lie the broken ribs of the ship in which
-    Sir Francis Drake sailed round the world, reserved for a monument of
-    that great action.” A chair, made out of the wood, is to be seen in the
-    gallery of the Bodleian Library at Oxford.</p>
-
-  <p>Let us take a contemporary poet, to see how Drake’s own generation was
-    affected by his exploits:—</p>
-
-  <div class="center-container">
-    <div class="poem">
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i0">“Awake, each Muse, awake!</div>
-        <div class="i3">Not one I need, but all</div>
-        <div class="i1">To sing of Francis Drake</div>
-        <div class="i3">And his companions tall.</div>
-        <div class="i1">One Muse may chance do well,</div>
-        <div class="i1">Where little is to tell;</div>
-        <div class="i1">But nine are all too few</div>
-        <div class="i1">To tell what he did do,</div>
-        <div class="i3">His friends and soldiers all.</div><span class="pagenum" id="Page_229">229</span>
-      </div>
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i1">Drake was made generall</div>
-        <div class="i3">By sea and eke by land,</div>
-        <div class="i1">And Christopher Carlisle</div>
-        <div class="i3">Did next unto him stand.</div>
-        <div class="i1">Brave Winter too, was there,</div>
-        <div class="i1">And Captain Fourbisher,</div>
-        <div class="i1">And Knowles, and many mo,</div>
-        <div class="i1">Did all together go</div>
-        <div class="i3">To lend a helping hand.</div>
-      </div>
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i1">Three thousand Volunteers</div>
-        <div class="i3">Were numbered with the rest,</div>
-        <div class="i1">And sailors, as appears,</div>
-        <div class="i3">To guide them to the West,</div>
-        <div class="i1">To quell the Spaniard’s pride,</div>
-        <div class="i1">Which could not be denied;</div>
-        <div class="i1">But which could not be seene</div>
-        <div class="i1">By our most noble Queene</div>
-        <div class="i3">And stomach’d with the best.</div>
-      </div>
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i1">In more than twenty ships</div>
-        <div class="i3">They sailed from the port.</div>
-        <div class="i1">In speed they did eclipse,</div>
-        <div class="i3">And took St. Jago’s fort:</div>
-        <div class="i1">It was a glorious day,</div>
-        <div class="i1">Before they came away,</div>
-        <div class="i1">The day of our Queen’s birth,</div>
-        <div class="i1">They kept with joy and mirth</div>
-        <div class="i3">In well beseeming sort.</div>
-      </div>
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i1">Santo Domingo next</div>
-        <div class="i3">They took and also spoiled.</div>
-        <div class="i1">The Spaniard he was vext</div>
-        <div class="i3">To be so easy foiled.</div>
-        <div class="i1">No force could them resist;</div>
-        <div class="i1">They did as they list.</div>
-        <div class="i1">The Spaniards bought the town,</div>
-        <div class="i1">And paid the ducats down</div>
-        <div class="i3">For which they long had toiled.</div>
-      </div>
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i1">From thence to Carthagene</div>
-        <div class="i3">They carried victory:</div>
-        <div class="i1">Upon the Spanish main</div>
-        <div class="i3">The city rich doth lye.</div>
-        <div class="i1">They took it by assault:</div>
-        <div class="i1">The Spaniards were in fault;</div>
-        <div class="i1">But they could not oppose</div>
-        <div class="i1">The valour of such foes,</div>
-        <div class="i3">And yeelded presently.</div>
-      </div>
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i1">To Terra Florida</div>
-        <div class="i3">They did direct their course,</div>
-        <div class="i1">And ever by the way</div>
-        <div class="i3">They proved their skill and force.</div>
-        <div class="i1">With fear the Spaniards shook</div>
-        <div class="i1">While all their towne they took.</div>
-        <div class="i1">For barrels of bright gold</div>
-        <div class="i1">The towne our English sold,</div>
-        <div class="i3">And shewed therefore remorse.</div>
-      </div>
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i1">And now they have returned</div>
-        <div class="i3">To Plymouth back once more,</div>
-        <div class="i1">And glory they have earned</div>
-        <div class="i3">Enough to put in store.</div><span class="pagenum" id="Page_230">230</span>
-        <div class="i1">Our Queen with great delight</div>
-        <div class="i1">Beheld the joyous sight,</div>
-        <div class="i1">And thanked them every one</div>
-        <div class="i1">For what they thus had done</div>
-        <div class="i3">By sea and on the shore.</div>
-      </div>
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i1">Now, welcome all and some,</div>
-        <div class="i3">Now welcome to our isle,</div>
-        <div class="i1">For Francis Drake is come</div>
-        <div class="i3">To London with Carlisle:</div>
-        <div class="i1">And many more with him</div>
-        <div class="i1">That ventured life and limb,</div>
-        <div class="i1">And fighting side by side</div>
-        <div class="i1">Did quell the Spaniard’s pride,</div>
-        <div class="i3">To cause our Queen to smile.”</div>
-      </div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>And if the following truly represents the spirit of the sailors, what a
-    promising and cheerful spirit it was!</p>
-
-  <div class="center-container">
-    <div class="poem">
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i0">“Lustely, lustely, lustely let us saile forth,</div>
-        <div class="i1">The winde trim doth serve us, it blowes from the north.</div>
-      </div>
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i1">All thinges we have ready, and nothing we want</div>
-        <div class="i3">To furnish our ship that rideth here by:</div>
-        <div class="i1">Victuals and weapons, thei be nothing skant,</div>
-        <div class="i3">Like worthie mariners ourselves we will trie.</div>
-        <div class="i30">Lustely, lustely, etc.</div>
-      </div>
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i1">Her flagges be new trimmed, set flaunting alofte,</div>
-        <div class="i3">Our ship for swift swimmyng, oh, she doeth excell;</div>
-        <div class="i1">Wee feare no enemies, we have escaped them ofte;</div>
-        <div class="i3">Of all ships that swimmeth she beareth the bell.</div>
-        <div class="i30">Lustely, lustely, etc.</div>
-      </div>
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i1">And here is a maister excelleth in skill,</div>
-        <div class="i3">And our maister’s mate he is not to seeke;</div>
-        <div class="i1">And here is a boteswaine will do his good will,</div>
-        <div class="i3">And here is a ship boye, we never had leeke.</div>
-        <div class="i30">Lustely, lustely, etc.</div>
-      </div>
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i1">If fortune then faile ot, and our next vioage prove,</div>
-        <div class="i3">Wee will returne merely, and make good cheere,</div>
-        <div class="i1">And holde all together, as friends linkt in love:</div>
-        <div class="i3">The cannes shal be filled with wine, ale, and beere.</div>
-        <div class="i30">Lustely, lustely, etc.”</div>
-      </div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>But enough of songs, we must return to the more serious aspects of
-    Trading England. When merchants first began to carry on foreign trade
-    in association it is impossible to ascertain. But as we find “Men
-    of the Emperor” and “Men of Rouen” in London in Saxon times, it is
-    probable that foreign trade was from the beginning carried on by
-    members of companies. These members traded each for himself; but they
-    were associated for protection, and of necessity an “interloper”—as
-    the private trader was afterwards called—could not carry his wares
-    to a foreign city when he knew not the language, or the customs, nor
-    could claim the privileges accorded to the Companies. On the other
-    hand, behind the members stood a powerful corporation; this gave the
-    merchants credit; this procured for them respect and protection;
-    this provided the machinery of warehouses, markets,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_231">231</span> interpreters,
-    and information as to laws, regulations, prices, demand, supply,
-    privileges, and all the special points required to be mastered if trade
-    were to be successful.</p>
-
-  <p>The first foreign trading Company, then, was exactly like a Trades
-    Guild, in which only members could follow the trade, which had its own
-    quarter, made its own laws for itself, elected its own officers, yet
-    every member worked for himself.</p>
-
-  <p>The longest lived and the most important of the mediæval companies was
-    the Hanseatic League, already mentioned at <a href="#Page_82">p. 82.</a></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter w355">
-    <a id="i_231"><img src="images/i_231.jpg" width="353" height="444" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="attribr"><i>F. Hausstaengl</i></div>
-    <div class="caption">A MERCHANT OF THE STEELYARD<br />
-      From the portrait by Holbein at Windsor Castle.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>The earliest association of London merchants for foreign trade is that
-    called the Staplers’ Company. They claimed to have existed long before
-    the Merchant Adventurers. There is, however, a great deal of mystery
-    attached to their early history. Thus, if they were associated for
-    exporting the staple wares, such as wool, lead, tin, and skins, how
-    far did they overlap the Hanseatics? And were they all foreigners? The
-    latter question seems answered by the law of 1253, which prohibited
-    English merchants from exporting staple goods. Again, was this law
-    strictly enforced? In 1362, more than a hundred years later, it was
-    repealed.</p>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_232">232</span></p>
-
-  <p>The Merchants of the Staple are sometimes confused with the Fraternity
-    of St. Thomas à Becket, from whom sprung a much more important
-    body—the Merchant Adventurers. The reason of the decay of the Staplers
-    was the growth of English industries, which forbade the exports of the
-    most important of the staples—wool. The Staplers, however, continued
-    their trade, having their headquarters at Antwerp, Brussels, Louvain,
-    Calais, and Bruges, successively. It will be remembered that Edward
-    III. established the Staple of Wool at Westminster; the name of Staple
-    Inn preserved the fact that the merchants had houses on that site.</p>
-
-  <p>About the year 1358 the Fraternity of Thomas Becket received privileges
-    from Louis, Count of Flanders, for fixing their staple of English
-    woollen cloth at Bruges. This Fraternity gave rise to the Mercers’
-    Company founded under Edward the Third. The Saint, son of a London
-    mercer, was especially regarded as the protector of the Company. The
-    Brotherhood was not at first possessed of exclusive rights, but if
-    we suppose that they were backed by the richest traders in London,
-    namely, the Mercers and the Drapers, and that no other London trader
-    would compete with them, it is quite probable that they feared no
-    competition. They got a Charter in 1406 when Henry the Fourth gave them
-    the right of choosing their own governors; they then began to arrogate
-    to themselves exclusive rights, which were confirmed by another
-    Charter of 1436. So wealthy and powerful did they become that when,
-    in 1444, they removed their headquarters from Middleburg to Antwerp,
-    the magistrates and citizens met them outside the town, and offered
-    them an entertainment. Their Secretary, John Wheeler (<i>Treatise of
-      Commerce</i>, 1601), says that the “English Nation” were the real founders
-    of Antwerp’s wealth. There were troubles as to the attempts of private
-    merchants to trade; in 1497 it was provided by Act of Parliament that
-    every Englishman should have free entrance to foreign marts on payment
-    of ten marks, presumably to the Fraternity. Again, in 1505, a new
-    Charter changed their name to that of the “Merchant Adventurers of
-    England.” Under this Charter they held in their hands the export trade
-    in woollen cloths, and were authorised to hold courts and to admit
-    other merchants for a fee of ten marks to trade with them in Flanders,
-    Holland, Brabant, Zeeland, and the countries adjacent under the
-    Archduke’s government. The Merchant Adventurers became a power in the
-    land; so great a power, indeed, that when Charles the Fifth proposed to
-    establish the Inquisition in Antwerp, he was dissuaded by the Merchant
-    Adventurers, who threatened to leave the City if he persisted. It is
-    said that the Company then employed 50,000 persons in the Netherlands.
-    At this time their limits comprised all the ports from the river Somme
-    to the German ports within the Baltic. They exported white and coloured
-    cloths to the value of one million sterling every year, and imported,
-    among other things, wine, copper, steel, gunpowder (could we not make
-    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_233">233</span>our own gunpowder?), silk, velvets, cloth of gold. This business was
-    well nigh ruined by King James the First when he granted a monopoly for
-    the sale of cloths dyed at home to Sir William Cockaine, Alderman. (See
-    <i>London in the Time of the Stuarts</i>, p. 194.)</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter w565">
-    <a id="i_232"><img src="images/i_232.jpg" width="565" height="700" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="attribr"><i>W. A. Mansell &amp; Co.</i></div>
-    <div class="caption">MEDALS STRUCK IN COMMEMORATION OF THE ARMADA<br />
-      From medals in the British Museum.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>As the Merchant Adventurers grew richer it became necessary, according
-    to the bad practice of the time, to bribe statesmen for a continuance
-    of their privileges; they also increased the fees for admission. The
-    troubles between Holland and England in the seventeenth century drove
-    the Adventurers to Hamburg, where they remained, and were called the
-    Hamburg Company.</p>
-
-  <p>The vast enlargement of trade and enterprise under Elizabeth was well
-    begun under her father. In 1511 ships began to sail from the ports of
-    London, Southampton, and Bristol to Sicily, Candia, Chio, Cyprus, and
-    Tripoli; they took out woollen cloths and hides, and they brought back
-    rhubarb, silk, corselets, malmsey, oil, cotton, carpets, and spices.
-    An English merchant was appointed Consul at Candia; another merchant,
-    a foreigner, was made Consul at Chio; in the year 1535 a ship took out
-    from London a hundred persons who were settled by the English merchants
-    as factors at the various centres of trade. Trade openings were made on
-    the Coast of Guinea and with Morocco; ships sailed to Newfoundland and
-    to Brazil. In the year 1583 was formed the first of the new Companies
-    for trading purposes. This Company had an interesting but a disastrous
-    beginning. It was started with a capital of £6000 in 240 shares of £25
-    each; its original idea was to find a north-east passage to China and
-    to open trade with the Chinese. Three vessels were fitted out under the
-    command of Sir Hugh Willoughby. Would you know how the fleet started?
-    Hakluyt tells the story:—</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“It was thought best by the opinion of them all, that by the
-      twentieth of May, the Captaines and Mariners should take shipping,
-      and depart from Radcliffe, upon the ebbe, if it pleased God.
-      They having saluted their acquiaintance, one his wife, another
-      his children, another his kinsfolkes, and another his friends
-      deerer then his kinsfolkes, were present and ready at the day
-      appoynted; and having wayed ancre, they departed with the turning
-      of the water, and sailing easily, came first to Greenewich. The
-      greater shippes are towed downe with boates, and oares, and the
-      mariners being all apparelled in Watchet or skie coloured cloth,
-      rowed amaine, and made way with diligence. And being come neere
-      to Greenewich (where the Court then lay) presently upon the newes
-      thereof, the Courtiers came running out, and the common people
-      flockt together, standing very thicke upon the shoare; the privie
-      Counsel, they lookt out at the windowes of the Court, and the
-      rest ranne up to the toppes of the towers; the shippes hereupon
-      discharge their Ordinance, and shot off their pieces after the
-      maner of warre, and of the sea, insomuch that the tops of the
-      hilles sounded therewith, the valleys and waters gave an echo, and
-      the Mariners they shouted in such sort, that the skie rang againe
-      with the noyse thereof. One stoode in the poope of the ship, and
-      by his gestures bid farewell to his friends in the best maner
-      hee could. Another walkes upon the hatches, another climbes the
-      shrowds, another stands upon the maine yard, and another in the top
-      of the shippe. To be short, it was a very triumph (after a sort)
-      in all respects to the beholders. But (alas) the good King Edward
-      (in respect of whom principally all this was prepared) hee onely
-      by reason of his sickenesse was absent from this shewe, and not
-      long after the departure of these ships, the lamentable and most
-      sorrowfull accident of his death followed.”</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_234">234</span></p>
-
-  <p>Other accounts of this incident represent the King as being carried out
-    to see this gallant spectacle, the last he was to see upon earth.</p>
-
-  <p>The little fleet met with bad weather off the coast of Spitzbergen; two
-    of them, including the captain’s ship, ran into a harbour of Lapland,
-    where the whole company were frozen to death; the third got into
-    the White Sea and so to Archangel; the captain, Richard Chancellor,
-    procured sledges and travelled to Moscow, where he obtained from the
-    Czar permission to trade on the northern coast of Russia. Thus was
-    founded the Russia Company. A few years later one of the agents of the
-    Russia Company was despatched as an Ambassador from the English Court
-    to the Czar, who in his turn sent an Ambassador to Whitehall. On his
-    voyage the Russian Ambassador was wrecked on the coast of Scotland.
-    The Russia Company, hearing of the disaster, sent a deputation with a
-    supply of everything that the Ambassador might want. On his approach to
-    the City he was met by a company of eighty merchants on horseback, who
-    escorted him to Highgate, where he lay that night, and on the next day
-    was met by Lord Montague, representing the Queen, with 300 knights and
-    esquires and 140 merchants of the Russia Company. Rooms were found for
-    him in Gracechurch Street, where many costly gifts awaited him.</p>
-
-  <p>The history of this Company deserves to be written at length on
-    account of the enterprise and intelligence of its agents. Indeed,
-    justice has never been done to the agents and factors of the great
-    London Companies. It was not the Directors, sitting at home at their
-    long table, who created the Indian Empire; maintained and widened the
-    English trade; carried the English flag over lands unknown and to
-    peoples unheard of; it was not the Directors who opened up routes,
-    stood before capricious despots, marked the resources of new countries
-    and reported on their wants. These things were done by the factors and
-    the agents, who encountered all risks, facing possibly prison, torture,
-    disease, and sometimes a cruel death, for the enlargement of trade and
-    the enrichment of their masters. They were the pioneers; sometimes they
-    were the Forlorn Hope of the English trade and wealth. No Company, not
-    even the East India Company, was better served by its agents than the
-    Russia Company. They obtained from the Czar important privileges; they
-    could trade in any part of Russia without safe conduct or licenses;
-    they could not be arrested for debt; they could appoint their own
-    officers and servants; and they had jurisdiction over all Englishmen
-    resident in Russia. In other words, they had a monopoly of the Russian
-    Trade.</p>
-
-  <p>The Company showed a clear comprehension of these advantages; they
-    continued to attempt the north-east passage; they sent ships laden
-    with merchandise to Archangel, whence their agents travelled over
-    Russia; they even opened communications with Persia by means of their
-    agent Anthony Jenkinson, who has already in his own words given us an
-    account of his adventurous career. When he sailed from the Volga
-    to Astrakhan, he passed over the Caspian to the town of Boghaz, where
-    he found traders from the Far East. He sent home a map of Russia, the
-    first published in England. This way of trade, however, proved too
-    dangerous on account of Cossack pirates who infested the Caspian Sea
-    and robbed the Company’s ships. However, the Company, anxious to secure
-    these advantages, procured an Act of Parliament granting them the
-    exclusive trade with the countries of Persia, Armenia, and Media, as
-    well as Russia.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="i_234-5">
-    <img src="images/i_234-5.jpg" width="700" height="394" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption"></div>
-    <ul class="xsmall bold clear col33">
-      <li>&nbsp; 47. St. John’s Hospital.</li>
-      <li>&nbsp; 48. Smithfield.</li>
-      <li>&nbsp; 49. St. James’s, Clerkenwell.</li>
-      <li>&nbsp; 54. Baynard Castle.</li>
-      <li>&nbsp; 55. St. Paul’s Cathedral.</li>
-      <li>&nbsp; 58. Grey Friars.</li>
-      <li>&nbsp; 59. Queen Hythe.</li>
-      <li>&nbsp; 60. St. Martin’s le Grand.</li>
-      <li>&nbsp; 61. Aldersgate.</li>
-      <li>&nbsp; 62. Jew’s Cemetery.</li>
-      <li>&nbsp; 63. Cheapside.</li>
-      <li>&nbsp; 64. The Standard.</li>
-      <li>&nbsp; 65. Cross, Cheapside.</li>
-      <li>&nbsp; 66. Rochester House.</li>
-      <li>&nbsp; 67. Winchester House.</li>
-      <li>&nbsp; 68. St. Mary’s Overie.</li>
-      <li>&nbsp; 70. St. Thomas’s Hospital.</li>
-    </ul>
-    <ul class="xsmall bold col33">
-      <li>&nbsp; 71. St. George’s Church.</li>
-      <li>&nbsp; 72. Kent Road.</li>
-      <li>&nbsp; 73. Suffolk House.</li>
-      <li>&nbsp; 74. St. Giles’s, Cripplegate.</li>
-      <li>&nbsp; 75. Cripplegate.</li>
-      <li>&nbsp; 76. The Barbican.</li>
-      <li>&nbsp; 77. St. Albans, Wood Street.</li>
-      <li>&nbsp; 78. Bow Church.</li>
-      <li>&nbsp; 79. Broken Wharf.</li>
-      <li>&nbsp; 80. The Cranes.</li>
-      <li>&nbsp; 81. The Steel Yard.</li>
-      <li>&nbsp; 82. Cold Harbour.</li>
-      <li>&nbsp; 83. Fishmongers’ Hall.</li>
-      <li>&nbsp; 84. St. Thomas of Acons.</li>
-      <li>&nbsp; 85. Guildhall.</li>
-      <li>&nbsp; 86. Moorgate.</li>
-      <li>&nbsp; 87. Austin Friars.</li>
-    </ul>
-    <ul class="xsmall bold col33">
-      <li>&nbsp; 88. Bishopsgate.</li>
-      <li>&nbsp; 89. Church of St. Magnus.</li>
-      <li>&nbsp; 90. London Bridge.</li>
-      <li>&nbsp; 91. St. Thomas’s Chapel.</li>
-      <li>&nbsp; 92. Bridge House.</li>
-      <li>&nbsp; 93. St. Olaves Church.</li>
-      <li>&nbsp; 94. St. Agnes’s le Clare.</li>
-      <li>&nbsp; 95. Hoxton.</li>
-      <li>&nbsp; 96. St. Botolph, Bishopsgate.</li>
-      <li>&nbsp; 97. Leadenhall.</li>
-      <li>&nbsp; 98. Botolph Wharf.</li>
-      <li>&nbsp; 99. Billingsgate.</li>
-      <li>100. St. Mary Spittal.</li>
-      <li>101. Walls of London.</li>
-      <li>127. High Street, Southwark.</li>
-    </ul>
-    <div class="caption">From the Panorama of “London, Westminster, and Southwark, in 1543.” By
-      Anthony Van den Vyngaerde. (Sutherland Collection, Bodleian Library,
-      Oxford.) <i>For continuation see pp. <a href="#i_218-9">218</a> and <a href="#i_350-1">351</a>.</i></div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_235">235</span>Internal troubles in Russia, such as the taking of Moscow by the
-    Tartars, caused the Company a loss of 400,000 roubles. Pirates in the
-    Baltic, and other misfortunes, greatly reduced the Company, but they
-    persevered in their voyages of discovery, once more attempting the
-    north-east passage, which was expected to do so much for them. They
-    did not succeed, but they discovered the deep sea fisheries, and they
-    brought home immense quantities of fish-oil and of dried salmon. They
-    suffered from the Dutch, who followed in their wake; they obtained
-    from the King of Denmark permission to put in at any of his seaports
-    in Iceland or Norway; they lost their exclusive rights in Russia, but
-    only for a time; they found themselves cut out by the Dutch, whose
-    vessels carried more merchandise; with the authority of James the
-    First, they sent armed vessels and seized on Spitzbergen in the King’s
-    name, calling it King James’s Newland. They had to fight for their
-    conquest, driving off Dutch, French, and Biscay sail with four English
-    “interlopers.” The Dutch, however, would not admit the pretensions
-    of Crown or Company, sending their ships protected by men-of-war to
-    fish, despite the protests of the English. There was fighting in the
-    high latitudes for some years, while even the English ports refused
-    to recognise the exclusive right of the Company. Finally, the whales
-    became so scarce about Spitzbergen that the trade ceased to be worth
-    fighting about.</p>
-
-  <p>We will continue the history of the Company in brief, though it runs
-    far beyond the limits of our period. In the year 1620 the route by the
-    Caspian was reopened by Hobbs, an agent to the Company, who took that
-    way from Moscow to Ispahan. In 1623 a new treaty was concluded between
-    James the First and the Czar, in which privileges, but not exclusive
-    rights, were conferred upon the Company. A deadly blow was inflicted
-    on the Company by the execution of Charles, an event naturally viewed
-    by all sovereigns with the deepest indignation. The English merchants,
-    who were masters of the Russian trade, were driven out and supplanted
-    by the Dutch; and it was not until the year 1669 that the Company was
-    allowed to trade with Russia on the same footing as the Dutch.</p>
-
-  <p>The real importance of the Company was decaying when it admitted any
-    one as a member on payment of a fine of £5. The conveyance of raw silk
-    from Persia through Russia remained their privilege until troubles
-    broke out in Persia in 1746, which stopped the trade; they still
-    carried on their trade with Archangel,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_236">236</span> but when the Baltic became a
-    peaceful highway, this shorter route to Russia destroyed the Archangel
-    trade. The Russia Company did not, it is true, acquire for the British
-    Empire any accession of territory; but its services in exploring new
-    routes, opening up new lines of trade, putting Great Britain into
-    communication with foreign powers previously strangers, can hardly be
-    exaggerated, while it fostered and encouraged and developed that spirit
-    of enterprise, adventure, and restlessness which, since the seventeenth
-    century, has covered half the globe with one people and one religion.</p>
-
-  <p>A distinction must be drawn between “regulated companies” and
-    Joint-Stock Companies. In the former, every man traded for himself,
-    subject to the regulations of the Company, like a Guild. In the
-    “Russia,” “Turkey,” and “Eastland” Companies no one but a member could
-    carry on that kind of trade. In the Joint-Stock Companies shareholders
-    need not be traders and could sell or transfer their shares.</p>
-
-  <p>The Eastland Company was first chartered in 1579. It was privileged to
-    enjoy the sole trade over all those parts of the Baltic shore which
-    did not belong to the Russia Company. Now there had been carried
-    on, from time immemorial, a trade with the Baltic ports by private
-    adventurers who wanted no charter. Many of these, no doubt, took up
-    their membership with the new Company, but there were some who would
-    not, or could not. These traders, driven away from their own markets,
-    made loud complaints, in reply to which a proclamation was issued
-    ordering that no one outside the Company was to export to these parts
-    the merchandise in which the Eastland Company traded; provided always
-    that the importation of corn and grain was left free. The provision
-    looks like a compromise, but when we ask how corn and grain were to be
-    imported except in ships, and that, if these ships were English, they
-    would hardly go out in ballast, one fails to see that the enemies of
-    the Eastlanders got much by their proclamation. In 1672 the whole of
-    Scandinavia was thrown open to all comers; and the entrance-fee to the
-    Company was reduced to £2. The opinion of Sir Josiah Child probably
-    settled the fate of the Company. He said that the Eastland Company had
-    only enabled the Dutch to get ten times as much trade in the Baltic as
-    was carried on by the English.</p>
-
-  <p>In the year 1581 the Turkey Company received its Charter from Queen
-    Elizabeth. It was a Charter for a limited time, seven years, and it
-    could be revoked at a year’s notice. The Company began very well;
-    they built large and strong ships to face the storms of the Bay, for
-    which they received the thanks of the Council; they introduced eastern
-    commodities at a much cheaper price; but they sometimes paid dearly for
-    their cargoes when they had to fight the corsairs of Barbary and the
-    galleys of Spain, and to face the fiercest animosity of the Venetians.
-    In 1583 some of the agents of the Company, stationed at the Aleppo<span class="pagenum" id="Page_237">237</span>
-    House, made their way with merchandise to Bagdad, to the Persian
-    Gulf, and thence to India and the Far East. They obtained, therefore,
-    a new Charter giving them power to trade over India as well as the
-    Sultan’s dominions. The entrance-fee was fixed at £25 for persons under
-    twenty-six years of age, at £50 for those over twenty-six, and at £1
-    for apprentices.</p>
-
-  <p>The Company now became extremely prosperous, carrying on a most
-    extensive trade. This trade, by a later order under Charles II., was
-    kept entirely in the hands of the City of London, no one, unless
-    a resident and a freeman, being admitted into the Company. On the
-    foundation of the East India Company there arose disputes as to the
-    infringement of rights. This quarrel ended without any decision.</p>
-
-  <p>The trade of the Turkey Company declined during the seventeenth century
-    from many causes, one of which was the rivalry of the French and their
-    success in underselling the English goods. The Company finally closed
-    its history in the year 1825.</p>
-
-  <p>The Levant Company was another trading Company established under
-    Elizabeth. By opening up direct communication with the Levant, England
-    procured all the productions of the East without the intervention of
-    Venice. Only one more vessel was sent to London from Venice after the
-    establishment of the Company, and this with a rich cargo and many
-    passengers was wrecked and destroyed on the Isle of Wight.</p>
-
-  <p>For the repulse of the Spanish Armada, London contributed thirty-eight
-    vessels, and the Society of Merchant Adventurers, ten. In 1591, or
-    perhaps in 1589, the first voyage from London to the East Indies was
-    undertaken. The expedition of 1591 consisted of three ships, of which
-    one was never heard of again; and the other two lost many men from
-    sickness. The expedition, however, led to the formation of the East
-    India Company in <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1600, with a capital of £72,000 in 1440 shares
-    of £50 each. Their first fleet, consisting of five ships and 480 men,
-    reached Sumatra and the Straits of Malacca, where they captured a
-    Portuguese ship of 900 tons laden with calicoes. They settled a factory
-    at Bantam and sailed homewards, returning to port in two years and
-    seven months after starting.</p>
-
-  <p>The trade of the country was greatly advanced by the immigration of
-    many Flemings, Dutch, Walloons, and French Huguenots, who brought over
-    with them their own trades. They were judiciously distributed about
-    the country, care being taken that they should neither interfere with
-    the trade of the place nor crowd too much together. Thus at Sandwich
-    alone there were 350 Flemish families in the year 1582; they carried
-    on the manufactory of bags. In Norwich, Dutch and Walloons settled and
-    made serges and silks and bombazines. Bone lace was taken to Honiton
-    from Antwerp. In London the Flemings settled at Bermondsey,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_238">238</span> where they
-    made felt hats and did joiners’ work; at Bow, where they had dye-works;
-    at Wandsworth, where they worked in brass; at Mortlake and Fulham,
-    where they made tapestry. In other places workers in steel and iron,
-    window-glass painters, cloth fullers, cloth-makers, and many other
-    craftsmen were planted and carried on profitable industries. Among
-    other things, sail-making was introduced into England for the first
-    time. The pawnbroker’s shop was also opened in this reign. It began
-    with the establishment of seven banks in as many towns, to be known as
-    “Banks for the relief of Common Necessity,” which should lend money on
-    pledges. This Bank is alluded to by Shakespeare when Sir John Falstaff
-    urges his hostess to pawn her cups and her hangings. “Glass,” he says,
-    “glass is your only drinking: and for thy walls, a pretty slight
-    drollery, or the story of the Prodigal or the Germans hunting in water
-    work, is worth a thousand of these bed hangings and these fly-bitten
-    tapestries.”</p>
-
-  <p>The monopoly system by which the Court rewarded favourites at the
-    expense of trade and the people was regarded by Elizabeth with favour,
-    as an easy way of bestowing favours costing herself nothing. Many of
-    her monopolies she withdrew as manifestly injurious to trade, yet she
-    left many which weighed heavily upon the enterprise of the country.
-    These monopolies were multiplied in the next two reigns, and greatly
-    assisted to bring about the unpopularity of Charles.</p>
-
-  <p>Cunningham is of opinion that the borrowing of money for trading
-    purposes was not a common practice; he bases this opinion on the very
-    high rate of interest demanded by the usurer. There can be no doubt
-    that usury was strictly forbidden by the Church, by the Ordinances of
-    the City of London, and by public opinion. Yet a case quoted by him
-    (<i>Growth of Trade</i>, p. 325) shows that men not only wanted to borrow
-    from time to time, but that Christians, not Jews, were willing to lend
-    on interest. In that case the lender wanted interest for a loan of £10
-    for three months, which amounted to 80 per cent per annum. The usurer
-    could not get his claim allowed. Yet it is difficult to understand how
-    business could be carried on at all except in an elementary way, if
-    there was neither credit nor borrowing. But was the rate of interest
-    too high for trading on borrowed money? There is every reason to
-    believe that the profits of trade were enormous. Malyns, in his <i>Centre
-      of the Circle of Commerce</i>, gives a table showing the profits of the
-    trade in spices, silk, indigo, etc., early in the seventeenth century.
-    They range from 150 to 250 per cent, <i>i.e.</i> goods bought at £100 would
-    sell for £250 up to £350. Of course there must be set off against this
-    apparently huge profit, losses by wrecks and pirates and the expense
-    of the shipping. Borrowing, Cunningham thinks, was necessary to meet
-    taxation. Since taxes were not regular, but irregular; and could not be
-    provided for because no one knew when a tallage would be imposed or how
-    large a percentage would be demanded, the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_239">239</span> merchant or the landowner,
-    though perfectly solvent, might not be able to lay his hand at once on
-    the amount demanded. A person of to-day whose estate might be worth
-    £120,000 would find it, very possibly, difficult to meet, within a few
-    days, the King’s demand of one-fifteenth, that is £8000. If he could
-    not realise in time he must borrow. If all the usury was confined to
-    the lending of money to meet a sudden tax, or to a monastery for the
-    building of a church, or for a baron to raise a force, what becomes
-    of the popular hatred of the Jews, first as money-lenders, and of
-    the Caursini and the Italians who were licensed by the Pope, next?
-    And if there was no borrowing by the merchants, what was the meaning
-    of that crowd which, after the massacre of the Jews in York Castle,
-    rushed to the Cathedral, where they brought out the Jews’ bonds—their
-    own bonds—and burned them all? Cunningham, in a note, enumerates
-    the demands of certain Russians against the Jews of the present day.
-    These demands express the popular belief concerning their practice,
-    not the truth. One would most unwillingly accept prejudice for proof,
-    especially in the case of the race which has endured so much prejudice
-    for so many centuries. Cunningham says, very justly, that the real
-    objection against the Jews was that they made their money by lending
-    it on security, which left them no risks which could be foreseen. The
-    common people, however, did not understand the objection; they saw that
-    the Jews practised a trade which the Church and the State would not
-    allow to Christians; they saw that the Jews grew rich rapidly; that
-    they were protected by the King; that they waxed insolent and sometimes
-    insulted the Christian religion; and if they lent a Christian money
-    they demanded an enormous, a ruinous, interest for it. Deep, indeed,
-    must have been the popular hatred of the Jews, since Shakespeare could
-    stir the blood of his audience by the spectacle of a Jewish usurer,
-    three hundred years after there had been Jews in the land.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="i_239"><img src="images/i_239.jpg" width="600" height="228" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">THE TOWER IN 1553<br />
-      From a drawing by Wyngaerde. E. Gardner’s Collection</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_240">240</span></p>
-
-  <p>The business of the daily life, as well as that of the mercantile life,
-    cannot, in fact, be carried on without money-lending. Works cannot
-    be undertaken; credit cannot be secured; cargoes cannot be bought;
-    ships cannot be laden; unless money can be obtained by advance. The
-    banishment of the Jews; the disappearance of the Italians; took away
-    the usurers and money-lenders by profession. There were as yet no
-    banks to make advances on security; and money-lending was still, as it
-    remains to this day, an occupation held in the greatest loathing. The
-    money-lender, therefore, disguised his calling. Thus Hall (<i>Society in
-      the Elizabethan Age</i>) furnishes a sketch of the usurer of the period.
-    His name was George Stoddart; by trade he was ostensibly a grocer, but
-    really a money-lender. His bargains took the form of bets. Thus he
-    sends J. Klynt his furred nightgown for 4s. 5d., to be paid on the day
-    of Klynt’s marriage: he gives R. Leds a ring called a ryboys, which
-    he values at £1:13:4, to be paid on the day of his marriage or else
-    at his hour of death. For a rapier he charges 40d., to be paid at his
-    day of marriage or else not. He gives a man £400 on the condition that
-    during his lifetime the borrower shall pay him £80 a year. He lived
-    for ten years, and so doubled that small capital of £400. It would be
-    interesting to know what, if any, great City fortunes were made by this
-    style of money-lending.</p>
-
-  <p>The increase of trade and of shipping in the Port of London is
-    indicated by a passage in Camden, when he speaks of the multitudes of
-    ships “as a very wood of trees, disbranched to make glades and to let
-    in the light: so shaded is it with masts and sails.”</p>
-
-  <p>The watermen of London were those who lived by the river and the port.
-    John Taylor, the water poet, says that 40,000 people lived by the
-    labour of the oar and scull. In 1613 there was a petition from the
-    Company of Watermen against the erection of a theatre on the London or
-    Middlesex side of the river, because it drew away so many people who
-    otherwise would have been carried across the river to the theatres on
-    the south bank. John Taylor shows us that many of these watermen had
-    been sailors:—</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“I did briefly declare part of the services that watermen had
-      done in Queen Elizabeth’s reign of famous memory, in the voyage
-      to Portugal with the right honourable and never to be forgotten
-      Earl of Essex; then after that, how it pleased God, in that great
-      deliverance in the year 1588, to make watermen good serviceable
-      instruments with their loss of lives and limbs to defend their
-      prince and country. Moreover, many of them served with Sir Francis
-      Drake, Sir John Hawkins, Sir Martin Frobisher, and others. Besides,
-      in Cadiz action, the Island Voyage, in Ireland, in the Low
-      Countries, and in the narrow seas they have been, as in duty they
-      were bound, at continual command, so that every summer 1500 or 2000
-      of them were employed to the places aforesaid....</p>
-
-    <p>Afterwards the players began to play on the Bankside, and to leave
-      playing in London and Middlesex, for the most part, then there went
-      such great concourse of people by water that the small number of
-      watermen remaining at home were not able to carry them, by reason
-      of the court, the terms, the players, and other employments, so
-      that we were enforced and encouraged, hoping that this golden
-      stirring world would have lasted ever, to take and entertain men
-      and boys ... so that the number of watermen, and those<span class="pagenum" id="Page_241">241</span> that live
-      and are maintained by them, and by the only labour of the oar and
-      the scull, betwixt the bridge of Windsor and Gravesend, cannot be
-      fewer than forty thousand; the cause of the greater half of which
-      multitude, hath been the players playing on the bankside, for I
-      have known three companies besides the bear-baiting at once there,
-      to wit, the Globe, the Rose, and the Swan.”</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <p>Loud complaints being made by the artificers of London that foreign
-    goods were underselling theirs, the King in 1461 prohibited the
-    importation or sale of the following articles—the list of which shows
-    some of the manufactures at that time established in London:—</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="i_241"><img src="images/i_241.jpg" width="600" height="332" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">NEAR PAUL’S WHARF<br />
-      E. Gardner’s Collection.</div>
-    </div>
-
-  <p>“Any manner girdles, nor any harness wrought for girdles, points, laces
-    of lether, purses, pouches, pins, gloves, knives, hangers, tailors’
-    shears, scissors, andirons, cobordis, tongs, fire forks, gridirons;
-    stocks, locks, keyes, hinges and garnets, spurs; painted papers,
-    painted focers, paynted images, painted clothes, any between gold or
-    between silver, wrought in papers for painters; saddles, saddle-trees,
-    horse harness, boocis, bits, stirrups, buckles, chains, laten nails
-    with iron shanks, terrets, standing candlesticks, hanging candlesticks,
-    holy water stoops, chafing dishes, hanging lavers, curtain rings, cards
-    for wool, clasps for gloves, buckles for shoes, brooches, bells (except
-    bells for hawks), spoons of tin and lead, chains of wire as well as
-    of laten as of iron, gratis, horns and lantern horns, or any of these
-    aforesaid wares, ready and wrought, pertaining to the said crafts above
-    specified or any of them uppon payne of forfeture of all the wares.”
-    (Capper’s <i>Port and Trade of London</i>.)<span class="pagenum" id="Page_242">242</span> We have seen (p. 13) how Henry
-    VII. passed an Act forbidding any stranger, <i>i.e.</i> foreigner, to buy
-    or sell merchandise in the City; in his reign also was passed an Act
-    to compel the country people to resort to the City. For it was ordered
-    that no citizen should carry goods to any market or fair out of the
-    City. The people of the country represented to Parliament the great
-    hardship of being obliged to travel all the way to London in order to
-    procure things that could only be bought in London, viz. chalices,
-    books, vestments, and other church ornaments, victuals for Lent, linen
-    cloths, woollen cloths, brass, pewter, bedding, iron, flax, wax, and
-    other things. The Parliament interfered and the order was removed.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="i_242"><img src="images/i_242.jpg" width="337" height="340" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">TRADESMEN OF THE PERIOD<br />
-      From a contemporary print.</div>
-    </div>
-
-  <p>Under Henry VII. commercial treaties were concluded with the Danes and
-    with the Florentines. There was a quarrel with Burgundy and a cessation
-    of commercial relations for three years. In 1497 (12 Hen. VII.) was
-    passed an Act entitled “Every Englishman shall have free recourse to
-    certain foreign marts, without exaction to be taken by any English
-    fraternity.” The meaning of the Act was this: the Merchant Adventurers’
-    Company had arrogated to themselves the right of refusing the right of
-    trade in any foreign port until a fine or fee of £40 should first be
-    paid to themselves. The Act defined the extent of English foreign trade
-    at the time. The Merchant Adventurers sent their vessels to Spain,
-    Portugal, Brittany, Flanders, Holland, Ireland, Normandy, France,
-    Venice, Dantzic, Eastland, Friesland, and other parts. The Parliament
-    allowed the fine, but limited it to ten marks, or £6:13:4. We have seen
-    the jealousy and hatred of foreigners shown by the envious outbreak of
-    “Evil May Day” in 1517 (p. 24).<span class="pagenum" id="Page_243">243</span> The complaints or the justification
-    of the rioters was that there were so many foreigners employed as
-    craftsmen that the English could get no work; that foreign merchants
-    brought in all silk, cloth of gold, wine, etc., and that no one,
-    almost, bought of an Englishman; that the foreign merchants exported
-    so much wool, tin, and lead, that English adventurers could not make
-    a living; that they forestalled the market, buying up everything all
-    round the City, so that nothing of value came to the City markets,
-    while some of them imported all kinds of goods that were made in this
-    country, such as nails, locks, baskets, cupboards, stools, tables,
-    chests, girdles, saddles, and printed cloths.</p>
-
-  <hr class="page" />
-  <div class="chapter" id="CHAPTER_3d">
-    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_244">244</span>
-    <h3>
-      <span class="gespertt1">CHAPTER III</span><br />
-      <span class="subhead">LITERATURE AND ART</span>
-    </h3>
-  </div>
-
-    <p class="noindent"><span class="smcap">The</span> earliest transcribers of MSS., that is to say, publishers of books,
-    the monks, not only transcribed MSS., but they sold their copies,
-    the sale of books forming part of the monastic revenues. These books
-    were either plain copies for common use, as the service books and
-    the school books, or they were illuminated, bound with decorations
-    of gold and silver, costing very large sums. When, however, as
-    happened in the fifteenth century, the demand for books increased,
-    while the revenues, and therefore the numbers, of the religious in
-    the monasteries decreased, the multiplication of books fell into the
-    hands of laymen. In some cases the monks themselves employed laymen as
-    transcribers. There grew up various branches of the book trade: the
-    maker of parchment, pens, ink, colours for illumination; the writers,
-    the binders, the illuminators, and the sellers. As regards the value
-    of books at any time, it is impossible to estimate it, because we must
-    first learn the purchasing power of money, which is very difficult
-    to ascertain; <i>e.g.</i> the price of wheat, sheep, fowls, etc., is a
-    very fallacious test, because we do not know the standards of the
-    time. The wage test is the safest guide. For instance, six pounds
-    a year was thought sufficient pay for the maintenance of a chantry
-    priest—a man considered superior to the ordinary craftsman, yet not
-    very high in the social scale. In addition we must know the whole
-    conditions of production; the cost of materials, the time taken by
-    transcribers for a page or a sheet, the demand, the competition, and
-    everything else connected with the work. Some of these points have
-    been cleared up, but most of them can never be cleared up. It must be
-    sufficient to understand that there was a large demand for books, and
-    that many collections of books were formed by princes and prelates
-    and monasteries. It was a providential circumstance that the art of
-    printing was well advanced at the time of the Dissolution of the
-    Religious Houses. Otherwise the losses, which were great indeed, might
-    have been very much greater, even irreparable.</p>
-
-  <p>The first printers in the City of London were Caxton’s workmen,
-    Wynkyn de Worde and Richard Pynson. The former set up his press in
-    Fleet Street, “over against the Conduit,” which stood at the end of
-    Shoe Lane; the latter, outside<span class="pagenum" id="Page_245">245</span> Temple Bar. In the course of the
-    century, however, the number of printers rapidly increased, and in
-    the reign of Elizabeth the number of books published in any branch
-    was extraordinary. Nothing can show more conclusively the general
-    avidity for learning and for the possession of books in every branch
-    of knowledge. When, indeed, we consider that the yearly output of
-    books in Great Britain and America now amounts to some 10,000 (a large
-    number of them new editions), which at an average of 1000 each means
-    10,000,000 volumes among a population of 120,000,000, who nearly all
-    read, without counting India, which alone contains millions of readers,
-    and when we remember that the whole reading public of England amounted
-    to a few thousands, it is clear that the Elizabethan output was beyond
-    comparison greater in proportion than our own.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="i_245"><img src="images/i_245.jpg" width="600" height="412" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">OLD TEMPLE BAR IN THE TIME OF JAMES I.<br />
-      E. Gardner’s Collection.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>It could not be long before a censorship of the Press was established.
-    In 1526 the printing of books against the Catholic Faith was
-    prohibited. Later on, that of books defending the Catholic Faith was in
-    turn prohibited.</p>
-
-  <p>It was in 1557 that the very singular powers were conferred upon the
-    Company of Stationers of suppressing and prohibiting books either
-    seditious or heretical. These powers were absolute and subject to no
-    appeal. Why the Company of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_246">246</span> Stationers was entrusted with powers which
-    belonged to the Bishop of London and the Ecclesiastical Courts does
-    not appear. However, the Company exercised this authority for two
-    years, when Queen Elizabeth ordered that no book should be printed
-    without a license being first obtained. She then, illogically, granted
-    monopolies to certain printers and booksellers for the sale of certain
-    books specified: to one for the sale of Bibles; to another for sale
-    of catechism; to a third for that of music-books; and so on. To the
-    Stationers she granted the monopoly of psalters, primers, almanacks, A
-    B C, the “little Catechism,” and Nowell’s English and Latin Catechism.
-    The printer, however, was already separating from the bookseller. As
-    yet there was no such thing recognised as the author’s rights over his
-    own property. In many cases he did not wish his name to appear; the
-    publisher did what he pleased with the MS.</p>
-
-  <p>Among the early booksellers was Richard Grafton, who was printer,
-    bookseller, and author as well. He reprinted and continued Hall’s
-    <i>Chronicles</i>. Other publishers and booksellers of the sixteenth century
-    were Robert Redman, who quarrelled with Richard Pynson; Henry Pepwell,
-    who died in 1539; John Day, for whom John Foxe, who wrote the <i>Book
-      of Martyrs</i>, worked. He issued a Church music book. He also published
-    Bibles, Sermons, and A B C’s. Day had shops successively in Holborn,
-    Aldersgate Street, and St. Paul’s Churchyard. William Middleton, whose
-    shop was in Fleet Street, near St. Dunstan’s Church, was both printer
-    and bookseller. He published Heywood’s <i>Four P’s</i>, and an edition of
-    Froissart.</p>
-
-  <p>Henry Smyth, Redman’s son-in-law, was the publisher of Littleton’s
-    <i>Tenures</i>. Richard Tottell, whose shop was within Temple Bar, published
-    Tusser’s <i>Hundred Good Points of Agriculture</i>, Grafton’s <i>Abridgment
-      of the Chronicles of England</i>, and Stow’s <i>Summary of the Chronicles
-      of England</i>. Harrison of St. Paul’s Churchyard published Shakespeare’s
-    <i>Venus and Adonis</i> in 1593, but it was printed by Richard Field, a
-    fellow-townsman of the poet. In 1594 Harrison published <i>The Rape of
-      Lucrece</i>. The publication of the plays, however, belongs mostly to the
-    seventeenth century. But <i>Romeo and Juliet</i>, <i>Richard II.</i>, <i>Richard
-      III</i>, <i>Henry IV.</i> Part I., <i>Love’s Labours Lost</i>, were published
-    at this time, and in 1600 <i>Henry IV.</i> Part II., <i>Much Ado About
-      Nothing</i>, <i>A Midsummer Night’s Dream</i>, <i>The Merchant of Venice</i>, <i>Titus
-      Andronicus</i>, and <i>Henry V.</i> all came out. In all, eleven of the plays
-    were published in the sixteenth and the rest in the seventeenth century.</p>
-
-  <p>There was an astonishing number of printers and booksellers. Thus, in
-    addition to the names mentioned above, we may note those of Middleton,
-    Richard Field, Harrison, father and son, William Leake, Wise, Aspley,
-    Ling, and Nathaniel Butler, Ponsonby, Edward White, Cadman, Burby,
-    Warde, William Barley, Humphrey Hooper, John Budge, Thorpe, and Norton.</p>
-
-  <p>Already the bitterness of the author against the publisher has begun.
-    Drayton<span class="pagenum" id="Page_247">247</span> speaks of the booksellers as “a company of base knaves, whom
-    I scorn and kick at.” Complaint was made concerning a book called <i>A
-      Petite Palace of Petties his Pleasure</i> (1576), that the printer had
-    suppressed the name of the author, and his preface, and had substituted
-    his own name with a preface by himself. Again, the authors complained
-    of the advertising tricks employed to increase the sale of a book.
-    Thus, Ben Jonson addresses his bookseller:—</p>
-
-  <div class="center-container">
-    <div class="poem">
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i0">“‘Thou, that mak’st gaine thy end, and wisely well</div>
-        <div class="i2">Call’st a book good, or bad, as it doth sell,</div>
-        <div class="i2">Use mine so, too: I give thee leave. But crave</div>
-        <div class="i2">For luck’s sake it thus much favours have,</div>
-        <div class="i2">To lie upon thy stall till it be sought;</div>
-        <div class="i2">Not offer’d, as it made suit to be bought:</div>
-        <div class="i2">Nor have my title-leaf on post, or walls,</div>
-        <div class="i2">Or in cleft-sticks, advanced to make calls</div>
-        <div class="i2">For termers or some clerk-like serving-man,</div>
-        <div class="i2">Who scarce can spell th’ hard names: whose knight scarce can;</div>
-        <div class="i2">If, without these vile arts it will not sell,</div>
-        <div class="i2">Send it to Bucklersbury, there ‘twill well.’”</div>
-      </div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p class="noindent">Unfortunately, also, the bitterness of the author against the
-    bookseller was accompanied by bitterness against his fellow-craftsmen.
-    Thus Barnaby Rich says:—</p>
-
-  <p>“‘One of the diseases of this age is the multitude of books, that doth
-    so overcharge the world that it is not able to digest the abundance of
-    idle matter that is every day hatched and brought into the world, that
-    are as divers in their forms as their authors be in their faces. It is
-    but a thriftless and a thankless occupation, this writing of books:
-    a man were better to sit singing in a cobbler’s shop, for his pay is
-    certain a penny a patch, but a book-writer, if he gets sometimes a few
-    commendations of the judicious, he shall be sure to reap a thousand
-    reproaches of the malicious.’” (W. Roberts, <i>Earlier History of English
-      Bookselling</i>.)</p>
-
-  <p>This brief view of bookselling in the sixteenth century may be taken
-    to include also the first twenty years of the seventeenth, after which
-    certain changes appear in the trade and in the relations of author and
-    publisher.</p>
-
-  <p>Little has been said, so far, concerning the connection of London
-    with literature. The history of literature belongs to the nation, not
-    to London. Yet London could even before the Elizabethan age boast of
-    Chaucer, Gower, Skelton, Lydgate, all of whom, at some time in their
-    lives, resided in London. And what a list, what a splendid list, is
-    presented of the London poets in the reign of Gloriana! This list
-    alone, without counting the poets who went before or the poets who
-    came after, is sufficient in itself to place England in the forefront
-    of modern literature. Consider some of the names. Shakespeare, Ben
-    Jonson, Marlowe, Massinger, Beaumont, Fletcher, Ford, Peele, Marston,
-    Sackvile, Sylvester, Spenser, Raleigh—one could go on till the page
-    became a catalogue. I have counted two hundred and forty Elizabethan
-    poets whose names, with many of their works, have survived to the
-    present day. In the same proportion we, who<span class="pagenum" id="Page_248">248</span> can hardly number sixty
-    poets, ought to have now 5000. But in that time expression assumed the
-    form of poetry first and the drama afterwards; men who had a thing to
-    say, or a theory to state, said it in poetry, just as a man who had a
-    tale to tell presented it in the form of a drama. Not that poetry or
-    the drama were the only things. The Elizabethan age was rich in every
-    form and branch of literature; it had books of chivalry, as <i>The Seven
-      Champions</i>; story books, as <i>The Gesta Romanorum</i>; jest books, as
-    Skogan’s, Tarleton’s, Skelton’s, Peele’s; pastoral romances, as <i>The
-      Arcadia</i>; “picaresque” novels, as those of Nash and Dekker; histories,
-    as those of Holinshed, Stow, Grafton; essays, as those of Bacon,
-    Ascham, Sir Thomas Browne; satires, as those of Hall and Marston;
-    translations from the French and the Italian. Not even in these days
-    is there a better, larger, fresher supply of new literature. It was
-    above all fresh; everything was new; people did not look backwards in
-    literature; they lived in the present; at no other time in the history
-    of the world was the present more delightful; more full of hope, more
-    full of joy, more full of daring. There was a new religion, not yet
-    crystallised into Puritanism: a religion in which every man, for the
-    first time<span class="pagenum" id="Page_249">249</span> after more than a thousand years, stood up before his
-    Maker without an interposing priest; there was a new learning, full of
-    wonder and of delight; there were new arts; there was a new world, a
-    larger world, full of mysteries and monsters and undiscovered marvels;
-    there was a new pride sprung up among the people; new adventures were
-    possible; there were new roads to riches; England held a nobler place
-    among the nations; everything seemed possible; the wildest extravagance
-    was permitted in talk, in song, in the drama, in enterprise. Companies
-    could be formed to go anywhere, and to do everything. Countries there
-    were everywhere to be conquered, or, at least, to trade with; no longer
-    did ocean set bounds, no longer did continents stretch forth forbidding
-    capes: the nobler spirits were arriving at a clearer grasp and
-    understanding of what lay before them; the machinations of Spaniard,
-    Pope, and Priest were, it seemed, finally defeated; everything was
-    ready for the work of such men as Raleigh and Drake. Then, alas!
-    Gloriana died, and the world of poetry sank sadly back into prose, and
-    that for the most part of the tamest and the most creeping; an age
-    followed when King and people were no longer in touch; when foreign
-    politics were a betrayal and a surrender; when the whole dream of the
-    King was not to extend and enrich his realm, but to encroach upon the
-    people’s liberties, and the whole power of the people was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_250">250</span> required to
-    resist the encroachments of the King. How mean and miserable is the
-    policy of Charles compared with that of Elizabeth! How paltry are the
-    pretensions of King and Archbishop! How wretched, save for the figure
-    of the great Protector, is the history of the seventeenth century,
-    compared with the history of the sixteenth under the great Queen!</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="i_248"><img src="images/i_248.jpg" width="371" height="451" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">SIR FRANCIS BACON (1561–1626)<br />
-      From the painting by Paul Van Somer in the National Portrait Gallery, London.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="i_249"><img src="images/i_249.jpg" width="313" height="414" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE (1564–1616)<br />
-      From the Chandos portrait in the National Portrait Gallery, London.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>Harrison furnishes a contemporary opinion on “the new veine of
-    writing”:—</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“This further is not to be omitted, to the singular commendation
-      of both sorts and sexes of our courtiers here in England, that
-      there are verie few of them, which have not the use and skill of
-      sundrie speaches, beside an excellent veine of writing before time
-      not regarded. Trulie it is a rare thing with us now, to hear of a
-      courtier which hath but his owne language. And to saie how many
-      gentlewomen and ladies there are, that beside sound knowledge of
-      the Greeke and Latine toongs, are thereto no lesse skilful in the
-      Spanish, Italian, and French or in some one of them, it resteth
-      not in me; sith I am persuaded, that as the noblemen and gentlemen
-      do surmount in this behalfe, so these come verie little or nothing
-      at all behind them for their parts, which industrie God continue,
-      and accomplish that which otherwise is wanting.”... “The ladies of
-      the court employ themselves in continuall reading either of the
-      holie scriptures, or histories of our owne or forren nations about
-      us, and diverse in writing volumes of their owne, or translating
-      of other mens into our English and Latine toongs.”... “Finallie,
-      to avoid idlenesse, and prevent sundrie transgressions, otherwise
-      likelie to be committed and doone, such order is taken, that
-      everie office hath either a bible, or the booke of the acts and
-      monuments of the church of England, or both, beside some histories
-      and chronicles lieing therein, for the exercise of such as come
-      into the same; whereby the stranger that entereth into the court
-      of England upon the sudden, shall rather imagine himselve to come
-      into some public schools of the universities, where manie give eare
-      to one that readeth, than unto a princes palace if you conferre
-      the same with those of other nations. Would to God all honorable
-      personages would take example of hir graces godlie, dealing in
-      this behalfe, and shew their conformitie unto these hir so good
-      beginnings which if they would, then should manie grievous offenses
-      (wherewith God is highlie displeased) be cut off and restreined,
-      which now doo reigne exceedinglie, in most noble and gentlemen’s
-      houses, whereof they see no paterne within hur graces gates.”
-      (Holinshed’s <i>Chronicles</i>.)</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <p>Leaving the great masters, let us consider a little the more popular
-    literature of the day; the kind which has its run among the people
-    and is forgotten; the current literature, the books of the time, the
-    works which were bought and read by those of the citizens who read at
-    all, probably as large a proportion as we should find at the present
-    day, when the newspaper is the only reading of multitudes. It is
-    not difficult to arrive at what constituted a library. There were
-    religious books, such as Hooper’s <i>Sermons</i>; there were collections of
-    songs, such as <i>The Court of Venus</i>, against which the clergy spoke
-    vehemently; books of chivalry and novels in great numbers, such as
-    <i>Bevis of Hampton</i>, <i>Guy of Warwick</i>, <i>Arthur of the Round Table</i>,
-    <i>Huon of Bordeaux</i>, <i>Oliver of the Castle</i>, <i>Four Sons of Aymon</i>,
-    <i>The Witless Devices of Gargantua</i> and <i>Howleglas</i>. There were the
-    English stories, <i>Robin Hood</i>, <i>Adam Bell</i>, <i>Friar Rushe</i>, <i>The Foole
-      of Gotham</i>. There were satires and fables; <i>Æsop</i>, Erasmus’s <i>Praise
-      of Folly</i>, <i>The Schoolhouse of Women</i>, <i>The Defense of Women</i>, <i>Piers
-      Plowman</i>, <i>Raynolde the Fox</i>, <i>The Palace of Pleasure</i>. There were
-    translations, as <i>Virgil</i>, <i>Seneca</i>, and <i>Apulosius</i>; there<span class="pagenum" id="Page_251">251</span> were books
-    of instruction, as <i>The Boke of Carvynge</i>, <i>The Boke of Cokerye</i>,
-    <i>The Boke of Nurture for Men servants</i>, <i>The Boke of Fortune</i>, <i>The
-      Boke of Curtesey</i>, <i>The Boke of Chesse</i>, and <i>The Hundred Points of
-      Good Husserye</i>. These titles are taken from actual lists before me;
-    the presses were extremely active and the output of books was very
-    considerable during the whole of Elizabeth’s long reign. In a word,
-    there was as great a variety of books for the reader’s choice as there
-    is now, setting aside the modern books in science; there were poets by
-    the hundred, dramatists, novelists of all kinds, historians, preachers,
-    moralists, and essayists. It would take too much space and time were I
-    to attempt an estimate or an account of the Elizabethan literature.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="i_251"><img src="images/i_251.jpg" width="263" height="320" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">EDMUND SPENSER (1552(?)–1599)<br />
-      From an engraving by George Vertue.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>There was, however, one form of literature then playing a very
-    important part in the education of the people which has been too much
-    neglected by those who write of the sixteenth century. It was the
-    ballad. In the last century, if a man had a thing to say, he wrote a
-    pamphlet; at present if he has a thing to say and desires that the
-    people at large should hear it, he either casts it into the form of a
-    novel, or he sends it to the papers as a letter or as a communication.
-    The Elizabethan, on the other hand, cast it into the form of verse;
-    the ballad expressed the popular opinion; by means of the ballad
-    that opinion was formed and taught; by means of the ballad events
-    were recorded and remembered. Every event produced its own ballad. I
-    have before me a list of a hundred ballads, taken at random from the
-    registers of the Stationers’ Company, published for the Shakespeare
-    Society in 1849 by Payne Collier. From these registers it is evident<span class="pagenum" id="Page_252">252</span>
-    that the ballad, as sung in private houses, in taverns, at fairs, and
-    where people congregated; in the streets, in the markets, and at the
-    Carrefours where stood the Cross and the Conduit, taught and led the
-    people as the Press now teaches and leads them. There was a great
-    competition in the production of new ballads; the printers vied with
-    each other in getting the latest or the most striking event turned
-    into ballad form and put upon the market. These ballads were written
-    on every conceivable subject. In order to illustrate their importance
-    I have compiled the following list roughly classified. The titles in
-    almost all cases indicate the contents and aim of the ballad. Some of
-    them are very well written.</p>
-
-  <div class="center small">I.—RELIGIOUS</div>
-
-  <div class="center-container">
-    <div class="poem">
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i0">O Lord who harte in Heaven so high.</div>
-        <div class="i0">The XV. Chapter of St. Paule.</div>
-        <div class="i0">Blessed are the Dead which dye in the Lord.</div>
-        <div class="i0">King Joseas.</div>
-        <div class="i0">Lo! here I lye a sinner.</div>
-        <div class="i0">The Just and Patient Job.</div>
-        <div class="i0">Godly, constant, wyse, Susannah.</div>
-        <div class="i0">Wisdom would I wish to have.</div>
-        <div class="i0">The Lamentation of a Damned Soul.</div>
-        <div class="i0">The Woman taken in Adultery.</div>
-        <div class="i0">Mercy’s Fort.</div>
-      </div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="center small">II.—MORAL</div>
-
-  <div class="center-container">
-    <div class="poem">
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i0">Persuading Men from Swearing.</div>
-        <div class="i0">Against Covetousness.</div>
-        <div class="i0">Old Age and Youth.</div>
-        <div class="i0">The House of a Harlot.</div>
-        <div class="i0">Rustrius and Sapience.</div>
-        <div class="i0">Manners for Matrons.</div>
-        <div class="i0">The Cuckoo.</div>
-        <div class="i0">A Rule for Women to bring up their Daughters.</div>
-        <div class="i0">Have Pity on the Poor.</div>
-        <div class="i0">The Abuses of Wyne, Dyce, and Women.</div>
-      </div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="center small">III.—POLITICAL</div>
-
-  <div class="center-container">
-    <div class="poem">
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i0">Lady Jane’s Lament (<i>i.e.</i> Lady Jane Grey).</div>
-        <div class="i0">Guyn the chefe of that greedy garrison.</div>
-        <div class="i0">How a Mayde should sweep your House Clean</div>
-        <div class="i5">(the “Mayde” is Queen Elizabeth).</div>
-        <div class="i0">News out of Kent.</div>
-        <div class="i0">Lady Englonde.</div>
-      </div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="center small">IV.—TOPICAL</div>
-
-  <div class="center-container">
-    <div class="poem">
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i0">On the Loss of the <i>Greyhound</i></div>
-        <div class="i5">(with Sir T. Finch and two hundred men).</div><span class="pagenum" id="Page_253">253</span>
-        <div class="i0">Burnyng of Paule’s.</div>
-      </div>
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i4">“Lament each over the blazing fire</div>
-        <div class="i5">That downe from Heaven came,</div>
-        <div class="i5">And burned S. Powles his lofty spyre</div>
-        <div class="i5">With lightning’s furious flame.</div>
-        <div class="i5">Lament, I say,</div>
-        <div class="i5">Both night and day,</div>
-        <div class="i5">Sith London’s sin did cause the same.”</div>
-      </div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="center small">V.—GENERAL</div>
-
-  <div class="center-container">
-    <div class="poem">
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i2">Tom Long the Carrier.</div>
-        <div class="i2">Come merry home, John.</div>
-        <div class="i2">Patient Grissel.</div>
-        <div class="i2">The Bachelor.</div>
-      </div>
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i0">“Hough! For the Bachelor! Merry doth he live,</div>
-        <div class="i3">All the day long he can daunce sing and playe:</div>
-        <div class="i1">His troubles are like to water in a sieve,</div>
-        <div class="i3">The more it floweth in, the more it will away:</div>
-        <div class="i1">This is the verie truth I doe declare and saye.</div>
-        <div class="i3">Maryed men for him may sit, sighe, and grone,</div>
-        <div class="i3">He is well content and letteth well alone.”</div>
-      </div>
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i2">Give place ye Ladies.</div>
-      </div>
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i5">“Her rosial colour comes and goes</div>
-        <div class="i8">With such a comely grace!</div>
-        <div class="i6">More ruddie, too, than doth the rose,</div>
-        <div class="i8">Within her lively face.”</div>
-      </div>
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i2">Cruelness of Wicked Women.</div>
-        <div class="i2">A Fairing.</div>
-        <div class="i2">The Hunt is Up.</div>
-        <div class="i2">The Ballad of Broomes.</div>
-      </div>
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i0">“New broomes, greene broomes, will you buy any?</div>
-        <div class="i1">Come, maidens, come quickly, let me take a penny.”</div>
-      </div>
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i6">The Ballad of Milkmaids.</div>
-      </div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p class="lefthang2">(The Milkmaids did not like being called Malkins. The name Malkin
-      is a diminutive of Mary, and was used in the sense of slattern or
-      country wench.)</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <div class="center-container">
-    <div class="poem">
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i0">“Passe not for rybalds which mylke maydes defame,</div>
-        <div class="i3">And call them not Malkins, poor Malkins by name:</div>
-        <div class="i1">Their trade is as good as anie we knowe</div>
-        <div class="i3">And that it is so I will presently showe.</div>
-        <div class="i18">Downe &amp; Downe &amp;c.”</div>
-      </div>
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i4">A Merry Rhyme concerning Butchers, Graysors,</div>
-        <div class="i6">Schole maisters and Tankard Bearers.</div>
-        <div class="i4">Ruffle, Sleeves and Hose.</div>
-        <div class="i4">The Nut Brown Mayd.</div>
-        <div class="i4">Row well ye marynors.</div>
-        <div class="i4">God send me a wyfe that will do as I say.</div>
-      </div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>This list might be multiplied indefinitely. Enough has been given to
-    show that the ballad was the principal medium by which the people were
-    moved and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_254">254</span> taught. One would not underrate the power of the sermon.
-    At no time, not even in the seventeenth century, was the sermon more
-    powerful than under Elizabeth; but the sermon chiefly treated of
-    doctrine and the ballads taught morals and the conduct of life. Nay,
-    in these cases, which were many, when a ballad secular, amatory,
-    scandalous, or immoral, had become popular, the clergy took it in hand
-    and moralised it: <i>i.e.</i> presented a religious parody of it, which they
-    persuaded the people to sing instead of the first version. For example,
-    here is part of a “moralised” ballad:—</p>
-
-  <div class="center-container">
-    <div class="poem">
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i0">“To pass the place where pleasure is</div>
-        <div class="i3">It ought to please one fantasie,</div>
-        <div class="i1">If that the pleasure be amis,</div>
-        <div class="i3">And to God’s Work plaine contrarie,</div>
-        <div class="i1">Or else we sinne, we sinne,</div>
-        <div class="i1">And hell we winne,</div>
-        <div class="i1">Great panic therein</div>
-        <div class="i3">All remedie gone.</div>
-        <div class="i1">Except in Christ alone, alone.”</div>
-      </div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>We must not forget to take account in this brief review of the topical
-    writings of the day of the difference of dialect. It is not too much
-    to say that a Norfolk countryman would not understand a Kentish lad;
-    and that a Yorkshire man would talk a strange tongue to a man of the
-    Midlands. Caxton says, writing a little earlier:—</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“Englishe that is spoken in one shire varyeth from another;
-      insomuch, that in my dayes happened, that certain merchaunts were
-      in a ship in Tamyse, for to have sailed over the see into Zelande,
-      and for lacke of wynde they taryed att Forland, and went to land
-      for to refresh them; and one of them, named Sheffelde, a mercer,
-      came into a hows, and axed for mete, and specially he axed for
-      egges; the good wyfe answerde that she could speke no French. And
-      the merchaunt was angry, for he also could speake no French; but
-      wolde have egges, and she understode hym not. And thenne at last
-      another sayd, that he would have ceyren; thenne the good wyfe said,
-      that she understode him.”</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <p>In the year 1592 was published a book in prose and verse by Richard
-    Johnson, entitled <i>The Nine Worthies of London</i>, inscribed to Sir
-    William Webbe, Lord Mayor of London. Its wide popularity proves that
-    it presents some, at least, of the ideas current among the people.
-    To begin with, the “Nine Worthies” are not by any means, with one
-    exception, those ancient citizens whom we should now consider of the
-    greatest renown. We do not find here the names of Thomas à Becket,
-    Whittington, Philpot, or Gresham. The things worthy to be remembered
-    are neither enterprise in trade, nor vigilance in guarding the
-    liberties of the City, nor the acquisition of wealth, nor charities
-    and endowments. The only thing worthy to be remembered, even among
-    citizens of London, is prowess of arms. The “Nine Worthies” come out,
-    one after the other, and relate their own achievements. It is certain
-    that Richard Johnson did not himself select these men for honourable
-    mention, because they are clearly referred to in a passage of the
-    <i>Paradise of daintie Devices</i>:—</p>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_255">255</span></p>
-
-  <div class="center-container">
-    <div class="poem">
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i0">“The Worthies nine that were of might,</div>
-        <div class="i3">By travaile wonne immortal praise;</div>
-        <div class="i1">If they had lived like carpet knights,</div>
-        <div class="i3">Consuming idly all their dayes,</div>
-        <div class="i1">Their praises had been with them dead,</div>
-        <div class="i3">Where now abroad their fame is spread.”</div>
-      </div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>The work is reprinted in the <i>Harleian Miscellany</i>, vol. viii., from
-    which I take the following extracts: first, William Walworth (p. 443):—</p>
-
-  <div class="center-container">
-    <div class="poem">
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i0">“But when I saw the rebells’ pride encrease,</div>
-        <div class="i3">And none controll and counterchecke their rage;</div>
-        <div class="i1">’Twere service good (thought I) to purchase peace,</div>
-        <div class="i3">And malice of contentious brags asswage;</div>
-        <div class="i1">With this conceyt, all fear had taken flight.</div>
-        <div class="i3">And I alone prest to the traitor’s sight.</div>
-      </div>
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i1">Their multitude could not amaze my minde,</div>
-        <div class="i3">Their bloudie weapons did not make me shrink;</div>
-        <div class="i1">True valour hath his constancie assignde,</div>
-        <div class="i3">The eagle at the sunne will never winke;</div>
-        <div class="i1">Amongst their troupes, incenst with mortall hate,</div>
-        <div class="i3">I did arest Wat Tiler on the pate.</div>
-      </div>
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i1">The stroke was given with so good a will,</div>
-        <div class="i3">I made the rebell coutch unto the earth;</div>
-        <div class="i1">His fellows that beheld (’tis strange) were still;</div>
-        <div class="i3">It mar’d the manner of their former mirth;</div>
-        <div class="i1">I left him not, but, ere I did depart,</div>
-        <div class="i3">I stab’d my dagger to his damned heart.”</div>
-      </div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>Second, Henry Picard, or Pilchard, who entertained the four kings of
-    England, Scotland, France, and Cyprus, with the Black Prince (p. 445):—</p>
-
-  <div class="center-container">
-    <div class="poem">
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i0">“When Edward triumpht for his victories,</div>
-        <div class="i3">And held three crownes within his conquering hand,</div>
-        <div class="i1">He brought rich trophies from his enemies,</div>
-        <div class="i3">That were erected in this happie land;</div>
-        <div class="i1">We all rejoyc’d and gave our God the praise,</div>
-        <div class="i3">That was the authour of those fortunate dayes.</div>
-      </div>
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i1">And as from Dover, with the prince his sonne,</div>
-        <div class="i3">The king of Cypres, France, and Scots, did passe,</div>
-        <div class="i1">All captive prisoners to this mightie one,</div>
-        <div class="i3">Five thousand men and I the leader was;</div>
-        <div class="i1">All well prepared as to defend a fort;</div>
-        <div class="i3">Went forth to welcome him in martiall sort.</div>
-      </div>
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i1">The riches of our armour, and the cost,</div>
-        <div class="i3">Each one bestows in honour of that day,</div>
-        <div class="i1">Were here to be exprest but labour lost;</div>
-        <div class="i3">Silke coates and chaines of golde bare little sway;</div>
-        <div class="i1">And thus we marcht accepted of our king</div>
-        <div class="i3">To whom our comming seem’d a gracious thing.</div>
-      </div>
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i1">But when the citie pearde within our sights,</div>
-        <div class="i3">I carv’d a boune submisse upon my knee;</div>
-        <div class="i1">To have his grace, those kings, with earles and knights,</div>
-        <div class="i3">A day or two to banquet it with me;</div>
-        <div class="i1">The king admirde, yet thankfully replide,</div>
-        <div class="i3">‘Unto my house both I and these will ride.’”</div>
-      </div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_256">256</span></p>
-  <p>Third, William Sevenoake, who went over to France with Henry V. as a
-    lad just out of his apprenticeship, and there fought with the Dauphin
-    (p. 447):—</p>
-
-  <div class="center-container">
-    <div class="poem">
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i0">“The Dolphyne then of France, a comelie knight,</div>
-        <div class="i3">Disguised, came by chaunce into a place,</div>
-        <div class="i1">Where I, well wearied with the heate of fight,</div>
-        <div class="i3">Had layd me downe, for warre had ceast his chace;</div>
-        <div class="i1">And with reproachful words, as layzie swaine</div>
-        <div class="i3">He did salute me, ere I long had layne.</div>
-      </div>
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i1">I, knowing that he was mine enemie,</div>
-        <div class="i3">A bragging French-man (for we tearm’d them so)</div>
-        <div class="i1">Ill brookt the proud disgrace he gave to me</div>
-        <div class="i3">And therefore, lent the Dolphyne such a blowe,</div>
-        <div class="i1">As warm’d his courage well to lay about,</div>
-        <div class="i3">Till he was breathlesse, though he were so stout.</div>
-      </div>
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i1">At last the noble prince did aske my name,</div>
-        <div class="i3">My birth, my calling, and my fortunes past;</div>
-        <div class="i1">With admiration he did heare the same,</div>
-        <div class="i3">And so a bagge of crownes to me he cast;</div>
-        <div class="i1">And when he went away, he saide to mee,</div>
-        <div class="i3">‘Sevenoake, be prowd, the Dolphyne fought with thee.’”</div>
-      </div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>Fourth, Thomas White, who founded schools and almshouses (p. 449):—</p>
-
-  <div class="center-container">
-    <div class="poem">
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i0">“I cannot sing of armes and blood-red warres,</div>
-        <div class="i3">Nor was my collur mixt with Mars his hew;</div>
-        <div class="i1">I honour those that ended countrey jarres,</div>
-        <div class="i3">For herein subjects shew that they are trew;</div>
-        <div class="i1">But privately at home I shewde my selfe,</div>
-        <div class="i3">To be no lover of vaine worldly pelfe.</div>
-      </div>
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i1">My deedes have tongues to speak, though I surcease,</div>
-        <div class="i3">My orators the learned strive to bee,</div>
-        <div class="i1">Because I twined paulmes in time of peace,</div>
-        <div class="i3">And gave such gifts, that made faire learning free;</div>
-        <div class="i1">My care did build them bowers of sweet content,</div>
-        <div class="i3">Where many wise their golden time have spent.</div>
-      </div>
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i1">A noyse of gratefull thankes within mine eares,</div>
-        <div class="i3">Descending from their studies, glads my heart,</div>
-        <div class="i1">That I began to wish with private teares,</div>
-        <div class="i3">There lived more that were of White’s desert;</div>
-        <div class="i1">But now I looke, and spie that time is balde,</div>
-        <div class="i3">And Vertue comes not, being seldome calde.”</div>
-      </div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>Fifth, John Bonham, citizen and mercer, who went to Denmark with his
-    merchandise, there was received at Court and distinguished himself at
-    a tournament—the only occasion on record of a merchant fighting in a
-    tournament—and finally led an army to victory over the Great Solyman,
-    who made him a knight after the defeat of the Turk:—</p>
-
-  <div class="center-container">
-    <div class="poem">
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i0">“Then, at a parley he admirde me so;</div>
-        <div class="i3">He made me knight and let his armie go.”</div>
-      </div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>Sixth, Christopher Croker. Alas! the world has forgotten Christopher.
-    He was a vintner’s ’prentice. He was loved by Doll Stodie, his master’s
-    daughter; and he burned to give her a better position; he joined the
-    army of the Black Prince<span class="pagenum" id="Page_257">257</span> in France; distinguished himself there; went
-    with him to Spain, and returned a knight:—</p>
-
-  <div class="center-container">
-    <div class="poem">
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i0">“And when Don Peter, driven out of Spaine,</div>
-        <div class="i3">By an usurping bastard of his line,</div>
-        <div class="i1">He craved some helpe his crowne to re-obtaine,</div>
-        <div class="i3">That in his former glorie he might shine;</div>
-        <div class="i1">Our king ten thousand sever’d from his host;</div>
-        <div class="i3">My selfe was one, I speake it not in boast.</div>
-      </div>
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i1">With these Don Peter put the bastard downe,</div>
-        <div class="i3">Each citie yielded at our first approch;</div>
-        <div class="i1">It was not long ere he had got the crowne;</div>
-        <div class="i3">And taught his wicked brother to encroch;</div>
-        <div class="i1">In these affaires so well I shewed my might,</div>
-        <div class="i3">That for my labour I was made a knight.</div>
-      </div>
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i1">Thus labour never looseth his reward;</div>
-        <div class="i3">And he that seeks for honour sure shall speed;</div>
-        <div class="i1">What craven mind was ever in regard?</div>
-        <div class="i3">Or where consisteth manhood but in deed?</div>
-        <div class="i1">I speake it, that confirm’d it by my life,</div>
-        <div class="i3">And in the end, Doll Stodie was my wife.”</div>
-      </div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>Seventh, John Hawkwood, the Prince of Mercenaries. He, too, belonged to
-    the Black Prince and was knighted by him.</p>
-
-  <p>Eighth, Hugh Caverley, silk weaver, who also became a knight in France
-    and signalised himself afterwards by slaying a monstrous wild boar
-    which devastated Poland.</p>
-
-  <p>Ninth, and last, Henry Maleverer, grocer, Knight Crusader and Custodian
-    of Jacob’s Well:—</p>
-
-  <div class="center-container">
-    <div class="poem">
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i0">“And thus with love, with honour, and with fame,</div>
-        <div class="i3">I did return to London whence I came.”</div>
-      </div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>It is a curious list, and shows what legends of former citizens had
-    grown up in the minds of the people. They had clean forgotten the old
-    Patron Saints of London, St. Erkenwald and St. Thomas à Becket; they
-    had forgotten Philpot and his splendid achievement over the pirates
-    of the North Sea; they had forgotten Waleys, Mayor of Bordeaux and of
-    London; they had forgotten Dick Whittington; they had even forgotten
-    Gresham, and in place of the men who had made London and brought
-    wealth, prosperity, and freedom to the town, they remembered mythical
-    adventures and traditions of battle and of victory. One would like to
-    know more about the popular belief in “London Worthies.”</p>
-
-  <p>The wholesale destruction of MSS. and mediæval libraries, at the
-    Suppression of the Religious Houses, though doubtless a heavy loss from
-    an artistic point of view, considering the loss of illuminated books,
-    may be considered as compensated by the increased activity of the
-    press and the reconstruction of the library. What was actually lost to
-    literature? John Bale tells us, Manuscripts of the Fathers, Schoolmen,
-    and Commentators. Was this a loss? It is quite certain that the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_258">258</span>
-    monkish commentators regarded their text from a point of view no longer
-    held: the Holy Scriptures, they said, were lost. The manuscript copies
-    were very likely lost, but the press multiplied copies. I think that
-    the greatest loss to literature was the loss of certain chronicles,
-    of which we have so many left, which relate the history of current
-    events as the monkish scribe heard and understood them. In any case,
-    the destruction of so many books made it impossible, henceforward, to
-    consider a library as made up chiefly of manuscripts; the press rapidly
-    restored the books that were wanted; and gave the world a library
-    filled with printed books, while the old commentators were clean
-    forgotten.</p>
-
-  <p>The age of great folios and mighty scholars was the seventeenth,
-    rather than the sixteenth, century. In the sixteenth, scholars were
-    busy in putting forth new editions of the classics. Men like Dolet and
-    Rabelais were not ashamed to correct for the press. The voluminous
-    commentator came afterwards. Meantime, it is remarkable that we had
-    no Rabelais among our writers. He, formerly a friar, came out of the
-    cloister, his head filled with the old learning and eager for the new.
-    His great book became at once popular, and was eagerly passed from hand
-    to hand. The origins of his chapters have quite recently been explored
-    and discovered in Mr. W. F. Smith’s excellent translation. They are
-    shown to be chiefly extracts from gloss and commentary, burlesqued,
-    imitated, and held up to the ridicule and scorn of scholars. The common
-    people understood only the bubbling mirth and laughter, coupled with
-    the spontaneous unseemliness of the page; the scholar understood the
-    allegory and the purpose of the writer; the ecclesiastic alone, and
-    one of the older type, understood the true nature of the overwhelming
-    contempt and hatred of the order that was passing away—contempt and
-    hatred thinly veiled and concealed except for those who knew the gloss
-    and commentary of the past. We have no Rabelais; among all our friars
-    there was no scholar; among our ejected monks, if there were scholars,
-    they stuck by their order; among all the priests, monks, and friars,
-    who joined in the Reformation, there was not one who so despised the
-    old faith as to make it the theme of such a book as that of Rabelais.
-    Hatred there was in plenty, after the fires of Smithfield: hatred which
-    continued to flourish in our literature and still lingers; but not the
-    full bitterness of hatred, fear, contempt, and restlessness which fill
-    the pages of Rabelais, Étienne Dolet, and Bonaventure des Periers.</p>
-
-  <p>Painting in London practically began with the Tudors, and was brought
-    over to the City by Flemish and Dutch painters. Among these we find
-    the names of Lucas and Gerard Horenbout, Volpe, Gerbud Flick, Johannes
-    Corvus, Levina Terling, Susanna Horenbout, and Alice Carmillion. But
-    the great name of Holbein towers above all the rest. This painter was
-    born at Augsburg about 1497, went to Basle in 1516, and came to London
-    in 1526. He continued in London, with the exception of three visits to
-    Basle, until his death in 1543, residing first in a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_259">259</span> lodging on London
-    Bridge, and next in a house in the parish of St. Andrew Undershaft,
-    where he died.</p>
-
-  <p>As regards his contemporaries and successors, we are indebted to
-    the researches of the late John Gough Nichols for information on
-    this point. They are embodied in a paper published by the Society of
-    Antiquaries (xxxix. p. 19).</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="i_259"><img src="images/i_259.jpg" width="336" height="429" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">BEN JONSON (1573(?)-1637)<br />
-      From the painting in the National Portrait Gallery, London, after
-        Gerard Honthorst.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>The earliest Court Painter to Henry VIII. was one John Browne. He
-    was appointed in 1511 a Serjeant Painter with a salary of twopence
-    a day and four ells of cloth, valued at 6s. 8d. an ell, annually.
-    Three pounds a year is not a large salary, but probably he was paid
-    in addition for any work which he might do; thus, he was paid forty
-    shillings for a painted tabard of sarsenet provided by him for
-    Nottingham Pursuivant. In 1522 he was elected Alderman for Farringdon
-    Without, and in 1525 he was discharged from office without having been
-    either Sheriff or Mayor. He gave by will to the Painter Stainers’
-    Company his house for their hall: the present Hall stands upon the site
-    of Browne’s bequest.</p>
-
-  <p>John Browne was succeeded as Serjeant Painter by Andrew Wright. This
-    painter received £30 for painting and decorating the King’s barge. He
-    had a manufactory of “pink,” a vegetable pigment used by painters at
-    that time; it<span class="pagenum" id="Page_260">260</span> was the Italian <i>giallo santo</i> and the French <i>stel de
-      grain</i>. Wright died in 1543.</p>
-
-  <p>Vincent Volpe, a contemporary of the two preceding, supplied, in 1514,
-    streamers and banners for the King’s great ship, the <i>Henry Grace à
-      Dieu</i>. He is called in 1530 the “King’s Painter.” It is suggested that
-    it was Volpe who painted some of the military pictures at Hampton
-    Court. He also received money for the decoration of the King’s barge.
-    The “King’s Painter” seems to have held a higher rank than the Serjeant
-    Painter, for Volpe’s salary was £10 a year.</p>
-
-  <p>Two other Flemish artists, Lucas and Gerard Horenbout, were also in
-    the receipt of salaries from the King; their father was also, perhaps,
-    a painter and a Fleming. Their sister Susanna was a painter of
-    miniatures. She was the wife, first, of Henry Parker the King’s bowman,
-    and, secondly, of a sculptor named Worsley.</p>
-
-  <p>An Italian named Antonio Toto was a native of Florence, the son of a
-    painter and the pupil of Ridolpho. He was architect as well as painter.
-    His principal building was the strange palace of Nonsuch (see <a href="#Page_89">p. 89</a>).
-    Toto was, like Andrew Wright, a Serjeant Painter. For the coronation of
-    Edward VI. he provided the tabards for the heralds; he also took charge
-    of the masques.</p>
-
-  <p>Another Italian attached to Henry’s Court was Bartolomo Penni. The
-    names of three women have been given above: Alice Carmillion was in
-    Henry’s service; Levina Terling in Edward’s, Mary’s, and Elizabeth’s
-    successively.</p>
-
-  <p>Holbein’s most illustrious successor among his contemporaries was
-    Guillim Streets, or Strettes. Among other paintings by this admirable
-    artist was one of the marriage of Queen Mary. The picture, however, is
-    lost.</p>
-
-  <p>Nicholas Lyzarde was Serjeant Painter to Queen Elizabeth. He died in
-    1571.</p>
-
-  <p>The names Antonio Moro and Joost van Cleef may also be added to those
-    of the painters who lived in London during the sixteenth century.</p>
-
-  <p>The decay of the London schools and of learning in general, which
-    undoubtedly began in the fifteenth century and continued until far
-    into the following century, is difficult to understand. One can only
-    form theories and make guesses. The fact cannot be disputed. There
-    were forces at work which have not been recorded. The Lollardry of the
-    late fourteenth and early fifteenth centuries seems to have been in
-    great measure forgotten. Yet, as I have pointed out and proved, the
-    custom of making bequests to the Religious Houses declined and decayed
-    until it quite died away, long before the Reformation. The old spirit
-    of revolt left behind it a steady and persistent and growing spirit
-    of dissatisfaction. Perhaps this spirit was shown in the decay of the
-    monastic schools. We have seen how, in 1477, four of the London clergy
-    asked, and obtained, permission to found additional schools in four
-    parishes. The new schools could do little; the Reformation accelerated
-    the decay of learning partly by the abolition of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_261">261</span> monastic schools;
-    partly by the vast reduction in the number of ecclesiastics; partly
-    by the loss of the endowments by which learning had been encouraged
-    and maintained: an increased trade, with foreign enterprise, also
-    attracted the younger men in numbers continually increasing. So few
-    were the undergraduates of Oxford that in Queen Mary’s reign only three
-    took a degree in Divinity during the space of six years; in Civil Law
-    only eleven; in Physic six; in Arts an average of about twenty-three.
-    Anthony à Wood writes: “There were none that had any heart to put their
-    children to any school, any farther than to learn to write—to make
-    them Apprentices or Lawyers.”</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter w325">
-    <a id="i_261"><img src="images/i_261.jpg" width="325" height="414" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="attribr"><i>Spooner &amp; Co.</i></div>
-    <div class="caption">HOLBEIN (1497–1543)<br />
-      From the portrait by himself at Hampton Court.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>I would enumerate among the causes of the general decay in learning:
-    (1) the unsettled nature of religious opinions; (2) the changed ideas
-    concerning education; (3) the destruction of the Houses, which, if
-    they turned out few scholars, offered a quiet home for the studious;
-    (4) the advance in trade and enterprise, which attracted the youth of
-    London far more than study; (5) the contempt into which the mass of
-    the Protestant clergy had fallen; (6) a feeling of uneasiness about
-    scholarship, lest it should bring one to the stake, of which there had
-    been presented many terrifying examples.</p>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_262">262</span></p>
-
-  <p>Of music there is a much nobler record. Never before had the people
-    been such great lovers of music, and such admirable proficients. In
-    every barber’s shop was hung a zither or a guitar; anybody played;
-    everybody sang. Henry VIII. himself was a composer of no mean
-    capability, and a performer equal to any. Elizabeth upon the virginals
-    was unequalled. Many of the anthems and madrigals of the period survive
-    to this day and are still sung. The music of the Chapel Royal was
-    held to be better than anything of the kind in Western Europe. Would
-    that the musical tastes and traditions of London had been preserved!
-    They were destroyed by the Puritans. They were destroyed slowly but
-    effectively. At the Restoration it was still the custom for gentlemen
-    to play and sing; but not, apparently, for the trading and lower
-    classes; during the last century, neither gentlefolk nor any other folk
-    could play or sing; music ceased to be cultivated by the people. Nor
-    have we yet, even, begun to be a people given to music; it is still
-    comparatively rare to find boys who are taught to play any instrument;
-    at no public school is it thought to be an essential part of education.
-    Perhaps the twentieth century may witness a revival of the national
-    love for music.</p>
-
-  <hr class="page" />
-  <div class="chapter" id="CHAPTER_4d">
-    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_263">263</span>
-    <h3>
-      <span class="gespertt1">CHAPTER IV</span><br />
-      <span class="subhead">GOG AND MAGOG</span>
-    </h3>
-  </div>
-
-    <p class="noindent"><span class="smcap">It</span> seems impossible to ascertain why these names were bestowed upon the
-    City Giants. The prophet Ezekiel (chs. xxxviii. and xxxix.) prophesies
-    against “Gog, the land of Magog, the Chief Prince of Meshech, and
-    Tubal.” In the Book of Revelation (xx. 8) Satan goes out “to deceive
-    the nations which are in the four quarters of the earth, Gog and
-    Magog.” How were these names applied to City Giants? It was a common
-    thing to have a City Giant who was carried in processions; there
-    were giants at Chester, Salisbury, and Coventry; there were giants
-    at Antwerp, Bruges, Ghent, Douai, Lille, and Brussels. The giants
-    were in every case connected in some way with the legendary history
-    of the City. But while every city had its own giant, who was brought
-    out on festive occasions, this did not prevent the construction of
-    other giants. Thus, after the victory of Agincourt, when Henry V.
-    was received by a pageant of extraordinary splendour, a giant and a
-    giantess stood on the Southwark end of London Bridge to greet him.
-    The giant carried in his right hand an axe, and in the left the City
-    keys, as if he were the porter of the town. In 1432, when Henry VI.
-    came to England after his Coronation in France, there was another giant
-    at London Bridge. He stood with drawn sword, and had at his side the
-    following verses written out large:—</p>
-
-  <div class="center-container">
-    <div class="poem">
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i0">“All those that be enemies to the King,</div>
-        <div class="i3">I shall them clothe with confusion,</div>
-        <div class="i1">Make him mighty by virtuous living,</div>
-        <div class="i3">His mortal foes to oppress and bear them down;</div>
-        <div class="i3">And bid him to increase as Christ’s champion.</div>
-        <div class="i1">All mischiefs from him to abridge,</div>
-        <div class="i1">With grace of God, at the entry of this Bridge.”</div>
-        <div class="i40"><i>Lord Mayor’s Pageants.</i></div>
-      </div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>In 1547, when the boy-king Edward passed through the City, among the
-    figures presented to him were two representing Valentine and Orson.</p>
-
-  <p>In 1554, when Philip came to London, there was a great pageant to
-    receive him with the Queen. At the drawbridge of the Tower there were
-    placed the two giants, Corineus and Gogmagog, holding between them a
-    scroll inscribed with Latin verses.</p>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_264">264</span></p>
-
-  <p>In January 1559, when Queen Elizabeth rode through the City she was
-    received with a pageant of great splendour. At Temple Bar the last show
-    was that of the two City Giants, Corineus and Gogmagog, who had between
-    them a recapitulation of the whole pageant. Here the singing children
-    made a “noise,” while one of them, attired like a poet, bade the Queen
-    farewell in the name of the City.</p>
-
-  <p>The giants seem to have been omitted from the Royal pageants and
-    processions of the seventeenth century.</p>
-
-  <p>In 1605 the Lord Mayor’s Pageant was adorned by the presence of the
-    giants.</p>
-
-  <p>“The first Pageant was ‘The Shippe called the Royall Exchange,’ in
-    which takes place a short poetical dialogue between the master, mate
-    and boy, who congratulate themselves on the fortunate termination of
-    their voyage at this auspicious time, the master ending the dialogue by
-    a punning allusion to the Mayor’s name, when he declared his intention</p>
-
-  <div class="center-container">
-    <div class="poem">
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i0">‘To make this up a cheerful <i>Holi-day</i>.’</div>
-      </div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>Neptune and Amphitrite appear upon a lion and camel; and Corineus and
-    Gogmagog, two huge giants, ‘for the more grace and beauty of the show,’
-    were fettered by chains of gold to ‘Britains Mount,’ the principal
-    pageant; which they appeared to draw, and upon which children were
-    seated, representing Britannia; ‘Brute’s divided kingdoms,’ Leogria,
-    Cambria, and Albania; ‘Brute’ himself, his sons Locrine, Camber, and
-    Albanact; Troya Nova, or London; and the Rivers Thames, Severn, and
-    Humber, who each declaim in short speeches, the purport of which is
-    that as England, Wales, and Scotland were first sundered by Brutus to
-    supply his three sons with a kingdom each, they are now again happily
-    united in ‘our second Brute,’ King James the first.” (Fairholt, <i>Lord
-      Mayor’s Pageants</i>.)</p>
-
-  <p>The giants disappeared from the Lord Mayor’s Pageants soon after this.
-    In 1633, Clod, a country-man, in Shirley’s <i>Contention for Honour and
-      Riches</i>, says:—</p>
-
-  <p>“When the word is given, you march to Guildhall, with every man his
-    spoon in his pocket, where you look upon the giants, and feed like
-    Saracens, till you have no stomach to Paul’s in the afternoon.”
-    (<i>Ibid.</i>)</p>
-
-  <p>In the Lord Mayor’s Pageant for 1673 the giants came out again. This
-    pageant was designed by Thomas Jordan. It appears to have been their
-    first appearance after the Fire.</p>
-
-  <p>“I must not omit to tell you, that marching in the van of these five
-    pageants, are two exceeding rarities to be taken notice of; that is,
-    there are two extreme great giants, each of them at least fifteen foot
-    high, that do sit and are drawn by horses in two several chariots,
-    moving, talking, and taking tobacco as they ride along, to the great
-    admiration and delight of all the spectators; at the conclusion of
-    the show they are to be set up in Guildhall, where they may be daily
-    seen all<span class="pagenum" id="Page_265">265</span> the year, and I hope never to be demolished by such dismal
-    violence as happened to their predecessors; which are raised at the
-    peculiar and proper cost of the city.” (<i>Ibid.</i>)</p>
-
-  <p>It would seem that in many of the pageants it was not thought necessary
-    to set down the fact that the giants formed part, for in Henley’s
-    Orations (1730–1755) there is one on the Lord Mayor’s Show which
-    contains the following passage: “On that day, the two giants have the
-    priviledge, if they think it proper, to walk out and keep holiday; one
-    on each side of the great horse would aggrandize the solemnity, shew
-    consisting often in bulk.” (<i>Ibid.</i>)</p>
-
-  <p>In Stow’s description of the setting of the watch on Midsummer’s Eve,
-    he says: “The Mayor had, beside his giants, three pageants, whereas
-    the Sheriffs had only two, besides their giants.” In Marston’s <i>Dutch
-      Courtezan</i>, acted 1605, an allusion is made to the giants: “yet all
-    will scarce make me so high as one of the gyant’s stilts that stalks
-    before my Lord Mayor’s Pageants.”</p>
-
-  <p>George Wither (1661) calls the giants “Big-boned Colbrant and great
-    Brandsmore.”</p>
-
-  <div class="center-container">
-    <div class="poem">
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i0">“The giants at Guildhall &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; . &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;. &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;.</div>
-        <div class="i0"> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;. &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;. &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;. &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;. &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;. &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;.</div>
-        <div class="i1">Where they have had a place to them assigned</div>
-        <div class="i1">At public meetings, now time out of mind.”</div>
-      </div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>The last appearance of the giants in a procession was in 1837, when
-    they graced the Lord Mayor’s Show.</p>
-
-  <p>The legends of the City Giants were two in number. The first related
-    how Brutus, one of the Trojan heroes, wandering after the Fall of Troy,
-    like Æneas, came to Britain, which he found full of giants. He fought
-    with these giants and destroyed them all except two, named Gog and
-    Magog, whom he brought to his new City of London and chained to the
-    palace gates. Another legend relates how Corineus, brother of Brutus,
-    fought the giants Gog and Magog, and, being himself stronger than his
-    unwieldy antagonists, threw them headlong into the sea. The two giants
-    of Guildhall, according to this legend, were Corineus and Gogmagog. The
-    names of Gog and Magog were certainly taken either from Ezekiel or the
-    Book of Revelation, and were applied to the giants after Corineus had
-    been forgotten, as the names of princes over an infidel people: they
-    were represented, not as tutelary giants, but as conquered giants. It
-    will be observed that one is represented as a Roman, with helmet and
-    shield, sword, spear, and armour, while the other is apparelled, after
-    the artist’s imagination, as an ancient Briton.</p>
-
-  <p>They were originally made of wicker-work; after the Great Fire, which
-    destroyed them, they were reconstructed of the same materials, but in
-    1707 they were made of wood, as we now see them.</p>
-
-  <hr class="page" />
-  <div class="chapter mb10" id="SOCIAL_LIFE">
-    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_267">267</span>
-    <h2>SOCIAL LIFE</h2>
-  </div>
-
-  <hr class="page" />
-  <div class="chapter" id="CHAPTER_1e">
-    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_269">269</span>
-    <h3>
-      <span class="gespertt1">CHAPTER I</span><br />
-      <span class="subhead">MANNERS AND CUSTOMS</span>
-    </h3>
-  </div>
-
-    <p class="noindent"><span class="smcap">In</span> this chapter we can make a large use of contemporary literature.
-    Thus, the first consideration in treating of the manners and customs of
-    the people is naturally the position of the wife and the consideration
-    shown to her. I do not think that in any country could either the
-    position of the wife or the consideration for her surpass what was then
-    in vogue in London. This point Emanuel van Meteren, writing in 1575,
-    makes abundantly clear, even while he contends the exact opposite, viz.
-    that the wife is entirely in the power of the husband. For he shows
-    that whatever the law may be—he does not quote the law—the practice
-    is that the wife has entire liberty; and custom, <i>i.e.</i> public opinion,
-    against which no husband would dare to move, secures her that liberty.
-    This is what he says:—</p>
-
-  <p>“Wives in England are entirely in the power of their husbands,
-    their lives only excepted. Therefore when they marry, they give up
-    the surname of their father and of the family from which they are
-    descended, and take the surname of their husbands, except in the
-    case of duchesses, countesses, and baronesses, who, when they marry
-    gentlemen of inferior degree, retain their first name and title, which,
-    for the ambition of the said ladies, is rather allowed than commended.
-    But although the women are entirely in the power of their husbands
-    except for their lives, yet they are not kept so strictly as they are
-    in Spain, or elsewhere. Nor are they shut up, but they have the free
-    management of the house or housekeeping, after the fashion of those of
-    the Netherlands and others their neighbours. They go to market to buy
-    what they like best to eat. They are well-dressed, fond of taking it
-    easy, and commonly leave the care of household matters and drudgery
-    to their servants. They sit before their doors, decked out in fine
-    clothes, in order to see and be seen by the passers-by. In all banquets
-    and feasts they are shown the greatest honour; they are placed at
-    the upper end of the table, where they are the first served; at the
-    lower end they help the men. All the rest of their time they employ
-    in walking and riding, in playing at cards or otherwise, in visiting
-    their friends and keeping company, conversing with their equals (whom
-    they term gossips) and their neighbours, and making merry<span class="pagenum" id="Page_270">270</span> with them at
-    child-births, christenings, churchings, and funerals; and all this with
-    the permission and knowledge of their husbands, as such is the custom.
-    Although the husbands often recommend to them the pains, industry,
-    and care of the German or Dutch women, who do what the men ought to
-    do both in the house and in the shops, for which services in England
-    men are employed, nevertheless the women usually persist in retaining
-    their customs. This is why England is called the Paradise of married
-    women. The girls who are not yet married are kept much more rigorously
-    and strictly than in the Low Countries. The women are beautiful, fair,
-    well-dressed and modest, which is seen there more than elsewhere, as
-    they go about the streets without any covering either of mantle, hood,
-    veil, or the like. Married women only wear a hat both on the street
-    and in the house; those unmarried go without a hat, although ladies of
-    distinction have lately learnt to cover their faces with silken masks
-    or vizards, and feathers,—for indeed they change very easily, and that
-    every year, to the astonishment of many.”</p>
-
-  <p>If this was the ordinary life of the London merchant’s wife, the
-    following is the contemporary ideal (Gervase Markham):—</p>
-
-  <p>“Next unto her sanctity and holiness of life, it is meet that our
-    English Housewife be a woman of great modesty and temperance, as well
-    inwardly as outwardly; inwardly, as in her behaviour and carriage
-    towards her husband, wherein she shall shun all violence of rage,
-    passion and humour, coveting less to direct than to be directed,
-    appearing ever unto him pleasant, amiable and delightful; and tho’
-    occasion of mishaps, or the mis-government of his will may induce her
-    to contrary thoughts, yet vertuously to suppress them, and with a
-    mild sufferance rather to call him home from his error, than with the
-    strength of anger to abate the least spark of his evil, calling into
-    her mind, that evil and uncomely language is deformed, though uttered
-    even to servants; but most monstrous and ugly, when it appears before
-    the presence of a husband; outwardly, as in her apparel, and dyet, both
-    which she shall proportion according to the competency of her husband’s
-    estate and calling, making her circle rather strait than large; for it
-    is a rule, if we extend to the uttermost, we take away increase; if
-    we go a hair’s breadth beyond, we enter into consumption; but if we
-    preserve any part, we build strong forts against the adversaries of
-    fortune, provided that such preservation be honest and conscionable;
-    for as lavish prodigality is brutish, so miserable covetousness is
-    hellish. Let therefore the Housewife’s garments be comely and strong,
-    made as well to preserve the health, as to adorn the person, altogether
-    without toyish garnishes, or the gloss of bright colours, and as far
-    from the vanity of new and fantastick fashions, as near to the comely
-    imitation of modest matrons. Let her dyet be wholesome and cleanly,
-    prepared at due hours, and cook’d with care and diligence, let it
-    be rather to satisfie nature, than<span class="pagenum" id="Page_271">271</span> her affections, and apter to
-    kill hunger than revive new appetites; let it proceed more from the
-    provision of her own yard, than the furniture of the markets; and let
-    it be rather esteemed for the familiar acquaintance she hath with it,
-    than for the strangeness and rarity it bringeth from other countries.</p>
-
-  <p>To conclude, our English Housewife must be of chaste thoughts, stout
-    courage, patient, untired, watchful, diligent, witty, pleasant,
-    constant in friendship, full of good neighbourhood, wise in discourse,
-    but not frequent therein, sharp and quick of speech, but not bitter
-    or talkative, secret in her affairs, comfortable in her counsels, and
-    generally skilful in the worthy knowledges which do belong to her
-    vocation.”</p>
-
-  <p>But to set against this is the testimony of the Elizabethan satirist
-    Philip Stubbes.</p>
-
-  <p>The principal occupation of the women, he tells us—their daily
-    life—is to lie in bed till nine or ten in the morning; to spend two
-    hours in dressing themselves; then to go to dinner; then, “their heads
-    pretely mizzeled with wine,” they walk abroad for a time; or they sit
-    at their open doors showing their braveries to passers-by; or they
-    pretend business in the town and carry a basket, “under what pretence
-    pretie concerts are practised.” Or again they have those gardens in the
-    fields outside already alluded to, whither they repair with a boy and a
-    basket and meet their lovers.</p>
-
-  <div class="center small">A WOMAN’S DAY</div>
-
-  <div class="center-container">
-    <div class="poem">
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i0">“Daily till ten a clocke a bed she lyes,</div>
-        <div class="i1">And then againe her Lady-ship doth rise,</div>
-        <div class="i1">Her Maid must make a fire, and attend</div>
-        <div class="i1">To make her ready; then for wine sheele send,</div>
-        <div class="i1">(A morning pinte), she sayes her stomach’s weake,</div>
-        <div class="i1">And counterfeits as if shee could not speake,</div>
-        <div class="i1">Vntill eleuen, or a little past,</div>
-        <div class="i1">About which time, euer she breakes her fast;</div>
-        <div class="i1">Then (very sullen) she wil pout and loure,</div>
-        <div class="i1">And sit down by the fire some halfe an houre.</div>
-        <div class="i1">At twelue a clocke her dinner time she keepes,</div>
-        <div class="i1">Then gets into her chaire, and there she sleepes</div>
-        <div class="i1">Perhaps til foure, or somewhat thereabout;</div>
-        <div class="i1">And when that lazie humour is worne out,</div>
-        <div class="i1">She cals her dog, and takes him in her lap,</div>
-        <div class="i1">Or fals a beating of her maid (perhap)</div>
-        <div class="i1">Or hath a gossip come to tell a tale,</div>
-        <div class="i1">Or else at me sheele curse, and sweare, and rale,</div>
-        <div class="i1">Or walk a turne or two about the Hall,</div>
-        <div class="i1">And so to supper and to bed: heeres all</div>
-        <div class="i1">This paines she takes; and yet I do abuse her:</div>
-        <div class="i1">But no wise man, I thinke, so kind would vse her....”</div>
-        <div class="i20"><span class="smcap">Stubbes</span>, <i>Anatomie of Abuses</i>, Part ii. p. 274.</div>
-      </div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>In the streets a lady of condition was preceded by a lackey carrying a
-    stick or wand. Gentlemen were followed by their servants carrying the
-    master’s sword. The servants were dressed in blue with the master’s
-    badge in silver on the left arm. The men kept on their hats indoors
-    except in warm weather.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_272">272</span> The nobles, who were mostly poor, joined
-    with the merchant adventurers in their foreign enterprises; many of
-    the merchants were consulted by the Sovereign and held positions of
-    trust—for example, Gresham; yet the separation of City and Court was
-    already beginning, as is shown by the repeated sneers of the dramatists
-    at the vulgarity and ostentation of the City Madams. We get occasional
-    glimpses of the lower class women and girls; they were rough in their
-    manners and coarse in their conversation; we find them dancing in the
-    street to the music of the tabor and the pipe; we also see them playing
-    at ball up and down the street, like the ’prentices. They lived, like
-    the men, on strong meat and beer; they were therefore physically
-    strong, perhaps as strong as the young men their lovers. The richer
-    sort of citizens had country gardens, generally small enclosures,
-    either in or north of Moorfields, whither they resorted in the long
-    summer evenings; their wives, it is said, used the gardens in the
-    morning for assignations and the carrying on of intrigues.</p>
-
-  <p>In the morning the haunt of the gallants was St. Paul’s Cathedral.
-    (<i>See</i> <a href="#APPENDIX_VIII">Appendix VIII.</a>) They walked up and down the middle of the nave,
-    called then the “Mediterranean,” exhibiting their new cloaks and their
-    new feathers. After a few turns up and down, or when the clock struck
-    eleven, they left the place and disappeared, going to some of the
-    shops, the tobacconist’s, or the bookseller’s, where they took tobacco
-    and talked about the new books. They then repaired to an ordinary and
-    spent two or three hours over dinner, after which they went back to St.
-    Paul’s and spent there the whole afternoon.</p>
-
-  <p>The merchant had his Exchange; the citizen his tavern; the gallant had
-    the apothecary’s shop, where he bought and smoked his tobacco. For
-    daily discourse and business the scholar, the divine, the poet, the
-    wit, had the bookseller’s shop. “He will sit you,” said Ben Jonson, “a
-    whole afternoon in a bookseller’s shop, reading the Greek, Italian,
-    and Spanish.” He would read, and he would talk. Remember that in the
-    year 1590 or thereabouts the art of printing had only been in use a
-    hundred years; all the books were new books; every poet was printed
-    or translated for the first time; the booksellers’ shops contained
-    editions, always new, of ancient classics; of living poets; of foreign
-    writers; there was far greater interest in a new book than our age can
-    understand: as we have seen there were in London alone at least 240
-    poets, known and acknowledged, whose names are still remembered, and
-    whose poems still remain Anthologies, and there was interest among the
-    reading world in every one of them. There may have been jealousies:
-    poets have always been a jealous folk; but there was appreciation, and
-    there was generosity. And the bookseller’s shop was the place where all
-    who valued new books could meet and talk of books—what talk is more
-    delightful? What criticism more sincere than that between those who
-    themselves belong to letters in an age when literature knows not yet
-    the meaning of the words exhaustion or decay?</p>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_273">273</span></p>
-
-  <p>Mr. Ordish (<i>Shakespeare’s London</i>, p. 233) has compiled a list of
-    Elizabethan booksellers from the title-pages of the Shakespeare
-    quartos. Such a list was well worth making, though it cannot be
-    considered more than a small instalment. Indeed, the literary output
-    was so enormous during the latter half of the sixteenth century, that
-    the number of booksellers must have been proportionately greater than
-    at present.</p>
-
-  <p>The following were some of the signs:—</p>
-
-  <p>I. In St. Paul’s Churchyard—</p>
-
-  <p class="lefthang ml8">At the sign of the Angel, the Fox, the Flower de Luce and the
-    Crown, the Greyhound, the Green Dragon, the Holy Ghost, the Gun
-    (Edward White), the Pied Bull, the Spread Eagle.</p>
-
-  <p>II. By St. Dunstan’s in the West—</p>
-
-  <p class="lefthang ml8">At the sign of the White Hart; at the shop under the Dial.</p>
-
-  <p>III. In Paternoster Row—</p>
-
-  <p class="lefthang ml8">At the sign of the Sun.</p>
-
-  <p>IV. Cornhill—</p>
-
-  <p class="lefthang ml8">At the sign of the Cat and Parrots.</p>
-
-  <p>V. In Carter Lane, near the Paul Head.</p>
-
-  <p>Plays and masques were performed on Sunday as well as any other day;
-    the feeling, however, was growing rapidly in favour of a stricter
-    attention to the Sunday, which was confused with the Sabbath. In other
-    words, the Puritans were fast increasing in numbers and in importance.</p>
-
-  <p>If amusement was wanted it might also be sought in the street, where
-    the juggler with his music and his tumbler had his regular round. He
-    was distinguished by his thin, coloured cloak and his yellow breeches
-    trimmed with blue. For a modest fee he performed for any who summoned
-    him. Another form of amusement, suitable to those who could not afford
-    to pay the itinerant juggler, and had to consider the expenditure in
-    candles, was to sit round the fire in the evening and tell stories.</p>
-
-  <div class="center-container">
-    <div class="poem">
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i16">“... some mery fit</div>
-        <div class="i0">Of Mayde-Marian, or else of Robin Hood.”</div>
-      </div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>As for the girls:—</p>
-
-  <div class="center-container">
-    <div class="poem">
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i0">“Then is it pleasure the yonge maides amonge,</div>
-        <div class="i1">To watch by the fier the winter-nights longe;</div>
-        <div class="i1">And in the ashes some playes for to marke,</div>
-        <div class="i1">And cover wardes for fault of other warke;</div>
-        <div class="i1">To taste white shevers, to make prophet-roles;</div>
-        <div class="i1">And, after talke, oft times to fille the boles.”</div>
-      </div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>In the private houses there was a great deal of whipping; gentlemen
-    had their servants whipped in the porter’s lodge; to be whipped was
-    no disgrace, but a natural part of servitude, no more to be deplored
-    than the necessity of death;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_274">274</span> ladies whipped their maid-servants, their
-    sons and their daughters; when a child had been whipped the rod was
-    tied to her girdle, with what we should perhaps consider an excess of
-    admonition. Children knelt before their parents until bidden to rise.
-    On their knees, too, they asked for their father’s blessing. If we
-    may believe Caxton, who died in 1491, and therefore hardly belongs to
-    the Tudor period, there was a great falling off in the behaviour of
-    children in his own recollection. It is a mark of increasing years
-    to compare things of the present with things of the past to the
-    disparagement of the former.</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“I see that the children ben borne within the sayd cyte encrease
-      and prouffyte not like their faders and olders; but for mooste
-      parte, after that they ben comeyn to theyr perfight yeres of
-      discretion and rypnes of age, kno well that theyre faders haue
-      lefte to them grete quantite of goodes, yet scarcely among ten two
-      thrive. O blessed Lord! when I remember this, I am al abashed;
-      I cannot judge the cause; but fayrer ne wyser, ne bet bespeken
-      children in theyre youth ben no wher than ther ben in London; but
-      at ther ful ryping, there is no carnel, ne good word found en, but
-      chaff for the most part.”</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <p>As for the boys of the household, they either went to one of the City
-    schools or they were instructed by a tutor at home. Probably the latter
-    was unusual when schools were ready to hand. In country places the
-    tutor was common, and his position was anything but pleasant.</p>
-
-  <p>“Such is the most base and ridiculous parsimony of many of our
-    Gentlemen (if I may so terme them) that if they can procure some poore
-    Batchelor of Art from the Universitie to teach their children to say
-    grace, will be content upon the promise of ten pounds a yeere at his
-    first comming, to be pleased with five; the rest to be set off in hope
-    of the next advouson (which perhaps was sold before the young man was
-    born). Or if it chance to fall in his time, his lady or master tels
-    him, ‘Indeed, Sir, we are beholden unto you for your paines; such a
-    living is lately falne, but I had before made a promise of it to my
-    butler or bailiffe, for his true and extraordinary service.’</p>
-
-  <p>Is it not commonly seen, that the most Gentlemen will give better
-    wages, and deale more bountifully with a fellow who can but a dogge,
-    or reclaime a hawke, than upon an honest, learned, and well qualified
-    man to bring up their children? It may be, hence it is, that dogges
-    are able to make syllogismes in the fields, when their young masters
-    can conclude nothing at home, if occasion of argument or discourse be
-    offered at the table.”</p>
-
-  <p>Did the great City merchant ever maintain the domestic chaplain? I have
-    found no instance of such a servant in the household of a citizen.
-    Bishop Hall assigns the domestic chaplains to the country gentleman:—</p>
-
-  <div class="center-container">
-    <div class="poem">
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i0">“A gentle squire would gladly entertain</div>
-        <div class="i1">Into his house some trencher-chappelain;</div>
-        <div class="i1">Some willing man that might instruct his sons,</div>
-        <div class="i1">And that would stand to good conditions.</div>
-        <div class="i1">First, that he lie upon the truckle-bed,</div>
-        <div class="i1">While his young maister lieth o’er his head;</div>
-        <div class="i1">Second, that he do, on no default,</div><span class="pagenum" id="Page_275">275</span>
-        <div class="i1">Ever presume to sit above the salt;</div>
-        <div class="i1">Third, that he never change his trencher twice;</div>
-        <div class="i1">Fourth, that he use all common courtesies;</div>
-        <div class="i1">Sit bare at meals, and one half rise and wait;</div>
-        <div class="i1">Last, that he never his young master beat;</div>
-        <div class="i1">But he must aske his mother to define,</div>
-        <div class="i1">How manie jerks she would his breech should line.</div>
-        <div class="i1">All these observ’d he could contented be,</div>
-        <div class="i1">To give five markes, and winter livery.”</div>
-        <div class="i30"><span class="smcap">Joseph Hall</span>, <i>Satires</i>.</div>
-      </div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>As regards the ’prentices, they were considered as servants not only
-    in the shop and warehouse, but also at home, where they waited at
-    dinner, and followed the ladies to church and when they went abroad in
-    the evening, carrying a lantern and a stout cudgel. For the servants,
-    properly so called, the following regulations will show the manner of
-    their service (Drake, ii.):—</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“Imprimis, That no servant bee absent from praier, at morning or
-      evening, without a lawfull excuse, to be alledged within one day
-      after, upon payne to forfeit for every tyme 2d.</p>
-
-    <p>2. Item, that none sweare any othe, uppon paine for every othe 1d.</p>
-
-    <p>3. Item, That no man leave any doore open, that he findeth shut,
-      without there bee cause, upon payne for every time 1d.</p>
-
-    <p>4. Item, That none of the men be in bed, from our Lady-day to
-      Michaelmas, after 6 of the clock, in the morning; nor out of his
-      bed after 10 of the clock at night; nor, from Michaelmas till our
-      Lady-day, in bed after 7 in the morning; nor out after 9 at night,
-      without reasonable cause, on paine of 2d.</p>
-
-    <p>5. Item, That no man’s bed be unmade, nor fire or candle-box
-      uncleane, after 8 of the clock in the morning, on paine of 1d.</p>
-
-    <div class="center">. &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;. &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;. &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;. &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;. &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;. &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;. &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;. &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;. &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;.</div>
-
-    <p>7. Item, That no man teach any of the children any unhonest
-      speeche, or bandie word, or other, on paine of 4d.</p>
-
-    <p>8. Item, That no man waite at the table, without a trencher in his
-      hand, except it be uppon some good cause, on paine of 1d.</p>
-
-    <p>9. Item, If any man breake a glasse, hee shal answer the price
-      thereof out of his wages and, if it bee not known who breake it,
-      the buttler shall pay for it on paine of 12d.</p>
-
-    <p>10. Item, The table must be covered halfe an hour before 11 at
-      dinner, and 6 at supper, or before, on paine of 2d.</p>
-
-    <p>11. Item, That meate bee readie at 11, or before, at supper, on
-      paine of 6d.</p>
-
-    <p>12. That none be absent, without leave or good cause, the whole
-      day, or any part of it, on paine of 4d.</p>
-
-    <p>13. Item, that no man strike his fellow, on paine of losse of
-      service; nor revile or threaten, or provoke another to strike, on
-      paine of 12d.</p>
-
-    <p>14. Item, That no man come to the kitchen without reasonable cause,
-      on paine of 1d. and the cook likewyse to forfeit 1d.</p>
-
-    <p>15. Item, That none toy with the maids on paine of 4d.</p>
-
-    <p>16. Item, That no man weare foule shirt on Sunday, nor broken hose
-      or shooes, or dublett without buttons, on paine of 1d.</p>
-
-    <p>17. Item, That when any strainger goeth hence, the chamber be drest
-      up againe within 4 hours after, on paine of 1d.</p>
-
-    <p>18. Item, That the hall bee made cleane every day, by eight in the
-      winter, and seaven in the sommer, on paine of him that should do it
-      to forfet 1d.</p>
-
-    <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_276">276</span></p>
-
-    <p>19. That the court-gate bee shutt each meale, and not opened during
-      dinner and supper, without just cause, on paine the porter to
-      forfet for every time 1d.</p>
-
-    <p>20. Item, That all stayrs in the house, and other rooms that neede
-      shall require, bee made cleane on Fryday after dinner, on paine of
-      forfeyture of every one on whome it shall belong unto 3d.</p>
-
-    <p>All which sommes shalbe duly paide each quarter-day out of their
-      wages, and bestowed on the poore or other godly use.”</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <p>The London merchant’s house in the sixteenth century steadily improved
-    in solid comfort and even in magnificence. No one will ever be able to
-    restore completely, or even approximately, the London of that century.
-    We do not know the numbers of the great houses; we know only in part
-    their constitutions, their pictures; their art; their carved work. In
-    the streets lying off the main avenues of retail trade, especially
-    in those streets near the riverside, a house was frequently at once
-    a place of residence and a warehouse. One may look upon a street in
-    Hildesheim, for instance, and be reminded of Bishopsgate Street,
-    Aldgate, or Leadenhall Street in the time of Queen Elizabeth. That is
-    to say, the greater number of houses were timbered with tiled roofs;
-    the fronts all covered with carvings painted and gilded; there were
-    scattered here and there substantial stone houses; there were still
-    many houses whose gateway opened from some narrow city lane upon a
-    spacious court, above which stood the hall; the lady’s bower; the rooms
-    for apprentices and servants; and, behind all, the garden. Such a house
-    on a large scale was Gray’s Inn; on a lesser scale Barnard’s Inn and
-    the smaller inns. The College of Heralds still shows the general size
-    of the court; Doctor’s Commons until fifty years ago also illustrated
-    the old fashion of building. Bricks were coming into use, but, in the
-    City of London, slowly. There were still many narrow and noisome courts
-    where the hovels were of wood—making a constant danger of fire and
-    filled with all manner of decaying abominations—a constant cause of
-    disease.</p>
-
-  <p>By this time all the windows were provided with glass; many of the
-    poorer sort, however, were furnished with the cheap glass which
-    contained the round lumps called bull’s eyes. The shops in the
-    market-places had glass in the upper part, but the lower part still
-    remained open, and was shut at night with a shutter. The goods were
-    exposed outside the window, and the ’prentices stood beside them
-    bawling, “What d’ye lack? What d’ye lack?”</p>
-
-  <p>In the more important houses the old custom of living in the great hall
-    was still kept up. In all houses the servants and apprentices sat down
-    with the master and his family.</p>
-
-  <p>The floors were still strewn with rushes, but these, on account of
-    the cost of renewing, were seldom changed, so that underneath them,
-    as Erasmus discovered, lay unmolested an “ancient collection of beer,
-    grease, fragments of fish, and everything that is nasty.”</p>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_277">277</span></p>
-
-  <p>The furniture of the rooms was very different from that of our own
-    times. The following account is taken from <i>Archæologia</i> (vol. xxx. p.
-    2):—</p>
-
-  <p>“The Furniture of the different rooms is very similar, varying
-    principally in number and quality of the articles; consisting of
-    sets of hangings, tables with tressels, joined forms, joined stools,
-    court-cupboards, carpets, cushions, and a few chairs; also andirons,
-    and other fire utensils, and several pairs of virginals in different
-    rooms, besides a pair of organs in the chapel, and ‘an instrument
-    musicall’ in the chamber of presence. The carpets, which are numerous,
-    would scarcely appear to have been used according to modern custom
-    for the floors of the apartments, Hentzner having informed us, that
-    the presence-chamber of Queen Elizabeth herself was strewed with hay
-    (<i>i.e.</i> rushes) but they were principally coverings for the tables,
-    stools, and court-cupboards; though they may have been occasionally
-    used to cover some select part of a room, as in the presence-chamber,
-    for instance, where a Turkey carpet is mentioned, five yards and a half
-    long, and two yards and three-quarters broad.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="i_277"><img src="images/i_277.jpg" width="558" height="514" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">STAPLE INN, HOLBORN</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_278">278</span></p>
-
-  <p>The court-cupboards, which are generally considered to have been
-    moveable closets, answering the purpose of a sideboard, were frequently
-    much ornamented, and such an article may still be seen in old mansions,
-    and in collections of old furniture. They were covered with carpets or
-    cupboard cloths, and set out with cups, salvers, and plate. Some of
-    these carpets were very handsome. In one of the inventories in that
-    valuable authority for researches of this nature, the <i>History of
-      Hengrave</i>, is mentioned, ‘One carpet of black velvet, for the little
-    bord, laced and fringed with silver and gould, lyned with taffita.’
-    Some of these carpets also had cloths to lay over them, probably, when
-    not in use, in order to protect them. In the same Inventory cushions
-    are mentioned which in richness exceed those of the Archbishop, as
-    ‘two long cushions of plain black velvet, embroidered with roses, with
-    gould and pearle all over, with tassels of gold and silk’; but the
-    nature of his archi-episcopal office probably induced him to avoid too
-    much splendour in his household. There is, however, in the chamber of
-    presence a cushion of cloth of baudkin,<a id="FNanchor_9" href="#Footnote_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> and in other apartments,
-    several cushions of velvet and damask. The chair of cloth of gold and
-    silver in the gallery was probably a State chair; and, indeed, from
-    the paucity of these articles, they would seem to be intended only for
-    persons of higher rank. From the ‘latten andirons’ in the chamber of
-    presence being valued at forty shillings, it may be inferred that they
-    were ornamented, and in some cases we know they were richly carved.
-    Iachimo, describing the chamber of Imogen, says:—</p>
-
-  <div class="center-container">
-    <div class="poem">
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i20">‘Her andirons—</div>
-        <div class="i0">I had forgot them—were two winking Cupids</div>
-        <div class="i0">Of silver, each on one foot standing, nicely</div>
-        <div class="i0">Depending on their brands.’</div>
-      </div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>The pictures are chiefly portraits of royal personages, the principal
-    noblemen and officers of state, and the promoters of the Reformation,
-    but the list is interesting to shew the Archbishop’s selection. In some
-    of the bed-rooms are truckle-beds (trundle-beds as they are called in
-    some of the inventories of this age); these would seem to have been
-    small beds generally appropriated to attendants, and placed at the foot
-    or side of the standing or principal bed, and occasionally made to run
-    under it during the day. The Host in the <i>Merry Wives of Windsor</i>,
-    in answer to an inquiry after Sir John Falstaff, says, ‘There’s his
-    chamber, his house, his castle, his standing-bed and truckle-bed.’
-    Hudibras also makes the distinction:—</p>
-
-  <div class="center-container">
-    <div class="poem">
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i0">‘If he that in the field is slain,</div>
-        <div class="i0">Be in the bed of honour lain.</div>
-        <div class="i0">He that is beaten may be said,</div>
-        <div class="i0">To lie in honour’s truckle-bed.’</div>
-      </div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>In my Lord’s chamber the bed is a field-bed, but this sort of bed may
-    have been <span class="pagenum" id="Page_279">279</span>so called from being a folding-bed, as field-stool from
-    fauld-stool, and not as being a camp-bed or <i>lit de champ</i>. The ‘grene
-    satten of bridgs’ in the vestrye was satin of Bruges; and ’dornix,’ of
-    which there are some articles mentioned, is used for ‘Tournay,’ and
-    applied to the manufacture of that place. The ‘Grene saie,’ in the
-    ‘Grene Galery,’ and elsewhere, was probably not silk, but a species
-    of fine cloth (sagum), one of the earliest productions of our woollen
-    manufacture, the material of stockings, which were objected to by
-    William Rufus, as being, from the price, too common for a king.”</p>
-
-  <p>We may supplement this account by Harrison’s description (Holinshed, i. 317):—</p>
-
-  <p>“The furniture of our houses also exceedeth, and is growne in maner
-    even to passing delicacie; for herein I doo not speake of the nobilitie
-    and gentry onlie, but likewise of the lowest sort in most places of
-    our south countrie, that have aniething at all to take to. Certes
-    in noblemen’s houses it is not rare to see abundance of Arras, rich
-    hangings of tapistrie, silver vessell, and so much other plate, as may
-    furnish sundry cupbords, to the summe often times of a thousand or
-    two thousand pounds at the least: whereby the value of this and the
-    rest of their stuffe dooth grow to be almost inestimable. Likewise
-    in the houses of knights, gentlemen, merchantmen, and some other
-    wealthie citizens, it is not geson to behold generallie their great
-    provision of tapistrie, Turkie worke, pewter, brasse, fine linen, and
-    thereto costlie cupbords of plate, worth five or six hundred or a
-    thousand pounds, to be deemed by estimation. But as herein all these
-    sorts doo far exceed their elders and predecessors, and in neatnesse
-    and curiositie the merchant all other; so in time past, the costlie
-    furniture staied there, whereas now it is descended yet lower even
-    unto the inferior artificers and manie farmers, who by vertue of their
-    old and not of their new leases have for the most part learned also to
-    garnish their cupbords with plate, their joined beds with tapestrie and
-    silke hangings, and their tables with carpets and fine naperie, whereby
-    the wealth of our countrie (God be praised therefore and give us grace
-    to imploie it well) dooth infinetlie appeare. Neither doo I speak
-    this in reprooch of anie man, God is my judge, but to showe that I do
-    rejoise rather to see how God has blessed us with His good gifts; and
-    whilest I behold how that in a time wherein all things are growen to
-    most excessive prices, and what commoditie soever is to be had is daily
-    plucked from the communaltie by such as looke into every trade, we do
-    yet find the meanes to obtein and achive such furniture as heretofore
-    hath beene unpossible. There are old men yet dwelling in the village
-    where I remaine, which hath noted three things to be marvellously
-    altered in England within their sound remembrance; and other three
-    things too much increased. One is, the multitude of chimnies lately
-    erected, whereas in their yoong daies there were not above two or
-    three, of so many in most uplandish towns of the realme (the religious
-    houses and manour<span class="pagenum" id="Page_280">280</span> places of their lordes alwaies excepted, and
-    peradventure some great personages), but each one made his fire against
-    a reredosse in the hall where he dined and dressed his meat.</p>
-
-  <p>The second is the great (although not generall) amendment of lodging,
-    for (said they) our fathers (yea and we ourselves also) have lien full
-    oft upon straw pallets, on rough mats covered onlie with a sheet under
-    coverlets made of dagswain or hopharlots (I use their owne terms) and
-    a good round log under their heads insteed of a bolster or pillow. If
-    it were so that our fathers or the good man of the house, had within
-    seven yeares after his marriage purchased a matteres or flockebed, and
-    thereto a sacke of chaffe to reste his head upon, he thought himselfe
-    to be well lodged as the lord of the towne, that peradventure laie
-    seldom in a bed of downe or whole fethers: so well were they contented,
-    and with such base kind of furniture: which also is not verie much
-    amended as yet in some parts of Bedfordshire, and elsewhere further off
-    from our southerne parts. Pillowes (said they) were thought meet onelie
-    for women in childbed. As for servants, if they had anie sheet above
-    them it was well, for seldom had they anie under their bodies, to keep
-    them from the pricking straws that ran oft through the canvas of the
-    pallet and rased their hardened hides.</p>
-
-  <p>The third thing they tell of, is the exchange of vessell, as of
-    treene<a id="FNanchor_10" href="#Footnote_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> platters into pewter, and wooden spoones into silver or
-    tin. For so common were all sorts of treene stuffe in old time, that
-    a man should hardlie find foure peeces of pewter (of which one was
-    peradventure a salt) in a good farmer’s house and yet for all this
-    frugalitie (if it may so be justly called) they were scarse able to
-    live and paie their rents at their daies without selling of a cow,
-    or an horsse, or more, although they paid but foure pounds at the
-    uttermost by the year. Such also was their povertie that if some one od
-    farmer or husbandman had beene at the alehouse a thing greatlie used
-    in those daies, amongst six or seven of his neighbours, and there in
-    a braverie to show what store he had, did cast downe his pursse, and
-    therein a noble or six shillings in silver unto them (for few such men
-    then cared for gold bicause it was not so readie paiment and they
-    were oft inforced to give a penie for the exchange of an angell),
-    it was verie likelie that all the rest could not laie downe so much
-    against it; whereas in my time, although peradventure foure pounds of
-    old rent be improved to fortie, fiftie, or an hundred pounds, yet will
-    the farmer as another palme or date tree thinke his gaines verie small
-    toward the end of his terme, if he have not six or seven yeares rent
-    lieng by him, therewith to purchase a new lease, beside a faire garnish
-    of pewter on his cupbord, with so much more in od vessel going about
-    the house, three or foure featherbeds, so many counterlids and carpets
-    of tapistrie, a silver salt, a bowle for wine (if not an whole neast)
-    and a dozzen of spoones to furnish up the sute.”</p>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_281">281</span></p>
-
-  <p>Or, again, to take another contemporary authority (Hall, <i>Society in
-      the Elizabethan Age</i>):—</p>
-
-  <p>“The furniture of an Elizabethan House is illustrated by an inventory
-    of the Household ‘stuffe, goodes and cattelles’ belonging to Sir Henry
-    Parker knight (1557–60). This inventory shows two chairs only for
-    the whole house; eight stools and forms; two square framed tables;
-    one joined table to say mass on; a pair of ‘playing tables’; twelve
-    bedsteads; tapestry and hangings; featherbeds; blankets; bolsters;
-    testors; curtains; counterpoints (counterpanes); seven cupboards;
-    three carpets; andirons, fire shovels, tongs; thirteen candlesticks;
-    certain cushions of tapestry, velvet, white satin and ‘Brydges’ satin;
-    three great chests; utensils for the kitchen; the Brewhouse and the
-    Bargehouse. The Hall was hung round with tapestry; its permanent
-    furniture consisted of two square tables and one great chair of black
-    velvet in which the Justice of the Peace heard cases. When the tables
-    were spread for dinner or supper, forms were brought in. The ‘Great
-    Chamber,’ formerly called the Lady’s Bower, contained the forms used at
-    meals in the Hall, one stool of black velvet for my Lady; and nothing
-    else! In the bedrooms there were the beds and their blankets and
-    nothing else; not a chair or a table; nothing but the bed—what does
-    one want in a bedroom but the bed to sleep upon? For decorations one
-    room had over the chimney a ‘steyned cloth with Marie and Gabriell.’
-    Another had curtains of sarcenet; another, of red and green say;
-    another, ‘old tapestrye worke of imagery.’ In one chamber we find a
-    bason and ewer of pewter—was this the only means of washing in the
-    whole house? In the buttery were a dozen of fine trenchers ‘cased’;
-    six glasses; six plates for fruits; a ‘garnish’ of pewter vessels; two
-    pewter plates for tarts. Nothing is said of knives—did each person
-    still carry his own? Even then there must have been carving knives.
-    Forks were not as yet in common use, and nothing is said about spoons.”</p>
-
-  <p>The inventory of a farmer’s goods about the same time, given in the
-    same work, shows among the household gear, two pewter dishes, three
-    pewter platters, two saucers, four trencher platters, six trencher
-    dishes, two brass kettles, two candlesticks and a chafing dish, eight
-    bowls of wood, twelve trenchers, and twelve trencher spoons; but still
-    nothing about knives. Nor in any of the numerous inventories and
-    accounts given in this book is any mention made of knives. We see,
-    however, in the tables laid upon trestles, the single chair, the forms
-    and stools, the fine tapestry of the Hall, the carpets of the Great
-    Chamber, the testers and the curtains of the bed which stands alone
-    in the bedroom, a compound of state and simplicity; of meanness and
-    richness. Furniture in the modern sense had not yet appeared in the
-    house.</p>
-
-  <p>To quote from Shakespeare, Gremio, in the <i>Taming of the Shrew</i>, thus
-    speaks of his furniture:—</p>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_282">282</span></p>
-
-  <div class="center-container">
-    <div class="poem">
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i12">“My house within the city</div>
-        <div class="i0">Is richly furnished with plate and gold;</div>
-        <div class="i0">Basins and ewers to lave her dainty hands;</div>
-        <div class="i0">My hangings all of Tyrian tapestry;</div>
-        <div class="i0">In ivory coffers I have stuff’d my crowns;</div>
-        <div class="i0">In cypress chests my arras counterpoints,</div>
-        <div class="i0">Costly apparel, tents, and canopies,</div>
-        <div class="i0">Fine linen, Turkish cushions boss’d with pearl,</div>
-        <div class="i0">Valance of Venice gold in needlework,</div>
-        <div class="i0">Pewter and brass and all things that belong</div>
-        <div class="i0">To house or housekeeping.”</div>
-      </div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>Or take the following note of a lady’s room:—</p>
-
-  <p>“Her bed-chamber was garnished with such diversities of sweete herbes,
-    such varietie of fragrant flowers, such chaunge of odoriferous smelles,
-    so perfumed with sweete odours, so stored with sweete waters, so
-    beautified with tapestry, and decked so artificially, that I want
-    memorie to rehearse it, and cunning to expresse it, so that it seemed
-    her Chamber was rather some terresstriall Paradise, than a mansion for
-    such a matelesse mystresse; rather a tabernacle for some Goddesse, than
-    a lodging for such a loathsome carcase.”</p>
-
-  <p>The Tudor age was strong in small points of ceremony and etiquette,
-    which descended even to details of housework. For instance, the
-    ceremony to be observed in making the King’s Bed, a thing which we
-    might suppose left to a housemaid, was carefully laid down:—</p>
-
-  <p>“Furste a groome or a page to take a torche and to goo to the warderobe
-    of the kynges bedd, and brynge theym of the warderobe with the kynges
-    stuff unto the chambr for makyng of the same bedde. Where as sught to
-    be a gentylman-usher iiij yeomen of the chambr for to make the same
-    bedde. The groome to stande at the bedds feete with his torche. They
-    of the warderobe opennyng the kinges stuff of hys bedde upon a fayre
-    sheets betwen the sayde groome and the bedds fote, iij yeomen or two
-    at the lefte in every syde of the bedde. The gentylman usher and parte
-    commaundyng theym what they shall doo. A yoman with a dagger to searche
-    the strawe of the kynges bedde that there be none untreuth therin. And
-    this yoman to caste up the bedde of downe upon that, and oon of theym
-    to tomble over yt for the serche thereof. Then they to bete and tufte
-    the sayde bedde, and to laye oon then the bolster without touchyng
-    of the bedd where as it aught to lye. Then they of the warderobe to
-    delyver theym a fusty and takyng the saye thereof. All theys yomen to
-    laye theyr hands theroon at oone, that they touch not the bedd, tyll
-    yt be layed as it sholde be by the commaundement of the usher. And so
-    the furste sheet in lyke wyse, and then to trusse in both sheete and
-    fustyan rownde about the bedde of downe. The warderoper to delyver
-    the second sheete unto two yomen, they to crosse it over theyr arme,
-    and to stryke the bedde as the ussher shall more playnly sheweun to
-    theym. Then every yoman layeing hande upon the sheete to laye the same
-    sheete <span class="pagenum" id="Page_283">283</span>upon the bedde. And so the other fustyan upon or ij with
-    suche coverynge as shall content the kynge. Thus doon the ij yomen next
-    to the bedde to laye down agene the overmore fustyan, the yoman of the
-    warderobe delverynge theym a pane sheete, the sayde yoman therewythall
-    to cover the sayde bedde: and so then to laye down the overmost sheets
-    from the beddes heed. And then the say ij yomen to lay all the overmost
-    clothes of a quarter of the bedde. Then the warderoper to delyver unto
-    theym such pyllowes as shall please the kynge. The sayd yoman to laye
-    theym upon the bolster and the heed sheet with whych the sayde yoman
-    shall cover the sayd pyllowes. And so to trusse the endes of the said
-    sheete under every end of the bolster. And then the sayd warderoper to
-    delyver unto them ij lytle small pyllowes werwythall the squyres for
-    the bodye or gentylman usher shall give te saye to the warderoper, and
-    to the yoman whyche have layde on hande upon the sayd bedde. And then
-    the sayd ij yomen to lay upon the sayde bedde toward the bolster as yt
-    was bifore. They makyng a crosse and kissynge yt where there handes
-    were. Then ij yomen next to the feete to make the seers as the usher
-    shall teche theym. And so then every one of them sticke up the aungel
-    about the bedde, and to lette downe the corteyns of the sayd bedde or
-    sparver.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="i_282"><img src="images/i_282.jpg" width="700" height="562" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">THE MORE FAMILY<br />
-      From a picture in the possession of Major-General F. E. Sotheby.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>Item, a squyer for the bodye or gentylman-usher aught to sett the
-    kynges sword at hys beddes heede.</p>
-
-  <p>Item, a squyer for the bodye aught to charge a secret groome or page
-    to have the kepynge of the sayde bedde with a lyght, unto the tyme the
-    kynge be disposed to goo to yt.</p>
-
-  <p>Item, a groome or page aught to take a torche whyle the bedde ys yn
-    makyng to feche a loof of brede, a pott with ale, a pott wyth wine for
-    them that maketh the bedde, and every man.</p>
-
-  <p>Item, the gentylman-ussher aught to forbede that no manner of man do
-    sett eny dysshe uppon the kinge’s bedde for fere of hurtyng of the
-    kyng’s ryche counterpoynt that lyeth therupon. And that the sayd ussher
-    take goode heede, that noon man wipe or rubbe their handes uppon none
-    arras of the kynges, wherby they myght be hurted, in the chambr where
-    the kyng ys specially, and in all other.”</p>
-
-  <p>The wealth of the English was not so much illustrated, as it was
-    proved, by their immense stores of silver and silver-gilt plate. The
-    people bought all the plate that they could afford; they put their
-    savings, so to speak, in silver plate, as we put them in stocks and
-    shares. Polydore Vergil says that there were few whose tables were not
-    loaded with spoons, cups, and salt-cellars of silver. At the marriage
-    feast of Prince Arthur there was in the great hall a cupboard five
-    stages in height, set with plate valued at £1200, say £15,000 of our
-    money; while in the chamber where the Princess dined there was a
-    cupboard of gold plate valued at £20,000 or £240,000 in our money.
-    Cardinal Wolsey must have spent<span class="pagenum" id="Page_284">284</span> enormous sums upon plate. There
-    were two banqueting rooms, in each of which was a cupboard extended
-    along the whole length of the apartment, piled to the top with plate,
-    and every guest chamber was provided with silver ewers, basins, and
-    candlesticks. Of silver spoons or dishes there were none; the dishes
-    were of pewter and the plates of wood, even in the greatest houses.</p>
-
-  <p>Lastly, on the subject of furniture, let me quote from another paper in
-    <i>Archæologia</i>, vol. xxxvi. p. 284:—</p>
-
-  <p>“The furniture of the hall is excessively scanty and plain, consisting
-    of but a single table and two forms, of the total value of 4s. 6d. In
-    the parlour, however, is a much greater abundance of furniture, as,
-    in addition to the main table, there is the side table and another
-    small table, a chair and six stools with embroidered cushions, besides
-    footstools; while for the decoration of the room we find a portrait
-    of Henry VIII. and hangings of green saye, and, for the amusement of
-    the family and guests, a pair of virginals, a base lute, and a guitar,
-    with chess and backgammon boards for those not musically inclined. The
-    children’s chamber, or nursery as we should call it, is comfortably
-    provided with bedding and nursery requisites, and contains a cupboard,
-    two coffers, and a great wicker hamper, as receptacles for the clothes,
-    etc. The allowance of blankets appears but small, being only one pair
-    to a bed, either in the nursery or in the bedroom of the master of
-    the house. The latter room is provided with a walnut-tree bedstead,
-    adorned with green fringe, and having a coverlet of tapestry, a walnut
-    table, chairs and stools, curtains for the windows of green saye,
-    a warming-pan, and, as a ready means of defence against thieves or
-    intruders, a pole-axe. In an inner closet, leading out of this room,
-    are four stills, for the use of the lady of the house.</p>
-
-  <p>Sir William More’s own closet is so well appointed that it might
-    almost serve as a model for the morning-room of a country squire of
-    the present day. On the walls hang maps of the World, of France, of
-    England, and of Scotland, and a picture of Judith, a little chronicle,
-    and a perpetual almanac in frames. Among the accessories are a globe, a
-    slate to write on, and a counterboard and cast of counters, with which
-    to make calculations and cast accounts, in the manner then in vogue. On
-    the desk are a pair of scales and a set of weights, a pair of scissors,
-    a penknife, a whetstone, a pair of compasses, a foot-rule, a hammer, a
-    seal of many seals, and an inkstand of pewter, with a pounce-box, and
-    pens both of bone and steel. Around the room is a collection of about
-    120 volumes of books; among them are some of the best chronicles of the
-    time, as Fabyan, Langton, Harding, Carion, etc.; translations from the
-    classics, as well as some in their original language; for magisterial
-    business there are the statutes of Henry VIII., Edward VI., and Mary,
-    and all the statutes before, as well as the <i>New Book of Justices</i>,
-    and other legal works; for medical use we find a <i>Book of Physic</i>, the
-    <i>Glass of Health</i>, and a book against the Sweat, as well as a <i>Book
-      of Medicines for<span class="pagenum" id="Page_285">285</span> Horses</i>; while for lighter reading there are such
-    books as Chaucer, Lydgate, Skelton, and others, not only in English but
-    also in French and Italian; and for religious study, besides a Bible
-    and Testaments in various languages, the <i>Scala Perfectionis</i>, <i>Flores
-      Bibliae</i>, etc. The whole catalogue is worthy of attentive perusal by
-    the bibliographical antiquary, and affords the titles of some English
-    works which are not, I believe, at present known.</p>
-
-  <p>In the closet of the lady of the house are a few more books,
-    principally of prayers, a large collection of trunks and boxes, a
-    number of glass vessels of various forms and uses, and a few of enamel
-    or china, with trenchers, knives, shears, graters, snuffers, moulds,
-    brushes, and other miscellaneous properties of a good housewife.”</p>
-
-  <p>Water was carried about the City from the conduits by water-carriers
-    called “Cobbs,” who carried it in large tankards, each holding about
-    three gallons.</p>
-
-  <p>The palmy time of tobacco extended over the fifty years after its
-    introduction. During this time the use of tobacco penetrated all ranks
-    and classes of society. The grave divine, the soldier, the lawyer, the
-    gallant about town, the merchant, the craftsman, the ’prentice, all
-    used pipes. At the theatre the young fellow called for his pipe and for
-    tobacco and began to smoke: presently he rose and walking over to the
-    boxes presented his pipe to any lady of his acquaintance.</p>
-
-  <p>People went to bed with tobacco box and pipe and candle on a table by
-    the bedside in case they might wake up in the night and feel inclined
-    for tobacco. After supper in a middle-class family, all the men and
-    women smoked together. Nay, it is even stated that the very children
-    in school took a pipe of tobacco instead of breakfast, the master
-    smoking with them and instructing them how to bring the smoke through
-    the nostrils in the fashion of the day. Tobacco was bought and sold in
-    pennyworths.</p>
-
-  <p>Every man carried a “tobacco box, steel, and touch.” Early in the
-    seventeenth century there are said to have been 7000 tobacconists’
-    shops in London. This seems incredible; perhaps there were 7000 shops
-    in which tobacco was sold. For instance, all apothecaries sold tobacco.
-    Many of the tobacco shops were of handsome appearance. A tobacco shop
-    had a maple block for cutting the leaf; tongs for holding the coals,
-    and a fire of juniper at which the pipes were lighted. Tobacco was
-    so cheap that a man might fill his pocket with it for twopence. Yet
-    over £300,000 a year was spent in London on tobacco, while there were
-    some—but this is impossible—who were reported to spend, habitually,
-    £400 a year upon tobacco alone; that is, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>,000 pocketsful every year,
-    or 130 pocketsful every day; which is absurd.</p>
-
-  <p>Expletives and oaths are changed with every generation. The
-    Elizabethans had, no doubt, a great many, of which the following
-    represent but a few. The old Catholic oaths “By’r Lady,” “By the
-    Mass,” and so forth, vanished with the Reformation. We now find a lot
-    of meaningless ejaculations, such as “God’s<span class="pagenum" id="Page_286">286</span> Wounds,” “God’s Fools,”
-    “God’s Dines,” “Cocke’s Bones,” “Deuce take me,” “Bones a God,”
-    and “Bones a me.” The now familiar “Damn” makes its appearance in
-    literature; but indeed it had flourished in the mouths of the people
-    for many generations. There is nothing really remarkable about the
-    swearing of the Elizabethan period.</p>
-
-  <p>Every merchant formerly carried a signet-ring, on which was engraved,
-    not his coat-of-arms, but his mark or signet. Thus, a curious
-    signet-ring was found lying in the bed of the river while digging
-    the foundations of London Bridge. At first it was believed to be Sir
-    Thomas Gresham’s, but that seems now to be impossible. It is engraved
-    in <i>The London and Middlesex Notebook</i> (p. 195). The device contains
-    the initials of the owner, with an arrangement of lines probably not
-    intended to have any meaning except that they should be recognised as
-    forming part of Sir Thomas Gresham’s signet. Armed with this ring as an
-    introduction, a messenger could buy and sell for the merchant—it being
-    presumed that the ring never left its owner save to be used as a letter
-    of recommendation and introduction. Sometimes the signet-ring was worn
-    on the thumb. Other merchants’ devices are figured in the “Notebook.”</p>
-
-  <p>Foreigners have revealed to us some very curious and rather startling
-    peculiarities of the custom of kissing as practised by our ancestors.
-    Thus as early as 1466 a Bohemian nobleman named Leo von Rozmital
-    visited England, and in the Journal of his Travel (1577) it is noted
-    that “it is the custom there, that on the arrival of a distinguished
-    stranger from foreign parts, maids and matrons go to the inn and
-    welcome him with gifts. Another custom is observed there, which is
-    that, when guests arrive at an inn, the hostess with all her family go
-    out to meet and receive them; and the guests are required to kiss them
-    all, and this among the English was the same as shaking hands among
-    other nations.” Erasmus, in 1499, wrote a Latin letter from England
-    to his friend Fausto Anfrelini, an Italian poet, exhorting him in a
-    strain of playful levity to think no more of his gout, but to betake
-    himself to England; for (he remarks) “here are girls with angels’
-    faces, so kind and obliging, that you would far prefer them to all
-    your Muses. Besides, there is a custom here never to be sufficiently
-    recommended. Wherever you come you are received with a kiss by all;
-    when you take your leave you are dismissed with kisses; you return,
-    kisses are repeated. They come to visit you, kisses again; they leave
-    you, you kiss them all round. Should they meet you anywhere, kisses in
-    abundance; in fine, wherever you move, there is nothing but kisses.” In
-    1527 Cardinal Wolsey was appointed Ambassador Extraordinary to France.
-    He was accompanied by George Cavendish, his gentleman usher, who wrote
-    a Life of the Cardinal. Cavendish had gone forward to prepare his
-    lord’s lodging. He says: “And I being there (at the Sire de Créqui’s
-    Castle at Moreuil, about twelve miles from Amiens) tarrying a while, my
-    lady Créqui<span class="pagenum" id="Page_287">287</span> issued out of her chamber into her dining chamber, where I
-    attended her coming, who received me very gently like her noble estate,
-    having a traine of twelve gentlewomen. And when she and her traine was
-    come all out, she saide unto me, ‘For as much,’ quoth she, ‘as ye be an
-    Englishman whose custome is to kisse all ladies and gentlemen in your
-    country without offense, although it is not soe here with us in this
-    realme, yet I will be so bould as kisse you, and soe ye shall doe all
-    my maids.’ By meanes whereof I kissed her and all her maides.” In the
-    narrative of the visit of the Spanish nobleman, the Duke de Najera,
-    in 1543–44, we are told that “after the dancing was finished (which
-    lasted several hours) the Queen entred again into her chamber, having
-    previously called one of the noblemen who spoke Spanish, to offer in
-    her name, some presents to the Duke, who again kissed her hand; and on
-    his requesting the same favour of the Princess Mary, she would by no
-    means permit it, but offered him her lips, and the Duke saluted her,
-    and did the same to all the other ladies.” A Greek traveller, Nicander
-    Nucius, came to England in 1545, and remarks: “They display great
-    simplicity and absence of jealousy in their usages towards females. For
-    not only do those who are of the same family and household kiss them on
-    the mouth with salutations and embraces, but even those too who have
-    never seen them. And to themselves this appears by no means indecent.”
-    Again, when the Constable of Castile appeared at the Court of Whitehall
-    on Saturday afternoon, 18th August 1604, after kissing Her Majesty’s
-    hands he requested permission to salute the ladies of honour (twenty in
-    number, standing in a row, and beautiful exceedingly) according to the
-    custom of the country, and any neglect of which is taken as an affront.
-    Whereupon the Queen having given him leave, His Excellency complied
-    with the custom, much to the satisfaction of the ladies.</p>
-
-  <p>In Shakespeare’s <i>Henry VIII.</i>, at the Cardinal’s banquet, the King
-    says to Anne Bullen:—</p>
-
-  <div class="center-container">
-    <div class="poem">
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i20">“Sweetheart,</div>
-        <div class="i0">I were unmannerly, to take you out,</div>
-        <div class="i0">And not to kiss you.”</div>
-      </div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>In dancing it appears to have been the customary fee of a lady’s
-    partner. A further illustration of the custom may be seen. Foreigners
-    of the male sex, and especially Frenchmen, are in the more frequent
-    habit of kissing each other, and probably not the ladies. Misson, a
-    Frenchman who travelled in England about 1697, says: “The people of
-    England, when they meet, never salute one another, otherwise than by
-    giving one another their hands, and shaking them heartily; they no more
-    dream of pulling off their hats, than the women do of pulling off their
-    headcloths.”</p>
-
-  <p>The sin of great cities we may pass over; that of early marriage is
-    still, as it was in Stubbes’ time, a very terrible evil; the sin of
-    drunkenness is with us still, and is present in every country. The
-    side of charity that consists in giving doles to the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_288">288</span> poor was then
-    neglected, and is now destroyed. We still suffer from money-lenders,
-    though they can no longer conduct us to a life-long prison.</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“Beleeve mee,” says Stubbes, “it greeveth mee to heare (walking in
-      the streats) the pitiful cryes, and miserable complaints of poore
-      prisoners in durance for debt, and like so to continue all their
-      life, destitute of libertie, meat, drink (though of the meanest
-      sorte), and clothing to their backs, lying in filthie strawe, and
-      lothsome dung, wursse than anie dogge, voide of all charitable
-      consolation and brotherly comfort in this World, wishing and
-      thyrsting after death to set them at libertie, and loose them from
-      their shackles, giues, and yron bands.” (Stubbes.)</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <p>As for the boys of this century, I have always thought their favourite
-    haunt was the river, or the river-side. On the river they rowed about
-    among the fishermen, and the swans above Bridge; the Queen’s Barge
-    swept past them with its trumpets and its hangings gorgeous to behold;
-    the Lord Mayor and the Companies were borne along before them in state
-    and splendour such as we have forgotten—surely nothing could have been
-    more splendid than these barges with their long lines of flashing oars
-    and their bows gilt and carved, and the carved work of the covered
-    seat of state, and the servants in their green and gold. Below Bridge,
-    in the Port, they rowed in and out among the ships as boys will about
-    Portsmouth Harbour now; the name of each ship with her port was written
-    on her lofty stern. The figure-head of each was bright as paint and
-    gold would make it. If they were allowed to go on board there were
-    sailors full of yarns, with strange things to show as well as to tell.
-    If they went as far down as Deptford, there was Drake’s ship, the ship
-    which had gone all round the world—all round the world! If they stayed
-    ashore, there were taverns in Wapping and St. Katherine’s, where they
-    could snatch the fearful joy of seeing the sailors drink and fight, the
-    foreign sailors and the English sailors, and the sailors from the North
-    Country, and those of London and the Cinque Ports. The river and the
-    river-side were famous schools to fill the minds of London boys with an
-    ardour for adventure; a yearning for the way of war; a burning desire
-    to cross the seas and visit far countries; and a thirst for geography;
-    and all the London boys of every class regularly attended the classes
-    of this Academy.</p>
-
-  <p>The theatre, of course, offers a fine field for the Elizabethan
-    satirist, Stubbes. He cannot find words strong enough to condemn the
-    playgoer. Then there is that other source and fount of laughter, the
-    Lord of Misrule.</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“First, all the wilde-heds of the Parish, conuenting togither,
-      chuse them a Graund Captain (of all mischeefe) whome they innoble
-      with the title of ‘my Lord of Mis-rule,’ and him they crowne with
-      great solemnitie, and adopt for their King. This king anointed
-      chuseth forth twentie, fortie, threescore or a hundred lustie
-      Guttes, like to himself, to waighte vppon his lordly Maiestie, and
-      to guarde his noble person. Then, euerie one of these his men,
-      he inuesteth with his liuerues of green, yellow, or some other
-      light wanton colour; And as though that were not baudie (gaudie)
-      enough, I should say, they bedecke them selues with scarfs,
-      ribons, and laces hanged all over with golde rings, precious
-      stones, and other jewels: this doon, they tye about either leg
-      xx. or xl. bels, with rich handkerchiefs in their hands, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_289">289</span>
-      sometimes laid a crosse ouer their shoulders and necks, borrowed
-      for the most parte of their pretie Mopsies and loouing Besses,
-      for bussing them in the dark. Thus al things set in order, then
-      haue they their Hobby-horses, dragons and other antiques, togither
-      with their baudie Pipers and thundering Drummers to strike vp
-      the deuils daunce withall. Then marche these heathen company
-      towards the church and Churchyard, their pipers pipeing, their
-      drummers thundring, their stumps dauncing, their bels iyngling,
-      their handkerchiefs swinging about their heds like madmen, their
-      hobbie horses and other monsters skirmishing amongst the route:
-      and in this sorte they go to the Church (I say) and into the
-      Church (though the Minister be at prair or preaching), dancing and
-      swinging their handkerchiefs ouer their heds in the Church, like
-      deuils incarnate, with such a confuse noise, that no man can hear
-      his own voice. Then, the foolish people they looke, they stare,
-      they laugh, they fleer, and mount vpon fourmes and pewes to see
-      these goodly pageants solemnized in this sort. Then, after this,
-      about the Church they goe againe and againe, and so foorth into the
-      churchyard, where they haue commonly their Sommer-haules, their
-      bowers, arbors, and banqueting houses set vp, wherin they feast,
-      banquet and daunce al that day and (peradventure) all the night
-      too. And thus these terrestriall furies spend the Sabaoth day.”
-      (Stubbes, <i>Anatomie of Abuses</i>, edit, by Furnivall.)</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="i_289"><img src="images/i_289.jpg" width="427" height="545" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">A SHIP OF THE TIME OF HENRY VIII.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_290">290</span></p>
-
-  <p>The custom of church ales is described by Stubbes with his customary
-    vigour:—</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“In certaine Townes where drunken <i>Bachus</i> beares all the sway,
-      against a Christmas, an Easter, Whitsonday, or some other time,
-      the Church-wardens (for so they call them) of euery parish, with
-      the consent of the whole Parish, prouide half a score of twenty
-      quarters of mault, wherof some they buy of the Church-stock, and
-      some is giuen them of the Parishioners them selves, euery one
-      conferring somewhat, according to his abilitie; which mault, beeing
-      made into very strong ale or beere, it is set to sale, either in
-      the Church, or some other place assigned to that purpose.</p>
-
-    <p>Then, when the <i>Nippitatum</i>, this Huf-cap (as they call it) and
-      this <i>nectar</i> of lyfe, is set abroche, wel is he that can get
-      the soonest to it, and spend the most at it; for he that fitteth
-      the closest to it, and spends the moste at it, he is counted the
-      godliest man of all the rest; but who either cannot, for pinching
-      pouertie, or otherwise, wil not stick to it, he is counted one
-      destitute bothe of vertue and godlynes. In so much as you shall
-      haue many poor men make hard shift for money to spend ther at,
-      for it beeing put into this <i>Corban</i>, they are perswaded it is
-      meritorious, and a good seruice to God. In this kinde of practise
-      they continue six weeks, a quarter of a year, yea, half a year
-      togither, swilling and gulling, night and day, till they be as
-      drunke as Apes, and as blockish as beasts.” (Stubbes, <i>Ibid.</i>)</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <p>They pretend, he says, to repair their churches with money so got:—</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“But who seeth not that they bestow this money vpon nothing lesse
-      than in building and repayring of Churches and Oratories? For in
-      most places lye they not like swyn coates? their windowes rent,
-      their dores broken, their walles fall downe, the roofe all bare,
-      and what not out of order? Who seeth not the booke of God, rent,
-      ragged, and all betorn, couered in dust, so as this <i>Epitaphe</i> may
-      be writ with ones finger vppon it, <i lang="la">ecce nunc in puluere dormio</i>?
-      (Alas;) behold I sleep in dust and oblyuion, not once scarse looked
-      vppon, much less red vpon, and the least of all preached vppon.”
-      (Stubbes, <i>Ibid.</i>)</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <p>Of wakes and feasts and “the horrible vice of pestiferous dancing” we
-    need say little. Nor of music, “how it allureth to vanitie”; nor of
-    cards, dice, tennis, and bowls, all of which we still practise; nor of
-    the bear-baiting which we have now discontinued. Of the reading of bad
-    books we may still complain after the manner of Stubbes. In a word, his
-    <i>Book of Lamentations</i> would serve with slight alterations for to-day
-    as well as his own age.</p>
-
-  <p>On the exchange of English goods for foreign trifles, I find a note in
-    Furnivall’s edition of Stubbes’ <i>Anatomy</i>:—</p>
-
-  <div class="center-container">
-    <div class="poem">
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i0">“Thou must carry beside, leather, tallow, beef, bacon, bell-metal and everything:</div>
-        <div class="i0">And for these good commodities, trifles into England thou must bring,</div>
-        <div class="i0">As bugles to make bables, coloured bones, glass beads to make bracelets withal,</div>
-        <div class="i0">For every day gentlewomen of England do ask for such trifles from stall to stall:</div>
-        <div class="i0">And you must bring more, as amber, jet, coral, crystal, and every such bable</div>
-        <div class="i0">That is slight, pretty, and pleasant: they care not to have it profitable.</div>
-        <div class="i0">And if they demand wherefore your wares and merchandise agree,</div>
-        <div class="i0">You must say ‘jet will take up a straw: amber will make one fat:</div>
-        <div class="i0">Coral will look pale when you be sick, and crystal staunch blood,’</div>
-        <div class="i0">So with lying, flattering and glosing, you must utter your ware,</div>
-        <div class="i0">And you shall win me to your will, if you can deceitfully swear.</div>
-        <div class="i6">. &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;. &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;. &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;. &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;. &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;. &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;.</div>
-        <div class="i4"><i>Lucre.</i> Then, Signor Mercatore, I am forthwith to send ye</div>
-        <div class="i0">From hence to search for some new toys in Barbary and in Turkey;</div>
-        <div class="i0">Such trifles as you think will please wantons best,</div>
-        <div class="i0">For you know in this country ’tis their chiefest request.</div>
-        <div class="i4"><i>Mercatore.</i> Indeed, de gentlewomans here buy so much vain toys</div>
-        <div class="i0">Dat we strangers laugh-a to tink wherein dey have their joys.”</div>
-      </div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_291">291</span></p>
-  <p>The suppressing of the Religious Houses produced, for a time, a great
-    deal of hardship and difficulty. For not only were the friars turned
-    out into the streets, but all the people living upon the monasteries
-    were deprived of their daily bread; many of these unfortunates took
-    to the road and became tramps, vagabonds, masterless men and thieves;
-    many took refuge in those parts of London which were outside the
-    jurisdiction of the City. London, indeed, was the place which the
-    masterless man regarded as a veritable Paradise. They flocked up to
-    London from all quarters; they were constantly being turned out and as
-    constantly coming back again. When Queen Elizabeth once drove out to
-    the country cottage of Islington, she was mobbed by a gang of vagabonds
-    who accosted her with clamours; they harboured in the brick kilns
-    there. In some parts close to London, as Hyde Park Corner and Lincoln’s
-    Inn Fields, no one would venture after dark. Men took arms into their
-    bedrooms at night, ready for use. Generally it seems that they hung
-    a drawn sword at the bedside. The ’prentices, however, were the best
-    protectors to a house. They slept in the shop, if there were a shop;
-    or if there were no shop they slept somewhere on the ground floor, as
-    is evident from the edifying revelations of “Meriton Latron,” in which
-    it is shown how easily the ’prentices could get out at night for these
-    riotous and profligate meetings and drinkings. I suppose it matters
-    nothing that this writer belongs to the next century. In such small
-    matters the world is conservative. According to this authority, it was
-    common for ’prentices to rob their masters, exchanging with each other
-    or holding a kind of auction in their taverns at night. The time when
-    the City was most free from crimes was when the men had been called out
-    to follow the flag and fight. The worst time was after the war, when
-    they all came back again to their old haunts, thirsting for their old
-    amusements and more disinclined for work than ever.</p>
-
-  <hr class="page" />
-  <div class="chapter" id="CHAPTER_2e">
-    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_292">292</span>
-    <h3>
-      <span class="gespertt1">CHAPTER II</span><br />
-      <span class="subhead">FOOD AND DRINK</span>
-    </h3>
-  </div>
-
-    <p class="noindent"><span class="smcap">The</span> manner and times of taking food under the Tudors may be summed up
-    as follows:—</p>
-
-  <p>For breakfast, those who made a meal before dinner at all, took,
-    in the country, pottage, and, in town, “muskadel and eggs,” or
-    bread-and-butter with a draught of small ale. The Princess Mary, in
-    1533, used to eat so much meat for breakfast that she terrified her
-    physicians. It does not appear, however, that the workpeople took
-    anything at all unless it were a draught of small ale before their
-    dinner at ten. The hour of dinner varied during the century from ten
-    till twelve. For children there was “nuntion” or luncheon before dinner
-    and a “bever” or slight repast between dinner and supper. Venner
-    recommends no breakfast at all, but to wait for dinner. If, however,
-    one cannot wait, then he advises poached eggs, with salt, pepper,
-    a little vinegar, bread-and-butter and claret. When Cosmo, Duke of
-    Tuscany, came to the country he visited Colonel John Nevill, and had
-    breakfast with him, drinking Italian wine.</p>
-
-  <p>The dinners were plentiful and varied. A salad was served first, then
-    the beef and mutton; next fowls, and fish; game followed, woodcock
-    being the most plentiful; and pastry and sweets came last. Honey was
-    poured over the meat. The most important part of the meal, however, was
-    the “banquet” or dessert which followed: at this part of the dinner an
-    amazing quantity of sweetmeats was taken; for this every one adjourned
-    to another room in winter; to the garden in summer.</p>
-
-  <p>In the winter fresh meat was not always to be had: most people laid in
-    large quantities of beef in October and November, which they salted.
-    The markets, however, made up for the absence of fresh meat by the
-    abundance of all kinds of birds which were brought into London; they
-    were trapped, or shot with sling and stone, in the marshes along the
-    lower reaches of the Thames. Pork could be had all the year round.
-    Fresh fish was generally plentiful, but it was sometimes dear. At such
-    times the people fell back upon stockfish, which was often bad and
-    the cause of much disease. Herrings were brought by sea from Yarmouth
-    in barrels,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_293">293</span> and partly salted, as they are at this day. They were a
-    favourite form of food, and were made into pasties highly spiced.</p>
-
-  <p>The food of the sixteenth century was more stimulating than our own:
-    the only drink was fermented and alcoholic, even the small beer which
-    was the national beverage; there was no tea or coffee; vast quantities
-    of wine were taken; there were nearly a hundred different kinds, more
-    than half being French. Wine of Bordeaux was sold at 8d. the gallon;
-    Spanish wine at 1s. In drinking sack, the cup was half filled with
-    sugar. Indeed, sugar or honey was taken with everything: with roast
-    meat, with wine, and in the form of sweetmeats; so that the teeth of
-    most people were black in consequence.</p>
-
-  <p>A diet so stimulating could not fail to produce its effects in causing
-    the people to be more easily moved to wrath, to love, to pity, to
-    jealousy—than a diet composed of tea and coffee. There can be no doubt
-    whatever that all classes of men and women were far readier with hand
-    and tongue than at present; swifter to wrath; more prone to sudden
-    outbursts; more quick with dagger or sword.</p>
-
-  <p>Their tables were set out on trestles for the dinner and removed after
-    dinner. People sat on stools; the floor was strewn with rushes; the
-    tables, not the floors, were covered with rich carpets.</p>
-
-  <p>A piece of the table furniture which has long since disappeared was
-    the Roundel. It is supposed to have been used for fruit. A set of
-    Roundels, not quite perfect, is described in <i>Archæologia</i> (vol.
-    xxxix.). They are circular and of wood, the upper side perfectly plain;
-    the lower side is partly covered with black paint or dye and partly
-    white. A legend, in rhyme, runs round the outer edge, and within is a
-    figure with a number. The figure and letters are gilt. In this example
-    nine trenchers out of the twelve represent the Courtier, the Country
-    gentleman, the Lawyer, and so forth—characters of the time, the verses
-    being taken from a book called <i>The XII. Wonders of the World</i>.</p>
-
-  <p>It is pleasing to learn from Harrison of the reform introduced in his
-    own time by the revival of the custom of taking vegetables of all kinds
-    and plentifully. He says:—</p>
-
-  <p>“Such herbes, fruits, and roots also as grow yeerlie out of the ground,
-    of seed, have been verie plentifull in this land, in the time of the
-    first Edward, and after his daies; but in processe of time they grew
-    also to be neglected, so that from Henrie the fourth till the latter
-    end of Henrie the seventh, and beginning of Henrie the eight, there was
-    little or no use of them in England, but they remained either unknowne,
-    or supposed as food more meet for hogs and savage beasts to feed upon
-    than mankind. Whereas in my time their use is not onlie resumed among
-    the poore commons, I mean of melons, pompions, gourds, cucumbers,
-    radishes, skirets, parsneps, carrets, cabbages, nauewes, turneps, and
-    all kinds of salad herbs, but also fed upon as deintie dishes at the
-    tables of delicate merchants,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_294">294</span> gentlemen, and the nobilitie, who make
-    their provision yearlie for new seeds out of strange countries, from
-    whence they have them aboundantlie.” (Holinshed’s <i>Chronicles</i>.)</p>
-
-  <p>The Flemings commenced the first market-gardens. Lettuce was served as
-    a separate dish, and eaten at supper before meat. Capers were usually
-    eaten boiled with oil and vinegar, as a salad. Eschalots were used to
-    smear the plate before putting meat on it. Carrots had been introduced
-    by the Flemings. Rhubarb, then called Patience, came from China about
-    1573. The common people ate turnip-leaves as a salad, and roasted the
-    root in wood-ashes. Watercress was believed to restore the bloom to
-    young ladies’ cheeks.</p>
-
-  <p>They used mustard and horse-radish; they took anchovies with wine;
-    they took olives with wine; they had boiled oysters; boiled radishes,
-    artichokes raw or boiled; they poured honey or spread sugar over their
-    beef and mutton; they served pork in many ways, but if roasted, then
-    with green sauce of sorrel; salmon they stuck with cloves; they ate
-    porpoises; turkeys were roasted with cloves; peacocks they roasted
-    while they were still under a year old; pigeons they stuffed with sour
-    grapes or unripe gooseberries; rabbits were cheap and plentiful; pies
-    of all kinds were very popular. They made salad out of barberries in
-    pickle or with lettuces as in modern fashion. In the ordinaries and
-    taverns there were no wine-glasses: people drank out of green pots made
-    of white clay. They took supper at six; this was a smaller meal than
-    dinner, but yet a plentiful meal. In a word, the Elizabethan Englishman
-    lived much as the modern Frenchman lives: he took two meals a day and
-    no more. In the principal ordinaries and inns musicians attended; even
-    in the cheaper ones a viol de gamba was kept for everybody who could
-    play; men dined for choice at the ordinary, which was a great deal
-    cheaper than the tavern; it was not customary for the ladies to appear
-    at taverns. An inn was known by its painted lattice; all kinds of
-    wine could be had at most taverns, but foreign wines were sold to the
-    general public by apothecaries. Waiters wore aprons. In private houses,
-    but not at ordinaries and taverns, the silver fork had been introduced.</p>
-
-  <div class="center-container">
-    <div class="poem">
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i8">“The laudable use of forks,</div>
-        <div class="i0">Brought into custom here, as they are in Italy,</div>
-        <div class="i6">To th’ sparing o’ napkins.”</div>
-      </div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p class="noindent">And in Ben Jonson’s <i>Volpone</i>,</p>
-
-  <div class="center-container">
-    <div class="poem">
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i0">“Then must you learn the use</div>
-        <div class="i1">And handling of your silver fork at meals.”</div>
-      </div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p class="noindent">I have found inventories of household goods as late as the end of
-    the seventeenth century without any mention of forks. I am inclined,
-    therefore, to believe that they came into use very slowly, and that
-    the old fashion of eating with a knife, fingers, and bread, lasted in
-    country houses at least until the end of the seventeenth century. It
-    is a survival of the old manner of eating which makes the lower class
-    “eat with their knives.” Let me add that in my own recollection the
-    practice has almost entirely disappeared. Forty years ago one could not
-    take dinner at a tavern or an eating-house without seeing some of the
-    company helping themselves with their knives.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_295">295</span>
-    <a id="i_295"><img src="images/i_295.jpg" width="700" height="511" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">Tittle-Tattle; Or, the several Branches of Gossipping.<br />
-      From a satirical print in the British Museum.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_296">296</span></p>
-
-  <p>Here is the bill of a dinner given to the Lord Treasurer, the
-    Chancellor, the Lord Chief Baron, and others not named, on 4th June
-    1573:—</p>
-
-  <table summary="Bill of dinner">
-    <tbody>
-      <tr>
-        <th>&nbsp;</th>
-        <th>&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="tdr"><div><i>s.</i></div></th>
-        <th class="tdr"><div><i>d.</i></div></th>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td>Imprimis&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-        <td>Bread, ale, and beer</td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>13</div></td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>4</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td>Item</td>
-        <td>Two sorloines of beef</td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>10</div></td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>0</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td> &nbsp; &nbsp;„</td>
-        <td>Four gees</td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>7</div></td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>0</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td> &nbsp; &nbsp;„</td>
-        <td>Four joyntes of veale</td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>6</div></td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>8</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td> &nbsp; &nbsp;„</td>
-        <td>Six capons</td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>13</div></td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>8</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td> &nbsp; &nbsp;„</td>
-        <td>Three quarters of lambe</td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>4</div></td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>0</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td> &nbsp; &nbsp;„</td>
-        <td>A dozen of chickens</td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>5</div></td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>0</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td> &nbsp; &nbsp;„</td>
-        <td>A dozen of rabbites</td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>4</div></td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>8</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td> &nbsp; &nbsp;„</td>
-        <td>Half a dozen quayles</td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>6</div></td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>8</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td> &nbsp; &nbsp;„</td>
-        <td>For butter</td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>4</div></td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>0</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td> &nbsp; &nbsp;„</td>
-        <td>For eggs</td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>1</div></td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>0</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td> &nbsp; &nbsp;„</td>
-        <td>For vinegar, vergis barberius and mustard</td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>1</div></td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>0</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td> &nbsp; &nbsp;„</td>
-        <td>For spices</td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>1</div></td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>0</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td> &nbsp; &nbsp;„</td>
-        <td>For fruite</td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>6</div></td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>0</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td> &nbsp; &nbsp;„</td>
-        <td>For rose water and swete water</td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>0</div></td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>8</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td> &nbsp; &nbsp;„</td>
-        <td>For scrill and parsley</td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>0</div></td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>6</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td> &nbsp; &nbsp;„</td>
-        <td>For White Wine</td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>1</div></td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>4</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td> &nbsp; &nbsp;„</td>
-        <td>For flowers and strong herbes</td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>0</div></td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>6</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td> &nbsp; &nbsp;„</td>
-        <td>For sacke</td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>1</div></td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>0</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td> &nbsp; &nbsp;„</td>
-        <td>For fier</td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>5</div></td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>0</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td> &nbsp; &nbsp;„</td>
-        <td>For cook’s wages</td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>6</div></td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>0</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td> &nbsp; &nbsp;„</td>
-        <td>For boote hier</td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>1</div></td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>4</div></td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td> &nbsp; &nbsp;„</td>
-        <td>For occupying plate, naperie and other necessaries</td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>5</div></td>
-        <td class="tdr"><div>0</div></td>
-      </tr>
-    </tbody>
-  </table>
-
-  <p>Unfortunately these bills never contain the whole. It is of course
-    impossible to believe that one shilling and fourpence represents the
-    whole of the wine consumed on this occasion.</p>
-
-  <p>Ben Jonson thus ridicules the care and thought expended upon feasting:—</p>
-
-  <div class="center-container">
-    <div class="poem">
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i0">“A master-cook! why, he’s the man of men</div>
-        <div class="i1">For a professor! he designs, he draws,</div>
-        <div class="i1">He paints, he carves, he builds, he fortifies,</div>
-        <div class="i1">Makes citadels of curious fowl and fish,</div>
-        <div class="i1">Some he dry-dishes, some moats round with broths:</div>
-        <div class="i1">Mounts marrow-bones, cuts fifty-angled custards,</div>
-        <div class="i1">Rears bulwark pies, and for his outer works</div>
-        <div class="i1">He raiseth ramparts of immortal crust;</div>
-        <div class="i1">And teacheth all the tactics at one dinner:</div>
-        <div class="i1">What ranks, what files, to put his dishes in:</div>
-        <div class="i1">The whole art military. Then he knows</div>
-        <div class="i1">The influence of the stars upon his meats,</div>
-        <div class="i1">And all their seasons, tempers, qualities,</div>
-        <div class="i1">And so to fit his relishes and sauces.</div><span class="pagenum" id="Page_297">297</span>
-        <div class="i1">He had nature in a pot, ’bove all the chymists,</div>
-        <div class="i1">Or airy brethren of the Rosie-cross.</div>
-        <div class="i1">He is an architect, an engineer,</div>
-        <div class="i1">A soldier, a physician, a philosopher,</div>
-        <div class="i1">A general mathematician.”</div>
-      </div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>And again in his dream of luxurious living:—</p>
-
-  <div class="center-container">
-    <div class="poem">
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i0">“We will be brave, Puff, now we have the med’cine.</div>
-        <div class="i1">My meat shall all come in, in Indian shells,</div>
-        <div class="i1">Dishes of agate set in gold, and studded</div>
-        <div class="i1">With emeralds, sapphires, hyacinths, and rubies.</div>
-        <div class="i1">The tongues of carps, dormice, and camels’ heels,</div>
-        <div class="i1">Boil’d in the spirit of sol, and dissolv’d pearl,</div>
-        <div class="i1">Apicius’ diet, ’gainst the epilepsy;</div>
-        <div class="i1">And I will eat these broths with spoons of amber,</div>
-        <div class="i1">Headed with diamond and carbuncle.</div>
-        <div class="i1">My foot-boy shall eat pheasants, calver’d salmons,</div>
-        <div class="i1">Knots, godwits, lampreys: I myself will have</div>
-        <div class="i1">The beards of barbels served instead of salads.”</div>
-        <div class="i40"><i>The Alchemist.</i></div>
-      </div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>And this for a more sober supper, yet not without its points of
-    excellence:—</p>
-
-  <div class="center-container">
-    <div class="poem">
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i0">“Yet shall you have to rectify your palate,</div>
-        <div class="i1">An olive, capers, or some better salad</div>
-        <div class="i1">Ushering the mutton; with a short legg’d hen,</div>
-        <div class="i1">If we can get her full of eggs, and then,</div>
-        <div class="i1">Limons, and wine for sauce; to these, a coney</div>
-        <div class="i1">Is not to be despar’d of for our money;</div>
-        <div class="i1">And though fowl now be scarce, yet there are clerks,</div>
-        <div class="i1">The sky not falling, think we may have larks,</div>
-        <div class="i1">I’ll tell you of more, and lie, so you will come:</div>
-        <div class="i1">Of partridge, pheasant, woodcock, of which some</div>
-        <div class="i1">May yet be there; and godwit if we can:</div>
-        <div class="i1">Knat, rail, and ruf too, howsoe’er, my man</div>
-        <div class="i1">Shall read a piece of Virgil, Tacitus,</div>
-        <div class="i1">Livy, or of some better book to us,</div>
-        <div class="i1">Of which we’ll speak our minds, amidst our meat;</div>
-        <div class="i1">And I’ll profess no verses to repeat.</div>
-        <div class="i1">To this, if aught appear, which I not know of,</div>
-        <div class="i1">That will the pastry, not my paper, show of.</div>
-        <div class="i1">Digestive cheese, and fruit there sure will be;</div>
-        <div class="i1">But that which most doth take my muse and me,</div>
-        <div class="i1">Is a pure cup of rich Canary wine,</div>
-        <div class="i1">Which is the Mermaid’s now, but shall be mine:</div>
-        <div class="i1">Of which had Horace or Anacreon tasted,</div>
-        <div class="i1">Their lives, as do their lines, till now had lasted.</div>
-        <div class="i1">Tobacco, nectar, or the Thespian spring,</div>
-        <div class="i1">Are all but Luther’s beer to this I sing.”</div>
-      </div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p class="noindent">The greatest attention was paid to the service of the table: not only,
-    for instance, must the carving be performed in manner peculiar to each
-    kind of creature, but each creature had its own verb signifying its
-    carving. The terms used for carving are curious and now completely
-    forgotten:—</p>
-
-  <p>“Breke that deer; lesche that brawn; rere that goose; lyfte that
-    swanne; sauce that capon; spoil that hen; fruche that chekyn; unbrace
-    that mallard; unlace that conye; desmembre that heron; display that
-    crane; dysfygure that pecocke; unjoint that byterrne; untache that
-    curlewe; allay that desande; wynge that<span class="pagenum" id="Page_298">298</span> patryche; wynge that quail;
-    mynce that plover; thye that pygyon; border that pastie; thye that
-    woodcocke; thye all maner of small birds; tymbre that fyre; tyere that
-    egge; chyne that samon; strynge that lampreye; splatte that pyke; sauce
-    that plaice; sauce that tench; splay that breme; syde that haddock;
-    tuske that berbell; culpon that trout; fyne that cheven; transene that
-    ele; traunche that sturgeon; under-traunch that porpus; tayme that
-    crabbe; barbe that lobster. Here endeth the goodlye termes of kervynge.”</p>
-
-  <p>The way in which the table was to be served was presented, in general
-    terms, as follows:—</p>
-
-  <div class="center-container">
-    <div class="poem">
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i0">“Slow be the servers in serving, alwaye,</div>
-        <div class="i0">But swift be they after, taking meate away;</div>
-        <div class="i0">A special custom used is them amonge,</div>
-        <div class="i0">No good dishe to suffer on borde to be longe.</div>
-        <div class="i0">If the dishe be pleasante, whether fleshe or fishe,</div>
-        <div class="i0">Ten hande at once swarme in the dishe;</div>
-        <div class="i0">And if it be fleshe, ten knives shalt thou see</div>
-        <div class="i0">Mangling the fleshe, and in the platter flee;</div>
-        <div class="i0">Put there thy hands in peryl without fayle</div>
-        <div class="i0">Without a gauntlet or a glove of mayle.”</div>
-        <div class="i30"><i>Antiquary’s Portfolio</i>, p. 130.</div>
-      </div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p class="noindent">And next in minute detail. Thus including the reception of a guest. Let
-    us first remember that the plates were commonly of bread, but sometimes
-    of wood. When they were of bread, the loaves were first carefully
-    pared; then the butler placed the salt-cellar before the principal
-    guest, and in front of the salt-cellar, upon the carving knives, he
-    was to place the bread. But before Grace this was to be removed, and
-    replaced in thick slices one upon the other.</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“Thenne the karver or sewer most asserve every disshe in his degree
-      after order, and course of service, as folowith:—</p>
-
-    <div class="center-container">
-      <div class="poem">
-        <div class="stanza">
-          <div class="i0">First, mustard and brawne, swete wine served thereto.</div>
-          <div class="i0">Potage.</div>
-          <div class="i0">Befe and moton, swan or geese.</div>
-          <div class="i0">Grete pies, capon or fesaunt, leche or fretours.</div>
-        </div>
-      </div>
-    </div>
-
-    <p class="noindent">Thenne if potage be chaungebill after tyme and season of the yere,
-      as falleth, as here is rehersid: by exampel for befe and moton ye shall take</p>
-
-    <div class="center-container">
-      <div class="poem">
-        <div class="stanza">
-          <div class="i0">Pestelles, or chynys of porke, or els</div>
-          <div class="i0">Tonge of befe, or</div>
-          <div class="i0">Tonge of the harte powdered,</div>
-          <div class="i0">Befe stewed,</div>
-          <div class="i0">Chekyns boylyd and bacon.</div>
-        </div>
-      </div>
-    </div>
-
-    <p class="noindent">Then against the secunde cours be redy, and come into the place,
-      the kerver must avoyde and take upp the service of the first cours,
-      begynnynge at the lowest mete forst, and all broke cromys, bonys,
-      and trenchours, before the secunde cours and service be served.</p>
-
-    <p>Thenne the secunde cours shall be served in manner and forme as
-      ensample thereof, hereafter folowyng:—</p>
-
-    <table summary="Second course">
-      <tbody>
-        <tr>
-          <td>Potage-pigge</td>
-          <td>Lamme stewed</td>
-        </tr>
-        <tr>
-          <td>Conye</td>
-          <td>Kidde roosted</td>
-        </tr>
-        <tr>
-          <td>Crane</td>
-          <td>Veneson roosted</td>
-        </tr>
-        <tr>
-          <td><span class="pagenum" id="Page_299">299</span>Heronseue</td>
-          <td>Heronseue</td>
-        </tr>
-        <tr>
-          <td>Bitoure</td>
-          <td>Bitoure</td>
-        </tr>
-        <tr>
-          <td>Egrete</td>
-          <td>Pigeons</td>
-        </tr>
-        <tr>
-          <td>Curlewe</td>
-          <td>Rabetts</td>
-        </tr>
-        <tr>
-          <td>Wodecock</td>
-          <td>A bake meat</td>
-        </tr>
-        <tr>
-          <td>Petrigge</td>
-          <td>Stokke dovys stewed</td>
-        </tr>
-        <tr>
-          <td>Plover</td>
-          <td>Cony</td>
-        </tr>
-        <tr>
-          <td>Snytys</td>
-          <td>Mallard</td>
-        </tr>
-        <tr>
-          <td>Qualy</td>
-          <td>sGelys</td>
-        </tr>
-        <tr>
-          <td>Fretours</td>
-          <td>Wodecock</td>
-        </tr>
-        <tr>
-          <td>Leche</td>
-          <td>Great byrdys</td>
-        </tr>
-      </tbody>
-    </table>
-
-    <p class="noindent">After the secunde cours served, kerved, and spente, it must be
-      sene cuppys to be filled, trenchours to be voyded, thenne by goode
-      avysement the tabill must be take uppe in manner as folowith:
-      first, when tyme foloweth, the panter or boteler muste gader
-      uppe the sponys: after that done by leyser, the sewer or carver
-      shall begyne at the lowest ende, and in order take upp the lowest
-      messe, after the syde tabill be avoyded and take upp: and thenne
-      to procede to the principal tabill, and there honestly and clenly
-      avoyde and withdrawe all the service of the high tabill: therto the
-      kerver must be redy, and redely have avoyded togeder in all the
-      broke brede, trenchours, comys lying upon the tabill, levyng none
-      other thyng, save the salte selar, hole brede (if any be lefte),
-      and cuppys. After this done by good deliberacion and avysement,
-      the kerver shall take the service of the principall messe in
-      order and rule, begynnynge at the lowest and so procede in rule
-      unto the laste. And thereuppon the kerver to have redy a voyder,
-      and to avoyde all men’s trenchours, broke brede in another clene
-      disshe voyder, and cromys, which with the kervyng knyf shall be
-      avoyded from the tabill, and thus procede untill the table be
-      voyded. Thenne the kerver shall go into the cuppibord, and redresse
-      and ordeyne wafers into toweyles of raynes (table-cloth) or fine
-      napkyns, which moste be cowched fayre and honestly uppon the
-      tabill, and thenne serve the principall messe first, and thorowe
-      the tabill, i or ij if it so require. Therto moste be servid swete
-      wine: and in feriall tyme, serve cheese, scraped with sugar and
-      sauge levis, or else that it be fayre kerved hole: or frute as the
-      season of the year geveth, strawberys, chevys, peyres, appelis: and
-      in wynter, wardens, costardys roste, rosted on fisshe days with
-      blanche powder, and so serve it forth.</p>
-
-    <p>Thenne after wafers and frute spended, all manner of thynge shall
-      be take uppe, and avoyded, except the principall salte seler,
-      hole brede, and kervyng knyves, the which shall be redressed in
-      manner and fourme as they were first sette on the table: the which
-      principall servitours of the panter or botery, havynge his towaile,
-      shall take upp and bear it into his office, in lykewise as he first
-      brought it unto the tabill. Thenne the principall servitours, as
-      kerver and sewer, most have redy a longe towayle applied double
-      to be cowched uppon the principall ende of the tabill: and that
-      towelle must be justely drawn thorowe the tabill unto the lower
-      ende: and if servitours to awayte thereuppon, that it be mustly
-      cowchd and spred: after that done, there must be ordeyned basyns
-      and ewers, with water hot or colde as tyme of the yere requireth,
-      and to be sette upon the tabill, and to stonde unto the grace be
-      said: and incontynent after grace saide, the servitours to be redy
-      to awayte and attende to give water: first, to the principall
-      messe, and after that to the seconde: incontynent after this done,
-      the towayle and tabillclothis muste be drawen, cowched and sprad,
-      and so by littill space taken uppe in the myddis of the tabill, and
-      so to be delyvered to the office of the pantery or botery.</p>
-
-    <p>Thenne uprysing, servitours must attende to avoyde tabills,
-      trestellis, formys, and stoolys, and to redresse bankers and
-      quyssyons: then the butler shall avoyde the cupborde, begynnynge at
-      the loweste, procede in rule to the hyeste, and bere it into his
-      office. Thenne after mete, it most be awayted and well entended by
-      servitours, if drinke be asked: and if ther be knyght or lady, or
-      grete gentilwoman, they shall be servid upon knee with brede and
-      wyne.</p>
-
-    <p>Thenne it mot be sene if strangers shall be broght to chamber,
-      and that the chamber be clenly apparelled and dressed accordyng
-      to the tyme of yere: as in winter tyme fyre: in sommer tyme the
-      bedde covered with pylowes and bed shetys, in case they wolle
-      rest: and after this done, they moste have cheer<span class="pagenum" id="Page_300">300</span> of <i>neweltees</i>
-      in the chamber, as juncates, cherys, pepyns, and such neweltees
-      as the tyme of yere requereth, and swete wynes, Ypocrasse, Tyre,
-      Mustadell, bastard beruage, of the beste that may be had to the
-      honour and laude of the principall of the house.”</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <p>After the dinner was eaten what remained was taken down for the
-    servants, and whatever was left over when these had finished was
-    bestowed upon the poor who sat outside the doors waiting their turn.
-    The drink was served in silver cups and bowls, or else in goblets of
-    Venetian glass from Murano; the poorer sort had pots of earthenware
-    bound or set in silver and perhaps pewter. As a rule not more than two
-    or three dishes were served at a gentleman’s table where there was no
-    company. This, however, was not the case when a feast was provided,
-    or by the merchants for themselves. Then such meat as is killed and
-    provided by the butcher was rejected as not worthy of the occasion.</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“In such cases also geliffes of all colours mixed with a varietie
-      in the representation of sundrie floures, herbs, trees, formes of
-      beasts, fish, foules, and fruits, and thereunto marchpaine wrought
-      with no small curiositie, tarts of diverse hewes and sundrie
-      denominations, conserves of old fruites forren and home bred,
-      suckets, codinacs, marmilats, marchpaine, sugerbread, gingerbread,
-      florentines, wild foule, venison of all sorts, and sundrie
-      outlandish confections, altogither seasoned with suger (which
-      Plinie calleth Mel ex arundinibus, a devise not common nor greatlie
-      used in old time at the table, but onlie in medicine, although
-      it grew in Arabia, India and Sicilia), doo generally beare the
-      swaie, besides infinite devises of our owne not possible for me to
-      remember.” (Holinshed, vol. i. p. 167.)</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <p>Every kind of wine was served at these banquets, <i>e.g.</i> the fifty-six
-    various kinds of “small wines” as Claret, White, Red, French, etc.;
-    but also of the thirty kinds of Italian, German, Spanish, Canary, etc.
-    And besides these here were the artificial drinks such as Hypocras and
-    Wormwood wine, besides ale and beer.</p>
-
-  <p>The craftsman lived in great plenty: his diet was commonly beef,
-    mutton, veal and pork; besides which he had brawn, bacon, pies of
-    fruit, fowls, cheese, butter and eggs. At weddings, purifications,
-    and so forth, the friends contributed each a dish of some kind, and
-    the feasting that went on was incredible. At table the custom among
-    the gentry and better sort was to observe great silence during the
-    dinner, and on no account to show any sign of being the worse for the
-    wine they had taken. Enough grain was grown in the country to supply
-    it with bread; a good deal of bread was made of oats and rye; in times
-    of dearth beans, peas, and lentils were ground up. Of home-made drinks
-    besides ale and beer there were cider, perry, and, especially among the
-    Welsh, mead or metheglin.</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“There is a kind of swish swash made also in Essex, and diverse
-      other places, with honicombs and water, which the homelie countrie
-      wives, putting some pepper and a little other spice among, call
-      mead, verie good in mine opinion for such as love to be loose
-      bodied at large, or a little eased of the cough, otherwise it
-      differeth so much from the true metheglin, as chalke from cheese.
-      Truelie it is nothing else but the washing of the combes, when
-      the honie is wroong out, and one of the best things that I know
-      belonging thereto is, that they spend but little labour and lesse
-      cost in making of the same, and therefore no great losse if it were
-      never occupied.” (Holinshed, vol. i. p. 170.)</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_301">301</span></p>
-
-  <p>An oyster feast in the morning seems unusual and unexpected in a town
-    of working men. We may read, however, how, on 30th July 1557, a company
-    of citizens met in the cellar of Master Smyth and Master Gytton in
-    Amber Lane, at eight o’clock in the morning. They devoured between
-    them half a bushel of oysters, sitting upon hogsheads by candlelight;
-    the oysters were accompanied by onions—was there no bread, or
-    bread-and-butter? Only onions? And they drank with their oysters and
-    onions copious bowls of red ale, claret, muscadel, and malmsey. It
-    hardly seems a good beginning of the day so far as concerns work. In
-    these degenerate days a repast of oysters and onions, with ale and
-    muscadel, claret and malmsey, would prove a fatal feast indeed.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter w365">
-    <a id="i_301"><img src="images/i_301.jpg" width="367" height="476" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="attribr"><i>Walker &amp; Cockerell.</i></div>
-    <div class="caption">MARRIAGE FEAST OF SIR H. UNTON<br />
-      A detail from a painting in the National Portrait Gallery, London.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>Here is a note on an Elizabethan ordinary:—</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“It seemed that all who came thither had clocks in their bellies,
-      for they all strucke into the dyning-roome much at aboute the
-      very minute of feeding. Our traveller had all the eyes (that
-      came in) throwne upon him (as being a stranger), and he as much
-      tooke especiall notice of them. In obseruing of whom and of the
-      place, he found that an ordinary was the onely Rendeuouz for the
-      most ingenious,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_302">302</span> most terse, most trauaild and most phantastick
-      gallant: the very Exchange for newes out of all countries; the
-      only booke-sellers’ shop for conference of the best editions,
-      that if a woman (to be a Lady) would cast away herselfe upon a
-      knight, there a man should heare a catalogue of most of the richest
-      London widowes; and last that it was a schoole where they were all
-      fellowes of one forme, and that a country gentleman was of as great
-      comming as the proudest justice that sat there on the bench aboue
-      him; for hee that had the graine of the table with his bencher payd
-      no more then he that placed himselfe beneath the salt.</p>
-
-    <p>The bolder hauing cleered the table, cardes and dice are served
-      up to the boord; they that are full of coyne draw; they that haue
-      little stand by and give ayme; the shuffle and cut on one side,
-      the bones rattle on the other; long have they not plaide, but
-      oathes fly up and downe the roome like haile-shot; if the poore
-      dumb dice be but a little out of the square line of white, the
-      pox and a thousand plagues breake their neckes out at a window.”
-      (<i>Antiquary</i>, vol. xv.)</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <p>The following is contemporary evidence. It is taken from the
-    <i>Antiquarian Repertory</i> (vol. iv. p. 512), 1558:—</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“The people of London consume great quantities of beer, double and
-      single [strong and small], and do not drink it out of glasses, but
-      from earthen pots with silver handles and covers, and this even in
-      houses of persons of middling fortunes; for as to the poor, the
-      covers of their pots are only pewter, and in some places, such as
-      villages, their pots for beer are made only of wood.</p>
-
-    <p>They eat much whiter bread than that commonly made in France,
-      altho’ it was in my time as cheap as it is sold there. With their
-      beer they have a custom of eating very soft saffron cakes, in which
-      there are likewise raisins, which give a relish to the beer, of
-      which there was formerly at Rye some as good as I ever drank. The
-      houses of the people of this country are as well furnished as any
-      in the world. Likewise, in this country you will scarcely find any
-      nobleman, some of whose relations have not been beheaded.”</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <p>A few more notes on food. They drank brewis, that is, the pot liquor
-    with bread in it; they were fond of pigs’ faces washed and dressed
-    by the housewife; they bought tripe in Eastcheap, and poultry in
-    Gracechurch Street; they drank wines with strange names: Pedro Ximenes,
-    Charnico, Eleatica. The clerks took their dinner at the cooks’ shops
-    by messes of so many; the portion of the whole mess was served in a
-    dish and one divided the food, after which they helped themselves by
-    seniority; a yeoman’s fare was bread, beef, and beer. The poor man was
-    served from the basket which stood in the hall and received broken
-    meats. The Sheriffs sent such baskets and other food to the prisons.
-    The citizens’ proverbial Sunday dinner was neck of beef.</p>
-
-  <hr class="page" />
-  <div class="chapter" id="CHAPTER_3e">
-    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_303">303</span>
-    <h3>
-      <span class="gespertt1">CHAPTER III</span><br />
-      <span class="subhead">DRESS—WEDDINGS</span>
-    </h3>
-  </div>
-
-    <p class="noindent"><span class="smcap">In</span> the Elizabethan age, the poet, satirists, and preachers are so
-    full of the subject of feminine fashions that it becomes of great
-    importance. The increase of wealth and the growing power of the middle
-    class give a greater prominence to women’s dress, while the improvement
-    in the streets and the roads, the introduction of coaches and the
-    development of outdoor amusements, theatres, shows, masques, gardens,
-    and water-parties bring the wives and daughters of London more into the
-    open.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="i_303"><img src="images/i_303.jpg" width="220" height="330" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">Farthingale. Lady Runsdon.<br />
-      From Planché’s <i>Cyclopædia of Costume</i>.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>It was a time of great expenditure upon clothes; the fashions were rich
-    and costly; the custom was to make what we should call an ostentatious
-    display of wealth. Ben Jonson and the dramatists are full of the
-    extravagance of City madams. Not only did the ladies wear rich dresses;
-    they prided themselves upon possessing a great number—as many as they
-    could afford; in every house<span class="pagenum" id="Page_304">304</span> there was a room called the Wardrobe, in
-    which the clothes of the household were hung up and carefully watched
-    and kept from moth and decay.</p>
-
-  <p>At the beginning of her reign the Queen, who set the fashion, wore a
-    small ruff, with a kerchief about her neck; a kind of coat of black
-    velvet and ermine fastened at the throat only; with a waistcoat and
-    kirtle below of white silk or silver embroidered with black; on the
-    shoulders were humps, and the sleeves were large. Stubbes abuses the
-    fashion because it is “proper only to a man, yet they blush not to
-    wear it.” The cap or coif was adorned with strings of pearls. Lawn and
-    cambric ruffs came in shortly after Elizabeth’s accession. A Flemish
-    woman named Van der Plasse came over and set up as a starcher of ruffs.
-    The mere mention of starch made Stubbes furiously angry; the ruff was a
-    “master devil”; the devil himself invented starch.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="i_304"><img src="images/i_304.jpg" width="600" height="470" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption col50">LADY IN THE COURT OF QUEEN ELIZABETH, 1559.</div>
-    <div class="caption col50">NOBLE MATRON OF ENGLAND, 1577.</div>
-    <div class="caption">From <i>Collection of Ancient and Modern Dresses</i>, 1772.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>The custom of wearing whalebone to imprison the figure down to the hips
-    also began early in the reign; a long stomacher descended in front, and
-    from the hips stood out the farthingale, horizontally; a hideous thing
-    which was perpetuated in the hoop for two hundred years. As for the
-    gowns they were made, to the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_305">305</span> indignation of the satirist, “of silk,
-    of velvet, of grograin, of taffata, and of fine cloth, ten, twenty,
-    or forty shillings a yard”; they were decorated with lace two fingers
-    broad, or with velvet edged with lace. The petticoats were also of the
-    finest stuff, fringed with silk, and in addition, they had a kirtle
-    also of fine stuff and fringed with lace and silk. It appears therefore
-    that they had first a gown which was pulled back and showed the kirtle,
-    which itself was pulled back and disclosed the petticoat.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="i_305"><img src="images/i_305.jpg" width="600" height="408" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption col50">ENGLISH LADY OF QUALITY, 1588</div>
-    <div class="caption col50">ENGLISH NOBLEMAN, 1559</div>
-    <div class="caption">From <i>Collection of Ancient and Modern Dresses</i>, 1772.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>Their stockings were made of the finest cloth, yarn, or worsted; silk
-    stockings were presented to the Queen in her third year; knitted
-    worsted stockings were introduced from Italy; the stockings of the fine
-    ladies were “curiously indented in every point with quicks, clocks, and
-    open seams.” They wore cork shoes made, like the petticoats and kirtle,
-    of anything that was costly and rare and could be embroidered.</p>
-
-  <p>The fashions of wearing the hair were endless. It was curled in
-    innumerable curls; it was crisped; it was built up over a cushion; it
-    was laid out over the forehead; it was ornamented with jewels, gold,
-    wreaths of silver and gold, and kept in place with hairpins; the women
-    wore over their hair French hoods,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_306">306</span> hats, and caps; they wore cauls
-    made of net-wire and cloth of gold and tinsel; they wore “lattice” caps
-    with horns; and every merchant’s wife or mean gentlewoman indulged in
-    these extravagant fashions.</p>
-
-  <div class="center-container">
-    <div class="poem">
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i0">“The cappe on hyre heade</div>
-        <div class="i3">Is lyke a sowes mawe;</div>
-        <div class="i1">Such another facion</div>
-        <div class="i3">I thynke never Jewe sawe.</div>
-        <div class="i1">Then fyne geare on the foreheade</div>
-        <div class="i3">After the newe trycke,</div>
-        <div class="i1">Though it coste a crowne or two,</div>
-        <div class="i3">What then? They may not stycke.</div>
-        <div class="i1">If theyr heyr wyl not take colour,</div>
-        <div class="i3">Then must they buy newe,</div>
-        <div class="i1">And laye it out in tussocks;</div>
-        <div class="i3">This thynge is too true,</div>
-        <div class="i1">At each syde a tussocke</div>
-        <div class="i3">As bygge as a ball.</div>
-        <div class="i1">Hyr face faire payned</div>
-        <div class="i1">To make it shine bright</div>
-        <div class="i1">And her bosom all bare,</div>
-        <div class="i1">Hyr mydle braced in</div>
-        <div class="i3">As small as a wande;</div>
-        <div class="i1">And some buy water of qyre</div>
-        <div class="i3">At the paste wyf’s hande.”</div>
-      </div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p class="noindent">As for the merchants’ wives, their dress is described in the following
-    lines:—</p>
-
-  <div class="center-container">
-    <div class="poem">
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i16">“You wore</div>
-        <div class="i0">Satin on solemn days, a chain of gold,</div>
-        <div class="i0">A velvet hood, rich borders, and sometimes</div>
-        <div class="i0">A dainty miniver cap, a silver pin,</div>
-        <div class="i0">Headed with a pearl worth threepence.”</div>
-      </div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>It was a common practice to entice little children into private places
-    and unfrequented courts there to cut off their long hair to be made up
-    into false hair for women. Long and beautiful hair was in great request
-    by the fashionable dames of the time. Brides especially went to the
-    altar with flowing locks, the longer the better.</p>
-
-  <div class="center-container">
-    <div class="poem">
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i0">“Come, come, my Lord, untie your folded thoughts,</div>
-        <div class="i1">And let them dangle loose as a bride’s hair.”</div>
-      </div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>In a word, the Elizabethan fine lady was very fine indeed; much more
-    artificial than her grandmother, and much less beautiful therefore.
-    She painted her face; she dyed her hair, sometimes changing the colour
-    from time to time, a practice which explains the different colour
-    of the hair in Queen Mary’s portraits. She used perfumes copiously;
-    she carried a large feather fan with a costly handle of silver or
-    ivory. She also carried a mirror hanging from her girdle with which to
-    contemplate the thing she loved best—her own face, made up, painted,
-    and set in the frame of ruff and cap; strings of pearls were round
-    the cap and a gold chain round the throat. And she frequented, but
-    secretly, the wise women—there were scores of them in the city—who
-    knew secrets ineffable—secrets that were like magic; perhaps they
-    were magic—for the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_307">307</span> improvement and preservation of the complexion,
-    the brightness of the eyes, the gloss of the hair, the softness and
-    smoothness of the arm and the throat, and everything that was open to
-    the gaze of man. Ben Jonson preserves as in a phonograph the words and
-    voice of the wise woman.</p>
-
-
-  <div class="center">FOR LADIES’ COMPLEXIONS</div>
-
-  <div class="center-container">
-    <div class="poem">
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i0">“<i>Wit.</i> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;They have</div>
-        <div class="i1">Water of gourds, of radish, the white beans,</div>
-        <div class="i1">Flowers of glass, of thistles, rose-marine,</div>
-        <div class="i1">Raw honey, mustard seed, and bread dough baked,</div>
-        <div class="i1">The crums of bread, goat’s-milk, and whites of eggs,</div>
-        <div class="i1">Camphire, and lily-roots, the fat of swans,</div>
-        <div class="i1">Marrow of veal, white pigeons, and pine-kernals,</div>
-        <div class="i1">The seeds of nettles, purseline, and hare’s-gall:</div>
-        <div class="i1">Lemons, thin-skinn’d——</div>
-      </div>
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i1"><i>Lady E.</i> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;How her ladyship has studied</div>
-        <div class="i1">All excellent things!</div>
-      </div>
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i1"><i>Wit.</i> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;But ordinary, madam:</div>
-        <div class="i1">No, the true rarities are the alvagada</div>
-        <div class="i1">And argentata of queen Isabella.</div>
-      </div>
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i1"><i>Lady T.</i> &nbsp;Ay, what are their ingredients, gentle madam?</div>
-      </div>
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i1"><i>Wit.</i> Your allum scagliola, or pol di pedra:</div>
-        <div class="i1">And zuccarino: turpentine of Abezzo,</div>
-        <div class="i1">Wash’d in nine waters: soda dilevants,</div>
-        <div class="i1">Or your fern ashes: benjamin di gotta:</div>
-        <div class="i1">Grasso di serpe: porceletto marino:</div>
-        <div class="i1">Oils of lentisco: zucche mugia: make</div>
-        <div class="i1">The admirable varnish for the face,</div>
-        <div class="i1">Gives the right lustre: but two drops rubb’d on</div>
-        <div class="i1">With a piece of scarlet, makes a lady of sixty</div>
-        <div class="i1">Look as sixteen. But above all, the water</div>
-        <div class="i1">Of the white hen, of the lady Estifania’s.</div>
-      </div>
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i1"><i>Lady T.</i> O, ay, that same, good madam, I have heard of:</div>
-        <div class="i1">How is it done?</div>
-      </div>
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i1"><i>Wit.</i> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Madam, you take your hen,</div>
-        <div class="i1">Plume it, and skin it, cleanse it o’ the inwards:</div>
-        <div class="i1">Then chop it bones and all: add to four ounces:</div>
-        <div class="i1">Of carravicins, pipitas, soap of Cyprus,</div>
-        <div class="i1">Make the decoction, strain it: then distil it,</div>
-        <div class="i1">And keep it in your gallipot well gliddered:</div>
-        <div class="i1">Three drops preserves from wrinkles, warts, spots, moles,</div>
-        <div class="i1">Blemish, or sun-burnings: and keeps the skin</div>
-        <div class="i1">In decimo sexto, ever bright and smooth,</div>
-        <div class="i1">As any looking-glass: and indeed is call’d</div>
-        <div class="i1">A ceruse, neither cold or heat, oglio reale:</div>
-        <div class="i1">And mix’d with oil of myrrh and the red gilliflower,</div>
-        <div class="i1">Call’d cataputia, and flowers of rovistico,</div>
-        <div class="i1">Makes the best muta or dye of the whole world.”</div>
-      </div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>The stuffs worn by gentlemen were taffeta; mockado—an inferior velvet;
-    grogram—a cheaper taffeta; quellio for the ruff; tamin; sendall; and
-    many others which are now mere words. The poorer women, not to be
-    outdone more than was necessary, bought the same clothes, made in the
-    same style, of the fripperer, or<span class="pagenum" id="Page_308">308</span> broker, who dealt in second-hand
-    clothes. Now the great danger of buying second-hand clothes was that
-    you might at the same time buy the plague.</p>
-
-  <p>Men were never so affected and so splendid in their dress as in the
-    sixteenth century. They wore earrings; they wore costly brooches in
-    their hats; the great nobles wore strings of pearls; they had thumb
-    rings; they carried jewelled daggers; they carried a case of toothpicks
-    with them; they carried their own napkins to the taverns; they had a
-    favourite lock of hair, which they curled and treated tenderly, tying a
-    rose to it or a bunch of ribbons; they wore their hair and their beards
-    in fantastic ways, either after the French, Italian, or Spanish manner.
-    As for the younger men, they played the usual tricks. That is to say,
-    they tried to make the waist small; they wore “grulled calves”; they
-    “bleached their hands at midnight, gumming and triding their beards.”
-    Sleeves were slashed; girdles were hung with mirrors; the head was set
-    in a ruff; high-heeled shoes raised the stature; men’s cloaks were of
-    velvet trimmed with lace; buttons, buckles, and clasps were of gold;
-    the hats were adorned with feathers.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="i_308"><img src="images/i_308.jpg" width="268" height="421" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">WEALTHY MERCHANT OF LONDON, 1588<br />
-      From <i>Collection of Ancient and Modern Dresses</i>, 1772.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>Tavern life in the time of the Tudors was picturesque and pleasant.
-    The taverns were frequented not only by gallants and merchants, but
-    by ladies. Suppers, it is true, were given to bona robas; the viol de
-    gamba played for<span class="pagenum" id="Page_309">309</span> companies not always the most respectable; but there
-    were rooms which the City madams used as a resort for parties of their
-    own friends; and that without any question of offence.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="i_309"><img src="images/i_309.jpg" width="252" height="425" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">PAGE BOY, TIME OF EDWARD VI<br />
-      From <i>Collection of Ancient and Modern Dresses</i>, 1772.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>The City Trained Bands were gorgeous in white doublets, with the City
-    arms before and behind; the men-servants wore gorgeous liveries. Dress
-    to a certain extent indicated class. Law and Divinity wore black.
-    Furred gowns and satin sleeves marked the Sheriff or the Alderman. The
-    plain citizen wore a cloak of brown or chocolate colour; the craftsman
-    wore a doublet of cloth, or leather, with a leather belt, and in winter
-    an overcoat down to the knees or the ankles. The following is the
-    description of a runaway page:—</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“One doblet of yelow million fustian, th’one halfe therof buttoned
-      with peche-colour buttons, and th’other halfe laced downewardes;
-      one payer of peche-colour hose, laced with smale tawnye lace; a
-      graye hat with a copper edge rounde aboute it, with a bande p’cell
-      of the same hatt; a payer of watchet (blue) stockings. Likewise he
-      hath twoe clokes; th’one of vessey collor, garded with twoe gards
-      of black clothe and twisted lace of carnacion colour, and lyned
-      with crymsone bayes; and th’other is a red shipp russet colour,
-      striped about th’cape, and downe the fore face, twisted with two
-      rows of twisted lace, russet and gold buttons afore and uppon the
-      sholdier, being of the clothe itselfe, set with the said twisted
-      lace, and the buttons of russet silke and golde.”</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_310">310</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="i_310"><img src="images/i_310.jpg" width="168" height="137" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">Sir William Russell. 1590.<br />
-      From Planché’s <i>Cyclopœdia of Costume</i>.</div>
-    </div>
-
-  <p>’Prentices wore a dress very much like that of the Blue Coat Boys,
-    but with a flat cap. A citizen’s servant wore a blue livery. Knots of
-    ribbons were tied on the shoes. The women gathered round the conduit
-    and the bakehouse for gossip. The tradesmen issued their own tokens
-    which passed current. Girls who served in the shops were taken on
-    Sundays by their sweethearts to Islington or Pimlico. Shops were
-    furnished with cudgels for the use of ’prentices in case of a fight.
-    The cudgels were called by various endearing names, but the favourite
-    name was a “Plymouth Cloak.” Clothes were washed at the riverside on
-    wood or a flat stone. The love of fine dress is charged as a fault of
-    the fair Londoners. Why they should be blamed for desiring what all
-    men desire, viz. the appearance of bravery and splendour, is hard to
-    understand. The sumptuary laws which were passed from time to time
-    appear to have been intended not so much to prevent the gratification
-    of this instinctive desire as to make different classes proclaim their
-    rank and station by their dress. A tradesman, in fact, must not appear
-    as a gentleman; nor a craftsman as a master. In a word, there was a
-    constant feeling that rank should be indicated by outward apparel, and
-    that every one should proclaim his station by his garments. Thus the
-    Act of 1464 ordered</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“That none below the dignity of a lord or knight of the garter, or
-      their wives, should be allowed to wear purple, or any manner of
-      cloth of gold, velvet or sable furs, under a penalty of 20 marks.
-      That none below knights, bachelors, mayors, and aldermen, and their
-      wives, should wear satin or ermine, under a penalty of 10 marks.
-      That none but such as had possessions to the amount of 40s. per
-      annum should be permitted to wear fustian, bustian, or scarlet
-      cloth, and no fur, but black or white lamb, on forfeiture of 40s.</p>
-
-    <p>That no yeoman, nor any under that degree, should be allowed to
-      stuff or bolster their doublets, to wear short cloaks or jackets,
-      or shoes with pikes passing the length of eleven inches, under a
-      penalty of 20s.</p>
-
-    <p>That no husbandman should use broad cloth at above 11s. a yard, nor
-      hose above 14d. a pair: nor their wives kerchiefs whereof the price
-      should exceed 12d. nor girdles harnessed with silver, upon pain of
-      forfeiting at every default 40d.</p>
-
-    <p>And because foreign kerchiefs were brought into the country, and
-      sold at such extravagant prices, it was ordained that any one
-      selling lawne, nyfell, umple, or other manner of kerchief whereof
-      the price should exceed 10s. the seller should forfeit a mark for
-      every one that he sold above that price.”</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="i_310_1">
-    <img src="images/i_310_1.jpg" width="600" height="614" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption">COURT OF WARDS AND LIVERIES IN THE TIME OF ELIZABETH<br />
-    From Planché’s <i>Cyclopædia of Costume</i>.<br />
-    <p>The person at the head of the table appears to be Lord Burghley;
-      on either side of him is a judge, who may have been there as
-      assessors. The next on the left side is Thomas Seckford, who held
-      the office of Surveyor from 1580 to 1589. The one opposite may be
-      Richard Kingsmill, Attorney from 1582 to 1589. The third on the
-      left side may be George Goring, Receiver-General from 1583 to 1593.
-      The opposite person with a book open may be William Tooke, Auditor
-      1551 to 1588. The three persons at the lower end of the table are
-      clerks. At the left hand side next the end is the Usher with a rod.
-      In 1578 Marmaduke Servant held this office. Opposite to him on the
-      other side stands the Messenger, who in 1565 was Leonard Taylor.
-      This picture was probably made about 1585.</p>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>To those who take the worthy Philip Stubbes quite seriously and
-    literally, the Elizabethan age will appear more than commonly wicked
-    and unscrupulous; to <span class="pagenum" id="Page_311">311</span>those who are ready to make allowance for
-    the exaggerated indignation of the satirist, the narrowness of the
-    Puritan, and the real and genuine craving after equity, justice, and
-    honesty, it will become manifest that the age contained, like every
-    other age, grave abuses, great injustices, and much small meanness
-    and trickery. Laws were passed attempting to restrain the tricks of
-    clothiers, tanners, shoemakers, and “brokers,” <i>i.e.</i> pawnbrokers and
-    marine store-dealers. These laws failed, as all such laws must fail,
-    because men who wish to cheat will cheat in spite of any laws that may
-    be passed. In truth there is very little in Stubbes but does not belong
-    to every town and every age. He laments the pride of the age. So does
-    every satirist. Especially he laments Pride of Apparel. Take their hats
-    for instance:—</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“Sometimes they use them sharp on the crowne, pearking up like a
-      spere, or shafte of a steeple, standing a quarter of a yard above
-      the crowne of their heades; some more, some lesse, as please the
-      phantasies of their inconstant mindes. Othersome be flat and broad
-      on the crowne, like the battlementes of a house. An other sort have
-      round crownes, sometymes with one kinde of bande, sometymes with
-      an other; now blacke, now white, now russet, now red, now grene,
-      now yellowe, now this, nowe that, never content with one colour or
-      fashion two daies to an ende....</p>
-
-    <p>And as the fashions bee rare and straunge, so is the stuffe wherof
-      their hattes be made, divers also; for some are of silke, some
-      of velvet, some of taffatie, some of sarcenet, some of wooll,
-      and, whiche is more curious, some of a certaine kind of fine
-      haire.... And so common a thinge it is, that everie servingman,
-      countrieman, and other, even all indifferently, do weare of these
-      hattes. For he is of no account or estimation amongst men, if hee
-      have not a velvet or a taffatie hatte, and that muste bee pincked
-      and cunningly carved of the beste fashion. And good profitable
-      hattes bee these, for the longer you weare them the fewer holes
-      they haue. Besides this, of late there is a new fashion of wearyng
-      their hattes sprung up amongst them, which they father upon the
-      Frenchmen, namely, to weare them without bandes; but how unseemely
-      (I will not saie how assie) a fashion that is, let the wise judge;
-      notwithstanding, howe ever it be, if it please them, it shall not
-      displease me. And an other sort (as phantasticall as the rest) are
-      content with no kinde of hat without a greate bunche of feathers
-      of divers and sundrie colours, peakyng on top of their heades, not
-      unlike (I dare not saie) Cockescombes, but as sternes of pride and
-      ensigns of vanitie.” (Stubbes, 1836 edition, p. 38.)</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <div class="col col30">
-    <div class="figcenter">
-      <a id="i_311a"><img src="images/i_311a.jpg" width="153" height="185" alt="" /></a>
-      <div class="caption">Robert de Vere, Earl of Oxford.</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-  <div class="col col30">
-    <div class="figcenter">
-      <a id="i_311b"><img src="images/i_311b.jpg" width="163" height="185" alt="" /></a>
-      <div class="caption">John Clinch, Chief Justice of the
-        Common Pleas. 1584.</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-  <div class="col col40">
-    <div class="figcenter">
-      <a id="i_311c"><img src="images/i_311c.jpg" width="217" height="185" alt="" /></a>
-      <div class="caption">Sir Edward Coke, Chief Justice of the King’s Bench. 1613.</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="caption center">From Planché’s <i>Cyclopædia of Costume</i>.</div>
-
-  <p>Marriages took place at an earlier age than is now common, both for
-    men<span class="pagenum" id="Page_312">312</span> and for women. An unmarried girl of twenty was regarded as an old
-    maid. Thus in the <i>Crowne Garland of Golden Roses</i> the maiden laments
-    her virginity:—</p>
-
-  <div class="center-container">
-    <div class="poem">
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i0">“Twenty winters have I seen,</div>
-        <div class="i1">And as many summers greene,</div>
-        <div class="i1">’Tis long enough to breed despaire</div>
-        <div class="i1">So long a maidenhead to beare;</div>
-        <div class="i1">’Tis a burden of such waight</div>
-        <div class="i1">That I would faine be eas’d of’t straight;</div>
-        <div class="i1">But alasse! I am afraid</div>
-        <div class="i1">I shall live and die a maid.”</div>
-      </div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>The betrothal took place forty days before the wedding:—</p>
-
-  <div class="center-container">
-    <div class="poem">
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i0">“A contract of eternal bond of love,</div>
-        <div class="i1">Confirmed by mutual joinder of your hands,</div>
-        <div class="i1">Attested by the holy close of lips,</div>
-        <div class="i1">Strengthened by interchangement of your rings;</div>
-        <div class="i1">And all the ceremony of this compact</div>
-        <div class="i1">Seal’d in my function, by my testimony.”</div>
-      </div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p class="noindent">To make the betrothal binding there were, therefore, four points to be
-    observed: (1) The joining of hands; (2) the exchange of kisses; (3) the
-    exchange of rings; (4) the testimony of witnesses.</p>
-
-  <p>After the betrothal, the wedding:—</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“The procession accompanying a rural bride, of some consequence,
-      or of the middle rank, to church was as follows:—The bride, being
-      attired in a gown of sheep’s russet, and a kirtle of fine worsted,
-      her hair attired with a ‘billement of gold’ (decorated with long
-      chains of gold), and her hair as yellow as gold hanging down behind
-      her, which was curiously combed and plaited, was led to the church
-      between two sweet boys, with bride laces and rosemary tied about
-      their silken sleeves. There was carried before her a fair bride-cup
-      of silver, gilt, filled with hippocras and garnished with a goodly
-      branch of rosemary, which stands for constancy. The cup was hung
-      about with silken ribbands of all colours. Musicians followed, then
-      a group of maidens, some bearing bride-cakes, others garlands of
-      wheat finely gilded; and thus they passed on to the church.”</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <p>The wedding customs were very pretty. The bride, like all unmarried
-    women, wore a dress which exposed a portion of her bosom—you may
-    see how far the exposure went by looking at any portrait of Queen
-    Elizabeth; she wore her hair flowing. Some girls married very early,
-    even at fifteen, which was considered quite old enough to undertake the
-    duties of a wife. On the way to and from the church, wheat was thrown
-    on the head of the bride, just as rice is thrown now, as a symbol of
-    fruitfulness to follow. The wedding guests wore scarves, gloves, and
-    favours; cake—the bride-cake—was taken to the Church and distributed
-    after the ceremony; brooches were also given to the young men and
-    maidens present. Then the cup of wine was sent round: the “knitting”
-    cup, or the “contracting” cup; and then, carrying in her hand a piece
-    of gilt rosemary, the bride led the way home, where, for three days,
-    festivities, masques, mumming, music, dancing, feasting, and drinking
-    were carried on. In some of the churches special pews were provided
-    for newly married couples, who sat in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_313">313</span> them and listened, while the
-    preacher discoursed on “The Bride’s Bush” or “The Wedding Garment
-    Beautified.”</p>
-
-  <p>In 1584 the Puritans got in a Bill permitting to marry at all seasons
-    and on every day of the year. It had been the endeavour of the Bishops
-    to keep Lent as a season in which there was to be no marrying or giving
-    in marriage. Meantime, the keeping of Lent remained, if only as an
-    outward sign of revolt against the Puritans.</p>
-
-  <p>When there was a christening it was conducted in the mother’s bedroom.
-    After the service, the sponsors presented “Postle Spoons”; then, of
-    course, they sat down to a solid feast, or, at least, a drink—nothing
-    could be done without a drink; comfits were handed round with the wine,
-    and it was not unusual for some of the guests to go away royally drunk.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="i_313"><img src="images/i_313.jpg" width="600" height="235" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">THE CHRISTENING OF PRINCE ARTHUR<br />
-      From a historical print in the British Museum.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>An example of a marriage feast is that of one Coke, citizen, with the
-    daughter of Mr. Nicolls, Master of London Bridge. My Lord Mayor and
-    all the Aldermen, with many ladies and other worshipful men and women,
-    were present at the wedding. Mr. Bacon, an eminent divine, preached
-    the wedding sermon. After the discourse the company went home to the
-    Bridge House to dinner, where was as good cheer as ever was known—Stow
-    says so, and he knew very well—with all manner of music and dancing,
-    and at night a masque till midnight. But this was only half the feast,
-    for next day the wedding was again kept at the Bridge House with great
-    cheer. After supper more mumming, after that more masques. One was in
-    cloth of gold, the next consisted of friars, and the third of nuns.
-    First the friars and the nuns danced separately, one company after the
-    other, and then they danced together.</p>
-
-  <p>At a funeral the mourners first assembled at the house where lay
-    the coffin. Here the clergyman made a speech on the virtues of the
-    deceased. On the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_314">314</span> coffin stood a jug or pot of wine which was passed
-    round as a loving-cup. Then every one laid branches on the coffin;
-    money was given to the children; to the mourners ribbons, scarves, and
-    gloves were distributed; rosemary was laid in the coffin and placed
-    in the mourners’ hats; as for what followed, we may take the funerals
-    described by Machyn. First, the Company to which the deceased belonged,
-    attended in their livery; the Company of Clerks attended the funerals
-    of the better class and sang over the grave; black gowns were given
-    to as many poor men and poor women as the condition of the deceased
-    permitted. When a great citizen died, like Master Husee, “squire and
-    a grett marchand ventorer and of Muskovia and haberdasher,” he was
-    followed by a hundred mourners; he had five pennons of arms, and a
-    “cotte armur,” and “two heralds of arms, Master Clarenshux and Master
-    Somerset.” He was attended by the Choir of St. Paul’s and by the
-    Company of Clerks; they buried him at St. Martin’s, Ludgate Hill; the
-    church was hung with black and with escutcheons of arms; the Reader of
-    St. Paul’s preached “both days.”</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="i_314"><img src="images/i_314.jpg" width="600" height="480" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">The order and maner of burying in the Fields such as
-        dyed in prison, and namely, of William Wiseman.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_315">315</span></p>
-
-  <p>Master Flammock, grocer, who died in 1560, was apparently a Puritan.
-    Many gowns were bestowed by his executors; he was taken to the church
-    without singing or clerks, and was buried with a psalm, “after
-    Genevay,” and a sermon.</p>
-
-  <p>Lady Dobbes, the wife of Sir Richard Dobbes, was buried with a pennon
-    of armes and four dozen and five escutcheons; many black gowns were
-    given. “Master Recherdson mad the sermon, and the clarkes syngyng and a
-    dolle of money of xx nobulles, and a grete dinner after and the compane
-    of the Skynners in ther leverey.”</p>
-
-  <p>Master Hulson, scrivener, was one of the Masters in Bridewell; so the
-    Masters of Bridewell attended his funeral with green staves in their
-    hands, and all their children, “and there was great syngyng as ever was
-    heard.” And when we have added that after most of these notes occur
-    this passage, “And all dune to the place, fir there was a great dener,”
-    we have said all that need be said about a civic funeral.</p>
-
-  <p>One detail is not mentioned by Machyn. This is the custom observed till
-    quite recently in Yorkshire, of hanging a garland or wreath of ribbons
-    in the chancel of a church when a girl died unmarried. This custom had
-    many forms, one or other of which was certainly observed in London. It
-    was considered unlucky to carry away a piece of ribbon; if the wreath
-    dropped to pieces, all the pieces were buried in the churchyard.</p>
-
-  <p>Persons of distinction continued to be buried within the walls of the
-    church.</p>
-
-  <p>Some Companies and some parish churches still preserve funeral palls
-    which have been presented to them at various times for the use of the
-    members and parishioners. Thus, in May 1848, Mr. William Wansey, Prime
-    Warden of the Fishmongers’ Company, exhibited a funeral pall of most
-    beautiful and elaborate workmanship, formed of cloth of gold richly
-    embroidered.</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“This interesting relic has been preserved in the possession of the
-      Fishmongers’ Company, having doubtless been originally used at the
-      interments of its more distinguished members. No account of the
-      acquisition of this fine specimen of decoration, or of the precise
-      period when it was executed, has been preserved, and the earlier
-      records of the Company were destroyed in the fire of London; its
-      date may be attributed to the earlier part of the sixteenth, or
-      the close of the previous century. The designs which decorate the
-      head and foot of the pall are precisely similar, and the two sides
-      likewise correspond exactly in design. On the former is presented
-      St. Peter, the patron of fishermen, receiving from the Saviour
-      the keys of heaven and hell; the embroideries on the two sides
-      represent St. Peter enthroned, crowned with the tiara, with angels
-      kneeling one on either side, throwing their censers towards him. On
-      each side of this subject is introduced an escutcheon of the arms
-      of the Company, with supporters. Nothing can exceed the delicacy
-      of execution displayed in this remarkable specimen of needle-work:
-      the countenances are full of expression, and the colours are
-      generally remarkable for freshness and brilliancy. Another funeral
-      pall of great beauty is in the possession of the Saddlers’ Company,
-      and has been accurately represented in Mr. Shaw’s <i>Dresses and
-        Decorations</i>.” (<i>Archæologia</i>, xxxi.)</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <hr class="page" />
-  <div class="chapter" id="CHAPTER_4e">
-    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_316">316</span>
-    <h3>
-      <span class="gespertt1">CHAPTER IV</span><br />
-      <span class="subhead">SOLDIERS</span>
-    </h3>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="i_316"><img src="images/i_316.jpg" width="468" height="453" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">SOLDIERS OF THE PERIOD<br />
-      From Meyrick’s <i>Inquiry into Antient Armour</i>.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p class="noindent">“<span class="smcap">By</span> an Act of Parliament, 27 Henry II., 1181, called ‘An Assize
-    of Arms,’ confirmed and enlarged by 13 Edward I., 1285, every
-    man, according to his estate and degree, was obliged to provide a
-    determinate quantity of such arms and armour as were then in use.<a id="FNanchor_11" href="#Footnote_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a>
-    Constables were provided to see that their arms were correct, and
-    proper persons, at stated periods, were appointed to <i>muster and train</i>
-    them.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_317">317</span>
-    Every Freeman that had in chattels or rent to the value of sixteen
-    marks was to have a coat of mail (<i>loricam</i>), a helmet (<i>cassidem</i>),
-    a shield, and a lance; and so in proportion to his wealth. Another
-    Assize of Arms was passed 36 Henry III., 1252, and in 1285 the Statute
-    of Winchester. These made some alterations in the qualification and
-    in the weapon. By 27 Edward I., 1298, armed horses were ordered to be
-    provided. The Statute of 4 and 5 Philip and Mary, c. 3, 1537, changed
-    the weapons for those of more modern construction. It also provided
-    that all persons having an estate valued at £1000 or more should,
-    after the 1st of May 1558, keep six horses and ten light horses,
-    with furniture, etc. By the 33 Henry VIII., c. 5, Commissioners were
-    appointed to see that the inhabitants of cities and boroughs were
-    properly provided with arms, etc. Thus cities, according to their
-    wealth or position, were obliged to have ready so many trained men.
-    In 1335 the City of London provided twenty-five men in arms and 500
-    archers for the war against France. In 1360, 1400 to serve in France.
-    Henry VIII. called upon the City to supply him with 1500 men in July
-    1545. The French threatening the Isle of Wight, on the 4th of August
-    1545, the citizens sent 1000 soldiers to Dover. In 1557 Queen Mary
-    caused a levy to be made of 1000 horsemen, 4000 footmen, and 2000
-    pioneers, to assist Philip of Spain against the King of France. In
-    1558 another was made to protect Calais; and in 1560 another to assist
-    the Queen’s Troops against the French, who were besieging Leith,
-    in Scotland. In 1562 a large number were sent to serve at Havre de
-    Grace. Orders were received from the Council in 1578 to keep 2000 men
-    in readiness. The Lord Mayor, in 1580, issued a precept assessing
-    the Companies for providing and furnishing 1000 men. The Stationers’
-    Company had to provide twenty men, thirteen shot, and seven pikemen.
-    The cost of their provision, furnishing, and training was £20:10:4; and
-    for powder and other charges, £11:3s. In 1585, 4000 men, with armour,
-    ensigns, drums, fifes, and other furniture for the wars, the greater
-    part being shot, mustered at Mile End, 14th April, and were reviewed
-    by Queen Elizabeth, 18th May. In 1596 the City twice raised, in less
-    than twelve hours, 1000 men, completely armed, for the relief of the
-    French, besieged by the Spaniards, in Calais. In 1589, 1000 men were
-    provided, fully equipped, to assist in placing Henry of Navarre on the
-    French throne. In 1600, 500 men for service in Ireland. In 1624, 2000
-    for the Low Countries. In 1638–40, 200 men in all, for service against
-    the Scots.”</p>
-
-  <p>There was an ancient and time-honoured march, known as the “old English
-    march,” which fell into disuse some time before the accession of
-    Charles the First, when Sir Edward Cecil, Lord Wimbledon, persuaded
-    the King to issue a warrant, ordering it to be revived. The point
-    raised is extremely interesting. The Warrant runs thus—it is dated
-    7th Feb. 1632:—“Whereas the ancient custome of Nations hath ever bene
-    to use one certaine and constant forme of march in the warres, whereby
-    to be distinguished one from another: and whereas the march of this
-    our<span class="pagenum" id="Page_318">318</span> English Nation, so famous in all honourable achievements and
-    glorious warres of this our Kingdome in forraigne parts (being, by the
-    approbation of Strangers themselves, confessed and acknowledged the
-    best of all Marches) was, through the negligence and carelessness of
-    drummers, and by long discontinuance, so altered and changed from the
-    ancient gravitie and majestie thereof, as it was in danger utterly to
-    have bene lost and forgotten. It pleased our late deare brother prince
-    Henry to revive and rectifie the same, by ordayning an establishment
-    of one certaine Measure which was beaten in his presence at Greenwich,
-    anno 1610. In confirmation whereof, wee are graciously pleased, at the
-    instance and humble sute of our right trusty, etc., Edward, Viscount
-    Wimbledon, etc., to set down and ordaine this present establishment
-    hereunder expressed. Willing and commanding all drummers within our
-    Kingdome of England and principalitie of Wales exactly and precisely to
-    observe the same as well in this our Kingdome as abroad in the service
-    of any forraigne prince or state without any addition or alteration
-    whatsoever. To the end that so ancient, famous, and commendable a
-    custome may be preserved as a patterne and precedent to all posteritie.”</p>
-
-  <div class="figleft col35">
-    <div class="center">
-      <a id="i_318"><img src="images/i_318.jpg" width="245" height="484" alt="" /></a>
-      <div class="caption">YEOMAN OF THE GUARD, TIME OF HENRY VIII.<br />
-        E. Gardner’s Collection.</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>About the time of Henry the Seventh we first find mention made of coat-
-    and conduct-money, a clothing allowance and subsistence for men on
-    joining the army, which was sometimes advanced by the counties where
-    the men were raised, to be afterwards repaid by the Government. These
-    charges varied according to the times. In 1492 the conduct-money was
-    calculated at the rate of 6d. for every twenty miles each soldier
-    should march, to be reckoned from his residence to the place of joining
-    the army; each soldier to swear to the number of the miles marched by
-    him. In 1574 it was fixed at a halfpenny per mile. In 1627, coat-money
-    to have been settled at 12s. 6d., and conduct-money at 8d. per diem,
-    accounting twelve miles for a day’s march. In 1640 it was 8d. per diem,
-    but the day’s march was not less than fifteen miles.</p>
-
-  <p>In dress and weapons armour had not yet disappeared, but it was much
-    less cumbrous. The corselet, with a morion, or open head-piece, and
-    thigh guards were still in general use; but plates of armour were
-    frequently fastened to any<span class="pagenum" id="Page_319">319</span> ordinary tunic for the defence of the
-    shoulders, arms, and chest. The pike-men, with their twenty-foot
-    pikes, wore corselets, and were much disinclined to march more than
-    five or six miles a day, owing to the weight of their dresses and
-    weapons. The bill-men were in lighter armour, and their weapons were
-    shorter than the pike, but very effective against cavalry. The bill
-    was a hook-shaped blade fastened to a wooden staff, with a projecting
-    prong at the end and back. Pike-men and bill-men were employed in
-    protecting archers from cavalry and in covering such field-guns as
-    were in use. Civic guards and watchmen were armed with bills. The
-    archers wore a buff-padded jacket, with sometimes an under-shirt of
-    light chain-armour. A jerkin, of leather or cloth, was indiscriminately
-    worn by all ranks. The firearms were of two kinds, leaving out of view
-    artillery. The first<span class="pagenum" id="Page_320">320</span> could be fired with a rest, and the second were
-    practically very light artillery. The harquebus and the small petronel
-    belonged to the first class, and the culverin, the long petronel, and
-    the muschite (from the French mosquet, a hawk) to the second. Two
-    men were required to handle the weapons of the second class. They
-    had long barrels. They were fired with a match, the barrels resting
-    on an iron fork sticking in the ground. The harquebus was originally
-    a musket-stock with a bow fixed to it; but the term was now used to
-    mean the long-barrelled hand-gun with a touch hole and priming pan and
-    trigger on the right side, which was rapidly driving out other weapons
-    and rendering armour useless.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="i_319"><img src="images/i_319.jpg" width="449" height="571" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">A KNIGHT IN ARMOUR<br />
-      From Meyrick’s <i>Inquiry into Antient Armour</i>.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figleft col20">
-    <div class="center">
-      <a id="i_320"><img src="images/i_320.jpg" width="117" height="282" alt="" /></a>
-      <div class="caption">PIKEMAN<br />
-        From Grose’s <i>Military Antiquities</i>.</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>Musters of the citizens were frequent in the reign of Henry the Eighth
-    and Queen Elizabeth.<a id="FNanchor_12" href="#Footnote_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> A history of the muster of the citizens on the
-    8th of May 1539, the 31st of Henry the Eighth, is given at length in
-    the <i>Records of the Corporation</i>, Journal 14, folio 166. “They marched
-    from Mile end to Whitehall, and from thence to Leadenhall, Sir Wm.
-    Forman, Knt., Lord Mayor was in bright harness, whereof the curass, the
-    maynsers, gaunteletts and other parts were gilt upon the crests and
-    bordures, and with that he had a coat of black velvet with a rich cross
-    embroidered, and a great massy chain of gold about his neck, and on his
-    head a cap of black velvet with a rich jewel, he had a goodly jennett
-    richly trapped, with embroidery of gold set upon crimson velvet. About
-    him attended 4 foot men, all apparelled in white satin hose and all
-    puffed over with white sarcenet.” In 1559, July 2 and 3, according to
-    <i>Stow’s Chronicle</i>, edit. 1615, p. 639, “the Citizens mustered before
-    Queen Elizabeth in Greenwich Park, 1400 men being present; 800 pikemen
-    in fine corselets; 400 harquebuts in shirts of maile, with morins; and
-    200 halberters in Alman rivets.” A large number of the citizens were
-    also present. The price of armour at this date, as given in several
-    records, was for “a Corslett, 30s.; Harquebus complete, 8s.; a Murrion,
-    6s. 8d.; Almaine rivette, 10s.; a musket, flask, touch-box and tassels,
-    17s. 6d.; Gunpowder, 12d. per pound.”</p>
-
-  <p>Here, for instance (<i>Archæologia</i>, vol. xxxii. p. 32), is an account of
-    a muster before Henry the Eighth.</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“Than the sayd lorde mayor and hys brethren assemblyd thym selffs
-      ageyn, and after longe consultac’on, they fyrst determyned, that
-      no alyen, although he were a denyzen, shuld mustre, but onely mere
-      Englysshmen; ffurther they thought yt not convenyent that all the hole
-      number of Englysshmen shulde mustre and goo owte of the cytye for
-      especyall consyderac’ons; nor that suche as had jakks, brygandynes,
-      or cotes of fence, shulde goo yn the mustre, but onely they appoynted
-      <span class="pagenum" id="Page_321">321</span>syche whiche were hable p’sones, &amp; hadde whyte harnes with whyte
-      cotes, bowes, arrowes, halberds, bills or polaxes; and none other
-      except soche as bare moryse pykes or handgonnes, whiche onely hadde
-      plents and sculls, with whyte cotes and whyte cappes with fethers;
-      and all thys company was comaunded to be yn whyte hose and clenly
-      shodde. Whan yt was knowen that the Kyng hymselff wolde se the Mustre,
-      to se howe gladly ev’y man p’pared hym, what desyre ev’y man had
-      to do hys prince s’rvice yt was a joyfull syght to beholde of ev’y
-      Inglysshman. Than ev’y man of substance provyded hymself a cote of
-      sylke, &amp; garnished theyre bassenetts with turbes of sylke sett with
-      broches, ouches and fethers; some had theyre harnes and polaxes
-      gylted, some had theyr breastplates cov’yd with sylvr bullyon—ev’y
-      man devysed to doo hys best to s’ve hys prynce and of thys sorte the
-      most parte had chaynes of golde. The meaner sorte were yn cotes of
-      white cotton, clenly hosed and shodde with the armes of the cytye
-      before &amp; behynde. The constables were all yn jouetts of whyte sylke
-      over theyre harnes, with battayl axes gylt, &amp; chaynes abowte theyre
-      necks. The sayd lorde mayor, aldermen, recorder, shryves, &amp; such as
-      hadde bene shryeves, were yn whyte harnes, &amp; o’vr that cotes of black
-      velvet, with the armes of the cytye rychely pyrled and embroderyd upon
-      the same, with great chaynes of golde about theyre necks, mountyd on
-      good horsses well styrryng &amp; rychely trapped, with battell axes yn
-      theyre handes, &amp; cappes of velvett yn theyre heddes; and ev’y alderman
-      had iiij halberdars yn whyte sylke or buffe cotes attendyng on thej,
-      with gylt halbards, and the mayer had xvj apparrellyd as you shall
-      here hereafter; all theys were<span class="pagenum" id="Page_322">322</span> captayns of the bataylls, as you shall
-      p’ceyve yn theyre settyng forward. The chamberlayn and councellors
-      of the cytye, &amp; the aldermens deputyes whiche were assigned to be
-      wyffelers on horsebacke, were all yn cotes of whyte damask over theyr
-      harnes, mountyd on good horsses, well trappyd, with great chaynes
-      abowte theyre necks, and propre javilyns or battle axes yn theyre
-      handes, with cappes of velvett on theyre heddes with ryche ouches. The
-      wyffelers on fote were iiij C. propre lyght p’sones app’ellyd yn whyte
-      sylke or buffe jerkyns, without harnes, or whyte hose and whyte shoes,
-      every man havyng a slaugh sworde or a javelyn to kepe the people yn
-      araye, with chaynes abowte theyre necks and fethers yn theyre cappes.
-      The mynstrells also were all yn whyte, and so were the standard berers,
-      which were the tallyst men yn ev’y warde, all app’ellyd yn sylke, for
-      whome were made XXX newe standards with the devyses of the Cytye.... To
-      see howe full of lordes, ladyes, and gentilwomen the wyndowes yn every
-      strete were, and howe the strets of the cytye were replenysshed with
-      people, many men wolde have thought that they that musteryd had rather
-      byn straungers than cytezens, consydering that the stretes everywhere
-      were so full of people, whiche was to straungers a great mervell. To
-      reporte what good order the cytezens kept yn passing forward; what
-      payne the wyffelers bothe on horseback &amp; fote tooke yn keepyng the
-      soulders yn araye; howe ryche the juells, chaynes, and app’ell were;
-      how many goodly, talle, &amp; comley men were there, &amp; the nombre of
-      the same, my wytt ys insuffycyent to exp’sse or my penne to write.
-      Wherfore, I remytt theys poynts to theym that sawe and nombret them,
-      and desyeryng them to remember the nombre that passed yn the muster,
-      and not to forget yn theyr accompt theym that taryed at home or stode
-      yn the stretes, for the one without the other sheweth not the hole
-      puyssance of the cytye. But, whatsoever was doon and what payne so ever
-      was takyn, all was to the cytezens a great gladness.”</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="i_321"><img src="images/i_321.jpg" width="230" height="323" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">MUSKETEER<br />
-      From Grose’s <i>Military Antiquities</i>.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>It will thus be seen that military array had arrived at a new and
-    quite another kind of splendour. Armour had not gone out, but it was
-    less cumbrous, and people believed less in its value. It availed to a
-    certain extent against sword and pike, but not at all against bullet.
-    The pikemen who carried pikes eighteen or twenty feet in length wore a
-    breastplate; the billmen had lighter armour, their weapon was a hook or
-    a staff. Both pikemen and billmen were employed in covering field-guns
-    against cavalry. Watchmen also carried bills. The firearms were the
-    harquebus or arquebus; the small petronel; the culverin; the long
-    petronel and the musket. The larger kinds were fired with the barrel
-    resting on a fork stuck in the ground. Swords and daggers were, of
-    course, carried, and gentlemen wore expensive chain and plate armour.</p>
-
-  <p>Henry VIII. had a wonderful suit of armour made in Germany. It was
-    engraved with illustrations from the lives of martyrs and saints, some
-    of which are reproduced on <a href="#Page_382">p. 382</a>, from the illustrations given in
-    <i>Archæologia</i>.</p>
-
-  <hr class="page" />
-  <div class="chapter" id="CHAPTER_5e">
-    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_323">323</span>
-    <h3>
-      <span class="gespertt1">CHAPTER V</span><br />
-      <span class="subhead">THE ’PRENTICE</span>
-    </h3>
-  </div>
-
-  <p class="noindent"><span class="smcap">This</span> chapter is inserted in the Tudor period because the ’Prentice in
-    that century arrived at the height of his power and importance, chiefly
-    as a disturber of the peace. The following pages sum up the regulations
-    on the subject from the fifteenth to the eighteenth century, both
-    inclusive.</p>
-
-  <p>The importance of the apprentice system caused many ordinances and
-    regulations to be passed from time to time. Thus in 1406 no persons
-    were allowed to put out their children as apprentices who had not
-    land to the value of 20 shillings a year, a regulation intended, in a
-    populous town, to keep up the <i>status</i> of trades and crafts. The Act
-    was, however, found impossible to work, and was repealed in 1429 “to
-    the great satisfaction of the citizens.” Later on, in 1486, another
-    attempt was made to restrict the Freedom of the City, and to keep
-    out “mean and improper” persons by an ordinance that no apprentice
-    should be taken nor freedom given except to such as were “gentlemen
-    born”—this is Maitland’s statement—“agreeable to the clause in the
-    oath given to every freeman at the time he was made free, in these
-    words, ‘Ye shall take none apprentice but if he be freeborn: that is to
-    say, no Bondman’s son, nor the son of any alien.’” It does not appear,
-    however, from the oath, that the freeman was required to be a gentleman
-    unless every freeborn person is a gentleman. How could a blacksmith or
-    a journeyman saddler be a gentleman?</p>
-
-  <p>In 1527 the Common Council passed a stringent rule as to the treatment
-    of Apprentices:—</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“‘If hereafter any Freeman or Freewoman of this City take any
-      Apprentice, and within the Term of seven Years suffer the same
-      Apprentice to go at his large Liberty and Pleasure; and within or
-      after the said Term agree with his said Apprentice for a certain Sum
-      of Money, or otherwise, for his said service, and within or after the
-      End of the said Term, the said Freeman present the said Apprentice to
-      the Chamberlain of the City, and by good Deliberation, and upon his
-      Oath made to the same City, the same Freeman or Freewoman assureth and
-      affirmeth to the said Chamberlain, that the said Apprentice hath fully
-      served his<span class="pagenum" id="Page_324">324</span> said Term as Apprentice: Or if any Freeman or Freewoman of
-      this City take any Apprentice which at the Time of the said taking hath
-      any Wife: Or, if any Freeman or Freewoman of this City, give any Wages
-      to his or her Apprentice, or suffer the said Apprentices to take any
-      Part of their own Getting of Gains: Or if any Freeman or Freewoman of
-      this City hereafter colour any foreign Goods, or from henceforth buy or
-      sell for any Person or Persons, or with or to any Person or Persons,
-      being foreign or Foreigners, Cloths, Silks, Wine, Oils, or any other
-      Goods or Merchandize, whatsoever they be, whether he take any Thing or
-      Things for his or their Wages or Labour, or not: Or if any Person or
-      Persons being Free of this City, by any Colour or deceitful Means, from
-      henceforth do buy, sell, or receive of any Apprentice within this City,
-      any Money, Goods, Merchandize, or Wares, without the Assent or Licence
-      of his Master or Mistress; and upon Examination duly proved before the
-      Chamberlain of the said City for the Time being, and the same reported
-      by the Mouth of the said Chamberlain, at a Court to be holden by the
-      Mayor and the Aldermen of the same City in their Council-Chamber: That
-      as well the said Master, as the said Apprentice, shall for evermore be
-      disfranchised. <i>God save the King!</i>’” (Maitland, vol. i. pp. 229–230.)</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <p>To which was added an admonition to the Apprentices:—</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“‘Ye shall constantly and devoutly on your Knees, every Day, serve God,
-      Morning and Evening, and make Conscience in the due Hearing of the Word
-      preached, and endeavour the right Practice thereof on your Life and
-      Conversation. You shall do diligent and faithful Service to your Master
-      for the Time of your Apprenticeship, and deal truly in what you shall
-      be trusted. You shall often read over the Covenants of your Indenture,
-      and see and endeavour yourself to perform the same, to the utmost of
-      your Power. You shall avoid all evil Company, and all Occasions which
-      may tend to draw you to the same; and make speedy Return when you shall
-      be sent of your Masters and Mistresses Business. You shall be of fair,
-      gentle, and lowly Speech and Behaviour towards all Men, and especially
-      to all your Governors. And according to your Carriage, expect your
-      Reward, for Good or Ill, from God and your Friends.’” (Maitland, vol.
-      i. p. 230.)</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <p>The history of “Evil May Day” (p. 24) is an illustration of the growing
-    turbulence of the ‘Prentices and the relaxation of order and discipline
-    in the City generally. The wards, in fact, had become too thickly
-    populated for the old and simple rule of a peripatetic alderman and
-    his sergeants: the turbulence was a sign of their weakness; yet three
-    hundred years were to pass before an efficient night and day police
-    could be established as the only remedy.</p>
-
-  <p>In the year 1582 an ordinance concerning the apparel of the ‘Prentice
-    shows still more clearly that he was getting out of hand. It was
-    enacted by the Lord Mayor and Common Council:—</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“That from henceforth no Apprentice whatsoever should presume: 1. To<span class="pagenum" id="Page_325">325</span>
-      wear any Apparel but what he receives from his Master. 2. To wear no
-      Hat within the City and Liberty thereof, nor any thing instead thereof,
-      than a Woollen Cap, without any Silk in or about the same. 3. To wear
-      no Ruffles, Cuffs, loose Collar, nor other thing than a Ruff at the
-      Collar, and that only of a Yard and a half long. 4. To wear no Doublets
-      but what were made of canvas, Fustian, Sackcloth, English Leather, or
-      Woollen Cloth, and without being enriched with any manner of Gold,
-      Silver, or Silk. 5. To wear no other coloured Cloth, or Kersey, in Hose
-      or Stockings, than White, Blue, or Russet. 6. To wear little Breeches,
-      of the same Stuffs as the Doublets, and without being stitched, laced
-      or bordered. 7. To wear a plain upper Coat of Cloth or Leather, without
-      Pinking, Stitching, Edging or Silk about it. 8. To wear no other
-      Surtout than a Cloth Gown or Cloak, lined or faced with Cloth, Cotton
-      or Bays, with a fixed round Collar, without Stitching, Guarding, Lace
-      or Silk. 9. To wear no Pumps, Slippers, nor Shoes, but of English
-      Leather, without being pinked, edged or stitched, nor Girdles nor
-      Garters, other than of Crewel, Woollen, Thread or Leather, without
-      being garnished. 10. To wear no Sword, Dagger, or other Weapon, but a
-      Knife; nor a Ring, Jewel of Gold, nor Silver, nor Silk in any Part of
-      the Apparel.</p>
-
-    <p>It was likewise further enacted, That every Apprentice offending
-      against any of the above-mentioned items, was for the first offence
-      to be punished at the discretion of his Master; for the second to be
-      publicly whipped at the Hall of his Company; and for the third to serve
-      six months longer than specified in his indentures. And every Master
-      conniving at the crimes of his Apprentice committed against the tenor
-      of the premises, should, for every such offence, forfeit to the poor
-      of the parish wherein he dwelt six shillings and eightpence. It was
-      also farther ordained, That no Apprentice should frequent, or go to any
-      dancing, fencing, or musical schools; nor keep any chest, press, or
-      other place for the keeping of apparel or goods, but in his Master’s
-      House, under the penalties aforesaid. And every such Master permitting
-      or allowing his Apprentice to offend in any of the said cases, to
-      forfeit as in the case of forbidden apparel.” (Maitland, vol. i. p. 267.)</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <p>Maitland, after praising this wise ordinance, laments that in his time,
-    the middle of the eighteenth century, there could not be some such good
-    law passed to restrain the “more destructive practices of our modern
-    Apprentices,” viz. keeping mistresses, keeping horses, frequenting
-    tavern clubs and playhouses, and “their great excesses in clothes,
-    Linen, periwigs, gold and silver watches, etc.” He does not tell us
-    where they got the money for these expensive luxuries, but in the
-    <i>Confession of Latroun Meriton</i> (1650) the way is fully explained: it
-    was, namely, by robbing their masters. In the year 1595 there were more
-    troubles caused by the ’Prentices. The Queen ordered sharp measures to
-    be taken:—</p>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_326">326</span></p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“‘And because such Assemblies and Routs were compounded of sundry Sorts
-      of base People; some known Apprentices, such as were of base manual
-      Occupations; some others, wandering idle Persons, of Condition, Rogues,
-      and Vagabonds; and some colouring their wandering by the Name of
-      Soldiers returning from the Wars, etc., therefore she had notified her
-      Pleasure to her Council, to prescribe certain Orders to be published
-      in and about the said City, which she would have streightly observed;
-      and, for that Purpose, that she meant to have a Provost-Marshal, with
-      sufficient Authority to apprehend all such as should not be readily
-      reformed and corrected by the ordinary Officers of Justice, and them
-      without Delay to execute upon the Gallows by Order of Martial Law. At
-      our Manor of Greenwich, the 4th of July, 1595.’” (Maitland, vol. i. pp.
-      278–279.)</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <p>Sir Thomas Welford, accordingly, was appointed Provost-Marshal. He
-    patrolled the streets with a number of horsemen armed with pistols: he
-    arrested many of the rioters, who were tried at the Guildhall. Five of
-    them were executed on Tower Hill, and the rioting ceased.</p>
-
-  <p>Of the Apprentices’ riot against the Spanish Ambassador in 1641 we have
-    heard in another place (<i>London in the Time of the Stuarts</i>, p. 38).
-    The Lord Mayor had a good deal of trouble in appeasing the Ambassador,
-    who said that he “hardly knew how to call that a City or even a Society
-    of rational creatures which was seemingly divested both of Humanity and
-    Government.”</p>
-
-  <p>At the outbreak of Civil War the ’Prentices were on the side of the
-    Parliament and enjoyed many opportunities of demonstrating their
-    views and opinions, not only without reproach, but rather with the
-    approbation of the Parliamentary party, the leaders of which encouraged
-    the young fellows to enlist in their army, as, for example, by the
-    following Proclamation:—</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“‘Whereas in Times of common Danger and Necessity the Interests of
-      private Persons ought to give way to publick, it is ordained and
-      declared by the Lords and Commons in Parliament, That such Apprentices
-      as have been, or shall be listed to serve as Soldiers, for the Defence
-      of the Religion and Liberty of the Kingdom, his Majesty’s Royal Person,
-      the Parliament, and the City of London, their Sureties, and such as
-      stand engaged for them, shall be secured against their Masters, their
-      Executors, and Administrators, from all Loss and Inconvenience by
-      Forfeiture of Bonds, Covenants, Infranchisement, or other Ways: And
-      that, after this publick Service ended, the Masters of such Apprentices
-      shall be commanded and required to receive them again into their
-      Service, without imposing upon them any Punishment, Loss, or Prejudice,
-      for their Absence in the Defence of the Commonwealth.</p>
-
-    <p>‘And the Lords and Commons do further declare, That if it shall appear,
-      that the Masters of such Apprentices have received any considerable
-      Loss by the Absence of their Apprentices, they will take Care that
-      reasonable Satisfaction be<span class="pagenum" id="Page_327">327</span> made unto them out of the publick Stock of
-      the Kingdom, according to Justice and Indifferency.’” (Maitland, vol.
-      i. p. 361.)</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <p>In 1647 two Petitions of the “Young men and apprentices” were drawn
-    up and presented to the House of Lords by the two factions in the
-    City, that in the interest of the King being signed by 10,000 hands,
-    instigated, says Maitland, by their masters.</p>
-
-  <p>The action and attitude of the City on this occasion belong to its
-    general history.</p>
-
-  <p>The custom and practice as concerns apprentices in the eighteenth
-    century are laid down by Strype in his account of the duties and rules
-    of the Chamberlain’s Court.</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“Before him, the said Chamberlain, all Apprentices are enrolled, and
-      made free; insomuch that none can set up Shop, or follow a Trade
-      within the City or Liberties, if not a Freeman, and sworn before him;
-      neither can any one turn over an Apprentice, but by his License. To
-      him all Complaints are brought for Differences betwixt Apprentices
-      and their Masters, who reconciles their Differences, and may punish,
-      by Imprisonment, those that disobey his Summons, or any Apprentice
-      that misdemeans himself to his Master or Mistress; but, upon the
-      Apprentice’s acknowledging his Fault, and begging Pardon, with Promise
-      never to offend any more, his Fault is forgiven.</p>
-
-    <p>Such Apprentices as have justly served their Term of seven Years, and
-      not broken their Indentures by Marrying, etc., are made free.</p>
-
-    <p>Upon the Admission of every Person into the Freedom of this City, the
-      Chamberlain causeth an Oath to be administered unto him, to be true to
-      the King, the Government, and observe and keep the Customs of the City;
-      which said Oath hath been mentioned before, Chap. XXIII.</p>
-
-    <p>If any Master shall refuse to make his Apprentice free, when the Term
-      of his Indenture is expired, upon Complaint made to the Chamberlain,
-      he will cause such Master to be summoned before him, and if he cannot
-      shew good Cause to the Contrary, will make the Apprentice free. And
-      if an Apprentice shall be unruly or disorderly in his Master’s House,
-      or commit any notorious Fault, upon Complaint made thereof, the
-      Chamberlain will send one of his Officers for such Apprentice, and send
-      him to Bridewell, or otherwise punish him according to the Nature of
-      the Offence.</p>
-
-    <p>If any Master shall misuse his Apprentice, by unreasonable Beating,
-      not allowing him Necessaries, or by neglecting to instruct him, or the
-      like, upon Complaint thereof made, the Chamberlain will send a Summons
-      for the Master to appear before him; and upon due Hearing both Parties,
-      will relieve the Apprentice, if his Allegations be proved to be just,
-      or else leave the Apprentice to take his remedy against his Master in
-      the Lord Mayor’s Court. And if the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_328">328</span> Master refuse to appear according
-      to his Summons, the Lord Mayor and Recorder, upon Complaint thereof
-      made unto them, will grant a Warrant to take him, and compel him to
-      appear.</p>
-
-    <p>When an Apprentice, by the Consent of his Master, is to be turned
-      over to another Master of the same trade, it must be done before the
-      Chamberlain. And it is observed, that, if an Apprentice be turned over
-      by the Company only of which the Master is free, it is no Obligation
-      on the second Master to keep such an Apprentice; nor is the Apprentice
-      compelled thereby to serve the second Master, but may depart at
-      Pleasure, by suing out his Indentures against the first Master. Which
-      may be done without the Privity or Knowledge of the second Master. And,
-      therefore, it is absolutely necessary, that all Apprentices should
-      be turned over before the Chamberlain. And thereby the first Master
-      is discharged from him, and the second obliged to keep him; and the
-      Apprentice will be obliged to serve the second Master, the full Term of
-      his Indentures, although the same were made for nine Years, or more.
-      It is the Interest of every Master and Apprentice, when any Difference
-      happens between them, to refer the Matter to the Chamberlain; who will
-      freely hear both Parties, and decide the Controversy, for 3s. Charge,
-      viz. 1s. to the Officer for the Summons, and 2s. to the Clerk for the
-      Order: Whereas, if they proceed at Law for Relief, it may probably cost
-      both Parties six Pounds, or more, in Charges; and the Conclusion may be
-      less satisfactory, than if decided by the Chamberlain.</p>
-
-    <div class="center smcap mb2">The Fees due to the City for making Free, and the enrolling
-      Apprentices.</div>
-
-    <table summary="Apprentice fees">
-      <tbody>
-        <tr>
-          <td class="tdl">An Apprentice made free, and not enrolled, the Master pays</td>
-          <td class="tdb">00 13 &nbsp; 2</td>
-        </tr>
-        <tr>
-          <td class="tdl">The Apprentice pays</td>
-          <td class="tdb">00 02 00</td>
-        </tr>
-        <tr>
-          <td class="tdl">If turned over before the Chamberlain, the Master or Mistress must pay extraordinary</td>
-          <td class="tdb">00 02 00</td>
-        </tr>
-        <tr>
-          <td class="tdl">And, by Virtue of the late Act for Orphans, over and  above these usual Fees,</td>
-          <td>&nbsp;</td>
-        </tr>
-        <tr>
-          <td class="tdl">An Apprentice, when bound, must pay</td>
-          <td class="tdb">00 02 06</td>
-        </tr>
-        <tr>
-          <td class="tdl">And when admitted a Freeman</td>
-          <td class="tdb">00 05 00</td>
-        </tr>
-      </tbody>
-    </table>
-
-    <p>If an Apprentice shall omit to take his Freedom, within convenient Time
-      after the Expiration of his Indentures, the Chamberlain may impose upon
-      the Apprentice such a Fine, in Reason, as he shall think fit, for this
-      Neglect, without just Cause to the Contrary.</p>
-
-    <p>Every Freeman ought to take particular Care not to make an Apprentice
-      free of London, by testifying for his true Service, unless such
-      Apprentice shall<span class="pagenum" id="Page_329">329</span> have really served him. For, if he shall privately
-      turn his Apprentice over to a Foreigner, and let his Apprentice
-      serve such a Foreigner, and yet testify to the Chamberlain, that the
-      Apprentice served a Freeman; in such Case, both the Master and the
-      Apprentice may be disfranchised, and fined at the Discretion of the
-      Recorder, and the Chamberlain, and may cause the Freeman’s Shop to be
-      shut up.” (Strype, vol. ii. pp. 475–476.)</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <p>As regards the ancient costume of an Apprentice, I again quote Stow and
-    Strype:—</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“The ancient Habit of the Apprentices of London was a flat round Cap,
-      Hair close cut, narrow falling Bands, coarse side Coats, close Hose,
-      Cloth Stockings, and other such severe Apparel. When this Garb had
-      been urged by some to the Disparagement of Apprentices, as a Token
-      of Servitude, one, many a Year ago, undertaking the Defence of these
-      Apprentices, wrote thus, that this imported the commendable Thrift of
-      the Citizens, and was only the Mark of an Apprentice’s Vocation and
-      Calling (and which anciently, no Question, was the ordinary Habit of a
-      Citizen), which Point of ancient Discipline, he said, the grave common
-      Lawyers do still retain in their Profession; for the Professors of
-      that Learning, we see, do at this Present retain the party-coloured
-      Coats of Serving-men at their Serjeants’ Feasts; and he wished, that
-      the Remembrance of this ancient Livery might be preserved by the grave
-      Citizens, in setting apart a particular Time or Day for the Feast of
-      their Apprenticeship, when they should wear their former Apprentice’s
-      Garb; making Profession in this Way, that they gloried in the Ensigns
-      of their honest Apprenticeship.</p>
-
-    <p>In the Time of Queen Mary, the Beginning of Queen Elizabeth, as well
-      as many Years before, all Apprentices wore blue Clokes in the Summer,
-      and blue Gowns in the Winter. But it was not lawful for any Man, either
-      Servant or other, to wear their Gowns lower than the Calves of their
-      Legs, except they were above threescore Years of Age; but, the Length
-      of Clokes being not limited, they made them down to their shoes. Their
-      Breeches and Stockings were usually of white broad Cloth, viz. round
-      Slops, and their Stockings sewed up close thereto, as if they were all
-      but one Piece. They also wore flat Caps both then and many Years after,
-      as well Apprentices as Journey-men and others, both at Home and Abroad;
-      whom the Pages of the Court in Derision called Flat-Caps.</p>
-
-    <p>When Apprentices and Journeymen attended upon their Masters and
-      Mistresses in the Night they went before them carrying a Lanthorn and
-      Candle in their hands, and a great long Club on their Necks; and many
-      well-grown sturdy Apprentices used to wear long Daggers in the Day-Time
-      on their Backs or Sides.</p>
-
-    <p>Anciently it was the general Use and Custom of all Apprentices in
-      London<span class="pagenum" id="Page_330">330</span> (Mercers only excepted, being commonly Merchants, and of better
-      Rank, as it seems,) to carry Water Tankards, to serve their Masters’
-      Houses with Water, fetched either from the Thames, or the common
-      Conduits of London.</p>
-
-    <p>It was a great matter, in former Times, to give 10£ to bind a youth
-      Apprentice; but, in King James the First’s Time, they gave 20, 40, 60
-      and sometimes 100£ with an Apprentice; but now these prices are vastly
-      enhanced, to 500, 600, or 800£.” (Strype, vol. ii.)</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <p>The question in 1628 arose, and was solemnly argued, whether an
-    Apprentice, who is certainly bound to obedience, who must perform
-    servile offices, who is corrected by his master, clothed by his
-    master, and fed by his master, is or is not in a state of bondage or a
-    bondsman. The question was resolved by Philipot, Somerset Herald, to
-    the effect that he could not be considered a bondsman. The reason we
-    may pass over. But Strype’s remarks are interesting:—</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“So that Apprenticeship in London is no Dishonour, nor Degradation;
-      but rather an Honour, and a Degree. He is very hardy that shall embase
-      honest Industry with disgraceful Censures, and too unjust, who shall
-      not cherish and encourage it with Praise and Worship, as the ancient
-      Policy of England did and doth, in constituting Corporations, and
-      adorning the Companies with Banners of Arms, and especial Members
-      thereof with Notes of Nobility. And, as it is an Honour, so it is a
-      Degree, or Order of good regular Subjects; out of whose, as it were,
-      Noviceship or Colleges, Citizens are supplied from Time to Time.
-      We call them Colleges, according to the old Roman Law Phrase, or
-      Fellowships of Men. For so indeed they are, comprehended within several
-      Corporations, or Bodies of free Persons, intended to be consociated
-      together for commerce, according to Conscience and Justice, and
-      named Companies. So that Apprentices, according to the Esteem of our
-      Commonwealth, when first they come to be Apprentices, first begin to
-      be Somebody, who before were young Men without any Vocation in the
-      World. And so by other Ascents or steps come to be Freemen of London,
-      or Citizens; thence to be of their Companies Liveries, Governors of
-      Companies, as Wardens and Masters; and Governors in the City, as
-      Common-Council-Men, Aldermen’s Deputies, Sheriffs, and Aldermen; and,
-      lastly, the principal Governors, or Heads of the City, that is, Lord
-      Mayors. And some also have been advanced, from being Citizens, to be
-      Counsellors of State to the Prince.</p>
-
-    <p>It is further evident, that Apprenticeship doth not deprive of Gentry;
-      for no Man loseth his Right to bear Arms, or to write Gentleman, unless
-      he be attainted in Law for such a Cause; the Conviction whereof doth
-      immediately procure Corruption in Blood; which in this Case no Man yet
-      hath dreamt of. The Apprentice hath no more lost his Title and Right
-      to Gentry, than he hath done to any Goods, Chattels, Lands, Royalties,
-      or any Thing else, which, if he had never been any Apprentice, either
-      had, might, or ought to have come unto him. The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_331">331</span> Rights of Blood are
-      more inherent than the Rights of Fortune, according to the Law Rule,
-      <i>Jura Sanguinum nullo jure civili dirimi possunt</i>, i.e. The Law of
-      Bloods cannot be destroyed by any civil Right. That Gentry is a Right
-      of Blood, may appear by this, that no Man can truly alienate the same,
-      or vest another in it, tho’ legally he may, in Case of Adoption, which
-      is but a human Invention, in Imitation of Nature; and, in the Truth of
-      the Thing, no Alienation at all, but a Fiction, or an Acceptation in
-      Law, as if it were such. Gentry is a Quality of Blood, as Virtue and
-      Learning are of one Mind.</p>
-
-    <p>This is the Sum of what that learned Herald argued, in Confutation of
-      that Opinion, that Apprenticeship extinguisheth Gentry. And he sent
-      this his discourse to the Gentleman who desired his Judgment herein;
-      whence, no Question, he received full Satisfaction. And the Herald took
-      the more Pains in confuting this false Conceit, that it was a Thing
-      unbeseeming a Gentleman to be an Apprentice to a Citizen or Burgess;
-      because it had filled England with more Vices, and sacrificed more
-      serviceable Bodies to odious Ends, and more Souls to sinful Lives, than
-      perhaps any one other uncivil Opinion whatsoever. For they who held
-      it better to rob by Land or Sea, than to beg or labour, did daily fee
-      and feel, that out of Apprentices rose such as set upon them, standing
-      out for lives as Malefactors; when they, a Shame and Sorrow to their
-      Kindred, underwent a Fortune too unworthy.” (Strype, vol. ii. pp.
-      435–436.)</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <p>Apprentices in certain cases ought to be discharged:—</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“One was discharged from his Master, because his Master held no shop,
-      and withdrew himself from the City. Another, because his Master did not
-      teach him. Another, because his Master was in Ludgate, and entrusted
-      him not. Another, because not enrolled within a Year. Another, because
-      his Master was distracted in his Mind. Another, because his Master was
-      so poor that he could not exhibit to him. Another, because his Master
-      diverted himself to other Occupations than his own Mystery. Another,
-      because the Master was a Leper. Another, because the Wife, after the
-      Death of her Husband, taught him not. And lastly, another, because his
-      Master inordinately chastised him.” (Strype, vol. ii. p. 438.)</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <p>The decay of order among Apprentices may finish these notes on the
-    class:—</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“I come, in the next place, to treat of Attornies’ Clerks, Apprentices,
-      inferior Tradesmen, Coachmen, Porters, Servants, and the lowest Class
-      of Men in this town, which are far the most numerous: And, first, of
-      the Lawyers’ Clerks and Apprentices, I find it a general Complaint,
-      that they are under no Manner of Government; before their Times are
-      half out, they set up for Gentlemen, they dress, they drink, they
-      game, frequent the Playhouses, and intrigue with the Women; and it is
-      a common Thing with Clerks to bully their Masters, and desert their
-      service for whole Days and Nights, whenever they see fit. And indeed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_332">332</span>
-      People consider little else at this Day, in the Choice of Clerks or
-      Apprentices, but the sums they are to have with them; one, two, or
-      three Hundred Pounds are given with a Clerk or Apprentice, who may be
-      looked upon rather as a Boarder than a Servant. He takes little Care of
-      his Master’s Business, and the Master as little to instruct him in the
-      Mystery of his Profession.” (Strype, vol. ii. p. 559.)</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <hr class="page" />
-  <div class="chapter" id="CHAPTER_6e">
-    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_333">333</span>
-    <h3>
-      <span class="gespertt1">CHAPTER VI</span><br />
-      <span class="subhead">THE LONDON INNS</span>
-    </h3>
-  </div>
-
-  <p class="noindent"><span class="smcap">The</span> town was full of inns; more especially they were established
-    without the gates and in the Borough. A great change had come over the
-    Inns: formerly the inn was a place of lodging; some of them, as the
-    Inns of Court, Barnard’s Inn, Gray’s Inn, Staple Inn, were colleges
-    of residence; the business of providing food and drink belonged to
-    the tavern and the cook’s shop. We have now come to the time when the
-    inn itself provided food. Fortunately, there remain two very useful
-    descriptions of the Inns of this time. One of them is by Harrison in
-    Holinshed, and the other by Fynes Moryson. First, let us take that of
-    Harrison:—</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“Those townes that we call thorowfaires have great and sumptuous innes
-      builded in them for the receiving of such travellers and strangers
-      as passe to and fro. The manner of harbouring wherein, is not like
-      to that as some other countries, in which the host or goodman of
-      the house dooth chalenge a lordlie authoritie over his ghests, but
-      clene otherwise, sith everie man may use his inne as his owne house
-      in England, and have for his monie how great or little varietie of
-      vittels, and what other service himselfe shall thinke expedient to call
-      for. Our innes are also verie well furnished with naperie, bedding,
-      and tapisserie, especiallie with naperie: for beside the linen used at
-      the tables, which is commonlie washed dailie, is such and so much as
-      belongeth unto the estate and calling of the ghest. Ech commer is sure
-      to lie in cleane sheets, wherein no man hath beene lodged since they
-      came from the landresse, or out of the water wherein they were last
-      washed. If the traveller have an horsse, his bed doth cost him nothing,
-      but if he go on foot he is sure to pay a penie for the same: but
-      whether he be horseman or footman if his chamber be once appointed he
-      may carie the kaie with him, as of his own house so long as he lodgeth
-      there. If he loose oughts whilst he abideth in the inne, the host is
-      bound by a generall custome to restore the damage, so that there is no
-      greater security anie where for travellers than in the gretest ins of
-      England. Their horses in like sort are walked, dressed, and looked unto
-      by certeine hostelers or hired servants, appointed at the charges of
-      the good man of the house, who in hope of extraordinary<span class="pagenum" id="Page_334">334</span> reward will
-      deal verie diligently after outward appeerance in this their function
-      and calling. Herein neverthelesse are manie of them blameworthie, in
-      that they doo not onlie deceive the beast oftentimes of his allowance
-      of sundrie meanes, except their owners look well to them; but also make
-      such packs with slipper merchants which hunt after preie (for what
-      place is sure from evill and wicked persons) that manie an honest man
-      is spoiled of his goods as he travelleth to and fro, in which fear also
-      the counsell of the tapsters or drawers of drinke, and chamberleins
-      is not seldom behind or wanting. Certes I beleeve not that chapman or
-      traveller in England is robbed by the waie without the knowledge of
-      some of them, for when he commeth into the inne, and alighteth from his
-      horse, the hostler forthwith is verie busie to take downe his budget
-      or capcase in the yard from his sadle bow, which he peiseth slilie in
-      his hand to feel the weight thereof: or he miss of this pitch when the
-      ghest hath taken up his chamber, the chamberleine that looketh to the
-      making of the beds, will be sure to remove it from the place where the
-      owner hath set it as if it were to set it more conveniently somewhere
-      else, whereby he getteth an inkling whether it be monie or other short
-      wares and thereof giveth warning to such ghests as haunt the house and
-      are of his confederacy to the utter undoing of manie an honest yeoman
-      as he journieth by the waie. The tapster in like sort for his part
-      dooth marke his behaviour and what plentie of money he draweth when he
-      paieth the shot, to the like end; so that it shall be an hard matter
-      to escape all their subtil practises. Some thinke it a gay matter to
-      commit their budgets at their coming to the goodman of the house; but
-      thereby they oft bewraie themselves. For albeit their monie be safe for
-      the time that it is in his hands (for you shall not hear that a man
-      is robbed in his inn) yet after their departure the host can make no
-      warrantise of the same, sith his protection extendeth no further than
-      the gate of his owne house; and there cannot be a surer token unto such
-      as prie and watch for those booties, than to see any ghest deliver his
-      capcase in such maner. In all our innes we have plenty of ale, beere,
-      and sundrie kinds of wine, and such is the capacitie of some of them
-      that they are able to lodge two hundred or three hundred persons, and
-      their horses at ease, and thereto with a very short warning make such
-      provision for their diet as to him that is unacquainted withall may
-      seeme to be incredible. Howbeit of all in England there are no worse
-      ins than in London, and yet manie are there far better than the best
-      that I have heard of in anie forren countries, if all circumstances
-      be duly considered. But to leave this and go in hand with my purpose.
-      I will here set downe a table of the best thorowfaires and townes of
-      greatest travell in England, in some of which there are twelve or
-      sixteen such innes at the least, as I before did speak of. And it
-      is a world to see how ech owner of them contendeth with other for
-      goodnesse of interteinement of the ghests as<span class="pagenum" id="Page_335">335</span> about finesse and change
-      of linen, furniture of bedding, beautie of rooms, service at the table,
-      costlinesse of plate, strength of drinke, varietie of wines, or well
-      using of horses. Finallie there is not much omitted among them as the
-      gorgeousness of their verie signs at their doores wherein some doo
-      consume thirtie or fortie pounds, a mere vanitie in mine opinion, but
-      so vaine will they needs be and that not onelie to give some outward
-      token of the inne keeper’s welth, but also to procure good ghests
-      to the frequenting of their houses in hope there to be well used.”
-      (Holinshed’s <i>Chronicles</i>.)</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <p>Concerning the customs in English Inns, Fynes Moryson thus writes:—</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“For as soon as a passenger comes to an Inne, the servants run to
-      him, and one takes his horse and walks him till he be cold, then
-      rubs him and gives him meate, yet I must say that they are not much
-      to be trusted in this last point, without the eye of the Master or
-      his servant to oversee them. Another servant gives the passenger his
-      private chamber, and kindles his fier, the third puls of his bootes and
-      makes them cleane. Then the Host or Hostesse visits him, and if he will
-      eate with the Hoste, or at a common table with others, his meale will
-      coste him six pence, or in some places but four pence (yet this course
-      is lesse honourable and not used by Gentlemen); but if he will eate in
-      his chamber, he commands what meats he will according to his appetite,
-      and as much as he thinkes fit for him and his company, yea, the kitchen
-      is open to him, to command the meat to be dressed as he likes best;
-      and when he sits at Table, the Host or Hostesse will accompany him, if
-      they have many Guests, will at least visit him, taking it for courtesie
-      to be bid sit downe; while he eates, if he have company especially, he
-      shall be offerd musicke, which he may freely take or refuse, and if he
-      be solitary the musicians will give him the good day with musicke in
-      the morning. It is the custom and no way disgraceful to set up part
-      of sypper for his breakfast. In the evening or in the morning after
-      breakfast (for the common sort use not to dine, but ride from breakfast
-      to supper time, yet comming early to the Inn for better resting of
-      their horses) he shall have a reckoning in writing, and if it seems
-      unreasonable the Host will satisfy him either for the due price, or by
-      abating part, especially if the servant deceive him in any way, which
-      one of experience will soon find. I will now only add that a Gentleman
-      and his Man shall spend as much as if he were accompanied with another
-      Gentleman and his Man, and if Gentlemen will in such sorte joyne
-      together to eate at one table the expenses will be much diminished.
-      Lastly, a Man cannot more freely command at home in his owne House than
-      he may doe in his Inne, and at parting if he give some few pence to the
-      Chamberlin and Ostler they wish him a happy journey.”</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <p>And further:—</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“In all Innes, but especially in suspected places, let him take heed of
-      his<span class="pagenum" id="Page_336">336</span> chamber fellowes, and always have his sword by his side or by his
-      bedside; let him lay his purse under his pillow, but always folded with
-      his garters or something hee first useth in the morning, lest he forget
-      to put it on before he goe out of his chamber. And to the end he may
-      leave nothing behind him in his Innes, let the visiting of his chamber
-      and gathering his things together be the last thing he doth before hee
-      put his foote into the stirrup.”</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <p>The list of Elizabethan taverns might be compiled at great length, but
-    the following signs celebrated in verse will suffice:—</p>
-
-  <div class="center-container">
-    <div class="poem">
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i0">“Through the Royal Exchange as I walked</div>
-        <div class="i3">where gallants in sattin did shine:</div>
-        <div class="i1">At midst of the day they parted away</div>
-        <div class="i3">at several places to dine.</div>
-      </div>
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i1">The gentry went to the King’s Head,</div>
-        <div class="i3">the nobles went unto the Crown:</div>
-        <div class="i1">The knights unto the Golden Fleece</div>
-        <div class="i3">and the plowman to the Clown.</div>
-      </div>
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i1">The clergy will dine at the Miter,</div>
-        <div class="i3">the vintners at the Three Tuns:</div>
-        <div class="i1">The usurers to the Devil will go,</div>
-        <div class="i3">and the fryers unto the Nuns.</div>
-      </div>
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i1">The ladies will dine at the Feathers,</div>
-        <div class="i3">the Globe no captain will scorn:</div>
-        <div class="i1">The huntsmen will go to the Greyhound below,</div>
-        <div class="i3">and some townsmen to the Horn.</div>
-      </div>
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i1">The plummer will dine at the Fountain,</div>
-        <div class="i3">the cooks at the Holy Lamb:</div>
-        <div class="i1">The drunkards at noon to the Man in the Moon</div>
-        <div class="i3">and the cuckolds to the Ram.</div>
-      </div>
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i1">The rovers will dine at the Lyon,</div>
-        <div class="i3">the watermen at the Old Swan:</div>
-        <div class="i1">The bawds will to the Negro go</div>
-        <div class="i3">and the whores to the Naked Man.</div>
-      </div>
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i1">The keepers will to the White Hart,</div>
-        <div class="i3">the mariners unto the Ship:</div>
-        <div class="i1">The beggars they must take their way</div>
-        <div class="i3">to the Eg-shell and the Whip.</div>
-      </div>
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i1">The farier will to the Horse,</div>
-        <div class="i3">the blacksmith unto the Lock,</div>
-        <div class="i1">The butchers to the Bull will go,</div>
-        <div class="i3">and the carmen to Bridewell-Dock.</div>
-      </div>
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i1">The fishmongers unto the Dolphin,</div>
-        <div class="i3">the bakers to the Cheat-loaf:</div>
-        <div class="i1">The Turners unto the Tabel will go</div>
-        <div class="i3">where they may merrily quaff.</div>
-      </div>
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i1">The taylors will dine at the Sheers,</div>
-        <div class="i3">the shoo-makers will to the Boot:</div>
-        <div class="i1">The Welshmen they will take their way</div>
-        <div class="i3">and dine at the sign of the Goat.</div>
-      </div>
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i1">The hosiers will dine at the Leg,</div>
-        <div class="i3">and drapers at the sign of the Brush:</div>
-        <div class="i1">The fletchers to Robin Hood will go,</div>
-        <div class="i3">and the spendthrift to Beggar’s Bush.</div><span class="pagenum" id="Page_337">337</span>
-      </div>
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i1">The pewterers to Quart Pot,</div>
-        <div class="i3">the coopers will dine at the Hoop:</div>
-        <div class="i1">The coblers to the Last will go,</div>
-        <div class="i3">and the bargemen to the Scoop.</div>
-      </div>
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i1">The carpenters will dine at the Axe,</div>
-        <div class="i3">the colliers will dine at the Sack:</div>
-        <div class="i1">Your fruiterer he to the Cherry-tree</div>
-        <div class="i3">good fellows no liquor will lack.</div>
-      </div>
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i1">The goldsmiths to the Three Cups,</div>
-        <div class="i3">their money they count as dross:</div>
-        <div class="i1">Your puritan to the Pewter Can,</div>
-        <div class="i3">and your papist to the Cross.</div>
-      </div>
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i1">The weavers will dine at the Shuttle,</div>
-        <div class="i3">the glovers will into the Glove:</div>
-        <div class="i1">The maidens all to the Maidenhead,</div>
-        <div class="i3">and true lovers unto the Dove.</div>
-      </div>
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i1">The sadlers will dine at the Saddle,</div>
-        <div class="i3">the painters to the Green Dragon:</div>
-        <div class="i1">The Dutchman will go to the sign of the Vrow,</div>
-        <div class="i3">where each man may drink his flagon.</div>
-      </div>
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i1">The chandlers will dine at the Scales,</div>
-        <div class="i3">the salters at the sign of the Bag:</div>
-        <div class="i1">The porters take pain at the Labour-in-vain,</div>
-        <div class="i3">and the horse-courser to the White Nag.</div>
-      </div>
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i1">Thus every man to his humour,</div>
-        <div class="i3">from the north unto the south:</div>
-        <div class="i1">But he that hath no money in his purse,</div>
-        <div class="i3">may dine at the sign of the Mouth.</div>
-      </div>
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i1">The swaggerers will dine at the Fencers:</div>
-        <div class="i3">but those that have lost their wits,</div>
-        <div class="i1">With Bedlam Tom let there be their home,</div>
-        <div class="i3">and the Drum the drummer best hits.</div>
-      </div>
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i1">The cheater will dine at the Chequer,</div>
-        <div class="i3">the pick-pocket at the Blind Ale-house:</div>
-        <div class="i1">Till taken and tride, up Holborn they ride,</div>
-        <div class="i3">and make their end at the gallows.”</div>
-      </div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>In a black-letter poem called “News from Bartholomew Fayre” occurs the
-    following short list of taverns:—</p>
-
-  <div class="center-container">
-    <div class="poem">
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i0">“There hath been great sale and utterance of Wine,</div>
-        <div class="i1">Besides Beere, and Ale, and Ipocras fine,</div>
-        <div class="i1">In every country, region, and nation,</div>
-        <div class="i1">But chiefly in Billingsgate at the Salutation;</div>
-        <div class="i1">And at the Bore’s Head near London Stone;</div>
-        <div class="i1">The Swan at Dowgate, a tavern well knowne;</div>
-        <div class="i1">The Miter in Cheape, and then the Bull Head;</div>
-        <div class="i1">And many like places that make noses red;</div>
-        <div class="i1">The Bore’s Head in Old Fish Street; Three Cranes in the Vintry;</div>
-        <div class="i1">And now, of late, St. Martin’s in the Sentree;</div>
-        <div class="i1">The Windmill in Lothbury; the Ship at th’ Exchange;</div>
-        <div class="i1">King’s Head in New Fish Street, where roysterers do range;</div>
-        <div class="i1">The Mermaid in Cornhill; Red Lion in the Strand;</div>
-        <div class="i1">Three Tuns in Newgate Market; Old Fish Street at the Swan.”</div>
-      </div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_338">338</span></p>
-  <p>Heywood (1608) writes:—</p>
-
-  <div class="center-container">
-    <div class="poem">
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i0">“The Gentry to the King’s Head,</div>
-        <div class="i1">The Nobles to the Crown,</div>
-        <div class="i1">The Knights unto the Golden Fleece,</div>
-        <div class="i1">And to the Plough the Clown.</div>
-        <div class="i1">The churchman to the Mitre</div>
-        <div class="i1">The shepherd to the Star,</div>
-        <div class="i1">The gardner hies him to the Rose,</div>
-        <div class="i1">To the Drum the man of war;</div>
-        <div class="i1">To the Feathers, ladies you; the Globe</div>
-        <div class="i1">The seaman doth not scorn;</div>
-        <div class="i1">The usurer to the Devil, and</div>
-        <div class="i1">The townsman to the Horn.</div>
-        <div class="i1">The huntsman to the White Hart,</div>
-        <div class="i1">To the ship the merchants go,</div>
-        <div class="i1">But you who do the Muses love,</div>
-        <div class="i1">The sign called River Po.</div>
-        <div class="i1">The banquerout to the World’s End,</div>
-        <div class="i1">The Fool to the Fortune Pie,</div>
-        <div class="i1">Unto the Mouth the oyster-wife,</div>
-        <div class="i1">The fiddler to the Pie.</div>
-        <div class="i1">The punk unto the Cockatrice,</div>
-        <div class="i1">The Drunkard to the Vine,</div>
-        <div class="i1">The Beggar to the Bush, then meet,</div>
-        <div class="i1">And with Duke Humphrey dine.”</div>
-      </div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p class="noindent">It was the custom at Taverns to send presents of wine from one room to
-    another with compliments.</p>
-
-  <p>The taverns were to the sixteenth century what the coffee-houses were
-    to the eighteenth. Every man frequented his tavern: clubs were held
-    in the taverns; men of the same trade met in the taverns for evening
-    discourse; bargains and business affairs were conducted in taverns;
-    there were good and bad taverns; those like the Boar’s Head, East
-    Cheap, bore a bad character; that is to say, they were laden down by
-    the character of Doll Tearsheet; others, again, where Doll and her
-    friends were not admitted, were frequented by the most respectable
-    merchants and divines. Music was going on in most of them all day long;
-    and all day long the waiters, clad in blue and wearing white aprons,
-    ran about with flasks of wine and cups, and tobacco and pipes, calling
-    “Anon, Anon!” and stopping to chalk a score upon the wall.</p>
-
-  <p>It is strange that Stow mentions neither the Boar’s Head, East Cheap,
-    which must have been a well-known tavern, or Shakespeare would not have
-    chosen it for the haunt of the Prince and Falstaff; nor the Mermaid,
-    the haunt of Ben Jonson and the poets. Presumably the worthy antiquary
-    would not have felt at home in the company of the wits.</p>
-
-  <p>The Boar’s Head stood in that part of East Cheap now swept away. The
-    statue of King William IV. marks the site. It was not an ancient
-    tavern. There were no taverns formerly in East Cheap according to Stow;
-    the first mention of it is in the year 1537. The courtyard was large
-    enough for the performance of plays; at the back it looked out upon
-    St. Michael’s churchyard.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_339">339</span> The churchyard and church of St. Michael
-    were swept away to make the approach to new London Bridge. Between
-    St. Michael’s Lane, now Miles’s Lane, and a small alley, stood four
-    taverns in a row: the Chicken, the Boar’s Head, the Plough, and the
-    Three Kings. These taverns were thus in the midst of markets: the Grass
-    Market in front; the Fish Market on the east; the Meat Market on the
-    west. The tavern was rebuilt after the fire, in 1668: the new sign
-    then made for it may be seen in the Guildhall Museum; on each side of
-    the doorway was carved in wood a vine branch, rising three feet from
-    the ground, loaded with leaves and clusters, and on the top of each a
-    figure of Falstaff eight inches high. Before its demolition the house
-    had ceased to be a tavern. Here was held a club of which Boswell was a
-    member, in which every one assumed a Shakespearian character. It was
-    the custom to hold convivial meetings in this house. There Falstaff
-    and Dame Quickly and Doll Tearsheet and the whole merry company became
-    real. Goldsmith wrote his essay, “A Reverie,” in this tavern, and here
-    Washington Irving gave full play to his fancy, and restored the things
-    that never were to the place that never knew Prince Hal.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="i_339"><img src="images/i_339.jpg" width="190" height="144" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">SIGN OF THE BOAR’S HEAD IN EAST CHEAP</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>The Mermaid Tavern stood between Friday Street and Bread Street, with
-    an entrance from Cheapside as well. The tavern has been immortalised by
-    a poet of the seventeenth and one of the nineteenth century.</p>
-
-  <p>Francis Beaumont, the former, writes to Ben Jonson:—</p>
-
-  <div class="center-container">
-    <div class="poem">
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i18">“What things have we seen</div>
-        <div class="i0">Done at the Mermaid, heard words that have been</div>
-        <div class="i0">So nimble, and so full of subtle flame,</div>
-        <div class="i0">As if that every one from whence they came</div>
-        <div class="i0">Had meant to put his whole wit in a jest,</div>
-        <div class="i0">And had resolved to live a fool the rest</div>
-        <div class="i0">Of his dull life; then when there hath been thrown</div>
-        <div class="i0">Wit able enough to justify the town</div>
-        <div class="i0">For three days past; wit that might warrant be</div>
-        <div class="i0">For the whole city to talk foolishly</div>
-        <div class="i0">Till that were cancelled; and when that was gone,</div>
-        <div class="i0">We left an air behind us, which alone</div>
-        <div class="i0">Was able to make the two next companies</div>
-        <div class="i0">(Right witty, though but downright fools) more wise.”</div>
-      </div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_340">340</span></p>
-  <p class="noindent">And Keats, the latter, writes:—</p>
-
-  <div class="center-container">
-    <div class="poem">
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i0">“Souls of poets dead and gone,</div>
-        <div class="i1">What Elysium have ye known,</div>
-        <div class="i1">Happy field or mossy cavern</div>
-        <div class="i1">Choicer than the Mermaid Tavern?</div>
-        <div class="i1">Have ye tippled drink more fine</div>
-        <div class="i1">Than mine host’s Canary wine?”</div>
-      </div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p class="noindent">Or, as Fuller says of Shakespeare:—</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“Many were the wit-combates betwixt him and Ben Johnson, which two I
-      behold like a Spanish great gallion, and an English man of War; Master
-      Johnson (like the former) was built far higher in Learning; Solid, but
-      Slow in his performances. Shake-spear, with the English man-of-War,
-      lesser in bulk, but lighter in sailing, could turn with all tides, tack
-      about and take advantage of all winds, by the quickness of his Wit and
-      Invention.”</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <p>Lists of old taverns are, as a rule, without interest; there are,
-    however, a few of the London taverns of historic importance. Two have
-    been mentioned. Thus, the Nag’s Head, at the corner of Friday Street,
-    was the pretended scene of the consecration of Parker, Archbishop of
-    Canterbury in 1559.</p>
-
-  <p>At the north-west of St. Paul’s Churchyard was an ancient tavern known
-    as the Mitre. Here were given the concerts of the Society of Musicians;
-    and their arms, representing the lyre of Apollo, with the crest of the
-    Swan, being put up in the front of the house, caused the original sign
-    to be jocularly transformed into that of the Goose and Gridiron. The
-    Swan with Three Necks, meant originally the Swan with three “nicks” or
-    marks to denote ownership. The Belle Savage was originally the Bell,
-    but its landlord being a man named Savage, the house was emblazoned
-    with a bell and a savage man beside it. The Elephant and Castle
-    became the Pig and Tinder Box; the “Caton Fidele”—the Governor of
-    Calais—became the Cat and Fiddle.</p>
-
-  <p>Fleet Street had many well-known taverns: like those in the City they
-    were mostly approached by narrow alleys leading out of the street, as
-    the Rainbow, Dick’s, and the Mitre. Dick’s stands on the site of the
-    printing office of Richard Tottle, law stationer in the reign of Henry
-    VIII. The Cock, later moved across the road, was one of the most famous
-    of the Fleet Street taverns.</p>
-
-  <p>The “Devil” Tavern, however, was more famous even than the Mermaid.
-    Ben Jonson drew the company from the latter tavern to the Devil; he
-    lived at Temple Bar in order to be near the tavern. Here he founded the
-    Apollo Club and wrote his famous rules in Latin, which were translated
-    into English by one of his “sons,” Brome. Near the door was placed a
-    gilt bust of Apollo with a “Welcome” in flowing lines:—</p>
-
-  <div class="center-container">
-    <div class="poem">
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i0">“Welcome all who lead or follow</div>
-        <div class="i1">To the oracle of Apollo:</div><span class="pagenum" id="Page_341">341</span>
-        <div class="i1">Here he speaks out of his pottle,</div>
-        <div class="i1">Or the tripos, his tower bottle;</div>
-        <div class="i1">All his answers are divine,</div>
-        <div class="i1">Truth itself doth flow in wine.</div>
-        <div class="i1">Hang up all the poor hop-drinkers,</div>
-        <div class="i1">Cries old Sim, the king of skinkers;</div>
-        <div class="i1">He the life of life abuses</div>
-        <div class="i1">That sits watering with the Muses.</div>
-        <div class="i1">Those dull girls no good can mean us;</div>
-        <div class="i1">Wine—it is the milk of Venus,</div>
-        <div class="i1">And the poet’s horse accounted:</div>
-        <div class="i1">Ply it, and you all are mounted.</div>
-        <div class="i1">’Tis the true Phœbian liquor,</div>
-        <div class="i1">Cheers the brains, makes wit the quicker;</div>
-        <div class="i1">Pays all debts, cures all diseases,</div>
-        <div class="i1">And at once three senses pleases.</div>
-        <div class="i1">Welcome all who lead or follow</div>
-        <div class="i1">To the oracle of Apollo!”</div>
-      </div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>The merchants conducted their business in the Royal Exchange, but the
-    tavern was the place where the lesser traders, and the shopkeepers, and
-    the people who came up from the country met, to arrange bargains and
-    business of all kinds over a flask of Canary.</p>
-
-  <hr class="page" />
-  <div class="chapter" id="CHAPTER_7e">
-    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_342">342</span>
-    <h3>
-      <span class="gespertt1">CHAPTER VII</span><br />
-      <span class="subhead">THEATRES</span>
-    </h3>
-  </div>
-
-  <p class="noindent"><span class="smcap">The</span> latter half of the sixteenth century presents a remarkable
-    development of the Drama and of the Theatres in London. This
-    development was like the rising tide: it advanced with a force that was
-    irresistible. The Mayor and Aldermen did their best to drive out plays
-    and players from their boundaries; they went, but they established
-    themselves beyond the limits of the City jurisdiction. Preachers
-    denounced the theatre; moralists wrote pamphlets against it; yet it
-    flourished more and more. John Stockwood, preaching at Paul’s Cross,
-    says:—</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“Have we not houses of purpose, built with great charges for the
-      maintenance of them, and that without the liberties, as who shall
-      say, ‘There, let them say what they will, we will play.’ I know not
-      how I might, with the godly-learned especially, more discommend the
-      gorgeous playing place erected in the Fields, than term it, as they
-      please to have it called, a Theatre.” In the same sermon he asks:
-      “Wyll not a fylthye playe wyth the blast of a trumpette sooner call
-      thyther a thousande<span class="pagenum" id="Page_343">343</span> than an houres tolling of a bell bring to the
-      sermon a hundred? Nay, even heere in the Citie, without it be at this
-      place and some other certaine ordinarie audience, where shall you
-      find a reasonable company? Whereas if you resorte to the Theatre, the
-      Curtayne, and other places of players in the Citie, you shall on the
-      Lord’s Day have these places, with many other that I cannot reckon, so
-      full as possible they can throng.”</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="i_342"><img src="images/i_342.jpg" width="600" height="252" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">THE BEAR GARDEN AND THE GLOBE THEATRE<br />
-    From Visscher’s <i>Panorama of London</i>.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>The Londoners might change their religion, but they were not going to
-    change their sports. They were Protestant instead of Catholic; but they
-    kept up their bear-baiting, their bull-baiting, their archery, their
-    wrestlings, their fencing, their quarter-staff play, their running
-    at the quintain, their feats of tumbling, their Morris dances and
-    mummings, their plays and interludes. But the Reformation killed the
-    Miracle Play. The play of modern manners, or the tragedy, or the farce,
-    took the place of the religious play. And instead of acting on a stage
-    in a churchyard, the players now began to act in the broad and ample
-    courtyard of the inn, whose galleries afforded room for people to look
-    on. The authorities looked on the play from the beginning with eyes of
-    disfavour: the actor was considered a masterless man; he had no trade;
-    he was a strolling vagabond; he lived upon the largesse of those who
-    looked on at his performance; he was a buffoon who would assume any
-    character at will to make the people laugh and cry; he must be able to
-    dance and posture like the tumblers on the road. Again, all the idle
-    people in the City assembled to see the play; all the vicious people
-    crowded to take advantage of the throng; in the theatre every day arose
-    disorders and brawls; young men of sober parentage were seduced into
-    becoming players. Witness the words of Prynne:—</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“Our own experience can sufficiently inform us, that plays and
-      playhouses are the frequent causes of many murders, duels,
-      quarrels, debates; occasioned sometimes by reason of some
-      difference about a box, a seat, a place, upon the stage; sometimes
-      by intruding too boldly into some female’s company; sometimes by
-      reason of some amorous, scurrilous, or disgraceful words, that are
-      uttered of or to some female spectators; sometimes by reason of
-      some speeches or passages of the play, particularly applied to some
-      persons present or absent; sometimes by reason of some husband, or
-      co-rival’s jealousy, or affront, whose wife, or mistress, being
-      there in person, is perhaps solicited, abused, or jeared at in his
-      presence; sometimes by reason of the apprentices who resort to
-      playhouses, especially on Shrove Tuesday; sometimes by means of
-      other accidents and occasions. Many have been the murders, more
-      the quarrels, the duels, that have grown from our stage-plays,
-      whose large encomiums of rash valour, duels, fortitude,
-      generosity, impatientcy, homicides, tyranny, and revenge, do so
-      exasperate men’s raging passions, and make them so impatient of
-      the very smallest injury, that nothing can satisfy, can expiate,
-      but the offender’s blood. Hence it is that some players, some
-      play-haunters, now living, not satisfied with the murder of one,
-      have embrued their barbarous un-christian hands in the blood of
-      two, of three, if not of four several men. And so far are they
-      from ruing the odiousness of these their bloody deeds, that they
-      glory in the number of their murders as the very trophies of their
-      valour.”</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <p>The Queen at the beginning of her reign issued a proclamation to
-    prevent players performing without license, and from handling politics
-    or religion. In<span class="pagenum" id="Page_344">344</span> 1572 the Mayor forbade the acting of plays in London
-    on the ground of the Plague and the danger of infection. Harrison
-    says:—</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“Plaies are banished for a time out of London, lest the resort unto
-      them should ingender a plague, or rather disperse it, being already
-      begonne. Would to God these comon plaies were exiled altogether,
-      as seminaries of impiety, and their theatres pulled downe, as no
-      better then houses of bawdrie. It is an evident token of a wicked
-      time when plaiers waxe so riche that they can build suche houses.
-      As moche I wish also to our comon beare-baitings used oin the
-      sabaothe daies.” (Holinshed’s <i>Chronicles</i>.)</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <p>In 1574 the first steps were taken towards the regulation of players
-    and plays. The preamble to the ordinances is set forth by Maitland,
-    with the ordinances themselves, as follows:—</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“The citizens in Common-Council observing, that the antient and
-      innocent Recreation of Stage-Plays or Interludes, which in former Days
-      ingenious Tradesmen and Gentlemen’s Servants sometimes practised, to
-      expose Vice, or to represent the noble Actions of their Ancestors, at
-      certain Festival Times, or in private Houses at Weddings, and at other
-      Splendid Entertainments, for their own Profit, was now in process of
-      Time become an Occupation; and that many there were that followed it
-      for a livelihood; and, which was worse, that it was become the Occasion
-      of much Sin and Evil; great Multitudes of People, especially Youth, in
-      Queen <i>Elizabeth’s</i> Reign, resorting to these Plays; and being commonly
-      acted on <i>Sundays</i> and <i>Festivals</i>, the Churches were forsaken, and the
-      Playhouses thronged, and great Disorders and Inconvenience were found
-      to ensue to the City thereby, forasmuch as it occasioned Frays and evil
-      Practices of Incontinency; Great Inns were used for this Purpose, which
-      had secret Chambers and Places, as well as open Stages and Galleries;
-      where Maids, especially Orphans, and good Citizen’s Children, under
-      Age, were inveigled and allured to privy and unmeet Contracts; and
-      where unchaste, uncomely and unshamefaced Speeches and Doings were
-      published; where there was an unthrifty Waste of the Money of the Poor;
-      sundry robberies, by picking and cutting Purses, uttering of popular
-      and seditious Matter, many corruptions of Youth, and other Enormities;
-      besides sundry Slaughters and Maimings of the Queen’s Subjects, by
-      falling of Scaffolds, Frames, and Stages, and by Engines, Weapons, and
-      Powder, used in the Plays; and believing that, in the time of God’s
-      Visitation by the Plague, such Assemblies of the People in Throngs
-      and Presses were very dangerous for spreading the Infection; they
-      regulated these Plays, lest the People, upon God’s gracious withdrawing
-      of the Sickness, should, with sudden forgetting of the Visitation,
-      without Fear of God’s Wrath, and without some Respect of those good and
-      politick Means (as the Words of the Act ran) that were ordained for the
-      Preservation of the Commonwealth and People in Health and good Order,
-      return to the undue Use of such Enormities. Therefore, for the lawful,
-      honest, comely<span class="pagenum" id="Page_345">345</span> Use of Plays, Pastimes, and Recreations in good Sort
-      permitted by the Authority of the Common Council, it was enacted:—</p>
-
-    <p>‘I. That no Play should be openly played within the Liberty of the
-      City, wherein should be uttered any Words, Examples, or Doings of any
-      Unchastity, Sedition, or such-like unfit and uncomely Matter, upon
-      Pain of Imprisonment for the space of fourteen Days, and 5£ for every
-      such offence. II. That no Innkeeper, Tavernkeeper, or other Person
-      whatsoever, within the Liberties of the City, shall shew or play, or
-      cause to be shewed or played, within his House or Yard, any Play, which
-      shall not first be perused and allowed by the Lord Mayor and Court of
-      Aldermen’s Order. III. No Person shall suffer any Plays to be played
-      in his House or Yard, whereof he then shall have Rule, but only such
-      Persons, and in such Places, as, upon good Consideration, shall be
-      thereunto permitted and allowed by the Lord Mayor and Aldermen. IV. Nor
-      shall take and use any such Benefit or Advantage of such Permission,
-      until such person be bound to the Chamberlain of <i>London</i>, in certain
-      Sums, for the Keeping of good Order, and avoiding of Discords and
-      inconveniences. V. Neither shall use or exercise such Licence or
-      Permission at any Time, in which the same shall be by the Lord Mayor
-      and Aldermen restrained, or commanded to stay and cease, in any usual
-      Time of Divine Service on the <i>Sunday</i> or Holiday, or receive any to
-      that Purpose in Time of Service, to the same, upon Pain to forfeit for
-      every Offence 5£. VI. And every Person to be licensed shall, during
-      the Time of such continuance of License, pay to the Use of the Poor in
-      Hospitals of the City, or of the Poor visited with Sickness, such Sums
-      and Payments, as between the Mayor and Aldermen, and the Person to be
-      licensed, shall be agreed upon; upon Pain that, on the Want of every
-      such Payment, such License shall be utterly void. VII. All sums and
-      Forfeitures to be incurred for any offence against this Act, and all
-      Forfeitures of Bonds, shall be employed to the Relief of the Poor of
-      the Hospitals, or of the Poor infected or diseased in the City: And the
-      Chamberlain, in his own Name, shall have and recover the same, to the
-      Purposes aforesaid, in the Court of the outer Chamber of <i>Guildhall</i>,
-      <i>London</i>, called <i>The Mayors Court</i>.</p>
-
-    <p>‘Provided, That this Act shall not extend to Plays shewed in private
-      Houses, Lodgings of a Nobleman, Citizen, or Gentleman, which shall have
-      the same then played in his Presence for the Festivity of any Marriage,
-      Assembly of Friends, or other like Cause, without publick or common
-      collection of Money of the Auditors or Beholders.’” (Maitland, vol. i.
-      pp. 262–263.)</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <p>Since the players could act no more in the City, there was nothing for
-    them but to go outside. In 1574, James Burbage and some of the Earl
-    of Leicester’s Company obtained the Queen’s license to act plays in
-    any part of England. After receiving this license Burbage proceeded
-    to build the first theatre, the house called<span class="pagenum" id="Page_346">346</span> simply “The Theatre.”
-    This theatre was built outside the jurisdiction of the City, close to
-    the remains of the Holywell Priory. After the Dissolution the church
-    of this House was pulled down with most of the buildings. Houses were
-    built upon its site, and the ruins themselves gradually disappeared.
-    At the south-west of these ruins, on a site now marked by Dean’s Mews,
-    Holywell Lane, Burbage built his theatre at a cost of £600, the money
-    being advanced by his father-in-law. The theatre was in shape either
-    circular or oval, probably the former. It was built for all kind of
-    shows and entertainments. If a large space was wanted the whole of
-    the area could be taken by the performers; raised galleries ran round
-    the house; for the performance of a play, a stage was erected in the
-    middle; from the nature of the case there could be no question of
-    any scenery. The house was built of wood and is said to have been
-    handsomely decorated; the central area was without a roof. There were
-    troubles and quarrels about the lease of the house, which was taken
-    down in the year 1598–99. The wood and timber of which the house was
-    built were removed to Bankside, where they were used for the erection
-    of the Globe Theatre.</p>
-
-  <p>The second theatre of London was that called The Curtain. It is a fact
-    which illustrates the popularity of Finsbury Fields as a place of
-    resort that there should have been a second theatre erected so close to
-    the first. The Curtain Theatre was built on the south side of Holywell
-    Lane, Shoreditch. In the house, too, feats of arms, sword-play,
-    quarter-staff, and other games took place.</p>
-
-  <p>The third theatre (if we count The Globe as a continuation of The
-    Theatre) was The Fortune, built near Golden Lane, Cripplegate.</p>
-
-  <p>The strongest charge against the theatres was the license allowed
-    to the clowns or jesters, who between the pieces, or between the
-    Acts, played “jigs” or “drolls” accompanied by songs and dances, and
-    impromptu jokes which were topical, and, as may be imagined, broad
-    and coarse. We may easily imagine that the civic authorities, the
-    preachers, and the pamphleteers, who were always assailing the player
-    and driving him from place to place, were not spared when the Clown had
-    the stage all to himself, with hundreds of grinning faces in front of
-    him, all of whom were egging him on with laughter and applause to say
-    or do something more outrageous still, and loved nothing so much as to
-    see before them acted to the life some sour Puritan who could see only
-    “filthie and beastlie” stuff in the noblest play by Shakespeare, or in
-    any sport.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter w600">
-    <a id="i_346"><img src="images/i_346.jpg" width="600" height="379" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="figleft">
-      <img src="images/i_346a.jpg" width="200" height="92" alt="" />
-    </div>
-    <div class="captionf">BANKSIDE, SOUTHWARK, IN 1648, WITH A VIEW OF HOLLAND’S
-      LEAGUER, ONE OF THE ANCIENT STEWS OR LICENSED BROTHELS SUPPRESSED
-      DURING THE REIGN OF HENRY VIII.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p class="clear">Another favourite place of resort for the citizens, especially for
-    the more riotous sort, was Southwark, with its raised river-wall
-    or Bankside; its numerous inns and taverns; its low-lying fields
-    and its various amusements. There were amphitheatres for bear- and
-    bull-baiting; in the High Street itself there was a ring for the bull;
-    in Paris Gardens, on the east side of Blackfriars Bridge, were kept
-    bears and dogs for the favourite, almost the national, amusement;
-    there <span class="pagenum" id="Page_347">347</span>was a kind of sanctuary in Southwark: here were allowed to
-    reside the “Flemish Frows” still, in spite of Henry the Seventh’s
-    suppression; here were held May Day games; here was held every year
-    the pageant of St. George’s Day; and here, in the time of Henry VIII.,
-    were collected together idlers, vagabonds, and rogues in great numbers.
-    In this place, the resort of all the young bloods and the wild element
-    of London, the players settled down in force. The Rose, The Hope,
-    The Globe, The Swan, all built about the same time, show the steady
-    popularity of the Drama, in spite of the Puritanic attacks upon it,
-    which seem to have done it no manner of harm.</p>
-
-  <p>At one end of Bankside stood the ruins of the Monastic House and
-    the Clink Prison; then followed a single row of houses, at the back
-    of which were the Bull-Baiting Ground and the Bear Garden; then the
-    theatres already mentioned; also the Falcon Tavern, and Paris Gardens.
-    All these places were built on a low-lying and marshy ground planted
-    thickly with trees, intersected with ponds, ditches, and running
-    streams—for instance, the Pudding Mill stream ran round two-thirds
-    of Paris Gardens. For an account of the interior of a theatre and the
-    presentation of a play I quote an imaginary account, in my own words:—</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“The interior of the theatre was circular in shape. It contained three
-      galleries, one above the other: the lowest called the ‘rooms,’ for
-      seats in which we paid a shilling each, contained the better sorts. At
-      each side of the stage there were boxes, one of which contained the
-      music. The stage itself, a stout construction of timber, projected
-      far into the pit, or, as Stow called it, the ‘yarde.’ At the back was
-      another stage, supported on two columns, and giving the players a
-      gallery about ten or twelve feet high, the purpose of which we were
-      very soon to find out. On each side of the stage were seats for those
-      who paid an additional sixpence. Here were a dozen or twenty gallants,
-      either with pipes of tobacco, or playing cards or dice before the play
-      began. One of them would get up quickly with a pretence of impatience,
-      and push back his cloak so as to show the richness of his doublet
-      below. The young men, whether at the theatre, or in Paul’s Walk, or in
-      Chepe, seemed all intent upon showing the bravery of their attire: no
-      girls of our day could be more vain of their dress or more critical of
-      the dress worn by others. Some of them, however, I perceived among the
-      groundlings—that is, the people on the ‘yarde’—gazing about the house
-      upon the women in the galleries. Here there were many dressed very
-      finely, like ladies of quality, in satin gowns, lawn aprons, taffeta
-      petticoats, and gold threads in their hair. They seemed to rejoice in
-      being thus observed and gazed upon. When a young man had found a girl
-      to his taste, he went into the gallery, sat beside her, and treated her
-      to pippins, nuts, or wine.</p>
-
-    <p>It was already one o’clock when we arrived. As we took our seats the
-      music played its first sounding or flourish. There was a great hubbub
-      in the place: hucksters went about with baskets, crying pippins, nuts,
-      and ale; in the ‘rooms’<span class="pagenum" id="Page_348">348</span> booksellers’ boys hawked about new books;
-      everybody was talking together; everywhere the people were smoking
-      tobacco, playing cards, throwing dice, cheapening books, cracking nuts,
-      and calling for ale. The music played a second sounding. The hubbub
-      continued unabated. Then it played the third and last. Suddenly the
-      tumult ceased. The piece was about to begin.</p>
-
-    <p>The stage was decorated with blue hangings of silk between the
-      columns, showing that the piece was to be—in part at least—a comedy.
-      Across the railed gallery at the back was stretched a painted canvas
-      representing a royal palace. When the scene was changed this canvas
-      became the wall of a city, and the actors would walk on the top of the
-      wall; or a street with houses; or a tavern with its red lattice and its
-      red sign; or a tented field. When night was intended, the blue hangings
-      were drawn up and exchanged for black.</p>
-
-    <p>The hawkers retired and were quiet; the house settled down to listen,
-      and the Prologue began. Prologue appeared dressed in a long black
-      velvet cloak: he assumed a diffident and most respectful manner; he
-      bowed to the ground.</p>
-
-    <div class="center-container">
-      <div class="poem">
-        <div class="stanza">
-          <div class="i2">‘In Troy there lies the scene. From Isles of Greece</div>
-          <div class="i0">The princes orgulous, their high blood chaf’d,</div>
-          <div class="i0">Have to the port of Athens sent their ships.’</div>
-        </div>
-      </div>
-    </div>
-
-    <p class="noindent">In this way the mind of the audience was prepared for what was to
-      follow. We needed no play-bill. The palace before us could be no other
-      than Priam’s Palace. If there was a field with tents, it must be the
-      battle-field and the camp of the Greeks; if there was a wall, it must
-      be the wall of Troy. And though the scenery was rough, it was enough.
-      One wants no more than the unmistakable suggestion; the poet and the
-      actor find the rest. Therefore, though the intrusive gallants lay on
-      the stage; though Troilus was dressed in the armour of Tudor time, and
-      Pandarus wore just such a doublet as old Stow himself, we were actually
-      at Troy. The boy who played Cressida was a lovely maiden. The narrow
-      stage was large enough for the Council of Kings, the wooing of lovers,
-      and the battle-field of heroes. Women unfaithful and perjured, lovers
-      trustful, warriors fierce, the alarms of war, fighting and slaying,
-      the sweet whispers of love were drowned by the blare of trumpets; the
-      loss of lover forgotten in the loss of a great captain; and among
-      the warriors and the kings and the lovers, the creeping creatures
-      who live upon the weaknesses and the sins of their betters, played
-      their parts upon these narrow boards before a silent and enraptured
-      house. For three hours we were kept out of our senses. There was no
-      need, I say, of better scenery: a quick shifting of the canvas showed
-      a battle-field, and turned the stage into a vast plain covered with
-      armies of Greeks and Romans. Soldiers innumerable, as thick as motes in
-      the sun, crossed the stage fighting, shouting, challenging each other.
-      While they fought, the trumpets blew and the drums beat, the wounded
-      fell, and the fight continued over these prostrate bodies till they
-      were carried off by their<span class="pagenum" id="Page_349">349</span> friends. The chiefs rushed to the front,
-      crossed swords, and rushed off again. ‘Come both you cogging Greeks!’
-      said Troilus, while our cheeks flushed and our lips parted. If the
-      stage had been four times as broad, if the number of men in action
-      had been multiplied by ten, we could not have felt more vividly the
-      rage, the joy, the madness of the battle. When the play was finished,
-      the ale, the apples, and the nuts were passed round, and the noise
-      began again. Then the clown came in and began to sing, and the music
-      played—but oh, how poor it seemed after the great emotions of the
-      play! The old man plucked me by the sleeve and we went out, and with us
-      most of the better sort.” (<i>London</i>, pp. 237–239.)</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <p>In addition to the foregoing, or as confirming and supplementing that
-    account, I quote the following from Drake’s <i>Shakespeare and his Times</i>:—</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“The passion for the stage continued rapidly to increase, and before
-      the year 1590, not less than four or five theatres were in existence.
-      The patronage of dramatic representation made an equal progress at
-      Court; for though Elizabeth never, it is believed, attended a public
-      theatre, yet had she four companies of children who frequently
-      performed for her amusement, denominated the Children of St. Paul’s,
-      the Children of Westminster, the Children of the Chapel, and the
-      Children of Windsor. The public actors, too, who were sometimes,
-      in imitation of these appellations, called the Children of the
-      Revels, were, towards the close of Her Majesty’s reign especially,
-      in consequence of a greatly acquired superiority over their younger
-      brethren, often called upon to act before her at the royal theatre in
-      Whitehall. Exhibitions of this kind at Court were usual at Christmas,
-      on Twelfth Night, at Candlemas, and at Shrove-tide, throughout the
-      reigns of Elizabeth and James, and the plays of Shakspeare were
-      occasionally the entertainment of the night; thus we find <i>Love’s
-      Labour Lost</i> to have been performed before our maiden Queen during
-      the Christmas-holydays, and <i>King Lear</i> to have been exhibited
-      before King James on St. Stephen’s night. On these occasions, the
-      representation was generally at night, that it might not interfere
-      with the performances at the regular theatre, which took place early
-      in the afternoon; and we learn from the Council-books that the royal
-      remuneration, in the age of Elizabeth, for the exhibition of a single
-      play at Whitehall, amounted to ten pounds, of which twenty nobles, or
-      six pounds, thirteen shillings, and fourpence, formed the customary
-      fee; and three pounds, six shillings, and eightpence the free gift
-      or bounty. If, however, the performers were required to leave the
-      capital for any of the royal palaces in its neighbourhood, the fee, in
-      consequence of the public exhibition of the day being prevented, was
-      augmented to twenty pounds.</p>
-
-    <p>The protection of the Drama by Elizabeth and her Ministers, though it
-      did not exempt the public players, except in one instance, from the
-      penalties of statutes against vagabonds, yet it induced during the
-      whole of her long reign numerous instances of private patronage from
-      the most opulent of her nobility and gentry,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_350">350</span> who, possessing the power
-      of licensing their own domestics as comedians, and, consequently, of
-      protecting them from the operation of the Act of Vagrancy, sheltered
-      various companies of performers, under the denomination of their
-      servants, or retainers—a privilege which was taken away, by Act of
-      Parliament, on the accession of James, and, as Mr. Chalmers observes,
-      ‘put an end for ever to the scenic system of prior times.’”</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <p>There were no fewer than fourteen companies of players, under private
-    patronage, who contributed to exhilarate the people of London and the
-    country. Of these, Drake furnishes a chronological enumeration. “Soon
-    after the accession of Elizabeth appeared Lord Leicester’s company,
-    the same which, in 1574, was finally incorporated by royal licence;
-    in 1572 was formed Sir Robert Lane’s company; in the same year Lord
-    Clinton’s; in 1575 companies were created by Lord Warwick, and the Lord
-    Chamberlain, the name of Shakspeare being enrolled among the servants
-    of the latter, who, in the first year of the subsequent reign, became
-    entitled to the appellation of His Majesty’s servants; in 1576, the
-    Earl of Sussex brought forward a theatrical body, and in 1577, Lord
-    Howard another, neither of which, however, attained much eminence; in
-    1578 the Earl of Essex mustered a company of players, and in 1579, Lord
-    Strange, and the Earl of Derby, followed his example; in 1591 the Lord
-    Admiral produced his set of comedians; in 1592 the Earl of Hertford
-    effected a similar arrangement; in 1593 Lord Pembroke protected an
-    association of actors, and at the close of Her Majesty’s reign the Earl
-    of Worcester had in pay also a company of theatrical performers.”</p>
-
-  <p>As regards the management of his property in the play the author had
-    the choice of two methods. He might sell the copyright to the theatre.
-    In this case, to which authors frequently had recourse in the age
-    of Shakespeare, the dramatist sold outright the whole rights of the
-    piece, so that the proprietors of the theatre secured its performance
-    exclusively to their own company. If it was a popular piece, of course,
-    they were not anxious to publish it. If, however, the author kept the
-    piece in his own hands, he not only had the right of publication, but
-    he had, likewise, a claim upon the theatre for a benefit. This, towards
-    the termination of the sixteenth century, took place on the second day,
-    and was soon afterwards, as early indeed as 1612, postponed to the
-    third day.</p>
-
-  <p>The price of a drama, when disposed of to the public players, was
-    twenty nobles, or six pounds, thirteen shillings, and fourpence; but
-    private companies would sometimes give more than that sum.</p>
-
-  <p>The price of a play when published was sixpence, and the poet received
-    about forty shillings of an honorarium for a dedication. It has been
-    stated, however, that Shakespeare received but five pounds for his
-    <i>Hamlet</i>.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="i_350-1">
-    <img src="images/i_350-1.jpg" width="700" height="424" alt="" />
-    <div class="caption"></div>
-    <ul class="xsmall bold clear col33">
-      <li>100. St. Mary Spittal.</li>
-      <li>102. Houndsditch.</li>
-      <li>103. Crutched Friars.</li>
-      <li>104. Priory of Holy Trinity.</li>
-      <li>105. Aldgate.</li>
-      <li>106. St. Botolph, Aldgate.</li>
-      <li>107. The Minories.</li>
-      <li>108. The Postern Gate.</li>
-      <li>109. Great Tower Hill.</li>
-    </ul>
-    <ul class="xsmall bold col33">
-      <li>110. Place of Execution.</li>
-      <li>111. Allhallow’s Church, Barking.</li>
-      <li>112. The Custom House.</li>
-      <li>113. Tower of London.</li>
-      <li>114. The White Tower.</li>
-      <li>115. Traitors’ Gate.</li>
-      <li>116. Little Tower Hill.</li>
-      <li>117. East Smithfield.</li>
-      <li>118. Stepney.</li>
-    </ul>
-    <ul class="xsmall bold col33">
-      <li>119. St. Catherine’s Church.</li>
-      <li>120. St. Catherine’s Dock.</li>
-      <li>121. St. Catherine’s Hospital.</li>
-      <li>122. Isle of Dogs.</li>
-      <li>123. Monastery of Bermondsey.</li>
-      <li>124. Says Court, Deptford.</li>
-      <li>125. Palace of Placentia.</li>
-      <li>126. Greenwich.</li>
-    </ul>
-    <div class="caption">From the Panorama of “London, Westminster, and Southwark, in 1543.” By
-      Anthony Van den Wyngaerde. (Sutherland Collection, Bodleian Library,
-      Oxford.) <i>For continuation see pp. <a href="#i_218-9">218</a> and <a href="#i_234-5">235</a>.</i></div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>Hentzner, the German traveller, thus speaks of the theatres:—</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“Without the City are some theatres, where English actors represent
-      almost <span class="pagenum" id="Page_351">351</span>every day Comedies and Tragedies to very numerous audiences;
-      these are concluded with variety of dances, accompanied by excellent
-      music and the excessive applause of those that are present. Not far
-      from one of these Theatres, which are all built of wood, lies the
-      Royal Barge, close to the river Thames; it has two splendid cabins,
-      beautifully ornamented with glass windows, painting and carving; it is
-      kept upon dry ground and sheltered from the weather.”</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <p>The entertainment offered to the French Ambassador at the Court of
-    Henry VIII. at Greenwich shows that acting and dressing formed part of
-    a courtly entertainment. They began with tournaments and contests on
-    foot and horse; they went on to an interlude in Latin, the altars being
-    all richly dressed.</p>
-
-  <p>“This being ended,” says the author of the <i>Life of Wolsey</i>, “there
-    came a great company of ladies and gentlemen, the chiefest beauties
-    in the realm of England, being as richly attired as cost could make,
-    or art devise, to set forth their gestures, proportions, or beauties,
-    that they seemed to the beholder rather like celestial angels than
-    terrestrial creatures, and in my judgment worthy of admiration, with
-    whom the gentlemen of France danced and masked; every man choosing his
-    lady as his fancy served; that done, and the maskers departed, came in
-    another masque of ladies and gentlewomen, so richly attired as I cannot
-    express; these ladies maskers tooke each of them one of the Frenchmen
-    to dance; and here note, that these noblewomen spoke all of them good
-    French, which delighted them much to hear the ladies speak to them in
-    their own language. Thus triumphantly did they spend the whole night
-    from five of the clock at the night into two or three of the clock in
-    the morning; at which time the gallants drew all to their lodgings to
-    take their rest.”</p>
-
-  <p>There was a kind of show called a Prolusion. This appears to have been
-    a representation of some well-known event or legend. Thus in 1587 there
-    was a Prolusion set forth by Hugh Offley, merchant-adventurer and
-    leather-seller, one of the Sheriffs of the year 1588. It represented
-    King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table. He chose 300 good
-    archers, personable men; and he dressed them in black satin doublets
-    and black velvet hose; every man carried a bow of yew and a dozen waxed
-    arrows. They marched in goodly array from Merchant Taylors to Mile End
-    Green. Queen Elizabeth in her chariot passed them, and stopped in order
-    to see the show. “In her whole life,” she said, “she had never seen a
-    finer company of archers.” They all fell on their knees and prayed God
-    to prosper and preserve Her Majesty. She thanked them and passed on her
-    way, while the archers proceeded to attack the sham forts which had
-    been set up, after which those who shot best took prizes, and Master
-    Hugh Offley provided a banquet for all.</p>
-
-  <p>It is interesting to remember that the Theatre had to contend for the
-    place of honour with the stately and courtly Masque. All that artist
-    could do for decoration,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_352">352</span> or stage manager could devise for machinery,
-    or that poet could imagine or invent for fable, was pressed into the
-    service of the Masque. The dresses the players wore were most gorgeous;
-    the speeches were fine; the dances and the songs were most beautiful.
-    Real mountains contained real caves; Dryads ran out of the woods;
-    Naiads lay beside running streams; all the Gods and Goddesses of Ovid
-    took part in the action; there were thrones of gold and silver; there
-    were star-spangled skies; sea gods and river gods appeared; Tritons
-    blew their shells; mermaids swam about the sea-shell of mother-of-pearl
-    in which sat Venus herself. And all this time the Theatre itself had no
-    scenery and no stage management and no machinery. The Masque, however,
-    did not assume its full development till the next century. It will
-    be found more fully treated in the chapter on the Theatre and Art in
-    <i>London in the Time of the Stuarts</i>. Even more popular than the theatre
-    were the sports of bear-baiting, bull-baiting, wrestling, quarter-staff
-    and single-stick. The favourite place for these sports was the Paris
-    Garden beyond Bankside.</p>
-
-  <div class="center-container">
-    <div class="poem">
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i0">“Yet everye Sondaye</div>
-        <div class="i3">They will surelye spende</div>
-        <div class="i1">One penye or two</div>
-        <div class="i3">The bearwardes lyvyng to mende.</div>
-        <div class="i1">At Paryse Garden eche Sondaye</div>
-        <div class="i3">A man shall not fayle</div>
-        <div class="i1">To fynde two or three hundreds</div>
-        <div class="i3">For the bearwardes vaile.</div>
-        <div class="i1">One halpenye a piece</div>
-        <div class="i3">They use for to give</div>
-        <div class="i1">When some have no more</div>
-        <div class="i3">In their purse, I believe.”</div>
-      </div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>You shall read contemporary accounts of bear-baiting and bull-baiting.</p>
-
-  <p>“Some,” says John Houghton in 1694, “keep the bull on purpose for the
-    sport of baiting, cutting off the tips of his horns, and with pitch,
-    tow, and such like matter, fasten upon them the great horns of oxen,
-    with their tips cut off, and covered with leather, least they should
-    hurt the dogs. Because these papers go into several other countries,
-    I’ll say something of the manner of baiting the bull, which is, by
-    having a collar about his neck, fastened to a thick rope about three,
-    four, or five yards long, hung to a hook, so fastened to a stake that
-    it will turn round; with this the bull circulates to watch his enemy,
-    which is a mastiff dog (commonly used to the sport) with a short nose,
-    that his teeth may take the better hold; this dog, if right, will creep
-    upon his belly, that he may, if possible, get the bull by the nose,
-    which the bull as carefully strives to defend, by laying it close to
-    the ground, where his horns are also ready to do what in them lies to
-    toss the dog; and this is the true sport.”</p>
-
-  <p>But if more dogs than one come at once, if they are cowardly and come
-    under his legs, he will, if he can, stamp their guts out. I believe I
-    have seen a dog tossed by a bull thirty, if not forty foot high; and
-    when they are tossed either higher or<span class="pagenum" id="Page_353">353</span> lower, the men above strive to
-    catch them on their shoulders, lest the fall might mischief the dogs.</p>
-
-  <p>They commonly lay sand about, that if they fall upon the ground it may
-    be the easier. Notwithstanding this care, a great many dogs are killed,
-    more have their limbs broke, and some hold so fast, that by the bull’s
-    swinging them their teeth are often broke out.</p>
-
-  <p>To perfect the history of bull-baiting, I must tell you, that the famed
-    dogs have crosses or roses of various coloured ribbon stuck with pitch
-    on their foreheads, and such like the ladies are very ready to bestow
-    on dogs or bull that do valiantly; and when ’tis stuck on the bull’s
-    forehead, that dog is hollowed that fetches it off, though the true
-    courage and art is to hold the bull by the nose ’till he roars, which a
-    courageous bull scorns to do.</p>
-
-  <p>Often the men are tossed as well as the dogs; and men, bull, and dogs,
-    seem exceedingly pleased, and as earnest at the sport as if it were for
-    the lives or livelihoods. Many great wagers are laid on both sides,
-    and great journeys will men and dogs go for such a diversion. I knew
-    a gentleman that bought a bull in Hertfordshire on purpose to go a
-    progress with him, at a great charge, into most of the great towns in
-    the West of England.</p>
-
-  <p>This is a sport the English much delight in; and not only the baser
-    sort, but the greatest lords and ladies.”</p>
-
-  <p>And here is Laneham on the sport of bear-baiting:—</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“It waz a sport very pleazaunt of theez beasts; to see the bear with
-      hiz pink eyez leering after hiz enemiez approch, the nimbleness and
-      wayt of the dog to take hiz avauntage, and the fors and experiens of
-      the bear agayn to avoyd the assaults; if he were bitten in one place,
-      hoow he woold pynch in an oother too get free; that if he wear taken
-      onez, then what shyft with byting, with clawyng, with roring, tossing
-      and tumbling he woold woork too wynde hymself from them; and when he
-      waz lose, to shake his earz twyse or thryse wyth the blud and slauer
-      aboout his fiznamy, waz a matter of a goodly releef.”</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <p>We have already heard Hentzner on theatres, he has a word to say also
-    on baiting:—</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“There is still another place, built in the form of a Theatre, which
-      serves for the baiting of bulls and bears; they are fastened behind,
-      and then worried by those great English dogs and mastiffs, but not
-      without great risk to the dogs from the teeth of the one and the
-      horns of the other, and it sometimes happens they are killed on the
-      spot; fresh ones are immediately supplied in the places of those
-      that are wounded or tired. To this entertainment often follows that
-      of whipping a blinded bear, which is performed by five or six men,
-      standing in a circle with whips which they exercise upon him without
-      any mercy; although he cannot escape from them because of his chain, he
-      nevertheless defends himself vigorously, throwing down all who come<span class="pagenum" id="Page_354">354</span>
-      within his reach and are not active enough to get out of it, tearing
-      the whips out of their hands and breaking them. At these spectacles,
-      and everywhere else, the English are constantly seen smoking the
-      Nicotean weed, which in America is called Tobaca, and generally in this
-      manner: they have pipes on purpose made of clay, into the farther end
-      of which they put the herb, so dry that it may be rubbed into powder,
-      and lighting it, they draw the smoke into their mouths, which they
-      puff out again through their nostrils, along with plenty of phlegm and
-      defluxion from the head. In these Theatres, fruits, such as apples,
-      pears, and nuts, according to the season, are carried about to be sold,
-      as well as wine and ale.”</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <p>But besides these cruel forms of so-called “sport,” there were more
-    legitimate pleasures such as archery.</p>
-
-  <p>“During the holy days in summer,” Fitz Stephen says, “the young men
-    exercise themselves in the sports of leaping, archery, etc.” The
-    practice of archery was maintained in the City after the longbow had
-    to give way before gun and cannon. As a pastime of the citizens only,
-    no account of London would be complete without reference to archery.
-    There were, as every one knows, two kinds of bow: the longbow and the
-    crossbow. The former, for various reasons—its superiority in readiness
-    of handling, lightness in carrying, range of flight and sureness of
-    aim, caused it to be much more generally adopted in our armies than
-    its rival. At Cressy, for instance, our men were armed with longbows,
-    and the French with crossbows; when the rain fell the longbows could
-    be easily covered up, the crossbow could not, so that the strings
-    were wetted and the power of the weapon greatly injured. Edward the
-    First, who had a great opinion of the longbow as the superior weapon,
-    ordered, on the threat of war with France, every sheriff of a county
-    to provide 500 white bows and as many bundles of arrows. Edward the
-    Third issued repeated proclamations ordering the practice of archery.
-    It would seem as if the word archery in the fourteenth century included
-    the crossbow as well as the longbow, for Edward the Second, in 1314
-    (Riley, <i>Memorials</i>, p. 124), commanded the City of London to furnish
-    300 arbalesters “more powerful for defence,” and to provide them
-    with “haketons, bacinets, collerettes, arbalests and quarels.” (The
-    haketon was a jacket of quilted leather; the bacinet was a headpiece;
-    the collerette, an iron collar for the protection of the throat; the
-    arbalest is the crossbow; the quarel was the bolt.)</p>
-
-  <p>Richard the Second ordered that every man in his household should
-    exercise himself as occasion should permit in archery. And in 1392 an
-    Act was passed obliging all servants to practise archery on holydays.
-    In 1417 Henry V. ascribed his victory at Agincourt chiefly to his
-    archers, and orders the Sheriffs of the counties to pluck from every
-    goose six wing-feathers for the improvement of the arrow. These
-    feathers were the second, third, and fourth of each wing. Edward IV.
-    ordered that Englishmen in Ireland and every Irishman living with
-    Englishmen<span class="pagenum" id="Page_355">355</span> should be provided with a bow of his own height, which was
-    to be made of yew, wych, hazel, ash, or alder. Butts were to be erected
-    in every township, and the inhabitants were to practise on every feast
-    day. The same king sent a thousand archers to the Duke of Burgundy,
-    who was to pay them sixpence a day, about five shillings of our money.
-    Nothing can prove more conclusively the estimation in which archers
-    were held. The same king provided for his war both guns and bows. A
-    great deal of yew was imported at this time; it came in the Venetian
-    ships from Dalmatia and the countries on the eastern shores of the
-    Adriatic.</p>
-
-  <p>In the nineteenth year of Henry VII. the King finally decided for the
-    longbow against the crossbow, because “the longbow had been much used
-    in this realm, whereby honour and victory had been gotten against
-    outward enemies; the realm greatly defended; and much more the dread of
-    all Christian Princes by reason of the same.” Henry VII. himself shot
-    at the butts.</p>
-
-  <p>There were at least five statutes issued by Henry VIII. ordering the
-    practice of archery, but forbidding the crossbow.</p>
-
-  <p>The London Archers continued to hold their yearly contests in the
-    month of September, in spite of the fact that henceforth there would
-    be no use for the longbow in warfare. They formed a very fine corps,
-    had they been of any use; meantime, the City has always loved a show,
-    and a very fine show the Archers provided. Their captain was called
-    the Duke of Shoreditch; the captains of the different Companies were
-    called the Marquesses of Clerkenwell, Islington, Hoxton, and the Earl
-    of Pancras,<a id="FNanchor_13" href="#Footnote_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> etc.; in the year 1583 they assembled at Merchant
-    Taylors Hall to the number of 3000 all sumptuously apparelled, “nine
-    hundred and forty-two having chains of gold about their necks.” They
-    were escorted by whifflers and bowmen to the number of 4000, besides
-    pages and footmen; and so marching through Broad Street, where the
-    Duke of Shoreditch lived, they proceeded by Moorfields and Finsbury to
-    Smithfield, where, after performing their evolutions, they shot at the
-    target for glory.</p>
-
-  <p>The Finsbury Archers continued to exist and to hold their meetings
-    till well into the eighteenth century. Mr. Daines Barrington, writing
-    for the Society of Antiquaries in 1787, mentions that there were still
-    living two old men who had obtained prizes in these contests as late
-    as 1753, when they ceased. The same writer gives a map of the butts or
-    archers’ marks in Finsbury Fields as they were standing in the year
-    1787. The distance between the marks varies from 120 feet to 300 feet.
-    It may be assumed that 200 feet was a fairly average distance for an
-    arrow. The proper weight for an arrow was considered to be one ounce
-    only; it was to be winged by three feathers: two white being plucked
-    from the gander, and <span class="pagenum" id="Page_356">356</span>one gray taken from the goose; this difference in
-    colour showed the archer when the arrow was properly placed.</p>
-
-  <p>The Artillery Company or Finsbury Archers, predecessors of the present
-    Artillery Company, enjoyed certain privileges as to dress, as to
-    shooting at birds, and immunity from the charge of murder should any
-    one be killed by these arrows, especially after they had cried “Fast!”
-    as a warning.</p>
-
-  <p>It appears that bows and arrows were employed long after they left
-    the field of battle for shooting rabbits and crows, partly because
-    gunpowder was dear, but chiefly because the arrow makes no noise to
-    frighten the game away. The London Archers continued, in spite of the
-    fact that henceforth there would be no use of the longbow in warfare,
-    to hold their yearly contests in the month of September.</p>
-
-  <p>The Honourable Artillery Company, before it received its letters
-    patent, had been in the habit of practising archery in the fields of
-    Islington, Hoxton, and Shoreditch. In these fields targets or butts
-    were fixed to shoot at. Two of these butts or targets were still in
-    existence in 1860: one at the end of Dorchester Street, Hoxton, on the
-    east side of the New North Road near the Canal Bridge, and the other in
-    the brickwork of the Canal Bridge above the towing-path. Two others had
-    been destroyed about the year 1845: one in the Britannia Fields, and
-    the other in the ground now called Wellington Square. That standing at
-    the end of Dorchester Road was called “Whitehall.” A drawing of it is
-    given in the <i>L. and M. Arch. Society</i> (vol. ii. p. 15).</p>
-
-  <p>The other sports, feasts, and festivals of the City remained in the
-    sixteenth century much as they had been before the change of Faith with
-    certain exceptions, such as the Boy Bishop, the Feast of All Fools in
-    the Church, and the Miracle Play with its profanity and coarseness.
-    These vanished. There remained the Feasts of Christmas and Easter; the
-    celebration of May Day; the Vigils of St. John, St. Peter, and St.
-    Paul; and the Midsummer Watch. There were also Shrove Tuesday, Hocking
-    Day, Whitsuntide, and Martinmas, with some others. The ceremonies of
-    a Christmas banquet are preserved in Gerard Leigh’s <i>Accidence of
-      Armory</i>, and have been reproduced by Nichols. The feast was that of the
-    year 1561. The place was the Temple. The person called Palaphilos was
-    the Constable and Marshall, Dudley, Earl of Leicester.</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“The next day I thought for my pastime to walk to this Temple,
-      and entring in at the gates, I found the building nothing costly;
-      but many comely Gentlemen of face and person, and thereto very
-      courteous, saw I pass to and fro, so as it seemed a Prince’s port
-      to be at hand; and passing forward, entred into a Church of antient
-      building, wherein were many monuments of noble personages armd in
-      knightly habit, with their cotes depainted in ancient shields,
-      whereat I took pleasure to behold. Thus gazing as one bereft
-      with the rare sight, there came unto me an Hereaught, by name
-      Palaphilos, a King of Armes, who curteously saluted me, saying,
-      ‘For that I was a stranger, and seeming by my demeanour a lover of
-      honour, I was his guest of right’: whose curtesy (as reason was)
-      I obeyed; answering ‘I was at his commandment.’ ‘Then,’ said he,
-      ‘ye shall go to mine own lodging here within the Palace, where we<span class="pagenum" id="Page_357">357</span>
-      will have such cheer as the time and country will yield us’: where,
-      I assure you, I was so entertained, as no where I met with better
-      cheer or company, etc.</p>
-
-    <p>Thus talking we entred the Prince his Hall, where anon we heard the
-      noise of drum and fyfe. ‘What meaneth this drum?’ said I. Quoth
-      he, ‘This is to warn Gentlemen of the Houshold to repair to the
-      dresser; wherefore come on with me, and ye shall stand where ye may
-      best see the Hall served; and so from thence brought me into a long
-      gallery, that stretched itself along the Hall neer the Prince’s
-      table, where I saw the Prince set: a man of tall personage, a
-      manly countenance, somewhat brown of visage, strongly featured,
-      and thereto comely proportioned in all lineaments of body. At the
-      nether end of the same table were placed the Embassadors of sundry
-      Princes. Before him stood the carver, sewer, and cup-bearer, with
-      great number of gentlemen wayters attending his person; the ushers
-      making place to strangers of sundry regions that came to behold
-      the honour of this mighty Captain. After the placing of these
-      honourable guests, the Lord Steward, Treasurer, and Keeper of
-      Pallas Seal, with divers honourable personages of that Nobility,
-      were placed at a side-table neer adjoining the Prince on the
-      right hand, and at another table on the left side were placed the
-      Treasurer of the Household, Secretary, the Prince his Serjeant at
-      the Law, four Masters of the Revels, the King of Arms, the Dean of
-      the Chappel, and divers Gentlemen Pensioners to furnish the same.
-      At another table on the other side were set the Master of the Game,
-      and his Chief Ranger, Masters of Houshold, Clerks of the Green
-      Cloth and Check, with divers other strangers to furnish the same.
-      On the other side against them, began the table, the Lieutenant of
-      the Tower, accompanied with divers Captains of foot-bands and shot.
-      At the nether end of the Hall began the table, the High Butler, the
-      Panter, Clerks of the Kitchin, Master Cook of the Privy Kitchin,
-      furnished throughout with the souldiers and guard of the Prince;
-      all which, with number of inferior officers placed and served in
-      the Hall, besides the great resort of strangers I spare to write.</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="i_357"><img src="images/i_357.jpg" width="313" height="418" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">ROBERT DUDLEY, EARL OF LEICESTER (1532(?)-1588)<br />
-      From the painting by Zuccaro in the National Portrait Gallery, London.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_358">358</span></p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>The Prince so served with tender meats, sweet fruits, and dainty
-      delicates confectioned with curious cookery, as it seemed wonder a
-      world to observe the provision; and at every course the trumpetters
-      blew the couragious blast of deadly war, with noise of drum and
-      fyfe, with the sweet harmony of violins, sackbutts, recorders, and
-      cornetts, with other instruments of music, as it seemed Apollo’s
-      harp had turned their stroke. Thus the Hall was served after the
-      most ancient order of the Island; in commendation whereof I say,
-      I have also seen the service of great Princes, in solemn seasons
-      and times of triumph, yet the order hereof was not inferior to
-      any. But to proceed, this Hereaught Palaphilos, even before the
-      second course came in, standing at the high table said in this
-      manner: ‘The mighty Palaphilos, Prince of Sophie, High Constable
-      Marshall of the Knights Templars, Patron of the Honourable Order of
-      Pegasus’; and therewith cryeth ‘A Largess.’ The Prince, praysing
-      the Hereaught, bountifully rewarded him with a chain to the value
-      of an hundred talents.</p>
-
-    <p>I assure you, I languish for want of cunning, ripely to utter that
-      I saw so orderly handled appertaining to service; wherefore I
-      cease, and return to my purpose.</p>
-
-    <p>The supper ended, and tables taken up, the High Constable rose,
-      and a while stood under the place of honour, where his achievement
-      was beautifully embroidered and devised of sundry matters, with
-      the Ambassadors of foreign nations, as he thought good, till
-      Palaphilos, King of Armes, came in, his Hereaught Marshal, and
-      Pursivant before him; and after followed his messenger and Caligate
-      Knight; who putting off his coronal, made his humble obeysance to
-      the Prince, by whom he was commanded to draw neer, and understand
-      his pleasure; saying to him, in few words, to this effect:
-      ‘Palaphilos, seeing it hath pleased the high Pallas to think me
-      to demerit the office of this place; and thereto this night past
-      vouchsafed to descend from heavens to increase my further honour,
-      by creating me Knight of her Order of Pegasus; as also commanded
-      me to join in the same Society such valiant Gentlemen throughout
-      her province whose living honour hath best deserved the same,
-      the choice whereof most aptly belongeth to your skill, being the
-      watchman of their doings and register of their deserts; I will
-      ye choose as well throughout our whole armyes, as elsewhere, of
-      such special gentlemen, as the gods hath appointed, the number of
-      twenty-four, and the names of them present us: commanding also
-      those chosen persons to appear in our presence in knightly habit,
-      that with conveniency we may proceed in our purpose. This done
-      Palaphilos obeying his Prince’s commandement, with twenty-four
-      knights, all apparelled in long white vestures, with each man a
-      scarf of Pallas colours, and them presented, with their names, to
-      the Prince; who allowed well his choice, and commanded him to do
-      his office. Who, after his duty to the Prince, bowed towards these
-      worthy personages, standing every man to his antienty, as he had
-      born armes in the field, and began to shew his Prince’s pleasure;
-      with the honour of the Order.”</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <p>And here is a note from Stow on Christmas Customs:—</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“Against the feast of Christmas, every man’s house, as also their
-      parish churches, were decked with holm, ivie, bayes, and whatsoever the
-      season of the yeere aforded to be greene; the conduits and standards
-      in the streets were likewise garnished. Amongst the which, I read,
-      that in the yeere 1444, by tempest of thunder and lightning, on the
-      first of February at night, Paul’s steeple was fired, but with great
-      labour quenched, and toward the morning of Candlemas day, at the Leaden
-      Hall in Cornhill, a standard of tree, beeing set up in the midst of
-      the pavement fast in the ground, nayled full of holme and ivy, for
-      disport of Christmas to the people, was torne up and cast downe by the
-      malignant spirit (as was thought), and the stones of the pavement all
-      about were cast in the streetes, and into divers houses, so that the
-      people were wore agast at the great tempests.”</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <p>Let us pass on to the great Festival of May Day.</p>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_359">359</span></p>
-
-  <div class="center-container">
-    <div class="poem">
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i0">“Forth goeth all the court both most and lest,</div>
-        <div class="i1">To Fetch the floures fresh, and braunch and blome—</div>
-        <div class="i1">And namely hauthorn brought both page and grome</div>
-        <div class="i1">And than rejoysen in their great delite;</div>
-        <div class="i1">Eke ech at other throw the floures bright,</div>
-        <div class="i1">The primerose, the violete, and the gold.</div>
-        <div class="i1">With freshe garlants party blew and white.”</div>
-      </div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>Philip Stubbes says:—“Against Maie, Whitsondaie, or some other tyme
-    of the yeare, every parishe, towne, and village assemble themselves
-    together, bothe men, women, and children; and either goyng all
-    together, or deviding themselves into companies, they goe some to the
-    woodes and groves, some to the hilles and mountaines, some to one
-    place, some to another, where they spend all the night in pleasant
-    pastymes, and in the mornyng they returne bringing with them, birch,
-    bouwes, and braunches of trees to deck their assemblies withal. But
-    their chiefest jewel they bring from thence is their Maie poole, which
-    they bring home with greate veneration, as thus:—They have twentie or
-    fortie yoke of oxen, every oxe havyng a swete nosegaie of flowers tyed
-    on the tippe of his hornes, and these oxen drawe home the Maie poole
-    (this stinckyng idoll rather), which is covered all over with flowers
-    and hearbes, bounde rounde aboute with stringes from the top to the
-    bottome, and sometyme painted with variable colours, with two or three
-    hundred men, women, and children followyng it with greate devotion.
-    And thus being reared up, with handkerchiefes and flagges streamyng on
-    the toppe, they strawe the grounde aboute, binde greene boughs about
-    it, sett up sommer halles, bowers, and arbours hard by it; and then
-    fall they to banquet and feast, to leape and daunce aboute it, as the
-    heathen people did at the dedication of their idolles.... I have heard
-    it credibly reported,” he sarcastically adds, “by men of great gravity,
-    credite, and reputation, that of fourtie, three score, or a hundred
-    maides goyng to the wood over night, there have scarcely the third
-    parte of them returned home againe as they went.” (<i>The Anatomie of
-      Abuses</i>, 1836 edition, p. 171.)</p>
-
-  <p>Herrick says:—</p>
-
-  <div class="center-container">
-    <div class="poem">
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i5">“Get up ... and see</div>
-        <div class="i6">The dew bespangling herbe and tree;</div>
-        <div class="i0">Each flower has wept, and bow’d toward the east,</div>
-        <div class="i0">Above an hour since; ... it is sin,</div>
-        <div class="i14">Nay profanation, to keep in;</div>
-        <div class="i0">When as a thousand virgins on this day,</div>
-        <div class="i0">Spring sooner than the larks to fetch in May!</div>
-        <div class="i6">Come, my Corinna, come; and comming marke</div>
-        <div class="i6">How each field turns a street, each street a parke</div>
-        <div class="i14">Made green and trimmed with trees; see how</div>
-        <div class="i14">Devotion gives each house a bough,</div>
-        <div class="i14">Or branch; each porch, each doore ere this,</div>
-        <div class="i14">An arke or tabernacle is,</div>
-        <div class="i6">Made up of white-thorn neatly interwove,</div>
-        <div class="i6">As if here were those cooler shades of love.</div><span class="pagenum" id="Page_360">360</span>
-      </div>
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i0">Can such delights be in the street,</div>
-        <div class="i0">And open fields, and we not see’t?</div>
-        <div class="i0">Come, we’ll abroad; and let’s obey</div>
-        <div class="i0">The Proclamation made for May,</div>
-        <div class="i0">And sin no more, as we have done, by staying.</div>
-      </div>
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i0">There’s not a budding boy, or girle, this day</div>
-        <div class="i0">But is got up, and gone to bring in May;</div>
-        <div class="i6">A deale of youth, ere this, is come</div>
-        <div class="i6">Back, and with white-thorn laden home.</div>
-        <div class="i6">Some have dispatcht their cakes and creame,</div>
-        <div class="i6">Before that we have left to dreame;</div>
-        <div class="i0">And some have wept, and woo’d, and plighted troth,</div>
-        <div class="i0">And chose their priest, ere we can cast off sloth;</div>
-        <div class="i6">Many a green gown has been given;</div>
-        <div class="i6">Many a kisse, both odde and even;</div>
-        <div class="i6">Many a glance too has been sent</div>
-        <div class="i6">From out the eye, Love’s firmament;</div>
-        <div class="i0">Many a jest told of the keyes betraying</div>
-        <div class="i0">This night, and locks pickt, ye w’are not a Maying!”</div>
-      </div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p class="noindent">Of the festive appearance of the streets in summer, and
-    the hospitality of the citizens, and the setting of the Midsummer
-    Watch, Stow speaks at length (Thoms’s edition, p. 39):—</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“In the months of June and July, on the vigils of festival days, and
-      on the same festival days in the evenings after the sun setting, there
-      were usually made bonfires in the streets, every man bestowing wood or
-      labour towards them; the wealthier sort also, before their doors, near
-      to the said bonfires, would set out tables on the vigils, furnished
-      with sweet bread and good drink, and on the festival days with meats
-      and drinks plentifully, whereunto they would invite their neighbours
-      and passengers also to sit and be merry with them in great familiarity,
-      praising God for His benefits bestowed on them. These were called
-      bonfires as well of good amity amongst neighbours that being before at
-      controversy were there, by the labour of others, reconciled, and made
-      of bitter enemies loving friends; and also for the virtue that a great
-      fire hath to purge the infection of the air. On the vigil of St. John
-      the Baptist, and on St. Peter and Paul the apostles, every man’s door
-      being shadowed with green birch, long fennel, St. John’s wort, orpin,
-      white lilies, and such like, garnished upon with garlands of beautiful
-      flowers, had also lamps of glass, with oil burning in them all the
-      night; some hung out branches of iron curiously wrought, containing
-      hundreds of lamps alight at once, which made a goodly show, namely in
-      New Fish Street, Thames Street, etc.”</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <div class="figcenter w600">
-    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_361">361</span>
-    <a id="i_361"><img src="images/i_361.jpg" width="600" height="427" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="attribl"><i>Drawn by Grignon, photographed by D<sup>r</sup> Diamond</i></div>
-    <div class="attribr"><i>J. Hale Keur Sr.</i></div>
-  </div>
-  <div class="center caption">A FÊTE AT HORSELYDOWN IN 159O<br />
-    From a picture by G. Hoffnagle at Hatfield House.</div>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_362">362</span></p>
-  <p>At Whitsuntide 1900 I was at Treves. It is the custom on Whit Sunday
-    to hold a great procession in which, apparently, the whole population
-    takes part through the principal streets to the Cathedral. The girls
-    are dressed in white with white flowers in their hair; the younger
-    girls carry baskets filled with white flowers; men, women, and children
-    are all chanting as they go; groups of priests, boys in scarlet,
-    beadles and other ecclesiastical selections, adorn the procession. If
-    that were all I should not notice it in this place. But in addition
-    every street through which the procession passed was decorated with
-    branches. And here for the first time I understood the lines already
-    quoted, how</p>
-
-  <div class="center-container">
-    <div class="poem">
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i0">“Each field turns a street, each street a parke</div>
-        <div class="i8">Made green and trimmed with trees; see how</div>
-        <div class="i8">Devotion gives each house a bough,</div>
-        <div class="i8">Or branch; each porch, each doore, ere this,</div>
-        <div class="i8">An arke or tabernacle is,</div>
-        <div class="i1">Made up of white-thorn neatly interwove.”</div>
-      </div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p class="noindent">For the decking of the house did not consist of a branch or a bunch
-    over a porch or a window, but the whole ground-floor of every house was
-    covered with great boughs closely placed side by side so as to look
-    like a lane of trees. Herrick did not exaggerate.</p>
-
-  <p>Stow goes on to speak of the Marching Watch:—</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“Besides the standing Watches all in bright Harness, in every Ward
-      and Street in this city and Suburbs, there was also a Marching Watch,
-      that passed through the principal Streets thereof, to wit, from the
-      little conduit by Paul’s Gate to West Cheap, by the Stocks through
-      Cornhill, by Leaden Hall to Aldgate, then back down Fenchurch Street,
-      by Grasse church, about Grasse church conduit, and up Grasse church
-      street into Cornhill, and through it into West Cheap again, and so
-      broke up. The whole way ordered for this marching watch extendeth to
-      three thousand two hundred Taylor’s Yards of Assize; for the furniture
-      whereof with Lights, there were appointed seven hundred cressets, five
-      hundred of them being found by the Companies, the other two hundred
-      by the Chamber of London. Besides the which Lights every Constable in
-      London, in number more than two hundred and forty, had his Cresset;
-      the charge of every Cresset was in Light two shillings and fourpence,
-      and every cresset had two men, one to bear or hold it, another to bear
-      a Bag with Light, and to serve it, so that the Poor Men pertaining
-      to the Cressets, taking Wages, besides that every one had a strawen
-      Hat, with a Badge painted, and his breakfast, amounted in number to
-      almost two thousand. The marching Watch contained in number about two
-      thousand men, part of them being old Soldiers, of skill to be Captains,
-      Lieutenants, Serjeants, Corporals, etc., Wiflers, Drummers, and Fifes,
-      Standard and Ensign Bearers, Demilances on great Horses, Gunners with
-      hand guns, or half Hakes, Archers in coats of white Fustian, signed
-      on the breast and back with the Arms of the City, their Bows bent in
-      their Hands, with Sheafs of Arrows by their Sides; Pikemen in bright
-      Corslets, Burganets, etc., Halbards, the like the Billmen in Almain
-      Rivets, and Aprons of Mail in great Number. There were also divers
-      Pageants, Morris Dancers, Constables, the one-half, which was one
-      hundred and twenty on St.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_363">363</span> John’s Eve, the other half on St. Peter’s
-      Eve, in bright harness, some over Gilt, and every one a jornet of
-      Scarlet thereupon, and a Chain of Gold, his henchman following him, his
-      Minstrels before him, and his Cresset Light passing by him, the Waits
-      of the City, the Mayor’s officers for his Guard before him, all in a
-      livery of woosted, or Sea Jackets party-coloured, the Mayor himself
-      well mounted on Horseback, the Swordbearer before him in fair Armour
-      well mounted also, the Mayor’s Footmen, and the like Torch Bearers
-      about him, Henchmen twain upon great stirring Horses, following him.
-      The Sheriffs’ Watches came one after the other in like Order, but not
-      so large in Number as the Mayor’s; for where the Mayor had, besides his
-      Giant, three Pageants, each of the Sheriffs had, besides their Giants,
-      but two Pageants; each their Morris Dance, and one Henchman, their
-      Officers in jackets of woosted or Sea, party-coloured, differing from
-      the Mayor’s and each from other, but having harnessed Men a great many.</p>
-
-    <p>This Midsummer Watch was thus accustomed yearly, time out of Mind,
-      until the year 1539, the 31st of Henry VIII., in which year, on the 8th
-      of May, a great Muster was made by the Citizens at the Mile’s End, all
-      in bright Harness, with Coats of White Silk, or Cloth and Chains of
-      Gold, in three great Battels, to the number of fifteen thousand, which
-      passed through London to Westminster, and so through the Sanctuary, and
-      round about the Park of St. James, and returned home through Oldborne.
-      King Henry, then considering the great Charges of the Citizens for the
-      Furniture of this unusual Muster, forbad the Marching Watch provided
-      for at Midsummer for that Year; which being once laid down, was not
-      raised again till the year 1548, the 2nd of Edward VI., Sir John
-      Gresham then being Mayor, who caused the Marching Watch, both on the
-      eve of St. John Baptist and of St. Peter the Apostle, to be revived and
-      set forth in as comely order as it hath been accustomed, which Watch
-      was also beautified by the number of more than three hundred Demilances
-      and light Horsemen, prepared by the citizens to be sent into Scotland
-      for the rescue of the town of Haddington, and others kept by the
-      Englishmen.” (Stow, vol. i.)</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <p>As for dancing, never was there a time when it was more popular.
-    Everybody danced: the Queen at Whitehall danced the brawl; the
-    kitchen-maid in the street danced the ney. They danced the solemn
-    <i>pavane</i>, the <i>Cassamezzo galliard</i>, the <i>canary</i> dance, the <i>Coranto</i>,
-    the <i>Cavolta</i>, the <i>jig</i>, the <i>galliard</i>, the <i>fancy</i>, and the <i>Ney</i>,
-    and perhaps many more. They played cards: they played at primiero,
-    trumpe, gleek, gresso, new cut, knave out of doors, ruff, noddy, most
-    and pace; they got through the long winter evenings mainly with the
-    help of cards. Bowling was a summer amusement; tournaments belonged
-    to the Court; hunting was an amusement for the richer sort; the
-    people also fought cocks, wrestled, practised archery, and played
-    quarter-staff. The old<span class="pagenum" id="Page_364">364</span> Catholic feasts and sports—such as the
-    Feast of Fools, the Boy Bishop, the Mysteries in the Churches, were
-    abolished; but in their own houses they had mumming and mummers; for
-    the ladies there was embroidery; there was also fine work of all
-    kinds. And there was a great demand for monsters: a pig with eight
-    legs; strange fishes caught in the river; a mermaid quite fresh,
-    unfortunately dead, caught off the Yarmouth Roads; a calf with
-    two backs; a lobster with six claws; these things were always on
-    exhibition, for the most part, in Fleet Street. Their Morris dances,
-    their Maypoles, Whitsun Ales, their fairs and wakes, and, in fact,
-    every occasion for meeting together, singing, feasting, and dancing,
-    this Protestant city kept up.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="i_364"><img src="images/i_364.jpg" width="417" height="540" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">THE DANCING PICTURE<br />
-      By Holbein and Janet, in the possession of Major-General F. E. Sotheby.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>Among the amusements of the people must not be forgotten the common
-    custom of telling stories. The long evenings when the family gathered
-    round<span class="pagenum" id="Page_365">365</span> the fire, the only light in the room, were tedious: they could
-    hardly go to bed much before eight, though they rose long before
-    daybreak. Story-telling was an amusement which had long ago pleased the
-    Saxons and the Danes, who recounted the great deeds of their ancestors
-    to wile away the winter evening. Perhaps many of the stories which
-    found their way into books during the sixteenth century served this
-    purpose, while the merry jests of Skogan, and Peele, and the rest,
-    certainly formed part of the story-teller’s <i>répertoire</i>.</p>
-
-  <p>Another amusement was that of reading. We have already seen what an
-    immense field was opened up for those who loved books, by the shoals
-    which during Elizabeth’s reign were issued from the press.</p>
-
-  <p>The first Lottery was set on foot in the year 1559. The drawing took
-    place at the west door of St. Paul’s, and continued daily from the
-    11th of January to the 6th of May following. The Lottery did not gain
-    its full power until the eighteenth century. It is sufficient here
-    to record the first appearance of this baleful institution, fruitful
-    mother of crime.</p>
-
-  <hr class="page" />
-  <div class="chapter" id="CHAPTER_8e">
-    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_366">366</span>
-    <h3>
-      <span class="gespertt1">CHAPTER VIII</span><br />
-      <span class="subhead">THE POOR</span>
-    </h3>
-  </div>
-
-  <p class="noindent"><span class="smcap">Harrison</span> says that there are “four kinds of poor: the poor by
-    impotence, as the fatherless child, the blind man, and the incurably
-    sick man; the poor by casualty, as the wounded soldier; the thriftless
-    poor, as the rioter that hath consumed all; the vagabond that will
-    abide nowhere; and, finally, the rogues and strumpet which are not
-    possible to be divided in sunder.”</p>
-
-  <p>As regards the last sort. Harrison’s description tells everything that
-    is wanted.</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“Such as are idle beggars through their owne default are of two sorts,
-      and continue their estates either by casuall or meere voluntarie
-      meanes: those that are such by casuall means, are in the beginning
-      justlie to be referred either to the first or second sort of poore
-      afore mentioned; but degenerating into the thriftlesse sort, they doo
-      what they can to continue their miserie, and with such impediments as
-      they have to straie and wander about, as creatures abhorring all labour
-      and every honest exercise. Certes I call these casuall meanes, not in
-      respect of the originall of their povertie, but of the continuance of
-      the same, from whence they will not be delivered, such is their owne
-      ungratious lewdnesse and froward disposition. The voluntarie meanes
-      proceed from outward causes, as by making of corosives, and applieng
-      the same to the more fleshie parts of their bodies; and also laieng
-      of ratsbane, sperewort, crowfoot, and such like unto their whole
-      members, thereby to raise pitifull and odious sores and moove the
-      harts of the goers by such places where they lie, to yerne at their
-      miserie and bestow large almesse upon them. How artificiallie they
-      beg, what forcible speech, and how they select and choose out words of
-      vehemencie, whereby they doo in maner conjure or adjure the goer by to
-      pitie their cases, I passe over to remember, as judging the name of
-      God and Christ to be more conversant in the mouths of none; and yet
-      the presence of the heavenlie majestie further off from no men than
-      from this ungracious companie. Which maketh me to think that punishment
-      is farre meeter for them than liberalitie or almesse, and sith Christ
-      willeth us cheeflie to have a regard to Himselfe and His poore members.</p>
-
-    <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_367">367</span></p>
-
-    <p>Unto this nest is another sort to be referred, more sturdie than the
-      rest, which having sound and perfect limbs, doo yet, notwithstanding,
-      sometime counterfeit the possession of all sorts of diseases. Divers
-      times in their apparell also they will be like serving-men or laborers;
-      oftentimes they can plaie the mariners, and seeke for ships which they
-      never lost. But in fine, they are thieves and caterpillars in the
-      common-wealth, and by the word of God not permitted to eat, sith they
-      doo but lick the sweat from the true labourers’ browes, and beereve
-      the godly poore of that whiche is due unto them, to mainteine their
-      excesse, consuming the charitie of well-disposed people bestowed upon
-      them, after a most wicked and detestable manner.</p>
-
-    <p>It is not yet full threescore yeares since this trade began; but how it
-      hath prospered since that time, it is easie to judge, for they are now
-      supposed, of one sex and another, to amount unto about 10,000 persons;
-      as I have heard reported. Moreover, in counterfeiting the Egyptian
-      rogues, they have devised a language among themselves, which they name
-      Canting, but other pedlers French, a speech compact thirtie years since
-      of English, and a great number of od words of their own devising,
-      without all order or reason; and yet such is it as none but themselves
-      are able to understand. The first deviser thereof was hanged by the
-      necke, a just reward no doubt for his deserts, and a common end to all
-      of that profession....</p>
-
-    <p>The punishment that is ordeined for this kind of people is verie sharpe
-      and yet it can not restreine them from their gadding; wherefore the end
-      must needs be martiall law, to be exercised upon them, as upon theeves,
-      robbers, despisers of all lawes, and enimies to the common-wealth and
-      welfare of the land. What notable roberies, pilferies, murders, rapes,
-      and stealings of yoong children, burning, breaking and disfiguring
-      their lims to make them pitifull in the sight of the people, I need
-      not to rehearse; but for their idle roging about the countrie, the
-      law ordeineth this manner of correction. The roge being apprehended,
-      committed to prison, and tried in the next assises (whether they be of
-      gaole diliverie or sessions of the peace), if he happen to be convicted
-      for a vagabond either by inquest of office, or the testimonie of two
-      honest and credible witnesses upon their oths, he is then immediately
-      adjudged to be greeviously whipped and burned through the gristle of
-      the right eare, with a hot iron of the compasse of an inch about, as a
-      manifestation of his wicked life, and due punishment received for the
-      same. And this judgment is to be excuted upon him, except some honest
-      person woorth five pounds in the queenes books in goods, or twentie
-      shillings in lands, or some rich housholder to be allowed by the
-      justices will be bound in recognisance to reteine him in his service
-      for one whole yeare. If he be taken the second time, and proved to
-      have forsaken his said service, he shall then be whipped againe, bored
-      likewise through the other eare and set to service; from when if he
-      depart before a yeare be expired, and happen afterwards to be attached
-      againe, he is condemned to suffer<span class="pagenum" id="Page_368">368</span> paines of death as a fellon (except
-      before excepted), without benefit of clergy or sanctuarie, as by the
-      statute doth appeare. Among roges and idle persons finallie, we find to
-      be comprised all proctors that go up and down with conterfeit licenses,
-      coosiners, and such as gad about the countrie, using unlawfull games,
-      practisers of physiognomie and palmestrie, tellers of fortunes,
-      fensers, plaiers, minstrels, jugglers, pedlers, tinkers, pretensed
-      scholars, shipmen, prisoners gathering for fees, and others so oft as
-      they be taken without sufficient licence. From among which companie our
-      bearewards are not excepted and just cause; for I have read that they
-      have either voluntarilie, or for want of power to master their savege
-      beasts, beene occasion of the death and devoration of manie children in
-      sundrie countries by which they have passed, whose parents never knew
-      what was become of them.” (Holinshed, vol. i.)</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <p>The great increase of rogues and vagabonds of all kinds led in the year
-    1561 to a proposition for a House of Correction. The plan or scheme of
-    which was drawn out at full length, is published in <i>Archæologia</i> (vol.
-    xxi. p. 451).</p>
-
-  <p>The House was to be strong and in two divisions: one for the men and
-    the other for the women. It was to be built and furnished by the
-    alms of the people where it was put up—in this case Westminster was
-    proposed. In furnishing, care must be taken that everything should
-    be simple, because “it is to be considered beforehand that ye shall
-    have to do with the most desperatest people of the earth, geven to all
-    spoyle and robbery and soch as will break from you and steale.”</p>
-
-  <p>For work, it must be of a kind that they cannot steal or destroy. A
-    Mill, therefore, for the men, or a Lime Kiln; and for the women a Wheel
-    for cotton wool or woollen yarn. Of officers there must be six Masters:
-    a clerk; a porter and keeper; two beadles, and a miller.</p>
-
-  <p>The rations for the inmates were to be as follows:—To every four
-    women, at every meal, one pound of beef, potage, bread and drink. To
-    every two men working in the mill, double this allowance. The allowance
-    of bread was to be sixteen ounces a day. The allowance of beer was to
-    every four women one “pottell” of single beer a day, but to the men
-    double that quantity. On fast days an equivalent of butter, cheese,
-    herrings, “pescodes,” and such like.</p>
-
-  <p>There were to be two pairs of stocks and shackles for the refractory.
-    The Matron was to be a strong woman—the Elizabethan female of the
-    baser kind did not weaken her muscles and her nerves with tea; and,
-    which is very significant, it is added, “ye must be careful of fyer,
-    for the people are desperate and care not what mischief they do.”</p>
-
-  <p>I do not know whether this proposed House of Correction was erected or
-    not.</p>
-
-  <p>The present seems the best place and time to speak of systematic
-    attempts at Poor Relief.</p>
-
-  <p>The relief of the poor was a duty enjoined on all men. Almsgiving
-    was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_369">369</span> considered especially a virtue becoming to kings and princes.
-    Alfred gave alms continually. The Monastic Houses never turned away a
-    beggar without a meal to speed him on his way. Rich and noble persons
-    kept open house at Christmas, Easter, and Whitsuntide. Already the
-    custom was commenced of leaving lands or money to the church or to the
-    monastery saddled with the condition of alms to be bestowed on the
-    anniversary of the donor. By the laws of Ethelred, which probably only
-    confirmed a custom, the third part of the tithe due to the Church was
-    to be set aside for the use of the poor. In the Canons of Ælfric the
-    same proportion is enjoined to be so reserved. And in all the Monastic
-    Houses a certain part of the revenues was expended on the Almonry or
-    the Infirmary.</p>
-
-  <p>The custom of giving indiscriminately to any vagrant who demanded
-    alms, created a class of “masterless” men who would do no work and
-    wandered about the country. It took some centuries of this growing evil
-    before men could be brought to connect vagrancy with indiscriminate
-    almsgiving. At first the efforts made to repress vagrancy were directed
-    towards compulsory work. No one dared to maintain, perhaps no one dared
-    to think, that it was wrong to give alms to a beggar merely because he
-    was a beggar; but every one understood that the labourer must somehow
-    be made to work. Had the Clergy and the Monastic Houses perceived the
-    truth, vagrancy might have been reduced to a few companies of outlaws
-    and marauders. But we cannot blame the clergy of the thirteenth century
-    for failing to understand what the clergy of the present century are
-    still unable to understand. When the law interfered, the situation was
-    wellnigh desperate. The Black Death of 1348–50 had made labour scarce
-    and wages high. The necessity of suppressing able-bodied begging and of
-    sending the able-bodied beggar back to his native place and his proper
-    work was forced upon the Government. The Labour Statutes endeavoured to
-    force men to work and to keep down wages. In the fourteenth century,
-    just as to-day, there was a natural limit imposed upon wages by the
-    price of grain and food. The rustic who understood nothing about this
-    limit, naturally desired higher and still higher wages; if he could not
-    get this increase in his own parish, he went elsewhere: he begged his
-    way; he found food at the monastery; he tasted the joys of food which
-    was got without any work for it; he therefore easily dropped into the
-    condition of the masterless man and the able-bodied beggar.</p>
-
-  <p>In 1349 the law stepped in. No one must give alms, money, or food to
-    the able-bodied, so that for lack of bread they might be compelled
-    to work. The rustics, in order to escape the terrors of this law,
-    ran about the country from place to place. They pretended to be
-    lame, blind, dumb, paralysed; in this disguise they wandered about
-    begging with impunity unless they were detected. They pretended (case
-    of impostor—Riley) to go on pilgrimage: they joined companies of
-    pilgrims, begging by the way, and so got along for a time without<span class="pagenum" id="Page_370">370</span>
-    working. Therefore in 1388 other laws were framed. Nobody was allowed
-    to beg at all without a letter granting him a license; nobody was
-    allowed to go on pilgrimage without a license; nobody was to go
-    anywhere outside his own part of the country without a license. If any
-    were found without such warrant or permission they were clapped into
-    the stocks. The Act endeavoured to put a stop not only to able-bodied
-    vagrancy, but also to beggars who were crippled or afflicted, for they,
-    too, were forbidden to roam.</p>
-
-  <p>The citizens of London were especially severe on masterless men.</p>
-
-  <p>The law, at the same time, recognised the duty of relieving the
-    impotent, and the deserving poor, and the right of these to demand
-    relief. Wherever they were found they were compelled to go back to the
-    place to which they belonged by birth.</p>
-
-  <p>Nothing could be better or more effectual than these laws if they could
-    have been enforced. But how were they to be enforced? Where were the
-    police who might patrol the roads? How were the villagers disposed
-    towards laws which made them accept whatever wages the Lord of the
-    Manor chose to give them? In the City of London what were the opinions
-    of the working class, of the craftsmen? And how could the Alderman in
-    his ward ascertain that every man was following his own craft? No doubt
-    the power of arresting, punishing, and sending to their own villages
-    the wandering rustic, had the effect of keeping down the number of the
-    beggars. In a short time, too, the natural increase of the population
-    relieved the scarcity of labour. Moreover the relief of the poor by
-    each parish was ordered by the setting aside of a portion of the tithe
-    for their benefit (a revival of the Saxon law); and in those cases
-    where the tithes went to a monastic house, the same portion should be
-    payable by the monks or nuns. The jealousy with which the religious
-    Orders were already regarded is shown by the enactment of this
-    provision by Richard II. and its confirmation by Henry IV.</p>
-
-  <p>If the laws against grants of the fourteenth century had been enforced
-    there would have been an end of the evil. Unfortunately, they could
-    not be enforced. In the country there was no kind of Police; in London
-    the City had outgrown the old government by Aldermen and Ward, and
-    the people were overflowing the City boundaries and were beyond the
-    jurisdiction of the Mayor. Now the control of the county would not
-    be very effective, say, at Wapping or at Bermondsey, when the people
-    began to settle there. During the whole of the fifteenth century the
-    demand for able-bodied men for the war in France first, and the Civil
-    wars next, was so great that there seem to have been few vagrants
-    in the country. Indications, however, are by no means wanting of a
-    “masterless” element in London.</p>
-
-  <p>The cessation of the wars threw a large number of men out of
-    employment;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_371">371</span> worse than this, it found them unwilling or unable to
-    settle down again to steady work. Other causes also operated to produce
-    the same result. The English nobles had ceased to maintain their large
-    retinues: no longer did an Earl of Warwick ride into London with seven
-    hundred gentlemen and men-at-arms; Sir Thomas More says expressly that
-    the men who formerly had been in this kind of service either starved
-    or became thieves. Again, the changes in the industrial condition of
-    the country threw many people out of work: lands formerly arable were
-    turned into pasture; sheep runs took the place of cornfields; one
-    shepherd was wanted instead of half-a-dozen labourers. There was again
-    a great rise in prices, owing to the influx of silver. In fifty years
-    provisions of all kinds were doubled in price while wages rose only
-    thirty per cent. Add to these causes the continuance of indiscriminate
-    almsgiving.</p>
-
-  <p>The evil grew continually during the whole of the sixteenth century.</p>
-
-  <p>Early in the sixteenth century the City of London began to pass
-    regulations against vagrants. They forbade able-bodied vagrants
-    to beg and citizens to give money to unlicensed beggars: in other
-    words, they revived and enforced the old laws. Great strictness was
-    ordered. Vagrants had the letter V fastened on their breasts, and
-    were driven through Cheapside to the music of a basin ringing before
-    them. Four surveyors were appointed to carry out these instructions.
-    There was also an officer appointed, called “Master and Chief Avoyder
-    and Keeper out of this City and the liberties of the same all the
-    mighty vagabonds and beggars and all other suspected persons, except
-    such as wear upon them the badge of the City.” The vagrants, when
-    apprehended, were whipped at the cart’s tail; they also had to wear
-    collars of iron about their necks. Those who were allowed to beg had
-    tokens of tin given to them by the Aldermen. As for the relief of
-    the deserving poor, there were the “Companies’ stores,” granaries of
-    wheat provided for emergencies; alms were asked for every Sunday at
-    the church doors; the old hospitals were suppressed at the Reformation
-    until St. Bartholomew’s and St. Mary of Bethlehem were granted to the
-    City by Henry VIII. and reopened as hospitals. The City did not show
-    to advantage in giving money to the poor; we must remember that for
-    many centuries charity had been understood as indiscriminate alms given
-    by the Church and by rich men. What private persons gave was for the
-    advantage of their souls. Latimer and Lever thundered in vain. Latimer
-    says:—</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“Now what shall we say of these rich citizens of London? What shall
-      I say of them? Shall I call them proud men of London, malicious
-      men of London, merciless men of London? No, no, I may not say
-      so; they will be offended with me then. Yet must I speak. For is
-      there not reigning in London as much pride, as much covetousness,
-      as much cruelty, as much oppression and as much superstition as
-      was in Nebo? Yes I think, and much more too.... But London was
-      never so ill as it is now. In times past men were full of pity and
-      compassion, but now there is no pity; for in London their brother
-      shall die in the streets for cold, he shall lie sick at the door
-      between stock and stock ... and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_372">372</span> perish there for hunger: was there
-      ever more unmercifulness in Nebo? I think not. In times past,
-      when any rich man died in London they were wont to help the poor
-      scholars of the Universities with exhibitions. When any man died,
-      they would bequeath great sums of money towards the relief of the
-      poor. When I was a scholar in Cambridge myself I heard very good
-      report of London, and knew many that had relief of the rich men of
-      London; but now I can hear no such good report, and yet I inquire
-      of it, and hearken for it; but now charity is waxen cold, none
-      helpeth the scholar, nor yet the poor.”</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <p>Lever said:—</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“Nowe speakynge in the behalfe of these vile beggars, ... I wyl
-      tell the(e) that art a noble man, a worshipful man, an honest
-      welthye man, especially if thou be Maire, Sherif, Alderman, baily,
-      constable or any such officer, it is to thy great shame afore the
-      worlde, and to thy utter damnation afore God, to se these begging
-      as thei use to do in the streates. For there is never a one of
-      these but he lacketh eyther thy charitable almes to relieve his
-      neede, or els thy due correction to punysh his faute.... These sely
-      sols have been neglected throughout al England and especially in
-      London and Westminster: But now I trust that a good overseer, a
-      godly Byshop I meane, wyl see that they in these two cyties shall
-      have their neede releeved, and their faultes corrected, to the good
-      ensample of al other tounes and cities.”</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <p>Then St. Thomas’s Hospital and Bridewell were obtained from the King.
-    The latter was designed as a House of Instruction and Correction. It
-    was to receive the child “unapt for learning”; the “sore and sick when
-    they be cured”; and persons who have lost their character and either
-    cannot work or cannot find any who will employ them. The children were
-    to be made to work; the others were to be taught certain trades. They
-    were to be such as would not interfere with the crafts carried on in
-    the City.</p>
-
-  <p>The treatment of the poor began by being the work of the towns, each
-    town working out its own experimental methods. This was followed by
-    legislation in Parliament.</p>
-
-  <p>The Act of 1573, of which we have read Harrison’s account, enjoined
-    boring through the ear and whipping, and at the third offence death.
-    The Middlesex Sessions Rolls show that these sentences were actually
-    carried out. Between 6th October and 14th December 1591, 71 vagrants
-    were sentenced at the Sessions to be branded and whipped.</p>
-
-  <p>Who were vagrants? They were defined as proctors or procurators;
-    persons pretending to knowledge in “Phisnomye, Palmestrye, and other
-    abused Scyences,” masterless men; “fencers, bearewardes, players,
-    minstrels,”—not belonging to some noble lord; jugglers, pedlars,
-    tinkers, chapmen; labourers refusing customary wages; counterfeiters
-    of passes; scholars of Oxford and Cambridge who beg without license;
-    sailors not licensed; discharged prisoners without license; impotent
-    poor. But of these, players, bearwards, and pedlars were allowed to
-    carry on their calling subject to license.</p>
-
-  <p>In every parish the Justices of the Peace were to make a register of
-    the names of the poor. Every month they were to search for strange poor.</p>
-
-  <p>Justices in the country and Mayors in London were to assess and tax
-    the people<span class="pagenum" id="Page_373">373</span> for the relief of the poor; and those who refused to pay
-    were to be imprisoned. Three years later it was ordered that “stock”
-    of wool, flax, hemp, iron, or other stuff, should be provided for the
-    work of the poor. Between 1575 and 1597 other statutes were passed for
-    the prevention of increased settlement of poor families. No more houses
-    to be built within three miles of London westward except for people
-    assessed at £5 in goods or £3 in land. No tenement houses to be built,
-    and no inmates to be received.</p>
-
-  <p>In 1597 there was great discussion in the House of Commons on the
-    whole subject of poor relief. Finally an Act was passed by which the
-    relief of the poor was placed in the hands of church-wardens and four
-    overseers of Poor elected every Easter. They had to teach children and
-    bind them apprentice; they provided work for the adult; they relieved
-    the impotent; they built hospitals; they levied rates; they made Houses
-    of Correction; they resorted to more whipping and to banishment, with
-    death for return.</p>
-
-  <p>Next there is the interference of the Privy Council ordering the
-    Justices of the Peace to look after the vagrants and to report. Here is
-    a brief summary.</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>1573. Mayor has received a second letter from the Privy Council on
-      subject of vagrants.</p>
-
-    <p>1579. Common Council considered the work of the poor at Bridewell
-      and referred to Lords of the Council.</p>
-
-    <p>1583. Privy Council recommenced prevention of Irish beggars.</p>
-
-    <p>1594. City meets Justices of Middlesex on subject.</p>
-
-    <p><i>London</i>—1572. Mayor issued precept to Aldermen to inquire
-      about poor of every parish. Another precept to use the
-      church-wardens—thus to assess the whole ward—to make them pay
-      who had given nothing, and to make them pay more who had given too
-      little.</p>
-
-    <p>In 1573. Assessments proving too little, collections were made in
-      churches.</p>
-
-    <p>1576. Each parish was to elect a surveyor who every night for a
-      week should help the constable, beadle, and church-wardens in
-      visiting the houses and sending away vagrants.</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <p>Then followed a double method—relief and repression undertaken by the
-    parish and municipal authorities together. The vagrants were taken to
-    Bridewell, where the sick were picked out and sent to St. Thomas’s and
-    St. Bartholomew’s—thence returned to Bridewell—and made to work for
-    their diet. The parish looked after the rest of the poor. The children
-    were sent to Christ’s Hospital. The impotent were relieved.</p>
-
-  <p>It seems as if so strict a system must have been successful. But it was
-    not.</p>
-
-  <p>In 1601 the Act of 1579 was reconsidered and slightly altered.</p>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_374">374</span></p>
-
-  <p>1610. An Act for building one or more Houses of Correction in every
-    county was brought in.</p>
-
-  <p>The supply of corn for the markets occupied Parliament a great deal
-    between 1610 and 1630. There were bad harvests, and general distress.
-    The Privy Council tried to prevent scarcity, to find work for the poor,
-    and to regulate trade in the interests of the working classes. Against
-    times of scarcity of fuel, a coalyard was established in London for the
-    poor. Watchmen were provided in time of plague. More almshouses existed
-    then than now for the old and impotent.</p>
-
-  <p>It is customary to speak of the time immediately following the
-    Reformation as especially hard-hearted and uncharitable. For instance,
-    here is a certain passage, one of many, in Stubbes’s <i>Anatomie</i>, which
-    is certainly strong evidence of a lack of charity. It is as follows:—</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“There is a certayne citie in Ailgna (Anglia) called Munidnol
-      (Londinum) where as the poore lye in the streetes, upon pallets of
-      strawe, and wel if they have that too, or els in the mire and dirt,
-      as commonly it is seene, having neither house to put in their heades,
-      covering to keepe them from the colde, nor yet to hyde their shame
-      withall, nor a pennie to by them sustenaunce, nor any thing els, but
-      are suffered to dye in the streetes like dogges or beastes, without any
-      mercy or compassion shewed to them at all. And if any be sicke of the
-      plague (as they call it) or any other mortall disease, their maisters
-      and mistresses are so impudent (having made, it shoulde seeme, a league
-      with Sathan, a covenant with hell, and an obligation with the devil,
-      never to have to doe with the workes of mercie) as straight way they
-      throwe them out of their doores: and so being caried forth, either in
-      cartes or otherwise, or laied downe eyther in the streetes, or els
-      conveiyed to some olde house in the fields or gardens, where for want
-      of due sustentation, they ende their lives most miserably. Truely,
-      brother, if I had not seene it, I would scarsly have thought that the
-      like Turkishe crueltie had bene used in all the world.”<a id="FNanchor_14" href="#Footnote_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a></p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <p>I would again call attention, however, to a point which has already
-    been mentioned in these pages. Before the suppression of the Religious
-    Houses these places had taken over and held in their own hands the
-    whole management of the poor, the sick, and the disabled, save those
-    whom the City Companies took under their own care. For centuries,
-    therefore, the people had been taught to regard the care of the sick
-    and old, and in a great manner the feeding of the poor, as belonging
-    especially to the Religious. It is part of the mediæval mind that the
-    poor do so belong to the monastic orders and not to the laity. When,
-    therefore, the Houses were suppressed, the modern spirit of Charity had
-    to be actually created in the hearts of the people. It was then that
-    the education in philanthropy began which has been going on ever since.</p>
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_375">375</span></p>
-
-  <p>This outburst of Stubbes is a first lesson in brotherly love. Another
-    part of the same lesson is his tirade against hard-hearted creditors,
-    which is quoted here, because it applies especially to the citizens of
-    London, tender and compassionate in some respects, but flinty-hearted
-    as regards the poor prisoners who cannot pay their debts:—</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“Believe me, it greeveth me to heare (walking in the streetes)
-      the pitifull cryes and miserable complayntes of poore prisoners
-      in durance for debte, and like so to continue all their life,
-      destitute of libertie, meate, drink (though of the meanest sort),
-      and clothing to their backes, lying in filthie straw and lothsome
-      dung, worse than anie dogge, voyde of all charitable consolation
-      and brotherly comfort in this world, wishing and thirsting after
-      deathe to set them at libertie, and loose them from their shackles,
-      gives, and iron bandes. Notwithstanding, these merciless tygers
-      (the usurers) are grown to such barbarous crueltie that they blush
-      not to say ‘tush, he shall eyther pay me the whole, or else lye
-      there till his heeles rotte from his buttocks; and, before I will
-      release him, I will make dice of his bones.’ But, take heed, thou
-      devil (for I dare not call thee Christian), least the Lord say to
-      thee, as hee sayd to that wicked servant (who, having great summes
-      forgiven him, would not forgive his brother his small debt, but,
-      catching him by the throate, sayd Paie that thou owest), Binde him
-      handes and feete, and cast him into utter darknesse, where shall
-      bee weeping and gnashing of teeth.”</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <p>The charities of London consisted of Hospitals for the sick,
-    almshouses, schools, and doles for the poor. It was customary for great
-    men, ecclesiastics, and Religious Houses, to give every day large
-    quantities of food to the poor, whereby they were encouraged to remain
-    poor. Stow records many instances of this mischievous and promiscuous
-    charity. Henry II., for instance, to show his repentance for the death
-    of the Archbishop, fed every day 10,000 persons from the first of April
-    till the harvest, a time of year when food is dearest and scarcest.</p>
-
-  <p>Let me follow Stow’s list of Foundations in chronological order.</p>
-
-  <p>1. In very ancient times the Hospital of St. James for leprous women.</p>
-
-  <p>2. In 1197 Domus Dei, or St. Mary Spital, outside Billingsgate.</p>
-
-  <p>3. In 1247 the Hospital of St. Mary Bethlehem turned afterwards into a
-    lunatic asylum.</p>
-
-  <p>4. 1322 Elsing Spital for 100 poor men.</p>
-
-  <p>5. 1337 The College of St. Laurence Poultney.</p>
-
-  <p>6. 1358 The Almshouses of Stodies Lane.</p>
-
-  <p>7. 1367 John Lofken’s Hospital at Kingston-on-Thames.</p>
-
-  <p>8. 1384 John Philpot’s Almshouses for 13 poor people.</p>
-
-  <p>9. 1400 Thomas Knoles bequeathed his house as an almshouse.</p>
-
-  <p>10. Whittington’s College (1421), an almshouse for 13 poor men.</p>
-
-  <p>11. John Carpenter, almshouse for 4 poor men.</p>
-
-  <p>12. Robert Chicheley money for a dinner to 2400 poor men and twopence
-    each on his “minde day.”</p>
-
-  <p>13. Philip Malpas, numerous benefactions to prisoners, poor folk,
-    girls’ marriage portions, etc.</p>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_376">376</span></p>
-
-  <p>14. Richard Rawson, girls’ marriage portions.</p>
-
-  <p>15. Henry Keble, girls’ marriage portions and seven almshouses.</p>
-
-  <p>16. John Colet, St. Paul’s School, 353 poor men’s children.</p>
-
-  <p>17. John Tate enlarged and increased St. Anthony’s House and Almshouses.</p>
-
-  <p>18. George Monox, almshouses for 13 poor people at Walthamstow.</p>
-
-  <p>19. John Milbourne, almshouses for 14 poor people.</p>
-
-  <p>20. John Allen left rents for the use of the poor.</p>
-
-  <p>21. Andrew Judd, almshouses.</p>
-
-  <p>22. Richard Hills, the Merchant Taylors’ School.</p>
-
-  <p>23. Sir Thomas Gresham, almshouses.</p>
-
-  <p>24. Sir Thomas Rowe, almshouses.</p>
-
-  <p>25. Ambrose Nicolas, almshouses.</p>
-
-  <p>26. John Fuller, almshouses.</p>
-
-  <p>27. Dame Agnes Foster, enlargement of Ludgate Hill Prison.</p>
-
-  <p>28. Avice Gibson, almshouses.</p>
-
-  <p>29. Margaret Danne, money to be lent to young men beginning as
-    ironmongers.</p>
-
-  <p>30. Dame Mary Ramsay, endowment of Christ’s Hospital.</p>
-
-  <p>The following are later endowments. Thus Sir Thomas White, citizen and
-    Merchant Taylor, Mayor, purchased Gloucester Hall at Oxford; he founded
-    St. John’s College there; he erected schools at Bristol and Reading;
-    to Bristol he gave £2000 for the purchase of lands. This would produce
-    £120 a year, which was to be administered by the Mayor of Bristol. He
-    gave £800 to be lent to 16 poor Clothiers at £50 apiece as security for
-    ten years, and after that the money to pass to other towns, <i>i.e.</i></p>
-
-  <ul>
-    <li>1579 Reading</li>
-    <li>1580 The Merchant Taylors’ Company</li>
-    <li>1581 Gloucester</li>
-    <li>1582 Worcester</li>
-    <li>1583 Exeter</li>
-    <li>1584 Salisbury</li>
-    <li>1585 Westchester</li>
-    <li>1586 Norwich</li>
-    <li>1587 Southampton</li>
-    <li>1588 Lincoln</li>
-    <li>1589 Winchester</li>
-    <li>1590 Oxford</li>
-    <li>1591 Hereford</li>
-    <li>1592 Cambridge</li>
-    <li>1593 Shrewsbury</li>
-    <li>1594 Lynn</li>
-    <li>1595 Bath</li>
-    <li>1596 Derby</li>
-    <li>1597 Ipswich</li>
-    <li>1598 Colchester</li>
-    <li>1599 Newcastle.</li>
-  </ul>
-
-  <p class="noindent">He gave to the City of Coventry £1400 with which to purchase lands to
-    the annual value of £70. Twelve poor men to have 40s. each free alms;
-    then four young men were to have loans of £10 for nine years. He did
-    the same thing for Northampton, for Leicester, and for Warwick. A
-    worthy benefactor, indeed!</p>
-
-  <p>In 1560 Richard Hills gave £500 towards the purchase of a house called
-    the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_377">377</span> Manor of the Rose, where the Merchant Taylors founded their
-    school. At the same time William Lambert, Draper, Justice of the Peace
-    in Kent, founded an almshouse for the poor in East Greenwich called
-    Queen Elizabeth’s Almshouses.</p>
-
-  <p>In 1568 Sir Thomas Rowe gave the City a new burial-ground by Bethlehem
-    Hospital; he also endowed a sermon every Whit Monday; gave £100 to be
-    lent to eight poor men; and founded an endowment for the support of ten
-    poor men, giving them four pounds a year.</p>
-
-  <p>William Lambe was a benefactor to the City in the sixteenth century.
-    He was a cloth worker by trade. In the year 1543, on the suppression
-    of the Religious Houses, he obtained possession by purchase of the
-    smallest of them all, the Chapel or Hermitage standing at the corner
-    of the wall at the end of Monkwell Street. It was called St. James’s
-    in the Wall, and was endowed by Henry the Third. Lambe repaired or
-    rebuilt the Chapel, and placed in the former garden or in the ancient
-    buildings certain almshouses for bedesmen. In 1577 he died, leaving
-    this foundation and other sums of money to the Clothworkers. The Great
-    Fire spared a part of Lambe’s Chapel and Almshouses.</p>
-
-  <p>Lambe also drew together several springs of water near the present
-    Foundling Hospital to a head, called after him Lamb’s Conduit, though
-    the name is now spelt without the “e.” He then conveyed the water by
-    leaden pipes to Snow Hill, where he rebuilt a ruinous conduit and laid
-    in the water.</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“He also founded a Free Grammar School at <i>Sutton Valens</i>, the Place of
-      his Nativity, in <i>Kent</i>, with a master at £20, and an Usher at £10 per
-      Ann. and an Alms-house for six poor people, endowed with £10 yearly.
-      He gave £10 per Ann. to the Free School at <i>Maidstone</i> in <i>Kent</i>, for
-      the Education of needy Men’s Children; three hundred pounds to the poor
-      Clothiers in <i>Suffolk</i>, <i>Bridgnorth</i> and <i>Ludlow</i> in <i>Shropshire</i>. He
-      left to the Clothworkers’ Company his Dwelling-House, a little to the
-      South-West of <i>Cripplegate</i>, with Lands and Tenements to the value of
-      £30 per Ann. for paying a Minister to read Divine Service on <i>Sundays</i>,
-      <i>Wednesdays</i>, and <i>Fridays</i>, every week, in the Chapel adjoining to
-      his House, called St. <i>James</i>, in the Wall by <i>Cripplegate</i>; and for
-      Clothing twelve Men with a Frize Gown, one Lockram Shirt, and a good
-      strong pair of Winter Shoes; and twelve Women with a Frize Gown, a
-      Lockram Smock, and a good pair of Winter Shoes, all ready made for
-      wearing; to be given to such as are poor and honest, on the first of
-      October. He also gave £15 towards the Bells and Chimes of St. Giles’s
-      Without <i>Cripplegate</i>; £6:13:4 yearly to the Company of Stationers,
-      for the relief of twelve poor People of the Parish of St. <i>Faith</i>,
-      under <i>Paul’s</i>, at the rate of 12d. in Money, and 12d. in Bread, to
-      each of them, on every Friday through the year; £6 per Ann. and £100
-      to purchase Land, for the Relief of Children in <i>Christ’s</i> Hospital;
-      £4 to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_378">378</span> St. <i>Thomas’s</i> Hospital in <i>Southwark</i>; besides some other
-      Charities to the Prisons, and for portioning poor Maids.” (Maitland,
-      vol. i. p. 264.)</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <p>It will be seen that the building of almshouses was the favourite
-    method of charitable endowment. Schools were occasionally endowed
-    but not so commonly as almshouses. The sight of an old man broken
-    down, unable to earn his bread, is one which appeals to the most
-    hard-hearted. The necessity of educating the young was less understood,
-    for the simple reason that the children of the working class were
-    regarded as simply growing machines for labour, just as their fathers
-    were regarded as machines in active working order whose opinions or
-    wishes were never so much as asked, while any effort on their part
-    to express an opinion was put down at once. This view of the working
-    classes, which lasted till the middle of the nineteenth century,
-    explains a great deal of what we now consider apathy on the part of
-    those who should have known better; it explains among other things the
-    opposition to reform, and the jealousy and dread of the working class;
-    and it explains why so few schools were endowed in comparison with the
-    number of almshouses.</p>
-
-  <hr class="page" />
-  <div class="chapter" id="CHAPTER_9e">
-    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_379">379</span>
-    <h3>
-      <span class="gespertt1">CHAPTER IX</span><br />
-      <span class="subhead">CRIME AND PUNISHMENT</span>
-    </h3>
-  </div>
-
-  <p class="noindent"><span class="smcap">The</span> divers kinds of punishment and the laws are set forth by Harrison
-    (Holinshed, vol. i.):—</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“The greatest and most greevous punishment used in England, for such
-      as offend against the state, is drawing from the prison to the place
-      of execution upon an hurdle or sled, where they are hanged till they
-      be halfe dead, and then taken downe and quartered alive, after that
-      their members and bowels are cut from their bodies and throwne into
-      a fire provided neere hand and within their one sight even for the
-      same purpose. Sometimes if the trespasse be not the more hainous, they
-      are suffered to hang till they be quite dead. And whensoever any of
-      the nobilitie are convicted of high treason by their peeres, that is
-      to saie, equals (for an inquest of yeomen passeth not upon them, but
-      onlie of the lords of the parliament) this maner of their death is
-      converted into the losse of their heads onlie, notwithstanding that the
-      sentence doo run after the former order. In triall of cases concerning
-      treason, fellonie, or anie other greevous crime not confessed, the
-      partie accused doth yeeld, if he be a nobleman, to be tried by an
-      inquest (as I have said) and his peeres; if a gentleman, by gentlemen;
-      and an inferiour by God and by the countrie, to wit the yeomanrie
-      (so combat or battle is not greatlie in use) and being condemned of
-      fellonie, manslaughter, etc., he is eftsoons hanged by the necke till
-      he be dead, and then cut downe and buried. But if he is convicted of
-      wilful murder, doone either upon pretended malice, or in anie notable
-      robberie, he is either hanged alive in chains neere the place where the
-      fact was committed (or else upon compassion taken first strangled with
-      a rope) and so continueth till his bonds consume to nothing. We have
-      use neither of the wheele nor of the barre, as in other countries, but
-      when wilful manslaughter is perpetrated, beside hanging, the offender
-      hath his right hand commonlie striken off before or neere unto the
-      place where the act was doone, after which he is led forth to the place
-      of execution, and there put to death according to the law.” (<i>See</i>
-      <a href="#APPENDIX_X">Appendix X.</a>)</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <p>Felony was involved in various kinds of crime: such as breach of
-    prison; disfiguring the person; robbery in disguise; rape; conspiracy
-    against the prince;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_380">380</span> embezzlement of the master’s money; carrying
-    horses into Scotland; stealing hawks’ eggs; unnatural offences;
-    witchcraft, conjuring, sorcery, and digging up of crosses; prophesying
-    upon arms, cognizances, names and badges; casting of slanderous bills;
-    poisoning; desertion; clipping of coin; taking goods from dead men;
-    highway robbery; stealing of deer; forging documents, etc., these were
-    all, with some others, felony.</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“If a woman poison her husband she is burned alive, if the servant kill
-      his master he is to be executed for petie treason, he that poisoneth
-      a man is to be boiled to death either in water or lead, although the
-      partie die not of the practise; in cases of murther all the accessories
-      are to suffer paines of death accordingly. Perjury is punished by the
-      pillorie burning in the forehead with the letter P, the rewalting<a id="FNanchor_15" href="#Footnote_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a>
-      of the trees growing upon the grounds of the offendors and losse of all
-      his moveables. Manie trespasses also are punished by the cutting of
-      one or both eares from the head of the offendor, as the utterance of
-      seditious words against the magistrates, grain makers, petie robbers,
-      etc. Roges are burned through the eares, carriers of sheep out of the
-      land by the loss of their hands, such as kill by poison are either
-      boiled or skalded to death in lead or seething water. Heretikes are
-      burned quicke, harlots and their mates by carting, ducking, and dooing
-      of open penance in sheets, in churches and market steeds are often
-      put to rebuke.... Roges and vagabonds are often stocked and whipped,
-      scolds are ducked upon cucking stooles in the water. Such fellons as
-      stand mute and speak not at their arraignement are pressed to death
-      by huge weights laid upon a boord, that lieth over their brest, and a
-      sharpe stone under their backs, and these commonlie hold their peace,
-      thereby to save their goods unto their wives and children, which if
-      they were condemned should be confiscated to the prince. Theeves that
-      are saved by their bookes and cleargie, for the first offense, if they
-      have stolen nothing else but oxen, sheepe, monie, or such like, which
-      be no open robberies, as by the high waie side or assailing of any
-      man’s house in the night, without putting him in fear of his life,
-      or breaking up of his wals or doores, are burned in the left hand,
-      upon the brawne of the thumb with an hot iron, so that if they be
-      apprehended againe, that marke bewraieth them to have been arraigned of
-      fellonie before, whereby they are sure at that time to have no mercie.
-      I doo not read that this custom of saving by the book is used anywhere
-      else than in England, neither doo I find (after much diligent enquirie)
-      what Saxon prince ordained that law.... Our third annoiers of the
-      common-wealth are roges, which doo verie great mischief in all places
-      where they doo become. For whereas the rich onlie suffer injurie by
-      the first two, these spare neither riche nor poore; but whether it be
-      great game or small, all is fish that commeth to net with them, and yet
-      I saie that both they and the rest are trussed up apace. For there is
-      not one yeare commonlie, wherein three hundred or four hundred of them
-      are not devoured <span class="pagenum" id="Page_381">381</span>and eaten up by the gallowes in one place and other.
-      It appearth by Cardane (who writeth it upon the report of the bishop
-      of Lexouia) in the geniture of King Edward the sixt, how Henrie the
-      eight, executing his laws verie severelie against such idle persons, I
-      meane great theeves, pettie theeves and roges, did hang up threescore
-      and twelve thousand of them in his time. He seemed for a while greatlie
-      to have terrified the rest; but since his death the number of them is
-      so increased, yea although we have had no warres, which are a great
-      occasion of their breed (for it is the custom of the more idel sort,
-      having but once served or seen the other side of the sea under colour
-      of service to shake hand with labour, for ever, thinking it a disgrace
-      for himself to return unto his former trade) that except some better
-      order be taken, or the lawes be better made to be executed, such as
-      dwell in uplandish towns and little villages shall live but in small
-      safety and rest. For the better apprehension also of theeves and
-      mankillers, there is an old law in England very well provided, whereby
-      it is ordered, that if he that is robbed, or any man complaine and give
-      warning of slaughter or murder committed, the constable of the village
-      whereunto he cometh and crieth for succour, is to raise the parish
-      about him, and to search woods, groves, and all suspected houses and
-      places, where the trespasser may be, or is supposed to lurke; and not
-      finding him there, he is to give warning unto the next constable, and
-      so one constable after serch made to advertise another from parish to
-      parish, till they come to the same where the offender is harbored and
-      found. It is also provided, that if anie parish in this business doo
-      not his dutie,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_382">382</span> but suffereth the theefe (for the avoiding of trouble
-      sake) in carrieng him to the gaile, if he should be apprehended, or
-      other letting of their worke, to escape the same parish, is not onlie
-      to make fine to the king, but also the same with the whole hundred
-      wherein it standeth, to repaie the partie robbed his damages, and leave
-      his estate harmlesse. Certes this is a good law, howbeit I have knowne
-      by mine owne experience, fellons being taken to have escaped out of the
-      stocks, being rescued by other for want of watch and ward, that theeves
-      have been let passe, bicause the covetous and greedie parishoners would
-      neither take the paines, nor be at the charge to carrie them to prison,
-      if it were far off, that when hue and crie have beene made even to the
-      faces of some constables, they have said: ‘God restore your losse, I
-      have other business at this time!’ And by such meanes the meaning of
-      manie a good law is left unexecuted, malefactors imboldened, and manie
-      a poore man turned out of that which he hath swet and taken great
-      paines for, toward the maintenance of himself and his poore children
-      and familie.” (Holinshed, vol. i.)</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="i_381"><img src="images/i_381.jpg" width="315" height="352" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">THE PILLORY<br />
-      From a historical print in the British Museum.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>Among the punishments mentioned above was that of boiling alive.
-    One unfortunate, named Rose, a cook in the house of the Bishop of
-    Rochester, poisoned eighteen persons, of whom two died. He seems
-    to have done this wilfully. He was boiled to death. This fearful
-    punishment was inflicted by lowering the criminal slowly, inch by inch,
-    affixed to a post into a deep caldron full of boiling water. How long
-    the torture lasted before the heart stopped is not recorded.</p>
-
-  <p>The penalty for bloodshed in the King’s Court was the loss of the right
-    hand. The ceremony observed for such a punishment made a ritual of a
-    remarkable and imposing ceremony.</p>
-
-  <p>The offender, to quote Pike (<i>History of Crime</i>, vol. ii. p. 83), “was
-    brought in by the Marshal, and every stage of the proceedings was under
-    the direction of some member of the royal household. The first whose
-    services were required was the Serjeant of the Woodyard, who brought
-    in a block and cords, and bound the condemned hand in a convenient
-    position. The Master Cook was there with a dressing knife, which he
-    handed to the Serjeant of the Larder, who adjusted it, and held it
-    ‘till the execution was done.’ The Serjeant of the Poultry was close
-    by with a cock, which was to have its head cut off on the block by the
-    knife used for the amputation of the hand, and the body of which was
-    afterwards to be used to ‘wrap about the stump.’ The Yeoman of the
-    Scullery stood near, watching a fire of coals, and the Serjeant Farrier
-    at his elbow to deliver the searing-irons to the surgeon. The chief
-    Surgeon seared the stump, and the Groom of the Salcery held vinegar
-    and cold water, to be used, perhaps, if the patient should faint. The
-    Serjeant of the Ewry and the Yeoman of the Chandry attended with basin,
-    cloths, and towels for the surgeon’s use. After the hand had been
-    struck off and the stump seared, the Serjeant of the Pantry offered
-    bread, and the Serjeant of the Cellar offered a pot of red wine, of
-    which the sufferer was to partake with what appetite he might.”</p>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_383">383</span></p>
-
-  <div class="col50">
-    <div class="figcenter">
-      <a id="i_383"><img src="images/i_383l1.jpg" width="294" height="280" alt="" /></a>
-      <div class="caption"><i>On the off hip of the Croupière</i>.<br />
-        EXECUTION OF A SAINT</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-  <div class="col50">
-    <div class="figcenter">
-      <img src="images/i_383r1.jpg" width="294" height="280" alt="" />
-      <div class="caption"><i>On the near side of the Croupière</i>.<br />
-        MARTYRDOM OF A SAINT</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-  <div class="col50">
-    <div class="figcenter">
-      <img src="images/i_383l2.jpg" width="294" height="280" alt="" />
-      <div class="caption"><i>On the off side of the Croupière</i>.<br />
-        THE STORY OF ST. AGATHA</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-  <div class="col50">
-    <div class="figcenter">
-      <img src="images/i_383r2.jpg" width="294" height="280" alt="" />
-      <div class="caption"><i>On the off side of the Croupière</i>.<br />
-        FURTHER PUNISHMENT OF ST. AGATHA</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-  <div class="col50">
-    <div class="figcenter">
-      <img src="images/i_383l3.jpg" width="294" height="280" alt="" />
-      <div class="caption"><i>On the near side of the Croupière</i>.<br />
-        TORTURE OF ST. GEORGE</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-  <div class="col50">
-    <div class="figcenter">
-      <img src="images/i_383r3.jpg" width="294" height="280" alt="" />
-      <div class="caption"><i>On the near hip of the Croupière</i>.<br />
-        BEHEADING OF A FEMALE SAINT</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="caption center">From the engravings upon Henry VIII.’s Armour in the Tower of London.</div>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_384">384</span></p>
-
-  <p>Pickpockets, still called cutpurses, abounded. They formed a distinct
-    profession; there was even a school for them. This educational
-    establishment was carried on by a certain man named Wotton, at a house
-    near Billingsgate, in the year 1585. Purses were worn at the girdle,
-    attached by a chain or by a leathern string, and the pickpocket could
-    be known by the horn thimble worn on the right thumb to protect it from
-    the knife with which he cut the purse. Maitland says (p. 269):—</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“Amongest our travells this one matter tumbled owt by the waye,
-      that one Wotton, a gentilman borne, kepte an Alehowse att Smarts
-      Keye neere Byllingsgate, and reared upp a newe trade of lyffe,
-      and in the same howse he procured all the Cuttpurses abowt this
-      Cittie to repair to his said howse. There was a Schole Howse sett
-      upp to learne younge boyes to cutt purses. There were hunge up two
-      devices, the one was a pockett, the other was a purse. The pocket
-      had in yt certen cownters, and was hunge abowte with hawkes bells,
-      and over the toppe did hannge a little sacringe bell; the purse
-      had silver in it; and he that could take owt a cownter without any
-      noyse was allowed to be a publique ffoyster, and he that could take
-      a peece of sylver owt of the purse without the noyse of any of the
-      bells, he was adjudged a judiciall Nypper. Note that a ffoyster is
-      a Pickpocte and a Nypper is termed a Pickepurse or a Cutpurse.”</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <p>Among the many additions to Literature made during the Elizabethan age
-    we have as detailed a description of the rogues, vagabonds, and the
-    criminal class in London as we can desire. Their tricks and cheats;
-    their way of living; their language or slang, can all be read in books
-    of the time. Harrison, already quoted, furnishes a great deal; more
-    may be read in Awdeley, Harman and Rowlands, Dekker, etc. To spare the
-    curious reader a great deal of trouble, he is referred to Furnivall’s
-    <i>Rogues and Vagabonds of Shakspere’s Youth</i>.</p>
-
-  <p>Harman’s account of these cheats and rogues is full of entertaining
-    anecdotes. For instance, there is the story of the robbery of his
-    cauldron by the “Upryght men,” and how he recovered it:—</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“I lately had standinge in my well house, which standeth on the
-      backeside of my house, a great cawdron of copper, beinge then full
-      of water, havinge in the same halfe a doson of pewter dishes, well
-      marked, and stamped with the connizance of my armes, whiche being
-      well noted when they were taken out, were set aside, the water
-      powred out, and my caudren taken awaye, being of such bygnes that
-      one man, unlesse he were of great strength, was not able far to
-      cary the same. Notwithstandynge, the same was one night within
-      this two yeares convayed more than half a myle from my house into
-      a commen or heth, and ther bestowed in a great firbushe. I then
-      immediatly the next day sent one of my men to London, and there
-      gave warning in Sothwarke, kent strete, and Barmesey streete, to
-      all the Tynckars there dwelling. That if any such Caudron came
-      thether to be sold, the bringar therof should be stayed, and
-      promised twenty shyllings for a reward. I gave also intelligence
-      to the water men that kept the ferres, that no such vessel should
-      be ether convayed to London or into essex, promysing the like
-      reward, to have understanding therof. This my doing was well
-      understand in many places about, and that the feare of espyinge
-      so troubled the conscience of the stealer, that my caudoren laye
-      untouched in the thicke firbushe more than halfe a yeare after,
-      which, by a great chaunce, was found by hunters for conneys; for
-      one chaunced to runne into the same bushe where my caudren was,
-      and being perceaved, one thrust his staffe into the same bushe,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_385">385</span>
-      and hyt my caudren a great blowe, the sound whereof dyd cause the
-      man to thinke and hope that there was some great treasure hidden,
-      wherby he thought to be the better whyle he lyved. And in farther
-      searching he found my caudren; so had I the same agayne unloked
-      for.”</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <p>The Hooker or Angler was one who by day walked about the streets,
-    observing the windows and what was kept in them. At night he carried a
-    stick fitted with a hook. He opened the window from the outside, and
-    by means of his hook got out what he wanted. Once, says Harman, the
-    Hookers dragged from a bed, in which lay asleep a man and two boys, the
-    blankets and upper sheets, leaving them in their shirts.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="i_385"><img src="images/i_385.jpg" width="600" height="377" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">BILLINGESGATE<br />
-    <i>Drawn in a M.S. by Hugh Alley, citizen &amp; plumber 1598, in which He inveighs
-      against Engropers &amp; Aegrators, but without any Argument to support his opinion.</i></div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>The Rogue professed a part and dressed up to it. Harman tells a story
-    of two rogues who wanted to break into a house but could not, because
-    it was of stone, with the mullions of the windows too close for them to
-    creep in. They had, however, a “horse-lock.” They woke up the tenant,
-    who had with him only an old woman, and begged for alms. He opened the
-    window and held out his hand with a penny in it. They seized his hand:
-    he naturally thrust out the other to succour the first; they seized
-    that as well, and clasped the two into the horse-lock, so that he was a
-    prisoner until he gave up all the money in the house.</p>
-
-  <p>The “wild” Rogue is a variety distinguished by greater courage. Harman
-    quotes one as a beggar by inheritance. “His grandfather was a beggar;
-    his father was one; and he must needs be one by good reason.”</p>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_386">386</span></p>
-
-  <p>The “Prygger of Prauncers” was a horse-stealer; the Pallyard of
-    Clapperdogen was one of the counterfeit sick men; he knew how to raise
-    blisters, and to create a sore place by means of spearwort or ratsbane.
-    The former raises a blister which passes away in a night; the latter a
-    sore place that is incurable.</p>
-
-  <p>The Frater—in the name we seem to catch a memory of the extinct
-    Friar—carried at his girdle a black box, in which there was a licence
-    (forged) to beg.</p>
-
-  <p>The Abram man was one who feigned to have been mad, and to have been
-    kept in Bedlam for a term of years.</p>
-
-  <p>The Freshwater Mariner or Whipjack was a beggar who pretended to be a
-    sailor on his way to get a ship; or who had recently been shipwrecked;
-    or who had been robbed by pirates; and who showed a forged writing
-    signed, as it seemed, by men of substance and position confirming his
-    story.</p>
-
-  <p>The Counterfeit Crank was a pretended epileptic. He carried a piece
-    of white soap, which he put into his mouth to represent the epileptic
-    foam. Harman draws a lively picture of such a man. He begged about the
-    Temple, his face covered with blood and his rags with mud and dirt. At
-    noon he repaired to the back of Clement’s Inn, where in a lane leading
-    to the fields he renewed the blood on his face from a bladder which he
-    had with him, and daubed his jerkin and hose again with mud. A certain
-    printer watched him: in the evening he took a boat across the river;
-    the printer followed him and caused him to be taken up in St. George’s
-    Fields as a common beggar. They took him to the Constable’s house,
-    where they stripped off his rags, showing him to be a healthy and
-    comely man with no sign of any disease; in his pockets they found the
-    sum of thirteen shillings, three pence, and a halfpenny; they gave him
-    an old cloak of the Constable’s, in which he sat by the fire and drank
-    three quarts of beer; after which he threw off the cloak and ran away
-    naked. But they found out where he lived, viz. in a “pretty house, well
-    stuffed, with a fair joined table, and a fair cupboard garnished with
-    pewter.” So they took him to Bridewell, where they painted him, first
-    in his disguise, and next in his proper attire. Then they whipped him
-    through London and brought him back to Bridewell, where he stayed till
-    they thought fit to let him go.</p>
-
-  <p>The Dommerar pretended to be dumb: he carried a forged licence, and
-    generally pretended to have lost his tongue. One of them was, unluckily
-    for himself, caught by a surgeon, who proved that he had a tongue
-    though he had neatly folded it away somewhere; and as the fellow still
-    would not speak, the surgeon tortured him till he did. This done, they
-    haled him before the magistrate, who administered the usual medicine.</p>
-
-  <p>The Drunken Tinker’s career may be dismissed; so may that of the
-    Pedlar; the Jackman made false writings and forgeries.</p>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_387">387</span></p>
-
-  <p>The “Demander for Glymmar” was a woman who pretended to have been
-    burned out, and carried a begging licence.</p>
-
-  <p>The Basket women carried laces, pins, needles and girdles for sale.
-    They bought coney skins and they stole linen from the hedges.</p>
-
-  <p>The “Autem Morte” and the “Walking Morte” were also pedlars, and of
-    evil repute.</p>
-
-  <p>The Doxy was the companion and the confederate of the Upright Man.</p>
-
-  <p>The Dell, the Kynchen Morte, and the Kynchen Cove were boys and girls
-    in training for the life of the vagabond.</p>
-
-  <p>Queen Elizabeth was fond of driving into the country as well as going
-    upon the river. One summer evening she rode out from Aldersgate, along
-    the road now called Goswell Road, towards the village of Iseldon or
-    Islington. Just outside the town she was surrounded and beset by a
-    number of beggars, to her great annoyance. Wherefore she sent her
-    running footman, Stone, to the Mayor and to the Recorder complaining
-    of this nuisance. The Recorder sent out warrants that same night to
-    the quarters complained of, and into Westminster, with the result that
-    seventy-four beggars were apprehended and sent to Bridewell, where they
-    were “punished” (<i>i.e.</i> soundly flogged). Some of them were found to be
-    very rich and usurers.</p>
-
-  <p>The mob under Elizabeth did not venture in assemblies on acts of
-    violence. One or two exceptions must be made. Once an armed company,
-    headed by gentlemen, attacked Bridewell. Seeing that their object was
-    the release of certain unrepentant women whose profession concerned
-    the gentlemen only, it is probable that the whole of the rioters were
-    gentlemen. On another occasion the ’prentices rose against foreigners.
-    Instances of hatred between Spanish residents and citizens of London
-    are common in the pages of Machyn. Thus on October 15, 1554, a Spaniard
-    killed a servant of Sir George Gifford without Temple Bar. The cause
-    of the quarrel is not stated. Ten days afterwards the unfortunate
-    foreigner was hanged at Charing Cross. On the 4th of November following
-    there was a great fray at Charing Cross between Spaniards and English.
-    Not many were hurt, and those who began it were arrested, especially
-    a blackamoor. In January another Englishman was murdered by three
-    Spaniards, two of whom held him while the other ran him through. In
-    April was hanged a certain person, servant to a poulterer. He robbed a
-    Spaniard in Westminster Abbey, and for the offence was condemned to be
-    hanged for three days, and then to be buried under the gallows. He was
-    hanged in a gown of tawny frieze, and a doublet of tawny taffeta, with
-    hose lined with sarcenet. Before being turned off he railed at the Pope
-    and the Mass.</p>
-
-  <p>Of street violence there was still a great deal, but not so much as
-    formerly. The following letter speaks for itself.</p>
-
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_388">388</span></p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“On Thursday laste (Feb. 13th 1587) as my Lorde Rytche was rydynge
-      in the streates, there was one Wyndam that stode in a dore, and
-      shotte a dagge at him, thynkynge to have slayne him; but God
-      provyded so for my L. Rytche that this Wyndam apoyntynge his
-      servant that mornynge to charge his dagge with 11 bulletts, the
-      fellow, doubtinge he mente to doe sum myschefe with it, charged
-      it only with powder and paper, and no bullett; and so this L.’s
-      lyfe was thereby saved, for otherwyse he had beene slayne. Wyndam
-      was presently taken by my Lord Rytche’s men, and, beynge broughte
-      before the Counsell, confessed his intende, but the cause of his
-      quarrell I knowne not; but he is commyted to the Towre. The same
-      daye also, as Sir John Conway was goynge in the streetes, Mr.
-      Lodovyke Grevell came sodenly uppon him, and stroke him on the
-      hedd with a sworde, and but for one of Sir John Conwaye’s men,
-      who warded the blow, he had cutt off his legges; yet did he hurte
-      him sumwhat on bothe his shynns; the Councelor sente for Lodovyke
-      Grevell and have commytted him to the Marchallcye.” (Drake,
-      <i>Shakespeare and his Times</i>, vol. ii.)</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <p>The cucking-stool, trebucket, or tumbril, for the ducking of a scold,
-    was commonly found in every village. There were several kinds of it.
-    One was a chair set at the end of a braser which acted on a see-saw
-    principle; one a stump put into the ground at the edge of the water.
-    Another was a “standard” fixed at the entrance of a pond. To this
-    was attached a long pole, at the extremity of which was fastened the
-    chair. Such an one stood almost within the memory of man at the great
-    reservoir in the Green Park. Another kind was a sort of cart on four
-    wheels, with a braser, at the end of which was the chair. All over
-    Oxford these things are found, also at Wootton Bassett, Broad Water
-    Worthing, Leominster, Marlborough, Newbury, Scarborough, Warwick,
-    Ipswich. In 1777 a woman was ducked at Whitchurch.</p>
-
-  <p>The trial of Ben Jonson, an account of which has been recovered by Mr.
-    John Cordy Jeafferson for the Middlesex County Record Society, began
-    with the inquest on the body of one James Feake, held in Holywell
-    Street, St. Leonard’s Shoreditch, in the thirty-ninth year of Queen
-    Elizabeth, and on the 10th day of December. The said James Feake was
-    killed in a brawl by one Gabriel Spencer, who struck him with his
-    sword in its scabbard in the right eye, so that he fell down, and
-    after languishing for three days, died of the wound. What was done to
-    Gabriel Spencer does not appear. Perhaps the case was treated as one of
-    self-defence. However, Gabriel Spencer presently met with his reward.
-    For in the month of September following, viz. in 1598, the said Gabriel
-    fell to quarrelling with a young man named Ben Jonson, in Shoreditch,
-    or Hoxton Fields; from words they quickly came to blows, and Gabriel
-    was pierced by Ben Jonson’s sword through the right side, so that he
-    died immediately. Jonson was thrown into prison and was tried for
-    manslaughter, not for murder. He pleaded guilty; he also pleaded his
-    clergy, read his “neck-verse,” and was released in accordance with the
-    statute 18 Eliz. c. 7, after being branded in the hand with what the
-    London people called the Tyburn T.</p>
-
-  <p>I have found one instance, the earliest, of a kind of transportation.
-    Among Frobisher’s Company were six men condemned to death. Their
-    sentence was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_389">389</span> commuted into banishment. They were sent on board
-    Frobisher’s ship, to be landed on the shores of “Freezeland,” that
-    is Greenland or Labrador, with weapons and provisions. They were
-    instructed to win the good-will and friendship of the natives and to
-    inquire into their “estate.” In other words, to find out all that could
-    be learned concerning them. It is unfortunate that history makes no
-    further mention of these pioneers.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <a id="i_389"><img src="images/i_389.jpg" width="257" height="182" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="caption">THE CUCKING-STOOL.<br />
-      From an old print in the British Museum.</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <p>The story of Thomas Appletree: his terrible accident; his deadly peril;
-    his repentance; and his pardon, is pathetic. I suffer Stow to tell it
-    in his own words:—</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“The seventeenth day of July, the Queenes moste excellent Maiestie,
-      being in ye river of Thamis, betwixt hir Highnesse Mannour of
-      Greenewiche and Detteforde, in hur privie Barge, accompanyed with
-      Monsier Schemere the French Embassadour, the Earle of Lincolne, and
-      Maister Vizchamberlaine, etc., with whim she entred discourse about
-      waightie affaires; it chanced that one Thomas Appletree, a yong man
-      and servant to Maister Henrie Carie, with two or three children of hir
-      Maiesties Chappell, and one other named Barnard Acton, being in a Boate
-      on the Thamis, rowing up and downe betwixte the places above named,
-      the foresaide Thomas Appletree hadde a Caliver or Harquebuze, whych he
-      hadde three or foure times discharged with Bullet, shooting at randone
-      very rashly, who by greate misfortune shot one of the Watermen, being
-      the seconde man nexte unto the Bales of the saide Barge, labouring
-      with hys Oare (whyche sate wythin five feete of hir Highnesse), cleane
-      through bothe hys armes; the blowe was so greate and greevous, that it
-      moved him out of his place, and forced hym to crye and scritche oute
-      piteouslye, supposing hymselfe to be slain, and saying, he was shot
-      through the body. The man bleeding abundantly, as though he had had 100
-      Daggers thrust into hym, the Queenes Maiestie showed such noble courage
-      as is moste wonderfull to be heard and spoken of, for beholding hym so
-      maimed, and bleding in such force, she never bashed thereat, but shewed
-      effectually a prudent and magnanimous heart, and moste courteously
-      comforting<span class="pagenum" id="Page_390">390</span> the pore man, she bad hym be of good cheere, and saide hee
-      should want nothing that might bee for his ease, commaunding hym to
-      be covered till such time as hee came to the shoare, till which time
-      hee lay bathing in his owne bloud, which might have been an occasion
-      to have terrified the eyes of the beholders. But such and so great
-      was the courage and magnanimitie of our dread and soveraigne Ladie,
-      that it never quailed. To be short, Thomas Appletree and the rest were
-      apprehended and brought before her honorable Counsell, who with great
-      gravitie and wisedome employed their times verie carefully, and with
-      greate diligence examined the saide Appletree and his companions,
-      and finding the case moste hainous and wicked, justly pronounced
-      againste him the sentence of death, and commit him to the Marshalsea in
-      Southwarke, from whence ye Tuisday following hee was brought through
-      the Citie with the Knight Marshalles men, ledde up to the Tower Hill,
-      and so to Radcliffe upp to Blackwall, and so downe to the waterside,
-      where was a Gibet sett upp, directly placed betwixte Detforde and
-      Greenewiche, for the execution of this malefactour, who in deed verie
-      pitifully bewayled the offence hee had committed, and as well in prison
-      as by the waie prepared himselfe verie penitently and willingly to
-      offer his body to the death.</p>
-
-    <p>Thus verie godly hee purposed to finish his miserable and wretched
-      life, and so prepared himselfe to ascend and goe upp the Ladder, and
-      being on the same, he turned himselfe, and spake to the people as
-      followeth: Good people, I am come hither to die, but God is my Judge, I
-      never in my life intended hurt to the Queenes Most excellent Maiestie,
-      nor meant the harme of any creature, but I pray to God with all my
-      heart long to prosper and keepe her Highnes in health, who blesse and
-      defende her from all perilles and daungers, who prosper her in all her
-      affaires, and blesse her moste Honorable Counsell, giving them grace to
-      doe all things to the glorie of God, and the benefit of this realme;
-      but of all things I am moste sorie for my offence, and wofully bewaile
-      the same; and more, I am penitent and sorie for my good Maister,
-      Maister Henrie Carie, who hath been so grieved for my fault, suffering
-      rebuke for the same: I would to God I had never been borne that have
-      so grievously offended him. And with that the teares gusht oute of
-      his eyes verie faste. This saide, hee persuaded all men to serve God,
-      and to take an example by him, and every night and morning moved them
-      devoutly to say the Lord’s Prayer. And as the executioner had put the
-      rope about his necke, the people cried stay, stay, stay, and with that
-      came the right Honorable sir Christopher Hatton, Vizchamberlaine to
-      her highnes, who enquired what hee had confessed, and being certified,
-      as is before expressed, hee bailed his bonet, and declared, that the
-      Queenes Maiestie had sent him thither both to make the cause open to
-      them how hainous and greevous the offence of ye said Thomas Appletree
-      was, and further to signify to him her<span class="pagenum" id="Page_391">391</span> gracious pleasure; and so
-      continued his message, as ye may reade it printed by itself, and
-      annexed to this discourse. Which, when he had declared, the hangman
-      was commanded to take the roape from his necke. Appletree being come
-      downe from the Ladder, received his pardon, and gave God and the Prince
-      praise for so great a benefite as he had by her moste gracious bountie
-      received. This done, Maister Vizchamberlaine saide: Good people pray
-      for the Queenes Maiestie, and then was this prayer saide, which is
-      usually reade (for the preservation of her Maiestie) in the Church: O
-      Almighty and everlasting God, the Lord of Lords, and King of Kings,
-      which dost fro’ thy throne behold all the dwellers of the earth, most
-      heartily we beseech thee with thy favour to behold our moste gracious
-      soveraigne lady Queen Elizabeth, etc. Whereunto all the people joyfully
-      accorded to saye Amen, crying, God save the Queen: casting up their
-      Cappes.” (Stow’s <i>Chronicles of England</i>.)</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <p>One of the last cases of ordeal by battle belongs to the year 1571.</p>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>“The eighteenth of June, in Trinitie terme, there was a combat
-      appointed to have been fought for a certeine manour and demaine
-      lands belonging thereunto in the Ile of Hartie, adjoining to the Ile
-      of Shepie in Kent. Simon Low and John Kime were plaintifs, and had
-      brought a writ of right against Thomas Paramore, who offered to defend
-      his right by battell. Whereupon the plaintiffs aforesaid accepted to
-      answer his challenge, offering likewise to defend their right to the
-      same manour and lands, and to prove by battell, that Paramore had no
-      right nor good title to have the same manour and lands. Hereupon the
-      said Thomas Paramore brought before the judges of the common plees of
-      Westminster, one George Thorne, a big, broad, strong set fellow; and
-      the plaintifs Henrie Nailer, maister of defense, and servant to the
-      right honourable the earle of Leicester, a proper slender man, and not
-      so tall as the other. Thorne cast downe a gantlet, which Nailer tooke
-      up, upon the sundaie before the battell should be tried. On the next
-      morow, the matter was staied, and the parties agreed, that Paramore
-      being in possession should have the land, and was bound in five hundred
-      pounds to consider the plaintifs, as upon hearing the matter the judges
-      should award. The queens majestie abhorring bloodshed, and (as the poet
-      very well saith)</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <div class="center-container">
-    <div class="poem">
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i0">“Tristia sanguinei deuitans praelia campi”</div>
-      </div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-
-  <blockquote>
-    <p class="noindent">was the taker up of the matter, in this wise. It was thought good,
-      that for Paramore’s assurance, the order should be kept touching
-      the combat, and that the plaintifs Low and Kime should make default
-      of appearance; but that yet such as were sureties for Nailer their
-      champions appearance, should bring him in; and likewise those that were
-      sureties for Thorne, should bring in the same Thorne, in discharge of
-      their band; and that the court should sit in Tuthill Fields where<span class="pagenum" id="Page_392">392</span> was
-      prepared one plot of ground of one and twentie yards square, double
-      railed for the combat. Without the west square a stage being set up for
-      the judges, representing the court of the common plees.</p>
-
-    <p>All the compasse without the lists was set with scaffolds one above
-      another, for people to stand and behold. There were behind the square
-      where the judges sat, two tents, the one for Nailer, the other for
-      Thorne. Thorne was there in the morning timelie, Nailer about seven
-      of the clock came through London, apparelled in a doublet, and gallie
-      gascoine breeches all of crimsin satin, cut and rased, a hat of blacke
-      velvet, with a red feather and band, before him drums and fifes
-      plaieng. The gantlet cast downe by George Thorne was borne before
-      the said Nailer upon a sword’s point, and his baston (a staffe of an
-      ell long, made taper wise, tipt with horne) with his shield of hard
-      leather was borne after him, as Askam a yeoman of the queenes gard.
-      He came into the place at Westminster and staieng not long before the
-      hall door, came back into the king’s street, and so along thorough the
-      Sanctuarie and Tuthill street into the field, where he staied till past
-      nine of the clocke, and then Sir Jerome Bowes brought him to his tent:
-      Thorne being in the tent with Sir Henrie Cheinie long before.</p>
-
-    <p>About ten of the clocke, the court of common plees remooved, and came
-      to the place prepared. When the Lord chief Justice, with two other his
-      associates were set, then Low was called solemnlie to come in, or else
-      to lose his writ of right. Then after a certeine time, the suerties of
-      Henrie Nailer were called to bring in the said Nailer, champion for
-      Simon Low. And shortlie thereupon, Sir Jerome Bowes, leading Nailer by
-      the hand, entred with him the lists, bringing him downe that square by
-      which he entred, being on the left hand of the judges, and so about
-      till he came to the next square, just against the judges, and there
-      making courtesie, first with one leg and then with the other, passed
-      foorth till he came to the middle of the place, and then made the like
-      obeisance and so passing till they came to the barre, there he made
-      the like courtesie, and his shield was held up aloft over his head.
-      Nailer put off his netherstocks, and so barefoot and barelegged, save
-      his silke scauilones to the ankles, and his dublet sleeves tied up
-      above the elbow, and bareheaded, came in, as is aforesaid. Then were
-      the suerties of George Thorne called to bring in the same Thorne; and
-      immediately Sir Henry Cheinie entering at the upper end on the right
-      hand of the judges, used the like order in comming about by his side,
-      as Nailer had before on that other side; and so comming to the barre
-      with like obeisance, held up his shield. Proclamation was made that
-      none should touch the barres, nor presume to come within the same,
-      except such as were appointed.</p>
-
-    <p>After all this solemne order was finished, the lord chiefe justice
-      rehearsing<span class="pagenum" id="Page_393">393</span> the maner of bringing the writ of right by Simon Low, of
-      the answer made thereunto by Paramore, of the proceeding therein, and
-      how Paramore had challenged to defend his right to the land by battell,
-      by his champion Thomas Thorne, and of the accepting the triall that
-      was by Low with his champion Henrie Nailer; and then for default of
-      appearance in Low he adjudged the land to Paramore, and dismissed the
-      champion, acquiting the suerties of their bands. He also willed Henrie
-      Nailer to render againe to George Thorne his gantlet. Whereto the
-      said Nailer answered, that his lordship might command him anie thing,
-      but willingly he would not render the said gantlet to Thorne except
-      he could win it. And further he challenged the said Thorne to play
-      with him half a score blowes, to shew some pastime to the lord chiefe
-      justice and to the other there assembled. But Thorne answered, that
-      he came to fight, and would not plaie. Then the lord chiefe justice
-      commending Nailer for his valiant courage, commanded them both quietlie
-      to depart the field, etc.” (Stow’s <i>Chronicles of England</i>.)</p>
-  </blockquote>
-
-  <hr class="page" />
-  <div class="chapter mb10" id="APPENDICES">
-    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_395">395</span>
-    <h2>APPENDICES</h2>
-  </div>
-
-  <hr class="page" />
-  <div class="chapter" id="APPENDIX_I">
-    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_397">397</span>
-    <h3>
-      <span class="gespertt1">APPENDIX I</span><br />
-      <span class="subhead">THAMES WATER</span>
-    </h3>
-  </div>
-
-  <p class="noindent">
-    “<span class="smcap">Peter Morice</span>, a Dutchman, in 1580 explained before the Lord Mayor
-    and Aldermen his invention for raising the Thames water high enough
-    to supply the upper parts of the City, and threw a jet of water over
-    the steeple of St. Magnus Church. Before this time no such thing had
-    been known in England. Whereupon the City granted him a lease for 500
-    years of the Thames water, and the places where his mills stood, and
-    of one of the arches of old London Bridge, at 10s. yearly. Two years
-    afterwards they granted him another arch on the same terms. He received
-    large grants from the City to help him to complete this curious system
-    of hydraulic mechanism. In the Act for rebuilding the City after the
-    Great Fire it was provided that Thomas Morris should have power to
-    rebuild with timber his water-house for supplying the City (18 &amp; 19
-    Charles II. c. 8). The works continued in the family till 1701, when
-    they were sold for £36,000 to Richard Soames, and afterwards became the
-    property of a Company. On June 23rd, 1767, the fifth arch was granted
-    for the use of the Company. By Act of Parliament, 3 Geo. IV. cap. 109,
-    July 26th, 1822, the Acts relating to the Company were repealed. The
-    Company were to be paid £10,000, and their works to be removed by, or
-    at the expense of, the New River Company.” (<i>Remembrancia.</i>)</p>
-
-  <p>This invention and the subsequent supply of the whole City with water
-    laid on, killed the Company of Water-bearers.</p>
-
-  <p>“The ‘Rules, Ordinances, and Statutes made by the Rulers, Wardens, and
-    Fellowship of the Brotherhood of Saint Cristofer of the Water-bearers
-    of London,’ are dated October 20th, 1496 (<i>Transactions of the London
-      and Middlesex Archæological Society</i>, vol. vi. p. 55). Their hall was
-    situated in Bishopsgate Street, near Sun Street, now numbered 143 and
-    144, Bishopsgate Street Without:—‘Robert Donkin, Citizen and Merchant
-    Taylor of London, left by his will, dated December 1st, 1570, that
-    messuage or howse which he purchased of the Company of Water-bearers on
-    the 9th of October, 1568.’”</p>
-
-  <hr class="page" />
-  <div class="chapter" id="APPENDIX_II">
-    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_398">398</span>
-    <h3>
-      <span class="gespertt1">APPENDIX II</span><br />
-      <span class="subhead">SIR HUMPHREY GILBERT’S ACADEMY</span>
-    </h3>
-  </div>
-
-  <p class="noindent"><span class="smcap">In</span> 1570 Sir Humphrey Gilbert laid before the Queen a plan for an
-    Academy or University of London.</p>
-
-  <p>His plan was as follows:—</p>
-
-  <p>“Seeing that young gentlemen resort most freely to London there should
-    be an Academy, viz.:—</p>
-
-  <ol>
-    <li>A master for G. and L., £40.</li>
-    <li>Four Ushers at £20.</li>
-    <li>One Hebrew at £50.</li>
-    <li>One Logic and Rhetoric, £40.<br />
-      Exercise and instruction in English.</li>
-    <li>One Reader of Moral Phil., £100.</li>
-    <li>&nbsp; &nbsp;„&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;„&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;„&nbsp; Natural Phil., £40.</li>
-    <li>Two mathematicians ea. at £100
-      <ol>
-        <li>Arith., Geom., Fort.</li>
-        <li>Cosmog., Astronomy, Navigation.</li>
-      </ol></li>
-    <li>Two Ushers at £40.</li>
-    <li>Riding Master.</li>
-    <li>Drill Master, £66:13:4.</li>
-    <li>Physician £100, with a garden.</li>
-    <li>Reader of Civil Law, £100.</li>
-    <li>Reader of Divinity, £100.</li>
-    <li>&nbsp; &nbsp; „&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; „&nbsp; Law, £100.</li>
-    <li>Teacher of French, £26; Spanish, £26; Italian, £26; Dutch, £26; with Ushers at £10.</li>
-    <li>Master of Defence, £36.</li>
-    <li>Dancing and Vaulting School, £26.</li>
-    <li>Music, £26.</li>
-    <li>Steward, Cooks, Butlers, etc., £600.</li>
-    <li>Minister and Clerks, £66:13:4.</li>
-    <li>Teacher of Heraldry, £26.</li>
-    <li>Librarian, £26.</li>
-    <li>Treasurer, £100.</li>
-    <li>Rector.<br />
-    Amounting in all to £2966:13:4 a year.</li>
-  </ol>
-
-  <p>“By erecting this academie, there shall be hereafter an effect, no
-    gentleman within the Realm but good for something; whereas now the most
-    parts of them are good for nothing. Your Majesty and your successive
-    Courtes shall be for ever, instead of a nurserie of idlenes, become a
-    most noble Academy of Chevallrie, Policy, and Philosophie.”</p>
-
-  <hr class="page" />
-  <div class="chapter" id="APPENDIX_III">
-    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_399">399</span>
-    <h3>
-      <span class="gespertt1">APPENDIX III</span><br />
-      <span class="subhead">PETITION AGAINST ALIENS</span>
-    </h3>
-  </div>
-
-  <p class="noindent">“<span class="smcap">In</span> most pitious and lamentable wise shewing and complaining unto your
-    most excellent highness, your humble, true and faithful subjects,
-    and contynualle orators, that is to sey, mercers, grocers, drapers,
-    goldsmythes, skynners, haberdassers, Taylers, ledyrsellers, pursers,
-    poyntmakers, glovers, powchemakers, Sadlers, Cutlers, pewterers,
-    Cowpers, gyrdlers, founders, Cordeners; vyntners, sporyars, joyners,
-    and all other Chapmen, retailers, occupiers of every craft, mystery,
-    and occupation, in all and every your Cities, ports, towns, and
-    boroughs within this noble realm of England. That where your said
-    realm and land is so inhabited with a great multitude, needy people,
-    strangers of divers nations, as Frenchmen, galymen, pycardis, flemings,
-    keteryckis, Spaynyars, Scottis, Lombards, and divers other nations,
-    that your liege people, Englishmen, cannot imagine nor tell wherto
-    nor to what occupation that they shalle use or put their children to
-    lerne or occupy within your said cities, boroughs, ports and towns of
-    this your said realm, with many other Chappmen and poor commons using
-    the said crafts, mysteries, and occupation in all and every shire of
-    this your said realm!... now it is so, most redoubted Sovereign lord,
-    that innumerable needy people of galymen, Frenchmen and other great
-    multitudes of alien strangers, do circuit, wander, go to and fro, in
-    every your Cities, ports, towns, and boroughs in all places, as well
-    within franchises, privileges, and liberties, as without, to every
-    man door, taking up standing, and there make their shows, markets and
-    sales of divers wares and merchandise to their own singular profits,
-    advantage, and advails, to the great disturbance, empoverishing,
-    hurt, loss, and utter undoing of your natural subjects and liege
-    people in all and every city, port, borough, town, and places of your
-    said realm: and also of more convenience for their advancement, the
-    said Aliens strangers use to hire them servants of their own nation,
-    or other strangers, or go about, wander, and retail in all cities,
-    ports, towns and boroughs, and all other places to bye, sell, retail,
-    and occupy seats and merchandise at their pleasure, without lawful
-    authority or license, contrary to the said acts and statutes afore
-    provided, and contrary to the Charters, liberties, constitutions, and
-    confirmations made, given, and granted by your said noble predecessor,
-    afore rehearsed: by means of which unlawful retailing so customably
-    haunted, used, and occupied, your liege people and natural subjects,
-    their wives, children, and servants, be utterly decayed, empoverished,
-    and undone, in this world, unless your excellent and benign grace of
-    your tender pity be unto your said subjects gracious at this time
-    showing in this behalf. And without a short remedy be had herein, your
-    said subjects be not able, nor shall not be of power to pay their
-    rents nor also to maintain their poor households and to bear lot and
-    scot and all other priests’ benevolences, and charges in time of need
-    and war for the defence of your grace and of this your said realm,
-    for the repressing, subduing, and vanquishing of your ancient enemies
-    Frenchmen, and all other their adherents and banished men outwards.”
-    (<i>Furnivall.</i>)</p>
-
-  <hr class="page" />
-  <div class="chapter" id="APPENDIX_IV">
-    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_400">400</span>
-    <h3>
-      <span class="gespertt1">APPENDIX IV</span><br />
-      <span class="subhead">THE ORDER OF PROCESSIONS</span>
-    </h3>
-  </div>
-
-  <ul class="lefthang2 ml4">
-    <li class="mlh">“Messengers of the Court.</li>
-    <li>Gentlemen of lesse note.</li>
-    <li>Esquiers.</li>
-    <li>Esquiers of the Body.</li>
-    <li>Clarkes of the Chancery.</li>
-    <li>Clarkes of the Signet.</li>
-    <li>Clarkes of the Privy Seale.</li>
-    <li>Clarkes of the Counsell.</li>
-    <li>Masters of the Chancery.</li>
-    <li>Knights Batchlers.</li>
-    <li>Knights Banneretts.</li>
-    <li>Trumpets soundinge.</li>
-    <li>Serjeants at Law.</li>
-    <li>Queenes Serjeants.</li>
-    <li>The Queen’s Attorney and the Queen’s Solicitor together.</li>
-    <li>The Baron of the Exchequer.</li>
-    <li>The Judges of the Common Pleas.</li>
-    <li>The Judges of the King’s Bench.</li>
-    <li>The Lorde Chiefe Justice of the Common Pleas, and the Lord Chiefe Justice of the Exchequer.</li>
-    <li>The Lord Chief Justice of England, and the Master of the Rolls.</li>
-    <li>The Younger Sonnes of Nobility.</li>
-    <li>Knight of the Privy Counsell.</li>
-    <li>Knights of the Garter.</li>
-    <li>The Principall Secretary.</li>
-    <li>The Treasurer of the Queen’s House, and Controller of the Queen’s House.</li>
-    <li>The Queen’s Clarke and Hat-bearer.</li>
-    <li>Two Heralds.</li>
-    <li>The Barons two and two.</li>
-    <li>Two Heralds.</li>
-    <li>The Bishops.</li>
-    <li>The Vicounts.</li>
-    <li>Two Heralds.</li>
-    <li><span class="pagenum" id="Page_401">401</span>The Earls.</li>
-    <li>An Herald or King of Armes.</li>
-    <li>The Marques, etc.</li>
-    <li>Places for Dukes.</li>
-    <li>The Lord Chancellor of England.</li>
-    <li>The Lord Treasurer of England.</li>
-    <li>The Archbishop of Canterbury.</li>
-    <li>Clarenciaux King of Armes.</li>
-    <li>The Sergeants at Armes with Staves.</li>
-    <li>Bearer of the Capp Royal, and the Carrier of the Marshall Rod of England.</li>
-    <li>The Sword bearer on either side him.</li>
-    <li>The Great Chamberleine of England.</li>
-    <li>The Steward of the Queenes House on the left side.</li>
-    <li>Then the Queene in her Chariotte.</li>
-    <li>The Four Querryes of the Stable come next, with the Queen’s footmen: and without them all in a rancke wayted the Pentioners with their Partisans.</li>
-    <li>Then the Master of the Horse.</li>
-    <li>Then the Chamberleine of the Queenes House.</li>
-    <li>Then the Vice-chamberleine with many Noblewomen, Ladyes and others.</li>
-  </ul>
-
-  <p class="noindent">In this order passing to St. Peter’s Church, in Westminster: was there
-    met with the Queen’s Almoner, the Dean of Westminster with the Prebends
-    and all the Quier in their Copes.”</p>
-
-  <hr class="page" />
-  <div class="chapter" id="APPENDIX_V">
-    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_402">402</span>
-    <h3>
-      <span class="gespertt1">APPENDIX V</span><br />
-      <span class="subhead">THE CHANGES OF RITUAL</span>
-    </h3>
-  </div>
-
-  <p class="noindent"><span class="smcap">On</span> 28th July 1900 was published in the <i>Athenæum</i> of that date a paper
-    by the late Rev. Prebendary Kitto, Vicar of St. Martin’s in the Fields,
-    on the changes effected in the rites and ceremonies of that church
-    during the years 1537–1560 or thereabouts. This instructive document
-    was compiled from the accounts and papers preserved in the archives of
-    the church.</p>
-
-  <p>Thus the ritual remained much the same during the reign of Henry
-    VIII. as it had been before the commencement of the Reformation. They
-    provided, as of old, candles, palms, incense; they hallowed sacred
-    coals for Easter Eve; they provided lights for the font, for the rood
-    loft, and for the altars; they set up the Easter sepulchre; they used
-    the great Paschal Candle, the tabernacle, and the pyx; they maintained
-    the side altars, and they not only repaired the vestments but they
-    received gifts of new vestments. They had obits and “minds,” celebrated
-    mass and kept up the images.</p>
-
-  <p>In 1538 lights before images were forbidden; but a perpetual light was
-    maintained at the high altar.</p>
-
-  <p>In 1539 the Parish sold the iron and latten candlesticks which had been
-    used for the images.</p>
-
-  <p>In the same year a Bible was bought for the church. It cost 12s. 8d.</p>
-
-  <p>In 1540 Henry is described under the title of “Defender of the Faith
-    and Supreme Head, under God, of the Church of England and Ireland.”</p>
-
-  <p>In 1547 they sold all the wax they had in stock, according to the
-    injunction.</p>
-
-  <p>In 1548 no more lights were allowed. The Parish sold the rest of their
-    candlesticks, and bought a Paraphrase of the Gospel and a Communion
-    Cup; they also whitewashed the church, in order, I suppose, to
-    obliterate the pictures.</p>
-
-  <p>In 1549 the altars were stripped: there were to be no more flowers or
-    garlands, no incense and no lights.</p>
-
-  <p>In 1550 they set up a box for the poor; sold their vestments; bought
-    white surplices, and put a green cloth over the “Communion Table.”</p>
-
-  <p>In 1553 they sold the “old broken stuff of the Rood Loft” and made
-    “Communion Pews.”</p>
-
-  <p>In the same year they were made to feel the mutability of things
-    religious, because everything had to be restored at great expense.
-    Their candlesticks, however, were of tin. They bought a cross for
-    processions; a mass-book, a holy water stoup with a sprinkle; a basket
-    for the holy bread; a pyx and all the other old vessels. Also, because
-    under Edward they had written texts on the walls, they were now ordered
-    to wipe them all out.</p>
-
-  <p>In 1559 they began to go back again to the Edwardian time, but not
-    immediately. In 1560 the Bible was restored.</p>
-
-  <p>It is worthy of note that the parish officers were a little uncertain,
-    after their melancholy experience, of the stability of things. They
-    therefore kept the vessels bought in the time of Queen Mary until 1569,
-    when, feeling somewhat reassured, they sold them all.</p>
-
-  <hr class="page" />
-  <div class="chapter" id="APPENDIX_VI">
-    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_403">403</span>
-    <h3>
-      <span class="gespertt1">APPENDIX VI</span><br />
-      <span class="subhead">GOLDSMITHS’ ROW</span>
-    </h3>
-  </div>
-
-  <p class="noindent">“<span class="smcap">Opposite</span> to the Cross in Cheapside, on the south side of the street,
-    there stood a superb pile of buildings, called Goldsmiths’ Row,
-    extending from the west to Bread Street. This Row was erected in 1491,
-    by Thomas Wood, Goldsmith, Sheriff of London. Stow describes it in
-    1598 as ‘the most beautiful frame of fair houses and shops that be
-    within the walls of London, or elsewhere in England. It containeth in
-    number ten fair dwelling-houses and fourteen shops, all in one frame,
-    uniformly builded four stories high, beautified toward the street
-    with the Goldsmith arms and the likeness of Woodmen (in memory of
-    the founder’s name) riding on monstrous beasts, all of which is cast
-    in lead, richly painted over and gilt.’ ‘This said front was again
-    new painted and gilt over in the year 1594, Sir Richard Martin being
-    then Mayor, and keeping the Mayoralty in one of them’ (Stow, edition
-    1633). ‘At this time the City greatly abounded in riches and splendour,
-    such as former ages were unacquainted with. Then it was beautiful
-    to behold the glorious appearance of Goldsmiths’ shops in the South
-    Row of Cheapside, which, in a continued course, reached from the Old
-    Change to Bucklersbury, exclusive of four shops only of other trades
-    in all that space’ (Maitland’s <i>History of London</i>, edition 1760,
-    vol. i. p. 301). King Charles the First in 1629 issued a Proclamation
-    ordering the Goldsmiths to plant themselves, for the use of their
-    trade, in Cheapside or Lombard Street. The Lords of the Council, in
-    1637, sent a letter to the Lord Mayor and Aldermen (<i>vide</i> vii. 197),
-    ordering them to close every shop in Cheapside and Lombard Street that
-    did not carry on the trade of a Goldsmith, about twenty-four in all,
-    Grove and one Widow Hill, Stationers; Dover, a Milliner; Brown, a
-    Bandseller; Sanders, a Drugster; Medcalfe, a Cook; Edwards, a Girdler,
-    etc.—Rushworth’s ‘State Papers.’” (<i>Remembrancia</i>, p. 106, n. 1.)</p>
-
-  <hr class="page" />
-  <div class="chapter" id="APPENDIX_VII">
-    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_404">404</span>
-    <h3>
-      <span class="gespertt1">APPENDIX VII</span><br />
-      <span class="subhead">LONDON PLANTS</span>
-    </h3>
-  </div>
-
-  <p class="noindent"><span class="smcap">In</span> the <i>Archæologia</i> may be found the following enumeration of plants
-    grown in an Elizabethan garden:—</p>
-
-  <ul>
-    <li>Adderstong—Ophioglossum.</li>
-    <li>Affodyll—Narcissus Pseudo-narcissus. Affodyll Daffadilly.</li>
-    <li>Appyl—Apple—Pyrus Malus; and garden varieties.</li>
-    <li>Asche tre—Ash—Fraxinus excelsior.</li>
-    <li>Auans—Geum urbanum, Avance or Avens.</li>
-    <li>Betony—Saachys Betonica.</li>
-    <li>Borage—Borrago officinalis.</li>
-    <li>Bryswort—Bruisewort, Brusewort or Brisewort—Bellis perenni.</li>
-    <li>Bugull—Bugle—Ajuga reptans.</li>
-    <li>Bygull—Bigold—Chrysanthemom segetum.</li>
-    <li>Calamynte—Calamintha officinalis. “The garden mynt.”</li>
-    <li>Camemyl—Chamomile—Anthemis nobilis. “Camamyll.”</li>
-    <li>Carsyndylls? “Cars or Carses—cress.”</li>
-    <li>Centory—Great Centuary.</li>
-    <li>Clarey—Clary—Salvia sclarea.</li>
-    <li>Comfery—Comfrey—Symphytum officinale.</li>
-    <li>Coryawnder—Coriander.</li>
-    <li>Cowslippe—Cowslip.</li>
-    <li>Dytawnder—Dittander and Dittany.</li>
-    <li>Egrimoyne—Egremoyne.</li>
-    <li>Elysauwder—Smyrnium Olusatrum.</li>
-    <li>Feldwort—Felwort and Fieldwort.</li>
-    <li>Floscampi? Campion?</li>
-    <li>Foxglove—Digitalis purpurea.</li>
-    <li>Fynel—Fennel.</li>
-    <li>Garleke—Garlick.</li>
-    <li>Gladyn—Iris foetidissima or Iris Pseudacorus.</li>
-    <li>Gromel—Gromwell.</li>
-    <li>Growdyswyly—Growndyswyly—Groundswyll.</li>
-    <li>Hasel tre—Hazel tree.</li>
-    <li>Haw thorn—Hawthorn.</li>
-    <li>Henbane—Hyoscyamus niger.</li>
-    <li>Herbe Ion.</li>
-    <li>Herbe Robert—Geranium Robertianum.</li>
-    <li><span class="pagenum" id="Page_405">405</span> Herbe Water—Herb Walter.</li>
-    <li>Hertystonge—Hartystonge—Hart’s-tongue.</li>
-    <li>Holyhocke—Althaea rosea, or Malva sylvestris or Althaea officinalis.</li>
-    <li>Honysoke—Honeysuckle.</li>
-    <li>Horehound—Marrubium vulgare.</li>
-    <li>Horsel—Horselle—Horsehele.</li>
-    <li>Hyndesall?—Hind-heal.</li>
-    <li>Langbefe, generally supposed to be Helminthia echioides.</li>
-    <li>Lavyndull—Lavandula vera.</li>
-    <li>Leke—Leek.</li>
-    <li>Letows—Lettuce.</li>
-    <li>Lyly—Lily.</li>
-    <li>Lyverwort.</li>
-    <li>Merege. Cannot identify.</li>
-    <li>Moderwort—Motherwort.</li>
-    <li>Mouseer—Mouse ear.</li>
-    <li>Myntys—Mint.</li>
-    <li>Nepte—Nep or Neppe or Nept.</li>
-    <li>Oculus Christi—Salvia verbanaca.</li>
-    <li>Orage—Atriplex hortensis.</li>
-    <li>Orpy—Orpies.</li>
-    <li>Ownyns and Oynet.</li>
-    <li>Parrow? Cannot identify? mistake for Yarrow.</li>
-    <li>Pelyter—Pellitory.</li>
-    <li>Percely—Perselye —Parsley.</li>
-    <li>Pere—Pear.</li>
-    <li>Peruynke—Periwinkle.</li>
-    <li>Primrole—Primrose.</li>
-    <li>Polypody—Polypodium vulgare.</li>
-    <li>Pympernold—Pimpernel.</li>
-    <li>Radysche—Radish.</li>
-    <li>Redenay. Cannot identify.</li>
-    <li>Rewe—Rue.</li>
-    <li>Rose—Rosa, red and white.</li>
-    <li>Rybwort—Ribwort.</li>
-    <li>Saferowne—Saffron.</li>
-    <li>Sage—Salvia officinalis.</li>
-    <li>Sanycle—Sanicle.</li>
-    <li>Sauerey—Savory.</li>
-    <li>Scabyas—Scabious.</li>
-    <li>Seueny—Seniue. Common mustard or field senive.</li>
-    <li>Sowthrynwode—Southernwood.</li>
-    <li>Sperewort—Spearwort.</li>
-    <li>Spynage—Spinach.</li>
-    <li>Strowberys—Strawberries.</li>
-    <li>Stychewort—Stichewort.</li>
-    <li>Tansay—Tansy.</li>
-    <li>Totesayne—Tutsan—Hypericum Androsæmum.</li>
-    <li>Tuncarse—Town cress.</li>
-    <li>Tyme—Thyme.</li>
-    <li><span class="pagenum" id="Page_406">406</span> Valeryan—a general name for Valeriana.</li>
-    <li>Verveyn—Vervain—Verbena officinalis.</li>
-    <li>Violet—Viola. Generally V. odorata.</li>
-    <li>Vynys and Vyne tre—Vine.</li>
-    <li>Walwort—Walwort or Danewort of Dwarf elder.</li>
-    <li>Warmot—Wormwood.</li>
-    <li>Waterlyly—Water lily.</li>
-    <li>Weybrede—Plantago major.</li>
-    <li>Woderofe—Woodruffe.</li>
-    <li>Wodesour—Woodsour.</li>
-    <li>Wurtys—Wortys.</li>
-    <li>Wyldtesyl—Teazel.</li>
-    <li>Ysope—Hyssop. “Ysopus is ysope.”</li>
-    <li class="ml20">(<i>Archæologia</i>, vol. 1. p. 167.)</li>
-  </ul>
-
-  <hr class="page" />
-  <div class="chapter" id="APPENDIX_VIII">
-    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_407">407</span>
-    <h3>
-      <span class="gespertt1">APPENDIX VIII</span><br />
-      <span class="subhead">THE GALLANTS’ WALK IN ST. PAUL’S</span>
-    </h3>
-  </div>
-
-  <p class="noindent">“<span class="smcap">Your</span> mediterranean isle is then the only gallery, wherein the pictures
-    of all your true fashionate and complemental Gulls are, and ought to
-    be hung up. Into that gallery carry your neat body: but take heed you
-    pick out such an hour, when the main shoal of islanders are swimming
-    up and down. And first observe your doors of entrance, and your exit:
-    not much unlike the players at the theatres: keeping your decorums,
-    even in phantasticality. As for example: if you prove to be a northern
-    gentleman, I would wish you to pass through the north door, more often
-    especially than any of the other: and so, according to your countries
-    take note of your entrances.</p>
-
-  <p>Now for your venturing into the walk. Be circumspect, and wary what
-    pillar you come in at: and take heed in any case, as you love the
-    reputation of your honour, that you avoid the serving-man’s log, and
-    approach not within five fathom of that pillar: but bend your course
-    directly in the middle line, that the whole body of the church may
-    appear to be yours: where, in view of all, you may publish your suit
-    in what manner you affect most, either with the slide of your cloak
-    from the one shoulder: and then you must, as ’twere in anger, suddenly
-    snatch at the middle of the inside, if it be taffeta at the least:
-    and so by that means your costly lining is betrayed, or else by the
-    pretty advantage of compliment. But one note by the way I do especially
-    woo you to, the neglect of which makes many of our gallants cheap and
-    ordinary, that by no means you be seen above four turns: but in the
-    fifth make yourself away, either in some of the semsters’ shops, the
-    new tobacco-office, or amongst the booksellers, where, if you cannot
-    read, exercise your smoke, and inquire who has writ against this divine
-    weed, etc. For this withdrawing yourself a little will much benefit
-    your suit, which else, by too long walking, would be stale to the whole
-    spectators: but howsoever if Paul’s jacks be once up with their elbows,
-    and quarrelling to strike eleven: as soon as ever the clock has parted
-    them, and ended the fray with his hammer, let not the Duke’s gallery
-    contain you any longer, but pass away apace in open view: in which
-    departure, if by chance you either encounter, or aloof off throw your
-    inquisitive eye upon any knight or squire, being your familiar, salute
-    him not by his name of Sir such a one, or so: but call him Ned, or
-    Jack, etc. This will set off your estimation with great men: and if,
-    though there be a dozen companies between you, ’tis the better, he call
-    aloud to you, for that is most genteel, to know where he shall find
-    you at two o’clock: tell him at such an ordinary or such: and be sure
-    to name those that are dearest, and whither none but gallants resort.
-    After dinner you may appear again, having translated yourself out of
-    your English cloth cloak into a light Turkey grogram, if you have that
-    happiness of shifting: and then be seen, for a turn or two, to correct
-    your teeth with some quill or silver instrument, and to cleanse your
-    gums with a wrought handkerchief: it skills not whether you dined, or
-    no: that is best known to your stomach: or in what place you dined:
-    though it were with cheese, of your mother’s own making, in your
-    chamber, or study.</p>
-
-  <p>Now if you chance to be a gallant not much crost among citizens: that
-    is, a gallant in the mercer’s books, exalted for satins and velvets:
-    if you be not so much blest to be crost (as I hold it the greatest
-    blessing in the world to be great in no man’s books): your Paul’s walk
-    is your only refuge: the Duke’s tomb is a sanctuary: and will keep
-    you alive from worms, and land-rats, that long to be feeding on your
-    carcass: there you may spend your legs in winter a whole afternoon:
-    converse, plot, and talk any thing:<span class="pagenum" id="Page_408">408</span> jest at your creditor, even to his
-    face: and in the evening, even by lamp-light, steal out: and so cozen a
-    whole covey of abominable catchpolls. Never be seen to mount the steps
-    into the quire, but upon a high festival day, to prefer the fashion of
-    your doublet: and especially if the singing-boys seem to take note of
-    you: for they are able to buzz your praises above their anthems, if
-    their voices have not lost their maidenheads: but be sure your silver
-    spurs dog your heels, and then the boys will swarm about you like so
-    many white butterflies: when you in the open quire shall draw forth a
-    perfumed embroidered purse, the glorious sight of which will entice
-    many countrymen from their devotion to wondering: and quoit silver into
-    the boys’ hands, that it may be heard above the first lesson, although
-    it be read in a voice as big as one of the great organs.</p>
-
-  <p>This noble and notable act being performed, you are to vanish presently
-    out of the quire, and to appear again in the walk: but in any wise be
-    not observed to tread there long alone: for fear you be suspected to be
-    a gallant cashiered from the society of captains, and fighters.” (<i>The
-      Gull’s Horn Book.</i>)</p>
-
-  <hr class="page" />
-  <div class="chapter" id="APPENDIX_IX">
-    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_409">409</span>
-    <h3>
-      <span class="gespertt1">APPENDIX IX</span><br />
-      <span class="subhead">MONTHLY PROVISION TABLE THROUGH THE YEAR 1605</span>
-    </h3>
-  </div>
-
-  <table summary="Monthly Provision Table">
-    <tbody>
-      <tr>
-        <th class="ball">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="ball">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="ball">Jan.</th>
-        <th class="ball">Feb.</th>
-        <th class="ball">Mar.</th>
-        <th class="ball">April.</th>
-        <th class="ball">May.</th>
-        <th class="ball">June.</th>
-        <th class="ball">July.</th>
-        <th class="ball">Aug.</th>
-        <th class="ball">Sept.</th>
-        <th class="ball">Oct.</th>
-        <th class="ball">Nov.</th>
-        <th class="ball">Dec.</th>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td rowspan="17" class="ball rotated">M<br />E<br />A<br />T</td>
-        <td class="bl br">Rooe</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Bucke</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Braune</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Muttone</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Pigge</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Hare</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Beefe</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Veale</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Lambe</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Dowe</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Baconn</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Porcke</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Rabbetts</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Hinde</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Kidde</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Stagges</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br bb">Gote</td>
-        <td class="bl br bb tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br bb tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br bb tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br bb tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br bb tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br bb tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br bb tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br bb tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br bb tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br bb tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br bb tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br bb tdc">&mdash;</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td rowspan="73" class="ball rotated">F<br />O<br />W<br />L</td>
-        <td class="bl br">Bustarde</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Goose</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Green Goose</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Heron</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Egrett</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Widgeon</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Curlewiake</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Turkie</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Phesaunte</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Pullett</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Bayninge</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Ruffe</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Plover</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Snipe</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Partreges</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Larckes</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Crayne</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Storcke</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Shoveller</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Brue</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Curlewe</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Gull</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_410">410</span>Peacocke</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Henne</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Redshanke</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Knotte</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Blankett</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Stockdoves</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Indecocke</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Quales</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Thrush</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Pidgeons</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Stennts</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Turtells</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Goldnye</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Jedcokes</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Pevetts</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Sea Pie</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Pea Chicks</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Petterells</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Stares</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Churre</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Sparrows</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Swanne</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Hernne</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Bitter</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Mallarde</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Cudberduce</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Cullver</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Caponne</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Godwite</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Ree</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Dotterell</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Teale</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Woodcocke</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Plover</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Fellfaire</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Finshes</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Smalebirds</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Chickens</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Chitt</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Kennecis</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Mewe</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Tearne</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Blackbirds</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Young Turkies</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Auk</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Martines</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Crouces</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Dunlings</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Railes</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Lapwine</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br bb">Golne</td>
-        <td class="bl br bb tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br bb tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br bb tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br bb tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br bb tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br bb tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br bb tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br bb tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br bb tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br bb tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br bb tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br bb tdc">···</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td rowspan="66" class="ball rotated"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_411">411</span>F<br />I<br />S<br />H</td>
-        <td class="bl br">Kennecis</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Pearches</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Linge</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Tunny</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Turbutt</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Whitinge</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Soles</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Lamprons</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Carpe</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Tench</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Oysters</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Cockells</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Codde</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Porposse</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Haddocke</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Sealumpe</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Place</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Chevine</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Pike</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Eles</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Crabbs</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Crevices</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Styrgeon</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Seals</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Thornebacke</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Salmon</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Dace</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Habberdine</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Roche</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Mussels</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Crefishes</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Smeltes</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Barbell</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Breame</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Rudds</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Lobsters</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Praunes</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Herings White</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Herings Red</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Herringes</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Britt</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Conger</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Cunninge</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Goodgions</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Rochetts</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">River Trout</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Trout</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Flounders</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Lamprais</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Mades</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Loche</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_412">412</span>Gurnard</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Sprates</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Dabes</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Dory</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Millett</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Perches</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Burbott</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Menewes</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Mackarell</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Shads</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Mopps</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Breate</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Smalcod</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br">Shrimps</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">&mdash;</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="bl br bb">Perrewinkell</td>
-        <td class="bl br bb tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br bb tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br bb tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br bb tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br bb tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br bb tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br bb tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br bb tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br bb tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br bb tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br bb tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br bb tdc">&mdash;</td>
-      </tr>
-    </tbody>
-  </table>
-
-  <p class="mt5">Maitland gives a Table of Prices for the years 1274, 1302, 1314,
-    1531, and 1550. Note that in the years 1314 and 1550 provisions were
-    excessively dear.</p>
-
-  <table summary="Table of prices">
-    <tbody>
-      <tr>
-        <th class="ball">&nbsp;</th>
-        <th class="ball">1274.</th>
-        <th class="ball">1300 or 1302.</th>
-        <th class="ball">1314.</th>
-        <th class="ball">1531.</th>
-        <th class="ball">1550.</th>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl bl br">A Fat Cock</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">1½d.</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">¾d.</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl bl br">The best Hen</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">3½d.</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">1½d.</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">9d.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl bl br"> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;„ &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Pullet</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">1¾d.</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">¾d.</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">6d.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl bl br"> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;„ &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Capon</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">2d.</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">2½d.</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">2½d.</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">1s.</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">1s.4d. to 1s.8d.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl4 bl br"> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;„ &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Goose (according to season)</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">5d. or 4d.</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">4d.</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">3d.</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">6d. to 9d.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl bl br"> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;„ &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Wild Goose</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">4d.</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl bl br"> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;„ &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Pigeon</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">3 for 1d.</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">3 for 1d.</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">12 for 10d.</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">12 for 1s. 2d.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl bl br"> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;„ &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Mallard</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">3½d.</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">1½d.</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl bl br"> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;„ &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Wild Duck</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">1¾d.</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl bl br"> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;„ &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Partridge</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">3½d.</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">1½d.</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl4 bl br"> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;„ &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Larks (per dozen)</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">12 for 1d.</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">12 for 5d.</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">12 for 8d.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl bl br"> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;„ &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Pheasant</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">4d.</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl bl br"> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;„ &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Heron</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">6d.</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">6d.</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">2s. 6d.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl bl br"> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;„ &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Plover</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">1d.</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">1d.</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">4d.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl bl br"> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;„ &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Swan</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">3s.</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">3s.</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">6s. 8d.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl bl br"> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;„ &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Crane</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">3s.</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">1s.</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">6s.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl bl br"> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;„ &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Peacock</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">1d.</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl bl br"> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;„ &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Coney</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">4d.</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl bl br"> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;„ &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Hare</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">3½d.</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl4 bl br"> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;„ &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Kid (according to season)</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">10d. or 6d.</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl bl br"> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;„ &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Lamb</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">6d. or 4d.</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">1s. 4d. or 4d.</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl bl br"> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;„ &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Plaice</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">1½d.</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl4 bl br"> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;„ &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Soles (per dozen)</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">3d.</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl bl br"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_413">413</span> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;„ &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Mullet</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">2d.</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl bl br"> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;„ &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Haddock</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">2d.</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl bl br"> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;„ &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Conger</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">1s.</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl bl br"> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;„ &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Turbot</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">6d.</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl bl br"> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;„ &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Mackerel</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">1d.</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl bl br"> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;„ &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Gurnard</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">1d.</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl4 bl br"> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;„ &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Herring (according to season)</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">6 for 1d. or 12 for 1d.</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl bl br"> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;„ &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Lamprey</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">4d.</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl bl br"> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;„ &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Oysters</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">2d. a gallon</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl4 bl br"> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;„ &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Salmon (according to season)</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">5s. or 3s.</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl bl br"> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;„ &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Eels</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">25 for 2d.</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl bl br"> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;„ &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Smelts</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">100 for 1d.</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl bl br">A Quarter of Wheat</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">4s.</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">8s. to 13s.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl bl br"> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;„ &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Pease</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">2s. 6d.</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">3s. to 5s.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl bl br"> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;„ &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Oats</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">2s.</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">4s.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl bl br">A Bull</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">7s. 6d.</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-      </tr>
-        <tr>
-        <td class="tdl bl br">A Cow</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">6s.</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">12s.</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl bl br">A Fat Sheep</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">1s.</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">2s. 10d.</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">2s. 4d. to 4s. 4d.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl bl br">An Ewe</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">8d.</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">1s. 8d. to 2s. 6d.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl bl br">An Ox</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">£1:4s. or 16s.</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">£1:6:8</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">£2:5s. to £1 : 8s.</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl bl br">A Hog</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">3s. 4d.</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">3s. 8d.</td>
-        <td class="bl br tdc">···</td>
-      </tr>
-      <tr>
-        <td class="tdl bl br bb">Eggs</td>
-        <td class="bl br bb tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br bb tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br bb tdc">20 a 1d.</td>
-        <td class="bl br bb tdc">···</td>
-        <td class="bl br bb tdc">···</td>
-      </tr>
-  </tbody>
-  </table>
-
-  <hr class="page" />
-  <div class="chapter" id="APPENDIX_X">
-    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_414">414</span>
-    <h3>
-      <span class="gespertt1">APPENDIX X</span><br />
-      <span class="subhead">EXECUTIONS</span>
-    </h3>
-  </div>
-
-  <p class="noindent"><span class="smcap">The</span> following is a list of executions which took place in the thirty
-    years ending 1586. It shows the various crimes which were then
-    considered capital:—</p>
-
-  <ul class="lefthang3 exec">
-    <li>1563. A soldier executed at Newhaven for drawing his weapon without orders.</li>
-    <li>1563. A sergeant and soldier executed for drawing their weapons against their captain.</li>
-    <li>1569. Philip Mestrell a Frenchman, and two Englishmen, hanged for counterfeiting money.</li>
-    <li>1569. Sixty rebels executed at Durham.</li>
-    <li>1569. A ’prentice hanged for murdering his master.</li>
-    <li>1569. Five rebels executed at York.</li>
-    <li>1570. Thomas and Christopher Norton executed for treason.</li>
-    <li>1570. John Throckmorton and five others executed for treason.</li>
-    <li>1570. John Felton hanged for nailing the Pope’s Bull to the Bishop of London’s Palace.</li>
-    <li>1570. Two young men hanged for debasing coin.</li>
-    <li>1570. Dr. John Storie hanged for high treason.</li>
-    <li>1571. Rebecca Chamber burnt for poisoning her husband.</li>
-    <li>1572. Barneie, Mather, and Rolfe, hanged for treason.</li>
-    <li>1572. Martin Bullocke hanged for robbery and murder.</li>
-    <li>1572. Duke of Norfolk beheaded for treason.</li>
-    <li>1573. Percy, Earl of Northumberland, beheaded as a conspirator.</li>
-    <li>1573. John Hall and Oswald Wilkinson hanged for treason.</li>
-    <li>1573. A man hanged for murder.</li>
-    <li>1573. George Browne hanged for murder.</li>
-    <li>1573. Anne Sanders, Anne Drurie, and trustie Roger hanged as accessories to murder.</li>
-    <li>1573. Anthonie Browne hanged for felony.</li>
-    <li>1574. Peter Burchet hanged for murder.</li>
-    <li>1575. Two Dutch Anabaptists burnt at Smithfield.</li>
-    <li>1575. Twenty-two pirates executed.</li>
-    <li>1575. Thomas Greene, goldsmith, hanged for clipping coin.</li>
-    <li>1576. A woman burnt at Tunbridge for poisoning her husband.</li>
-    <li>1576. A man hanged at Maidstone as an accessory to poisoning.</li>
-    <li>1577. Cuthbert Maine hanged as a Romanist.</li>
-    <li>1577. John Nelson and Thomas Sherewood hanged for denying the Queen’s supremacy.</li>
-    <li>1577. John de Loy and five Englishmen executed at Norwich for counterfeiting coin.</li>
-    <li>1577. Seven pirates hanged at Wapping.</li>
-    <li>1577. An Irishman hanged on Mile End Green for murder.</li>
-    <li>1580. A man named Glover hanged for murder.</li>
-    <li><span class="pagenum" id="Page_415">415</span> 1580. Richard Dod hanged for murder.</li>
-    <li>1580. William Randall hanged for conjuring.</li>
-    <li>1581. A man hanged at St. Thomas Waterings for begging by a licence signed by the Queen’s own hand counterfeited.</li>
-    <li>1581. Edward Hance a seminary priest hanged.</li>
-    <li>1581. Edmund Campion, Ralfe Sherwin, Alexander Briars, hanged for high treason.</li>
-    <li>1581. John Paine executed at Chelmsford for high treason.</li>
-    <li>1581. Thomas Foord, John Shert, Robert Johnson, priests, hanged for designs against Elizabeth.</li>
-    <li>1582. Laurence Richardson and Thomas Catcham executed for Romanism.</li>
-    <li>1582. Philip Prise hanged in Fleet Street for killing a Sheriff.</li>
-    <li>1583. Thomas Worth and Alice Shepheard hanged in Shoolane for killing a ’prentice.</li>
-    <li>1583. Elias Shackar hanged at Bury St. Edmunds for spreading seditious literature.</li>
-    <li>1583. Ten priests hanged.</li>
-    <li>1583. John Lewes burnt at Norwich for heresy.</li>
-    <li>1583. John Slade and John Bodie hanged for high treason.</li>
-    <li>1583. Ten horsedealers hanged at Smithfield for robbery.</li>
-    <li>1583. Edward Arden hanged for treason.</li>
-    <li>1583. William Carter hanged for high treason.</li>
-    <li>1584. Francis Throckemorton hanged for treason.</li>
-    <li>1584. William Parrie hanged for treason.</li>
-    <li>1585. Thomas Awfeld and Thomas Weblie hanged for publishing seditious matter.</li>
-    <li>1586. Two seminary priests hanged at Tyburn.</li>
-    <li>1586. A witch burnt at Smithfield.</li>
-    <li>1586. A woman executed at Tyburn for adultery.</li>
-    <li>1586. Two priests hanged at Tyburn for treason.</li>
-    <li>1586. Jone Cason hanged for witchcraft.</li>
-    <li>1586. A man named Foule hanged for robbing his wife.</li>
-    <li>1586. Henry Elks hanged for counterfeiting the Queen’s signature.</li>
-    <li>1586. Seven persons condemned for treason.</li>
-    <li>1586. John Ballard, a priest, executed for conspiring with Anthony Babington against Elizabeth. With him were executed John Savage, Barnewell, Tichborne, Tilneie, Edward Abingdon, Anthony Babington.</li>
-    <li>1586. Thomas Salisbury executed for treason. With him suffered Henry Dun, Edward Jones, Charnocke, Robert Gage, Jerom Bellamie.</li>
-    <li>1586. Three seminary priests hanged at Tyburn.</li>
-    <li>1563–1586—76 Executed for high treason.</li>
-    <li class="sub2">71 Rebels.</li>
-    <li class="sub2">17 Murder.</li>
-    <li class="sub2">&nbsp; 3 Military offences.</li>
-    <li class="sub2">12 Counterfeiting and clipping coin.</li>
-    <li class="sub2">&nbsp; 2 Counterfeiting Queen’s signature.</li>
-    <li class="sub2">29 Pirates.</li>
-    <li class="sub2">&nbsp; 2 Witchcraft and conjuring.</li>
-    <li class="sub2">&nbsp; 3 Heresy.</li>
-    <li class="sub2">12 Robbery.</li>
-    <li class="sub2">&nbsp; 1 Adultery.</li>
-  </ul>
-
-  <hr class="page" />
-  <div class="chapter" id="APPENDIX_XI">
-    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_416">416</span>
-    <h3>
-      <span class="gespertt1">APPENDIX XI</span><br />
-      <span class="subhead">PLAN OF TOTTENHAM COURT</span>
-    </h3>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="center smcap">(Marquis of Salisbury’s Collection, Hatfield House)</div>
-
-  <div class="ml6 mt2">
-    (Endorsed 1)&nbsp; &nbsp; The plot of Toten’am Coorte.<br />
-    (Endorsed 2)&nbsp; &nbsp; Ap. 1591 Totenham Cort.
-  </div>
-
-  <p class="noindent">Below the plan is written:—</p>
-
-  <p class="noindent">“M<sup>d</sup>. [memorandum] there doth belonge to the said Scite of Tottenham
-    Court two other Closes over and above the pastures mentioned in this
-    plotte; And not here mentioned by reason they lye so farr distaunt
-    from the said londes mentioned in this plott: Vĩz the one of the said
-    Closes doth lye in Kentishe Towne in the said Countie, distaunt one
-    Mile and more from the farthest part Northward of the ground mentioned
-    in the said plott, late in the Tenure of Widowe Glover: And the other
-    Close contayning 4 Acres by estimacõn doth lye in the parishe of St
-    Pancrasse in the said Countie now or late in the Tenure of Willm̃
-    Bunche, distaunt from the South part of the saied landes mentioned in
-    the said plott one quarter of A myle: w<sup>ch</sup> saied two Closes w<sup>th</sup>
-    two Tenem<sup>ts</sup> there (As I am enfourmed) are demised unto Serieaunt
-    [Serjeant] Haynes for certaine yeares yet enduring, by the right
-    Honourable Henry late Earle of Arundell, And Robert late Earle of
-    Leyester; yeelding yearley to the Cofferer of hir Ma<sup>ts</sup> [Majesty’s]
-    housholde—lxvi<sup>s</sup> viii<sup>d</sup>. The charge of the new building of one of
-    the Tenem<sup>ts</sup>, And the continuall Repairing thereof, hath (As I am
-    enfourmed) cost Serieaunt Haynes—xxxiii<sup>li</sup> vi<sup>s</sup> viii<sup>d</sup>. And the new
-    building of the other, w<sup>th</sup> the repairing thereof did coste Alexander
-    Glover late Hearde there—xx<sup>li</sup> or thereabouts.</p>
-
-  <p class="noindent">Also I am enfourmed, that Serieaunt Haynes doth hold the said ffowre
-    Closes, lying next the said Parke pale, w<sup>th</sup> thafter pasture of two
-    of the same Closes, beyng the middle Closes; yeelding yearlie ffiftie
-    loades of hay, to be delivered at the Muse, ffor and twords her Ma<sup>ts</sup>
-    [Majesty’s] provision there, cleere above all charges; every loade
-    to contayne 18. hundred weight. And thafter pasture of the other two
-    Closes are to be used for the feede of her Ma<sup>ts</sup> Cattell untill the
-    feaste of the Purification of o<sup>r</sup> Lady following.</p>
-
-  <p class="noindent">Also I finde one Danyell Clerke one of her Ma<sup>ts</sup> servaunts doth now
-    dwell in the Scite of the said howse, w<sup>ch</sup> is A very slender building
-    of Timber and Bricke And hath beene of a larger building, then now it
-    is: ffor some little parte hath been pulled downe of late, to amend
-    some part of the howses now standing; w<sup>ch</sup> has beene repaired of
-    late, by the said Alexander Glover Heard there: And other some part
-    being two Roomes, whereof the one Roome contayneth in breadth w<sup>th</sup>in
-    the wall 15 foote; And in lengthe 24 foote; And thother Roome is 15
-    foote broade, and in length 34 foote very greatlie decaied, w<sup>ch</sup> will
-    coste to be repaired—lx<sup>li</sup> at the least. And the said cheife howse,
-    one Stable, and two barnes, And A little Close called Ponde Close,
-    w<sup>th</sup> the Ortcyard, And the two Closes called Murrells mentioned
-    in the platt are used to be fedd w<sup>th</sup> her Ma<sup>ts</sup> Cattell, At the
-    discretion of her Ma<sup>ts</sup> Officers.</p>
-
-  <div class="right">
-    6<sup>t</sup> Aprilis 1.5.9.1&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <br />
-    p̃. me Willm̃ Nector.”
-  </div>
-
-  <hr class="page" />
-  <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_417">417</span></p>
-  <h3 id="NOTE_ON_AGASS_MAP_AT_THE_END_OF_THE_VOLUME">NOTE ON AGAS’S MAP AT THE END OF THE VOLUME</h3>
-
-  <p class="noindent"><span class="smcap">Ralph Agas</span> was born about 1540. He was a land-surveyor, and his
-    chief claim to notice lies in the three maps or plans he made of
-    London, Oxford, and Cambridge. Of these the one reproduced in this
-    volume, entitled “A Survey of the Cities of London and Westminster,
-    the Borough of Southwark and parts adjacent,” was engraved by Edward
-    J. Francis, and edited by W. H. Overall, F.S.A. Mr. Overall made a
-    careful examination of all the facts, and believes that the original
-    map of Agas was not made earlier than the year 1591, though it has been
-    commonly supposed to have been made about 1560. Of the original, two
-    copies are extant—one in the Guildhall, and the other in the Pepysian
-    Collection at Magdalen College, Oxford.</p>
-
-  <p>In 1737 G. Vertue published a copy of Agas’s map, altering the original
-    in many important particulars, which are enumerated by Mr. Overall in
-    his account of the map. Among these may be mentioned the water-bearers
-    seen off Tower Stairs and the Steelyard, filling their casks, which are
-    slung across the backs of horses, by the aid of a long-handled ladle.
-    In Vertue’s map this interesting detail is turned into a meaningless
-    one, namely, a man driving cows into the water with a whip. In Agas
-    the figures seen in the fields are in Elizabethan costume; in Vertue’s
-    map they are in the costume of William III.’s reign. Other particulars
-    omitted in Vertue are the royal barge in mid-stream off Baynard’s
-    Castle; the Martello Tower at the mouth of the Fleet; the Chapter
-    House and the Church of St. Gregory on the south side of St. Paul;
-    and various other points. By noting these details, Vertue’s spurious
-    reproduction can be at once distinguished from the genuine map of
-    Agas.</p>
-
-  <hr class="page" />
-  <div class="chapter" id="INDEX">
-    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_421">421</span>
-    <h2>INDEX</h2>
-  </div>
-
-  <ul class="index">
-    <li>Abergavenny, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li>
-    <li>Abram man, the, <a href="#Page_386">386</a></li>
-    <li>Acheley, R., <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li>
-    <li>Acton, Barnard, <a href="#Page_389">389</a></li>
-    <li>Africa, trade with, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li>
-    <li>Agas, Ralph, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_417">417</a></li>
-    <li>Aldermen, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_342">342</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>, <a href="#Page_397">397</a></li>
-    <li>Aldermen, Court of, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a></li>
-    <li>Aldersgate Street, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li>
-    <li>Aldersgate, Ward of, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li>
-    <li>Aldgate, Ward of, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li>
-    <li>Ale and beer, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>, <a href="#Page_368">368</a></li>
-    <li>Aliens, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>, <a href="#Page_399">399</a></li>
-    <li>Allen, Cardinal, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li>
-    <li>Allen, J., <a href="#Page_376">376</a></li>
-    <li>Almshouses, <a href="#Page_375">375–378</a></li>
-    <li>Ambassadors, the French, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">the Russian, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></li>
-    <li>Amusements—Archery, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, <a href="#Page_354">354–356</a>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">bear-baiting, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352–354</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">bowls, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">bucklers, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">bull-baiting, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_353">353</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">cards, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">cock-fighting, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">dancing, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">dice, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">fighting, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">hawking, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">hunting, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">masques, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">May-day games, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">pigeon-shooting, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">quarter-staff, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">quintain, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">reading, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">single-stick, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">story-telling, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">tennis, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">theatres (See <i>Drama, Theatres</i>);</li>
-    <li class="sub">tilting and tournaments, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">and women, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">wrestling, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a></li>
-    <li>Anabaptists, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li>
-    <li>Anfrelini, Fausto, <a href="#Page_286">286</a></li>
-    <li>Anglers, <a href="#Page_385">385</a></li>
-    <li>Anstry, Ralph, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li>
-    <li>Antwerp, <a href="#Page_219">219–220</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a></li>
-    <li>Apollo Club, <a href="#Page_340">340</a></li>
-    <li>Appletree, Thomas, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_389">389–391</a></li>
-    <li>Apprentices, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_275">275</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323–332</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_387">387</a></li>
-    <li>Apprentice bell, the, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li>
-    <li>Apsley, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li>
-    <li>Ardeley, J., <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li>
-    <li>Arden of Faversham, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li>
-    <li>Armour, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a></li>
-    <li>Arthington, Henry, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li>
-    <li>Arthur, Prince, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li>
-    <li>Artillery Company, <a href="#Page_356">356</a></li>
-    <li>Artillery Ground, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li>
-    <li>Arundell, Earl of, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li>
-    <li>Ascham, <a href="#Page_248">248</a></li>
-    <li>Ashmole, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li>
-    <li>Askew, Anne, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li>
-    <li>Astrology, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li>
-    <li>Atwater, John, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li>
-    <li>Audley, Lord, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li>
-    <li>Autem Morte, the, <a href="#Page_387">387</a></li>
-    <li>Awdeley, <a href="#Page_384">384</a></li>
-    <li>Aylmer, Lawrence, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li>
-    <li>&nbsp;</li>
-    <li>Babington Conspiracy, the, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li>
-    <li>Bacon, Lord, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a></li>
-    <li>Bainbrigg, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li>
-    <li>Bakewell, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li>
-    <li>Bale, John, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a></li>
-    <li>Ballads, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a></li>
-    <li>Balthazar, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li>
-    <li>Bankside, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a></li>
-    <li>Barbican, the, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li>
-    <li>Barges, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, <a href="#Page_417">417</a></li>
-    <li>Barley, W., <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li>
-    <li>“Barmesey” Street, <a href="#Page_384">384</a></li>
-    <li>Barnard’s Inn, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a></li>
-    <li>Barnet, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li>
-    <li>Barnstaple, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li>
-    <li>Barrington, Daines, <a href="#Page_355">355</a></li>
-    <li>Barton, Elizabeth, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li>
-    <li>Basinghall Street, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li>
-    <li>Basket woman, the, <a href="#Page_387">387</a></li>
-    <li>Bassishaw, Ward of, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li>
-    <li>Bath, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a></li>
-    <li>Bavaria, Duke of, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li>
-    <li>Baynard’s Castle, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_417">417</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">Ward of, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li>
-    <li>Beaumont, F., <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a></li>
-    <li>Bedford, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li>
-    <li>Beds, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a></li>
-    <li>Beggars and rogues, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, <a href="#Page_366">366–371</a>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_387">387</a></li>
-    <li>Bele, Dr., <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li>
-    <li>Bellmen, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li>
-    <li>Bentley, Justice, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li>
-    <li>Bermondsey, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a></li>
-    <li>Berwick, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li>
-    <li>Betrothal, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a></li>
-    <li>Bible, the, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a></li>
-    <li>Billingsgate, Ward of, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li>
-    <li>Bishopsgate Street, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_397">397</a></li>
-    <li>Bishopsgate, Ward of, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li>
-    <li>Bishop of London, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li>
-    <li>Black Death, <a href="#Page_369">369</a></li>
-    <li>Blackfriars, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li>
-    <li>Blackheath, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li>
-    <li>Black Waggon, the, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li>
-    <li>Blackwall, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_390">390</a></li>
-    <li>Blackwell Hall, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li>
-    <li>Bodmin, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li>
-    <li>Boleyn, Anne, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li>
-    <li>Bond, Martin, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li>
-    <li>Bonham, John, <a href="#Page_256">256</a></li>
-    <li>Books, sale of, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a></li>
-    <li>Booksellers and authors, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li>
-    <li>Borough, the, <a href="#Page_333">333</a></li>
-    <li>Boswell, <a href="#Page_339">339</a></li>
-    <li>Bow, <a href="#Page_238">238</a></li>
-    <li>Bowes, Sir J., <a href="#Page_392">392</a></li>
-    <li>Bowes, Lady, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li>
-    <li>Boxley, Holy Rood of, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li>
-    <li>Boy-Bishop, the, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_364">364</a></li>
-    <li>Boycott, the, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li>
-    <li>Bradford, John, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li>
-    <li>Bread Street, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a></li>
-    <li>Bread Street, Ward of, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li>
-    <li>Brecknock, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li>
-    <li><span class="pagenum" id="Page_422">422</span> Bricks, <a href="#Page_276">276</a></li>
-    <li>Bridewell, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a></li>
-    <li>Bridewell, Palace of, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></li>
-    <li>Bridge foot, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li>
-    <li>Bridge House, the, <a href="#Page_313">313</a></li>
-    <li>Bridge, J., <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li>
-    <li>Bridge Within, Ward of, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li>
-    <li>Bridge Without, Ward of, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li>
-    <li>Bridgewater, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li>
-    <li>Bridgnorth, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a></li>
-    <li>Bridport, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li>
-    <li>Bristol, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a></li>
-    <li>Britannia Fields, <a href="#Page_356">356</a></li>
-    <li>Brixton, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li>
-    <li>Broad Street, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a></li>
-    <li>Broad Street, Ward of, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li>
-    <li>Broad Water Worthing, <a href="#Page_388">388</a></li>
-    <li>Brockby, Anthony, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li>
-    <li>Broken Wharf, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li>
-    <li>Brome, <a href="#Page_340">340</a></li>
-    <li>Bromley, R., <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li>
-    <li>Brook, Robert, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li>
-    <li>Browne, John, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li>
-    <li>Browne, Sir T., <a href="#Page_248">248</a></li>
-    <li>Buckingham, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li>
-    <li>Buckingham, Duke of, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li>
-    <li>Bucklersbury, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a></li>
-    <li>Bunhill Fields, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li>
-    <li>Burbage, James, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a></li>
-    <li>Burby, C., <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li>
-    <li>Burgundy, Margaret, Duchess of, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li>
-    <li>Burleigh, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li>
-    <li>Burnell, Anne, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li>
-    <li>Burroughs, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li>
-    <li>Butchers, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li>
-    <li>Butcher Row, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li>
-    <li>Butler, N., <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li>
-    <li>&nbsp;</li>
-    <li>Cadman, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li>
-    <li>Caerleon, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li>
-    <li>Caermarthen, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li>
-    <li>Calais, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li>
-    <li>Cambridge, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a></li>
-    <li>Camden, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li>
-    <li>Campeggio, Cardinal, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li>
-    <li>Campion, Edmund, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li>
-    <li>Candlewick, Ward of, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li>
-    <li>Cannon Street, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li>
-    <li>Canterbury, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li>
-    <li>Canting, <a href="#Page_367">367</a></li>
-    <li>Capel, William, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li>
-    <li>Cardiff, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li>
-    <li>Cardmaker, J., <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li>
-    <li>Carey, Henry, <a href="#Page_389">389</a></li>
-    <li>Carion, <a href="#Page_284">284</a></li>
-    <li>Carmillion, Alice, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a></li>
-    <li>Carpenter, John, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a></li>
-    <li>Carpets, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a></li>
-    <li>Carter Lane, <a href="#Page_273">273</a></li>
-    <li>Carthusian martyrs, the, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li>
-    <li>Carver, D., <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li>
-    <li>Carving, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a></li>
-    <li>Casaubon, Isaac, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li>
-    <li>Cason, Joan, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li>
-    <li>Caursini, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li>
-    <li>Cavendish, Sir Charles, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li>
-    <li>Cavendish, George, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a></li>
-    <li>Cavendish, Thomas, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></li>
-    <li>Caverley, H., <a href="#Page_257">257</a></li>
-    <li>Caxton, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a></li>
-    <li>Chancellor, Richard, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></li>
-    <li>Chancery Lane, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li>
-    <li>Chaplains, domestic, <a href="#Page_274">274</a></li>
-    <li>Chapter House, <a href="#Page_417">417</a></li>
-    <li>Charing Cross, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a></li>
-    <li>Charity, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>, <a href="#Page_374">374–378</a></li>
-    <li>Charnock Conspiracy, the, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li>
-    <li>Charter House, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li>
-    <li>Chaucer, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li>
-    <li>Cheapside (Cheap, Chepe), <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_337">337</a>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_403">403</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">conduit in, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">Cross in, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">Standard in, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li>
-    <li>Cheap, Ward of, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li>
-    <li>Cheinie, Sir H., <a href="#Page_392">392</a></li>
-    <li>Chelsea, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li>
-    <li>Chester, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a></li>
-    <li>Chicheley, R., <a href="#Page_375">375</a></li>
-    <li>Chichester, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li>
-    <li>Child, Sir Josiah, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li>
-    <li>Children of the Chapel, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a></li>
-    <li>Children of St. Paul’s, <a href="#Page_349">349</a></li>
-    <li>Children of the Revels, <a href="#Page_349">349</a></li>
-    <li>Children of Westminster, <a href="#Page_349">349</a></li>
-    <li>Children of Windsor, <a href="#Page_349">349</a></li>
-    <li>Children, treatment of, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a></li>
-    <li>Chiswell Street, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li>
-    <li>Cholmeley, Ranulph, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li>
-    <li>Christmas, <a href="#Page_356">356–359</a></li>
-    <li>Churches, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">behaviour in, <a href="#Page_152">152–154</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">bells, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">burials in, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">changes in, <a href="#Page_144">144–146</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">Feast of All Fools in, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">Lord Mayor’s attendance at, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">Mysteries in, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">processions in, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">ritual, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">services in, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">sword-stands in, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">treatment of, <a href="#Page_214">153</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">All Hallows, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">St. Andrew’s by the Wardrobe, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">St. Antholin’s, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">St. Augustine’s, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">St. Botolph’s, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">St. Bride’s, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">St. Catherine Cree, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">Chapel Royal, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">St. Christopher le Stock, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">St. Dunstan’s in the East, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">St. Dunstan’s in the West, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">St. Ethelburga’s, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">St. Giles’s, Cripplegate, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_377">377</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">St. Gregory’s, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">St. Helen’s, Bishopsgate, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">Holy Trinity, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">Leadenhall Chapel, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">St. Leonard’s, Shoreditch, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">St. Magnus, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">St. Margaret’s, Lothbury, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">St. Margaret Patens, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">St. Margaret’s, Westminster, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">St. Mary Overies, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">St. Mary Spital, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">Mercer’s Chapel, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">St. Michael’s, Eastcheap, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">St. Michael le Querne, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">the Papey, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">St. Paul’s Cathedral, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_365">365</a>, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">St. Peter-le-Poor, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">St. Peter’s, Westminster, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">St. Thomas Acon, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">Westminster Abbey, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">Whitechapel, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li>
-    <li>Church ales, <a href="#Page_290">290</a></li>
-    <li>Church House, the, <a href="#Page_155">155–157</a></li>
-    <li>Cinque Ports, the, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></li>
-    <li>Citizens, Musters of, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320–322</a></li>
-    <li>City, the—and aliens, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">and apprentices, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">and Cardinal Wolsey, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">and charity, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">and the companies, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">and country trade, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">and the drama, <a href="#Page_342">342–345</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">the Earl of Essex, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">and the Exchange, <a href="#Page_220">220–222</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">and its Fleet, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">fortified, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">and the freemen, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">and the French War, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">government of, <a href="#Page_209">209–215</a>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">and the Great Beam, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">and Henry VII., <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_30">10–13</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">and Henry VIII., <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18–20</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">and Katherine of Aragon, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">and the manors, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">and the markets, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">and the medical profession, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">and military service, <a href="#Page_30">75–80</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">and the monasteries, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">and its offices, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">and the priests, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">prosperity of, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">and Protector Somerset, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">and Protestantism, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">and Queen Elizabeth, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">and Queen Mary, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">and Roman Catholicism, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">and the Russian Ambassador, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">and sanitation, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">separation of, from the Court, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">and soldiers, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">and the Sovereign, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">and the Spanish marriage, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">state of, at death of Henry VIII., <a href="#Page_44">44</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_423">423</span> and supplies of men and money, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">and trade, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">and vagrants, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a></li>
-    <li>City Companies, the, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_374">374</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">Joint-Stock, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">Regulated, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">Clothworkers, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">Drapers, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">Fishmongers, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">Grocers, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">Leathersellers, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">Mercers, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_232">232</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">Merchant Adventurers, <a href="#Page_231">231–233</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">Merchant Taylors, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">Painter-Stainers, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">Staplers, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">Stationers, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_377">377</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">Water-bearers, <a href="#Page_397">397</a></li>
-    <li>City Constables, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li>
-    <li>City Courts, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li>
-    <li>City Granary, the, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li>
-    <li>City Offices, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li>
-    <li>City Watch, the, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li>
-    <li>Clare Market, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></li>
-    <li>Clarence, Duke of, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li>
-    <li>Cleaton, Ralph, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li>
-    <li>Cleef, Joost van, <a href="#Page_260">260</a></li>
-    <li>Clement VII., Pope, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li>
-    <li>Clement’s Inn, <a href="#Page_386">386</a></li>
-    <li>Clergy, the, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149–151</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a></li>
-    <li>Clerks, Company of, <a href="#Page_314">314</a></li>
-    <li>Clinton, Lord, his Company, <a href="#Page_350">350</a></li>
-    <li>Clochard, the, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li>
-    <li>Cloth, manufacture of, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li>
-    <li>Cloth Market, the, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li>
-    <li>Clough, Richard, <a href="#Page_220">220</a></li>
-    <li>Cnihten Gild, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li>
-    <li>Coaches, <a href="#Page_198">198–200</a></li>
-    <li>Coat-money, <a href="#Page_318">318</a></li>
-    <li>Cockaine, Sir W., <a href="#Page_233">233</a></li>
-    <li>Coinage, the, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li>
-    <li>Colchester, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a></li>
-    <li>Cold Harbour, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li>
-    <li>Coleman Street, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">Ward of, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li>
-    <li>Colet, John, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a></li>
-    <li>Collier, Payne, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li>
-    <li>Commissioners for religion, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li>
-    <li>Common Council, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a></li>
-    <li>Common lands, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li>
-    <li>Commons, House of, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a></li>
-    <li>Companies’ Halls, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">Grocers’, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">Haberdashers’, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">Mercers’ 180;</li>
-    <li class="sub">Merchant Taylors’, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">Painter-Stainers’, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">Sadlers’, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">Water-bearers’, <a href="#Page_397">397</a></li>
-    <li>Conscience, Court of, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li>
-    <li>Constables, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li>
-    <li>Convocation, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li>
-    <li>Conway, Sir J., <a href="#Page_388">388</a></li>
-    <li>Cooke, Sarah, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li>
-    <li>Cooper, Elizabeth, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></li>
-    <li>Coppinger, Edmond, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li>
-    <li>Cordwainer Street, Ward of, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li>
-    <li>Corineus, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263–265</a></li>
-    <li>Cornelius Agrippa, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li>
-    <li>Cornhill, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_337">337</a>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">Ward of, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a></li>
-    <li>Cornish Rebellion, the, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li>
-    <li>Corporation, the, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li>
-    <li>Corvus, Johannes, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></li>
-    <li>Coryat, Tom, <a href="#Page_228">228</a></li>
-    <li>Cosmo, Duke of Tuscany, <a href="#Page_292">292</a></li>
-    <li>Council, the King’s, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li>
-    <li>Counterfeit Crank, the, <a href="#Page_386">386</a></li>
-    <li>Coventry, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a></li>
-    <li>Cowbridge, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li>
-    <li>Craftsmen, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a></li>
-    <li>Cranmer, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li>
-    <li>Crimes, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, <a href="#Page_379">379–391</a></li>
-    <li>Cripplegate, Ward of, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li>
-    <li>Croker, C., <a href="#Page_256">256</a></li>
-    <li>Cromwell, Thomas, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li>
-    <li>Crosby Hall, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li>
-    <li>Cucking-stool, the, <a href="#Page_388">388</a></li>
-    <li>Cunningham, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></li>
-    <li>&nbsp;</li>
-    <li>Dacre, Lord, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li>
-    <li>Dance of Death, the, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li>
-    <li>Danne, M., <a href="#Page_376">376</a></li>
-    <li>Dartmouth, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li>
-    <li>Davis, John, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li>
-    <li>Day, John, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li>
-    <li>Dean of St. Paul’s, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li>
-    <li>Dean’s Mews, <a href="#Page_346">346</a></li>
-    <li>Debtors, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a></li>
-    <li>Dee, John, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li>
-    <li>Dekker, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_384">384</a></li>
-    <li>Dell, the, <a href="#Page_387">387</a></li>
-    <li>Demander for Glymmar, the, <a href="#Page_387">387</a></li>
-    <li>Denton, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li>
-    <li>Deptford, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_390">390</a></li>
-    <li>Derby, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a></li>
-    <li>Derby, Earl of, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">his Company, <a href="#Page_350">350</a></li>
-    <li>Des Periers, Bonaventure, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></li>
-    <li>Dialects, <a href="#Page_254">254</a></li>
-    <li>Dissent, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li>
-    <li>Distress, <a href="#Page_374">374</a></li>
-    <li>Dobbs, Sir R., <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li>
-    <li>Doctor’s Commons, <a href="#Page_276">276</a></li>
-    <li>Dogs, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li>
-    <li>Dolet, Etienne, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></li>
-    <li>Dominican Friars, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li>
-    <li>Dommerar, the, <a href="#Page_386">386</a></li>
-    <li>Donkin, Robert, <a href="#Page_397">397</a></li>
-    <li>Dorchester, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li>
-    <li>Dorchester Street, <a href="#Page_356">356</a></li>
-    <li>Dorset, Marquis of, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li>
-    <li>Dover, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li>
-    <li>Dowgate, Ward of, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li>
-    <li>Doxy, the, <a href="#Page_387">387</a></li>
-    <li>Drake, Francis, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a></li>
-    <li>Drama, the, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_347">347</a></li>
-    <li>Draper, Christopher, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li>
-    <li>Drapers’ Gardens, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li>
-    <li>Drayton, Michael, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li>
-    <li>Dress, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270–273</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303–312</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318–320</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>, <a href="#Page_392">392</a></li>
-    <li>Dryden, John, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li>
-    <li>Dudley, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li>
-    <li>Dunkirk, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li>
-    <li>Dunstable, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></li>
-    <li>Dutch traders, <a href="#Page_235">235</a></li>
-    <li>&nbsp;</li>
-    <li>Eastcheap, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a></li>
-    <li>East India Company, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></li>
-    <li>Eastland Company, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li>
-    <li>Education, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>, <a href="#Page_398">398</a></li>
-    <li>Edward VI.—state of City at his accession, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">and the schools, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">last appearance in public, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">death and burial, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li>
-    <li>Elizabeth, Queen—Accession, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">birth, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">at Mary’s entry into London, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">dress, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">appearance, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">learning, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">character, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">and Mary, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">enters London, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">and the City, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">and religion, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">and aliens, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">encourages trade, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">and growth of London, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">and Mary, Queen of Scots, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">and debtors, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">death, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">her progresses, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">her palaces, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">her coronation, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">and sports, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">and monopolies, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">and Thomas Appletree, 389–391;</li>
-    <li class="sub">and the drama, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">and the beggars, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">her hospitality, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">and Sir F. Drake, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">and the Maundy, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">her Court at Greenwich, 102–105;</li>
-    <li class="sub">her portraits, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li>
-    <li>Elizabeth, Lady (wife of Henry VII.), <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li>
-    <li>Elstow, Convent of, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li>
-    <li>Eltham, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li>
-    <li>Emperor, the, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li>
-    <li>Empson, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li>
-    <li>Epping Forest, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li>
-    <li>Erasmus, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a></li>
-    <li><span class="pagenum" id="Page_424">424</span> Erber, the, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li>
-    <li>Essex, Earl of, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">his Company, <a href="#Page_350">350</a></li>
-    <li>Evil May Day, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a></li>
-    <li>Exchange, the Royal, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219–222</a>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_341">341</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a></li>
-    <li>Executions, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_132">132–142</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159–161</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_379">379</a>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a></li>
-    <li>Execution Dock, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li>
-    <li>Exeter, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a></li>
-    <li>Exeter, Marquis of, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li>
-    <li>Exmew, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li>
-    <li>Explorers and adventurers, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224–237</a></li>
-    <li>&nbsp;</li>
-    <li>Fabyan, Alderman, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a></li>
-    <li>Family of Love, the, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li>
-    <li>Famines, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li>
-    <li>Fanatics, <a href="#Page_158">158–161</a></li>
-    <li>Farringdon Within, Ward of, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li>
-    <li>Farringdon Without, Ward of, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li>
-    <li>Fasting, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li>
-    <li>Fawconer, T., Mayor, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></li>
-    <li>Feake, James, <a href="#Page_388">388</a></li>
-    <li>Feast of Fools, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_364">364</a></li>
-    <li>Feckenham, Abbot, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li>
-    <li>Felton, John, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li>
-    <li>Fenchurch, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li>
-    <li>Fenchurch Street, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_362">362</a></li>
-    <li>Ferrar, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li>
-    <li>Ferrers, George, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li>
-    <li>Fetherstone, William, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li>
-    <li>Fetter Lane, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li>
-    <li>Feversham, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li>
-    <li>Field, Richard, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li>
-    <li>Finger-rings, <a href="#Page_286">286</a></li>
-    <li>Finsbury, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a></li>
-    <li>Finsbury archers, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a></li>
-    <li>Finsbury Fields, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a></li>
-    <li>Fish Market, <a href="#Page_339">339</a></li>
-    <li>Fish Street, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li>
-    <li>Fisher, Bishop, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>,</li>
-    <li><a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li>
-    <li>Fitch, Ralph, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li>
-    <li>Fitz Stephen, <a href="#Page_354">354</a></li>
-    <li>Flammock, Attorney, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li>
-    <li>Fleet River, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_417">417</a></li>
-    <li>Fleet Street, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>, <a href="#Page_364">364</a></li>
-    <li>Flemish immigrants, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a></li>
-    <li>Fletcher, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li>
-    <li>Flick, Gerbud, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></li>
-    <li>Flower, William, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li>
-    <li>Fludd, Robert, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li>
-    <li>Food and drink, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292–302</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_335">335</a>, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>, <a href="#Page_409">409–413</a></li>
-    <li>Ford, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li>
-    <li>Fore Street, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li>
-    <li>Foreign goods, sale of, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a></li>
-    <li>Forest, Dr., <a href="#Page_133">133–135</a></li>
-    <li>Forks, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></li>
-    <li>Forman, Sir W., <a href="#Page_320">320</a></li>
-    <li>Former, Simon, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li>
-    <li>Foster, Agnes, <a href="#Page_376">376</a></li>
-    <li>Fowler, Sir R., <a href="#Page_214">214</a></li>
-    <li>Fox, John, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></li>
-    <li>Foxe, John, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li>
-    <li>Frater, the, <a href="#Page_386">386</a></li>
-    <li>Fraternity of St. Thomas à Becket, <a href="#Page_232">232</a></li>
-    <li><i>Fratres de Sacca</i>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li>
-    <li>Freemen, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a></li>
-    <li>French War of 1557, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li>
-    <li>Freshwater Mariners, the, <a href="#Page_386">386</a></li>
-    <li>Fretchvell, Sir Peter, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li>
-    <li>Friars, the, <a href="#Page_122">122–124</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_291">291</a></li>
-    <li>Friday Street, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a></li>
-    <li>Frobisher, Martin, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a></li>
-    <li>Fulham, <a href="#Page_238">238</a></li>
-    <li>Fuller, John, <a href="#Page_376">376</a></li>
-    <li>Fuller, Thomas, <a href="#Page_340">340</a></li>
-    <li>Funerals, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313–315</a></li>
-    <li>Furniture, <a href="#Page_277">277–284</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_335">335</a></li>
-    <li>&nbsp;</li>
-    <li>Gardens, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a></li>
-    <li>Gardiner, Robert, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li>
-    <li>Garret, Sir W., <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li>
-    <li>Gates, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">Aldersgate, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">Aldgate, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">Billingsgate, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">Bishopsgate, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">Cripplegate, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">Dowgate, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">Ludgate, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">Moorgate, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">St. George’s Bar, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">Temple Bar, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">Tower Postern, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li>
-    <li>Geffery, William, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li>
-    <li>Gell, Dr., <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li>
-    <li>Gentry, and apprenticeship, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>, <a href="#Page_331">331</a></li>
-    <li>George of Paris, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li>
-    <li>Gerard’s <i>Herbal</i>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li>
-    <li>Giants, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263–265</a>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a></li>
-    <li>Gibson, Avice, <a href="#Page_376">376</a></li>
-    <li>Gifford, Sir George, <a href="#Page_387">387</a></li>
-    <li>Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></li>
-    <li>Gloucester, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a></li>
-    <li>Gog and Magog, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263–265</a></li>
-    <li><i>Golden Hind</i>, the, <a href="#Page_228">228</a></li>
-    <li>Golden Lane, <a href="#Page_346">346</a></li>
-    <li>Goldsmith, <a href="#Page_339">339</a></li>
-    <li>Goldsmiths’ Row, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a></li>
-    <li>Googe, Barnabe, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li>
-    <li>Goswell Road, <a href="#Page_387">387</a></li>
-    <li>Goswell Street, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li>
-    <li>Gower, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li>
-    <li>Gracechurch Street, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_302">302</a></li>
-    <li>Grafton, R., <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a></li>
-    <li>Grantham, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li>
-    <li>Grasschurch, <a href="#Page_362">362</a></li>
-    <li>Grass Market, <a href="#Page_339">339</a></li>
-    <li>Gravesend, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li>
-    <li>Gray’s Inn, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a></li>
-    <li>Gray’s Inn Lane, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li>
-    <li>Great Beam, the, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li>
-    <li>Great Grimsby, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li>
-    <li>Great Liberty Manor, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li>
-    <li>Great Wycombe, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li>
-    <li>Great Yarmouth, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li>
-    <li>Greenland, <a href="#Page_389">389</a></li>
-    <li>Green Park, the, <a href="#Page_388">388</a></li>
-    <li>Greenwich, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, <a href="#Page_390">390</a></li>
-    <li>Greenwich Palace, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li>
-    <li>Grenville, Sir R., <a href="#Page_228">228</a></li>
-    <li>Gresham, Lady, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li>
-    <li>Gresham, Sir J., <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a></li>
-    <li>Gresham, Sir R., <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li>
-    <li>Gresham, Sir T., <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219–221</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a></li>
-    <li>Gresham Street, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li>
-    <li>Greville, Lodowick, <a href="#Page_388">388</a></li>
-    <li>Grey, Lady Jane, <a href="#Page_52">52–56</a></li>
-    <li>Groom of the Salcery, <a href="#Page_382">382</a></li>
-    <li>Grub Street, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li>
-    <li>Guildable Manor, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li>
-    <li>Guildford, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li>
-    <li>Guildhall, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a></li>
-    <li>Guilds, the, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li>
-    <li>Gutter Lane, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li>
-    <li>&nbsp;</li>
-    <li>Hackett, William, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li>
-    <li>Hackney, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li>
-    <li>Haddington, <a href="#Page_363">363</a></li>
-    <li>Hadleigh, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li>
-    <li>Hainault, Forest of, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li>
-    <li>Hakluyt, <a href="#Page_224">224–226</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a></li>
-    <li>Hall, <a href="#Page_248">248</a></li>
-    <li>Hall, Bishop, <a href="#Page_274">274</a></li>
-    <li>Hamburg Company, the, <a href="#Page_233">233</a></li>
-    <li>Hamont, Matthew, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li>
-    <li>Hampstead, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li>
-    <li>Hampstead Heath, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li>
-    <li>Hampton Court, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a></li>
-    <li>Hanseatic League, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li>
-    <li>Harding, <a href="#Page_284">284</a></li>
-    <li>Harman, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>, <a href="#Page_385">385</a></li>
-    <li>Harrison, William, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, <a href="#Page_366">366–368</a>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_379">379</a>, <a href="#Page_384">384</a></li>
-    <li>Harty Island, <a href="#Page_391">391</a></li>
-    <li>Hatfield, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li>
-    <li><span class="pagenum" id="Page_425">425</span> Haverfordwest, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li>
-    <li>Havre, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li>
-    <li>Hawes, Christopher, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li>
-    <li>Hawes, Lord Mayor, <a href="#Page_214">214</a></li>
-    <li>Hawkers and pedlars, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li>
-    <li>Hawkins, Sir John, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li>
-    <li>Hawkwood, J., <a href="#Page_257">257</a></li>
-    <li>Hawthorne, Nathaniel, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li>
-    <li>Helston, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li>
-    <li>Henley, orator, <a href="#Page_265">265</a></li>
-    <li>Henry VII., 3–16;</li>
-    <li class="sub">and the Earl of Warwick, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">enters London after Bosworth Field, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">coronation, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">and the Lady Elizabeth, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">and the City, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_13">13</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">and Perkin Warbeck, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">and the plague, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">builds his chapel, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">and the Flemings, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">his funeral, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li>
-    <li>Henry VIII.—visits City, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">and the City, <a href="#Page_18">18–20</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">his coronation, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">his character, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">his poems, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">and aliens, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">receives the Emperor, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">and Katherine of Aragon, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">and Cardinal Wolsey, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">and religion, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">and the poorhouses, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">death 41, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">and taxes, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">Head of the Church, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li>
-    <li>Henryk, <a href="#Page_220">220</a></li>
-    <li>Hentzner, Paul, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a></li>
-    <li>Heralds, College of, <a href="#Page_276">276</a></li>
-    <li>Hereford, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a></li>
-    <li>Herrick, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>, <a href="#Page_362">362</a></li>
-    <li>Hertford, the Earl of, his Company, <a href="#Page_350">350</a></li>
-    <li>Hewitt, Sir W., <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a></li>
-    <li>Heywood, <a href="#Page_338">338</a></li>
-    <li>Highgate, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></li>
-    <li>High Street, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li>
-    <li>High Street, Borough, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a></li>
-    <li>Hill, Rowland, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li>
-    <li>Hill, Sir T., <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li>
-    <li>Hills, R., <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a></li>
-    <li><i>Hind</i>, the, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></li>
-    <li>His Majesty’s servants, <a href="#Page_350">350</a></li>
-    <li>Hobbs, <a href="#Page_235">235</a></li>
-    <li>Hog Lane, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li>
-    <li>Holbein, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li>
-    <li>Holborn, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_363">363</a></li>
-    <li>Holidays, <a href="#Page_356">356</a></li>
-    <li>Holinshed, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_333">333</a></li>
-    <li>Holywell, Lane, <a href="#Page_346">346</a></li>
-    <li>Holy Well Street, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a></li>
-    <li>Honiton, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></li>
-    <li>Hookers, <a href="#Page_385">385</a></li>
-    <li>Hooper, Bishop, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></li>
-    <li>Hooper, H., <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li>
-    <li>Horenbout, Lucas, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">Gerard, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">Susanna, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a></li>
-    <li>Horn Alley, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li>
-    <li>Horne, Robert, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li>
-    <li>Hospitality, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a></li>
-    <li>Hospitals—St. Anthony’s, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">St. Augustine Papey, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">St. Bartholomew’s, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_371">371</a>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">Bethlehem, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">Bridewell, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">Charter House, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">Christ’s, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_377">377</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">Elsing Spital, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">St. James’s, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">John Lofken’s, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">St. Laurence Poultney, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">St. Mary Spital, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">Stodies Lane, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">St. Thomas Acon, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">St. Thomas’s, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_373">373</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">Tower Hill, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">Whittington’s College, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li>
-    <li>Households, management of, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li>
-    <li>Howard, Katherine, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li>
-    <li>Howard, Lord, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>; his Company, <a href="#Page_350">350</a></li>
-    <li>Hoxton, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a></li>
-    <li>Hoxton Fields, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a></li>
-    <li>Huguenots, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></li>
-    <li>Huicke, Doctor, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li>
-    <li>Hull, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li>
-    <li>Hun, Richard, <a href="#Page_32">32–34</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li>
-    <li>Hunsdon, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li>
-    <li>Huntingdon, Earl of, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li>
-    <li>Husbands, R., <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li>
-    <li>Hyde Park Corner, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></li>
-    <li>&nbsp;</li>
-    <li>Ilchester, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li>
-    <li>Images, sacred, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li>
-    <li>Immigrants, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a></li>
-    <li>Inns and taverns, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>, <a href="#Page_333">333–341</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, <a href="#Page_384">384</a></li>
-    <li>Ipswich, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a></li>
-    <li>Irving, Washington, <a href="#Page_339">339</a></li>
-    <li>Iseldon. See <i>Islington</i></li>
-    <li>Isle of Wight, the, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></li>
-    <li>Islington (Iseldon), <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a></li>
-    <li>&nbsp;</li>
-    <li>Jackman, the, <a href="#Page_386">386</a></li>
-    <li>Jenkinson, A., <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a></li>
-    <li>Jewel, Bishop, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li>
-    <li>Jews, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238–240</a></li>
-    <li>Joan of Kent, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li>
-    <li>Joan, Sister, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li>
-    <li>Johnson, Richard, <a href="#Page_254">254</a></li>
-    <li>Jonson, Ben, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a></li>
-    <li>Jordan, Thomas, <a href="#Page_264">264</a></li>
-    <li>Journeymen, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li>
-    <li>Judd, A., <a href="#Page_376">376</a></li>
-    <li>Jugglers, <a href="#Page_273">273</a></li>
-    <li>Juries, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li>
-    <li>&nbsp;</li>
-    <li>Katherine of Aragon, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li>
-    <li>Keats, <a href="#Page_340">340</a></li>
-    <li>Keble, A., <a href="#Page_376">376</a></li>
-    <li>Kenilworth, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li>
-    <li>Kent Street, <a href="#Page_384">384</a></li>
-    <li>Kentish Town, <a href="#Page_416">416</a></li>
-    <li>Kildare, Earl of, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li>
-    <li>Kime, John, <a href="#Page_391">391–393</a></li>
-    <li>King John’s Palace, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li>
-    <li>King’s bed, the, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></li>
-    <li>King’s Court, punishment in, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>, <a href="#Page_384">384</a></li>
-    <li>King’s Evil, the, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li>
-    <li>King’s Lynn, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li>
-    <li>King’s Manor, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li>
-    <li>King’s Mews, the, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>
-    <li>King’s Wardrobe, the, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li>
-    <li>Kingston on Thames, <a href="#Page_375">375</a></li>
-    <li>Kissing, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a></li>
-    <li>Knight, William, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>
-    <li>Knights of the Garter, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li>
-    <li>Knoles, Thomas, <a href="#Page_375">375</a></li>
-    <li>Kynchen Cove, the, <a href="#Page_387">387</a></li>
-    <li>Kynchen Morte, the, <a href="#Page_387">387</a></li>
-    <li>&nbsp;</li>
-    <li>Labrador, <a href="#Page_389">389</a></li>
-    <li>Lamb’s Conduit, <a href="#Page_377">377</a></li>
-    <li>Lambarde, William, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li>
-    <li>Lambe, W., <a href="#Page_377">377</a></li>
-    <li>Lambert, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li>
-    <li>Lambert, William, <a href="#Page_377">377</a></li>
-    <li>Lambeth, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li>
-    <li>Lambeth Palace, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li>
-    <li>Lancaster, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li>
-    <li>Lane, Sir Robert, his Company, <a href="#Page_350">350</a></li>
-    <li>Laneden, T., <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li>
-    <li>Langbourne, Ward of, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li>
-    <li>Langdon, Essex, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li>
-    <li>Langland, Bishop, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li>
-    <li>Langton, <a href="#Page_284">284</a></li>
-    <li>Large, Sir Robert, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li>
-    <li>Latimer, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_372">372</a></li>
-    <li>Launceston, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li>
-    <li>Leadenhall, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>, <a href="#Page_362">362</a></li>
-    <li>Leadenhall Market, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li>
-    <li>Leadenhall Street, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li>
-    <li>Leake, W., <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li>
-    <li>Leedes, William, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li>
-    <li>Leicester, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a></li>
-    <li>Leicester, Earl of, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356–358</a>, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">his Company, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a></li>
-    <li>Leigh, Gerard, <a href="#Page_356">356</a></li>
-    <li>Lent, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li>
-    <li>Leominster, <a href="#Page_388">388</a></li>
-    <li>Levant Company, the, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></li>
-    <li>Lever, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a></li>
-    <li><span class="pagenum" id="Page_426">426</span> Lewes, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li>
-    <li>Libraries, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li>
-    <li>Lilly, William, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li>
-    <li>Lilypot Lane, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li>
-    <li>Limehouse, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></li>
-    <li>Lime Street, <a href="#Page_142">142</a></li>
-    <li>Lime Street, Ward of, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li>
-    <li>Lincoln, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a></li>
-    <li>Lincoln, the Earl of, <a href="#Page_389">389</a></li>
-    <li>Lincoln, John, <a href="#Page_24">24–26</a></li>
-    <li>Lincoln’s Inn, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li>
-    <li>Lincoln’s Inn Fields, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></li>
-    <li>Ling, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li>
-    <li>Lingard, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li>
-    <li>Liskeard, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li>
-    <li>Litany, the, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></li>
-    <li>Literature, <a href="#Page_244">244–258</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_384">384</a></li>
-    <li>Liverpool, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li>
-    <li>Lofken, John, <a href="#Page_375">375</a></li>
-    <li>Lollardry, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a></li>
-    <li>Lombard Street, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_403">403</a></li>
-    <li>Lombardi, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></li>
-    <li>London archers, <a href="#Page_355">355</a></li>
-    <li>London, Bishop of, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li>
-    <li>London Bridge, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>, <a href="#Page_397">397</a></li>
-    <li>London Cries, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li>
-    <li>London, growth of, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li>
-    <li>London, military state of, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li>
-    <li>London, population of, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li>
-    <li>London, Port of, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li>
-    <li>London Stone, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a></li>
-    <li>London Wall, <a href="#Page_171">171–176</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li>
-    <li>London Worthies, the, <a href="#Page_254">254–257</a></li>
-    <li>Long Lane, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li>
-    <li>Lord Admiral’s Company, the, <a href="#Page_350">350</a></li>
-    <li>Lord Chamberlain, the, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_329">329</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">his Company, <a href="#Page_350">350</a></li>
-    <li>Lord Mayor, the, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_209">209–215</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_328">328</a>, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_397">397</a></li>
-    <li>Lord Mayor’s Show, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a></li>
-    <li>Lord of Misrule, <a href="#Page_288">288</a></li>
-    <li>Lostwithiel, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li>
-    <li>Lothbury, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a></li>
-    <li>Lotteries, <a href="#Page_365">365</a></li>
-    <li>Low, Simon, <a href="#Page_391">391–393</a></li>
-    <li>Ludgate Hill, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li>
-    <li>Ludlow, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a></li>
-    <li>Lunebourg Table, the, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li>
-    <li>Lydgate, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li>
-    <li>Lyme, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li>
-    <li>Lynn, <a href="#Page_376">376</a></li>
-    <li>Lynn Bishop, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li>
-    <li>Lynne, William, <a href="#Page_220">220</a></li>
-    <li>Lyzarde, N., <a href="#Page_260">260</a></li>
-    <li>&nbsp;</li>
-    <li>Machyn, Henry, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_387">387</a></li>
-    <li>Maidstone, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a></li>
-    <li>Maitland, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, <a href="#Page_384">384</a></li>
-    <li>Maldon, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li>
-    <li>Maleverer, H., <a href="#Page_257">257</a></li>
-    <li>Malpas, Philip, <a href="#Page_375">375</a></li>
-    <li>Malt, Isabel, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li>
-    <li>Malt, Timothy, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li>
-    <li>Malyns, <a href="#Page_238">238</a></li>
-    <li>Manorial system, the, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li>
-    <li>Maps of London, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_417">417</a></li>
-    <li>March, the old English, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a></li>
-    <li>Marching Watch, the, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a></li>
-    <li>Margaret, Princess, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li>
-    <li>Marine Insurance, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></li>
-    <li>Market gardens, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li>
-    <li>Markets and fairs, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li>
-    <li>Markham, Gervase, <a href="#Page_270">270</a></li>
-    <li>Marlborough, <a href="#Page_388">388</a></li>
-    <li>Marlowe, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li>
-    <li>Marriages, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a></li>
-    <li>Marshal, the, <a href="#Page_382">382</a></li>
-    <li>Marston, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a></li>
-    <li>Martin, Sir R., <a href="#Page_403">403</a></li>
-    <li>Mary, Queen—and the Act of Succession, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">enters London, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">and the City, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">coronation, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">the Spanish match, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">and Parliament, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">and the French War, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">loans, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">death, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">burial, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">and monasteries, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">her appetite, <a href="#Page_292">292</a></li>
-    <li>Mary, Queen of Scots, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li>
-    <li>Masques, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a></li>
-    <li>Massam, William, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li>
-    <li>Massinger, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li>
-    <li>Master-cook, the, <a href="#Page_382">382</a></li>
-    <li>Maundy, the, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li>
-    <li>May Day, <a href="#Page_358">358–360</a></li>
-    <li>Mead, <a href="#Page_300">300</a></li>
-    <li>Meat Market, <a href="#Page_339">339</a></li>
-    <li>Medicine, profession of, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li>
-    <li>Merchants, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">houses, <a href="#Page_276">276</a></li>
-    <li>Meteren, E. van, <a href="#Page_269">269</a></li>
-    <li>Micklethwaite, T. T., <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li>
-    <li>Middlemore, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li>
-    <li>Middleton, William, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li>
-    <li>Midsummer Watch, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a></li>
-    <li>Milbourne, J., <a href="#Page_376">376</a></li>
-    <li>Mile End, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a></li>
-    <li>Mile End Green, <a href="#Page_351">351</a></li>
-    <li>Miles Lane, <a href="#Page_339">339</a></li>
-    <li>Millbank, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li>
-    <li>Miller, Simon, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></li>
-    <li>Mincing Lane, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li>
-    <li>Miracle plays, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a></li>
-    <li>Missenden, Abbey of, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li>
-    <li>Misson, <a href="#Page_287">287</a></li>
-    <li>Monasteries, the—disrepute of, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">dissolution of, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126–132</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">wealth of, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">morality of, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">libraries, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">hospitals, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">and the poor, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></li>
-    <li>Monastic Houses, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_370">370</a>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">Austin Friars, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">St. Bartholomew’s, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">Bermondsey, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">Black Friars, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">the Charter House, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">the Church House, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">Clerkenwell Nunnery, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">Cotham Nunnery, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">Crutched Friars, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">Daventry, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">Eastminster, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">Elsing Spital, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">Elstow, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub"><i>Fratres de Sacca</i>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">Grey Friars, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">St. Helen’s, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">Holy Trinity, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">Holywell, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">St. James’ on the Wall, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">Jesus Commons, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">St. John’s Priory, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">St Katherine’s by the Tower, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">Knights Hospitallers, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">St. Mary of Bethlehem, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">St. Mary Spital, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">Minoresses, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">Papey, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">St. Peter’s, Westminster, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">Poor Clares, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">Studley, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">St. Thomas’s, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">White Friars, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li>
-    <li>Money-lending, <a href="#Page_238">238–240</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a></li>
-    <li>Monks, the ejected, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li>
-    <li>Monkwell Street, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a></li>
-    <li>Monopolies, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a></li>
-    <li>Monoux, Sir G., <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a></li>
-    <li>Montague, Lord, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></li>
-    <li>Montgomery, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li>
-    <li>Moore, John, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li>
-    <li>Moorfields, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a></li>
-    <li>Moorgate, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li>
-    <li>More, Bishop, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li>
-    <li>More, Sir T., <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186–190</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a></li>
-    <li>More, Sir W., <a href="#Page_284">284</a></li>
-    <li>Morice, Peter, <a href="#Page_397">397</a></li>
-    <li>Moro, Antonio, <a href="#Page_260">260</a></li>
-    <li>Morris, Thomas, <a href="#Page_397">397</a></li>
-    <li>Mortlake, <a href="#Page_238">238</a></li>
-    <li>Moryson, Fynes, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>, <a href="#Page_335">335</a></li>
-    <li><span class="pagenum" id="Page_427">427</span> Mundy, Sir John, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li>
-    <li>Music, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a></li>
-    <li>Muswell Hill, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li>
-    <li>&nbsp;</li>
-    <li>Nailer, Henry, <a href="#Page_391">391–393</a></li>
-    <li>Nash, <a href="#Page_248">248</a></li>
-    <li>Nevill, Colonel John, <a href="#Page_292">292</a></li>
-    <li>Newbery, John, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li>
-    <li>Newbury, <a href="#Page_388">388</a></li>
-    <li>Newcastle, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a></li>
-    <li>Newdigate, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li>
-    <li>New Fish Street, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a></li>
-    <li>Newgate Market, <a href="#Page_337">337</a></li>
-    <li>Newhall, Essex, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li>
-    <li>New North Road, <a href="#Page_356">356</a></li>
-    <li>Newport, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li>
-    <li>New Radnor, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li>
-    <li>New St. Christopher’s Alley, <a href="#Page_220">220</a></li>
-    <li>Newton, Sir J., <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li>
-    <li>New Year’s gifts, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li>
-    <li>Nichols, J. G., <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li>
-    <li>Nicolas, A., <a href="#Page_376">376</a></li>
-    <li>Noblemen’s houses, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li>
-    <li>Noble Street, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li>
-    <li>Nonconformists, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li>
-    <li>Nonsuch, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a></li>
-    <li>Norfolk, Duke of, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li>
-    <li>North, Lord, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li>
-    <li>Northampton, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a></li>
-    <li>Northumberland, Duke of, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li>
-    <li>Northumberland House, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li>
-    <li>Norton, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li>
-    <li>Norton Folgate, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li>
-    <li>Norwich, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a></li>
-    <li>Nostradamus, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li>
-    <li>Nottingham, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li>
-    <li>Noyes, J., <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></li>
-    <li>Nucius, Nicander, <a href="#Page_287">287</a></li>
-    <li>&nbsp;</li>
-    <li>Oat Lane, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li>
-    <li>Observant Friars, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li>
-    <li>Offley, H., <a href="#Page_351">351</a></li>
-    <li>Old Baily, the, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li>
-    <li>Old Change, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li>
-    <li>Old Fish Street, <a href="#Page_337">337</a></li>
-    <li>Old Jewry, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li>
-    <li>Ordeal by battle, <a href="#Page_391">391–393</a></li>
-    <li>Order of Communion, the, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li>
-    <li>Ordinaries, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a></li>
-    <li>Ordish, M., <a href="#Page_273">273</a></li>
-    <li>Ormes, Cicely, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></li>
-    <li>Ormond, T., <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li>
-    <li>Osborne, Richard, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li>
-    <li>Osborne, Sir E., <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li>
-    <li>Oxenham, Sir J., <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li>
-    <li>Oxford, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a></li>
-    <li>Oxford, Earl of, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li>
-    <li>Oxford, University of, <a href="#Page_261">261</a></li>
-    <li>&nbsp;</li>
-    <li>Pageants, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37–40</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86–96</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263–265</a>, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>, <a href="#Page_401">401</a></li>
-    <li>Painting, <a href="#Page_258">258–260</a></li>
-    <li>Palls, <a href="#Page_315">315</a></li>
-    <li>Paramore, Thomas, <a href="#Page_391">391–393</a></li>
-    <li>Pardon Churchyard, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li>
-    <li>Paris Gardens, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a></li>
-    <li>Parishes, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">officers, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">All Hallows the Great, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">St. Andrew’s, Holborn, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">St. Andrew Undershaft, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">St. Dunstan’s in the East, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">St. Faith’s, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">St. Giles’s, Cripplegate, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">St. Leonard’s, Shoreditch, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">St. Martin’s, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">St. Mary le Bow, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">St. Paul’s, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">St. Peter’s, Cornhill, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li>
-    <li>Parker, Archbishop, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a></li>
-    <li>Parker, Henry, <a href="#Page_260">260</a></li>
-    <li>Parker, Sir H., <a href="#Page_281">281</a></li>
-    <li>Parliament, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li>
-    <li>Parrat, Sir John, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li>
-    <li>Parry, William, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li>
-    <li>Parsons, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li>
-    <li>Paternoster Row, <a href="#Page_273">273</a></li>
-    <li>Patrick, friar, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li>
-    <li>Paul’s Churchyard, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li>
-    <li>Paul’s Cross, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_342">342</a></li>
-    <li>Paul’s Gate, <a href="#Page_362">362</a></li>
-    <li>Paul’s Walk, <a href="#Page_347">347</a></li>
-    <li>Pawnbroking, <a href="#Page_238">238</a></li>
-    <li>Peele, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_365">365</a></li>
-    <li>Pembroke, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li>
-    <li>Pembroke, Earl of, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">his Company, <a href="#Page_350">350</a></li>
-    <li>Penbrooke, Simon, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li>
-    <li>Penni, B., <a href="#Page_260">260</a></li>
-    <li>Pepwell, Henry, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li>
-    <li>Perlin, Stephen, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></li>
-    <li>Persecution, religious, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133–142</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li>
-    <li>Petty Almaigne, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li>
-    <li>Petty Flanders, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li>
-    <li>Petty France, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li>
-    <li>Philip of Spain, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li>
-    <li>Philpot, Archdeacon, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li>
-    <li>Philpot, John, <a href="#Page_375">375</a></li>
-    <li>Philpot, Mayor, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a></li>
-    <li>Philpot, Somerset Herald, <a href="#Page_330">330</a></li>
-    <li>Physicians, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li>
-    <li>Physicians, College of, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li>
-    <li>Picard, Henry, <a href="#Page_255">255</a></li>
-    <li>Pickpockets, School of, <a href="#Page_384">384</a></li>
-    <li>Pie Powder, Court of, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li>
-    <li>Pilchard, Henry, <a href="#Page_255">255</a></li>
-    <li>Pilgrimage of Grace, the, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li>
-    <li>Pillory, the, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li>
-    <li>Pimlico, <a href="#Page_310">310</a></li>
-    <li>“Pink,” 259</li>
-    <li>Pirates, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a></li>
-    <li>Plague, the, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a></li>
-    <li>Plants, London, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a></li>
-    <li>Plate, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a></li>
-    <li>Players, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a></li>
-    <li>Plays, ownership of, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">price of, <a href="#Page_350">350</a></li>
-    <li>Plymouth, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li>
-    <li>Poetry, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li>
-    <li>Poets, Elizabethan, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a></li>
-    <li>Pole, Cardinal, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li>
-    <li>Polley, M., <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li>
-    <li>Ponsonby, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li>
-    <li>Pontefract, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li>
-    <li>Poole, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li>
-    <li>Poole, Sir J., <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li>
-    <li>Poor, the, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, 366–378;</li>
-    <li class="sub">poorhouses, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">overseers of, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">relief of, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371–375</a></li>
-    <li>Pope, the, claims of, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">and Queen Elizabeth, <a href="#Page_70">70–72</a></li>
-    <li>Population, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></li>
-    <li>Portsmouth, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li>
-    <li>Portsoken, Ward of, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li>
-    <li>Portuguese, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li>
-    <li>Poultry, the, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li>
-    <li>Prayer Book, the, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li>
-    <li>Press, censorship of, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li>
-    <li>Presteign, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li>
-    <li>Preston, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li>
-    <li>Printing, <a href="#Page_244">244–246</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a></li>
-    <li>Prisons—Bridewell, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_386">386</a>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">Clink, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">Compters, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">Debtors’, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">Houses of Correction, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">King’s Bench, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">Ludgate, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">Marshalsea, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">St. Martin’s, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">Newgate, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">Poultry Compter, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">the Tower, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">Wood Street Compter, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li>
-    <li>Privy Council, the, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a></li>
-    <li>Protestantism, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136–142</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li>
-    <li>Provost-Marshal, the, <a href="#Page_326">326</a></li>
-    <li>Prygger of Prauncers, the, <a href="#Page_386">386</a></li>
-    <li>Prynne, <a href="#Page_343">343</a></li>
-    <li>Punishments, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_368">368</a>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_379">379–384</a>, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>, <a href="#Page_391">391</a></li>
-    <li>Puritans, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a></li>
-    <li>Pynson, R., <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li>
-    <li>&nbsp;</li>
-    <li>Queenborough, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li>
-    <li>Queen Elizabeth’s Bath, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>
-    <li>Queenhithe, Ward of, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li>
-    <li>&nbsp;</li>
-    <li>Rabelais, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></li>
-    <li><span class="pagenum" id="Page_428">428</span>Raleigh, Sir W., <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li>
-    <li>Ramsay, M., <a href="#Page_376">376</a></li>
-    <li>Randoll, William, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li>
-    <li>Ratcliff, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_390">390</a></li>
-    <li>Rawson, R., <a href="#Page_376">376</a></li>
-    <li>Reading, <a href="#Page_376">376</a></li>
-    <li>Rebellions, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li>
-    <li>Recorder, the, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_328">328</a>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a></li>
-    <li>Recusants, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li>
-    <li>Red Cross Street, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li>
-    <li>Redman, Robert, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li>
-    <li>Redriff, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></li>
-    <li>Reformation, the, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li>
-    <li><i>Revenge</i>, the, <a href="#Page_228">228</a></li>
-    <li>Rich, Barnaby, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li>
-    <li>Rich, Lord, <a href="#Page_388">388</a></li>
-    <li>Richard of Almayn, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li>
-    <li>Richmond, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li>
-    <li>Richmond Palace, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li>
-    <li>Ridley, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li>
-    <li>Riots, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23–26</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a></li>
-    <li>Rochester, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li>
-    <li>Rochford, Lord, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li>
-    <li>Rochford, Lady, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li>
-    <li>Rogers, Dr. John, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li>
-    <li>Roman Catholics, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li>
-    <li>Roman Catholic emissaries, <a href="#Page_71">71–74</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li>
-    <li>Roman Church, the, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li>
-    <li>Rome, commerce with, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li>
-    <li>Roundels, <a href="#Page_293">293</a></li>
-    <li>Rowe, Sir T., <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a></li>
-    <li>Rowlands, <a href="#Page_384">384</a></li>
-    <li>Rozmital, Leo von, <a href="#Page_286">286</a></li>
-    <li>Rushes, floors covered with, <a href="#Page_276">276</a></li>
-    <li>Russia Company, the, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234–236</a></li>
-    <li>Russia, trade with, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li>
-    <li>Rutland, Earl of, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li>
-    <li>&nbsp;</li>
-    <li>Sackvile, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li>
-    <li>Sackville, Sir R., <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li>
-    <li>St. David’s, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li>
-    <li>St. Donanverdh, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li>
-    <li>St. Erkenwald, <a href="#Page_257">257</a></li>
-    <li>St. George’s Fields, <a href="#Page_386">386</a></li>
-    <li>St. Giles’, <a href="#Page_215">215</a></li>
-    <li>St. Helen’s Place, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li>
-    <li>St. James’s Palace, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li>
-    <li>St. James’s Park, <a href="#Page_363">363</a></li>
-    <li>St. John’s Street, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li>
-    <li>St. Katherine’s, <a href="#Page_288">288</a></li>
-    <li>St. Katherine’s Precinct, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li>
-    <li>St. Magnus Corner, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li>
-    <li>St. Martin’s-le-Grand, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li>
-    <li>St. Michael’s Churchyard, <a href="#Page_338">338</a></li>
-    <li>St. Michael’s Lane, <a href="#Page_339">339</a></li>
-    <li>St. Pancras, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li>
-    <li>St. Paul’s Churchyard, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a></li>
-    <li>St. Peter, Manor of, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li>
-    <li>St. Quentin, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li>
-    <li>St. Thomas à Becket, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a></li>
-    <li>Salisbury, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a></li>
-    <li>Salisbury, Lady, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li>
-    <li>Sanctuary, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li>
-    <li>Sanctuary, Westminster, <a href="#Page_363">363</a></li>
-    <li>Sands, Dr., <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li>
-    <li>Sandwich, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></li>
-    <li>Sandys, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li>
-    <li>Sanitation, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li>
-    <li>Saunders, Lawrence, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li>
-    <li>Savage, Mr., <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li>
-    <li>Savoy, Duke of, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li>
-    <li>Savoy, Palace of, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li>
-    <li>Savoy, the, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li>
-    <li>Saxe-Weimar, Duke of, <a href="#Page_228">228</a></li>
-    <li>Scarborough, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a></li>
-    <li>Schools, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, 376–378;</li>
-    <li class="sub">St. Anthony’s, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">of London, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">Sir Humphrey Gilbert’s, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">Grammar Schools, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">Gresham College, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">Grey Friars, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">Merchant Taylors’, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">St. Paul’s, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">Westminster Abbey, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">Whittington College, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li>
-    <li>Seething Lane, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li>
-    <li>Sentree, the, <a href="#Page_337">337</a></li>
-    <li>Serjeant-at-Arms, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li>
-    <li>Serjeant of the Ewry, <a href="#Page_382">382</a></li>
-    <li>Serjeant Farrier, <a href="#Page_382">382</a></li>
-    <li>Serjeant of the Cellar, <a href="#Page_382">382</a></li>
-    <li>Serjeant of the Larder, <a href="#Page_382">382</a></li>
-    <li>Serjeant of the Pantry, <a href="#Page_384">384</a></li>
-    <li>Serjeant of the Poultry, <a href="#Page_382">382</a></li>
-    <li>Serjeant of the Woodyard, <a href="#Page_382">382</a></li>
-    <li>Sermons, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a></li>
-    <li>Servants, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a></li>
-    <li>Sessions of Peace, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li>
-    <li>Sevenoake, W., <a href="#Page_256">256</a></li>
-    <li>Seymour, Lady Jane, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li>
-    <li>Seymours, the, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li>
-    <li>Shakespeare, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_346">346</a>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a></li>
-    <li>Sharpe, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li>
-    <li>Shaston, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li>
-    <li>Shaw, Sir John, <a href="#Page_209">209</a></li>
-    <li>Shene, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li>
-    <li>Shene House, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li>
-    <li>Sheppey, Isle of, <a href="#Page_391">391</a></li>
-    <li>Sherborne, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li>
-    <li>Sheriffs, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42–44</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_302">302</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a></li>
-    <li>Sheriff Hutton Castle, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li>
-    <li>Sherrington’s Library, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li>
-    <li>Shipping, increase of, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li>
-    <li>Shirley, <a href="#Page_264">264</a></li>
-    <li>Shoe Lane, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a></li>
-    <li>Shops, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a></li>
-    <li>Shop Signs, <a href="#Page_273">273</a></li>
-    <li>Shoreditch, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a></li>
-    <li>Shrewsbury, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a></li>
-    <li>Shrewsbury, Earl of, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a></li>
-    <li>Sidney, Sir W., <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li>
-    <li>Silk, trade in, <a href="#Page_235">235</a></li>
-    <li>Simnel, Lambert, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li>
-    <li>Skelton, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a></li>
-    <li>Skogan, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_365">365</a></li>
-    <li>Smithfield, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a></li>
-    <li>Smyth, Henry, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li>
-    <li>Soames, Richard, <a href="#Page_397">397</a></li>
-    <li>Soldiers, <a href="#Page_316">316–322</a></li>
-    <li>Somerset House, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li>
-    <li>Somerset, Protector, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li>
-    <li>Somerton, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li>
-    <li>Southampton, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a></li>
-    <li>Southwark, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>, <a href="#Page_390">390</a></li>
-    <li>Spain, plots from, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">immigrants from, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li>
-    <li>Spain, war with, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li>
-    <li>Spaniards in London, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li>
-    <li>Spencer, Gabriel, <a href="#Page_388">388</a></li>
-    <li>Spenser, Edmund, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li>
-    <li>Spital sermon, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li>
-    <li><i>Squirrel</i>, the, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></li>
-    <li>Stadlow, George, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li>
-    <li>Stafford, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li>
-    <li>Standish, Dr., <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li>
-    <li>Staple Inn, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a></li>
-    <li>Star Chamber, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li>
-    <li>Steelyard, the, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_417">417</a></li>
-    <li>Stocker, Sir W., <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li>
-    <li>Stocks, the, <a href="#Page_362">362</a></li>
-    <li>Stockwood, John, <a href="#Page_342">342</a></li>
-    <li>Stoddart, George, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li>
-    <li>Stodie, Doll, <a href="#Page_256">256</a></li>
-    <li>Stone House, the, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li>
-    <li>Storey, Dr. John, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li>
-    <li>Stow, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171–183</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a></li>
-    <li>Strand, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a></li>
-    <li>Strange, Lord, his Company, <a href="#Page_350">350</a></li>
-    <li>Stratford, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li>
-    <li>Stratford-at-Bow, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a></li>
-    <li>Streets—state of, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">games in, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>; paving of, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">performances in, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">policing of, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a></li>
-    <li>Street Cries, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li>
-    <li>Streets (Strettes) Guillim, <a href="#Page_260">260</a></li>
-    <li>Strype, <a href="#Page_327">327</a></li>
-    <li><span class="pagenum" id="Page_429">429</span> Stubbes, Philip, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_305">305</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a></li>
-    <li>Suburbs, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></li>
-    <li>Succession, Act of, of 1534, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li>
-    <li>Suckley, H., <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li>
-    <li>Suffolk, Duchess of, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li>
-    <li>Suffolk, Duke of, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li>
-    <li>Sumptuary laws, <a href="#Page_310">310</a></li>
-    <li>Sun Street, <a href="#Page_397">397</a></li>
-    <li>Sunday, observance of, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a></li>
-    <li>Superstition, <a href="#Page_162">162–167</a>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a></li>
-    <li>Surrey, Earl of, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li>
-    <li>Sussex, Earl of, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">his Company, <a href="#Page_350">350</a></li>
-    <li>Sutton Valence, <a href="#Page_377">377</a></li>
-    <li>Swan Alley, <a href="#Page_220">220</a></li>
-    <li>Swansea, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li>
-    <li>Swearing, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a></li>
-    <li>Sweating sickness, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li>
-    <li>Sword-stands, <a href="#Page_214">214</a></li>
-    <li>Sylvester, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li>
-    <li>Symon, Sir R., <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li>
-    <li>Syon House, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li>
-    <li>&nbsp;</li>
-    <li>Talismans, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li>
-    <li>Tarleton, <a href="#Page_248">248</a></li>
-    <li>Tate, John, <a href="#Page_376">376</a></li>
-    <li>Taunton, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li>
-    <li>Tavistock, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li>
-    <li>Taxes, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a></li>
-    <li>Taylor, John, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li>
-    <li>Taylor, Rowland, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li>
-    <li>Temple, the, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_386">386</a></li>
-    <li>Tenby, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li>
-    <li>Terling, Levina, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a></li>
-    <li>Thames, River, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, <a href="#Page_397">397</a></li>
-    <li>Thames Street, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a></li>
-    <li>Theatres, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>, 342–365;</li>
-    <li class="sub">interior of, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">Curtain, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">Fortune, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">Globe, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">Hope, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">Rose, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">Swan, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">The Theatre, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">Whitehall, <a href="#Page_349">349</a></li>
-    <li>Theobalds, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li>
-    <li>Thorne, George, <a href="#Page_391">391–393</a></li>
-    <li>Thorpe, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li>
-    <li>Throgmorton, Nicholas, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li>
-    <li>Tilbury, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li>
-    <li>Tithes, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li>
-    <li>Tobacco, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_354">354</a></li>
-    <li>Tombs, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></li>
-    <li>Torture, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li>
-    <li>Tothill Fields, <a href="#Page_391">391</a></li>
-    <li>Toto, Antonio, <a href="#Page_260">260</a></li>
-    <li>Tottell, Richard, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a></li>
-    <li>Tottenham Court, <a href="#Page_416">416</a></li>
-    <li>Tower, the, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a></li>
-    <li>Tower Ditch, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li>
-    <li>Tower Hill, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, <a href="#Page_390">390</a></li>
-    <li>Tower Postern, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li>
-    <li>Tower Royal, the, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li>
-    <li>Tower Stairs, <a href="#Page_417">417</a></li>
-    <li>Tower Street, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li>
-    <li>Tower Street, Ward of, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li>
-    <li>Towns, dilapidated state of, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li>
-    <li>Trade—revival of in sixteenth century, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, 219–237;</li>
-    <li class="sub">and the Spanish War, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">decay of, 216–219;</li>
-    <li class="sub">restrictions on, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">and Queen Elizabeth, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">foreign trade, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230–237</a>, 241–243;</li>
-    <li class="sub">and aliens, <a href="#Page_237">237–242</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">and monopolies, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">money-lending, <a href="#Page_238">238–240</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">commercial treaties, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li>
-    <li>Trafalgar Square, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>
-    <li>Trained Bands, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76–78</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a></li>
-    <li>Trees, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li>
-    <li>Truro, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li>
-    <li>Tudson, J., <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li>
-    <li>Tumblers, <a href="#Page_273">273</a></li>
-    <li>Turberville, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li>
-    <li>Turkey Company, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></li>
-    <li>Tyburn, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li>
-    <li>&nbsp;</li>
-    <li>Uniformity, Act of, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li>
-    <li>Upright Men, the, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a></li>
-    <li>Usk, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li>
-    <li>Usury, <a href="#Page_238">238</a></li>
-    <li>Uxbridge, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li>
-    <li>&nbsp;</li>
-    <li>Vagrants, <a href="#Page_370">370–373</a></li>
-    <li>Venner, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li>
-    <li>Vergil, Polydore, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></li>
-    <li>Vestments, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li>
-    <li>Vintry, the, <a href="#Page_337">337</a></li>
-    <li>Vintry, Ward of, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li>
-    <li>Volpe, Vincent, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a></li>
-    <li>&nbsp;</li>
-    <li>Wade, Christopher, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li>
-    <li>Wages and salaries, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a></li>
-    <li>Walbrook, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li>
-    <li>Walbrook, River, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li>
-    <li>Walbrook, Ward of, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li>
-    <li>Waleys, Mayor, <a href="#Page_257">257</a></li>
-    <li>Walking Morte, the, <a href="#Page_387">387</a></li>
-    <li>Walsingham, Sir F., <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li>
-    <li>Walthamstow, <a href="#Page_376">376</a></li>
-    <li>Walworth, William, <a href="#Page_255">255</a></li>
-    <li>Wandsworth, <a href="#Page_238">238</a></li>
-    <li>Wapping, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a></li>
-    <li>Warbeck, Perkin, <a href="#Page_6">6–9</a></li>
-    <li>Warde, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li>
-    <li>Wardrobe, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li>
-    <li>Warne, J., <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li>
-    <li>Warren, J., <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li>
-    <li>Warwick, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a></li>
-    <li>Warwick, the Earl of, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">his Company, <a href="#Page_350">350</a></li>
-    <li>Watchmen, <a href="#Page_374">374</a></li>
-    <li>Water Lane, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li>
-    <li>Watermen, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a></li>
-    <li>Water-supply, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>, <a href="#Page_397">397</a></li>
-    <li>Watling Street, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li>
-    <li>Wats, T., <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li>
-    <li>Webbe, Sir W., <a href="#Page_254">254</a></li>
-    <li>Weddings, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a></li>
-    <li>Welford, Sir T., <a href="#Page_326">326</a></li>
-    <li>Wellington Square, Hoxton, <a href="#Page_356">356</a></li>
-    <li>Wells, river of the, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li>
-    <li>Wentworth, Lord, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li>
-    <li>Westchepe, Cross of, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li>
-    <li>Westchester, <a href="#Page_376">376</a></li>
-    <li>Westminster, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_368">368</a>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a></li>
-    <li>Westminster, Abbot of, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li>
-    <li>Westminster Hall, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li>
-    <li>Westminster Palace, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li>
-    <li>Weymouth, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li>
-    <li>Whale-fishing, <a href="#Page_235">235</a></li>
-    <li>Wheeler, John, <a href="#Page_232">232</a></li>
-    <li>Whipjack, <a href="#Page_386">386</a></li>
-    <li>Whipping, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li>
-    <li>Whitchurch, <a href="#Page_388">388</a></li>
-    <li>White, E., <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li>
-    <li>White, Sir Thomas, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a></li>
-    <li>Whitechapel, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li>
-    <li>White Cross Street, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li>
-    <li>Whitehall, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a></li>
-    <li>Whitsuntide, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, <a href="#Page_362">362</a></li>
-    <li>Whittington, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a></li>
-    <li>Wigan, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li>
-    <li>Wilford, Ralph, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li>
-    <li>Willesden, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li>
-    <li>William, Bishop, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li>
-    <li>Williams, the martyr, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li>
-    <li>Willoughby, Sir Hugh, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a></li>
-    <li>Wiltshire, Earl of, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li>
-    <li>Wimbledon, Lord, <a href="#Page_317">317</a></li>
-    <li>Winchelsea, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li>
-    <li>Winchester, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a></li>
-    <li>Windows, <a href="#Page_276">276</a></li>
-    <li>Windsor, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li>
-    <li>Windsor Castle, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li>
-    <li>Wine, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a></li>
-    <li>Wise, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li>
-    <li>Witchcraft, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163–164</a></li>
-    <li>Wither, George, <a href="#Page_265">265</a></li>
-    <li>Wolsey, Cardinal, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>,
-      <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a></li>
-    <li>Women—position of wives, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">dress, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">ostentation of, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">amusements, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">and smoking, <a href="#Page_285">285</a></li>
-    <li>Wood, Anthony à, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a></li>
-    <li><span class="pagenum" id="Page_430">430</span> Wood, Thomas, <a href="#Page_403">403</a></li>
-    <li>Wootton Bassett, <a href="#Page_388">388</a></li>
-    <li>Worcester, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a></li>
-    <li>Worcester, Earl of, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>;</li>
-    <li class="sub">his Company, <a href="#Page_350">350</a></li>
-    <li>Worsley, <a href="#Page_260">260</a></li>
-    <li>Wotton, <a href="#Page_384">384</a></li>
-    <li>Wright, Andrew, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a></li>
-    <li>Wurtemberg, Duke of, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li>
-    <li>Wyatt’s Rebellion, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li>
-    <li>Wych Street, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li>
-    <li>Wyclyf, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li>
-    <li>Wyndham, <a href="#Page_388">388</a></li>
-    <li>Wynkyn de Worde, <a href="#Page_244">244</a></li>
-    <li>Wythypool, P., <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li>
-    <li>&nbsp;</li>
-    <li>Yeoman of the Chandry, <a href="#Page_382">382</a></li>
-    <li>Yeoman of the Scullery, <a href="#Page_382">382</a></li>
-    <li>Yeomen of the Guard, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li>
-    <li>Yeomen of the Laundry, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li>
-    <li>York, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li>
-    <li>York Castle, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></li>
-    <li>York, John, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li>
-  </ul>
-
-  <div class="center mt10">THE END</div>
-
-  <div class="center mt10"><i>Printed by</i> <span class="smcap">R. &amp; R. Clark, Limited</span>, <i>Edinburgh</i>.</div>
-
-  <hr class="page" />
-  <div class="figcenter w700">
-    <a id="i_agas_map"><img src="images/i_agas_map.jpg" width="700" height="287" alt="" /></a>
-    <div class="attribl"><i>From a facsimile reproduction of the original map by Edward J.
-      Francis, in the possession of John C. Francis.</i></div>
-    <div class="attribr">Lithographed by W. &amp; A. K. Johnston Limited Edinburgh &amp; London</div>
-    <div class="caption"><span class="small">LONDON IN THE TIME OF THE TUDORS.</span><br /><span class="smcap">A REPRODUCTION,
-      REDUCED, OF THE MAP BY RALPH AGAS, CIRCA 1560.</span><br /><br />
-      MAP ACCOMPANYING “LONDON IN THE TIME OF THE TUDORS BY SIR WALTER
-      BESANT, PUBLISHED BY ADAM AND CHARLES BLACK, SOHO SQUARE, LONDON, 1904</div>
-    <div class="link"><a href="#trans_map">Go to transcription of text</a></div>
-    <div class="larger-version">
-      [<a href="images/i_agas_map_large.jpg">See larger version</a>]
-    </div>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="chapter mb10">
-    <div class="footnotes">
-      <div class="footheader"><b>Footnotes:</b></div>
-      <div class="footnote">
-        <p><a id="Footnote_1" href="#FNanchor_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a>
-          Richard Grafton, Chronicler, born <i>circa</i> 1572.</p>
-      </div>
-      <div class="footnote">
-        <p><a id="Footnote_2" href="#FNanchor_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a>
-          “Mortuary = a gift left by a man at his death to his
-          parish church for the recompence of his personal tythes and offerings
-          not duly paid in his lifetime” (<i>Johnson’s Dictionary</i>).</p>
-      </div>
-      <div class="footnote">
-        <p><a id="Footnote_3" href="#FNanchor_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a>
-          <i>History of London</i>, Book I. p. 255.</p>
-      </div>
-      <div class="footnote">
-        <p><a id="Footnote_4" href="#FNanchor_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a>
-          <i>Pawne</i> = a gallery.</p>
-      </div>
-      <div class="footnote">
-        <p><a id="Footnote_5" href="#FNanchor_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a>
-          William Harrison, who wrote “The Description of England”
-          for Holinshed’s <i>Chronicles</i>.</p>
-      </div>
-      <div class="footnote">
-        <p><a id="Footnote_6" href="#FNanchor_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a>
-          Holinshed’s <i>Chronicles</i>.</p>
-      </div>
-      <div class="footnote">
-        <p><a id="Footnote_7" href="#FNanchor_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a>
-          Or fee-farm rent.</p>
-      </div>
-      <div class="footnote">
-        <p><a id="Footnote_8" href="#FNanchor_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a>
-          Many of these details were published for the first time in
-        Sharpe’s <i>London and the Kingdom</i>, i. 494 <i>et seq.</i></p>
-      </div>
-      <div class="footnote">
-        <p><a id="Footnote_9" href="#FNanchor_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a>
-          A rich and precious stuff composed of silk with threads of gold.</p>
-      </div>
-      <div class="footnote">
-        <p><a id="Footnote_10" href="#FNanchor_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a>
-          Treene = wooden, especially used of plates.</p>
-      </div>
-      <div class="footnote">
-        <p><a id="Footnote_11" href="#FNanchor_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a>
-          See <i>Remembrancia</i>, pp. 550–551.</p>
-      </div>
-      <div class="footnote">
-        <p><a id="Footnote_12" href="#FNanchor_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a>
-          See <i>Remembrancia</i>, p. 230.</p>
-      </div>
-      <div class="footnote">
-        <p><a id="Footnote_13" href="#FNanchor_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a>
-          These titles began with Henry VII., who seeing an
-          inhabitant of Shoreditch shoot with extraordinary skill, dubbed him
-          Duke of Shoreditch; this being copied by others, as Marquesses, Earls,
-          etc., drew such ridicule upon the Company as finally brought contempt
-          on the archery itself.</p>
-      </div>
-      <div class="footnote">
-        <p><a id="Footnote_14" href="#FNanchor_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a>
-          <i>The Anatomie of Abuses</i>, Turnbull’s edition 1836, p. 50.</p>
-      </div>
-      <div class="footnote">
-        <p><a id="Footnote_15" href="#FNanchor_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a>
-          Rewalt = to give up or surrender (<i>Century Dictionary</i>).</p>
-      </div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="center xxlarge mt10 mb5"><b>Transcriptions</b></div>
-
-  <div class="transcription"><a id="trans_148a"></a>Transcription of image page 148</div>
-  <div class="bbox">
-    <div class="center">
-      <span class="xxlarge">POPISH PLOTS</span><br />
-      <span class="gespertt2">AND</span><br />
-      <span class="xlarge gespertt2">TREASONS</span><br />
-      <i>From the beginning of the Reign of Queen</i> Elizabeth.<br />
-      <i>Illustrated with Emblems and explain’d in Verse.</i>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="bbox">
-    <div class="center-container">
-      <div class="poem0">
-        <div class="stanza">
-          <div class="i0 large"><i>First are describ’d the Cursed plots they laid.</i></div>
-          <div class="i0 large"><i>And on the side their wretched ends displayd.</i></div>
-        </div>
-      </div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="bbox">
-    <div class="center"><i>Figure</i> 1.</div>
-    <div class="center-container">
-      <div class="poem0">
-        <div class="stanza">
-          <div class="i0">The <i>Pope</i> aloft on Armed Shoulders Rides,</div>
-          <div class="i0">And in vain Hopes the English spoils divides;</div>
-          <div class="i0">His <i>Leaden Bull</i> ’gainst good <i>Eliza</i>, roares,</div>
-          <div class="i0">And Scatters dire Rebellion round our Shoars.</div>
-          <div class="i0">The Priest <i>Blesses</i> the Villians, Chears them on,</div>
-          <div class="i0">And promises Heav’ns Crown, when her Crown’s won.</div>
-          <div class="i2">But God doth blast their Troops, their Counsels mock</div>
-          <div class="i2">And brings bold Traitors to th’ deserved <i>Block</i>.</div>
-        </div>
-      </div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="bbox">
-    <div class="center"><i>Figure</i> 2.</div>
-    <div class="center-container">
-      <div class="poem0">
-        <div class="stanza">
-          <div class="i0"><i>Don John</i>, who under Spain did with proud Hand</div>
-          <div class="i0">The then unsever’d <i>Neitherlands</i> Command,</div>
-          <div class="i0">Contrives for Englands Conquest, and does Hope</div>
-          <div class="i0">To Gain it by Donation from the Pope.</div>
-          <div class="i0">Yet to Amuse our Queen does still pretend</div>
-          <div class="i0"><i>Perpetual peace</i>, and needs will seem a friend;</div>
-          <div class="i2">But Heav’n looks through those Juggles and in’s prime,</div>
-          <div class="i2">Grief Cuts off Him and’s Hopes All at a time.</div>
-        </div>
-      </div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="bbox">
-    <div class="center"><i>Figure</i> 3.</div>
-    <div class="center-container">
-      <div class="poem0">
-        <div class="stanza">
-          <div class="i0">Spains <i>King</i>, and <i>Romes</i> Triple-Crown’d Pelate Joyn,</div>
-          <div class="i0">And with them both bold <i>Stukely</i> does Combine</div>
-          <div class="i0"><i>Ireland</i> to conquer, And the Pope has sent,</div>
-          <div class="i0">For that Blest work, an <i>Holy Regiment</i>;</div>
-          <div class="i0">But in their way at <i>Barbary</i> they call,</div>
-          <div class="i0">Where at one Blow the <i>Moors</i> destroy them All,</div>
-          <div class="i2">See here, what such Ambitious Traitors Gain,</div>
-          <div class="i2">The shame of Christians is by <i>Pagans</i> Slain.</div>
-        </div>
-      </div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="bbox">
-    <div class="center"><i>Figure</i> 4.</div>
-    <div class="center-container">
-      <div class="poem0">
-        <div class="stanza">
-          <div class="i0">The Priests, with <i>Crosses</i> Ensigne-like displaid,</div>
-          <div class="i0">Prompt bloody <i>Desmond</i> to those spoiles he made</div>
-          <div class="i0">On Irish Protestants, and from afar</div>
-          <div class="i0">Blow Triumphs to Rebellions Holy War;</div>
-          <div class="i0">But against Providence all Arts are vain,</div>
-          <div class="i0">The Crafty, in their Craft are over-tane;</div>
-          <div class="i2">Behold where <i>kill’d</i> the Stubborn <i>Traitor</i> lies,</div>
-          <div class="i2">Whilst to the <i>Woods</i> his <i>Ghostly Father</i> flies.</div>
-        </div>
-      </div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="bbox">
-    <div class="center"><i>Figure</i> 5.</div>
-    <div class="center-container">
-      <div class="poem0">
-        <div class="stanza">
-          <div class="i0">What trusty Janizaries are Monks to <i>Rome</i>.</div>
-          <div class="i0">From their dark Cells the blackest Treasons come.</div>
-          <div class="i0">By the Popes License horrid Crimes they Act,</div>
-          <div class="i0">And Guild with piety each Treacherous Fact.</div>
-          <div class="i0">A seminary Priest, like Comets Blaze,</div>
-          <div class="i0">Doth always Blood-shed and Rebellion Raise,</div>
-          <div class="i2">But still the fatal Gibbet’s ready fixt</div>
-          <div class="i2">For such, where Treason’s with Religion mixt.</div>
-        </div>
-      </div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="bbox">
-    <div class="center"><i>Figure</i> 6.</div>
-    <div class="center-container">
-      <div class="poem0">
-        <div class="stanza">
-          <div class="i0">Mad <i>Sommervil</i>, by Cruel Priests inspir’d</div>
-          <div class="i0">To do whatever mischiefe they requir’d,</div>
-          <div class="i0">Swears that he instantly will be the death</div>
-          <div class="i0">Of good and Gracious Queen <i>Elizabeth</i>.</div>
-          <div class="i0">Assaults her Guards, but Heav’ns protecting pow’r</div>
-          <div class="i0">Defeats his rage makes him a Prisoner:</div>
-          <div class="i2">Where to avoid a just, though shameful Death,</div>
-          <div class="i2">Self-strangling hands do Stop his loathsome breath.</div>
-        </div>
-      </div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="bbox">
-    <div class="center"><i>Figure</i> 7.</div>
-    <div class="center-container">
-      <div class="poem0">
-        <div class="stanza">
-          <div class="i0">Whilst <i>Spains</i> Embassador here Leiger lies,</div>
-          <div class="i0">Designs are laid the English to surprize;</div>
-          <div class="i0">Two Catalogues his Secretary had Got</div>
-          <div class="i0">The better two effect the Hellish Plot.</div>
-          <div class="i0">One all our Havens Names, where Foes might Land,</div>
-          <div class="i0">To’ther what Papists were to lend an hand.</div>
-          <div class="i2">For this base Trick he’s forc’d to pack to <i>Spain</i></div>
-          <div class="i2">Whilst Tyrburn greets confederates that remain.</div>
-        </div>
-      </div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="bboxb">
-    <div class="center"><i>Figure</i> 8.</div>
-    <div class="center-container">
-      <div class="poem0">
-        <div class="stanza">
-          <div class="i0">View here a Miracle——A Priest Conveys,</div>
-          <div class="i0">In divish Bottom o’re the path-less Seas,</div>
-          <div class="i0">Close treacherous Notes, whilst a Dutch Ship comes by</div>
-          <div class="i0">And streight Engag’d her well-known Enemy;</div>
-          <div class="i0">The Conscious Priest his Guilty Papers tears,</div>
-          <div class="i0">And over-board the scatter’d fragments bears;</div>
-          <div class="i2">But the just winds do force them back o’th’ Decks,</div>
-          <div class="i2">And peice-meal all the lurking plot detects.</div>
-        </div>
-      </div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="link mt2"><a href="#i_148a">Return to image</a></div>
-
-  <div class="transcription"><a id="trans_148b"></a>Transcription of image page 148</div>
-
-  <div class="center"><i>The Popes bull</i></div>
-  <div class="center bbox30"><span class="smcap large">In Nomine<br />Domini</span><br />
-    <i>incipit Omne<br />Malum</i>.</div>
-
-  <div class="center-container">
-    <div class="inline">
-      <ol class="italics">
-        <li><i>The Rebellion of Northy: &amp; Westm:</i></li>
-        <li><i>The treacherous practice of Don Jo: of Aust:</i></li>
-        <li><i>Stucely encouraged by P: &amp; K: of Sp: rayseth rebell:</i></li>
-        <li><i>Desmonds bloody practice approved</i></li>
-        <li><i>Rebellion the effect of Monastaries</i></li>
-        <li><i>Someruiles hast to Kill the Queene</i></li>
-        <li><i>The Spa: Embas: thrust out of England</i></li>
-        <li><i>Torne Papers blowne into the Ship</i></li>
-        <li><i>Parry not able to Kill the Queene</i></li>
-        <li><i>Davington with his Complices</i></li>
-        <li><i>Stafford clearing himself</i></li>
-        <li><i>the Invincible Armado</i></li>
-        <li><i>Lopas compounding to poyson the Queene</i></li>
-        <li><i>Tyrones false Submission afterwards rebelling</i></li>
-        <li><i>Watson Seducing Noblemen</i></li>
-        <li><i>The Powder Plot</i></li>
-      </ol>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="center bbox30">
-    <span class="smcap">
-      <span class="large">A<br />Thankfull</span><br />
-      Remembrance<br />
-      <span class="small">of Gods Mercie</span>
-    </span><br />
-    <span class="small">by<br />G.C.</span>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="link mt2"><a href="#i_148b">Return to image</a></div>
-
-  <div class="transcription"><a id="trans_148c"></a>Transcription of image page 148</div>
-
-  <div class="bbox">
-    <div class="center"><i>Figure</i> 9.</div>
-    <div class="center-container">
-      <div class="poem0">
-        <div class="stanza">
-          <div class="i0">The Jesuites vile Doctrines do Convince</div>
-          <div class="i0"><i>Parry</i> ’Tis Merit for to kill his Prince.</div>
-          <div class="i0">The fatal Dagger he prepares with Art,</div>
-          <div class="i0">And means to sheath it in her Royal Heart.</div>
-          <div class="i0">Oft he attemps, and is as oft put by,</div>
-          <div class="i0">By the Majestick Terrors of her Eye;</div>
-          <div class="i2">At last his Cursed Intentions he Confest</div>
-          <div class="i2">And So his welcom’d a fit Tyburn Guest;</div>
-        </div>
-      </div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="bbox">
-    <div class="center"><i>Figure</i> 10.</div>
-    <div class="center-container">
-      <div class="poem0">
-        <div class="stanza">
-          <div class="i0">Here <i>Babington</i> and all his desperate Band,</div>
-          <div class="i0">Ready prepar’d for Royal Murder stand,</div>
-          <div class="i0">His Motto seems to glory in the Deed,</div>
-          <div class="i0"><i>These my Companions are whom dangers lead</i>.</div>
-          <div class="i0">Cowardly Traitors, so many Combine</div>
-          <div class="i0">To Cut off one poor Ladies vital Twine;</div>
-          <div class="i2">In vain,—Heaven’s her Guard, and as for you;</div>
-          <div class="i2">Behold, the Hangman gives you all your due.</div>
-        </div>
-      </div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="bbox">
-    <div class="center"><i>Figure</i> 11.</div>
-    <div class="center-container">
-      <div class="poem0">
-        <div class="stanza">
-          <div class="i0">Nor was’t with <i>Spain</i> alone, Great <i>Betty</i>’s Strife;</div>
-          <div class="i0">Now <i>France</i> attempts upon her pretious Life;</div>
-          <div class="i0">The Guises cause th’ Ambassador to Bribe</div>
-          <div class="i0"><i>Moody</i>, and others of the Roman Tribe,</div>
-          <div class="i0">To Cut her off. To which they soon Consent</div>
-          <div class="i0">But watchful Heav’n does that Guilt prevent.</div>
-          <div class="i2"><i>Stafford</i> doth to the Councel All disclose,</div>
-          <div class="i2">And Home with shame perfidious <i>Mounsieur</i> goes.</div>
-        </div>
-      </div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="bbox">
-    <div class="center"><i>Figure</i> 12.</div>
-    <div class="center-container">
-      <div class="poem0">
-        <div class="stanza">
-          <div class="i0"><i>Spain’s</i> proud <i>Armado</i>, whom the Pope did Bless,</div>
-          <div class="i0">Attacques our Isle, Confident of success.</div>
-          <div class="i0">But Heav’ns just Blast doth Scatter all their force,</div>
-          <div class="i0">They fly and quite round <i>Scotland</i> take their Course:</div>
-          <div class="i0">So many taken, burnt, and Sunk i’th’ Main,</div>
-          <div class="i0">Scarce one in Ten did e’re get home Again;</div>
-          <div class="i2">Thus <i>England</i> like <i>Noahs</i> Ark, amidst the Waves</div>
-          <div class="i2">Indulgent providence from Danger saves.</div>
-        </div>
-      </div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="bbox">
-    <div class="center"><i>Figure</i> 13.</div>
-    <div class="center-container">
-      <div class="poem0">
-        <div class="stanza">
-          <div class="i0">And now a private horrid Treason veiw</div>
-          <div class="i0">Hatcht by the Pope, the Devil, and a Jew</div>
-          <div class="i0"><i>Lopez</i> a Doctor must by Poison do</div>
-          <div class="i0">What all their Plots have fail’d in hitherto</div>
-          <div class="i0"><i>What will you give me then</i>; the <i>Judas</i> Cries</div>
-          <div class="i0">Full <i>fifty thousand Crowns</i>, t’other replies,</div>
-          <div class="i2">Tis done—but hold, the wretch shall miss his hope,</div>
-          <div class="i2">The Treasons known, and his Reward’s the Rope;</div>
-        </div>
-      </div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="bbox">
-    <div class="center"><i>Figure</i> 14.</div>
-    <div class="center-container">
-      <div class="poem0">
-        <div class="stanza">
-          <div class="i0">The Great <i>Tyrone</i> that did so oft embrew</div>
-          <div class="i0"><i>Ireland</i> with Blood, and Popish Plots Renew.</div>
-          <div class="i0">Here vanquisht Swears upon his bended Knee</div>
-          <div class="i0">To the Queens Deputy fidelity</div>
-          <div class="i0">Yet breaks that vow, and loaded with the Guilt</div>
-          <div class="i0">Of perjuries and Blood which he had spilt.</div>
-          <div class="i2">Being forc’d at last to fly his Native Land,</div>
-          <div class="i2">Carries in’s Breast a sting, a Scourge in’s <i>hand</i>.</div>
-        </div>
-      </div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="bbox">
-    <div class="center"><i>Figure</i> 15.</div>
-    <div class="center-container">
-      <div class="poem0">
-        <div class="stanza">
-          <div class="i0">No Sooner <i>James</i> had blest the English Throne,</div>
-          <div class="i0">But Traiterous Priests Conspire to pull him down.</div>
-          <div class="i0"><i>Watson</i> the poisonous Maximes does Instill,</div>
-          <div class="i0">And draws some Nobles to Join in the Ill:</div>
-          <div class="i0">But Princes then appear the most divine,</div>
-          <div class="i0">When they with unexpected Mercy Shine.</div>
-          <div class="i2">Just as the Fatal Ax attempts the Stroke,</div>
-          <div class="i2">Pardon steps in and does the Blow Revoke</div>
-        </div>
-      </div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="bbox">
-    <div class="center"><i>Figure</i> 16.</div>
-    <div class="center-container">
-      <div class="poem0">
-        <div class="stanza">
-          <div class="i0">In this Curs’d Powder-plot we plainly see</div>
-          <div class="i0">The Quintessence of Romish Cruelty</div>
-          <div class="i0">King Lords and Commons at one Hellish Blast</div>
-          <div class="i0">Had been destroy’d, and half our Land laid wast,</div>
-          <div class="i0">See <i>Faux</i> with his dark Lanthorn ready stands</div>
-          <div class="i0">To Light the fatal Train with desperate hands,</div>
-          <div class="i2">But Heavens All-seeing eye defeats their desire,</div>
-          <div class="i2">And saves us as a Brand snatcht from the fire;</div>
-        </div>
-      </div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="bbox">
-    <div class="center-container">
-      <div class="poem0">
-        <div class="stanza">
-          <div class="i0">And now let us, with chearful Hymns of praise,</div>
-          <div class="i0">And Hearts inflamed with love <i>an Altar</i> raise</div>
-          <div class="i0">Of Gratitude to God, who doth advance</div>
-          <div class="i0">His out-streatcht Arm in our Deliverance,</div>
-          <div class="i0">Tis only He, that doth protect his Sheep,</div>
-          <div class="i0">Tis he alone doth this poor Island keep</div>
-          <div class="i0">from Romish <i>Wolves</i>, which would us soon devour,</div>
-          <div class="i0">If not Defended by his mighty power</div>
-          <div class="i0">Tis he that doth our <i>Church</i> with freedome Crown,</div>
-          <div class="i0">And beats the Popish <i>Superstitions</i> down</div>
-          <div class="i0">Under her <i>feet</i>, and may they never rise,</div>
-          <div class="i0">Nor in vile <i>Darkness</i> Reinvolve our Eyes;</div>
-          <div class="i2">Since Heaven whose mercies ever are most tender</div>
-          <div class="i2">Hath both restor’d our <i>faith</i> and Faiths <i>Defender</i></div>
-        </div>
-      </div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="bbox">
-    <div class="center-container">
-      <div class="poem0">
-        <div class="stanza">
-          <div class="i0">Let us to both a strict Adherence pay,</div>
-          <div class="i0">And for their <i>preservation</i> ever pray.</div>
-          <div class="i2">Since thus <i>Truths</i> happy <i>Bark</i> hath reach’d our shore,</div>
-          <div class="i2">O may it <i>never, never</i> Leaves us more.</div>
-        </div>
-      </div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="bboxb">
-    <p class="lefthang">
-      Sold by <i>John Garret</i> at his Shop, at the <i>Exchange-Staires</i>
-      in <i>Cornhill</i> where you may have choice of all Sorts of Large and Small Maps: Drawing
-      Books, Coppy books, and Pictures for Gentlewomens works; and also very good originals
-      of French and Dutch Prints.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="link mt2"><a href="#i_148c">Return to image</a></div>
-
-  <div class="transcription"><a id="trans_190-1"></a>Transcription of image after page 190</div>
-
-  <div class="bboxb">
-    <div class="center"><span class="smcap">References.</span></div>
-    <ol>
-      <li><i>The first S<sup>T</sup>. GILES CHURCH.</i></li>
-      <li><i>Remains of the Walls, antiently enclosing the Hospital precincts.</i></li>
-      <li><i>Site of the Gallows and afterwards of the Pound.</i></li>
-      <li><i>Way to Uxbridge. now OXFORD S<sup>T</sup>.</i></li>
-      <li>ELDE-STRATE, <i>since called HOG-LANE</i>.</li>
-      <li>LE-LANE <i>now MONMOUTH S<sup>T</sup>.</i></li>
-      <li><i>Site of the</i> SEVEN DIALS <i>formerly called COCK and PYE FIELDS</i>.</li>
-      <li>ELM CLOSE <i>since called LONG-ACRE</i>.</li>
-      <li><i>Site of</i> LINCOLNS INN FIELDS <i>formerly called FICKETS-FIELDS</i>.</li>
-    </ol>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="center bbox2">
-    <span class="smcap">A View</span><br />
-    <i>of part of the Northwest Suburbs</i><br />
-    <span class="smcap">of London</span>,<br />
-    <i>as they appeared, anno 1570.</i><br />
-    <i>Including the whole of the parish of</i><br />
-    <i><span class="smcap">S<sup>T</sup>. Giles</span> in the <span class="smcap">Fields</span></i><br />
-    <i>and its immediate Neighbourhood, its</i><br />
-    <span class="smcap">Parochial Churches</span>,<br />
-    <i>erected at different periods &amp;c.</i>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="center"><span class="smcap">THE PARISH OF</span> S<sup>t</sup>. Giles in the Fields, <span class="smcap">LONDON</span>.</div>
-
-  <p>“<i>The part of the North West Suburbs of London, since called Saint
-    Giles’s, was about the time of the Norman Conquest an un-built tract of
-    country, or but thinly scattered with habitations.—The parish derived
-    its name if not its origin from the ancient Hospital for Lepers, which
-    was built on the site of the present church by MATILDA queen of King
-    Henry I. and dedicated to Saint Giles: before which time there had only
-    been a small Chapel or Oratory on the spot.—It is described in old
-    records, as abounding with gardens and dwellings in the flourishing
-    times of Saint Giles’s Hospital but declined in population and
-    buildings after the suppression of that establishment, and remained
-    but an inconsiderable village till the end of the reign of Elizabeth,
-    after which period it was rapidly built on, and became distinguished
-    for the number and rank of its inhabitants. The great increase of S<sup>t</sup>.
-    Giles’s Parish occasioned the separation of S<sup>t</sup>. George’s Bloomsbury
-    Parish from it anno 1734.—The above view (which is partly supplied by
-    the great Plan of London by Ralph Aggas, and partly from authorities
-    furnished by parochial documents) was taken anno 1570.</i>”</p>
-
-  <div class="link mt2"><a href="#i_190-1">Return to image</a></div>
-
-  <div class="transcription"><a id="trans_map"></a>Transcription of accompanying map</div>
-
-  <div class="bboxxb">This antient and famous City of London, was first founded by <i>Brate</i>
-    the Trojan, in the year of the World two thousand, eight hundred thirty
-    &amp; two, and before the Nativity of our Saviour Christ, one thousand,
-    one hundred and 30. So that since the first building, it 2 thousand 6
-    hundred 60 &amp; 3 years. And afterward was repaired and enlarged by King
-    <i>Lud.</i> but at the present so flourisheth, that it containeth in length
-    from the East to the West about 3. English miles, from the North to
-    the South about 2 English miles. It is also so plentifully peopled,
-    that it is divided into a hundred and 22 Parishes within the Liberties,
-    besides 16 Parishes that are in the suburbs. It is planted on a very
-    good soyle: for on the one side it is compassed with come &amp; pasture
-    ground, on the other side it is inclosed with the river of Thames,
-    which not only aboundeth in all kind of fresh water-fish, but also is
-    so navigable, that it as well bringeth abundance of commodities from
-    all parts of the World, as also conveieth forth such commodities as the
-    plentifulnesse of our Contry doth yield us: which both augments the
-    fame thereof abroad, and also increaseth the riches thereof at hom; so
-    that as it is head and chief City of the whole Realm, so it is likewise
-    head and chief Chamber of the whole Realm, as well for our outward and
-    inward commodities. God prosper it at his pleasure Amen.</div>
-
-  <div class="center-container bboxb">
-    <div class="poem0">
-      <div class="stanza">
-        <div class="i0">New Troy my name: when first my fame begun</div>
-        <div class="i0">By Trajan Brute: who then me placed here:</div>
-        <div class="i0">On fruitfull soyle, where pleasant Thames doth run</div>
-        <div class="i0">Sith Lud my Lord, my King and Lover dear,</div>
-        <div class="i0">Encreast my boundes and London (far that rings</div>
-        <div class="i0">Through Regions large) he called then my name</div>
-        <div class="i0">How famous since (I stately seat of Kings)</div>
-        <div class="i0">Have flourish’d aye: let others that proclaim.</div>
-        <div class="i0">And let me joy thus happy still to see</div>
-        <div class="i0">This vertuous Peer my Soveraign King to be.</div>
-      </div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-  <div class=""></div>
-
-  <div class="link mt2"><a href="#i_agas_map">Return to image</a></div>
-
-  <hr class="page" />
-  <div class="center">A Companion Volume to “London in the Time of the Tudors”</div>
-  <div class="bboxx center">
-    <div class="xxxlarge gespertt2">LONDON</div>
-    <div class="xlarge gespertt1">IN THE TIME OF THE STUARTS</div>
-
-    <div class="mt1"><span class="smcap large">By Sir WALTER BESANT</span></div>
-
-    <div class="mt2"><i>In One Volume, Demy 4to, Cloth, Gilt Top, 410 pages, containing 115
-      Illustrations, mostly from Contemporary Prints, and a reproduction of
-      Ogilby and Morgan’s Map of London, 1677.</i></div>
-
-    <div class="large">PRICE <span class="xlarge arial"><b>30s.</b></span> NET</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="bboxx">
-    <div class="center">SOME PRESS OPINIONS</div>
-
-    <p>‘Most readable and interesting.... It is a mine in which the student
-      alike of topography and of manners and customs may dig and dig again
-      with the certainty of finding something new and interesting.’—<i>The
-      Times.</i></p>
-
-    <p>‘No lover of London can fail to be grateful to the late Sir Walter for
-      his many carefully studied pictures of its ancient life, pictures often
-      quaint and amusing, and bearing always the mark of earnest and minute
-      research.... The general reader will find in this volume a world of
-      interesting suggestion.’—<i>The Daily Chronicle.</i></p>
-
-    <p>‘We are again reminded of the vast debt which London owes to the late
-      Sir Walter Besant by the appearance of this sumptuously printed and
-      beautifully illustrated book, the second volume of his great Survey
-      of London—unquestionably his <i>magnum opus</i>, upon which his fame will
-      chiefly rest.... A book which should be in the library of every one
-      who takes an intelligent interest in the history and development of
-      London.’—<i>The Daily Telegraph.</i></p>
-
-    <p>‘A work of great interest, eminently readable, and full of curious,
-      interesting, and original matter.’—<i>Westminster Gazette.</i></p>
-
-    <p>‘The pen of the ready writer here is fluent; the picture wants nothing
-      in completeness. The records of the city and the kingdom have been
-      ransacked for facts and documents, and they are here marshalled with
-      consummate skill. In surveying the political history of London from
-      James I. to Queen Anne, Sir Walter Besant reveals himself as an
-      unsparing and impartial historian, and in this respect alone the work
-      must command our admiration and our praise. But there is also included
-      the most vivid presentation of the story of the Great Plague and
-      the Great Fire that has ever been brought between the covers of one
-      book.’—<i>The Pall Mall Gazette.</i></p>
-
-    <p>‘It is impossible to speak too highly of this endeavour to say all
-      that is worth saying about London, and to say it in a manner which
-      shall at once satisfy the historical student and attract public
-      attention.’—<i>Yorkshire Post.</i></p>
-
-    <p>‘Much has hitherto been written, both by way of fact and fiction, as
-      well as by a blend of each, to describe London in its grievous trials
-      of pestilence and flame; but Sir Walter Besant has here gathered
-      together by far the most graphic and the most trustworthy accounts that
-      have hitherto been penned.’—<i>The Guardian.</i></p>
-
-    <p>‘The whole work is one of singular interest because the subject is
-      treated with the lightness of touch and descriptive power not always
-      attained by antiquarian writers.’—<i>The Record.</i></p>
-
-    <p>‘This handsome volume furnishes a fascinating record, both pictorial
-      and literary, of seventeenth century London, such as can be found
-      nowhere else. To the student it will be invaluable; to the general
-      reader with antiquarian interests and a taste for social history, a
-      never-failing source of delight.’—<i>The Contemporary Review.</i></p>
-
-    <p>‘There is not a dull page in the book, and the fact that the treatment
-      is somewhat discursive makes the volume more delightful. We can give no
-      idea of its variety and its charm, but every one who wishes to know the
-      London of two hundred and fifty years ago will feel, as he opens this
-      volume, that he has stepped back into that world of great events, and
-      will live again through its civil discord, its Plague, and Fire, and
-      its strange superstitions.’—<i>The London Quarterly Review.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="bboxxb center">
-    <span class="smcap">Published by</span><br />
-    ADAM AND CHARLES BLACK, 4, 5, &amp; 6 SOHO SQUARE, LONDON, W.
-  </div>
-
-  <hr class="page" />
-  <div class="center">A Companion Volume to “London in the Time of the Tudors”</div>
-  <div class="bboxx center">
-    <div class="xxxlarge gespertt2">LONDON</div>
-    <div class="xlarge gespertt1">IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY</div>
-
-    <div class="mt1"><span class="smcap large">By Sir WALTER BESANT</span></div>
-
-    <div class="mt2"><i>In One Volume, Demy 4to, Cloth, Gilt Top, 680 pages, containing 104
-      Illustrations, mostly from Contemporary Prints, and a Map.</i></div>
-
-    <div class="large">PRICE <span class="xlarge arial"><b>30s.</b></span> NET</div>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="bboxx">
-    <div class="center">SOME PRESS OPINIONS</div>
-
-    <p>‘Turn where you will in his pages, you get some interesting glimpse
-      which opens up the past and illumines the present.’—<i>The Contemporary
-        Review.</i></p>
-
-    <p>‘A handsome and very interesting book is the result, for which the
-      curious reader and the student will alike be grateful.... Gives an
-      admirable impression of the times.’—<i>The Spectator.</i></p>
-
-    <p>‘It is excellently planned and very ably and agreeably executed....
-      The chief charm of this work is the pleasantness of the style in which
-      it is written—easy, clear, and individual. To the accuracy of the
-      ideal historian Sir Walter added the picturesqueness of the popular
-      novelist.’—<i>The Globe.</i></p>
-
-    <p>‘It forms a sumptuous volume, and is marked, of course, by minute
-      research and enthusiastic interest. Will be a thoroughly engrossing
-      study for all those—and they are now many—to whom the past of the
-      Empire’s capital is a subject of the keenest fascination.’—<i>St.
-        James’s Gazette.</i></p>
-
-    <p>‘To praise this book were superfluous. Sir Walter was ideally suited
-      for the task which he set himself. He was an antiquarian, but not
-      a Dryasdust; he had the topographical sense, but he spares us
-      measurements; he was pleasantly discursive; if he moralised he was
-      never tedious; he had the novelist’s eye for the romantic. Above all,
-      he loved and reverenced London. Though only a Londoner by adoption,
-      he bestowed upon the capital a more than filial regard. Besant is
-      the nineteenth century Stow, and something more.... This remarkable
-      volume.... It is a monument of faithful and careful research.’—<i>The
-        Daily Telegraph.</i></p>
-
-    <p>‘Will be of the utmost value to every student of the life and history
-      of London.’—<i>The Standard.</i></p>
-
-    <p>‘Altogether this posthumous work of the historian of London is one
-      of the most fascinating books which he ever wrote.’—<i>The Municipal
-        Journal.</i></p>
-
-    <p>‘It is a wonderfully complete history.... Will probably stand to
-      all time as the brightest and most authoritative book on a period
-      which is bound, by its very evils, to have a fascination for the
-      student of customs and manners, and for the student of national
-      development.’—<i>The Liverpool Post.</i></p>
-
-    <p>‘The book is engrossing and its manner delightful.’—<i>The Times.</i></p>
-
-    <p>‘A work of great value and interest; ... profoundly interesting.’—<i>The
-        Westminster Gazette.</i></p>
-
-    <p>‘Of facts and figures such as these this valuable book will be found
-      full to overflowing, and it is calculated, therefore, to interest all
-      kinds of readers, from the student to the dilettante, from the romancer
-      in search of matter to the most voracious student of “Tit-Bits.”’—<i>The
-        Athenæum.</i></p>
-
-    <p>‘Stimulating, edifying, interesting, horrifying, in turns, the book has
-      not a dull moment.... As it is the best, it will surely prove the most
-      prized and popular of modern books on London.’—<i>Notes and Queries.</i></p>
-
-    <p>‘The work is copiously illustrated with reproductions of old prints,
-      and is altogether a delightful and fascinating guide to the Metropolis
-      at an eventful period of its history.’—<i>Pall Mall Gazette.</i></p>
-
-    <p>‘Of the present lordly quarto volume it may be said that it fairly
-      represents that “Survey” which Sir Walter Besant conceived, and which
-      he used to refer to as his <i>magnum opus</i>. It is a worthy literary
-      monument to his deep knowledge and love of London.’—<i>The Academy.</i></p>
-
-    <p>‘Besant’s interesting and valuable book.’—<i>Manchester Guardian.</i></p>
-
-    <p>‘It is assuredly a delightful book to lose oneself in, and so to
-      think one’s way back into a simpler and perhaps, after all, a merrier
-      England.’—<i>The Bookman.</i></p>
-
-    <p>‘A book to be treasured and studied.... The work as a whole is a
-      notable achievement, and will stand as the classical authority on
-      eighteenth century London.’—<i>The Speaker.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="bboxxb center">
-      <span class="smcap">Published by</span><br />
-      ADAM AND CHARLES BLACK, 4, 5, &amp; 6 SOHO SQUARE, LONDON, W.
-  </div>
-
-  <hr class="tb" />
-
-  <div class="transnote mt10">
-    <div class="large center mb2"><b>Transcriber’s Notes:</b></div>
-    <ul class="spaced">
-      <li>Blank pages have been removed.</li>
-      <li>A few obvious typographical errors have been silently corrected.</li>
-      <li>Otherwise spelling and hyphenation variations remain unchanged.</li>
-      <li>Illustrations: internal caption-like text is replicated in the external caption. More extensive
-      text is replicated in linked transcriptions at the end of the book.</li>
-    </ul>
-  </div>
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-<pre>
-
-
-
-
-
-End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of London in the Time of the Tudors, by 
-Sir Walter Besant
-
-*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LONDON IN THE TIME OF THE TUDORS ***
-
-***** This file should be named 62134-h.htm or 62134-h.zip *****
-This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
-        http://www.gutenberg.org/6/2/1/3/62134/
-
-Produced by Chris Curnow, Robert Tonsing, 'Junet' for
-finding, scanning and re-creating Agas' map, and the Online
-Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This
-file was produced from images generously made available
-by The Internet Archive)
-
-Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will
-be renamed.
-
-Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright
-law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works,
-so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United
-States without permission and without paying copyright
-royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part
-of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project
-Gutenberg-tm electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm
-concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark,
-and may not be used if you charge for the eBooks, unless you receive
-specific permission. If you do not charge anything for copies of this
-eBook, complying with the rules is very easy. You may use this eBook
-for nearly any purpose such as creation of derivative works, reports,
-performances and research. They may be modified and printed and given
-away--you may do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks
-not protected by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the
-trademark license, especially commercial redistribution.
-
-START: FULL LICENSE
-
-THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
-PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
-
-To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
-distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
-(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
-Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full
-Project Gutenberg-tm License available with this file or online at
-www.gutenberg.org/license.
-
-Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project
-Gutenberg-tm electronic works
-
-1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
-electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
-and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
-(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all
-the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or
-destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your
-possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a
-Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound
-by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the
-person or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph
-1.E.8.
-
-1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be
-used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
-agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few
-things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
-even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See
-paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project
-Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this
-agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm
-electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below.
-
-1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the
-Foundation" or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection
-of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual
-works in the collection are in the public domain in the United
-States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the
-United States and you are located in the United States, we do not
-claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing,
-displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as
-all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope
-that you will support the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting
-free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm
-works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the
-Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with the work. You can easily
-comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the
-same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg-tm License when
-you share it without charge with others.
-
-1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
-what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are
-in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States,
-check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this
-agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing,
-distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any
-other Project Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no
-representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any
-country outside the United States.
-
-1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
-
-1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other
-immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear
-prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work
-on which the phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the
-phrase "Project Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed,
-performed, viewed, copied or distributed:
-
-  This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
-  most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no
-  restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it
-  under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this
-  eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the
-  United States, you'll have to check the laws of the country where you
-  are located before using this ebook.
-
-1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is
-derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not
-contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the
-copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in
-the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are
-redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase "Project
-Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply
-either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or
-obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg-tm
-trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
-
-1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
-with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
-must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any
-additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms
-will be linked to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works
-posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the
-beginning of this work.
-
-1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
-License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
-work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
-
-1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
-electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
-prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
-active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
-Gutenberg-tm License.
-
-1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
-compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including
-any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access
-to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format
-other than "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official
-version posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site
-(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense
-to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means
-of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original "Plain
-Vanilla ASCII" or other form. Any alternate format must include the
-full Project Gutenberg-tm License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
-
-1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
-performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
-unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
-
-1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
-access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
-provided that
-
-* You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
-  the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
-  you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed
-  to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he has
-  agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project
-  Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid
-  within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are
-  legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty
-  payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project
-  Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in
-  Section 4, "Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg
-  Literary Archive Foundation."
-
-* You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
-  you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
-  does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
-  License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all
-  copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue
-  all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg-tm
-  works.
-
-* You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of
-  any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
-  electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of
-  receipt of the work.
-
-* You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
-  distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
-
-1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project
-Gutenberg-tm electronic work or group of works on different terms than
-are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing
-from both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and The
-Project Gutenberg Trademark LLC, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm
-trademark. Contact the Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
-
-1.F.
-
-1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
-effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
-works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project
-Gutenberg-tm collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm
-electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may
-contain "Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate
-or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other
-intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or
-other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or
-cannot be read by your equipment.
-
-1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
-of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
-Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
-Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
-Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
-liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
-fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
-LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
-PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
-TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
-LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
-INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
-DAMAGE.
-
-1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
-defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
-receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
-written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you
-received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium
-with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you
-with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in
-lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person
-or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second
-opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If
-the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing
-without further opportunities to fix the problem.
-
-1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
-in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO
-OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT
-LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
-
-1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
-warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of
-damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement
-violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the
-agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or
-limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or
-unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the
-remaining provisions.
-
-1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
-trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
-providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in
-accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the
-production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm
-electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses,
-including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of
-the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this
-or any Project Gutenberg-tm work, (b) alteration, modification, or
-additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any
-Defect you cause.
-
-Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
-
-Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
-electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of
-computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It
-exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations
-from people in all walks of life.
-
-Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
-assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
-goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
-remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project
-Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
-and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future
-generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary
-Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see
-Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at
-www.gutenberg.org
-
-
-
-Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
-
-The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
-501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
-state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
-Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
-number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary
-Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by
-U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
-
-The Foundation's principal office is in Fairbanks, Alaska, with the
-mailing address: PO Box 750175, Fairbanks, AK 99775, but its
-volunteers and employees are scattered throughout numerous
-locations. Its business office is located at 809 North 1500 West, Salt
-Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up to
-date contact information can be found at the Foundation's web site and
-official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact
-
-For additional contact information:
-
-    Dr. Gregory B. Newby
-    Chief Executive and Director
-    gbnewby@pglaf.org
-
-Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
-Literary Archive Foundation
-
-Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
-spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
-increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
-freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
-array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations
-($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
-status with the IRS.
-
-The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
-charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
-States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
-considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
-with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations
-where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND
-DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular
-state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate
-
-While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
-have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
-against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
-approach us with offers to donate.
-
-International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
-any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
-outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
-
-Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
-methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other
-ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To
-donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate
-
-Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works.
-
-Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project
-Gutenberg-tm concept of a library of electronic works that could be
-freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and
-distributed Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of
-volunteer support.
-
-Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
-editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in
-the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not
-necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper
-edition.
-
-Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search
-facility: www.gutenberg.org
-
-This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
-including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
-Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
-subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
-
-
-
-</pre>
-
-</body>
-</html>
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/cover.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/cover.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index cd01cb0..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/cover.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_003.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_003.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 39e9396..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_003.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_007.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_007.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 894980b..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_007.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_010.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_010.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 375ac40..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_010.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_011.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_011.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index df11ba5..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_011.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_012.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_012.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index f8f37dc..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_012.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_014.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_014.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 9f44a58..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_014.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_015.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_015.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 4c86a3e..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_015.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_017.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_017.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index ab481e1..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_017.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_018.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_018.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index c8386ec..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_018.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_019.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_019.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 48847b5..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_019.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_022.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_022.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 016bf93..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_022.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_025.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_025.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 8c633c4..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_025.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_027.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_027.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 97b54a1..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_027.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_029.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_029.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 06f6bf6..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_029.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_031.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_031.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index c66096d..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_031.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_033.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_033.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 6691ee6..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_033.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_034.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_034.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 43e9bcc..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_034.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_035.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_035.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index e44db06..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_035.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_036.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_036.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 88c1623..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_036.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_037.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_037.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 24522e8..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_037.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_038.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_038.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 7132581..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_038.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_041.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_041.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 5cc3646..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_041.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_045.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_045.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 6c021d9..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_045.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_047.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_047.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 05511c6..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_047.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_048.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_048.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 698cfdd..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_048.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_050.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_050.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 10891ca..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_050.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_052.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_052.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 2b03535..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_052.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_055.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_055.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index c8eb10c..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_055.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_057.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_057.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 18b9efa..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_057.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_058.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_058.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 899c30c..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_058.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_060a.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_060a.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 15108ea..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_060a.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_060b.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_060b.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 5508b7f..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_060b.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_061.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_061.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 893ef00..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_061.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_062.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_062.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 53aa651..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_062.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_065.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_065.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 3ec933d..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_065.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_067.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_067.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index b4b0268..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_067.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_069.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_069.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index c92cf6c..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_069.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_071.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_071.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 3a0b06b..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_071.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_072.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_072.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index b472b2f..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_072.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_073.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_073.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 06f3549..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_073.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_075.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_075.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 8768ff3..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_075.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_076.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_076.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index ee8a82f..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_076.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_079.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_079.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 363ab49..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_079.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_081.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_081.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index d15777e..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_081.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_085.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_085.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 45b3de0..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_085.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_089.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_089.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 3afdf27..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_089.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_091.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_091.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index c53e27e..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_091.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_093.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_093.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 93444b9..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_093.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_094.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_094.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index eb01b6b..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_094.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_097.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_097.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 03c6a2d..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_097.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_098.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_098.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 881cf48..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_098.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_101.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_101.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index ab400ae..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_101.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_102.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_102.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index a9a22d1..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_102.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_104.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_104.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 664190d..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_104.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_105.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_105.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 1c0b7b6..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_105.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_113.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_113.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 7ceedc3..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_113.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_115.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_115.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index e4d1194..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_115.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_121.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_121.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 47b68ae..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_121.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_123.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_123.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 9e3357a..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_123.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_125.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_125.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 7b241ce..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_125.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_129.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_129.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 2b5fe2f..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_129.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_133.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_133.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 146f802..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_133.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_134.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_134.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 5c1e2e7..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_134.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_135.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_135.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index cf091d2..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_135.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_137.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_137.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index d84e8d8..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_137.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_139.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_139.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index e43e832..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_139.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_141a.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_141a.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 4864e27..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_141a.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_141b.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_141b.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index e2537b6..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_141b.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_147.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_147.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 3496464..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_147.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_148a.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_148a.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 6db8bb1..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_148a.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_148b.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_148b.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 405961d..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_148b.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_148c.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_148c.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index b258806..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_148c.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_149.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_149.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index a3db6d5..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_149.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_153.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_153.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index f6e8082..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_153.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_157.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_157.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 30900ec..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_157.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_173.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_173.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index baced7b..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_173.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_175.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_175.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index ee59e4f..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_175.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_177.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_177.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index fb185c2..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_177.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_178.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_178.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 45ecfa8..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_178.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_179.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_179.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 30d5856..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_179.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_182.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_182.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 7b598dd..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_182.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_184.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_184.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index fcf02b1..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_184.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_186.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_186.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index d028c9e..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_186.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_187.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_187.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index dcd54d3..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_187.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_189a.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_189a.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index b1cc0f8..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_189a.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_189b.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_189b.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 35ae9ac..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_189b.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_190-1.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_190-1.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 111eb86..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_190-1.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_192.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_192.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 17eff66..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_192.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_193.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_193.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index bb4b01a..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_193.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_196.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_196.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index b78104e..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_196.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_199.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_199.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 3e4acd1..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_199.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_200.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_200.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 9733732..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_200.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_204.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_204.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 91ae4e7..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_204.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_209.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_209.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 8e3c7c4..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_209.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_213.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_213.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 0980c48..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_213.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_216.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_216.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 75ef7e1..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_216.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_218-9.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_218-9.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index b93dae6..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_218-9.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_221.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_221.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 6b6486f..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_221.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_223.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_223.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 8c20288..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_223.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_226.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_226.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index eed86ad..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_226.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_227.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_227.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 40e865c..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_227.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_231.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_231.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index f627e79..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_231.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_232.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_232.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 572e3df..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_232.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_234-5.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_234-5.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 8652a6c..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_234-5.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_239.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_239.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index df711a0..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_239.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_241.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_241.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index f83b9fd..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_241.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_242.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_242.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 71232fd..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_242.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_245.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_245.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 0f25cd8..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_245.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_248.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_248.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 90fd94a..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_248.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_249.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_249.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 459fd0c..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_249.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_251.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_251.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 2a7903a..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_251.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_259.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_259.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 38f6d8d..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_259.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_261.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_261.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 753feeb..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_261.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_277.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_277.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 20ee63e..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_277.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_282.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_282.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 06f4c7c..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_282.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_289.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_289.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 9980f55..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_289.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_295.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_295.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 0a37c3d..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_295.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_301.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_301.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index f0d97fa..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_301.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_303.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_303.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index c30ccac..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_303.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_304.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_304.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index ea706f0..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_304.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_305.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_305.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index f91ec8c..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_305.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_308.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_308.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 08e4453..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_308.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_309.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_309.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index dc97cec..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_309.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_310.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_310.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index d60fa5d..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_310.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_310_1.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_310_1.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index caf8232..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_310_1.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_311a.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_311a.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 3c74551..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_311a.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_311b.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_311b.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index e2297a5..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_311b.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_311c.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_311c.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 7a7d3b6..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_311c.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_313.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_313.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 2a1903d..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_313.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_314.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_314.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 8c192b0..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_314.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_316.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_316.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index c94e6ba..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_316.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_318.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_318.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 9af6001..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_318.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_319.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_319.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 2424790..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_319.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_320.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_320.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 288c91b..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_320.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_321.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_321.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index b85d2fc..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_321.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_339.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_339.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 83f68ba..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_339.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_342.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_342.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 751c8c0..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_342.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_346.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_346.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 9a70f8f..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_346.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_346a.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_346a.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 64bc5f4..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_346a.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_350-1.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_350-1.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 0f294f8..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_350-1.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_357.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_357.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index b68ee53..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_357.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_361.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_361.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 23a39a4..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_361.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_364.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_364.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 5fb800a..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_364.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_381.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_381.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 916bea9..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_381.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_383l1.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_383l1.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index bad8245..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_383l1.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_383l2.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_383l2.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 0220557..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_383l2.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_383l3.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_383l3.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 950d8f9..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_383l3.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_383r1.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_383r1.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index de87a35..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_383r1.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_383r2.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_383r2.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index b073927..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_383r2.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_383r3.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_383r3.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 9f5be36..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_383r3.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_385.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_385.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 06d6044..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_385.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_389.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_389.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index f15c24a..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_389.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_agas_map.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_agas_map.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 4d6c33a..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_agas_map.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_agas_map_large.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_agas_map_large.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 1b842d4..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_agas_map_large.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_frontis.jpg b/old/62134-h/images/i_frontis.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 4b020fd..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_frontis.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/62134-h/images/i_title.png b/old/62134-h/images/i_title.png
deleted file mode 100644
index f7628e9..0000000
--- a/old/62134-h/images/i_title.png
+++ /dev/null