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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..94f5be8 --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #61473 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/61473) diff --git a/old/61473-0.txt b/old/61473-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 66067f4..0000000 --- a/old/61473-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,4648 +0,0 @@ -Project Gutenberg's Is a Ship Canal Practicable?, by Sylvanus Thayer Abert - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Is a Ship Canal Practicable? - Notes, Historical and Statistical, upon the Projected - Routes for an Interoceanic Ship Canal between the Atlantic - and Pacific Oceans, in which is Included a Short Account - of the Character and Influence of the Canal of Suez, and - the Probable Effects upon the Commerce of the World of the - Two Canals, Regarded either as Rivals, or as Parts of One - System of Interoceanic Navigation - -Author: Sylvanus Thayer Abert - -Release Date: February 21, 2020 [EBook #61473] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK IS A SHIP CANAL PRACTICABLE? *** - - - - -Produced by deaurider, Paul Marshall and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - -Transcriber’s Notes: - - Underscores “_” before and after a word or phrase indicate _italics_ - in the original text. - A single underscore after a symbol indicates a subscript. - Small capitals have been converted to SOLID capitals. - Footnotes have been moved so they do not break up paragraphs. - Typographical errors have been silently corrected. - Inconsistent place names have been silently corrected. - Several wide tables in the original book have been split into two - sections in this ebook version to avoid very long lines. - - - - - IS A SHIP CANAL PRACTICABLE? - - NOTES, - HISTORICAL AND STATISTICAL, - UPON THE PROJECTED ROUTES FOR AN - INTEROCEANIC SHIP CANAL BETWEEN THE ATLANTIC AND - PACIFIC OCEANS, - - IN WHICH IS INCLUDED - - A SHORT ACCOUNT OF THE CHARACTER AND INFLUENCE OF THE CANAL - OF SUEZ, AND THE PROBABLE EFFECTS UPON THE COMMERCE - OF THE WORLD OF THE TWO CANALS, REGARDED EITHER - AS RIVALS, OR AS PARTS OF ONE SYSTEM OF - INTEROCEANIC NAVIGATION. - - BY - S. T. ABERT, C.E. - - ILLUSTRATED WITH MAPS. - - CINCINNATI: - R. W. CARROLL & CO., PUBLISHERS, - 117 WEST FOURTH STREET. - 1870. - -The following notes upon Interoceanic Routes across the American -Isthmus were collected and arranged during intervals of professional -occupation, and are doubtless affected by the haste incident to this -method of preparation. - -They were laid by a friend before the Hon. WILLIAM H. SEWARD and the -late R. J. WALKER, for their perusal, and receiving the commendation -of their enlightened judgments, the writer has thought that the -publication may not be without interest to those who are seeking -information as to the feasibility of an intermarine ship canal between -the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. - -Prepared before the completion of the Suez Canal and the sailing of -the last Darien Expedition, some additions have been made to bring the -parts of the Notes relating to these topics up to date. - -AUGUST 1, 1870. - - - - -IS A SHIP CANAL PRACTICABLE? - - - - -CHAPTER I. - - - Columbus discovers Darien—Opinions of Berghaus, - Humboldt, Garella, Hughes—Expectation of finding a - Strait—Influence of Oriental Trade—Names identified - with the Project of a Canal—Defeat of Miranda’s - Scheme—Object—Opinion of Admiral Davis—Sketch of - Oriental Trade—Contest for its Possession—Four different - Solutions—United States—Russia—France—England—English - Diplomacy and the Suez Canal—History of its - Difficulties—Empress Eugenie Inaugurates—Dimensions - of Canal—Capital of Company—Expenditures—Effects on - Commerce—Circumstances affecting the Permanence of the - Suez Canal—Teaching of History—Sand Dunes—Inferences - from Geology—Sediment of the Nile—Deltas—Silting up of - Port Said, and rate of advance of the Shore Line. - -Upon the 14th of September, in the year of our Lord 1502, three -caravels, bearing Columbus and the destinies of the New World, long -baffled by opposing storms and currents, at last doubled Cape Gracias a -Dios. - -To appreciate the courage of the daring Navigator, it is necessary to -call to mind the fact that the largest vessel of this little fleet did -not exceed seventy tons burden. With seams opened by the stress of the -gales, sails tattered by the winds, hulls eaten to a honey-comb by the -teredo, distrust at home, dissension around, and danger everywhere, -this great man abated not a jot of his high hopes, but repairing his -shattered ships as he was able, continued his adventurous voyage. - -The air came to the toil-worn mariners freighted with spicy fragrance, -gentle winds wafted them in sight of lofty mountains and of verdant -slopes, clothed with the majestic palm and the pink and golden -blossoming _flor de Robles_. - -The simple-minded natives of Honduras and Costa Rica welcomed them -with supernatural devotion, bringing gifts of fruits, gold, gems, and -tenders of hospitality. - -Strange rumors reached them of a people living in houses of sculptured -stone, and occupied in the arts of peace. Columbus could not be -diverted from his purpose. - -The season was that of gales, and the little fleet was shut in the -beautiful harbor of Porto Bello. - -The Norther ceasing, the voyage continued as far as the little, craggy -Bay of El Retreate; here, near the present Puerto de Mosquitoes, -Columbus reached the westward limit of his last voyage of discovery. - -Sixty-six years of sorrow and disappointment, of disinterested purposes -maliciously opposed, of bold designs ignorantly thwarted, of a pure and -illustrious character misjudged and traduced, had humbled the pride -and subdued the enthusiasm of that aspiring intellect; and now, at the -close of a career of vast and useful discoveries, he was called on to -face a trial which Goëthe has affirmed to be the severest and most -inexorable of life. - -Welcomed with the approving plaudits of his king and countrymen, or -loaded with ignominious chains, he had ever kept one object constantly -in view. This object, pursued with unexampled courage, self-abnegation, -and constancy, he was now called on to renounce. Who will venture to -depict the thoughts of this remarkable man as he turned to retrace his -path, leaving behind him the prospect of discoveries far greater than -those which had cast the hallow of immortal fame around his name? - -“Here ended,” says Irving, in a strain of tender eloquence, “the -lofty aspirations which had elevated him above all mercenary views in -his struggle along this perilous coast”——“it is true, he had been in -pursuit of a chimera, but it was the chimera of a splendid imagination -and a penetrating judgment. If he was disappointed in finding a strait -through the Isthmus of Darien, it was because Nature herself was -disappointed.” - -This sagacious conjecture has its foundation in nature, and is -supported by the opinions of savans and the facts of recent geological -explorations. - -The Prussian geographer, Berghaus, as early as 1823, and Prof. Hopkins, -contested the accepted opinion as to the unbroken continuity of the -Isthmus and the contiguous continents. - -The French engineer, Garella, after making a geological reconnoissance, -declares that the Isthmus is of more recent origin than the continents -which it unites. Col. Hughes and Garella concur in a belief in the -existence, at an early period, of a strait uniting the Atlantic and -Pacific oceans. The identity of the species of fish inhabiting the -waters on both sides of the Isthmus is an additional argument in -confirmation of this view. - -It is without surprise that we find the discoveries of another science -confirming this inference. Prof. Huxley, in a recent address on the -progress of palæontology, is unable to explain the distribution of -mammals at the close of the miocene period, except upon the supposition -of a barrier which prevented the migration of the apes, rodents, and -edentata from the southern to the northern continent. He cites the -opinions of Carrick Moore and Prof. Duncan in support of the same -conclusion. Further investigation will, no doubt, add to the number -of facts which indicate the separation of the two continents by the -ancient sea, and may even establish the fact that portions of Central -America once formed parts of the Antilles group of the equatorial belt -of islands. - -General Michler, in his interesting report of the survey of the Atrato, -observes: “All the stratified rocks on the Isthmus, exhibiting strong -marks of disturbance and even dislocation since they were originally -deposited, clearly prove that the upheaval which brought this narrow -neck of land above the level of the ocean must have taken place at a -comparatively late era. This period was undoubtedly accompanied by the -protrusion of certain metamorphosed shistose (?) rocks, the doubtful -nature of which has induced us to mark them as belonging to a trappean -series. If Darwin had good reason to believe that the granite of South -America, now rising into central peaks 14,000 feet in elevation, must -have been in a fluid state since the deposition of the tertiary group, -we may also do so in pronouncing the formation of the Isthmus, now -linking together South and Central America, as decidedly post-tertiary.” - -The deductions of Columbus were, however, based on the direction of the -coast of Cuba, which he supposed to be a continent, and the parallel -coast of South America; and was further confirmed by the westerly -current flowing between them, which must, he thought, find an outlet -near Darien. - -These bold generalizations, drawn from stores of profound observation -and varied reading, although we now know them to be erroneous, evince -the sagacity of the man, and place him far ahead of the intelligence of -his age. With heartfelt sorrow he reluctantly renounced a chimera so -plausible, which he expected would lead him to the fabulous kingdom of -Prester John, or, perhaps, to the marvelous splendors of the imperial -dominions of Kublai Khan, and which would, he believed, open new fields -for the peaceful conquests of the banner of the Redeemer. - -The delusive representations of travelers was the chief impulse to some -of the greatest achievements of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. - -The coveted wealth of “Ormus and of Ind” was a siren who had lured -adventurous navigators to dare the dangers of unknown seas. - -The same diversity of motive may be found in the men of that period -which now exists and animates the westward course of civilization. Love -of money and fame are found contending by the side of the desire to -extend the domain of knowledge and zeal for the spread of religion. - -The result of these combined passions was to open new avenues to -wealth, industry, and science. - -Four hundred years have elapsed since the wondering eyes of Spanish -discoverers first gazed on the strange beauty of the New World. In this -interval a nation of forty millions of people have been planted in -the country of Columbus, its wildernesses are traversed by steam, its -products supply food and clothing to a large part of the world; but, -with all this progress, the visionary strait of the great navigator is -yet an unrealized dream. - -Impossibilities have been accomplished, poetical fictions have become -facts, visionary theories of the past are the industrial arts of the -present. In wealth, comfort, health, longevity, art, science, organized -labor and charities, the human race of the present have out-stripped -the Arcadian felicity of the golden eras of Hesiod and Cervantes. - -Possessing every facility, occupying a preëminent coigne of vantage, we -have left one thing unachieved. This ought we to have done, and not to -have left the others undone. - -Many minds, speculative and practical, have closely scrutinized the -feasibility of making the American Isthmus a highway for the commerce -of the world. - -Its importance grows in dimensions in proportion to the study bestowed -on it. It ranks among its friends some of the most able men of the race. - -Columbus, Cortes, Charles V, Alverado, Gonzales de Avila, De Solis, -Gomaro, Bautista Antonella, and, in more recent times, Paterson, Pitt, -Jefferson, Humboldt, Guizot, Napoleon III, Wheaton, Dallas, Biddle, and -a long and honorable list of statesmen and publicists have contributed -to the project. - -According to the scheme of General Miranda, sanctioned by Wm. Pitt, it -was proposed that Great Britain should supply the money and ships, and -the United States should send 10,000 men. - -The failure of this plan is attributed to delay on the part of -President Adams. - -The tonnage of the trade which would annually seek this route has been -estimated at 3,094,000 tons, equal in value to $152,475,750. The value -of the exports and imports of all the nations which would annually pass -the Isthmus would amount to $451,029,132. - -With such enormous commercial interests, backed by advocates so able, -it is not a little curious that the question of feasibility should be -yet unsolved. - -Political vicissitudes have often postponed its consideration. -Conflicting interest and rivalries have prevented the coöperation long -deemed essential to its successful execution. - -The hereditary policy of the United States has always been anti-social -and insular. Schooled in this policy, it is difficult to enlist the -sympathies of our people in questions which are to be answered in -regions beyond their jurisdiction. - -The utility and practicability of the work must first be made clearly -manifest. - -Passing in review the present state of our knowledge of Isthmean -routes, one of the objects of this paper is to attempt to appreciate -the probable advantages which would result from the completion of an -intermarine ship canal. - -In selecting from material, much of which bears little relation to the -questions at issue, many objects may be omitted which deserve notice, -and some may be noticed which might have been omitted. - -If serious attention is attracted to this important project, the writer -will have attained his object. - -“There does not exist in the libraries of the world,” observes Admiral -Davis, “the means of determining, even approximately, the most -practicable route for a ship canal across the Isthmus.” This deficiency -in our geographical knowledge will shortly be supplied. An exploration -is now in progress, under the auspices of Government. - -If a practicable route is found, there is reason to believe that -execution will follow as certainly as the settlement of America -followed its discovery. - -We may not unreasonably expect the progress of the future to keep pace -with the past, and that the absolute increase of the commercial marine, -and an enlarged area for its operations, will lead to a proportionate -extension of the beneficent influences of religion and civilization. -The speculation opens a prospect of the future destiny of intertropical -America; destined, perhaps, to produce as great a revolution on our -globe as the colonization of America. - -“The completion of this work,” observes an earnest advocate, “will be -the same as if, by some great revolution of the globe, the eastern -continent were brought nearer to us.” - -The produce of the Indies has always been a coveted prize; wealth has -followed in its path; commercial supremacy has been the property of -its possessor. As changes in the route brought about new political -relations, and raised up a more successful competitor for the trade -of the Orient, a reconstruction of the map of the world has become -necessary. - -Its importance may be gathered from the fact that the annual exports -and imports of the United States to the East Indies, China, Australia, -and the South Pacific Islands amount to $39,380,000, and the aggregate -exports and imports of Great Britain to the same points amount to -$378,857,000. - -If this trade has ceased to be a monopoly, and has lost some of its -importance since the colonization of the Americas, it is yet sufficient -to hold the guerdon of commercial supremacy. A history of its course -and influence is beyond the scope of this paper. A passing notice will -show how important a part it has played in the destinies of nations. - -It is probable that the wars of ancient Egypt, Assyria, and Babylon -were waged for the control of the trade of the East. The expedition of -Alexander was not the result of an unreasoning lust for dominion and -military glory. The apple of discord then, as now, was the beautiful -land of the East. The descendants of the great Aryan and Semitic -families, constantly moving westward, never forgot the land of their -birth. - -At an early period, caravans brought the rich products of India across -the desert. Under the influence of this traffic, the palaces of Palmyra -sprang up amid the sands. The Saracens drove the course of trade to the -Caspian and the Euxine. The Mediterranean felt its beneficent effects, -and Venice, Trieste, Marseilles, Cadiz, Barcelona became the marts of -its rich and varied commodities. - -After the discovery of de Gama, the busy hum of industry began to cease -in these once populous emporiums. When Shylock drew up his bloody -bond, the trade of the Indies had set around the cape. While commerce -was suspended and industry prostrated by wars and civil dissensions, -Holland bore off the prize. The devastating armies of Alva threw the -Indian trade into the strong hands of Elizabeth. - -England now began to lay carefully the foundation of her empire. The -policy she now adopted, whether through instinct or forethought, -was one which looked beyond the temporary advantages of position -and possession. She attempted to make these advantages permanent by -the conquest of the territory from whence all these bounties seemed -perennially to flow. - -The British Empire in India, in its extent, power, wealth, and future -possibilities, stands an enduring monument of the courage, energy, and -wisdom of the British people. Whether actual possession has secured the -reversionary benefit, time alone can show. - -That wealth, power, and dominion follow oriental traffic, is now patent -to the world. It is no longer the object of secret diplomatic intrigue; -it has become an open question, to be solved by the general competition -of commercial nations. - -In the pursuit of this object, the leader in the Pansclavonic movement -is pushing her outposts past India to the wall of China. The United -States, conscious of her natural advantage, is awakening to the -importance of a systematic policy. - -The French Emperor seems at present, by the aid of the Suez Canal, -likely to appropriate the lion’s share. While American commerce is -disappearing from the seas—fifty per cent. of her exports and imports -being carried in foreign ships—the flag of France may be seen by the -side of England in every sea. The hereditary policy and commercial -instinct of the British may prove to be more than a match for the -astuteness of one man. Who will ultimately bear off the prize, is a -question admitting three possible solutions. - -Russia, as has been said, rapidly extending her frontier eastward, -stretches out her hand to grasp the trade of the East. The Suez and -Darien Canals—the one an unsolved problem, the other an accomplished -fact—represent the two other contestants. One of the most constant -objects of war and diplomacy has been for the possession of the highway -through Egypt for the trade of the East. - -It was designated by the Portuguese conqueror, Albuquerque, as one of -the three important points essential to the “command and monopoly” of -this trade. England, anticipating the day when it might be important -for her to have the military control of this highway, has persistently -established military ports, beginning at Gibraltar and ending at -Aiden. She has secured strong posts at Malta and Beb el Mandeb. The -Great Leibnitz called the attention of Louis XIV to the commercial and -political advantages of a conquest and colonization of this country. -Napoleon, flushed with the conquest of Italy, took the initiative in -this bold design. By his order, M. Lepere, “a distinguished engineer,” -completed an examination in 1801. The results of this examination have -been published by the Imperial Government. - -M. Lepere asserted the practicability of a ship canal along the line of -the ancient canal from Suez to the Nile, as far as the Bitter Lakes. -From thence its course has to proceed to the Pelusiac branch of the -Nile. Here, on the sea, it encounters the accumulating banks and bars -of the Nile, one of the two very serious obstacles to the execution and -permanent value of a ship canal between the two seas. - -The project of a canal uniting the Red Sea and the Mediterranean -appears to have been suggested by M. de Lesseps to Said Pacha, the -Viceroy of Egypt, in 1854. The company was definitely formed in 1869. - -It is not very easy to estimate the important effects of opening this -route to the maritime States of Europe. - -Lord Palmerston, acting in the interest of England, constantly opposed -the design. He at once perceived that the restoration of trade to the -Levantine ports would seriously disturb the commercial equilibrium. All -the ingenious devices of a clever lawyer in conducting a bad case were -employed by English diplomacy in order to arrest the operations of M. -de Lesseps. - -The first and most valid objections alleged by Lord Palmerston were -based on the practical difficulties in the way of execution, and were -stated with great force and acuteness. The shifting sands of the Desert -would, it was affirmed, soon fill up the canal; and the sand and silt, -which from time immemorial had been brought down by the great father of -waters, and which swept to the westward by the prevailing winds, would -soon fill up any artificial harbor which might be constructed. - -That these difficulties were resolutely encountered and overcome, is -one of the marvels of this truly marvelous work. - -To these objections M. de Lesseps cautiously replied that all questions -would be referred to a commission of engineers. - -After an examination of all the plans, the commission reported -favorably on that which has just been successfully executed. The work -found a few friends among the English people and in Parliament. - -Lord Palmerston, being interrogated, declared that the scheme was -hostile to the interest of the country. His real objection was -obscurely hinted. “It is founded,” he remarked, “in remote speculations -in regard to easier access to our Indian possessions, which I need not -more distinctly shadow forth, because they will be obvious to any body -who pays attention to the subject.” He further characterized it as -one of those plans “so often brought out to make dupes of the English -people,” and he expressed his preference for the communication by -railroad between Suez and Cairo. As this railroad can never be more -than a passenger route, it is evident that its influence on commerce -must always be insignificant. - -The work had barely commenced when, through the instigation of -the English Embassador, the Sultan issued an order arresting the -operations. The plea assigned for this interference was that the -authority of the Viceroy was insufficient without the sanction of the -Sultan. De Lesseps invoked the interposition of the Emperor, who, with -apparent indifference, was watching the proceedings from his retreat at -Biarritz. - -Within a month after the presentation of the memorial the -misunderstanding between the two cabinets had been explained, and Lord -Palmerston was for a time silenced by the consent of Egypt to receive a -Turkish garrison. This acquiescence was in appearance only, as the real -object of these repeated assaults was to arrest the work. The Viceroy, -desirous of silencing all opposition, consulted French jurisconsults in -regard to the rights of the company, and definitely settled the powers -of the contracting parties. - -For a moderate sum he ceded to the company the belt of country -bordering the fresh water canal. Immediately the cry was raised by the -opponents of the canal, that it was intended to colonize this region -with Europeans. - -While this matter was in controversy, and the work was steadily -proceeding, Said Pacha suddenly died, and Ismail, his nephew, reigned -in his stead, with the title of Khédivé. He confirmed the concessions -of his predecessor and entered into new conventions. His confidence in -the work, which had appeared uncertain, was established by the able -report of Sir John Hawkshaw, the President of the Society of Civil -Engineers. This report, however, which was confirmed by the personal -inspection of Sir Henry Bulwer, aroused all the fears of the English -Government. The success of the work, at first problematical, now seemed -more than probable. A decisive blow must be struck; one that should be -fatal to the undertaking. - -Throughout Egypt, according to an ancient and still prevailing custom, -private and public work is executed by a system of forced labor, termed -Corvē. The conscription is limited to the period of one month, at a -fixed rate of wages. The company engaged to pay higher rates than -usual, and to supply food, lodging, medical attendance, and half pay -when sick. No sooner had twenty thousand men been collected on the -excavations, than a “howl went up from Exeter Hall.” Lord Stratford de -Redcliffe demanded of the Sultan “to stop the scandal.” - -The British Government were instantly seized with one of those sudden -spasms of morality, or humanity, which Lord Macaulay affirms has been -observed periodically to afflict the British people. - -The Sultan, who appears to have been a pliable tool in the hands of -English Envoys, issued an order abolishing the system of compulsory -labor, and disbanding all the fellahs employed by the company. - -This arbitrary and unjust interference had but one meaning, and seemed -likely to have but one result. The plea of humanity, advanced by a -Government which had overlooked the sacrifice of 1000 men in one day, -when that sacrifice had been made by their own injudicious advice, and -for their own benefit, could be nothing more than a manifest subterfuge. - -This vigorous handling of the political puppets on the diplomatic -chess-board proved how serious were Lord Palmerston’s apprehensions. It -was the old question which every age revives. In the past, the issue -had again and again been brought to the arbitrament of the sword. With -such antagonists as Palmerston on one side and de Lesseps and the -Silent Emperor upon the other, the duel was necessarily _ā l’outrance_. - -It was now evident that war alone could arrest the completion of the -maritime highway between the two seas. Was it the death of Palmerston -or the progress of peaceful arts that kept this question confined to -the field of diplomacy? - -Opposition only stimulated the energy and confirmed the determination -of de Lesseps. The controversy was referred to the decision of the -French Emperor. A smile, half machiavellian, must have flitted over -the face of his reticent Majesty when the question was submitted to -his Imperial arbitration. By his decision the Egyptian Government were -called on to pay, not unwillingly, an indemnity to the company for a -release from the obligation to furnish compulsory labor, and for the -retrocession of certain land grants and privileges of navigation. - -“The indomitable Lesseps did not despair.” After months of delay, he -collected laborers from all parts of Europe, and the work was resumed. - -The vigilance of the English opposition soon found another vulnerable -point. The Sultan was again persuaded to issue a firman denying the -right of the Viceroy to cede the land through which the canal was to -be excavated. This well-aimed blow caused a suspension of operations -for two years. Any man less able, self-reliant, or resolute than M. de -Lesseps would have succumbed.[1] - -The Emperor was induced to intervene. M. Thouvener, the French Minister -at Constantinople, was requested “to enlighten the mind of the Sublime -Porte as to the views and wishes of France.” - -The introduction of machinery now became a matter of necessity. Ten -millions of dollars were expended for this object, and forty enormous -dredges were soon at work upon the excavations. One of the novelties -in the construction of these machines was a provision for carrying -off the excavated material by means of a stream of water. One of the -workmen, it is said, noticed that when removed in this way the slimy -earth spread over a wide surface and became soon indurated, instead -of flowing back into the place of excavation. It also possessed the -further advantage of fixing the mobile sand. - -The total amount of earth removed amounted to about four hundred -million cubic yards. By working day and night, the machines of M. Borel -and Lavelley were able to remove 78,056 to 108,000 cubic meters per -month. - -Although the completion of the canal now seemed assured, the opposition -of the English Government continued up to the last moment. Every effort -was made to prejudice the Sultan and the Khédivé against the work, and, -by exciting the jealousy of the Sultan, to induce him to arrest the -excavations. - -After ten years of labor, this great work was completed. Upon the 17th -of November, 1869, the opening of the canal was inaugurated in the -presence of the Empress Eugenie and the Emperor of Austria, and of -princes, embassadors, and men of science from Europe and America. - -The Empress, leading the van of the fleet in her steam yacht, l’Aigle, -entered the canal amid salvos of artillery. The yards of the ships were -manned with sailors, every mast-head was decked with a flag, and the -bands played the martial airs of the assembled nations. The transit -between the two seas was safely made by the fleet. But the requisite -depth had not been attained. Seventeen and a half feet could be -carried through the canal. Since then the depth has been increased to -twenty-two feet, and ultimately will be twenty-six feet. - -The length of the canal is one hundred miles. The established -surface-width is about 328 feet, except in difficult cuttings, where it -is 190 feet. The least bottom width is 72 feet. The highest ground cut -through is at El Gúisr, where it is 85 feet; at Serapeum it is 62 feet; -and at Chalouf, near Suez, it is 56 feet. - -The excavation of the canal, although of considerable difficulty, -was exceeded by the necessity for creating artificial harbors at the -extremities. The harbor at Port Said, upon the Mediterranean, has the -general form of a triangle, the base resting on the shore and the -longer side on the west, protecting the entrance from the moving sand. -The longer arm, or mole, is 8,200 feet, extending to the 26 feet curve -of sounding. It is proposed to extend this mole 2,300 feet farther. -As this harbor is exposed to N. E. winds, an inside basin has been -constructed. The area of the outer harbor is equal to 400 acres, and -will permit twenty line-of-battle ships to swing freely at anchor. - -At the other extremity of the canal, a mole 2,550 feet in length -protects the channel, which has been dredged to the depth of 27 feet. -The mole at Suez differs from that at Port Said in construction; the -latter being formed of concrete blocks of 13 cubic feet, the former of -stone quarried from the neighboring mountain. - -The organization, equipment, sanitary regulations, and division of -labor among twenty thousand men, employed at one time, is full of -interest and instruction, but must be omitted in this place.[2] - -The following statement of receipts and expenditures, taken from a -recent periodical, deserves preservation: - -_Gross Realized Capital._ - - Shareholders’ capital $40,000,000 - Sale of bonds 19,999,980 - Egyptian convention 5,948,805 - Imperial arbitration 16,800,000 - Rates of exchange 1,294,260 - Various receipts received by the company 6,288,180 - ——————————— - Total capital $90,331,225 - - -The following is a summary of the expenditures up to the date of the -opening of the canal: - - General expenditures for preliminary surveys - from 1854 to 1859 $15,825,525 - General expenses of administration and negotiations - between France and Egypt 3,394,245 - Sanitary service, 1866-1869 121,410 - Telegraph service 34,000 - Transport service, boats, stock, buildings 1,644,435 - Payment of contractors for material 3,442,785 - Dredging machines and heavy plant 6,819,240 - Work-shops 844,150 - Works of construction, canal, and ports 43,534,330 - Miscellaneous 1,392,495 - Expenses of various branches of company management 3,841,050 - ——————————— - $80,893,665 - ——————————— - The average cost of the canal per mile is $808,936 - -[Illustration: SUEZ CANAL General Map] - -The balance on hand for the completion of the dredging is $9,437,560. -This sum will probably be sufficient to excavate the canal to the -uniform depth of 26 feet. - -The effect of the opening of the canal is felt in the revival of -maritime interests in the Levantine ports. Port Said is the depot of -seven companies, Russian, French, and Austrian. A Spanish company is -organizing with the intention of establishing a line between Barcelona -and the Philippine Islands, and an American company is preparing a -depot in the Mediterranean. - -In 1869, thirteen hundred and sixty-two ships, amounting to 637,440 -tons, entered Port Said. M. de Lesseps estimates that the annual -revenue from tolls on the tonnage passing through the canal will be -$12,000,000. - -The canal has conquered a peace. Its enemies have become its most -sanguine friends. The benefits it is destined to confer upon the -commerce of the world, and the changes in the present commercial -equilibrium of Europe, although important in their influence and -immediate in their effects, must be proportionate to the duration of -the canal as a highway for the commerce of the world. - -The circumstances affecting the permanence of the canal have been -so ably canvassed, that, apart from the intrinsic importance of the -question, they deserve attentive consideration. - -The ancient Pharaonic canal connected the Nile with the Red Sea, and -partly avoided the destruction threatened by the unceasing advance -of the sand dunes. The absence of harbors on the Mediterranean was -compensated by the channel of the Nile, which afforded a passage over -the bar for the light draft ships of that period. The French engineers, -confident in the resources of modern science, have boldly conquered the -difficulties which Egyptian engineers dared not encounter. It is well -known that the distinguished engineer, Robert Stephenson, pronounced -the work impracticable, and many cautious investigators have doubted -its permanence. - -The objections may be classed under two heads: - - - 1. To the permanency of the excavation of the canal. - 2. To the permanency of the harbors. - -The arguments relating to the duration of the canal are drawn from -history and the observations of travelers. - -“We can not approach history,” says M. de Lesseps, “without touching -on Suez.” Its records, fragmentary and uncertain, are hid in the mists -of five thousand centuries. The stream of its history, now lost, now -re-appearing, is joined in its course by the tributary traditions of -nearly all the Indo-Germanic and Semitic nations. The tramp of armies -and the desolation of conquest has alternated with periods of intense -activity in the arts, sciences, literature, and commerce. The Egyptian -name, once a synonym of the profoundest learning, is now only known -to us by an architecture which is still invested with a unique and -imposing grandeur. - -The value of a canal to afford transportation for the products of the -East occupied the attention of the Pharaohs at an early date. Since the -time of Rameses II, it has been repeatedly reconstructed and repaired. -This Pharaoh, who lived about the period of the Mosaic exodus (1400 B. -C.), was probably the Sesostris of Aristotle, Strabo, and Pliny. - -If the Sesostris of the 12th dynasty was the constructor of the canal, -its date would be carried back 2730 B. C. Its construction has also -been attributed to other Egyptian rulers, but with more certainty to -Nechao, B. C. 625. - -Sir G. Wilkinson accounts for this uncertainty by a very plausible -explanation. The sandy site of the canal required frequent excavation. -These operations gave to successive kings the credit of having -commenced the work which they only repaired. - -The canal used by the Romans was afterward closed, and subsequently -re-opened by the Caliph Omar. It was again closed for 134 years, when -it was once more rendered navigable by El Hakim, A. D. 1000. It appears -at this period to have extended to the Bitter Lakes before turning -toward the Nile. - -It again became filled with sand between the Nile and the Bitter -Lakes. Mohammed Ali closed it entirely, after having lost 10,000 men -from hunger, having hurried them into the desert without suitable -preparation. At a more recent period, 1000 men died in one day from the -same want of preparation, having been hurried into the desert, at the -request of the English authorities, to work on the railroad between -Suez and Cairo. - -Pliny affirms that the ancient canal had a width of 100 feet and -a depth of 40 feet as far as the Bitter Lakes, and the geological -evidences indicate that the Bitter Lakes were once connected with the -Red Sea. A stratum of salt, 8 to 10 feet thick, covers the bottom of -the Lakes, and sea-shells are found in them and between them and Suez. - -History for 3300 years bears testimony to the constant movement of the -sand, burying all obstructions and obliterating channels which have -lain in its path; and the statement of Herodotus, that Lower Egypt -is a gift of the Nile, is sustained by a large number of scientific -investigators, who maintain that ancient and modern Egypt was -reclaimed from an arm of the sea. When nature acts so constantly and -irresistibly in one direction, the difficulties of those who contend -with her can hardly be overstated. - -The winds of Libya, sweeping over the desert, bear the sands -irresistibly before them. The ruins of Isamboul and Palmyra are partly -buried or threatened by the sand waves. The base of the great Pyramids -are concealed, and the gigantic head of Memnon and Sphinx are partially -engulfed. The sand dunes near Ismailia move at the rate of ninety-eight -feet per annum. - -The following excellent description of the sand dunes is taken from -Mr. Mitchell’s report: “In the central part of the land of Goshen, -where there are broad plains covered with flints, solitary dunes are -seen, like golden islands, and they are objects of grace and beauty -in every detail. On near approach to one of them, the sands may be -seen traveling up the long rear slope before the wind, flying in the -air at the crest, and falling down the fore slope in a perpetual -cascade—everywhere in motion, but preserving always the same faultless -curves. Nor do these dunes leave a grain behind them to mark their -tracks. The homogeneous sands of which they are composed are as fine -as those usually seen in an hour-glass, and, like the latter, serve to -measure the lapse of time in their steady march. The prevailing winds -in this part of the desert blow from due north, and are more steady -than at Port Said or Suez. In consequence of this, the course of the -dunes is so nearly parallel to that of the canal, that their slow -approach can always be prepared for. They can at any time be fixed by -covering them with brushwood.” - -Between Lake Timseh and Port Said, it is estimated that 130,000 cubic -yards of sand will be swept into the canal annually. This will give -employment for one of the largest dredges for three or four months, -working twelve hours each day. This estimate is based on the work -done by one of Lavalley’s first-class dredges, which removed 120,000 -cubic yards per month, working day and night. But as the material -will be distributed in a thin stratum along the entire length of -this section of the canal, a longer period will be requisite for its -removal. The able engineers who conducted the operations of excavation -express confidence in their ability to keep the depth from decreasing. -The chief danger from this source, therefore, can only come from a -suspension of the work of the dredges. - - -2. Permanence of the harbors, particularly that of Port Said. - -The reports of Capt. Spratt, Royal Navy, and of Mr. Mitchell, U. S. -Coast Survey, supply very interesting information on this subject. M. -Lartet is now publishing, in the _Annales des Sciences Geologiques_, -his observations upon the Isthmus. From the map of M. Lartet it appears -that an arm of the Gulf of Suez once extended, by the way of the Bitter -Lakes, to the Mediterranean, and that, at the same time, the Gulf of -Akaba united the waters of the Red Sea and the Dead Sea. The endogenous -movement which raised the mountains of Gebel Attaka and the crystalline -rocks surrounding the north end of the Red Sea, placed the first -barrier between the seas, and, by a succession of seismic movements, -raised the cretaceous plateau of Egypt and Syria, or Palestine. - -The mouth of the Nile at this period must have emptied into the -Mediterranean, near the great Pyramid of Gizah; and here the river must -have begun to lay the foundation of modern Egypt along the border of -the cretaceous formation. - -Thus the geological record is in harmony with the traditions of -the Priests as handed down to us by Herodotus, “Egypt is a gift of -the Nile.” Within historic times, the elevating movement has been -inappreciable. The Nile still continues to roll down its plenteous -bounty of sand, and to spread unceasingly its desolating influence over -the plains of Suez and along the coast of Egypt as far as Syria. - -Capt. Pratt, in the Medina, made a careful survey of the coast, -sounding and dredging with sufficient minuteness to determine the -limit of Nile influence. Within this limit, the bottom was found to be -composed of siliceous sands, differing in no respect from the sands of -the desert about the Pyramids. Outside of the Nile sand, the bottom of -the sea was found to be composed exclusively of calcareous particles. -The suspended matter, which is greatest during the Nile floods, driven -eastward along the coast, accumulates upon the beach in the form of -dunes, and overwhelms the huts of the coast guard and the fishermen, -and, in twelve months, nearly buried the Mosque of Brulos. Commencing -its devastating march, it advances irresistibly toward Suez. - -The Nile brings down a prodigious quantity of sand, which is swept -into the river by the Libyan winds, and borne by the current to the -sea, mingled with fragments of pottery from the villages on the -banks. The quantity of sand brought into the sea has excited the -astonishment of the most experienced students of delta formations. The -Ganges, the Indus, the Dneipper, the Danube, and the Mississippi, the -Yang-Tse-Kiang, and the Hoang Ho bring down annually millions of tons -of solid matter to add to the accretions at their mouths. - -[Illustration: GEOLOGICAL MAP OF PALESTINE AND LOWER EGYPT] - -The whole amount carried yearly into the Gulf of Mexico by all the -passes of the Mississippi is seven hundred and fifty millions of cubic -feet, or a mass of one mile square and twenty-seven feet thick. “As -the cubical contents of the whole mass of the bar at the South-west -pass is equal to a solid of one mile square and four hundred and ninety -feet thick, it would require fifty-five years to form the bar as it now -exists.”[3] - -Since the time of Strabo the Nile has advanced the coast line of Egypt, -by its yearly contributions of sand, from four to six miles into the -sea. Any interruptions of the littoral currents greatly accelerates -this result. Such is the well-known effect of jetties and moles. Since -the construction of the mole at Port Said, the shore line has advanced -1213 feet in eight years. Eighty-eight feet of this distance was made -in the last six months. “If the shore line continues to advance,” Mr. -Mitchell remarks, “at any thing like its present rate, the dry land -will extend to the end of the mole in forty years. The shoaling of the -entrance to the harbor will keep pace with the advance of the shore -line, and before the end of twenty years an extension of the mole will -be necessary.” - -The silting up of the interior of the harbor by the sand which sifts -through the interstices of the concrete block is regarded by Mr. -Mitchell as a more serious evil. But as it may not be impracticable to -close these interstices, this danger does not seem comparable to that -which must arise from the unceasing eastward movement of the sands -brought down by the Nile. It was for this reason that Alexander placed -his city to the west of the mouth of the Nile. - -The boldness and skill displayed in the construction of the harbor of -Port Said may be appreciated from these facts. The excavation of the -canal presented comparatively little difficulty. The entire cost of the -canal and harbors was about forty-three and a half millions of dollars, -or more than half of the entire cost of the work, which includes the -expenses of hospitals, negotiations, surveys, machinery, and the -miscellaneous expenses of administration, amounting in the aggregate to -$80,893,665. - -The doubts of the permanent value of the Suez Canal, as expressed by -Lord Palmerston and Sir Robert Stephenson, do not appear to have been -without sound and reasonable foundation. It is evident that a few years -of war will, as in the days of the Pharaohs, Ptolemies, the Cæsars, and -the Caliphs, necessitate a reconstruction on a scale almost as great -as that which has recently challenged the admiration of the civilized -world. - -It is unnecessary to say any thing of the harbor of Suez. The -difficulties encountered at this point were much more easily conquered -than at Port Said. - -The Egyptian Government has provided excellent docks and every facility -for the repairing of ships at the southern terminus. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[1] For more detailed account of the difficulties and of the -preliminary work, the reader is referred to the pamphlets of Capt. -Methven, Pen. and Oriental Steamship Company; of J. N. Strouse, U. S. -N.; Mr. H. Mitchell, Coast Survey; Blackwood, Dec., 1869, and other -periodicals. - -[2] The reader is referred to the reports of the French engineers; to -the pamphlet of J. N. Nourse, U. S. N.; Blackwood, Dec., 1869; London -Times, and other periodicals. - -[3] See Delta Report of Generals Humphreys and Abbot. - - - - -CHAPTER II. - - - Influence of Commerce—Distances Reduced by the Suez - Canal—Tables showing the Gain of the United States - and European Ports—Navigation by way of Red Sea and - Good Hope—Napoleon III on Advantages of the American - Route—Darien and Suez Canals as parts of one system of - Navigation—Lieut. Maury on Darien Canal; its influence - on the Resources of the Basin of the Mississippi—Table - of Distances by Cape and Canal—Saving to the Commerce - of the World—Table showing how far the great Maritime - States are interested in the American Canal—Advantages - of Suez and Darien Canals. - -Statistics have been accumulated to show to what extent commerce will -be benefited by the Suez Canal. The question of choice of route is -not dependent on distance alone. The winds and currents are natural -advantages or dangers which the navigator skillfully avoids or employs. -Steam, while it enables a vessel to contend with wind and current, is -yet obliged to obey their dictates. The distance of coaling stations, -the large space occupied by fuel to the exclusion of freight, renders -steam desirable rather as an auxiliary than as the sole means of -propulsion. - -The Suez Canal has reduced the distances from European ports to India -about one-half. England derives an equal advantage, yet she has justly -regarded with apprehension the diversion of trade from the old route. -Anticipating the day when she would be compelled to acquiesce in the -opening of the new highway, she has shrewdly secured the military -command of the new course of trade which threatens her monopoly. - -For the United States, the distances to the East are reduced to -from 2000 to 4000 miles. But on account of winds and currents for -homeward-bound ships, the old route by way of Cape Horn is still -preferable. - -The following table, computed by M. de Lesseps, exhibits the distances -from European and American ports to Bombay: - -_Tables showing the Gain of U. S. and European Ports._ - - ════════════════╤════════╤════════╤══════════ - │ BY │ BY │ SAVING - PORTS. │ CAPE │ SUEZ │ EFFECTED - │ HORN. │ CANAL. │ BY CANAL. - ────────────────┼────────┼────────┼────────── - │ MILES. │ MILES. │ MILES. - Constantinople │ 14,760 │ 4,350 │ 10,410 - Malta │ 14,130 │ 4,990 │ 9,140 - Trieste │ 14,420 │ 5,660 │ 8,760 - Marseilles │ 13,675 │ 5,745 │ 7,930 - Cadiz │ 12,584 │ 5,384 │ 7,200 - Lisbon │ 12,960 │ 6,050 │ 6,910 - Bordeaux │ 13,670 │ 6,770 │ 6,900 - Havre │ 14,030 │ 6,830 │ 7,200 - London │ 14,400 │ 7,500 │ 6,900 - Liverpool │ 14,280 │ 7,380 │ 6,900 - Amsterdam │ 14,400 │ 7,500 │ 6,900 - St. Petersburg │ 15,850 │ 8,950 │ 6,900 - New York │ 15,000 │ 9,100 │ 5,900 - New Orleans │ 15,600 │ 9,000 │ 6,600 - ────────────────┴────────┴────────┴────────── - -The subjoined table contains distances from London, New York, and Port -Royal to certain Eastern ports, compared with distances to the same -ports from New York via the Pacific Railroad and Darien: - - ═══════════╤═════════╤═════════╤═══════════╤══════════╤═══════════ - │ LONDON, │NEW YORK,│PORT ROYAL,│ NEW YORK,│ NEW YORK, - ORIENTAL │ VIA │ VIA │ VIA │ VIA │ VIA - PORTS. │ SUEZ. │ SUEZ. │ SUEZ. │PAC. R. R.│ DARIEN. - ───────────┼─────────┼─────────┼───────────┼──────────┼─────────── - │ MILES. │ MILES. │ MILES. │ MILES. │ MILES. - Melbourne │ 11,280 │ 13,200 │ 13,700 │ 10,300 │ 10,400 - Shanghai │ 11,504 │ 12,500 │ 13,000 │ 8,850 │ 11,100 - Hong Kong │ 10,469 │ 11,700 │ 11,100 │ 9,300 │ 10,850 - Manila │ 9,639 │ 11,600 │ 12,200 │ 9,600 │ 11,500 - Singapore │ 8,239 │ 10,300 │ 10,800 │ 10,600 │ 12,800[4] - Batavia │ │ 10,500 │ 11,000 │ 11,000 │ 12,550 - Penang │ 7,859 │ 9,950 │ 10,430 │ 11,000 │ 12,800 - Calcutta │ 7,964 │ 9,700 │ 12,200 │ 12,150 │ 14,350 - Ceylon │ 7,946 │ 8,750 │ 9,250 │ 12,200 │ 14,300 - Yeddo │ │ │ │ │ 10,200 - Bombay │ │ 9,000 │ │ │ - Yokohama │ │ 11,504 │ │ │ - ───────────┴─────────┴─────────┴───────────┴──────────┴─────────── - -According to the first table, distances from the European and American -ports therein named are shortened one-half. According to the second -table, the distances to Oriental ports, from the great European and -American entrepôts, are greater by the Darien route; but by reason of -winds and currents, the voyage by the way of Suez is from four to five -days longer. - -In the Red Sea the prevailing winds are from the north, which retard -the steamers and compel the sailing ships to beat up to Suez. “From -Suez to Ceylon,” according to the _London Times_, “the winds are -unfavorable. From Point de Galle to Swan River, terrible hurricanes -sweep the Indian Ocean. Along the coast of New South Wales, violent -winds prevail from the westward, causing a prodigious sea to arise, -which nearly precludes navigation in that direction.” - -The route by way of Good Hope is beset by gales from the south-west and -north-west, rendering the return passage a matter of great uncertainty; -but by Darien or Panama route, going or returning, regular voyages and -smooth seas may be counted on with precision. - -For steam, but more especially for sailing vessels, the American route, -lying in the zone of the trade-winds, possesses special advantages. -Outgoing and returning ships may trim their sails to favorable winds; -and the experienced navigator may have the aid of confluent currents, -and enter the monsoons at greater advantage. - -Napoleon III, when a prisoner in Ham, thoroughly examined the -advantages of the American route. “In regard to the United States of -America,” he observes, “all the distances would be shortened 1400 miles -and fifteen days”——“Europe would gain forty-seven days in a voyage -to the coast of South America, while the United States would gain -sixty-two days. To China and Sidney, Europe would gain twenty-nine -days, and the United States twenty-four days.” - -But it is not as rivals that the two routes should be compared, but -as parts of the same system by which maritime nations are brought -into commercial union. The benefit which each route will confer upon -commerce is doubled by considering the effects of both together. The -one opens the gates to the East, the other to the West. While one route -is favorable to outward ships, the other affords equal advantages to -the homeward bound, so that in many cases the most desirable route -would lead to a circumnavigation of the globe. - -To appreciate the importance of such a system of navigation, and -exhibit some of the advantages of the American route, it may be well to -compare it with the old route, by the way of the Cape, which will still -remain the principal highway to the East. - -“The Englishman,” says Lieut. Maury, “meets the American in all the -markets of the world with the advantage of ten days or upward. Cut -through the Isthmus, and instead of some ten days’ sail or more, the -scale would be turned, and we shall have the advantage of some twenty -days’ sail, thus making a difference of thirty or forty days under -canvas.” The distance between New York, China, India, and Australia, -and the west coast of South America exceeds that by way of Cape Horn -from 8,000 to 14,000 miles. - -To the States lying in the great basin of the Mississippi, and to all -the cities situated on its navigable waters, the gain is much greater. -These parts of the continent, now secluded by their position from -direct trade with the west coast of South America and the Indies, will -be brought into closer commercial relations with these ports of the -world. With but one transshipment, the silk, teas, spices, and fabrics -of India, China, Japan, and the Pacific Islands may be landed on the -banks of the Mississippi, Missouri, and Ohio. - -The following tables, taken from the Report of Lieut. Maury to the -Committee on Naval Affairs, will show the sailing distance from New -York and Liverpool to the principal ports beyond and around Cape Horn -and the Cape of Good Hope. The distances to South and North Pacific -ports are greatly reduced by the Darien or Panama route. - - ═══════════════════════════════════╤════════════╤═══════════ - │ FROM │ FROM - │ LIVERPOOL. │ NEW YORK. - ───────────────────────────────────┼────────────┼─────────── - │ MILES. │ MILES. - To Calcutta, via Cape of Good Hope │ 16,000 │ 17,500 - Calcutta, via Cape Horn │ 21,500 │ 23,000 - Canton, via Cape Horn │ 20,000 │ 21,500 - Canton, via Cape of Good Hope │ 18,000 │ 19,500 - Valparaiso, via Cape Horn │ 11,400 │ 12,900 - Callao, via Cape Horn │ 12,000 │ 13,500 - Guayaquil, via Cape Horn │ 12,800 │ 14,300 - Panama, via Cape Horn │ 14,500 │ 16,000 - San Blas, via Cape Horn │ 16,300 │ 17,800 - Mazatlan, via Cape Horn │ 16,500 │ 18,000 - San Diego, via Cape Horn │ 17,000 │ 18,500 - San Francisco, via Cape Horn │ 17,500 │ 19,000 - ───────────────────────────────────┴────────────┴─────────── - -The following table shows the saving of time from New York by the new -route, via the Isthmus of Panama, as compared with the old routes, -via Cape Horn and Cape of Good Hope, to the places therein named, -estimating the distance which a common trading ship will sail per day -to be one hundred and ten miles, and calculating for the voyage out and -home: - - ════════════════════╤════════╤════════╤════════╤════════╤════════ - │DISTANCE│LENGTH │DISTANCE│LENGTH │DISTANCE - │ VIA │ OF │ VIA │ OF │VIA THE - FROM N. Y. TO │CAPE OF │PASSAGE │ CAPE │PASSAGE │ISTHMUS - │ GOOD │OUT AND │ HORN. │OUT AND │ OF - │ HOPE. │ HOME. │ │ HOME. │PANAMA. - ────────────────────┼────────┼────────┼────────┼────────┼──────── - │ MILES │ DAYS │ MILES │ DAYS │ MILES - Calcutta │ 17,500 │ 318 │ 23,000 │ 418 │ 13,400 - Canton │ 19,500 │ 354 │ 21,500 │ 390 │ 10,600 - Shanghai │ 20,000 │ 362 │ 22,000 │ 400 │ 10,400 - Valparaiso │ │ │ 12,900 │ 234 │ 4,800 - Callao │ │ │ 13,500 │ 244 │ 3,500 - Guayaquil │ │ │ 14,300 │ 260 │ 2,800 - Panama │ │ │ 16,000 │ 290 │ 2,000 - San Blas │ │ │ 17,800 │ 322 │ 3,800 - Mazatlan │ │ │ 18,000 │ 326 │ 4,000 - San Diego │ │ │ 18,500 │ 336 │ 4,500 - San Francisco │ │ │ 19,000 │ 344 │ 5,000 - Wellington, N. Z. │ 13,740 │ │ 11,100 │ │ 8,480 - Melbourne, Australia│ 13,230 │ │ 12,720 │ │ 9,890 - ────────────────────┼────────┼────────┼────────┼────────┼─────── - │LENGTH │ SAVING │ TIME │ SAVING │ TIME - │ OF │ IN │ SAVED │ IN │ SAVED - │PASSAGE │DISTANCE│ BY │DISTANCE│ BY - │OUT AND │OVER THE│ISTHMUS │ OVER │ISTHMUS - FROM N. Y. TO │ HOME. │ROUTE BY│ OVER │ THE │ OVER - │ │CAPE OF │ TIME │ ROUTE │TIME BY - │ │ GOOD │BY CAPE │ BY │ CAPE - │ │ HOPE. │ HOPE, │ CAPE │ HOPE, - │ │ │OUT AND │ HORN. │OUT AND - │ │ │ HOME. │ │ HOME. - ────────────────────┼────────┼────────┼────────┼────────┼──────── - │ DAYS │ MILES │ DAYS │ MILES │ DAYS - Calcutta │ 244 │ 4,100 │ 74 │ 9,600 │ 174 - Canton │ 192 │ 8,900 │ 162 │ 10,900 │ 198 - Shanghai │ 188 │ 9,600 │ 174 │ 11,600 │ 212 - Valparaiso │ 86 │ │ │ 8,100 │ 148 - Callao │ 62 │ │ │ 10,000 │ 182 - Guayaquil │ 50 │ │ │ 11,500 │ 210 - Panama │ 36 │ │ │ 14,000 │ 254 - San Blas │ 68 │ │ │ 14,000 │ 254 - Mazatlan │ 72 │ │ │ 14,000 │ 254 - San Diego │ 82 │ │ │ 14,000 │ 254 - San Francisco │ 90 │ │ │ 14,000 │ 254 - Wellington, N. Z. │ │ 5,260 │ │ 2,620 │ - Melbourne, Australia│ │ 3,340 │ │ 2,830 │ - ────────────────────┴────────┴────────┴────────┴────────┴──────── - -The following condensed statement, from tables carefully prepared by -an advocate of intermarine canals, exhibits some of the commercial -advantages depending upon the completion of the route: - - - _Table showing the saving to the trade of the world, in - insurance on vessels and cargoes, interest on cargoes, - saving of wear and tear of ships, and saving of wages, - provisions, etc., by using the Isthmus Canal_: - - United States $35,995,930 - England 9,950,348 - France 2,183,930 - Other countries 1,400,000 - ——————————— - Total yearly saving $49,530,208 - -Exports of Great Britain increased one hundred and seven per cent. in -ten years; exports of France increased one hundred and thirty per cent. -in ten years; exports of the United States increased ninety-three per -cent. in ten years. If the trade increases one hundred per cent. in -the next ten years, the saving to the world will then be ninety-nine -millions sixty thousand four hundred and sixteen dollars ($99,060,416) -per annum. - -Taking this statement as a basis, and representing the gross pecuniary -interest of the United States in the proposed canal as unity, the -saving to Great Britain will be one-fourth, to France one-eighteenth, -and to all other countries one-thirty-fifth. - -This preponderance of interest on the part of the United States may -be taken to imply a proportionate share in the cost. Such would -be a correct conclusion if our Government retained control of the -route. Surrendering the latter claim, she relinquishes with it her -proportionate liability, and is entitled to be received as one of the -contracting parties upon terms of equality. The respective shares of -the parties is, however, a proper subject for diplomatic arrangement. -But while the greatest saving accrues to the United States, the -absolute value of our oriental exports and imports is about equal -to that of Great Britain, and about double that of France and other -countries. - -Neutralization of the Isthmus is only, in appearance, a suspension -of the policy understood as the Monroe Doctrine. It can be made an -international recognition of that policy. Such objections, even if -well founded, sink into insignificance in comparison with the benefits -which must accrue to mankind at large. The United States has not shown -herself so incapable of adopting a policy in accordance with her high -destiny, as to justify a suspicion that she will ever by her acts -sanction the selfish theory that “nations may combine to oppress and -plunder, but rarely for any useful or benevolent purpose.” The progress -of events has already made her an arbiter in the destiny of nations, -and she can no longer, by an insular and anti-social policy, separate -herself from the interests of the great family of nations. Mutual and -liberal concessions in the generous spirit of our civilization, looking -to the extension of commerce, industry, arts, science, and religion -throughout the world, can alone lead to that harmonious coöperation -without which an interoceanic ship canal must remain forever -problematical. - -The above tables supply material for other important conclusions. -Eighteen vessels, sailing from as many different ports in East India, -China, Japan, Australia, and South America, would save the average -distance of 8,791 miles, equivalent to a voyage by sail of about eighty -days, or to between thirty-six and forty days by steam. - -Supposing the average tonnage of ships to be one thousand tons, then -three thousand and ninety-four steamships would be requisite to carry -the freight which would now seek the Isthmus annually. The saving of -time to trade and to each man would be about three and four-tenths -years to every generation of thirty-three years. The amount of tonnage -above mentioned would give employment to 86,632 seamen, giving to -them, by the new route, a saving of time in one generation amounting -to the aggregate of 294,548 years. The benefits being diffused among -all engaged or interested, directly or indirectly, the accession to -the time, wealth, and industry of so large a number of men is not only -a great economic and commercial advantage, but may be regarded as -participating in the nature of those beneficent, moral movements which -characterize the age. - -The annual saving to the trade of the world is shown to be -$49,530,208.00. The annual increase of the trade of Great Britain, -France, and the United States is together more than one hundred per -cent. The saving to the maritime powers in one year at the end of a -decade will be $99,060,416.00. Assuming the trade of the three powers -to increase in the same ratio, the total amount saved at the end of ten -years will be equal to the aggregate of the amounts saved each year, -and foots up as follows: - - Amount saved at end of first year $54,483,228.80 - “ “ “ second year 59,436,249.60 - “ “ “ third year 64,389,270.40 - “ “ “ fourth year 69,342,291.20 - “ “ “ fifth year 74,295,312.00 - “ “ “ sixth year 79,248,332.80 - “ “ “ seventh year 84,201,353.60 - “ “ “ eighth year 89,154,374.40 - “ “ “ ninth year 94,107,395.20 - “ “ “ tenth year 99,060,416.10 - ——————————————— - Entire amount saved in ten years $767,718,224.10 - -This result is verified by an estimate based upon the tonnage which -will be actually engaged in this trade: - - Maintenance of ship and crew of 1000 tons $500 per month. - Interest of 1½ per cent. on tonnage worth $17,000 255 “ - Insurance at 1 per cent. on value of ship worth - $18,000 180 “ - ———— - Saving per month $935 - Add reduction of insurance upon ship and cargo - at 1 per cent. 350 - ———— - Total saving per month $1285 - -The annual saving for each ship will be $15,420, giving as the -aggregate saved upon the tonnage which would pass the Isthmus the sum -of $47,709,480, and the saving of one year at the end of a decade -as $95,418,960, a sum sufficiently near the first to establish its -correctness. - -The following tables were compiled by Mr. F. W. Kelley, of New York, -and were intended to exhibit the effect upon the trade of the world by -the completion of the canal through the Isthmus: - - _Table showing the trade of the U. S. that would pass - through the Isthmus Canal, if now finished. Taken - from the official returns for 1857._ - ════════════════════════════════════════╤═════════════╤════════════ - │ EXPORTS AND │ - COUNTRIES TRADED WITH. │ IMPORTS. │ TONNAGE. - ────────────────────────────────────────┼─────────────┼──────────── - Russian North American Possessions │ $ 126,537 │ $ 5,735 - Dutch East Indies │ 904,550 │ 16,589 - British Australia and New Zealand │ 4,728,083 │ 52,105 - British East Indies │ 11,744,151 │ 177,121 - French East Indies │ 98,432 │ 3,665 - Half of Mexico │ 9,601,063 │ 34,673 - Half of New Granada │ 5,375,354 │ 131,708 - Central America │ 425,081 │ 36,599 - Chile │ 6,645,634 │ 63,749 - Peru │ 716,679 │ 193,131 - Ecuador │ 48,979 │ 1,979 - Sandwich Islands │ 1,151,849 │ 33,876 - China │ 12,752,062 │ 123,578 - Other ports in Asia and Pacific │ 80,143 │ 4,549 - Whale Fisheries │ 10,796,090 │ 116,730 - California to East United States │ 35,000,000 │ 861,698 - ├─────────────┼──────────── - Value of cargoes │$100,294,687 │ $ 1,857,485 - Value of ships, at $50 per ton │ 92,874,250 │ - ├─────────────┼──────────── - Total value of ships and cargoes │$193,168,937 │ $92,874,250 - ────────────────────────────────────────┴─────────────┴──────────── - -“Whale ships and coasting vessels have been estimated generally -throughout this appendix at forty dollars ($40) per ton. The United -States and European commerce around the Capes is conducted in -first-class ships, which often cost eighty dollars ($80) per ton. Fifty -dollars ($50) have therefore been taken as the fair average value in -the construction of this table, which does not include coasting trade.” - - _Table showing the trade of England that would pass - through the Isthmus Canal, if now finished. Taken - from the official returns for 1856._ - ════════════════════════════════════════╤═════════════╤════════════ - │ EXPORTS AND │ - COUNTRIES TRADED WITH. │ IMPORTS. │ TONNAGE. - ────────────────────────────────────────┼─────────────┼──────────── - Half of Mexico │$ 2,775,137 │$ 11,833 - Half of Central America │ 1,244,817 │ 5,615 - Half of New Granada │ 2,437,605 │ 10,188 - Chile │ 15,486,110 │ 118,311 - Peru │ 20,473,520 │ 244,319 - Ecuador │ 360,015 │ 1,820 - China ┐ Outward; only ┌ │ 7,077,390 │ 68,530 - Java ├ 40 days saved ┤ │ 3,821,410 │ 16,003 - Singapore ┘ by the canal └ │ 4,364,070 │ 16,500 - Australia and New Zealand │ 78,246,095 │ 522,426 - Sandwich Islands │ 520,560 │ 1,950 - California │ 2,378,105 │ 11,800 - ├─────────────┼──────────── - Value of trade │$139,184,834 │$ 1,029,295 - Value of ships, at $50 per ton │ 51,464,750 │ - ├─────────────┼──────────── - Total value of trade and ships │$190,649,584 │$51,464,750 - ────────────────────────────────────────┴─────────────┴──────────── - - _Table showing the trade of France that would pass - through the Isthmus Canal, if now finished. Taken - from the official returns for 1857._ - ═══════════════════════════════════╤═════════════╤═══════════════ - │ │ - │ EXPORTS AND │ - COUNTRIES TRADED WITH. │ IMPORTS. │ TONNAGE. - ───────────────────────────────────┼─────────────┼─────────────── - Chile │ $10,000,000 │ $25,688 - Peru │ 13,160,000 │ 35,096 - Half of Mexico │ 2,790,000 │ 10,004 - Half of New Grenada │ 1,090,000 │ 2,389 - Ecuador │ 440,000 │ 1,651 - Bolivia │ 100,000 │ 1,000 - California │ 2,073,859 │ 8,997 - ┐ ┌ │ │ - China ├ Outward only ┤ │ 2,180,000 │ 2,028 - Dutch East Indies ┘ └ │ 4,440,000 │ 20,400 - Sandwich Islands │ 2,000,000 │ 4,119 - Philippine Islands │ 1,000,000 │ 1,463 - Australia │ 19,800,000 │ 50,000 - ├─────────────┼─────────────── - Value of cargoes │ $59,073,859 │ $162,735 - Value of ships at $50 per ton │ 8,136,750 │ - ├─────────────┼─────────────── - Total value │ $67,210,609 │ $8,136,750 - ───────────────────────────────────┴─────────────┴─────────────── - -The value of the tonnage which would take the Darien route is, -according to the above table, $152,475,750, and the total value of -exports and imports passing the same way is: - - England $193,168,939 - United States 190,649,584 - France 67,210,609 - ———————————— - Total value of trade passing the Isthmus $451,029,132 - -But the aggregate amount of British imports and exports from and to -India and China is $378,587,122, giving the value of the trade which -would pass through the Suez and Darien Canals $636,447,315, yearly. - -The rapidly growing trade between Levantine ports and India would take -the Suez route, but between the European ports and the Pacific coast of -North and South America, and between the east and west coasts of these -two continents, the American route would be exclusively employed. - -In selecting a route to oriental ports it is evident, from the facts -of physical geography, as stated by Lieut. Maury, Napoleon III, and -the writer in the _London Times_, that the navigator seeking to make a -rapid voyage would adopt the American route both going and returning, -except, perhaps, between Levantine and Indian ports. Between French, -English, Levantine, and Indian ports, the outward voyage by way of -Darien, or Panama, and homeward by way of Suez would, in many cases, be -favorable to the quickest trip. - -The Suez Canal was built by French talent, French energy, French -machinery, and French money. England and the Mediterranean States -participate in the benefit. But the larger share of the profit belongs -to France, by reason of her ports and industrial resources; and so far -as France and the Levant enter into a direct trade with India, so far, -it has been supposed, will the value of trade between Great Britain and -India be impaired. - -We have spoken of the piercement of the American Isthmus as an -international work. It should rather be the work of American energy, -American talent, and American money. It is part of the American -continent. No foreign nation can have the same military control of -it that Great Britain now has of the Suez Canal. The benefit of its -construction, although shared by the maritime powers, will be most -important to the Americas, and by reason of resources, organization, -and position, especially to the United States. It deserves -consideration as an American project. - -FOOTNOTE: - -[4] 17,738 miles during S. W. monsoon. For a part of this table I am -indebted to Com. B. F. Sands, U. S. N. - - - - -CHAPTER III. - - - The Canal considered as an American Project - exclusively—Currents and Winds—Resources of the Basins - of the Rivers of the Gulf and Caribbean Sea—Their - Productive Capacity compared with the Mediterranean Basins. - -Let the reader refer to Berghaus’s map of winds and currents, and any -map of the alluvial basins of the river systems of Europe and America. -He will observe that the Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico constitute -but one sea, partially divided by the West Indies and Cuba, which, -stretching toward Yucatan, is separated from that part of Central -America by a channel 100 miles wide and 6000 feet deep. - -The equatorial current, crossing the ocean with the trade-winds, enters -the Caribbean Sea, and, passing between Cuba and Yucatan into the Gulf -of Mexico, flows out through the Strait of Florida. Ships from the east -following this current are led in the path of favorable winds, both -going and returning. - -The Pacific trade-winds and equatorial current are equally favorable to -the outward and homeward bound voyager. The skillful navigator shapes -his course north of the equatorial current when returning from China to -San Francisco or Panama. - -The Humboldt and Mexican currents aid the coastwise trade. Thus, by the -converging winds and currents, this great intertropical sea seems to be -designated by nature as the future commercial center of the world. - -The two American seas have been styled by Lieut. Maury as the heart of -the continent. Its two compartments have been compared to the auricle -and ventricle of the human heart, through which, in regular pulsations, -by unceasing systole and dyastole, the ocean currents find constant -entrance and exit, and circulate through all the world-arteries their -vivifying influence. - -Pursuing the analogy, the two continents, from their general shape -and the alimentary part they perform, may not inaptly be compared to -the lungs, which convert the blood of commerce into the nutrient and -productive elements which contribute to the health and growth of the -nationalities of two continents. - -The rivers having their natural outlet in the Caribbean Sea and the -Gulf of Mexico, bring into commercial union two regions producing all -the commodities of the globe. The rivers of North America bear to the -Gulf the successive harvests of the temperate zone, and receive in -return the fruits, woods, dyes, drugs, spices, coffee, cotton, and -tobacco of intertropical America. - -No part of the globe combines so many natural advantages as are found -united around this body of water. Its shores present every advantage of -soil, climate, vegetation, and convenient harbors likely to attract an -enterprising and commercial people. The table lands of Mexico, Yucatan, -Guatemala, Honduras, and Columbia afford the most salubrious climate, -scenery of the rarest beauty and sublimity, equable temperature, and an -endless succession of fruits and harvests. Mountains of perpetual snow -look down on plains of unceasing verdure. All that is requisite for the -support of life grows spontaneously. - -The descriptions of Humboldt represent the table lands as suitable -to the highest development of the race. One wonders that the tide of -immigration, guided by the rational instinct for superior advantages, -has not filled every bay and estuary and overspread the plains; or, -sweeping down from the north, the Anglo-Americans have not taken -possession, as the hardy races of the North of Europe overran the -degenerate mixture of nations which overspread the northern shores of -the Mediterranean. - -Those portions of the world which possess the finest climate, whose -soil returns the largest yield from the least amount of labor, are held -by degenerate and effete representatives of a moribund civilization. - -In America no alpine barrier interrupts communication with the -interior, but an indefinite expanse of plains, prairies, and table -lands stretch away to the north, or form broad plateau, as in Central -and South America. - -Millions of square miles of arable lands are intersected by rivers -of unrivaled extent. The Mississippi, rising in such proximity to -the northern lakes as to make their shores tributary to the trade of -its valley, flows through twenty degrees of latitude before reaching -the Gulf of Mexico. The Amazon, nearly at right-angles with the -Mississippi, developing its course chiefly in longitude, bears the -varied products of its valley to the ocean, where the equatorial -current makes it tributary to the Caribbean Sea. The Amazon is more -directly connected with this sea by the Orinoco, with which it is -united by the Rio Negro. Humboldt surveyed the channel joining the two -rivers, and ascertained the feasibility of a navigable channel between -them at high water. - -The different positions of the main commercial arteries of the two -continents—the one extending through temperate latitudes, the other -through tropical longitudes—supply the greatest variety of commodities -for commercial interchange. The Mediterranean system, finding its most -extensive development in longitude, is limited in the variety of its -products by the climatic uniformity of one zone. While American rivers -flow through twenty-five degrees of latitude, the European rivers of -the Mediterranean extend through but ten degrees. - -Berghaus’s map supplies data for a comparison of the river system -of the two great continent-bounded seas of the Eastern and Western -Hemispheres: - - SQUARE MILES. - Area of the Mississippi basin, including the basins ┐ - of its tributaries, the Missouri, Ohio, Arkansas, ├ 2,231,000 - Red River, etc. ┘ - Rio del Norte 180,000 - ┌ Magdelina 72,000 - South American basins ┤ Orinoco 250,000 - └ Amazon 1,512,000 - ————————— - Entire area of basins which drain into the Gulf of - Mexico and Caribbean Sea 4,245,000 - - -_Area of the Basins of the Mediterranean Systems of Rivers._ - - SQUARE MILES. - European, Euxine, and Caspian 1,890,000 - Basin of the Nile 520,000 - ————————— - Area of basins of the Mediterranean rivers 2,410,000 - -Area of basin of the river system of the Gulf of Mexico and the -Caribbean Sea is 4,245,000 square miles, a productive area nearly -double that of the Mediterranean, which it exceeds by 1,835,000 square -miles. - -In the extent of its navigable rivers, the difference is -proportionately large. The Mississippi and its tributaries constitute -a continuous channel for steam navigation of 12,000 miles in extent, -which would be nearly doubled by reckoning the length of the navigable -channels at the period of high water. - -The river system of the Mediterranean, Euxine, and the Caspian, to -which may be added that of the Nile, will not together exceed 5000 -miles, or less than half the length of navigable channels of the -American system. - -The natural advantages of the Mediterranean of America may be summed -up as follows: with double the productive area, it has capacity for a -greater variety of products, by reason of its variety of climate; it -has double the extent of navigable rivers, which pour their bounties -into the same sea; and not only are the rivers and continents tributary -to this region, but the ocean currents and winds, converging at the -same point, bring the products of the Orient to exchange for those of -the New World. - -In a letter addressed to Mr. Rockwell, M. C., at that time secretary of -the special committee to whom was referred a resolution of Congress, -asking for information respecting routes to the Pacific, Lieut. Maury -has, with signal ability and in not too glowing language, sketched the -future of the American Mediterranean, (which is destined to surpass its -European prototype,) whose fine harbors will become the marts of an -opulent trade and the centers of a higher standard of civilization. - -These desirable ends will be greatly accelerated by the intermarine -canal between the two seas, by which the trade of China and Japan may -meet the commodities of Europe— - - “Argosies of stately sails, - Pilots of the purple twilight, dropping down with costly bales,” - -and the products brought down by the Mississippi and the Amazon into -the Gulf of Mexico. - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - - - Effect of the Canal on the Interest of the Valley of the - Mississippi—Pacific Railroad as a Rival of the Isthmean - Canal—Rates of Freight on Ocean, Lakes, Rivers, Canals, - and Railroads—San Francisco and the Trade of China - and Japan—Considerations of General Interest—Probable Revenue. - -The products of the Valley of the Mississippi and its tributaries -may be collected at points along the river, to be shipped direct for -China, Japan, Australia; and the products of the Orient may be brought, -without breaking bulk, to Galveston, New Orleans, Mobile, Pensacola, -Appalachicola, and even Memphis, Cairo, St. Louis, Louisville, and -Cincinnati, thence to be distributed by the river system, which extends -throughout the States of the South, and reaches even to the borders of -British America. With one, or at most two, transshipments, the produce -of the Indies may be transported, by the way of the Illinois river, or -the projected improvement of the Fox and Wisconsin rivers, to Chicago -and Lake Michigan, thence to be distributed throughout the shores of -the northern lakes. - -Teas, silks, Japanese and East India goods may be transported by way of -the ship canal and the Mississippi river, and delivered at St. Louis at -one-third or one-fourth the cost of transportation of the same articles -by the Pacific railroad. While the Pacific railroad is a great national -highway, bringing into political and commercial union two great -sections of the country, building up cities, opening mines, bringing -under cultivation a vast extent of arable land along its route, the -proposed canal across the American Isthmus must be the sole dispenser -of the bulkier products of China and the Indies. - -The question may be asked how far the railroads constructed and to be -constructed between the Atlantic and Pacific, especially within the -limits of the United States of America, may supersede the commercial -advantages which would result from the canalization of the Isthmus? - -Trade has always increased in proportion to the facilities for -transportation; and it is evident that, even in the most populous -country, the reciprocal relation of production and consumption may be -increased by a better organization and a more judicious application -of labor. In all cases of competition between railroads with canal, -lake, or coast trade, the result has been the reduction of rates and -the increase in the quantity of material transported. Two railroads, -American and Canadian, skirt the shores of the Northern Lakes, making, -with the line of lake steamers, three competing lines. The consequence -of this rivalry has been a reduction upon freight during the summer -months, to enable the two roads to compete with the lake route and -canal. - -To exhibit the relative cost of different methods of transportation, a -statement is subjoined. The following table, compiled from different -sources, exhibits the cost per ton per mile of transportation of -freight upon the ocean, lakes, rivers, canals, and railroads: - - ════════════════════════════════════════════════╤═════════════════ - TRANSPORTATION BY │PER TON PER MILE. - ────────────────────────────────────────────────┼────────┬──────── - │ CENTS. │ MILES - Ocean—long voyage │ │ 1 - Ocean—short “ │ │ 2 to 4 - Lakes—long “ ┐ │ │ 2 - Lakes—short “ ├ U. S. │ │ 3 to 4 - ┘ │ │ - St. Lawrence River │ │ 3 - Hudson River │ │ 2½ - Ohio River—long voyage │ 1 │ 1.54 - Ohio River—short “ │ 1 │ 3.6 - Missouri River—long voyage │ │ 8.37 - Missouri River—short “ │ 2 │ 0.1 - Mississippi River—long voyage │ │ 5.07 - Mississippi River—short “ │ │ 8.50 - Erie Canal enlargement │ │ 4 - Railways transporting coal │ 1 to │ 6 - Reading Railroad transporting coal │ │ 9.71 - Reading Railroad transporting merchandise │ │ 4.468 - Railways—ordinary grades │ 1 │ 2½ - ┌ ┐ │ │ - Pacific Railroad ┤ for transporting different ├ │ 3 │ 2.8 - └ kinds of freight. ┘ │ 6 │ 0.6 - Suez Canal—$2 per ton, transit of 100 miles │ 2 │ 00 - Proposed Panama Canal—$1 per ton, │ │ - transit of 50 miles │ 1 │ 00 - ────────────────────────────────────────────────┴────────┴──────── - -The railroad rates above given have been established upon thoroughfares -favorable for the attainment of a minimum. But upon all roads to be -constructed between the Atlantic and Pacific, much higher rates must -prevail for many years. Hurried construction, through a wilderness -deficient in material and obstructed by hostile savages, must increase -the cost of construction. For the same reason, the execution of -the work is likely to be defective and the location of the route -imperfect. The expense of alteration and repair must be proportionately -increased. The cost of stations, machine shops, depots of fuel, and -supply of water must far exceed the disbursements for the same objects -in a settled country, possessing the advantages of skilled labor and -convenient transportation. - -To meet the additional expense, the rates for passengers and freights -will have to be increased to probably six or eight times the value -assigned for ordinary grades. - -On the other hand, ocean transportation by way of the Isthmean Canal, -collecting by tolls enough to pay the cost of repair—say one dollar per -ton transit, or one cent per ton per mile for fifty miles—would be but -one-fourth the average rate per ton per mile for the three thousand -miles of transportation on the Pacific Railroad. - -Passengers will always take the quickest route. Valuable packages of -goods, gold, and silver, and even teas and small packages of costly -silks, will be transported by the railroad. The Pacific coast and -the interior country lying between the head of navigation of the -tributaries of the Mississippi, will receive the commodities of the -East chiefly through the port of San Francisco. - -The following table shows the relative distances of San Francisco and -London from Oriental ports: - - ═══════════════╤═════════╤═════════════╤══════════════╤═════════ - ORIENTAL PORTS.│ LONDON, │SAN FRANCISCO│ SAVING BY │SAVING BY - │VIA SUEZ.│ DIRECT. │SAN FRANCISCO.│ LONDON. - ──────────────┼─────────┼─────────────┼──────────────┼───────── - │ MILES. │ MILES. │ MILES. │ MILES. - Melbourne │ 11,281 │ 7,902 │ 3,379 │ - Yokohama │ 11,504 │ 7,520 │ 6,984 │ - Shanghai │ 10,469 │ 5,555 │ 4,914 │ - Hong Kong │ 9,669 │ 6,355 │ 3,314 │ - Manila │ 6,939 │ 6,135 │ 3,504 │ - Singapore │ 8,239 │ 7,785 │ 454 │ - Penang │ 7,856 │ 8,165 │ │ 306 - Calcutta │ 7,946 │ 9,665 │ │ 1,719 - Ceylon │ 8,646 │ 9,378 │ │ 2,732 - ───────────────┴─────────┴─────────────┴──────────────┴───────── - -From the above table it is evident that England will have a formidable -rival for the trade of the East in the Pacific ports, and the interior -which they will be called on to supply. - -It is manifest that an intermarine canal is not impracticable to -American talent and energy. It can undoubtedly be executed by -international coöperation. It is demanded by the common interest, -commercial, political, and social, of all peoples. It is supported by -humanitarian considerations, immediate in their influence, broad and -practical in their relations to the interests of society. - -The chief obstacle to its execution is its cost, which would be nearly -double that of the Suez Canal. Mr. Kelly estimates that 3,090,000 tons -would pass through the American canal yearly. Assuming that its total -cost will be 150 millions of dollars, the revenue from tolls, at the -rate of one cent per ton per mile, would amount to nearly twenty per -cent. of the entire outlay. - -No work, so costly nor fraught with such stupendous consequences, has -ever been attempted by man. The history of civilization is the history -of the efforts of man to assert the right and to increase the means of -individual development. The monuments of science, skill, and industry, -left by ancient nations to perpetuate the names and conquests of Kings -and Pharaohs, were wrung by oppression from suffering men. - -To us is left the opportunity for a more extended organization—a -combined world movement—in the interest of science and religion, for -the extension of liberty, and for the diffusion of civilization among -the races of mankind. - -Less than the cost of one year of war, will establish for all time—only -to be shaken by a paroxysm of nature—this enduring monument of peace -and good will, and will secure to the United States a conquest pregnant -with vast moral and political possibilities. It is an object worthy of -consideration. - -Fifty years ago the Pacific Railroad, the Panama Railroad, the Mt. -Cenis Tunnel, the International Telegraph and the Suez Canal, were -visionary schemes. It seemed the acmé of poetical fiction when the -poet spoke of girdling the earth in forty minutes, as the work of -supernatural agency. Sir Humphrey Davy, making science the basis of -fiction, attempted to arrive at some conception of the composition of -distant planets and the nature of their inhabitants. We can now send -a message across the Atlantic in a minute, and know with certainty -something of the composition of planets, stars, and nebulæ. These -achievements have become the common property of the civilized world. - -The piercement of the Isthmus does not involve greater practical nor -intellectual difficulties. Neither science, ability, nor energy, is -wanting. Conviction of its utility, sufficiently wide spread to secure -the popular good will, and leading to a national movement in favor of -combined international action, will secure the early completion of this -great marine highway. - -To secure popular favor it seems only necessary to exhibit the material -advantages which must flow from its execution. Some of the facts, -showing how far the completion of the canal would affect the commerce -of the world, have been stated. - -A small space may be given to the probable revenue. The moderate -estimate given in Admiral Davis’s report may be assumed as a basis, -which may be safety taken as doubling itself in ten years. - -The tonnage which would pass the Isthmus yearly is, at one dollar per -ton toll, $3,094,070. - - At end of the first year $ 3,403,477 - “ “ second “ 3,712,884 - “ “ third “ 4,022,291 - “ “ fourth “ 4,331,698 - “ “ fifth “ 4,641,105 - “ “ sixth “ 4,950,512 - “ “ seventh “ 5,259,919 - “ “ eighth “ 5,569,326 - “ “ ninth “ 5,878,733 - “ “ tenth “ 6,188,140 - ——————————— - Gross receipts for tolls during ten years $47,958,085 - -This estimate is undoubtedly less than the revenue which will be -received. - -No conjectural estimate is made of the probable development of the -agricultural and mineral wealth of the valleys of the Mississippi and -the Amazon, of the shores of the Gulf of Mexico, Caribbean Sea, and -Pacific coast of America. And yet, in attempting to form an idea of the -probable revenue and actual value of this canal, all the industrial -resources called into being by its influence should be taken into -consideration. It is like opening the gate to commerce, which, for -centuries, man has struggled to unlock. - -No event in history has been followed by more marvelous consequences -than the discovery of Columbus. So closely is man bound up with matter, -that every conquest of nature not only adds to his material comfort, -but opens new fields for the moral and intellectual progress of the -race. America not only opened new industrial resources, but afforded -the population of Europe an opportunity to escape from the social, -moral, and physical oppression of caste, bigotry, and capital, which -had become intolerable. - -If we could lift the veil which conceals the future, and could see “the -vision of the world and the wonder that will be,” it is not improbable -that we should see the vast elements of progress latent in the American -continents, working out their legitimate and logical results, as -wonderful as those which have transpired since the colonization of -America. - -We should see the industrial resources—which have drawn thither in -the struggle for existence the most energetic of the races of the -globe—giving occupation to a happy and united people. The hum of -industry, and the din of the steam hammers, would mingle together -with smoke of furnaces and of factories, above the inexhaustible coal -fields of Pennsylvania, Virginia, Illinois, and Iowa. The grain of -Kentucky, Ohio, Indiana, and Kansas would be shipped to New Orleans, -to be exchanged for the cotton and sugar of the South, and the coffee, -dyes, and tobacco of Costa Rico, Havana, and Ambelema; the magnificent -table lands of Mexico, Guatemala, Yucatan, and the plateau of Bogotá, -occupied by a people more highly cultivated and capable of appreciating -the grandeur of the scenery and salubrity of the climate, and of -utilizing the fertility of the soil and the physical advantages of -those most favored regions. - -Opulent cities would spring up in the bays of Tampa, Mobile, and -Pensacola. New Orleans, Galveston, and Vera Cruz would rival Marseilles -and ancient Venice. From the ports of Carthagena, Sabanilla, Maracaibo, -and Para, would be shipped the produce of the valleys of the Magdelina -and the Amazon. Great as would be the transformations effected by these -changes, they would be less than those which have transformed the -continent of America into a congeries of civilized States. - -Such speculations have a sober basis of fact. They are not wholly -useless if they attract the attention of those who have more time -for patient investigation. Sufficient has been said to show that the -objects to be attained merit consideration. - - - - -CHAPTER V. - - Admiral Davis’s Report—Table of the Tunnels of the - different Isthmean Routes—Altitude of Ridge at - Darien—Comparative Cost of Canals with and without - Tunnels—Lift Locks and Thorough Cut—Tide in the Atlantic - and Pacific—Moderate Lockage can not Obstruct the - Navigation—Gisborne on Thorough Cut—His Error as to - Velocity of Water—Objections to Strait—Tabular Statement - of the Cost of Tunnels, English, French, German, and - American—Tunnel of Mont Cenis—Hoosac Tunnel—Profiles - of Mont Cenis and Hoosac Tunnels—Dimensions of Ship - Tunnel—Cost of Open Canal—General Michler’s Report—Guard - Locks Necessary—Cost of System of Lift Locks—Conclusions - Supported by Garella and Michel Chevalier. - -In compliance with a resolution of the Senate, dated March 19, 1866, -we have an admirable report from Admiral Davis. In this report the -relative merit of different lines is exhibited; carefully prepared -tables, showing the amount of freight which would pass the Isthmus; a -list of ninety publications and fourteen maps, are appended. Ten of -these maps, based on recent surveys, supply much valuable information. - -“It is to the Isthmus of Darien,” says Admiral Davis, “that we must -look for a solution of the question of an interoceanic ship canal.” And -he quotes from Airian, “who has made a careful study of this subject,” -the assertion that, “with regard to the Cordillera, in proportion as it -advances, proceeding from the base of the Isthmus, it descends a good -deal, and is only, so to speak, a range of hills or isolated peaks, the -bases of which are intersected by ravines, which point out to engineers -the true route of the canal. The Indians in the neighborhood of -Caledonia Bay make use of these passages. One of them is elevated fifty -metres (164 feet), and is covered with a luxuriant growth of mahogany, -palm, ebony, and other trees.” “This description,” Admiral Davis -remarks, “is not based on actual measurement, but from probabilities -deduced from M. Garella’s survey of another part of the Isthmus, and -from data, equally conjectural, drawn from the published statements of -Messrs. Cullen and Gisborne.” - -A thorough exploration may justify this conjecture, but no data -exists for fixing the absolute altitude at 164 feet. The value of the -statements of Messrs. Cullen and Gisborne may be contested. - -It will be seen from the altitude given in the table below, that -however correct in point of fact these opinions may be, they are not -sustained by the figures taken from the maps accompanying the Admiral’s -report: - - _Table showing the length of Railroads and Canals, - length of Tunnels, altitudes of Summits, estimated - cost of some of the lines proposed for uniting the - two Oceans, from actual surveys_: - ═══════════════════════╤═══════╤════════════╤════════╤═════════ - │ │ LENGTH │ LENGTH │ALTITUDES - ROUTES. │LENGTH.│ TO BE │ OF │ OF - │ │CONSTRUCTED.│TUNNELS.│ SUMMIT. - ───────────────────────┼───────┼────────────┼────────┼───────── - │ MILES │ MILES │ MILES │ FEET - Tehuantepec │ 190 │ │ │ 855 - “ │ │ │ │ 843 - Honduras │ 234 │ 234 │ │ 2956 - Nicaragua to Realijo │ 298 │ 160 │ │ 174 - “ “ Brito │ 194 │ │ │ 600 - Panama │ 53⅔ │ │ 3.7 │ 459 - “ │ 48 │ 48 │ │ 280 - San Blas │ 30 │ │ 7 │ 1500 - Darien to San Miguel │ 42 │ │ 7 to 8 │ 980 - “ “ │ │ │ │ 1020 - “ Lara to Sucubti │ │ │ │ 610? - Atrato to Humboldt Bay │ 126 │ │ 3½ │ - “ “ “ │ 149⅔ │ 52⅔ │ 2½ │ 970 - “ to Cupica │ │ │ │ - ───────────────────────┼───────┴────┬───────┴─┬──────┴───────────── - │ │ CANAL │ AUTHORITIES - ROUTES. │ ESTIMATED │ OR │ AND - │ COST. │RAILROAD.│ REMARKS. - ───────────────────────┼────────────┼─────────┼──────────────────── - Tehuantepec │$ 16,900,000│ Canal. │ M. Moro. - “ │ 7,847,896│Railroad.│ J. J. Williams. - Honduras │ │ Canal. │ Trautwine. - Nicaragua to Realijo │ 20,000,000│ “ │ Napoleon III. - “ “ Brito │ 32,000,000│ “ │ O. W. Childs. - Panama │ 27,000,000│ “ │ M. N. Garella. - “ │ 50,000,000│ “ │ Col. G. W. Hughes. - San Blas │ │ “ │ McDougal. - Darien to San Miguel │ 65,000,000│ “ │ Gisborne. - “ “ │ │ “ │ Prevost & Strain. - “ Lara to Sucubti │ │ “ │ Bourdial. - Atrato to Humboldt Bay │ 145,000,000│ “ │ Kennish. - “ “ “ │ 134,450,154│ “ │ Lt. Michler, U.S.A. - “ to Cupica │ 325,000,000│ “ │ Trautwine. - ───────────────────────┴────────────┴─────────┴──────────────────── - -From the above table it would appear that the altitude of the dividing -ridge falls off toward the two extremities of the Isthmus, viz.: near -the Tehuantepec and the Atrato routes, but the greatest depressions -have been found between Aspinwall and Panama, and on the line by the -way of Lake Nicaragua and Lake Managua. - -At the Isthmus of Darien _altitudes of from one to two thousand -feet_ are found. Cullen’s pass of 150 feet proved to be estimated at -one-ninth of its true height. The least elevation of the divide is that -given by M. Bourdial. This engineer did not cross the Isthmus, and his -statement is so vague, the reader is left in doubt whether he actually -reached the summit. Notwithstanding this uncertainty, there still -exists a faint hope that “it is to the Isthmus of Darien we must first -look for a solution of the question of an interoceanic canal.” - -From another statement in this very valuable report, we feel -reluctantly compelled to dissent. By imposing unnecessary conditions -in the statement of the problem, its solution may be indefinitely -postponed. - -“The interoceanic canal,” it is affirmed, “in width, depth, in supply -of water, in good anchorage and secure harbors at both ends, and in -absolute freedom from obstruction by lifting-locks, or otherwise, must -possess, as nearly as possible, the character of a strait.” - -To insist that the canal must possess the character of a strait, may -give rise to the necessity for a thorough-cut of such extreme depth, -or a tunnel of so great length, as to render the work practically -impossible. A line suitable for a thorough-cut may possibly be found, -but so important a project should not be endangered by limiting its -practicability to a communication of that nature. - -If, by the employment of “lift-locks,” the cost of the canal can be -materially reduced, the question to be considered is, to what extent -such structures would obstruct navigation? This question depends upon -the amount of trade drawn to the Isthmus by the canal. - -The relative cost of the two methods for piercing the Isthmus can be -best determined by a comparison of the cost of a canal in an open -country with one by means of tunnels. These considerations, since -they afford criteria for judging of the merits of different routes, -may be considered more minutely. Let us assume the trade passing over -the Isthmus—were the canal now completed—to increase one hundred -per cent. in ten years; there would then be 2,066 tons in transitu -daily, requiring seven ships of about 300 tons burthen each.[5] The -progressive increase in the size of ships will raise this average to -between 500 to 1,000 tons; reducing the number of ships arriving at -the Isthmus daily, to five and three respectively. But, assuming the -smaller average, giving the larger number of seven ships daily passing -through the canal; an increase of four hundred per cent. in the trade -would be equivalent to fourteen ships, or to seven ships leaving -opposite extremities of the canal, and passing each other daily upon -homeward and outward voyages. - -Locks of four hundred feet long by ninety feet wide can be filled or -emptied in twenty minutes; and this time can be reduced for smaller -vessels by additional lock-gates, and for larger vessels by an increase -in the size and number of filling valves. - -The entire trade likely to seek this route, increased four hundred -per cent. of its present amount, could be passed through one lock in -about four hours and forty minutes. As the vessels come from opposite -directions, one-half of the number would be waiting for lockage at the -same point, which would reduce the time required for this purpose to -two hours and twenty minutes. Eight locks, having an average lift of -twelve and one-half feet, would delay the increased commerce eighteen -hours and forty minutes, and would raise the level of the canal fifty -feet; while to raise the level one hundred feet the delay would not -exceed two days.[6] - -As a summit level may be a necessary part of any Isthmean canal, it -is manifest that the resulting lockage can not seriously obstruct -navigation. The design of an artificial strait may therefore be -reasonably abandoned, if, by so doing, the extraordinary cost of -tunneling is excluded by the employment of a small number of lift-locks. - -On account of the rise of the tide on the Pacific coast guard locks, -not much less costly than lift-locks, must be an essential part of any -canal from ocean to ocean. - -The mean tide of the two oceans is about the same. - - _Table of tides, according to observation, from Col. Totten’s Report._ - ═══════════════════════════╤════════════╤═════════════╤═════════════ - │ PACIFIC AT │ PACIFIC AT │ ATLANTIC AT - │ PANAMA. │ PANAMA. │ ASPINWALL. - ───────────────────────────┼────────────┼─────────────┼───────────── - │ MAY & JUNE │ NOV. & DEC. │ AUG. & SEPT. - │ FEET. │ FEET. │ FEET. - Greatest rise of tide │ 17.72 │ 21.30 │ 1.60 - Least rise of tide │ 7.94 │ 9.70 │ 0.62 - Average │ 12.08 │ 14.10 │ 1.16 - Mean tide of Pacific above │ │ │ - mean tide of Atlantic │ 0.759 │ 0.14 │ —— - ───────────────────────────┴────────────┴─────────────┴───────────── - -Mr. Lloyd found a difference of 27.44 feet between high and low water -at Panama. The Red Sea is 3 inches higher than the Mediterranean. -The Atlantic at Brest is 3½ feet higher than the Mediterranean at -Marseilles. - -The small variation in the mean tide at Panama of the two oceans is -probably due to the action of winds and the Gulf Stream. At Panama the -highest flood tide rises about ten and one-half feet above the level -of the mean tide of the Atlantic, and the extreme ebb falls about the -same number of feet below it. The alternate currents through the new -strait, caused by the rise and fall of the tide, would prove a serious -inconvenience to navigation. - -The Pacific tide, piling up at the head of the new cut, and entering -the strait with considerable violence, would be propelled toward the -Gulf in a manner analogous to the progression of the tidal wave in -a river. Upon the ebb of the tide a reverse current would prevail. -Navigation would not only be obstructed by these alternate currents, -but the channel would be choked by drifting timber washed into the -canal during the rainy season. Silt and sand would be deposited in bars -at the outlet of the canal, or swept inward to form shoals where the -current could no longer transport it. - -Mr. Gisborne, in his report, devotes some space to speculations on -these results. “There can be no doubt,” he remarks, “that at high water -there will be a current from the Pacific to the Atlantic, and that -during the ebb tide there will be a current in the opposite direction. -The extent of these currents, and the place of their greatest effect, -depends on the comparative sectional area of different portions; and if -the cross-section is uniform throughout, will be some time after high -tide in the Pacific and at the Atlantic end of the canal. The phase of -the tide wave (or the appreciable effect of the tide) will take one -and one-half hours to reach from one end to the other, and presuming -the current to be uniform in the whole length”——“the question may be -examined as a maximum, _i. e._, what will be the surface velocity of -a canal thirty miles long, having a fall of eleven feet, or with a -horizontal bottom having at one end twenty-eight feet, and at the other -thirty-nine?” - -Employing Du Buat’s formula, with the following quantities: - - Mean depth 35.50 feet. - Mean width 183.50 “ - Mean border 244.80 “ - Area water section 6,147.255 “ - Hydraulic mean depth 25.11 “ - Fall per mile 0.33 “ - -he deduces a maximum surface velocity of three miles per hour. The -assumed average fall per mile is strictly a variable function, and at -its maximum would give a result greatly in excess of that deduced by -Mr. Gisborne. - -There is no reason for this assumption of a fall of 0.33 of a foot per -mile. It directly involves the question to be determined, since the -velocity depends upon the inclination of the surface. The value deduced -by the formula is not the maximum but the minimum velocity attained in -the canal upon the assumed fall per mile. - -There is another error in Mr. Gisborne’s statement. “The tide,” he -remarks, “would take one and one-half hours to reach from one end to -the other, presuming the current to be uniform; what,” he asks, “will -be the surface velocity in a canal thirty miles long?” - -This statement contradicts his calculations, and involves also the -question at issue. If the tide travels to the end of a canal thirty -miles long in “one and one-half hours,” it is evident that it must move -at the rate of twenty miles per hour, a velocity which renders Mr. -Gisborne’s strait impracticable for navigation. - -In fact, neither assumption is tenable. The problem is very complex, -or, rather, with the data given, indeterminate. It is well known that -the tide is propagated up the channel of a river in a succession -of long waves, or swells, and that when the tidal wave is entering -the mouth of the river, the waves which have reached the head are -returning. The same movement is observed, on an exaggerated scale, -in the successive breakers which roll in to meet the one which is -returning, after it has expended its force upon the beach. - -In the case of the Isthmean Canal, the rising tide, after having -passed the mean, will have a downward slope into the canal. In rivers, -notwithstanding the local rise of the water, the slope is never -reversed, but is simply reduced in its angle of inclination. - -The problem involves the inclination of the surface, or the -determination of the limits of tidal action at successive stages of -the tide. While the head of water increases, there is also a constant -increase of the retardation of the flow of water into the canal. The -outflowing water will run more rapidly than the inflowing, on account -of the indefinite area over which it will spread and the diminution of -the retarding influences. Both outflowing and inflowing current will -seriously obstruct navigation. The banks of the canal will wash away, -and bars will accumulate about the mouth. - -While these objections are valid against a thorough-cut canal without -locks, they do not apply to a strait of a quarter of a mile in width. -As the cost of a canal is the chief difficulty in the way of its -construction, it is necessary to abandon the idea of a strait, and to -adopt that of a thorough-cut with guard-locks, as the only known means -of protecting the canal from the injurious effects of the tide. - -In order to form a correct opinion of the cost of canals with and -without tunnels, attention is called to the expense incurred in the -execution of this kind of work. - - _Dimensions and Cost of some English Tunnels._ - ══╤═══════════════════════╤═══════╤══════╤═════════╤══════╤════════ - │ │ │ │THICKNESS│LENGTH│KIND OF - │ │HEIGHT.│WIDTH.│ OF │ IN │MASONRY. - │ │ │ │ ARCHING.│YARDS.│ - ──┼───────────────────────┼───────┼──────┼─────────┼──────┼──────── - │ │FT.IN. │FT.IN.│ FT.IN. │ │ - 1 │Thames & Med. Canal │ 39.0 │35.6 │ ... │ 3960 │ BR’K - 2 │Islington, Regents Can.│ 21.6 │20.6 │ 1.6 │ 900 │ “ - 3 │Tetney, Haven Canal │ 16.2 │17.0 │ 1.2 │ 2962½│ “ - 4 │Walford, N.W.R.R. │ 26.6 │27.0 │ 1.6 │ 1830 │ “ - 5 │Box Tunnel, G.W. “ │ 36.0 │36.0 │ 2.3 │ 3121 │ “ - 6 │Littleboro’, M.&L. “ │ 27.6 │27.0 │ 1.10½ │ 2860 │ “ - 7 │Thames, Foot Passage │ 2.3 │37.6 │ 2.6 │ 400 │ “ - 8 │Bletchingly, S.E.R.R. │ 30.0 │30.0 │ 1.10½ │ 1324 │ “ - 9 │Saltwood, “ “ │ 30.6 │30.0 │ 2.3 │ 954 │ “ - ──┼───────────────────────┼───────┴─┬────┴───┬─────┼──────┴──────── - │ │ TOTAL │COST PER│YEAR │ MATERIAL - │ │ COST. │ YARD. │WHEN │ CUT THROUGH. - │ │ │ │BUILT│ - ──┼───────────────────────┼─────────┼────────┼─────┼──────────────── - │ │ DOLLARS.│ DOLLS. │ │ - 1 │Thames & Med. Canal │ ... │ 145.00│1800 │Chalk, - │ │ │ │ │ Fuller’s earth. - 2 │Islington, Regents Can.│ ... │ ... │1812 │London clay. - 3 │Tetney, Haven Canal │ 563,405│ 192.50│1827 │Various. - 4 │Walford, N.W.R.R. │ ... │ ... │1838 │Chalk. - 5 │Box Tunnel, G.W. “ │1,561,500│ 500.00│1838 │Freestone. - 6 │Littleboro’, M.&L. “ │4,255,000│ 440.00│1841 │Various. - 7 │Thames, Foot Passage │2,273,570│5,685.00│1842 │London clay. - 8 │Bletchingly, S.E.R.R. │ 486,185│ 351.00│1842 │Shale. - 9 │Saltwood, “ “ │ 562,710│ 590.00│1843 │Lower greensand. - ──┴───────────────────────┴─────────┴────────┴─────┴──────────────── - -Canal tunnels are rarely larger than 16½ feet by 18 feet high. -Supposing the same dimensions to obtain in French tunnels, the cost per -lineal yard of the following named tunnels will furnish a basis for -comparison: - - ═════════════════════════════╤═══════════╤═════════ - │ LENGTH │ COST PER - NAMES OF TUNNELS. │ IN YARDS. │ YARD. - ─────────────────────────────┼───────────┼───────── - Norieu, St. Quinten Canal │ 13,128 │ $14.00 - Pouilly, Canal de Bourgoyne │ 3,660 │ 393.75 - Soussay, Canal de Bourgoyne │ 3,852 │ 45.50 - Maurages, Canal de Marne │ 5,320 │ 325.00 - St. Argnan, Canal d’Ardennes │ 288 │ 200.00 - ─────────────────────────────┴───────────┴───────── - -[Illustration: PLAN AND PROFILE OF MONT CENIS TUNNEL] - -Among railroad tunnels, the following are selected from different parts -of the continent: - - ════════════╤═════════╤═══════╤═══════╤═════════╤═════════ - NAMES OF │ │ │ HEIGHT│ NUMBER │ SECTION - TUNNELS. │ LENGTH. │ WIDTH.│ ABOVE │ OF │ ABOVE - │ │ │ RAILS.│ SHAFTS. │ RAILS. - ────────────┼─────────┼───────┼───────┼─────────┼───────── - │ YDS. │ FT. │ FT. │ │ SQ. FT. - Chezy │ 496 │ 24.27 │ 18.04 │ 0 │ 365.84 - Arschwiller │ 2928 │ 24.27 │ 18.04 │ 6 │ 374.77 - Alouette │ 1350 │ 25.58 │ 20.00 │ 21 │ 428.68 - La Motte │ 2799 │ 24.92 │ 21.98 │ ... │ 519.71 - Nerthe │ 5072 │ 26.24 │ 24.60 │ 24 │ ... - St. Martin │ 1509 │ 25.25 │ 19.35 │ 10 │ 415.34 - Blaisy │ 4483 │ 26.24 │ 24.60 │ 20 │ ... - ────────────┼─────────┼───────┴───────┼─────────┴───────── - NAMES OF │COST PER │ TIME IN │ - TUNNELS. │RUNNING │ CONSTRUCTION. │ MATERIAL. - │ YARD. │ │ - ────────────┼─────────┼───────────────┼─────────────────────── - │ DOLS. │ MO’S. │ - Chezy │ 411 │ 32 │ Sand and clay. - Arschwiller │ 176 │ 95 │ Sandstone. - Alouette │ 305 │ 23 │ Clay. - La Motte │ 180 │ 30 │ Clay, marl, sandstone. - Nerthe │ 412 │ 36 │ Limestone. - St. Martin │ 475 │ 60 │ Porphyritic rock. - Blaisy │ ... │ ... │ Limestone. - ────────────┴─────────┴───────────────┴─────────────────────── - -The cost of the Thames tunnel was greatly increased by a shield, -designed by Brunel, to keep out the water. Omitting this tunnel from -comparison the English works exceed the French, or Continental, in cost -of construction. - -The boldest work of the kind yet undertaken is the Mt. Cenis tunnel, to -connect France and Italy by a continuous railway. In length it is seven -miles, with a width of 26′ 6″ and a height of 20′ 8″. Its completion is -anticipated in April, 1871. - -The monthly advance by hand-labor was twenty-two and a-half yards. The -progress is doubled by machinery, and during the past year has averaged -330 feet per month. Air, compressed by water power, is conveyed -inside to give motion to chisels, which form cavities for blasting by -gunpowder. The average progress per day in 1865, with the machinery, -was about 9 feet. - -The estimated cost was $550 per running foot, but the rate was -increased to $640; the entire cost of the tunnel being estimated at -$9,200,000. The use of machinery at Mt. Cenis was found to expedite the -work, but at an increase of expense. - -The trial of machinery at the Hoosac tunnel, upon the Troy and -Greenfield Railroad, has not been favorable to its employment. This -tunnel will be four and three-quarter miles long. Originally projected -with a width of 24 feet, and a height of 20 feet, it has been -contracted to 14 feet wide, and 18 feet high. The estimated cost was -$2,696,229. The rate first assumed was $137 per running foot. The rate -per cubic yard varies from $5 to $22, and $30, for the excavation of -shafts. - -The contract prices for the Hoosac tunnel, in 1869, were as follows: - - Tunnel enlargement, per yard $ 16.00 - Heading enlargement, east end, per yard 9.00 - Heading enlargement, west end, per yard 9.75 - Full size tunnel extension, east end, per yard 11.00 - “ “ west end, per yard 12.00 - “ “ central section, per yard 14.00 - Central drain, with air and water pipes complete, - per lineal foot 13.00 - Sinking shaft (27 × 15), per foot, depth 395.00 - Pipes (10 inch), set in shaft 6.00 - Arching (in brick at $9 per M), per M 22.00 - Excavating and constructing 50 lineal feet of stone - arch, and filling 23,000.00 - -Although more than two hundred railroad tunnels have been constructed -in the United States, and an unknown number of canal tunnels, facts in -regard to them are difficult of access. Recent bids for tunnel work -upon United States railroads have been offered at $5.40 per cubic yard -for excavations. Canal tunnels, of the ordinary dimensions of 297 -square feet area, would cost $113.20 per running foot. - -The uncertainty of the nature of tunnel excavation, the unexpected -difficulties to be overcome, baffle all anticipatory estimate. The -variable rates in the preceding tables establish this fact. The average -cost per running yard upon French canals is about $152, which sum -probably includes arching. Rates of labor in the United States would -increase the cost about four times this amount. - -Comparing the contract price of American tunnels, as given above, with -the table of English tunnels, and bearing in mind that the cost of -arching is included in the latter, we find in Nos. 3, 6, and 9, the -cost of English tunnels is in excess; number 3 being nearly double, -and number 9 one-tenth more, while, in every other case, the cost at -American rates is greater, varying from one-third to five and one-half -times more. - -The shale, schist, and trachyte of the Isthmean ridge is of variable -consistence. Many places exhibit friable, seamy strata, disintegrating -upon exposure to the atmosphere. A tunnel of the dimensions to admit -the passage of ships, when carried through rock of this character, -will require a lining of masonry to prevent falling material from -obstructing the way. - -To pass ships with the topmast struck, the intrados of the arch should -be 100 feet above the surface of the water. A semi-ellipse with -semi-transverse, and conjugate diameters of 100 feet, added to the -canal prism of thirty feet in depth, will give an area of tunnel equal -to 10,104 superficial feet, or to 1,976,263 cubic yards per mile. - -[Illustration: PROFILE OF THE HOOSAC TUNNEL] - -Assuming that the cost of tunneling through the Isthmus can be executed -at $10 per cubic yard, we shall have 19,762,630 dollars as the cost of -one mile of tunnel. Estimating the excavation alone at present contract -price, $5.40 per cubic yard for small tunnels, one mile of ship tunnel -will cost $10,670,820. An open canal upon the line of the canal -proposed by General Michler, uniting the Atrato with Humboldt Bay, will -cost, according to the estimate of that officer, $1,792,202 per mile. - -This amount, taken from the careful and elaborate estimates contained -in General Michler’s report, may be assumed as a basis of comparison of -the two proposed methods of intermarine communication, viz.: by uniting -the two oceans upon one level by a tunnel, or by means of a moderate -number of “lift-locks.” Eight locks, four at each end of the canal, or -sixteen locks, eight at each end of the canal, will raise the summit -fifty feet above tide in the first case, and one hundred in the second, -and will cost eight millions, and sixteen millions respectively. Since -two guard locks will be requisite for either method of communication -(_i. e._ by “strait,” or canal with lift-locks), their cost should -be excluded from the above sums, which are thereby reduced to six -millions, and fourteen millions of dollars. These sums are fixed as the -probable limits of the cost of a system of lift-locks sufficient to -overcome the divide of the Isthmus, and also to supply the reader with -a standard, by which he may judge of the merits of different routes. - -The construction of a ship tunnel is, as has been said, “a herculean -task,” and it is not apparent that “the prejudice against it will -be removed by the operations at Mt. Cenis.” A moderate number of -lift-locks seems preferable to a tunnel of one mile in length, which, -in turn, would be more economical than an excessive number of locks. A -greater number than we have mentioned may be deemed excessive. - -A thorough-cut upon the level of the ocean would be a desirable method -of canalization, but it seems like hampering the important design -of an intermarine highway for the commerce of the world, with an -impracticable condition, to insist that it should possess “absolute -freedom from obstruction by lifting locks,” or that it should possess, -in any degree, the “character of a strait.” - -In this statement I find I have the support of M. Garella and Michel -Chavalier. The opposition to the system of lift-locks appears to have -originated in the objection expressed in Mr. Wheaton’s letter to Mr. -Buchanan, to the large number of these structures, recommended in M. -Moro’s plan for the canalization of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[5] Present average of the tonnage of ships of the commercial marine -is 380 to 400 tons. The calculation supposes a commercial year of 300 -days, and that the same number of ships arrive daily. - -[6] The Egyptian correspondent of the Boston Advertiser, March 15, -1870, observes: “The channel at Lake Timseh has not much more than 19 -feet of water, as on the day of opening. We met two steamers on their -way to Bombay, an English vessel going for cotton, and the French -steamer Asie. This was evidently all the business of the day, and from -the report of the company, it is a fair average of the amount of work -done. The company say they register one thousand five hundred tons a -day.” - - In December, 1869 9 steamers and sailing ships 40,000 francs. - In January, 1870 16 “ “ 170,000 “ - In February, 1870 28 “ “ 269,000 “ - In March, 1870 52 “ “ 450,000 “ - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - - - Our Geographical Knowledge of the Isthmus—The Value of - Early Narratives and Histories—Projects for Uniting - the two Oceans by Canals and Railroads—Criteria for - Assisting the Judgment—Tunnels, Harbors, Locks, - Dimensions of Canal—Tehuantepec—The Garay Grant—Moro’s - Survey—Barnard’s Survey—Honduras—A Better Route - Practicable—Nicaragua—Louis Napoleon’s Scheme—Col. - Childs’ Report—Variations of Route—Advantages of - this Line—Chiriqui—St. Clair Morton—No Information - Extant—Costa Rica—Railroad Practicable—Great Altitude - of Ridge—Panama—Information Abundant—Garella’s - Route—Hughes’s Route—Advantages—Cost of Canal on this - Route—Mexican Desagues—Panama and Aspinwall—Harbors - Easily Improved—Panama Railroad Company—San Blas - and Bayano River—F. W. Kelly—McDougal’s Survey—Fine - Harbors—Tunnel Seven Miles Long—Darien—Between Caledonia - Bay and the Gulf of San Miguel—Baron Humboldt—Vasco - Nunez—Paterson’s Colony—Causes of Its Failure—Dr. Cullen - and Savana River—Reports the Ridge 150 Feet—English - Company—Concessions of the Granadian Government—Mr. - Gisborne Sent to Darien—His Speculations—Delayed - at Carthagena—Stopped by the Indians—Supposed - Success—Misunderstanding with Dr. Cullen—Returns to - England—Provisional Directory Organized—Controversy - Between Sir Charles Fox and the London Times—Combined - Expedition of Four Governments—Lieut. Strain’s - Misfortunes—Fails to Find a Pass—Dr. Cullen and - Mr. Gisborne’s Failure—Captain Prevost Fails to - Cross—Dr. Cullen Changes His Opinion—French Expedition - under Bourdiol—Fails to Cross—Granadian Expedition - Fails—Condensed Statement of the Results of all - the Expeditions—Captains Prevost and Parsons see - Evidences of a Pass—Darien Not Yet Explored—San Miguel - to the Gulf of Urabá—The Atrato Route—Successful - Survey—Representations of Unprofessional Persons—Gorgoza - and De La Charme—Their Route—Trautwine —Mr. Porter and - Kennish’s Routes—Lieut. Michler’s Route —Extracts from - Michler’s Report—Tunnel Two and One-Half Miles—Cost too - Small—Barometric—Levels—Humboldt’s Opinion. - -Having hastily sketched the relation of the proposed canal to the -commerce of the world, its importance is sufficiently apparent to -justify a careful consideration of the condition of our knowledge of -the geography of the Isthmus. The facts and reasoning of previous -chapters will furnish a standard, in the absence of a better, for -trying the merits of the routes about to be described, and will -indicate the nature of the deficiency to be supplied by future -explorations. - -The American Isthmus extends in length about twelve hundred miles, from -the Coazacoalcos River, in Mexico, to the valley of the Atrato, in -Columbia. It includes the Mexican States of Tehuantepec, the Republics -of Yucatan, Guatemala, Belize, Honduras, San Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa -Rica, the Mosquito Kingdom, and the State of Panama, one of the States -of Columbia. Embracing a varied and salubrious climate; a rich soil, -clothed with the luxuriance of tropical vegetation; ruins of an ancient -people, consisting of vast and silent cities, whose impressive but -grotesque architecture, embodying a civilization unique and insular, is -overgrown with forest of flor de robles, mahogany, and palm; divided -throughout its entire length by a volcanic dyke, rising to altitudes -of five to six thousand feet, and sinking into depressions two hundred -and eighty feet above the level of the sea; concealing in its strata -the matrices of gold and precious stones; expanding in Yucatan to a -width of six hundred and fifty miles, and contracting at San Blas and -Darien to thirty or forty miles—this connecting link, the result of -a submarine endogenous movement subsequent to the elevation of the -continents which it unites, opposes a solitary but not insurmountable -barrier to the commercial union of the two oceans. - -The narratives of Dampier, Wafer, the adventures of the Spanish -Buccaneers who infested the South Sea, and the descriptions of Las -Casas, Fonseca, Don Andres de Ariza, however interesting historically, -add but little to the physico-geographical knowledge of the country. -These histories contain accounts of earthquakes as terrific as that -which has recently visited the coast; of sieges notable for bold -assault and gallant defense; of gold mines opened and abandoned; of -strange fauna, birds of splendid plumage, and a tropical flora of -gorgeous colors; but the reader will seek in vain for information of -practical value in determining the question of a practicable route for -an interoceanic ship canal. - -Recent explorers have supplied much accurate information of special -routes. The following table exhibits the different projects for uniting -the Atlantic and Pacific: - - 1. TEHUANTEPEC, by the Coazacoalcos and Chicapa. - 2. HONDURAS. - 3. NICARAGUA, from San Juan de Nicaragua and Lake Nicaragua, - five variations, viz.: - R. San Carlos, G. de Nicoya, - R. Nino, Tempisque, G. de Nicoya, - R. Sapoa, B. Salinas, - San Juan del Sud, - and Brito. - From San Juan de Nicaragua, by way of Lake Nicaragua and Managua, - three variations, viz.: - R. Tamarinda. - B. Realejo. - B. Fonseca. - 4. PANAMA, four distinct routes, viz.: - Gorgona, Panama. - Trinidad, Caymito. - Navy Bay, R. Chagres, R. Bonito, R. Bernardo. - San Blas, R. Chepo. - 5. DARIEN, including the old province of Chócó; the different - routes and the variations are five in number, viz.: - B. Caledonia, G. San Miguel. - Rs. Arguia, Paya, Tuyra, G. San Miguel. - B. Napipi, Cupica. - R. Truando, Kelley’s Island. - R. Tuyra, G. Urabá or R. Atrato. - -The above lists include canal projects; the following list enumerates -the projected railroads: - - I. Coazacoalcos, Tehuantepec. - II. B. Honduras to G. of Fonseca. - III. R. San Juan, Nicaragua, Managua. - IV. Port Limon to Caldera, Costa Rica. - V. Chiriqui inlet to Golfo Dulce. - VI. Aspinwall, Panama, (railroad finished.) - VII. Gorgon B., Realijo. ┐ - ├ Nicaragua - VIII. Gorgon B., San Juan del Sur. ┘ - -Before describing the routes above enumerated, some criteria for -assisting the judgment may be brought together, as follows: - - 1. The Isthmean Canal may be a thorough-cut, with - guard-locks. - - 2. It should be without a tunnel. - - 3. It may have a summit-level and moderate lockage, to avoid - excessive tunneling and cutting. - - 4. Great advantages in other respects—viz.: shortness of - line and fine harbors—may compensate for a short tunnel. - - 5. The route should possess good harbors, or such as can be - easily improved. - - 6. Dimension of the canal and size of the locks. The canal - should be sufficiently wide to permit ships to pass - easily, or it should have convenient turn-outs. - -The width of the intermarine canal proposed by Mr. Kennish, to unite -the Atrato and the Pacific, is estimated to have 200 feet. General -Michler assumes a width of 100 feet, and states that vessels can -pass alternately from one end to the other, employing tug-boats and -telegraphic signals to avoid confusion. - -The canal now in process of construction, under the direction of -General Wilson, around the Des Moines rapids on the Mississippi, has a -width of 250 feet in embankment. - -The Engineer in charge of the canal around the falls of the Ohio at -Louisville, proposes a width of 120 feet, which is the same as that of -the Caledonia Canal. - -The Suez Canal has a minimum width at water surface of 190 feet. -This last dimension, with a sufficient number of turn-outs, would be -suitable for the canal across the American Isthmus. - -The locks of the Des Moines Canal are 380 feet between gates, by 80 -feet wide. General Weitzel proposes, for the Louisville Canal, locks -400 feet between gates, and 100 feet wide. The Isthmean locks may be -400 feet between gates, and 90 feet wide. - -Locks of these dimensions, if all unnecessary dressing of the stone is -dispensed with, may probably be erected for one million of dollars. - -It is unnecessary to mention other ship canals and locks, built for the -accommodation of ships of less tonnage than those which would make the -intermarine transit. - -The following description, commencing at Tehuantepec, will treat of -each route in succession: - - -TEHUANTEPEC. - -In March, 1842, Santa Anna, “for the purpose of aggrandizing the nation -and rendering the people happy,” granted certain privileges to Don -Jose de Garay, to enable him to open a line of communication between -the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, through the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. -The route was to be neutral to all nations at peace with the Mexican -Republic. The “negotiation” was permitted to hold for public use all -unoccupied land, not more than one-fourth of a league on either side -of the line, which was conceded to them in _fee simple_. The right -of collecting dues was conceded for fifty years, and the exclusive -privilege of freight, by steam vessel or railroad, for sixty years. - -The survey was intrusted to Sr. Moro, an Italian engineer of -distinction. The distance from sea to sea was ascertained to be 135 -miles in a straight line. Wide plains and table land adjacent each -ocean were found to be broken by the Andes, rising to the height of 650 -feet above the level of the sea. - -Thirty miles of the Coazacoalcos River, after passing the bar, is -navigable for ships of the largest class, and fifteen miles for vessels -of light draught, leaving 115 miles of railroad to be made. - -Sr. Moro, taking the dimensions and cost of the Caledonia Canal as -a standard, estimates the cost of a similar ship canal across the -Isthmus[7] at $17,000,000. He includes in his estimate the cost of one -hundred and sixty-one (161) locks, which may be reduced to one hundred -and twenty. These results were not deemed satisfactory. - -The privileges granted to Mr. Garay were secured by P. A. Hargous and -Major (now Brevet Major-General) Barnard, Corps of Engineers. W. H. -Sidell and others were employed to survey the route of a railroad. Of -this survey we have the very interesting report of J. J. Williams, -containing information of the statistics, geology, and topography of -the country. The summit is 855 feet above tide; the entire length of -the line is 190 miles. A summit-level and tunnel would be necessary -to carry a canal across the ridge. Com’d Perry and Lieut. Temple, U. -S. N., found about twelve feet water on the Coazacoalcos bar. The bar -is supposed to be composed of hard clay, admitting of a permanent -improvement. Capt. Basil Hall, R. N., and Com. Shubrick, U. S. N., -speak of the Pacific terminus at Ventosa Bay as exceeding boisterous -and unfavorable for anchorage. - -The merits of this route have been minutely described by Col. J. J. -Abert, Chief Corps Topographical Engineers, and Col. G. W. Hughes, -of the same corps; and by common consent the route is regarded as -possessing “little merit as a practicable line for the construction of -a ship canal.” - - -HONDURAS. - -A barometric survey was made of this route. With excellent harbors, it -is obstructed by an elevated dividing ridge. The topographical features -of the country indicate the probable existence of a more favorable -pass. A better route may be found by starting from the Gulf of Dulce, -and proceeding toward the town of Guatemala; or by starting from the -same point, a more southerly direction appears to possess advantages. -Inference from maps of this region must be received with caution. The -route is condemned by Admiral Davis. - - -NICARAGUA. - -With the exception of the Panama route, no Isthmean project has -received so careful an examination as the lines passing through Lake -Nicaragua. This part of the Isthmus widens into continental proportions -of great fertility. The productive and industrial development of -this country, by means of railroad or canal, would supply a material -addition to the commerce of the world. With the growth of Central -America, our gulf ports—Galveston, New Orleans, Mobile, Appalachicola, -Pensacola, Tampa Bay, and Key West—would increase in military and -commercial importance. - -This line possesses additional interest for the political reasons -adduced by the Emperor Napoleon III, in a memoir prepared by him when -a prisoner at Ham. Arranged with method and prepared with care, this -pamphlet bears the impress of a sagacious judgment. “In order,” says -the writer, “that the canal should become the principal element of -the advancement of Central America, it must be cut, not through the -narrowest part of the tongue of land, but through the country which is -most populous, the most healthy, and the most fertile, and which is -crossed by the greatest number of rivers, in order that its activity -may be communicated to the remotest part of the interior. England will -see with pleasure Central America become a flourishing and powerful -State, which will establish a balance of power by creating in Spanish -America a new center of active enterprise, powerful enough to give rise -to a feeling of nationality, and to prevent, by backing up Mexico, any -further encroachment from the North.” - -The line selected by Louis Napoleon (although he errs in his statement -of distance), has not been improved by the changes in location proposed -by subsequent engineers. All these routes commence at San Juan de -Nicaragua, and follow the San Juan river to the Lake Nicaragua. From -this lake three other routes pass through Lake Managua to Realijo, and -to the Gulf of Fonseca. Lake Managua is about twenty feet above the -level of Lake Nicaragua. The dry season suspends the flow of water -between the lakes, and the question arises whether, even by the aid of -a dam, sufficient water can be stored in the smaller lake to feed the -summit level on each side of it during the dry season. - -Col. Childs’ route terminates at Brito; a fifth at San Juan del Sud, -and three other variations of route near the same point of the Pacific -coast. Col. Childs’ report, which is very complete, was submitted to -a Board of English Engineers, and to Colonels Abert and Turnbull, of -the Corps of Topographical Engineers, U. S. A. Although the survey was -thoroughly and scientifically executed, the route was condemned by -these officers, because of the insufficiency of the harbors of Brito, -and the small dimensions of the canal proposed by Colonel Childs. - -The length of the canal was divided into sections, for the convenience -of description and estimation of the cost: - - MILES. FEET. - Western division, from Brito to the Lake 18 588 - From Lake Nicaragua to head of San Juan 56 500 - Slack water of seven dams on the San Juan 90 800 - Canal to San Juan del Norte 28 505 - ——— ——— - Total distance 194 393 - -The maximum width of the canal was designed to be 118 feet, and the -depth 17 feet. The descent from the lake to Brito was accomplished by -fourteen locks. - -The following table exhibits the distances from sea to sea of the -proposed lines originating at San Juan del Norte: - - ════════════════════╤═════════╤═════════════╤═════════╤═════════ - │ │ │FROM LAKE│FROM LAKE - ROUTES FROM THE │LENGTH OF│ DISTANCE │NICARAGUA│NICARAGUA - PORT OF SAN JUAN │ THE RIO │ ON LAKE │ TO THE │ TO LAKE - TO THE PACIFIC. │SAN JUAN.│ NICARAGUA. │ PACIFIC.│ MANAGUA. - ────────────────────┼─────────┼─────────────┼─────────┼───────── - │ MILES. │ MILES. │ MILES. │ MILES. - To Brito │ 119 │ 57 │ 18 │ - Fonseca, Tamarinda │ 119 │ 120 │ │ 4 - Realijo │ 119 │ 120 │ │ 4 - Fonseca, Estero Real│ 119 │ 120 │ │ 4 - ────────────────────┼─────────┼─────────────┼─────────┼───────── - │ │DIST. BETWEEN│ │ - ROUTES FROM THE │ DISTANCE│LAKE MANAGUA │LENGTH OF│ - PORT OF SAN JUAN │ IN LAKE │ AND THE │ ACTUAL │ TOTAL - TO THE PACIFIC. │ MANAGUA.│ PACIFIC. │ CANAL. │ LENGTH. - ────────────────────┼─────────┼─────────────┼─────────┼───────── - │ MILES. │ MILES. │ MILES. │ MILES. - To Brito │ │ │ 137 │ 194 - Fonseca, Tamarinda │ 50 │ 16 │ 139 │ 309 - Realijo │ 50 │ 45 │ 168 │ 338 - Fonseca, Estero Real│ 50 │ 20 │ 143 │ 313 - ────────────────────┴─────────┴─────────────┴─────────┴───────── - -The ports on the Bay of Fonseca, and at Realijo, are good, but the -other ports designated as terminal points upon the Pacific are not so -favorable for shipping. San Juan del Norte, the initial point upon the -Atlantic of all these routes, will not admit ships of large draught, -and the harbor is rapidly deteriorating. All harbors of Central and -South America receiving rivers, and opening to the northward, are -decreasing in depth. The incessant wave-beat, caused by the trade-winds -and northers, acts like a ponderous hammer, wielded by an irresistible -force, whose unceasing efforts, for six months of the year, are exerted -to force the sand into the entrance of the harbors, and to arrest the -sediment brought down by the rivers. The result is a tortuous and -variable channel, and a shifting and shoaling bar. - -The deterioration of the harbor of San Juan de Nicaragua, or Greytown, -has been minutely discussed by a board of scientific officers of the -United States Corps of Engineers, and of the Coast Survey Department. -Their conclusions were unfavorable to the improvement of the harbor. - -Where the Cyane lay during the bombardment of Greytown a luxuriant -grass marsh is now growing. It has not been many years since this -harbor afforded refuge for shipping of ordinary draught, but it is not -unusual, at the present time, to find the harbor so completely closed -during a storm that a pedestrian may walk dry-footed across the former -entrance. Upon such occasion the harbor of Greytown is converted into -a lagoon until after the storm, when the accumulating water of the San -Juan erodes for itself a new outlet to the ocean. - -It is apparent some other initial point must be found before this route -can be seriously considered as a suitable terminus for interoceanic -communication. Monkey Point is said to supply a good anchorage, and has -been suggested for this purpose. Monkey Point affords anchorage for -ships drawing rather more than three fathoms. By joining the island -with a breakwater of _pierre perdu_, of the length of about twelve -hundred feet, a good harbor, affording five fathoms water, can be -obtained. - -The writer is not aware that any surveys have ever been made for -connecting this point with the San Juan river, or with the lakes. It -is therefore unnecessary to mention other reports upon the same route, -or to do more than to refer to the plans, profiles, and details of the -“Interoceanic Canal of Nicaragua,” submitted at the Paris exhibition by -L. J. Thome de Gamond. The report of M. de Gamond is not at hand. - -A healthy and productive country; two lakes affording an inexhaustible -supply for a summit level; a divide easily overcome at an altitude -represented as 174 feet, and the convenient channel of the San Juan, -through which the waters of Lakes Managua and Nicaragua find their way -from an amphitheater of hills to the Atlantic ocean, are advantages -which engineers and capitalists are loath to abandon, and which -the reader relinquishes with regret. We may expect, therefore, to -find the question continually revived. But its advantages have been -overestimated. - -The San Juan river has cut an outlet for the canal through the ridge, -separating Lake Nicaragua from the Atlantic; but to pierce the divide -on the opposite side, which separates the lake from the Pacific, a -tunnel of about six miles in length will be requisite. The altitude -of the divide is six hundred feet above the level of the lake. The -singular omission in Colonel Childs’ report may have led Admiral Davis -to overlook so important an objection, or perhaps he may have thought -it unnecessary to multiply objections to a route which appeared -impracticable upon other grounds. - - -CHIRIQUI. - -The so-called Isthmus of Chiriqui, lying between Panama and Nicaragua, -was explored by the late Lieut. St. Clair Morton, who was killed in -the siege of Petersburg. Lieut. Morton crossed the Isthmus twice, -and pronounced the route practicable for a railroad. As no notes of -this survey are extant, curiosity in regard to this route must remain -unsatisfied. Lieut. Jeffers, U. S. N., speaks favorably of the harbors. -Mr. Evans, the geologist, discovered an inferior kind of coal. Another -reconnoissance may develop some important information. - - -COSTA RICA. - -A railroad has been projected from Port Limon, near the tenth parallel -of latitude on the Atlantic, to Caldera, in the Gulf of Nicoya. Rising -to an altitude of 5,100 feet the route passes through a salubrious -climate, and over a productive soil. A macadamized road, 134 miles -long, with five stone bridges, has been completed along this line. As a -route for a ship canal the altitude of the summit appears to exclude it -from further consideration. - - -PANAMA. - -As the passenger route and highway of the trade between the Atlantic -and Pacific States of America, the mention of this line arrests -attention. Information in regard to it is full and accurate. Here, -alone, in all Central America, a railroad unites the two oceans. -Confining his remarks to the project of M. Garella, Admiral Davis -pronounces his condemnation of the route. - -M. Garella’s route, starting from the Bay of Limon, on the Atlantic, -following the valley of the Chagres, ascending with 17 locks to the -summit, which it passes with a tunnel 17,500 feet in length, at an -altitude of 135 feet above high water in the Pacific, and descending -with 18 locks, terminates at the Bay of Vaca del Monte, on the -Atlantic. The altitude of the ridge to be pierced is 459 feet. The -commission of the “_Ponts et chaussés_” appointed to report upon -Garella’s project, object to the expense of tunneling, and to the -absence of evidence of the sufficiency of the mountain streams to feed -the summit level. - -But a tunnel is not a necessary plan of piercing the Isthmus at this -point, nor is a summit level 135 feet above high water an unavoidable -necessity. The Panama railroad passes the divide without a tunnel, at -an altitude of 280 feet above tide. The fact that a route possessing -such advantages should be found so near the line of M. Garella, -encourages the belief that a more critical examination of other -prescribed routes may be rewarded with the same good fortune. - -The merits above mentioned justify a more attentive consideration. The -advantages of the route may be enumerated as follows: - - 1. A divide 280 feet above tide. - 2. Distance between oceans 48 miles. - 3. The Chagres river, emptying into the Atlantic, and the - Rio Grande, flowing into the Pacific, together with the - smaller rivers, Maraboso, Obispo, Dominica, Mandingo, - which can be made tributary to the summit level of the - canal. The rainfall in this region varies from 90 to 100 - inches, being three times the amount which ordinarily - falls in the United States. - 4. The harbors at the termini, Panama and Aspinwall, have - accommodated the trade of California and the Atlantic - States, and are far superior to those of Port Said and Suez. - 5. Tunnel unnecessary. - -Possessing such advantages, the objections which have led to the -ignoring of this route should be noticed. - -The objection of the Commission of French Engineers to M. Garella’s -project has been mentioned. “The river Chagres,” it was observed, “was -gauged at Cruces and Gorgona, but the river is to be tapped above these -points.” - -The summit upon Garella’s line is 459 feet above tide, while upon -the line of the Panama railroad it is but 280 feet. Garella proposes -to pierce the ridge, at 135 feet above tide, with a tunnel three and -four-tenths miles in length. No tunnel is required upon the other line. - -Estimating the tunnel of M. Garella at the present contract price in -the United States, this part of the work alone will cost $57,623,380. - Add 47 miles of open canal 84,232,491. - ———————————— - Total cost of canal $141,855,871. - -A canal by the aid of locks can be constructed between the two seas, -upon the line proposed by Col. Hughes, at a much less cost. - -Assuming the same dimensions of canal—100 feet wide by 30 feet deep—and -the same prices as above, taken from General Michler’s report upon the -survey of the canal for joining the Atrato and the Pacific, and we -obtain the probable cost of constructing a canal upon this line, as -follows: - - For 50 miles of open canal $ 89,610,150 - 12 locks raise the summit level 75 feet 12,000,000 - Breakwater, ship basin, and contingencies 8,000,000 - ——————————— - Total cost of canal $109,610,150 - -This diminution of cost of $32,245,721, due to the absence of a tunnel, -upon this route, allows of a margin more than can be required for -increasing the number of the locks, or for building, graving docks, and -other auxiliary conveniences in the harbors. - -The execution of this work would require a cut of less dimensions than -the famous Mexican Desague of Huehuetoca, referred to by Humboldt, and -described by Admiral Fitzroy as “200 feet deep and 300 feet wide for -nearly a thousand yards, and above 100 feet deep through an extent of -nearly a thousand yards, (making altogether two miles of distance in -which the vast excavation would be capable of concealing the mast-head -of a first-rate man-of-war, executed in the last three centuries in -Central America,) should induce us to listen respectfully to the plans -of modern engineers, however startling they may appear at first.” - -Another objection remains to be considered: “Navy Bay is an insecure -anchorage, and the harbor upon the Pacific is altogether insufficient -for vessels of even moderate draught.” “M. Garella is obliged to -include in his estimate the sum of a million and a quarter dollars for -the improvement of this harbor.” - -On account of the rise of the tide, which varies as much as 22 feet, -vessels are compelled to anchor two and one-half miles from Panama, and -the passengers and freight are transported in light-draught steamers. -These difficulties may be converted, by the use of docks, as in English -harbors, into an advantage. The withdrawal of 20 to 23 feet of water at -extreme tides affords extraordinary facilities for constructing ship -basins and docks upon the natural pavement of rock which covers the -bottom of the bay in front of the City of Panama. - -On the other side, Limon Bay possesses sufficient depth of water, -but is open to “northers.” The entrance of these dangerous winds may -be prevented by a stone breakwater, or one composed of screw piles, -driven sufficiently near to support iron or flanged plates, sliding -vertically into position, one above another, until the requisite height -is attained, and braced strongly at the back. - -Notwithstanding northers, steamships arrive and depart regularly. The -Royal Mail Steamship Company are building wharves of stone and iron, -and the railroad company has projected a breakwater for the protection -of shipping. - -Colonel G. W. Hughes, in a letter to the Hon. J. M. Clayton, at that -time Secretary of State, makes the following observations in regard -to this route: “The line I have traced for a railroad is, I think, -more favorable for a ship canal than that suggested by M. Garella. -If we adopt the same depth of cutting he suggests for an open cut, -it will leave the bottom of the canal 44 feet above the level of the -Pacific at high tide. This would be about ten feet lower than the -bed of the river at Gorgona. An open cut two hundred feet deep would -obviate all difficulty in crossing the Chagres at Gorgona, while the -Rio Grande, the Obispo, and the Mandingo might be converted into an -immense reservoir for supplying the summit-level with water, and the -Rio Chagres above Cruces, and the Pedro, Miguel, Camero, etc., would -furnish the lower level. A spacious tide basin might be constructed at -the mouth of the Rio Grande, a few miles west of Panama.” - -For this project, so favorably recommended, it is necessary to obtain -the consent of the Panama Railroad Company to the use of land belonging -to their reservation. - - -SAN BLAS AND BAYANO RIVER. - -This route is one of several surveyed under the generous patronage -of F. W. Kelly and others. The map of Mr. McDougal, the surveyor and -engineer, and the report of Admiral Davis, furnish some interesting -facts. The narrowest part of the Isthmus is found here, being thirty -miles from ocean to ocean, and here the tide of the Pacific is said to -approach within fifteen miles of the Atlantic coast. - -Mr. McDougal proposes to pierce the ridge, which has an altitude of -1500 feet, at a height of 93½ feet above mean tide, by a tunnel seven -miles long. The harbor of San Blas is deep and spacious. The channel -leading into the Bay of Panama has not less than eighteen feet of -water at mean low tide, while the rise of the water is sixteen feet. -This result, Admiral Davis observes, does not agree with the admiralty -charts. - -The map indicates the probable existence of a better route to the -north-west, and the surveyors were satisfied they saw evidences of a -depression in that direction. - -Admiral Davis quotes the well-merited compliment of Sir R. Murchison, -to the zeal and energy with which Mr. Kelly has pursued “this great -and philanthropic object,” in which “all civilized nations are deeply -interested.” - - -DARIEN. - -Between Caledonia Bay and the Gulf of San Miguel every effort to -make a thorough exploration has resulted in failure. Disappointed -expectations, arduous but fruitless labors, conflicting reports, -failure, starvation, and death have stamped with ill omen every -attempt to cross this part of the Isthmus. Baron Humboldt has directed -public attention to Darien, and Admiral Davis expresses his deliberate -conviction that to this part of the Isthmus we must look for a solution -of the question of interoceanic ship communication. - -The history of so many attempts, proving so unexpectedly disastrous, -supplies much curious and valuable information. From the Paterson -colonization scheme to the unfortunate expedition of Lieut. Strain, one -word will characterize every attempt. The first settlement of Vasco -Nunez, in 1510, after eight years of calamitous trial, was abandoned. - -Paterson’s colony was remarkable in the causes which led to its -inception; in the ability and statesman-like views of him who conceived -a design so vast and benevolent; in the governments enlisted in its -favor; in the sufferings of the colonists, and in its final abandonment. - -William Paterson, a Scottish clergyman, of fertile resources, and great -political sagacity, the original designer of the Bank of England, -conceived the magnificent design of establishing a colony upon the -shores of Darien, based on principles of religious toleration and free -trade, which, occupying the highway of commerce, “grasping the riches -of both the Indies, and wresting the keys of commerce from Spain,” -should build up, on the shores of two oceans, cities surpassing his -own Edinburgh, and rivaling ancient Alexandria. With experience drawn -from long study and patient observation, he organized his scheme upon -liberal commercial principles, and an enlightened political policy. -Scotland, Hamburg, and Holland, contributed the sum of $4,500,000. -This large amount surprised London merchants, and spread panic in the -board of the East India Company. The unfriendly feeling of this great -corporation proved, in the end, fatal to the scheme. Aided by Spanish -intrigue, and Dutch rivalry, and bringing their vast machinery to bear -against the colonists, by argument and misrepresentation, they induced -William III. to issue an edict, forbidding all English colonies in -the West Indies from sending provisions, arms, or ammunition to the -Scottish colony of Darien. - -Of 1,200 colonists, three hundred of whom represented the best blood of -Scotland, thirty only returned to tell the story of their sufferings. -Dissension, disease, and starvation, had accomplished the usual -results. Thus, this design for the union of two great oceans failed; -this effort to form a nucleus of a new system of beneficent wealth, and -commerce, came to an untimely end. - -The Caledonia Bay was no longer frequented by the ships of England, -Holland and Scotland, The gold mines of Cana, worked by one thousand -men, under the Spanish domination, were destined to remain to the -present day, unmolested. The north-western slopes, and the head waters -of the Chuquanaqua, reverted to the undisputed possession of the -Indians, while, between the lower part of this river and along the -Savana, and the Bay of San Miguel, a mongrel population of 1,200 souls -cultivate bananas, and impose upon strangers. - -Dr. Cullen justly claims to have recalled public attention to the -merits of this route. The fine harbors of San Miguel on the Pacific, -and of Caledonia Bay and Port Escocés on the Atlantic, taken in -connection with the narrowness of the Isthmus, would attract a casual -observer. The favorable opinion of Humboldt has led many to look -hopefully to this region. The advantageous situation of the Savana -River was pointed out by Dr. Cullen, who claims to have “crossed, and -recrossed, between Caledonia Bay, and Port Escocés alone, during the -rainy season, cutting and marking his way with a machete. From the -head of the Savana,” he continues, “a ravine, three leagues in length, -extends to Caledonia Bay, and there a canal might be cut with less -difficulty than elsewhere, if it were not for the opposition of the -natives. From the sea shore (at Caledonia) a plain extends to the base -of a ridge, which runs parallel to the coast, and whose summit is 350 -feet. This ridge is not quite continuous and unbroken, but is divided -by transverse valleys, through which the Aglasenique and Aglatomente, -and other rivers have their course, and whose highest elevations do not -exceed 150 feet.” - -Impressed by these favorable representations, and believing Dr. -Cullen’s statement of the existence of large gold deposits near -Esperitu Santu, and in the diggings of Veraguas, the distinguished -capitalists, Sir Charles Fox, John Henderson, and Thomas Brassy, -uniting with Dr. Cullen, obtained, by a decree of the Granadian -Congress, dated Bogotá, June 1st, 1852, the concession of the exclusive -privilege of cutting a ship canal across the Isthmus of Darien, between -the Gulf of San Miguel on the Pacific, and the Bay of Caledonia on the -Atlantic, with the liberty of selecting any other point on the Atlantic -coast between Puerto de Mosquitoes, and the west mouth of the Atrato, -for the entrance of the canal; and were granted, besides the lands -necessary for the canal and its works, 2,000,000 acres of land, to be -selected in any part of the Republic. All the ports of Darien were -declared free and neutral. - -Notwithstanding these favorable conditions, it was deemed prudent, by -the distinguished capitalists above mentioned, to send out a competent -engineer to verify the statements of Dr. Cullen. Mr. Lionel Gisborne -was selected for the purpose, and was accompanied by Dr. Cullen, to -point out the way. - -Before arriving in South America Mr. Gisborne, assuming the data -supplied by Dr. Cullen to be correct, enters into some interesting -speculations. “Let us suppose,” he observes, “the summit level to be -150 feet above the level of the sea. The Atlantic rise of tide is only -3 feet (1′ 5″); that of the Pacific is 25 feet (22 to 23), therefore, -the difference in the level, at high and low tide is 11 feet (this, -although suppositious, will, I anticipate, not be far from the truth). -In such a case I would propose to cut a canal through from ocean to -ocean without any locks,” etc. - -Proceeding on the supposition of certain “circumstances likely to -coexist in a country whose chief geological formation is igneous,” he -proposed a second plan. “By embankments placed in the most advantageous -position” two lakes are to be formed upon each side of the ridge, -which, being cut through, ships can pass from lake to lake, and -lock down to either ocean from the opposite extremities. “The only -objection” to this plan, is, he thinks, “the loss of land inundated.” -“I hope,” he adds, “a tract of country will be found where one or the -other of these cases is applicable.” It is very remarkable that Mr. -Gisborne found a country adapted to this plan. - -This expedition was long delayed in Cartejena, awaiting Dr. Cullen, -who was occupied with business connected with the survey before the -Congress of Bogotá. “I determined to wait for the English mails,” -writes Mr. Gisborne, “due here the 25th, otherwise I should certainly -not spend three weeks waiting for Dr. Cullen.” On another day, “an -instrumental survey,” he prognosticates, “seems to be out of the -question, so that our levels, theodolites, sextants, and chains, will -probably remain in the same box Troughton and Simms consigned them to -on our departure from England.” - -Again, “I have read and listened about Darien Indians, their cruelty -and jealousy, until I am callous and unbelieving; but it frets me -to remain in doubt, ebbing out an existence in Cartejena. I have -determined,” he says, “to wait ten days longer—then D. V. Cullen, or no -Cullen, I shall try what can be done with these ungovernable Indians.” - -Waiting impatiently, he speculates upon the Aurora Borealis, geology, -magnetic observations; ingeniously proposing, by the automatic action -of appropriate machinery, to make all meteorological phenomena register -its name and mission in a room selected for that purpose. This he -calls a “meteorological loom in which the web of time is spun with the -present for a pattern.” - -“May 29th—The Bogotá mail has come, but no letter from Dr. Cullen. -Every thing here is mañana (to-morrow).” - -He again takes to speculating on fortifications, and the beauty of -the senoritas. A reasonable man would have been contented. But he -leaves this primrose path to write, “Dr. Cullen has neither written, -nor appeared in person, and I am beginning to have my doubts whether -he will do so.” In the meantime Cullen was hammering at the “mañana” -Congress at Bogotá. - -After waiting six weeks he left Cartejena in disgust, and landed, -without the indefatigable Doctor, in Caledonia Bay. Here he spent two -days wandering among the hills with his barometer, his spirits going -down as the mercury went up. - -He was arrested by three half-naked Indians, who, in an unintelligible -language, but plainly to be understood gestures, commanded him to -follow. This he prudently acquiesced in, but not until he had, as he -thought, ascertained the dividing ridge between the Atlantic and the -Pacific to be 272 feet above tide. Falling asleep, with a contented -mind, he thought he heard the roar of the surf of the Pacific, but his -companion, Ford, very shrewdly suggested that they were still within -hearing of the Atlantic. With a gentle admonition that they must never -be caught there again they were permitted to return to their boat. - -Naturally, he could not forbear another fling at the helpless Dr. -Cullen. “I had not much faith in Dr. Cullen’s map, as his descriptions -of land south-west of Port Escocés were directly contrary to the fact.” - -The comment, on his failure may puzzle the reader. “I am far more -satisfied at having failed in crossing from Port Escocés than to have -crossed and returned (supposing that was possible with safety), and -reported a summit 275 feet, when, within a few miles, one of 40 is to -be got further inland.” - -“It is dangerous to argue by induction,” observes Mr. Gisborne, and he -gives 238 pages in illustration of this truth. - -Nothing daunted by his failure to effect a transit from the Atlantic -side of the Isthmus, he determines to proceed to Panama, and to make -another attempt from San Miguel on the Pacific. Proceeding up the -Savana river he disembarked with his Asst. Ford, who had charge of -the mountain barometer, and penetrating two days’ journey into the -interior, he is warned by a _log over a stream_ that he had reached -the country of his enemies, the Caledonia Indians. Remembering their -parting injunction he returned. - -“A dreamy hope of success,” he writes, “is strengthened by inductive -argument, the cause of former failures leads to generalizations of -geological theories, and topographical analogy, and it was this -conviction that cheered me under all difficulties, making suffering an -indispensable appendage of success.” - -Consoling himself with such reflections he met Dr. Cullen at Panama, -in high dudgeon. The Doctor reproached him with having broken his -instructions, and required that he should return to San Miguel. -Gisborne was recalcitrant. “Feeling satisfied that a ship canal could -be made across Darien, he urged Dr. Cullen to come to England, and, as -he said he was without money, I offered to advance the passage money.” - -This generous offer was accepted. Having found, as he believed, -a summit of 150 feet above tide, corresponding with Dr. Cullen’s -statement, he submits two plans to his employers. One for a -thorough-cut without locks; the other by the junction of two lakes, -for which he had found a suitable physical conformity, in remarkable -harmony with his prophetic speculations before reaching Cartejena. - -The first plan was estimated to cost £12,500,000, or about $62,500,000. - -The friends of the measure in London were elated by the representations -of the expeditionists. - -The Atlantic and Pacific Junction Company was incorporated by royal -charter, or act of Parliament. The capital, limited to £15,000,000, -was disposed of in shares of £100 each. A deposit of ten shillings on -each share was to be made without further liability, forming a sum of -£75,000 for preliminary expenses. - -A provisional directory was organized, with Lord Wharncliffe as -chairman. Upon the publication of their prospectus, a lively -correspondence sprang up between the _London Times_ and Sir Charles -Fox. The writer of the _Times_ is charged with want of appreciation -of the merits of the Darien route, and retorts, that if no one is to -question Sir Charles Fox’s views, or even speak of their inaccuracies, -there must be an end of discussion. - -While this controversy was raging, another expedition was being -organized, in numbers and appliances far exceeding any previous -attempt, with the same object. England, France, and the United States -coöperated with New Granada. Not since the landing of Paterson had so -formidable an expedition appeared in that region. - -When the Virago entered the Bay of San Miguel, the Scorpion and -l’Espeigle, with Mr. Gisborne and Dr. Cullen on board, anchored in -Caledonia Bay. The French ship, La Chimere, and the American corvette, -Cyane, Lieut. Strain, at the same time joined the expedition, raising -the united crews to the number of 700 men. - -The Granadian Government, in furtherance of the object of the -expedition, had established a depot near the junction of the rivers -Savana and Lara. It was confidently believed that the practicability of -the Darien route was about to be set at rest forever. - -Relying on Mr. Gisborne’s and Dr. Cullen’s reports, Lieut. Strain, with -a party of twenty-seven men, two Granadian Commissioners, and ten days’ -provisions, pushed forward up the bed of the Caledonia River. Here, -taking advantage of an opening among the trees, he examined, with a -spy-glass, the range of Cordillera, to find a semi-circular chain 1500 -to 2000 feet in height. He concluded that this route could not be that -alluded to by Mr. Gisborne and Dr. Cullen. He still pushed forward up -arduous ascents. A seaman of the Cyane climbed a tree to reconnoiter -the country, and reported nothing but hills and mountains in every -direction. For a pathetic account of this unfortunate expedition, the -reader is referred to _Harper’s Monthly_, Vol. X. - -After forty days of wandering, subsisting for the time chiefly on sour -palmetto berries, emaciated with hunger, lacerated with thorns, sick, -and half naked, Strain, having hastened ahead of his party, sought -succor in Yvisa. Proceeding to the Savana, he presented himself to -the English agent, who, receiving him with every kindness, shed tears -at the sight. Securing assistance, which was reluctantly granted, at -Yvisa, he hastily returned to find the remnant of his party, feebly -struggling back toward Caledonia Bay, having lost five of their number, -among whom were the two Granadian Commissioners. - -Strain, mistaking the Chuquanaqua for the Savana, reached the Pacific -by the longest route. He claims that his expedition “has disproved a -magnificent preconceived theory,” and that instead of a summit-level of -150 feet, it is at least 1000 feet. - -Three days after the departure of Strain, “another party, composed of -English and French together, under the guidance of Dr. Cullen and Mr. -Gisborne, set out from the same point, and endeavored to follow in his -track.” “Gisborne and Cullen could not follow their own maps,” and -after having “penetrated not more than six miles in all, returned.” Mr. -Gisborne, observes the narrator in the _Nouvelles Annales des Voyages_, -“dementait complétement” his former statements. They failed to confirm -the first statements, and the London company, organized with such high -hopes, was dissolved. - -On the heels of Gisborne and Cullen, the Granadian expedition, under -the command of Codazzi, made a cotemporaneous essay. “How far,” says -Strain, “it penetrated is not known; but, struggling over the space of -a mile, it was broken up, and returned after having lost several men.” - -While failure and misfortune was befalling the exploring parties -starting from the Atlantic coast, another attempt was made at the same -time to effect a transit from the now notable Savana. Capt. Prevost, of -the Virago, after advancing twenty-six miles, at the rate of one and -one-half miles per day, returned again to the Savana, followed, says -Mr. Gisborne, by two hundred hostile Indians. Four sailors, left to -guard a depot of provisions, were found murdered. - -Capt. Prevost failed to find a practicable pass. Crossing valleys which -probably led to the Pacific, the altitude of which is not given, he -terminated his survey at a summit of 1080 feet above the level of the -ocean. “L’execution de canal interoceaneque était devenue á peu pris -impracticable,” remarks the reviewer. - -After an examination of the maps of Gisborne, Prevost, Strain, and -Codazzi, there seems to be a general agreement in placing the summit -of the ridge at not less than one thousand feet above the level of the -tide. The united maps of Prevost and Gisborne exhibit their routes, -proceeding from opposite points and intersecting, and the continuous -profile between the two oceans fails to solve the question of a -practicable route. As one of these parties had the advantage of Dr. -Cullen’s personal guidance, it is but fair to allow him to supplement -his first statement by an explanation of the causes which led to a -failure so complete and unexpected. - -Speaking of the party from the Virago, he observes that Capt. Prevost -“directed his explorations too far to the north-west.” That when it -stopped he was but thirty miles from the point where the line should -pass. - -Strain, on the other hand, erred by going “too far to the south-west.” -In a word, the true line is to be found in the golden mean in which -Aristotle places all virtue. - -But he has so far modified his first statement that he now thinks a -line, “with tunneling,” may be found between Sucubti and Port Escocés. -Under nine heads, he enumerates the advantages of this route. - -The reader has, perhaps, concluded that, like Pantagruel’s army, this -subject is pretty well covered with tongue, and he may even adopt the -conclusion of a distinguished attorney-general upon the fallibility of -this unruly member. But one or two of the nine may be quoted. Under -No. 7 Dr. Cullen states the land rises to nine hundred and thirty -feet, and that here a tunnel will be required. No. 8 states that -between this point and the Pacific no obstacle is to be found. The -divide of one hundred and fifty feet, first discovered by Dr. Cullen, -expanded to ten times that altitude. - -If men of intelligence and education can so err, all statements of -persons whose previous habits and studies have not fitted them for -passing judgment upon the relative merits of different canal routes -should be received with caution. - -The failure of this formidable effort of four Governments to discover a -practicable route for a ship canal between Caledonia Bay and the Gulf -of San Miguel, while it disappointed reasonable expectation, stimulated -public curiosity. The French, in nowise discouraged, determined to make -another effort. The Granadian Minister, Francisco Martin, and Senator -F. Barrow, signed, at Paris, a treaty embodying certain concession. - -According to agreement, the survey was to be conducted from the head of -the Chuquanaqua toward the village of Monti, where Codazzi represented -a summit of 460 feet. - -M. Bourdiol, Civil Engineer, with a party of fifteen persons—afterward -increased to twenty by the addition of some natives—proceeded -carefully, cutting their way, and chaining and leveling at the rate -of about a mile a day. Reaching the Chuquanaqua below the junction of -the Sucubti, he was compelled to desist, by the approach of the rainy -season. He returned to Panama after an absence of sixty days. - -The nearest approach to a determination of a pass by M. Bourdiol -appears in the rather equivocal statement, that the origin of the -valley of Monti is one hundred and eighty-two metres (about 597 feet). - -If all of these explorers had left some permanent mark at the -termination of their surveys, succeeding parties could have taken -up the line where the former left off, and the determination of a -practicable route could have been made in one-half the time now -required. - -M. Bourdiol affirms that he verified the height of the Sucubti, as -given by Codazzi and Gisborne, but it is not apparent how he found the -same points determined by these engineers. - -Where so many failed, with every accessory and advantage likely to -assure success, the pertinent inquiry suggests itself, Is there any one -fact in common which may serve to explain failures so universal? All -find difficulties in cutting the way, requiring natives accustomed to -the use of the machete; all are misled by imperfect maps, which fail -to give the altitude of the passes and the true course of the rivers. -While one party is turned back by the rainy season, another is stopped -by the Indians, another by want of time. But one party succeeded in -crossing from sea to sea, but under such circumstances that each day -was a struggle for existence, to the exclusion of the scientific -objects of the expedition. - -The hostility of the Indians, although not always stated, appears to -have been the chief obstacle to a careful exploration; and internal -dissension concurred to bring failure upon the best appointed of these -expeditions. - -The following table presents, at one view, all that is known of the -Darien routes: - - ════════╤═════════════════╤════════╤═════════════════════════════════ - │ │ SUMMIT │ - NAMES. │ LOCALITY. │REPORTED│ REMARKS. - ────────┼─────────────────┼────────┼───────────────────────────────── - │ │ FEET. │ - Cullen │Savana, │ │ - │ Port Escocés.│ 150? │“Crossed and recrossed?” - Gisborne│ “ “ │ 150? │ Saw across to former position? - Cullen │ ┌ Started at │ 980! │ ┌ Second attempt - Gisborne│ ┤ Caledonia │ │ ┤ and failed to - │ └ Bay. │ │ └ cross over. - Strain │ Caledonia Bay. │ 1000+ │ Lost his way on the Chuquanaqua. - Prevost │ Savana River. │ 1080 │ Did not see the Pacific. - Bourdiol│ “ “ │ 597? │ Turned back by rain. - ────────┴─────────────────┴────────┴───────────────────────────────── - -It would appear, at the first glance, that the question of a -practicable route across the Isthmus of Darien was settled by these -explorers.[8] Dr. Cullen, notwithstanding the unfortunate result of -his early prognostications, still remains sanguine, and opines that -the valleys of the Aglatomente and Aglasenaca afford levels favorable -to a canal; but Gisborne’s map represents the water-shed of the -Aglasenaca at 1,020 feet above the level of the sea, and supplies no -indications of a lower summit. But Capt. Prevost gives some important -testimony. In a letter to Admiral Moresby, written after the return -of his expedition, he speaks of valleys at a lower level than any yet -discovered, leading to the Pacific. His map confirms this statement. -Capt. Parsons, R. N., of the Scorpion, testifies to the same effect. -From the deck of his vessel he could discern a very decided break in -the ridge, which appeared continuous when viewed from other points. - -These estimates we have learned to receive with caution. “A dreamy -hope of success is strengthened by inductive argument,” observes Mr. -Gisborne, “the cause of former failures leads to generalizations,” -etc., and such faint lights have so far proved veritable -will-o’-the-wisps. In the present instance, concurrent opinion is -highly favorable. The appearance of isolated summits, and disjointed -and dislocated character of schistose and trychitic rock; the testimony -of Prevost and Parsons, to the appearance of a break in the ridge; -the fact that Col. Hughes found at Panama a summit of two hundred and -eighty feet above the sea, at two miles north of the line, upon which -Garella could not find less than four hundred and fifty-nine feet -above the same level; all these facts, if not “confirmations strong -as proofs of Holy Writ,” are more than “trifles light as air,” and go -far to confirm the opinion that the Isthmus of Darien has not been -sufficiently explored. - - -SAN MIGUEL TO THE GULF OF URABÀ. - -Sr. Gorgoza, a Granadian, represents that he has passed over this -line, and found an altitude of one hundred and ninety feet. How this -elevation was determined without a barometer or spirit-level is not -clear. This part of the Isthmus is referred to in general terms by -Humboldt, Fitzroy, and Trautwine, but as these authorities echo each -other, the inference derives little additional strength from their -concurrence. - - -ATRATO. - -Taking leave of the Darien surveys, the explorations in the province of -Chócó come next in order. Under this head are included the surveys made -in the valley of the Atrato. Success appears to have accompanied these -operations, as disaster followed the Darien expeditions. The hopes -centering in any one Isthmean route have been in the inverse ratio of -the information concerning them. - -The indispensable desiderata of a summit of moderate elevation, and -deep harbors, have not yet been found existing conjointly together. The -volcanic agency which hollowed out deep basins where ships may securely -anchor, has, at the same time, given unusual altitude to the dividing -ridge. Shallow harbors and low divides, and deep harbors and great -altitudes, accompany each other with the persistence of a law. - -As the explorations dissipated the hope of one route, another was -taken up. Vague rumors continually reach us similar to those we have -already encountered. One of the latest of these is this: A Mr. or Sr. -Gorgoza, a resident of New Granada, has found a short and easy transit -across the Cordillera, between the Gulf of San Miguel and Urabà (or -Darien), by ascending the Tuyra, and crossing the valley of the Atrato. -According to his statement, the depression in the divide is not more -than 190 feet above the mean tide, and the distance between head -waters, navigable by canoes, is not more than three miles. - - -DE LA CHARME ROUTE—BY THE WAY OF TUYRA, PAYA, AND CAQUARRI TO THE -ATRATA. - -The March number of _Putnam’s Monthly_ contains a description of a -route surveyed by M. De La Charme, which occupies a position between -the Darien routes, and the line between Humboldt Bay and the Atrato, -surveyed by Lieut. Michler. - -The article referred to gives an account of what appears to be the -latest reconnoissance made in that region, and claims for its author, -M. De La Charme, “the right of discovery.” Of this survey Sr. De -Gorgoza is the patron and prime mover. - -The attention of Sr. De Gorgoza was called to this route by certain -“documents” containing “hints about passages used by the Indians in -crossing the Cordilleras.” These documents consisted of “reports -by the civil and ecclesiastical authorities about the province of -Balboa, which was, at that time, of great importance, from its rich -gold mines,” and are probably as reliable as any other civil and -ecclesiastical reports of the pious marauders of that period. These -reports were accompanied by “a map,” which seems, from a reference -upon page 133, to have been that remarkable specimen of puzzling -topography, known as Arisa’s map, a copy of which may be found appended -to the report of Admiral Davis. The usual reference is made to those -unconscious pioneers of interoceanic canal routes, the filibusters, -“who carried off quantities of gold, to the great detriment of the -Spanish treasury,” etc., etc. - -This _reliable_ evidence is further corroborated by the flight of -birds. Some Pissisi ducks providentially appear to lead our explorer -upon the right path, and M. De La Charme is so convinced that the route -will be found in the direction taken by these web-footed engineers, -that he confidently affirms “there remained to me no doubt but at this -place I should find the desired passage. So persuaded,” he “prosecuted -his work with confidence.” - -Many immaterial facts are circumstantially related, but we are not -told by what method the survey was conducted, nor whether M. De La -Charme was assisted in his work by professional engineers. Without such -assistance, his duties must have been complicated and laborious. As -mention is made of bogas and laborers only, we must conclude that this -arduous duty was performed without any intelligent assistance. - -He states that strict attention was given to barometric measurements. -The notes should have been supplied in proof of the accuracy of his -conclusions. - -The irregularities of the barometer along the dividing ridge of the -Isthmus and in South America have been noticed by Moro, Hughes, -Herndon, Maury, Michler, and other observers. Used with extreme care, -and according to the method recommended by Lieut. Col. Williamson, -U. S. A., the results obtained with this instrument are affected by -discrepancies and anomalies, which, along the Andes, vitiate the most -careful observations, and elude the grasp of the best formulæ. - -A favorable reconnoissance with the barometer, in this region, should -receive a careful verification with more accurate instruments, but it -can not be regarded as establishing the feasibility of a route. - -The map of M. De La Charme, like that of Dr. Cullen, is made up from -old maps. The additional topographical information is not laid down. - -Two parties were sent to the Isthmus to verify this route. One, -composed of French engineers, was under the charge of M. Flacat; the -other, composed of American engineers, was under the direction of Mr. -Spooner. With both the principals Sr. De Gorgoza quarreled, and the -parties returned without accomplishing the work for which they had made -so long a journey. - -The following paragraphs contain all that M. De La Charme claims to -have established. If correct, he is justly entitled to the right of -discovery, in the furtherance of which claim “he considers it his duty -to publish the present memorandum.” - -“This canal should go in a straight course E. 20° S. from Real Viejo to -the village of Paya, thence south-east through the passage between the -Cordilleras and the Andes, and, finally, easterly or north-easterly, -as should prove best for the navigation from the Atlantic by the -Atrato. It would not be more than fifty miles long, and would traverse -a country whose formation presents no difficulties to the opening of -the same, either in the excavation or in the removal of the materials -excavated, an important point in works of this kind. - -“The highest point or summit-level of the route thus explored was near -the village of Paya. It was, by barometrical measurement, one hundred -and seventy-eight feet (about 55 metres) above the level of the sea, -and this must necessarily be very nearly the true altitude. And, it may -be added, the field notes of the expedition contain satisfactory data -respecting the questions of practical engineering involved, such as -feeders, locks,” etc. - -So little accurate information exists in regard to the topography of -the Isthmus, there is always a probability in favor of the discovery -of new routes. But the uncertainty which must attach to the sanguine -representations based upon interested but unprofessional examinations, -has been made sufficiently apparent. Such statements can not be -accepted without verification. This is doubtless all that Sr. Gorgoza -desires. - - -ROUTES OF PORTER, KENNISH, AND TRAUTWINE. - -In July, 1857, the results of a survey from the Atrato to the Pacific, -made by Mr. Kennish, under the direction of F. W. Kelley, were laid -before the Secretaries of War and Navy. Mr. Trautwine had previously -surveyed the Atrato from its mouth to its head, crossing the ridge in -three places, obtaining much valuable information. Mr. Porter made a -survey in 1853. The survey of Mr. Kennish, before alluded to, was made -in 1855. - -Commencing at the mouth of the Atrato River, the work to be done is -described as follows: The mouth of the Atrato being obstructed by bars, -the caño coquito, by which the river is to be united with the Gulf of -Urabà, having at the present time a depth of four feet water, is to be -excavated to a depth of thirty feet. From thence sixty-five miles to -the mouth of the Truando, the depth is not less than forty-seven feet. -The bar at the mouth of the Truando is eighteen feet. For six miles -the river has an average depth of fourteen feet. From thence to the -Pacific, twenty-six miles, much of the distance is through solid rock. -At 505 feet above the ocean level, Mr. Kennish proposes to pierce the -divide by a tunnel three and one-half miles in length, sufficiently -large to admit two ships abreast. - -The harbor at the Pacific terminus requires improvement; guard locks -not considered necessary. Total length of the line, one hundred and -twenty-six miles. The results of this survey were regarded as highly -favorable by the friends of the measure. - -Mr. Kelley regarded his labors and expenditures as well rewarded. -“Franklin,” he observes, “was not more delighted when he drew lightning -from the clouds, nor Columbus when he discovered America, than I was -when it was demonstrated, by instrumental measurement, that the two -oceans could be united, that all the science, industry, enlightened -enterprise, and generous expenditure had not been exhausted in vain.” - -To verify this survey, Congress authorized the Secretaries of War and -Navy to organize a joint expedition. In accordance with this authority, -the Secretary of the Navy designated Com. Craven. This gallant officer -was afterward sunk off Mobile, and lost with all the crew of his ship. - - -MICHLER’S ROUTE. - -To Lieut. N. Michler, Corps of Topographical Engineers, (now Brevet -Brigadier-General,) the execution of the topographical survey was -assigned. The operations of this officer were published in the form of -a diary, with special scientific reports and observations, accompanied -by maps and profiles. The special reports embrace observations upon -geology, botany, hipsometrical and astronomical determinations, -climatology, and field notes. - -The itinerary is full and interesting, supplying information valuable -to future explorers. The reader is never asked to accept a statement -upon the _ipse dixit_ of the writer. The observation of a corps of -intelligent surveyors is laid before the reader. - -The line adopted by General Michler may be described as follows: To -avoid the bar at the mouth of the Atrato, a canal, about two and -one-half miles, is to be cut through the channel of the caño coquito. -The mouth of this caño is protected by nature from the prevailing -winds. The Atrato affords navigation for the largest ships. The -remaining part of the line is described in General Michler’s words: -“Let the first section follow the projected line referred to above, -across the Lagunas to its intersection with the Truando; the second -section connects this last point by a straight line with the head -of the Palizadas; the third extends in a direct line to the foot of -the Saltos; the fourth in a curved line to the head of the Saltos, -including a tunnel of 800 feet through the Sierra de los Saltos; the -fifth leads directly to the mouth of the river Grundó, a tributary of -the Nercua; the sixth leaves the valley of the Nercua at the point by -a straight line, perpendicular to the axis of the Cordilleras de los -Andes, and, after piercing the mountains with a tunnel 12,500 feet -in length, continues on to the mouth of the Chuparador; the seventh -follows for some distance down the valley of the river Paracuchichí; -and, lastly, the eighth strikes in a direct line for the Bahia -Ensenadá, or Estero de Paracuchichí. - -“The line proposed by Mr. Kennish differs very materially from the one -just described. It leaves the Atrato at the mouth of the Truando, and -follows the meanderings of the stream to its junction with the Nercua; -it then ascends the valleys of the latter and of the Hingador, and -strikes across the mountains to the Pacific. The length of the cut by -his plan is stated in his report to be 56.08 miles. - -“In order to complete the line of canal communication between the -Atrato and the Pacific, it is necessary to connect the Estero de -Paracuchichí with Humboldt’s Bay. It is proposed to do this by a cut -from the former across the peninsula, and then by building out in its -prolongation, from the shores of the latter, jetties to form a passage -through the surf into deep water of the ocean. The depth of the cut -between them will have to be sufficient to allow for the swells of the -latter, at least from thirty-five to forty feet below low tide.” - -To connect the Atrato with the Pacific by a canal without locks, there -would be 95 miles of river navigation, and 52⅔ miles of canal, making -an aggregate length of 147⅔ miles. - -The following table gives the different items and the total cost of the -work: - - -_Interoceanic Ship Canal_. - - _Summary of the estimated cost of the canal and appurtenances._ - ═════════════════════════════════════════╤═════════════════ - │ ESTIMATE - │ BY GEN. MICHLER - OBJECT OF EXPENDITURE. │ FOR EXCAVATION - │ AND TUNNELING. - ─────────────────────────────────────────┼───────────────── - Works at the mouth of the Atrato │ $ 500,000 - Excavation of earth │ 24,835,173 - Rock cuttings │ 64,774,950 - Tunneling │ 13,995,000 - Pacific harbor improvements │ 1,150,000 - Light-house │ 35,000 - Piers │ 25,000 - Depots on Pacific │ 50,000 - Depots on line, and hospital │ 35,000 - Depot at junction │ 15,000 - Executive department │ 120,000 - Engineer department │ 375,000 - Medical department │ 80,000 - Pay department │ 90,000 - Commissary department │ 120,000 - Quartermaster’s department │ 135,000 - Dredging machinery │ 350,000 - Hoisting and pumping engines’ machinery │ 875,000 - ├───────────────── - │ $107,560,123 - Add 25 per cent. for contingencies │ 26,890,031 - ├───────────────── - │ $134,450,154 - ─────────────────────────────────────────┴───────────────── - -This estimate supposes the dimensions of the canal to be 100 feet wide -and 30 feet deep. This rate ($2.50) per cubic yard is evidently too -small. Estimating this tunnel at the contract price being employed -($5.40), the cost will be $30,229,200; and should the price reach the -not improbable limit of $10 per cubic yard, the cost will be increased -to $55,970,000. Substituting these sums in place of the cost of -tunneling as given in the above estimate, and the total cost of the -canal along this route will, in the first case, be $150,684,354, and, -in the second case, $176,625,154, which is not excessive, if the tunnel -is to be lined throughout. - -The Penaebach tunnel is the only one in England that is self-supporting. -It is driven through solid basalt. The Penmaenwhr tunnel, pierced -through hard green-stone, had to be lined throughout; and the Bangor -tunnel, supposed to be sufficiently firm, was afterward cased with -brick. It has been found necessary to line some of the tunnels of the -Washington aqueduct, which are driven through very hard gneiss. - -Before taking leave of this instructive report, we have selected some -interesting portions of the narrative and scientific statements for -quotation: - -“The great falls of the Hingador are grand and exceedingly romantic, -and equal in height and beauty to many of those in other countries -which elicit so much admiration from all lovers of magnificent scenery. -The valley itself is pleasant to gaze upon; many bright streams gush -into it, and impart additional charms to the already picturesque -landscape of falls and rapids, and rich tropical vegetation. Several -thermal springs were discovered at the foot of the great falls. - -“As the party had to wade through the water, over smooth and slippery -rocks, and clamber up steep precipices, it took four days to accomplish -this section of the survey. Several fragments of rocks were broken -off at the head of the falls for subsequent analysis. According to -the report of the geologist, of which the following is an extract, -‘the rocky falls were found to be overcoated with a light, shaly -conglomerate of a cemented texture, and containing, imbedded in a -calcareous matrix, coarse sand and gravel. Higher up, in one of the -western head branches of this stream, a more consolidated semi-rock was -noticed, containing copiously interspersed fragments of little shells. -This rock seems also to be impregnated with carbonate of lime.’” - -The character of the natives may be gathered from the extract: “January -30th, 1858—Whilst seated on the rocks overlooking the falls, and -listening to the music of the roaring waters, as they rushed fiercely -past, with an occasional anxious glance at the curve of the river -above, in expectancy of the momentary appearance of the long-expected -canoe, the attention was suddenly drawn toward a long line of Indians, -men, women, and children, emerging from the trail over the Sierra. As -they filed by, several familiar faces were seen, and a kindly nod of -recognition given and returned. Each bore a pack, from the largest -to the smallest; these rested upon the back, and were supported by -bands, composed of the bark of trees, which passed in front of the -forehead. Most of their effects were packed away in baskets, made of -bark of certain trees, and very neatly manufactured. They proved to be -old friends from Tocame, and were _en route_ to make a visit to one of -their Tambos, on the Nercua. All fear as to moving ahead was dispelled -at sight of them. After depositing their loads on the rocks, near the -small haven, just above the falls, they all left again as quietly as -they had come, in order to bring up their canoes over the Saltos. - -“Whilst the members of the engineer corps were extremely anxious to -discharge their duties accurately and faithfully, and to prosecute, in -the most thorough manner, every conceivable examination which could, -in the remotest degree, furnish additional information in reference -to the great work upon which they were engaged; still, circumstances -over which they had no control, such as their want of provisions, and -the scarcity of money wherewith to purchase and renew even necessary -supplies, compelled them to turn back from the Pacific, and leave -unaccomplished the reconnoissance of both the Paracuchichí and Jurador -rivers. To have rendered their labors complete these examinations -should have been made in connection with their other most interesting -duties. The future survey of these streams, and more especially of the -former, together with that of the country, between its head-waters and -those of the Pavarador, a tributary of the Nercua, and also between -some of the tributaries of the Truando and the coast, at some more -southern point of Humboldt Bay, may throw a flood of light upon the -feasibility of the work in contemplation.” - -He again expresses his regret that he was unable to extend his -examination: - -“It is to be greatly regretted that circumstances prevented the party -from gaining more minute information concerning the valley of the -Paracuchichí, and of the transversal passes leading from it through -the mountains into the valley of a large tributary of the Truando, -which flows in only a few miles above its mouth. As this river has more -than twice the quantity of water possessed by the Nercua, it is highly -probable that a still more favorable route can be found leading out -from its valley above the junction.” - -The following table of comparison between altitudes, determined by the -level and by barometric observations, shows how much has been gained in -accuracy, since the time of Humboldt, in the use of the barometer: - - _Table of data used in computing the various heights, - with the results as compared with the heights - obtained by the level._ - ═════════════════════════════════════╤═════════════╤════════════ - │MEAN READING │ MEAN - STATIONS. │OF BAROMETER.│ TEMP. - ─────────────────────────────────────┼─────────────┼──────────── - │ INCHES. │ DEG. - Sea coast │ 29.874 │ 80. - First camp on Truando │ 29.817 │ 75.4 - Tocame │ 29.805 │ 76.8 - Foot of Saltos │ 29.759 │ 76.1 - Observatory Hill │ 29.663 │ 76.6 - Head Salto Grande │ 29.741 │ 75.9 - Head of Saltos │ 29.737 │ 75.9 - Junction of Rivers Nercua and Truando│ 29.674 │ 77. - Tambo │ 29.607 │ 77. - First Ridge west of Rio Nercua │ 28.815 │ 75.2 - [9]Log Crossing on ┌ No. 1362│ 29.053 │ 75.2 - Rio Hingador┤ │ │ - └ No. 1363│ 28.912 │ 75.2 - Camp on Hingador │ 29.074 │ 75.2 - Dividing Ridge │ 28.913 │ 75.2 - Rio Chupepe │ 29.631 │ 75.2 - Rio Totumia, below Dos Bocas │ 29.837 │ 75.2 - ─────────────────────────────────────┼───────────┬─┴────┬─────────── - │ BAROMETRIC│HEIGHT│DIFFERENCE. - │ HEIGHT. │ BY │ - STATIONS. │ │LEVEL.│ - ─────────────────────────────────────┼───────────┼──────┼─────────── - │ FEET. │ FEET.│ FEET. - Sea coast │ ... │ ... │ ... - First camp on Truando │ 58.39│ 44.57│+ 13.82 - Tocame │ 69.6 │ 57.39│ 12.21 - Foot of Saltos │ 122.65│ 97.5 │ 25.15 - Observatory Hill │ 207.45│204.95│ 2.5 - Head Salto Grande │ 132.3 │138.79│- 6.49 - Head of Saltos │ 138.1 │183.47│ 45.37 - Junction of Rivers Nercua and Truando│ 192.5 │192.6 │+ 0.44 - Tambo │ 260.92│264.4 │- 3.48 - First Ridge west of Rio Nercua │ 1,046.45│ ... │ ... - Log Crossing on ┌ No. 1362│ 809.42│791.23│+ 18.19 - Rio Hingador ┤ │Mean 879.9 │ ... │ ... - └ No. 1363│ 949.94│ ... │ ... - Camp on Hingador │ 788.6 │814.32│- 25.72 - Dividing Ridge │ 948.5 │947.44│+ 1.06 - Rio Chupepe │ 240.24│241.35│- 1.11 - Rio Totumia, below Dos Bocas │ 40.6 │ 45.3 │ 5.24 - ─────────────────────────────────────┴───────────┴──────┴─────────── - -These hypsometric determinations differ from the true levels at the -points of observation from two to forty-five feet. These figures fall -considerably within the limit of error considered as probable by Baron -Humboldt. This distinguished observer states that the barometer may be -trusted to determine heights to within from seventy-five or ninety feet -of the truth. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[7] The Caledonia Canal is 25 miles long, and 122 feet wide at water -surface. Dimensions of locks, 178½ by 39 feet. Lockage, 95 feet. - -[8] An announcement in the Cincinnati Commercial declares that the -exploring party now at Darien have failed to find a practicable route -at that point.—{May 11, 1870.} - -[9] At this station the difference in the readings of the barometers -was so great that the height was computed from the mean of the readings -of each instrument separately. In other cases the united mean of both -was used. The height given in the table was computed from the readings -of the barometer which was used as a standard. - - - - -CHAPTER VII. - - - Physico-Geographical Features—Deficiency of - Information—Barometer—Colonel Williamson—Lieutenants - Gibbon, Herndon and Maury—Señor Moro—Popagayos—Influence - of the Andes—Climate—Rainy Season—Colonel Hughes - —Statistics—Population—Indians—Vegetation—Building - Materials—Woods—Geology. - -The present chapter includes certain physico-geographical features -subsidiary to the duties of the engineer and explorer. The object of -this paper excludes all matter, not possessing practical value for this -purpose, and admits of little more than mere mention. - -The previous chapters indicate a deficiency in information in regard to -the following routes: - - 1. Nicaragua—The practicability of a route between Monkey - Point and the Lake Nicaragua, or San Juan River. - 2. Chiriqui—No information extant. - 3. Panama route, and improvement of the harbors. - 4. San Blas and Chepo—A better line may be practicable. - 5. Caledonia Bay, or the Gulf of Urabà to the Gulf of San Miguel, - by way of the Savana or Lara Rivers. - 6. Examination of the depression noticed by Gen. Michler. - 7. The line proposed by Sr. Gorgoza. - -The elevation of the passes upon these routes should be definitely -fixed. The instrument which must determine the question of -practicability is the Wye spirit-level. If the capacity of the harbors -are insufficient for the largest class of ships, or can not be made -available at a reasonable cost, further examination is unnecessary. - - -BAROMETER. - -Notwithstanding the improved formulæ, and more careful method of -observation recommended by Lieut.-Col. Williamson, Corps Engineers, -the barometer is subject to peculiar and anomalous variations, along -the slopes of the Cordillera of the Isthmus and the Andes. Lieuts. -Gibbon and Herndon refer to this phenomenon. Lieut. Maury attributed -the effect to the damming or piling up of the trade-winds against the -mountains. A recent traveler in the valley of the Amazon, I. Orton, -observed the same phenomenon, but objects to Maury’s theory. - -Sr. Moro makes the following observations: “If, under these -circumstances (prevalent winds), barometrical observations are made -simultaneously on both sides of the Sierra, on the side of the Gulf, -they will exhibit a lower elevation than the true one, the error being -greater as that station may happen to be lower down or more towards the -north; but if time should admit of waiting until the weather be equally -fine on both sides (which seldom happens), then the difference between -the levels of the barometrical columns is insensible.” - -Ventosa is peculiarly windy, and Nicaragua is subject to the Popagayos, -a species of monsoon, upon the Pacific coast. But the more placid -climate of the Atrato is similarly affected. “It is known as an -established fact,” remarks Capt. Kennish, “that the clouds seldom -pass over the Cordillera toward the Pacific, but are attracted by the -mountains, and disgorge themselves on the Atlantic side; hence the -reason of the perpetual rain, thunder, and lightning in the Atrato -Valley, while on the Pacific coast there is scarcely any rain for eight -months of the year.” - -This unequal meteorological condition affects the barometer, and -General Michler observed unaccountable discrepancies in the readings of -two barometers when he reached the Hingador. With this exception, the -results of this officer’s observation were as close an approximation to -the truth as can be expected in a reconnaissance, but it is impossible -to say what given observation may be affected by some unknown cause. - -A comparison of hypsometric determinations with the same altitudes, -ascertained by the spirit-level, will furnish some important elements -for eliminating errors. But this operation doubles the labor of the -surveyor, and time and cost of his explorations. - -The errors of the barometer have led to singular inferences, and the -errors of observers to many more. Humboldt, La Condamine, Boussingault, -give a decreasing pressure along the Andes; and Orton, taking this -statement for granted, asks, “Are the Andes sinking?” The evidence of -geological and historical periods is, that the Andes and sea coast are -rising. The exceptions to this rule are local, and perhaps only in -appearance. - -These objections to the use of this instrument only apply to situations -where the spirit-level can not be used. To determine heights -inaccessible to any other instrument, or for simultaneous observation -of the meteorological condition of an extensive area of country, the -portability of the barometer render it invaluable. - -The height of the barometric column, on the Pacific slope of the Andes, -according to Orton, is 29.930. He gives two values for the Atlantic -side, 29.997 and 29.932. Michler gives the Atlantic coast of the Atrato -29.874. - - -CLIMATE. - -A well-defined rainy season prevails for the most part throughout -the Isthmus, and permits the selection of suitable weather for -the operations of the engineer. Rain varies with proximity to the -mountains, etc., but the interval from December to May may be regarded -as the dry season. The seasons are sometimes reversed, as in Costa -Rica. There the dry season prevails upon the Pacific coast from -November to April, but on the Atlantic the contrary prevails. Fall of -rain in Honduras from May to October is 90.89 inches. - -The tierras templadas, or elevated table-lands, are universally -healthy, and the climate in those regions possesses a charm which -belongs exclusively to the tropics. The unhealthy influences of the -marshes and sea-coast is much exaggerated, and may be said to cease -during the winter or dry season. - -Col. Hughes, who visited the most insalubrious part of the Isthmus, -remarks that travelers, “who live like civilized beings,” have little -to fear from the climate. The writer spent six months, chiefly near the -sea-coast of Columbia, during part of the time compelled to sleep among -the swamps of the delta of the Magdelina, and although exposed to the -sun during the day, and sleeping in the open air at night, not one case -of febrile sickness occurred in the party of which he was a member, nor -were more than two cases of fever observed among the natives during the -period of residence. - -The temperature varies with the elevation above the sea. Thermometric -records are of small value without the monthly and daily means of -localities. - -The following table may give some general notion of their range: - - ════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════ - _Fahrenheit._ - ─────────────┬──────────┬─────────┬───────┬─────┬──────────┬──────── - │ TEHUAN- │HONDURAS.│BELIZE.│COSTA│NICARAGUA.│ATRATO. - │ TEPEC. │ │ │RICA.│ │ - ─────────────┼──────────┼─────────┼───────┼─────┼──────────┼──────── - May │ 90° │ 71° │ 71° │ 57° │ 71° │Average - June │ 88° │ │ │ │ │during - April │ 83° │ to │ to │ to │ to │February - May │ 88° │ 89° │ 84° │ 85° │ 90° │ 75.2 - June │ 81° │ │ │ │ │ - December and │ │ │ │ │ │ - January │ 74° │ │ │ │ │ - ─────────────┴──────────┴─────────┴───────┴─────┴──────────┴──────── - -In Guatemala average maximum 88.7°. Minimum 38.9°. - -Statistics, governmental and social, of Central America, are very -uncertain. The revolutionary condition of a society, in which it is -the interest of the chiefs to impose unjust burdens on the people, -and of the people to deceive; where, before an enumeration can -fairly begin, the government which authorized it may be deposed, and -another substituted in its place; the poverty, anarchy, and social -demoralization which result, are circumstances very unfavorable to a -correct determination of the resources of the country, or the number of -its population. - -The following figures may not be free from this uncertainty, but give -the best approximation that could be obtained: - - _Population of the States of Central America._ - ═════════════════════════╤═══════════════╤════════════ - │ SQUARE MILES. │ POPULATION. - ─────────────────────────┼───────────────┼──────────── - Tehuantepec │ ... │ 61,000 - Costa Rica │ 23,000 │ 150,000 - Nicaragua │ 48,000 │ 290,000 - San Salvador │ 9,600 │ 294,000 - Guatemala │ 43,380 │ 907,500 - Honduras │ 42,000 │ 350,000 - Panama, including Darien │ ... │ 168,000 - │ ├──────────── - │ │ 2,220,500 - ─────────────────────────┴───────────────┴──────────── - -This population is of a mixed character, composed of Europeans, -Mestizoes, Indians, Negroes, and Zambos; the European element being -largely in the minority. - - -INDIANS. - -Explorers in every part of the Isthmus, with the exception of Darien, -give favorable accounts of the temper of the natives. Trautwine, who -crossed the divide at several points in the province of Chócó, regarded -a bundle of cigars as the best passport. General Michler depended on -the natives for provisions during a part of his survey, and was never -disappointed. - -But the Darien and San Blas Indians have been permitted to threaten and -murder with impunity. They have been further emboldened by the timid -behavior, and exasperated by the conduct of expeditionists. Had the -hostile demonstration of the savages against Codazzi and Gisborne, and -the massacre of four of Capt. Prevost’s men, been promptly punished, -subsequent exploring parties might now pass through the country -unmolested. - -Strain, who thoroughly distrusted them, acknowledges that in one case -his suspicions were unjust. After dismissing his guides, he remarks -that he “was afterward convinced that the Caledonia Indians, and their -Sucubti friends, intended to lead them by the most direct route to the -Savana, and that they were prevented doing so by the Indians of the -Chuquanaque, or the Chuqunos, whom they met on the seventh day’s march, -and whom from the first excited suspicion.” It would appear that this -unfortunate expedition would have been better served by a little more -confidence in these “formidable Indians,” as Gisborne calls them, and -a little acquaintance with their language, than by the fortitude it -afterward exhibited in encountering the trials which befell it. - -When misfortune appeals so strongly to sympathy, as it does in this -case, criticism becomes an ungracious task. Throughout this paper we -have omitted much in observing the rule, laid down for ourselves, to -indicate what should be done, rather than notice what should not have -been done. We therefore quote with pleasure the following graphic -account of the difficulty of cutting a way through the tropical -undergrowth, which we find in Mr. Gisborne’s narrative: - -_Cutting the way_, “we were wading along the river margin, or facing -clusters of prickly stems sometimes backing this mass of vegetation. -Every step had its difficulty, and every difficulty was attended with -additional bodily suffering; but our hearts nearly failed when an -interminable mangrove wood extended as far as the eye can reach. - -“The twisted and interlaced roots, some eight feet high, grew out -of a bed of slimy mud, left by the tidal waters, making progress a -succession of gymnastic feats, in which the gift of balancing had no -small share. Hand and foot were equally occupied, and every muscle was -called into play; nearly an hour’s perseverance had only advanced us a -few hundred yards.” - -Another description of the same character will exhibit some of the -difficulties: “Occasionally a swamp, growing an impenetrable mass of -vegetation, delayed our progress and expended our energies in fruitless -hacking. The only way to get through many of these cienegas was to -fall on one’s back into the middle of the matted vegetation, and then -compress a place the length of one’s self, which those behind trod -down. After persevering in this manner for several hundred yards, an -inlet would be reached with a soft, muddy bottom, and waist deep from -the flood. On the other bank, the same mode of progress had to be -adopted, until prickly palms, and still more prickly creepers, made a -variety in the difficulty and suffering.” - -Strain met with similar obstruction. “Hitherto, Strain had led the -party, every day cutting a path with his cutlass. This was most -laborious, and Mr. Truxton insisted on going ahead in his place. The -undergrowth was exceedingly dense, and composed, for the most part, of -‘pinello,’ or little pine, a plant resembling that which produces the -pineapple, but with longer leaves, serrated with long spines, which -produce most painful wounds, especially as the last few days’ march had -stripped the trousers from many of the party.” - -The best way to clear these obstructions has been found to employ -natives, with machetes. This method, invariably adopted in Central -America, has been recommended by Admiral Davis, who also advises the -explorer to carry with him a good supply of canned and concentrated -provisions. - - -BUILDING MATERIAL. - -Suitable stone is found without difficulty. Hydraulic cement will -probably have to be imported, although hydraulic limestone is said to -have been found in the States of Vera Cruz and Oazaca. - -The explorer will find difficulty in discovering building sand. The -sea beaches may afford suitable sand for hydraulic work. Bricks can be -manufactured, without difficulty, at many points. - - -WOOD AND TIMBER. - -The following, from the account of Lloyd and Sidell, gives the local -names and character of the most useful species: - - 1. _Guachapali._—Abundant; four or five feet in diameter, - like walnut; good under water. - - 2. _Macano_, or _Cacique_.—Crooked, medium size; - good in ground or water; much used. - - 3. _Espino Amarillo._—Not abundant; good in water; yellow; - not liable to decay, or to be attacked by insects; straight; - easily worked; seven kinds. - - 4. _Cedro Espinoso._—Large, straight, light; heart alone good - in open air and under ground. - - 5. _Cedro Cerollo._—Large, crooked, durable. - - 6. _Cedro real, Amargo._—Finest cedar of the country; used - for many purposes in carpentry and boat-building; grows to - five or six feet in diameter, and is very common. - - 7. _Nispero._—Large; not easily worked; stands well when - sheltered; insects do not touch it; resists transverse - strain; two kinds much esteemed. - - 8. _Guayacan_, or _Guallacan_ (_Lignum vitæ_).—Common; - close-grained; heavy; works well when green; grows to four or - five feet in diameter; used for gun-carriages, wheels, etc. - - 9. _Algarobo._—Excellent wood; hard and tough; reddish brown, - with streaks; large; common; used for gun-carriages. - - 10. _Mangle Caballero_ (_Mangrove_).—Good as the Nispero; - abundant near water; gives pieces thirty to forty feet long, and - one foot square; used for vessels. - - 11. _Alcomorque_ (cork tree).—Supplies large beams, which - wear well. - - 12. _Malvicino._—Yellow; abundant; wears well; employed in - building. - - 13. _Caoba_ (mahogany).—Large; not heavy; good for interiors; if - not properly seasoned, is brittle. - - 14. _Robles._—Large; not heavy; easily worked; used for paddle - by the Indians; stand well in air; two varieties, one not good. - - 15. _Cocobolo Prieto._—Tough, hard; beautifully figured (like - rosewood); three feet in diameter; fragrant when green; used - for carpentry and cabinet work. - - 16. _Tutumia_ (calabash tree). - - 17. _Cano Blanco._—Cane; good for lathing when split. - - 18. _Quira._—Tough, close-grained, heavy; different colors, - from light brown to very dark; very high; from one to three and - one-half feet in diameter; plentiful; used in house-building. - - 19. _Madrono Fino._—Like box; one and one-half foot in diameter; - excellent wood for turning. - -Mr. Loyd gives a list of ninety-five varieties of woods, of which list -the above are the most valuable. - - -GEOLOGY. - -A mere enumeration of the geological specimens, which is all that -present knowledge upon this subject will permit, is not thought -desirable in this paper. Speculations and theories, if not premature, -would be out of place. - -The physical geography of Central America is the proper subject for -a treatise. We have already seen how the table-lands of Guatemala, -from four to five thousand feet above the level of the sea, sink to an -insignificant height at Panama and Nicaragua. “There is no spot on the -globe,” says Humboldt, “so full of volcanoes as this part of America, -between 11° and 13° of latitude.” - -Two or three volcanoes, Fuego and Agua, in the State of Guatemala, are -14,000 and 12,000 feet high. Some of the volcanoes of Nicaragua reach a -height of 7,000 feet. A common and remarkable characteristic of all of -them is, that they rise in a conical form from the plain. - - _Gold and silver produce of Central America._ - ══════════════╤═════════════╤════════════╤═════════════ - │ GOLD. │ SILVER. │ BOTH METALS. - ──────────────┼─────────────┼────────────┼───────────── - 1804 to 1848 │ $8,800,000 │ $4,400,000 │ $13,200,000 - 1848 to 1868 │ 5,000,000 │ 3,000,000 │ 8,000,000 - ├─────────────┼────────────┼───────────── - Total │ $13,800,000 │ $7,400,000 │ $21,200,000 - ──────────────┴─────────────┴────────────┴───────────── - -The mines of the Provinces of Panama and the Veraguas are not worked so -extensively as they deserve to be. A small quantity of gold is annually -produced in the Republics of Nicaragua, Honduras, Costa Rica, and San -Salvador. The Costa Rican mint, in 1852, coined between fifty and one -hundred thousand dollars annually. The actual gold product is estimated -at ten times this amount. The most important mines in new Granada -(Colombia) are found in the State of Antioquia. In 1868, the yield was -$1,500,000 gold; $193,000 silver. The detritus of all the rivers of -this State is auriferous. An English company works the Marmato gold -mine and the Santa Anna silver mine, near Honda, on the Magdelina -River. They have provided twelve stamping mills, representing one -hundred and ten heads, which crush from ten to nineteen thousand tons -per year, yielding, on an average, eleven pennyweights eleven grains of -gold per ton. - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Is a Ship Canal Practicable?, by -Sylvanus Thayer Abert - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK IS A SHIP CANAL PRACTICABLE? *** - -***** This file should be named 61473-0.txt or 61473-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/6/1/4/7/61473/ - -Produced by deaurider, Paul Marshall and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Is a Ship Canal Practicable? - Notes, Historical and Statistical, upon the Projected - Routes for an Interoceanic Ship Canal between the Atlantic - and Pacific Oceans, in which is Included a Short Account - of the Character and Influence of the Canal of Suez, and - the Probable Effects upon the Commerce of the World of the - Two Canals, Regarded either as Rivals, or as Parts of One - System of Interoceanic Navigation - -Author: Sylvanus Thayer Abert - -Release Date: February 21, 2020 [EBook #61473] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK IS A SHIP CANAL PRACTICABLE? *** - - - - -Produced by deaurider, Paul Marshall and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - -</pre> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<h1>IS A SHIP CANAL PRACTICABLE?</h1> -<hr class="r25" /> -<p class="f120">NOTES,</p> -<p class="f110 space-above2 space-below2">HISTORICAL AND STATISTICAL,</p> -<p class="f90">UPON THE PROJECTED ROUTES FOR AN</p> -<p class="f120 space-above2 space-below2">INTEROCEANIC SHIP CANAL BETWEEN THE ATLANTIC AND<br /> -PACIFIC OCEANS,</p> - -<p class="f90 space-above2 space-below2">IN WHICH IS INCLUDED</p> - -<p class="center">A SHORT ACCOUNT OF THE CHARACTER AND INFLUENCE OF THE CANAL<br /> -OF SUEZ, AND THE PROBABLE EFFECTS UPON THE COMMERCE<br /> -OF THE WORLD OF THE TWO CANALS, REGARDED EITHER<br /> -AS RIVALS, OR AS PARTS OF ONE SYSTEM OF<br /> -INTEROCEANIC NAVIGATION.</p> - -<p class="center space-above2">BY<br /><big>S. T. ABERT, C.E.</big></p> - -<p class="f120 space-above2 space-below2">ILLUSTRATED WITH MAPS.</p> - -<p class="center">CINCINNATI:<br />R. W. CARROLL & CO., PUBLISHERS,<br /> -117 WEST FOURTH STREET.<br />1870.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> -<div class="chapter"> -<div class="blockquot2"> -<p>The following notes upon Interoceanic Routes across the American -Isthmus were collected and arranged during intervals of professional -occupation, and are doubtless affected by the haste incident to this -method of preparation.</p> - -<p>They were laid by a friend before the Hon.<span class="smcap">William H. Seward</span> -and the late <span class="smcap">R. J. Walker</span>, for their -perusal, and receiving the commendation of their enlightened judgments, -the writer has thought that the publication may not be without interest -to those who are seeking information as to the feasibility of an -intermarine ship canal between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.</p> - -<p>Prepared before the completion of the Suez Canal and the sailing of -the last Darien Expedition, some additions have been made to bring the -parts of the Notes relating to these topics up to date.</p> - -<p class="space-below3"><span class="smcap">August</span> 1, 1870.</p> -</div></div> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span></p> -<p class="f200">IS A SHIP CANAL PRACTICABLE?</p></div> -<hr class="chap" /> - -<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER I.</h2> - -<p class="neg-indent blockquot2">Columbus discovers Darien—Opinions -of Berghaus, Humboldt, Garella, Hughes—Expectation of finding a -Strait—Influence of Oriental Trade—Names identified with the Project -of a Canal—Defeat of Miranda’s Scheme—Object—Opinion of Admiral -Davis—Sketch of Oriental Trade—Contest for its Possession—Four -different Solutions—United States—Russia—France—England—English -Diplomacy and the Suez Canal—History of its Difficulties—Empress -Eugenie Inaugurates—Dimensions of Canal—Capital of -Company—Expenditures—Effects on Commerce—Circumstances affecting the -Permanence of the Suez Canal—Teaching of History—Sand Dunes—Inferences -from Geology—Sediment of the Nile—Deltas—Silting up of Port Said, and -rate of advance of the Shore Line. </p> - -<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">Upon</span> the 14th of -September, in the year of our Lord 1502, three caravels, bearing -Columbus and the destinies of the New World, long baffled by opposing -storms and currents, at last doubled Cape Gracias a Dios.</p> - -<p>To appreciate the courage of the daring Navigator, it is necessary to -call to mind the fact that the largest vessel of this little fleet did -not exceed seventy tons burden. With seams opened by the stress of the -gales, sails tattered by the winds, hulls eaten to a honey-comb by the -teredo, distrust at home, dissension around, and danger everywhere, -this great man abated not a jot of his high hopes, but repairing his -shattered ships as he was able, continued his adventurous voyage.</p> - -<p>The air came to the toil-worn mariners freighted with spicy fragrance, -gentle winds wafted them in sight of lofty mountains and of verdant -slopes, clothed with the majestic palm and the pink and golden -blossoming <i>flor de Robles</i>.</p> - -<p>The simple-minded natives of Honduras and Costa Rica welcomed them -with supernatural devotion, bringing gifts of fruits, gold, gems, and -tenders of hospitality.</p> - -<p>Strange rumors reached them of a people living in houses of sculptured -stone, and occupied in the arts of peace. Columbus could not be -diverted from his purpose. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span></p> - -<p>The season was that of gales, and the little fleet was shut in the -beautiful harbor of Porto Bello.</p> - -<p>The Norther ceasing, the voyage continued as far as the little, craggy -Bay of El Retreate; here, near the present Puerto de Mosquitoes, -Columbus reached the westward limit of his last voyage of discovery.</p> - -<p>Sixty-six years of sorrow and disappointment, of disinterested purposes -maliciously opposed, of bold designs ignorantly thwarted, of a pure and -illustrious character misjudged and traduced, had humbled the pride -and subdued the enthusiasm of that aspiring intellect; and now, at the -close of a career of vast and useful discoveries, he was called on to -face a trial which Goëthe has affirmed to be the severest and most -inexorable of life.</p> - -<p>Welcomed with the approving plaudits of his king and countrymen, or -loaded with ignominious chains, he had ever kept one object constantly -in view. This object, pursued with unexampled courage, self-abnegation, -and constancy, he was now called on to renounce. Who will venture to -depict the thoughts of this remarkable man as he turned to retrace his -path, leaving behind him the prospect of discoveries far greater than -those which had cast the hallow of immortal fame around his name?</p> - -<p>“Here ended,” says Irving, in a strain of tender eloquence, “the lofty -aspirations which had elevated him above all mercenary views in his -struggle along this perilous coast”——“it is true, he had been in -pursuit of a chimera, but it was the chimera of a splendid imagination -and a penetrating judgment. If he was disappointed in finding a strait -through the Isthmus of Darien, it was because Nature herself was -disappointed.”</p> - -<p>This sagacious conjecture has its foundation in nature, and is -supported by the opinions of savans and the facts of recent geological -explorations.</p> - -<p>The Prussian geographer, Berghaus, as early as 1823, and Prof. Hopkins, -contested the accepted opinion as to the unbroken continuity of the -Isthmus and the contiguous continents.</p> - -<p>The French engineer, Garella, after making a geological reconnoissance, -declares that the Isthmus is of more recent origin than the continents -which it unites. Col. Hughes and Garella concur in a belief in the -existence, at an early period, of a strait uniting the Atlantic and -Pacific oceans. The identity of the species of fish inhabiting the -waters on both sides of the Isthmus is an additional argument in -confirmation of this view. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span></p> - -<p>It is without surprise that we find the discoveries of another science -confirming this inference. Prof. Huxley, in a recent address on the -progress of palæontology, is unable to explain the distribution of -mammals at the close of the miocene period, except upon the supposition -of a barrier which prevented the migration of the apes, rodents, and -edentata from the southern to the northern continent. He cites the -opinions of Carrick Moore and Prof. Duncan in support of the same -conclusion. Further investigation will, no doubt, add to the number -of facts which indicate the separation of the two continents by the -ancient sea, and may even establish the fact that portions of Central -America once formed parts of the Antilles group of the equatorial belt -of islands.</p> - -<p>General Michler, in his interesting report of the survey of the Atrato, -observes: “All the stratified rocks on the Isthmus, exhibiting strong -marks of disturbance and even dislocation since they were originally -deposited, clearly prove that the upheaval which brought this narrow -neck of land above the level of the ocean must have taken place at a -comparatively late era. This period was undoubtedly accompanied by the -protrusion of certain metamorphosed shistose (?) rocks, the doubtful -nature of which has induced us to mark them as belonging to a trappean -series. If Darwin had good reason to believe that the granite of South -America, now rising into central peaks 14,000 feet in elevation, must -have been in a fluid state since the deposition of the tertiary group, -we may also do so in pronouncing the formation of the Isthmus, now -linking together South and Central America, as decidedly post-tertiary.”</p> - -<p>The deductions of Columbus were, however, based on the direction of the -coast of Cuba, which he supposed to be a continent, and the parallel -coast of South America; and was further confirmed by the westerly -current flowing between them, which must, he thought, find an outlet -near Darien.</p> - -<p>These bold generalizations, drawn from stores of profound observation -and varied reading, although we now know them to be erroneous, evince -the sagacity of the man, and place him far ahead of the intelligence of -his age. With heartfelt sorrow he reluctantly renounced a chimera so -plausible, which he expected would lead him to the fabulous kingdom of -Prester John, or, perhaps, to the marvelous splendors of the imperial -dominions of Kublai Khan, and which would, he believed, open new fields -for the peaceful conquests of the banner of the Redeemer.</p> - -<p>The delusive representations of travelers was the chief impulse to some -of the greatest achievements of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span></p> - -<p>The coveted wealth of “Ormus and of Ind” was a siren who had lured -adventurous navigators to dare the dangers of unknown seas.</p> - -<p>The same diversity of motive may be found in the men of that period -which now exists and animates the westward course of civilization. Love -of money and fame are found contending by the side of the desire to -extend the domain of knowledge and zeal for the spread of religion.</p> - -<p>The result of these combined passions was to open new avenues to -wealth, industry, and science.</p> - -<p>Four hundred years have elapsed since the wondering eyes of Spanish -discoverers first gazed on the strange beauty of the New World. In this -interval a nation of forty millions of people have been planted in -the country of Columbus, its wildernesses are traversed by steam, its -products supply food and clothing to a large part of the world; but, -with all this progress, the visionary strait of the great navigator is -yet an unrealized dream.</p> - -<p>Impossibilities have been accomplished, poetical fictions have become -facts, visionary theories of the past are the industrial arts of the -present. In wealth, comfort, health, longevity, art, science, organized -labor and charities, the human race of the present have out-stripped -the Arcadian felicity of the golden eras of Hesiod and Cervantes.</p> - -<p>Possessing every facility, occupying a preëminent coigne of vantage, we -have left one thing unachieved. This ought we to have done, and not to -have left the others undone.</p> - -<p>Many minds, speculative and practical, have closely scrutinized the -feasibility of making the American Isthmus a highway for the commerce -of the world.</p> - -<p>Its importance grows in dimensions in proportion to the study bestowed -on it. It ranks among its friends some of the most able men of the race.</p> - -<p>Columbus, Cortes, Charles V, Alverado, Gonzales de Avila, De Solis, -Gomaro, Bautista Antonella, and, in more recent times, Paterson, Pitt, -Jefferson, Humboldt, Guizot, Napoleon III, Wheaton, Dallas, Biddle, and -a long and honorable list of statesmen and publicists have contributed -to the project.</p> - -<p>According to the scheme of General Miranda, sanctioned by Wm. Pitt, it -was proposed that Great Britain should supply the money and ships, and -the United States should send 10,000 men.</p> - -<p>The failure of this plan is attributed to delay on the part of -President Adams. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span></p> - -<p>The tonnage of the trade which would annually seek this route has been -estimated at 3,094,000 tons, equal in value to $152,475,750. The value -of the exports and imports of all the nations which would annually pass -the Isthmus would amount to $451,029,132.</p> - -<p>With such enormous commercial interests, backed by advocates so able, -it is not a little curious that the question of feasibility should be -yet unsolved.</p> - -<p>Political vicissitudes have often postponed its consideration. -Conflicting interest and rivalries have prevented the coöperation long -deemed essential to its successful execution.</p> - -<p>The hereditary policy of the United States has always been anti-social -and insular. Schooled in this policy, it is difficult to enlist the -sympathies of our people in questions which are to be answered in -regions beyond their jurisdiction.</p> - -<p>The utility and practicability of the work must first be made clearly -manifest.</p> - -<p>Passing in review the present state of our knowledge of Isthmean -routes, one of the objects of this paper is to attempt to appreciate -the probable advantages which would result from the completion of an -intermarine ship canal.</p> - -<p>In selecting from material, much of which bears little relation to the -questions at issue, many objects may be omitted which deserve notice, -and some may be noticed which might have been omitted.</p> - -<p>If serious attention is attracted to this important project, the writer -will have attained his object.</p> - -<p>“There does not exist in the libraries of the world,” observes Admiral -Davis, “the means of determining, even approximately, the most -practicable route for a ship canal across the Isthmus.” This deficiency -in our geographical knowledge will shortly be supplied. An exploration -is now in progress, under the auspices of Government.</p> - -<p>If a practicable route is found, there is reason to believe that -execution will follow as certainly as the settlement of America -followed its discovery.</p> - -<p>We may not unreasonably expect the progress of the future to keep pace -with the past, and that the absolute increase of the commercial marine, -and an enlarged area for its operations, will lead to a proportionate -extension of the beneficent influences of religion and civilization. -The speculation opens a prospect of the future destiny of intertropical -America; destined, perhaps, to produce as great a revolution on our -globe as the colonization of America.</p> - -<p>“The completion of this work,” observes an earnest advocate, “will be -the same as if, by some great revolution of the globe, the eastern -continent were brought nearer to us.” -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span></p> - -<p>The produce of the Indies has always been a coveted prize; wealth has -followed in its path; commercial supremacy has been the property of -its possessor. As changes in the route brought about new political -relations, and raised up a more successful competitor for the trade -of the Orient, a reconstruction of the map of the world has become -necessary.</p> - -<p>Its importance may be gathered from the fact that the annual exports -and imports of the United States to the East Indies, China, Australia, -and the South Pacific Islands amount to $39,380,000, and the aggregate -exports and imports of Great Britain to the same points amount to -$378,857,000.</p> - -<p>If this trade has ceased to be a monopoly, and has lost some of its -importance since the colonization of the Americas, it is yet sufficient -to hold the guerdon of commercial supremacy. A history of its course -and influence is beyond the scope of this paper. A passing notice will -show how important a part it has played in the destinies of nations.</p> - -<p>It is probable that the wars of ancient Egypt, Assyria, and Babylon -were waged for the control of the trade of the East. The expedition of -Alexander was not the result of an unreasoning lust for dominion and -military glory. The apple of discord then, as now, was the beautiful -land of the East. The descendants of the great Aryan and Semitic families, -constantly moving westward, never forgot the land of their birth.</p> - -<p>At an early period, caravans brought the rich products of India across -the desert. Under the influence of this traffic, the palaces of Palmyra -sprang up amid the sands. The Saracens drove the course of trade to the -Caspian and the Euxine. The Mediterranean felt its beneficent effects, -and Venice, Trieste, Marseilles, Cadiz, Barcelona became the marts of -its rich and varied commodities.</p> - -<p>After the discovery of de Gama, the busy hum of industry began to cease -in these once populous emporiums. When Shylock drew up his bloody -bond, the trade of the Indies had set around the cape. While commerce -was suspended and industry prostrated by wars and civil dissensions, -Holland bore off the prize. The devastating armies of Alva threw the -Indian trade into the strong hands of Elizabeth.</p> - -<p>England now began to lay carefully the foundation of her empire. -The policy she now adopted, whether through instinct or forethought, -was one which looked beyond the temporary advantages of position -and possession. She attempted to make these advantages permanent by -the conquest of the territory from whence all these bounties seemed -perennially to flow. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span></p> - -<p>The British Empire in India, in its extent, power, wealth, and future -possibilities, stands an enduring monument of the courage, energy, and -wisdom of the British people. Whether actual possession has secured the -reversionary benefit, time alone can show.</p> - -<p>That wealth, power, and dominion follow oriental traffic, is now patent -to the world. It is no longer the object of secret diplomatic intrigue; -it has become an open question, to be solved by the general competition -of commercial nations.</p> - -<p>In the pursuit of this object, the leader in the Pansclavonic movement -is pushing her outposts past India to the wall of China. The United -States, conscious of her natural advantage, is awakening to the -importance of a systematic policy.</p> - -<p>The French Emperor seems at present, by the aid of the <a href="#SUEZ_MAP">Suez Canal</a>, -likely to appropriate the lion’s share. While American commerce is -disappearing from the seas—fifty per cent. of her exports and imports -being carried in foreign ships—the flag of France may be seen by the -side of England in every sea. The hereditary policy and commercial -instinct of the British may prove to be more than a match for the -astuteness of one man. Who will ultimately bear off the prize, is a -question admitting three possible solutions.</p> - -<p>Russia, as has been said, rapidly extending her frontier eastward, -stretches out her hand to grasp the trade of the East. The Suez and -Darien Canals—the one an unsolved problem, the other an accomplished -fact—represent the two other contestants. One of the most constant -objects of war and diplomacy has been for the possession of the highway -through Egypt for the trade of the East.</p> - -<p>It was designated by the Portuguese conqueror, Albuquerque, as one of -the three important points essential to the “command and monopoly” of -this trade. England, anticipating the day when it might be important -for her to have the military control of this highway, has persistently -established military ports, beginning at Gibraltar and ending at -Aiden. She has secured strong posts at Malta and Beb el Mandeb. The -Great Leibnitz called the attention of Louis XIV to the commercial and -political advantages of a conquest and colonization of this country. -Napoleon, flushed with the conquest of Italy, took the initiative in -this bold design. By his order, M. Lepere, “a distinguished engineer,” -completed an examination in 1801. The results of this examination have -been published by the Imperial Government.</p> - -<p>M. Lepere asserted the practicability of a ship canal along the line of -the ancient canal from Suez to the Nile, as far as the Bitter Lakes. -From thence its course has to proceed to the Pelusiac branch of the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span> -Nile. Here, on the sea, it encounters the accumulating banks and bars -of the Nile, one of the two very serious obstacles to the execution and -permanent value of a ship canal between the two seas.</p> - -<p>The project of a canal uniting the Red Sea and the Mediterranean -appears to have been suggested by M. de Lesseps to Said Pacha, the -Viceroy of Egypt, in 1854. The company was definitely formed in 1869.</p> - -<p>It is not very easy to estimate the important effects of opening this -route to the maritime States of Europe.</p> - -<p>Lord Palmerston, acting in the interest of England, constantly opposed -the design. He at once perceived that the restoration of trade to the -Levantine ports would seriously disturb the commercial equilibrium. All -the ingenious devices of a clever lawyer in conducting a bad case were -employed by English diplomacy in order to arrest the operations of M. -de Lesseps.</p> - -<p>The first and most valid objections alleged by Lord Palmerston were -based on the practical difficulties in the way of execution, and were -stated with great force and acuteness. The shifting sands of the Desert -would, it was affirmed, soon fill up the canal; and the sand and silt, -which from time immemorial had been brought down by the great father of -waters, and which swept to the westward by the prevailing winds, would -soon fill up any artificial harbor which might be constructed.</p> - -<p>That these difficulties were resolutely encountered and overcome, is -one of the marvels of this truly marvelous work.</p> - -<p>To these objections M. de Lesseps cautiously replied that all questions -would be referred to a commission of engineers.</p> - -<p>After an examination of all the plans, the commission reported -favorably on that which has just been successfully executed. The work -found a few friends among the English people and in Parliament.</p> - -<p>Lord Palmerston, being interrogated, declared that the scheme was -hostile to the interest of the country. His real objection was -obscurely hinted. “It is founded,” he remarked, “in remote speculations -in regard to easier access to our Indian possessions, which I need not -more distinctly shadow forth, because they will be obvious to any body -who pays attention to the subject.” He further characterized it as -one of those plans “so often brought out to make dupes of the English -people,” and he expressed his preference for the communication by -railroad between Suez and Cairo. As this railroad can never be more -than a passenger route, it is evident that its influence on commerce -must always be insignificant. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span></p> - -<p>The work had barely commenced when, through the instigation of -the English Embassador, the Sultan issued an order arresting the -operations. The plea assigned for this interference was that the -authority of the Viceroy was insufficient without the sanction of the -Sultan. De Lesseps invoked the interposition of the Emperor, who, with -apparent indifference, was watching the proceedings from his retreat at -Biarritz.</p> - -<p>Within a month after the presentation of the memorial the -misunderstanding between the two cabinets had been explained, and Lord -Palmerston was for a time silenced by the consent of Egypt to receive a -Turkish garrison. This acquiescence was in appearance only, as the real -object of these repeated assaults was to arrest the work. The Viceroy, -desirous of silencing all opposition, consulted French jurisconsults in -regard to the rights of the company, and definitely settled the powers -of the contracting parties.</p> - -<p>For a moderate sum he ceded to the company the belt of country -bordering the fresh water canal. Immediately the cry was raised by the -opponents of the canal, that it was intended to colonize this region -with Europeans.</p> - -<p>While this matter was in controversy, and the work was steadily -proceeding, Said Pacha suddenly died, and Ismail, his nephew, reigned -in his stead, with the title of Khédivé. He confirmed the concessions -of his predecessor and entered into new conventions. His confidence in -the work, which had appeared uncertain, was established by the able -report of Sir John Hawkshaw, the President of the Society of Civil -Engineers. This report, however, which was confirmed by the personal -inspection of Sir Henry Bulwer, aroused all the fears of the English -Government. The success of the work, at first problematical, now seemed -more than probable. A decisive blow must be struck; one that should be -fatal to the undertaking.</p> - -<p>Throughout Egypt, according to an ancient and still prevailing custom, -private and public work is executed by a system of forced labor, termed -Corvē. The conscription is limited to the period of one month, at a -fixed rate of wages. The company engaged to pay higher rates than -usual, and to supply food, lodging, medical attendance, and half pay -when sick. No sooner had twenty thousand men been collected on the -excavations, than a “howl went up from Exeter Hall.” Lord Stratford de -Redcliffe demanded of the Sultan “to stop the scandal.”</p> - -<p>The British Government were instantly seized with one of those sudden -spasms of morality, or humanity, which Lord Macaulay affirms has been -observed periodically to afflict the British people. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span></p> - -<p>The Sultan, who appears to have been a pliable tool in the hands of -English Envoys, issued an order abolishing the system of compulsory -labor, and disbanding all the fellahs employed by the company.</p> - -<p>This arbitrary and unjust interference had but one meaning, and seemed -likely to have but one result. The plea of humanity, advanced by a -Government which had overlooked the sacrifice of 1000 men in one day, -when that sacrifice had been made by their own injudicious advice, and -for their own benefit, could be nothing more than a manifest subterfuge.</p> - -<p>This vigorous handling of the political puppets on the diplomatic -chess-board proved how serious were Lord Palmerston’s apprehensions. It -was the old question which every age revives. In the past, the issue -had again and again been brought to the arbitrament of the sword. With -such antagonists as Palmerston on one side and de Lesseps and the -Silent Emperor upon the other, the duel was necessarily <i>ā l’outrance</i>.</p> - -<p>It was now evident that war alone could arrest the completion of the -maritime highway between the two seas. Was it the death of Palmerston -or the progress of peaceful arts that kept this question confined to -the field of diplomacy?</p> - -<p>Opposition only stimulated the energy and confirmed the determination -of de Lesseps. The controversy was referred to the decision of the -French Emperor. A smile, half machiavellian, must have flitted over -the face of his reticent Majesty when the question was submitted to -his Imperial arbitration. By his decision the Egyptian Government were -called on to pay, not unwillingly, an indemnity to the company for a -release from the obligation to furnish compulsory labor, and for the -retrocession of certain land grants and privileges of navigation.</p> - -<p>“The indomitable Lesseps did not despair.” After months of delay, he -collected laborers from all parts of Europe, and the work was resumed.</p> - -<p>The vigilance of the English opposition soon found another vulnerable -point. The Sultan was again persuaded to issue a firman denying the -right of the Viceroy to cede the land through which the canal was to -be excavated. This well-aimed blow caused a suspension of operations -for two years. Any man less able, self-reliant, or resolute than M. de -Lesseps would have succumbed.<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span></p> - -<p>The Emperor was induced to intervene. M. Thouvener, the French Minister -at Constantinople, was requested “to enlighten the mind of the Sublime -Porte as to the views and wishes of France.”</p> - -<p>The introduction of machinery now became a matter of necessity. Ten -millions of dollars were expended for this object, and forty enormous -dredges were soon at work upon the excavations. One of the novelties -in the construction of these machines was a provision for carrying -off the excavated material by means of a stream of water. One of the -workmen, it is said, noticed that when removed in this way the slimy -earth spread over a wide surface and became soon indurated, instead -of flowing back into the place of excavation. It also possessed the -further advantage of fixing the mobile sand.</p> - -<p>The total amount of earth removed amounted to about four hundred -million cubic yards. By working day and night, the machines of M. Borel -and Lavelley were able to remove 78,056 to 108,000 cubic meters per -month.</p> - -<p>Although the completion of the canal now seemed assured, the opposition -of the English Government continued up to the last moment. Every effort -was made to prejudice the Sultan and the Khédivé against the work, and, -by exciting the jealousy of the Sultan, to induce him to arrest the -excavations.</p> - -<p>After ten years of labor, this great work was completed. Upon the 17th -of November, 1869, the opening of the canal was inaugurated in the -presence of the Empress Eugenie and the Emperor of Austria, and of -princes, embassadors, and men of science from Europe and America.</p> - -<p>The Empress, leading the van of the fleet in her steam yacht, l’Aigle, -entered the canal amid salvos of artillery. The yards of the ships were -manned with sailors, every mast-head was decked with a flag, and the -bands played the martial airs of the assembled nations. The transit -between the two seas was safely made by the fleet. But the requisite -depth had not been attained. Seventeen and a half feet could be -carried through the canal. Since then the depth has been increased to -twenty-two feet, and ultimately will be twenty-six feet.</p> - -<p>The length of the canal is one hundred miles. The established -surface-width is about 328 feet, except in difficult cuttings, where it -is 190 feet. The least bottom width is 72 feet. The highest ground cut -through is at El Gúisr, where it is 85 feet; at Serapeum it is 62 feet; -and at Chalouf, near Suez, it is 56 feet.</p> - -<p>The excavation of the canal, although of considerable difficulty, -was exceeded by the necessity for creating artificial harbors at the -extremities. The harbor at Port Said, upon the Mediterranean, has the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span> -general form of a triangle, the base resting on the shore and the -longer side on the west, protecting the entrance from the moving sand. -The longer arm, or mole, is 8,200 feet, extending to the 26 feet curve -of sounding. It is proposed to extend this mole 2,300 feet farther. -As this harbor is exposed to N. E. winds, an inside basin has been -constructed. The area of the outer harbor is equal to 400 acres, and -will permit twenty line-of-battle ships to swing freely at anchor.</p> - -<p>At the other extremity of the canal, a mole 2,550 feet in length -protects the channel, which has been dredged to the depth of 27 feet. -The mole at Suez differs from that at Port Said in construction; the -latter being formed of concrete blocks of 13 cubic feet, the former of -stone quarried from the neighboring mountain.</p> - -<p>The organization, equipment, sanitary regulations, and division of -labor among twenty thousand men, employed at one time, is full of -interest and instruction, but must be omitted in this place.<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p> - -<p class="space-below1">The following statement of receipts and expenditures, taken from a -recent periodical, deserves preservation:</p> - -<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="_" cellpadding="0" > - <caption><big><i>Gross Realized Capital.</i></big></caption> - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdl">Shareholders’ capital</td> - <td class="tdr">$40,000,000</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Sale of bonds</td> - <td class="tdr">19,999,980</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Egyptian convention</td> - <td class="tdr">5,948,805</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Imperial arbitration</td> - <td class="tdr">16,800,000</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Rates of exchange</td> - <td class="tdr">1,294,260</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Various receipts received by the company  </td> - <td class="tdr u">  6,288,180</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Total capital</td> - <td class="tdr">$90,331,225</td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> - -<p class="space-above1 space-below1">The following is a summary of the expenditures up -to the date of the opening of the canal:</p> - -<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="_" cellpadding="0" > - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdl">General expenditures for preliminary surveys from 1854 to 1859  </td> - <td class="tdr">$15,825,525</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">General expenses of administration and negotiations between</td> - <td class="tdr"> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="ws3">France and Egypt</span></td> - <td class="tdr">3,394,245</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Sanitary service, 1866-1869</td> - <td class="tdr">121,410</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Telegraph service</td> - <td class="tdr">34,000</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Transport service, boats, stock, buildings</td> - <td class="tdr">1,644,435</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Payment of contractors for material</td> - <td class="tdr">3,442,785</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Dredging machines and heavy plant</td> - <td class="tdr">6,819,240</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Work-shops</td> - <td class="tdr">844,150</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Works of construction, canal, and ports</td> - <td class="tdr">43,534,330</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Miscellaneous</td> - <td class="tdr">1,392,495</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Expenses of various branches of company management</td> - <td class="tdr u">3,841,050</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdr u">$80,893,665</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">The average cost of the canal per mile is</td> - <td class="tdr">$808,936</td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> - -<hr class="chap" /> -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="SUEZ_MAP" id="SUEZ_MAP"></a> - <a href="images/i_p016_hr.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_p016.jpg" alt="Map of Suez Canal." width="450" height="706" /></a> -</div> -<p class="center map_visibility">[Click image to enlarge.]</p> - -<p>The balance on hand for the completion of the dredging is $9,437,560. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span> -This sum will probably be sufficient to excavate the canal to the -uniform depth of 26 feet.</p> - -<p>The effect of the opening of the canal is felt in the revival of -maritime interests in the Levantine ports. Port Said is the depot of -seven companies, Russian, French, and Austrian. A Spanish company is -organizing with the intention of establishing a line between Barcelona -and the Philippine Islands, and an American company is preparing a -depot in the Mediterranean.</p> - -<p>In 1869, thirteen hundred and sixty-two ships, amounting to 637,440 -tons, entered Port Said. M. de Lesseps estimates that the annual -revenue from tolls on the tonnage passing through the canal will be -$12,000,000.</p> - -<p>The canal has conquered a peace. Its enemies have become its most -sanguine friends. The benefits it is destined to confer upon the -commerce of the world, and the changes in the present commercial -equilibrium of Europe, although important in their influence and -immediate in their effects, must be proportionate to the duration of -the canal as a highway for the commerce of the world.</p> - -<p>The circumstances affecting the permanence of the canal have been -so ably canvassed, that, apart from the intrinsic importance of the -question, they deserve attentive consideration.</p> - -<p>The ancient Pharaonic canal connected the Nile with the Red Sea, and -partly avoided the destruction threatened by the unceasing advance -of the sand dunes. The absence of harbors on the Mediterranean was -compensated by the channel of the Nile, which afforded a passage over -the bar for the light draft ships of that period. The French engineers, -confident in the resources of modern science, have boldly conquered the -difficulties which Egyptian engineers dared not encounter. It is well -known that the distinguished engineer, Robert Stephenson, pronounced -the work impracticable, and many cautious investigators have doubted -its permanence.</p> - -<p>The objections may be classed under two heads:</p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> -<p>1. To the permanency of the excavation of the canal.</p> -<p>2. To the permanency of the harbors.</p> -</div> - -<p>The arguments relating to the duration of the canal are drawn from -history and the observations of travelers.</p> - -<p>“We can not approach history,” says M. de Lesseps, “without touching -on Suez.” Its records, fragmentary and uncertain, are hid in the mists -of five thousand centuries. The stream of its history, now lost, now -re-appearing, is joined in its course by the tributary traditions of -nearly all the Indo-Germanic and Semitic nations. The tramp of armies -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span> -and the desolation of conquest has alternated with periods of intense -activity in the arts, sciences, literature, and commerce. The Egyptian -name, once a synonym of the profoundest learning, is now only known -to us by an architecture which is still invested with a unique and -imposing grandeur.</p> - -<p>The value of a canal to afford transportation for the products of the -East occupied the attention of the Pharaohs at an early date. Since the -time of Rameses II, it has been repeatedly reconstructed and repaired. -This Pharaoh, who lived about the period of the Mosaic exodus (1400 B. -C.), was probably the Sesostris of Aristotle, Strabo, and Pliny.</p> - -<p>If the Sesostris of the 12th dynasty was the constructor of the canal, -its date would be carried back 2730 B. C. Its construction has also -been attributed to other Egyptian rulers, but with more certainty to -Nechao, B. C. 625.</p> - -<p>Sir G. Wilkinson accounts for this uncertainty by a very plausible -explanation. The sandy site of the canal required frequent excavation. -These operations gave to successive kings the credit of having -commenced the work which they only repaired.</p> - -<p>The canal used by the Romans was afterward closed, and subsequently -re-opened by the Caliph Omar. It was again closed for 134 years, when -it was once more rendered navigable by El Hakim, A. D. 1000. It appears -at this period to have extended to the Bitter Lakes before turning -toward the Nile.</p> - -<p>It again became filled with sand between the Nile and the Bitter -Lakes. Mohammed Ali closed it entirely, after having lost 10,000 men -from hunger, having hurried them into the desert without suitable -preparation. At a more recent period, 1000 men died in one day from the -same want of preparation, having been hurried into the desert, at the -request of the English authorities, to work on the railroad between -Suez and Cairo.</p> - -<p>Pliny affirms that the ancient canal had a width of 100 feet and -a depth of 40 feet as far as the Bitter Lakes, and the geological -evidences indicate that the Bitter Lakes were once connected with the -Red Sea. A stratum of salt, 8 to 10 feet thick, covers the bottom of -the Lakes, and sea-shells are found in them and between them and Suez.</p> - -<p>History for 3300 years bears testimony to the constant movement of the -sand, burying all obstructions and obliterating channels which have -lain in its path; and the statement of Herodotus, that Lower Egypt -is a gift of the Nile, is sustained by a large number of scientific -investigators, who maintain that ancient and modern Egypt was reclaimed -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span> -from an arm of the sea. When nature acts so constantly and irresistibly -in one direction, the difficulties of those who contend with her can -hardly be overstated.</p> - -<p>The winds of Libya, sweeping over the desert, bear the sands -irresistibly before them. The ruins of Isamboul and Palmyra are partly -buried or threatened by the sand waves. The base of the great Pyramids -are concealed, and the gigantic head of Memnon and Sphinx are partially -engulfed. The sand dunes near Ismailia move at the rate of ninety-eight -feet per annum.</p> - -<p>The following excellent description of the sand dunes is taken from -Mr. Mitchell’s report: “In the central part of the land of Goshen, -where there are broad plains covered with flints, solitary dunes are -seen, like golden islands, and they are objects of grace and beauty -in every detail. On near approach to one of them, the sands may be -seen traveling up the long rear slope before the wind, flying in the -air at the crest, and falling down the fore slope in a perpetual -cascade—everywhere in motion, but preserving always the same faultless -curves. Nor do these dunes leave a grain behind them to mark their -tracks. The homogeneous sands of which they are composed are as fine -as those usually seen in an hour-glass, and, like the latter, serve to -measure the lapse of time in their steady march. The prevailing winds -in this part of the desert blow from due north, and are more steady -than at Port Said or Suez. In consequence of this, the course of the -dunes is so nearly parallel to that of the canal, that their slow -approach can always be prepared for. They can at any time be fixed by -covering them with brushwood.”</p> - -<p>Between Lake Timseh and Port Said, it is estimated that 130,000 cubic -yards of sand will be swept into the canal annually. This will give -employment for one of the largest dredges for three or four months, -working twelve hours each day. This estimate is based on the work -done by one of Lavalley’s first-class dredges, which removed 120,000 -cubic yards per month, working day and night. But as the material -will be distributed in a thin stratum along the entire length of -this section of the canal, a longer period will be requisite for its -removal. The able engineers who conducted the operations of excavation -express confidence in their ability to keep the depth from decreasing. -The chief danger from this source, therefore, can only come from a -suspension of the work of the dredges.</p> - -<p class="center">2. Permanence of the harbors, particularly that of Port Said.</p> - -<p>The reports of Capt. Spratt, Royal Navy, and of Mr. Mitchell, U. S. -Coast Survey, supply very interesting information on this subject. M. -Lartet is now publishing, in the <i>Annales des Sciences Geologiques</i>, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span> -his observations upon the Isthmus. From the map of M. Lartet it appears -that an arm of the Gulf of Suez once extended, by the way of the Bitter -Lakes, to the Mediterranean, and that, at the same time, the Gulf of -Akaba united the waters of the Red Sea and the Dead Sea. The endogenous -movement which raised the mountains of Gebel Attaka and the crystalline -rocks surrounding the north end of the Red Sea, placed the first -barrier between the seas, and, by a succession of seismic movements, -raised the cretaceous plateau of Egypt and Syria, or Palestine.</p> - -<p>The mouth of the Nile at this period must have emptied into the -Mediterranean, near the great Pyramid of Gizah; and here the river must -have begun to lay the foundation of modern Egypt along the border of -the cretaceous formation.</p> - -<p>Thus the geological record is in harmony with the traditions of -the Priests as handed down to us by Herodotus, “Egypt is a gift of -the Nile.” Within historic times, the elevating movement has been -inappreciable. The Nile still continues to roll down its plenteous -bounty of sand, and to spread unceasingly its desolating influence over -the plains of Suez and along the coast of Egypt as far as Syria.</p> - -<p>Capt. Pratt, in the Medina, made a careful survey of the coast, -sounding and dredging with sufficient minuteness to determine the -limit of Nile influence. Within this limit, the bottom was found to be -composed of siliceous sands, differing in no respect from the sands of -the desert about the Pyramids. Outside of the Nile sand, the bottom of -the sea was found to be composed exclusively of calcareous particles. -The suspended matter, which is greatest during the Nile floods, driven -eastward along the coast, accumulates upon the beach in the form of -dunes, and overwhelms the huts of the coast guard and the fishermen, -and, in twelve months, nearly buried the Mosque of Brulos. Commencing -its devastating march, it advances irresistibly toward Suez.</p> - -<p>The Nile brings down a prodigious quantity of sand, which is swept -into the river by the Libyan winds, and borne by the current to the -sea, mingled with fragments of pottery from the villages on the -banks. The quantity of sand brought into the sea has excited the -astonishment of the most experienced students of delta formations. The -Ganges, the Indus, the Dneipper, the Danube, and the Mississippi, the -Yang-Tse-Kiang, and the Hoang Ho bring down annually millions of tons -of solid matter to add to the accretions at their mouths.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> -<div class="figcenter"> - <a href="images/i_p020_hr.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_p020.jpg" alt="Geological Map of Palestine and Lower Egypt." width="500" height="643" /></a> -</div> - -<p class="center map_visibility">[Click image to enlarge.]</p> - -<p class="space-above2"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span> -The whole amount carried yearly into the Gulf of Mexico by all the -passes of the Mississippi is seven hundred and fifty millions of cubic -feet, or a mass of one mile square and twenty-seven feet thick. “As -the cubical contents of the whole mass of the bar at the South-west -pass is equal to a solid of one mile square and four hundred and ninety -feet thick, it would require fifty-five years to form the bar as it now -exists.”<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a></p> - -<p>Since the time of Strabo the Nile has advanced the coast line of Egypt, -by its yearly contributions of sand, from four to six miles into the -sea. Any interruptions of the littoral currents greatly accelerates -this result. Such is the well-known effect of jetties and moles. Since -the construction of the mole at Port Said, the shore line has advanced -1213 feet in eight years. Eighty-eight feet of this distance was made -in the last six months. “If the shore line continues to advance,” Mr. -Mitchell remarks, “at any thing like its present rate, the dry land -will extend to the end of the mole in forty years. The shoaling of the -entrance to the harbor will keep pace with the advance of the shore -line, and before the end of twenty years an extension of the mole will -be necessary.”</p> - -<p>The silting up of the interior of the harbor by the sand which sifts -through the interstices of the concrete block is regarded by Mr. -Mitchell as a more serious evil. But as it may not be impracticable to -close these interstices, this danger does not seem comparable to that -which must arise from the unceasing eastward movement of the sands -brought down by the Nile. It was for this reason that Alexander placed -his city to the west of the mouth of the Nile.</p> - -<p>The boldness and skill displayed in the construction of the harbor of -Port Said may be appreciated from these facts. The excavation of the -canal presented comparatively little difficulty. The entire cost of the -canal and harbors was about forty-three and a half millions of dollars, -or more than half of the entire cost of the work, which includes the -expenses of hospitals, negotiations, surveys, machinery, and the -miscellaneous expenses of administration, amounting in the aggregate to -$80,893,665.</p> - -<p>The doubts of the permanent value of the <a href="#SUEZ_MAP">Suez Canal</a>, -as expressed by Lord Palmerston and Sir Robert Stephenson, do not -appear to have been without sound and reasonable foundation. It is -evident that a few years of war will, as in the days of the Pharaohs, -Ptolemies, the Cæsars, and the Caliphs, necessitate a reconstruction -on a scale almost as great as that which has recently challenged the -admiration of the civilized world. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span></p> - -<p>It is unnecessary to say any thing of the harbor of Suez. The -difficulties encountered at this point were much more easily conquered -than at Port Said.</p> - -<p>The Egyptian Government has provided excellent docks and every facility -for the repairing of ships at the southern terminus.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> -<div class="chapter"><h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER II.</h2></div> - -<p class="neg-indent blockquot2">Influence of Commerce—Distances -Reduced by the Suez Canal—Tables showing the Gain of the United States -and European Ports—Navigation by way of Red Sea and Good Hope—Napoleon -III on Advantages of the American Route—Darien and Suez Canals as parts -of one system of Navigation—Lieut. Maury on Darien Canal; its influence -on the Resources of the Basin of the Mississippi—Table of Distances -by Cape and Canal—Saving to the Commerce of the World—Table showing -how far the great Maritime States are interested in the American -Canal—Advantages of Suez and Darien Canals. </p> - -<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">Statistics</span> have been accumulated -to show to what extent commerce will be benefited by the <a -href="#SUEZ_MAP">Suez Canal</a>. The question of choice of route is -not dependent on distance alone. The winds and currents are natural -advantages or dangers which the navigator skillfully avoids or employs. -Steam, while it enables a vessel to contend with wind and current, is -yet obliged to obey their dictates. The distance of coaling stations, -the large space occupied by fuel to the exclusion of freight, renders -steam desirable rather as an auxiliary than as the sole means of -propulsion.</p> - -<p>The <a href="#SUEZ_MAP">Suez Canal</a> has reduced the distances -from European ports to India about one-half. England derives an equal -advantage, yet she has justly regarded with apprehension the diversion -of trade from the old route. Anticipating the day when she would be -compelled to acquiesce in the opening of the new highway, she has -shrewdly secured the military command of the new course of trade which -threatens her monopoly.</p> - -<p>For the United States, the distances to the East are reduced to -from 2000 to 4000 miles. But on account of winds and currents for -homeward-bound ships, the old route by way of Cape Horn is still -preferable.</p> - -<p>The following table, computed by M. de Lesseps, exhibits the distances -from European and American ports to Bombay: -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span></p> - -<p class="f120 space-above2"><i>Tables showing the Gain of U. S. -and European Ports.</i></p> - -<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="_" cellpadding="0" rules="cols" > - <thead><tr> - <th class="tdc bb2" colspan="4"> </th> - </tr><tr> - <th class="tdc bb">PORTS</th> - <th class="tdc bb">BY<br />CAPE<br /> HORN. </th> - <th class="tdc bb">BY<br />SUEZ<br /> CANAL. </th> - <th class="tdc bb">SAVING<br /> EFFECTED <br />BY CANAL.</th> - </tr><tr> - <th class="tdc"> </th> - <th class="tdc"><small>MILES.</small></th> - <th class="tdc"><small>MILES.</small></th> - <th class="tdc"><small>MILES.</small></th> - </tr> - </thead> - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdl">Constantinople  </td> - <td class="tdc">14,760</td> - <td class="tdc">4,350</td> - <td class="tdc">10,410 </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Malta</td> - <td class="tdc">14,130</td> - <td class="tdc">4,990</td> - <td class="tdc">9,140</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Trieste</td> - <td class="tdc">14,420</td> - <td class="tdc">5,660</td> - <td class="tdc">8,760</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Marseilles</td> - <td class="tdc">13,675</td> - <td class="tdc">5,745</td> - <td class="tdc">7,930</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Cadiz</td> - <td class="tdc">12,584</td> - <td class="tdc">5,384</td> - <td class="tdc">7,200</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Lisbon</td> - <td class="tdc">12,960</td> - <td class="tdc">6,050</td> - <td class="tdc">6,910</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Bordeaux</td> - <td class="tdc">13,670</td> - <td class="tdc">6,770</td> - <td class="tdc">6,900</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Havre</td> - <td class="tdc">14,030</td> - <td class="tdc">6,830</td> - <td class="tdc">7,200</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">London</td> - <td class="tdc">14,400</td> - <td class="tdc">7,500</td> - <td class="tdc">6,900</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Liverpool</td> - <td class="tdc">14,280</td> - <td class="tdc">7,380</td> - <td class="tdc">6,900</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Amsterdam</td> - <td class="tdc">14,400</td> - <td class="tdc">7,500</td> - <td class="tdc">6,900</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">St. Petersburg</td> - <td class="tdc">15,850</td> - <td class="tdc">8,950</td> - <td class="tdc">6,900</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">New York</td> - <td class="tdc">15,000</td> - <td class="tdc">9,100</td> - <td class="tdc">5,900</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">New Orleans</td> - <td class="tdc">15,600</td> - <td class="tdc">9,000</td> - <td class="tdc">6,600</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc bt" colspan="4"> </td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> - -<p>The subjoined table contains distances from London, New York, and Port -Royal to certain Eastern ports, compared with distances to the same -ports from New York via the Pacific Railroad and Darien:</p> - -<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="_" cellpadding="0" rules="cols" > - <thead><tr> - <th class="tdc bb2" colspan="6"> </th> - </tr><tr> - <th class="tdc bb">ORIENTAL PORTS  </th> - <th class="tdc bb">LONDON,<br /> VIA SUEZ. </th> - <th class="tdc bb"> NEW YORK, <br />VIA SUEZ.</th> - <th class="tdc bb"> PORT ROYAL, <br />VIA SUEZ.</th> - <th class="tdc bb">NEW YORK,<br /> VIA PAC. R. R. </th> - <th class="tdc bb">NEW YORK,<br /> VIA DARIEN. </th> - </tr><tr> - <th class="tdc"> </th> - <th class="tdc"><small>MILES.</small></th> - <th class="tdc"><small>MILES.</small></th> - <th class="tdc"><small>MILES.</small></th> - <th class="tdc"><small>MILES.</small></th> - <th class="tdc"><small>MILES.</small>  </th> - </tr> - </thead> - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdl">Melbourne</td> - <td class="tdc">11,280 </td> - <td class="tdc">13,200</td> - <td class="tdc">13,700</td> - <td class="tdc">10,300</td> - <td class="tdl_sp1">10,400</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Shanghai</td> - <td class="tdc">11,504 </td> - <td class="tdc">12,500</td> - <td class="tdc">13,000</td> - <td class="tdc"> 8,850</td> - <td class="tdl_sp1">11,100</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Hong Kong</td> - <td class="tdc">10,469 </td> - <td class="tdc">11,700</td> - <td class="tdc">11,100</td> - <td class="tdc"> 9,300</td> - <td class="tdl_sp1">10,850</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Manila</td> - <td class="tdc">9,639</td> - <td class="tdc">11,600</td> - <td class="tdc">12,200</td> - <td class="tdc"> 9,600</td> - <td class="tdl_sp1">11,500</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Singapore</td> - <td class="tdc">8,239</td> - <td class="tdc">10,300</td> - <td class="tdc">10,800</td> - <td class="tdc">10,600</td> - <td class="tdl_sp1">12,800<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Batavia</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">10,500</td> - <td class="tdc">11,000</td> - <td class="tdc">11,000</td> - <td class="tdl_sp1">12,550</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Penang</td> - <td class="tdc">7,859</td> - <td class="tdc"> 9,950</td> - <td class="tdc">10,430</td> - <td class="tdc">11,000</td> - <td class="tdl_sp1">12,800</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Calcutta</td> - <td class="tdc">7,964</td> - <td class="tdc"> 9,700</td> - <td class="tdc">12,200</td> - <td class="tdc">12,150</td> - <td class="tdl_sp1">14,350</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Ceylon</td> - <td class="tdc">7,946</td> - <td class="tdc"> 8,750</td> - <td class="tdc"> 9,250</td> - <td class="tdc">12,200</td> - <td class="tdl_sp1">14,300</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Yeddo</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdl_sp1">10,200</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Bombay</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> 9,000</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Yokohama</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">11,504</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc bt" colspan="6"> </td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> - -<p>According to the first table, distances from the European and American -ports therein named are shortened one-half. According to the second -table, the distances to Oriental ports, from the great European and -American entrepôts, are greater by the Darien route; but by reason of -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span> -winds and currents, the voyage by the way of Suez is from four to five -days longer.</p> - -<p>In the Red Sea the prevailing winds are from the north, which retard -the steamers and compel the sailing ships to beat up to Suez. “From -Suez to Ceylon,” according to the <i>London Times</i>, “the winds are -unfavorable. From Point de Galle to Swan River, terrible hurricanes -sweep the Indian Ocean. Along the coast of New South Wales, violent -winds prevail from the westward, causing a prodigious sea to arise, -which nearly precludes navigation in that direction.”</p> - -<p>The route by way of Good Hope is beset by gales from the south-west and -north-west, rendering the return passage a matter of great uncertainty; -but by Darien or Panama route, going or returning, regular voyages and -smooth seas may be counted on with precision.</p> - -<p>For steam, but more especially for sailing vessels, the American route, -lying in the zone of the trade-winds, possesses special advantages. -Outgoing and returning ships may trim their sails to favorable winds; -and the experienced navigator may have the aid of confluent currents, -and enter the monsoons at greater advantage.</p> - -<p>Napoleon III, when a prisoner in Ham, thoroughly examined the -advantages of the American route. “In regard to the United States of -America,” he observes, “all the distances would be shortened 1400 -miles and fifteen days”——“Europe would gain forty-seven days in a -voyage to the coast of South America, while the United States would -gain sixty-two days. To China and Sidney, Europe would gain twenty-nine -days, and the United States twenty-four days.”</p> - -<p>But it is not as rivals that the two routes should be compared, but -as parts of the same system by which maritime nations are brought -into commercial union. The benefit which each route will confer upon -commerce is doubled by considering the effects of both together. The -one opens the gates to the East, the other to the West. While one route -is favorable to outward ships, the other affords equal advantages to -the homeward bound, so that in many cases the most desirable route -would lead to a circumnavigation of the globe.</p> - -<p>To appreciate the importance of such a system of navigation, and -exhibit some of the advantages of the American route, it may be well to -compare it with the old route, by the way of the Cape, which will still -remain the principal highway to the East.</p> - -<p>“The Englishman,” says Lieut. Maury, “meets the American in all the -markets of the world with the advantage of ten days or upward. Cut -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span> -through the Isthmus, and instead of some ten days’ sail or more, the - -scale would be turned, and we shall have the advantage of some twenty -days’ sail, thus making a difference of thirty or forty days under -canvas.” The distance between New York, China, India, and Australia, -and the west coast of South America exceeds that by way of Cape Horn -from 8,000 to 14,000 miles.</p> - -<p>To the States lying in the great basin of the Mississippi, and to all -the cities situated on its navigable waters, the gain is much greater. -These parts of the continent, now secluded by their position from -direct trade with the west coast of South America and the Indies, will -be brought into closer commercial relations with these ports of the -world. With but one transshipment, the silk, teas, spices, and fabrics -of India, China, Japan, and the Pacific Islands may be landed on the -banks of the Mississippi, Missouri, and Ohio.</p> - -<p>The following tables, taken from the Report of Lieut. Maury to the -Committee on Naval Affairs, will show the sailing distance from New -York and Liverpool to the principal ports beyond and around Cape Horn -and the Cape of Good Hope. The distances to South and North Pacific -ports are greatly reduced by the Darien or Panama route.</p> - -<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Distances from Liverpool and NY." cellpadding="0" rules="cols" > - <thead><tr> - <th class="tdc bb2" colspan="3"> </th> - </tr><tr> - <th class="tdc bb"> </th> - <th class="tdc bb">FROM<br /> LIVERPOOL. </th> - <th class="tdc bb">FROM<br /> NEW YORK.</th> - </tr><tr> - <th class="tdc"> </th> - <th class="tdc"><small>MILES.</small></th> - <th class="tdc"><small>MILES.</small></th> - </tr> - </thead> - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdl">To Calcutta, via Cape of Good Hope </td> - <td class="tdc">16,000</td> - <td class="tdc">17,500</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_sp15">Calcutta, via Cape Horn</td> - <td class="tdc">21,500</td> - <td class="tdc">23,000</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_sp15">Canton, via Cape Horn</td> - <td class="tdc">20,000</td> - <td class="tdc">21,500</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_sp15">Canton, via Cape of Good Hope</td> - <td class="tdc">18,000</td> - <td class="tdc">19,500</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_sp15">Valparaiso, via Cape Horn</td> - <td class="tdc">11,400</td> - <td class="tdc">12,900</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_sp15">Callao, via Cape Horn</td> - <td class="tdc">12,000</td> - <td class="tdc">13,500</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_sp15">Guayaquil, via Cape Horn</td> - <td class="tdc">12,800</td> - <td class="tdc">14,300</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_sp15">Panama, via Cape Horn</td> - <td class="tdc">14,500</td> - <td class="tdc">16,000</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_sp15">San Blas, via Cape Horn</td> - <td class="tdc">16,300</td> - <td class="tdc">17,800</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_sp15">Mazatlan, via Cape Horn</td> - <td class="tdc">16,500</td> - <td class="tdc">18,000</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_sp15">San Diego, via Cape Horn</td> - <td class="tdc">17,000</td> - <td class="tdc">18,500</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_sp15">San Francisco, via Cape Horn</td> - <td class="tdc">17,500</td> - <td class="tdc">19,000</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc bt" colspan="3"> </td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> - -<p>The following table shows the saving of time from New York by the new -route, via the Isthmus of Panama, as compared with the old routes, -via Cape Horn and Cape of Good Hope, to the places therein named, -estimating the distance which a common trading ship will sail per day -to be one hundred and ten miles, and calculating for the voyage out and home: -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span></p> - -<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="_" cellpadding="0" rules="cols" > - <thead><tr> - <th class="tdc bb2" colspan="11"> </th> - </tr><tr class="font_tiny"> - <th class="tdc bb"><big>FROM N. Y. TO</big></th> - <th class="tdc bb">DISTANCE VIA<br />CAPE OF<br />GOOD HOPE.</th> - <th class="tdc bb">LENGTH OF<br />PASSAGE OUT<br />AND HOME.</th> - <th class="tdc bb">DISTANCE VIA;<br />CAPE HORN.</th> - <th class="tdc bb">LENGTH OF<br />PASSAGE OUT<br />AND HOME.</th> - <th class="tdc bb">DISTANCE<br />VIA THE ISTHMUS<br />OF PANAMA.</th> - <td class="tdc bt bb"><b>LENGTH OF<br />PASSAGE<br />OUT AND HOME.</b></td> - <td class="tdc bt bb"><b>SAVING IN DISTANCE<br />OVER THE ROUTE BY<br />CAPE OF GOOD HOPE.</b></td> - <td class="tdc bt bb"><b>TIME SAVED BY<br />ISTHMUS<br />OVER TIME BY<br />CAPE HOPE,<br />OUT AND HOME.</b></td> - <td class="tdc bt bb"><b>SAVING IN DISTANCE<br />OVER THE ROUTE<br />BY CAPE HORN.</b></td> - <td class="tdc bt bb"><b>TIME SAVED BY<br />ISTHMUS<br />OVER TIME BY<br />CAPE HOPE,<br />OUT AND HOME.</b></td> - </tr><tr> - <th class="tdc"> </th> - <th class="tdc"><small>MILES.</small></th> - <th class="tdc"><small>DAYS.</small></th> - <th class="tdc"><small>MILES.</small></th> - <th class="tdc"><small>DAYS.</small></th> - <th class="tdc"><small>MILES.</small></th> - <td class="tdc"><b><small>DAYS.</small></b></td> - <td class="tdc"><b><small>MILES.</small></b></td> - <td class="tdc"><b><small>DAYS.</small></b></td> - <td class="tdc"><b><small>MILES.</small></b></td> - <td class="tdc"><b><small>DAYS.</small></b></td> - </tr> - </thead> - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdl">Calcutta</td> - <td class="tdc">17,500</td> - <td class="tdc">318</td> - <td class="tdc">23,000</td> - <td class="tdc">418</td> - <td class="tdc">13,400 </td> - <td class="tdc">244</td> - <td class="tdc">4,100</td> - <td class="tdc"> 74</td> - <td class="tdc"> 9,600</td> - <td class="tdc">174</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Canton</td> - <td class="tdc">19,500</td> - <td class="tdc">354</td> - <td class="tdc">21,500</td> - <td class="tdc">390</td> - <td class="tdc">10,600 </td> - <td class="tdc">192</td> - <td class="tdc">8,900</td> - <td class="tdc">162</td> - <td class="tdc">10,900</td> - <td class="tdc">198</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Shanghai</td> - <td class="tdc">20,000</td> - <td class="tdc">362</td> - <td class="tdc">22,000</td> - <td class="tdc">400</td> - <td class="tdc">10,400 </td> - <td class="tdc">188</td> - <td class="tdc">9,600</td> - <td class="tdc">174</td> - <td class="tdc">11,600</td> - <td class="tdc">212</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Valparaiso</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">12,900</td> - <td class="tdc">234</td> - <td class="tdc">4,800</td> - <td class="tdc"> 86</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> 8,100</td> - <td class="tdc">148</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Callao</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">13,500</td> - <td class="tdc">244</td> - <td class="tdc">3,500</td> - <td class="tdc"> 62</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">10,000</td> - <td class="tdc">182</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Guayaquil</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">14,300</td> - <td class="tdc">260</td> - <td class="tdc">2,800</td> - <td class="tdc"> 50</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">11,500</td> - <td class="tdc">210</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Panama</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">16,000</td> - <td class="tdc">290</td> - <td class="tdc">2,000</td> - <td class="tdc"> 36</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">14,000</td> - <td class="tdc">254</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">San Blas</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">17,800</td> - <td class="tdc">322</td> - <td class="tdc">3,800</td> - <td class="tdc"> 68</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">14,000</td> - <td class="tdc">254</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Mazatlan</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">18,000</td> - <td class="tdc">326</td> - <td class="tdc">4,000</td> - <td class="tdc"> 72</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">14,000</td> - <td class="tdc">254</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">San Diego</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">18,500</td> - <td class="tdc">336</td> - <td class="tdc">4,500</td> - <td class="tdc"> 82</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">14,000</td> - <td class="tdc">254</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">San Francisco</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">19,000</td> - <td class="tdc">344</td> - <td class="tdc">5,000</td> - <td class="tdc"> 90</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">14,000</td> - <td class="tdc">254</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Wellington, N. Z.</td> - <td class="tdc">13,740</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">11,100</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">8,480</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">5,260</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> 2,620</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Melbourne, Australia </td> - <td class="tdc">13,230</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">12,720</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">9,890</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">3,340</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> 2,830</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc bt" colspan="11"> </td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> - -<p class="space-below1">The following condensed statement, from tables carefully -prepared by an advocate of intermarine canals, exhibits some of the commercial -advantages depending upon the completion of the route:</p> - -<p class="blockquot2 neg-indent"><i>Table showing the saving to the trade of the -world, in insurance on vessels and cargoes, interest on cargoes, saving -of wear and tear of ships, and saving of wages, provisions, etc., by -using the Isthmus Canal</i>:</p> - -<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="_" cellpadding="0" > - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdl">United States</td> - <td class="tdr">$35,995,930</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">England</td> - <td class="tdr">9,950,348</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">France</td> - <td class="tdr">2,183,930</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Other countries</td> - <td class="tdr u"> 1,400,000</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="ws3">Total yearly saving</span>  </td> - <td class="tdr">$49,530,208</td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> - -<p>Exports of Great Britain increased one hundred and seven per cent. in -ten years; exports of France increased one hundred and thirty per cent. -in ten years; exports of the United States increased ninety-three per -cent. in ten years. If the trade increases one hundred per cent. in -the next ten years, the saving to the world will then be ninety-nine -millions sixty thousand four hundred and sixteen dollars ($99,060,416) -per annum.</p> - -<p>Taking this statement as a basis, and representing the gross pecuniary -interest of the United States in the proposed canal as unity, the -saving to Great Britain will be one-fourth, to France one-eighteenth, -and to all other countries one-thirty-fifth. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span></p> - -<p>This preponderance of interest on the part of the United States may -be taken to imply a proportionate share in the cost. Such would -be a correct conclusion if our Government retained control of the -route. Surrendering the latter claim, she relinquishes with it her -proportionate liability, and is entitled to be received as one of the -contracting parties upon terms of equality. The respective shares of -the parties is, however, a proper subject for diplomatic arrangement. -But while the greatest saving accrues to the United States, the -absolute value of our oriental exports and imports is about equal to -that of Great Britain, and about double that of France and other countries.</p> - -<p>Neutralization of the Isthmus is only, in appearance, a suspension -of the policy understood as the Monroe Doctrine. It can be made an -international recognition of that policy. Such objections, even if -well founded, sink into insignificance in comparison with the benefits -which must accrue to mankind at large. The United States has not shown -herself so incapable of adopting a policy in accordance with her high -destiny, as to justify a suspicion that she will ever by her acts -sanction the selfish theory that “nations may combine to oppress and -plunder, but rarely for any useful or benevolent purpose.” The progress -of events has already made her an arbiter in the destiny of nations, -and she can no longer, by an insular and anti-social policy, separate -herself from the interests of the great family of nations. Mutual and -liberal concessions in the generous spirit of our civilization, looking -to the extension of commerce, industry, arts, science, and religion -throughout the world, can alone lead to that harmonious coöperation -without which an interoceanic ship canal must remain forever -problematical.</p> - -<p>The above tables supply material for other important conclusions. -Eighteen vessels, sailing from as many different ports in East India, -China, Japan, Australia, and South America, would save the average -distance of 8,791 miles, equivalent to a voyage by sail of about eighty -days, or to between thirty-six and forty days by steam.</p> - -<p>Supposing the average tonnage of ships to be one thousand tons, then -three thousand and ninety-four steamships would be requisite to carry -the freight which would now seek the Isthmus annually. The saving of -time to trade and to each man would be about three and four-tenths -years to every generation of thirty-three years. The amount of tonnage -above mentioned would give employment to 86,632 seamen, giving to -them, by the new route, a saving of time in one generation amounting -to the aggregate of 294,548 years. The benefits being diffused among -all engaged or interested, directly or indirectly, the accession to -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span> -the time, wealth, and industry of so large a number of men is not only -a great economic and commercial advantage, but may be regarded as -participating in the nature of those beneficent, moral movements which -characterize the age.</p> - -<p class="space-below2">The annual saving to the trade of the world -is shown to be $49,530,208.00. The annual increase of the trade of -Great Britain, France, and the United States is together more than one -hundred per cent. The saving to the maritime powers in one year at the -end of a decade will be $99,060,416.00. Assuming the trade of the three -powers to increase in the same ratio, the total amount saved at the end -of ten years will be equal to the aggregate of the amounts saved each -year, and foots up as follows:</p> - -<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Annual saving to world trade." cellpadding="0" > - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdc"> Amount </td> - <td class="tdc"> saved </td> - <td class="tdc"> at end of </td> - <td class="tdl">first year</td> - <td class="tdr">$54,483,228.80</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdl">second year</td> - <td class="tdr">59,436,249.60</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdl">third year</td> - <td class="tdr">64,389,270.40</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdl">fourth year</td> - <td class="tdr">69,342,291.20</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdl">fifth year</td> - <td class="tdr">74,295,312.00</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdl">sixth year</td> - <td class="tdr">79,248,332.80</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdl">seventh year  </td> - <td class="tdr">84,201,353.60</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdl">eighth year</td> - <td class="tdr">89,154,374.40</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdl">ninth year</td> - <td class="tdr">94,107,395.20</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdl">tenth year</td> - <td class="tdr u"> 99,060,416.10</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc" colspan="4">Entire amount saved in ten years</td> - <td class="tdr">$767,718,224.10</td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> - -<p class="space-above2 space-below2">This result is verified by an estimate based upon -the tonnage which will be actually engaged in this trade:</p> - -<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Annual savings by tonnage." cellpadding="0" > - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdl">Maintenance of ship and crew of 1000 tons</td> - <td class="tdr">$500</td> - <td class="tdc"> per month. </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Interest of 1½ per cent. on tonnage worth $17,000</td> - <td class="tdr">255</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Insurance at 1 per cent. on value of ship worth $18,000</td> - <td class="tdr u"> 180</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">Saving per month</td> - <td class="tdr">$935</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Add reduction of insurance upon ship and cargo at 1 per cent.  </td> - <td class="tdr u"> 350</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">Total saving per month</td> - <td class="tdr">$1285</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> - -<p class="space-above2">The annual saving for each ship will be -$15,420, giving as the aggregate saved upon the tonnage which would -pass the Isthmus the sum of $47,709,480, and the saving of one year at -the end of a decade as $95,418,960, a sum sufficiently near the first -to establish its correctness.</p> - -<p class="space-below1">The following tables were compiled by Mr. F. W. -Kelley, of New York, and were intended to exhibit the effect upon the -trade of the world by the completion of the canal through the Isthmus: -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span></p> - -<p class="blockquot2 neg-indent"><i>Table showing the trade of the U. S. -that would pass through the Isthmus Canal, if now finished. Taken from -the official returns for 1857.</i> </p> - -<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Annual saving to U. S. trade." cellpadding="0" > - <thead><tr> - <th class="tdc bb2" colspan="3"> </th> - </tr><tr> - <th class="tdc bb">COUNTRIES TRADED WITH.</th> - <th class="tdc bb"> <small>EXPORTS AND <br />IMPORTS.</small></th> - <th class="tdc bb"> <small>TONNAGE.</small></th> - </tr> - </thead> - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdl">Russian North American Possessions</td> - <td class="tdr">$  126,537</td> - <td class="tdr">$  5,735</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Dutch East Indies </td> - <td class="tdr">904,550</td> - <td class="tdr">16,589</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">British Australia and New Zealand</td> - <td class="tdr">4,728,083</td> - <td class="tdr">52,105</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">British East Indies</td> - <td class="tdr">11,744,151</td> - <td class="tdr">177,121</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">French East Indies</td> - <td class="tdr">98,432</td> - <td class="tdr">3,665</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Half of Mexico</td> - <td class="tdr">9,601,063</td> - <td class="tdr">34,673</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Half of New Granada</td> - <td class="tdr">5,375,354</td> - <td class="tdr">131,708</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Central America</td> - <td class="tdr">425,081</td> - <td class="tdr">36,599</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Chile</td> - <td class="tdr">6,645,634</td> - <td class="tdr">63,749</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Peru</td> - <td class="tdr">716,679</td> - <td class="tdr">193,131</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Ecuador</td> - <td class="tdr">48,979</td> - <td class="tdr">1,979</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Sandwich Islands</td> - <td class="tdr">1,151,849</td> - <td class="tdr">33,876</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">China</td> - <td class="tdr">12,752,062</td> - <td class="tdr">123,578</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Other ports in Asia and Pacific</td> - <td class="tdr">80,143</td> - <td class="tdr">4,549</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Whale Fisheries</td> - <td class="tdr">10,796,090</td> - <td class="tdr">116,730</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">California to East United States</td> - <td class="tdr bb">35,000,000</td> - <td class="tdr bb">861,698</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="ws4">Value of cargoes</span></td> - <td class="tdr">$100,294,687</td> - <td class="tdr">$ 1,857,485</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="ws4">Value of ships, at $50 per ton</span></td> - <td class="tdr bb">92,874,250</td> - <td class="tdr bb"> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="ws4">Total value of ships and cargoes  </span></td> - <td class="tdr">$193,168,937</td> - <td class="tdr">  $92,874,250</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc bt" colspan="3"> </td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> - -<p class="space-below1">“Whale ships and coasting vessels have been -estimated generally throughout this appendix at forty dollars ($40) -per ton. The United States and European commerce around the Capes is -conducted in first-class ships, which often cost eighty dollars ($80) -per ton. Fifty dollars ($50) have therefore been taken as the fair -average value in the construction of this table, which does not include -coasting trade.”</p> - -<p class="blockquot2 neg-indent"><i>Table showing the trade of England -that would pass through the Isthmus Canal, if now finished. Taken from -the official returns for 1856.</i></p> - -<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Annual saving to England trade." cellpadding="0" > - <thead><tr> - <th class="tdc bb2" colspan="6"> </th> - </tr><tr> - <th class="tdc bb" colspan="4">COUNTRIES TRADED WITH.</th> - <th class="tdc bb"> <small>EXPORTS AND <br />IMPORTS.</small></th> - <th class="tdc bb"><small>TONNAGE.</small></th> - </tr> - </thead> - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="4">Half of Mexico</td> - <td class="tdr">$ 2,775,137</td> - <td class="tdr">$ 11,833</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="4">Half of Central America</td> - <td class="tdr">1,244,817</td> - <td class="tdr">5,615</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="4">Half of New Granada</td> - <td class="tdr">2,437,605</td> - <td class="tdr">10,188</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="4">Chile</td> - <td class="tdr">15,486,110</td> - <td class="tdr">118,311</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="4">Peru</td> - <td class="tdr">20,473,520</td> - <td class="tdr">244,319</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="4">Ecuador</td> - <td class="tdr">360,015</td> - <td class="tdr">1,820</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">China</td> - <td class="tdc" rowspan="3"><img src="images/cbr-3.jpg" alt="}" width="16" height="57" /></td> - <td class="tdc" rowspan="3"> Outward; only 40 days saved by the canal </td> - <td class="tdc" rowspan="3"><img src="images/cbl-3.jpg" alt="{" width="16" height="57" /></td> - <td class="tdr">7,077,390</td> - <td class="tdr">68,530</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Java</td> - <td class="tdr">3,821,410</td> - <td class="tdr">16,003</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Singapore</td> - <td class="tdr">4,364,070</td> - <td class="tdr">16,500</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="4"></td> - <td class="tdr"></td> - <td class="tdr"></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="4">Australia and New Zealand</td> - <td class="tdr">78,246,095</td> - <td class="tdr">522,426</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="4">Sandwich Islands</td> - <td class="tdr">520,560</td> - <td class="tdr">1,950</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="4">California</td> - <td class="tdr bb">2,378,105</td> - <td class="tdr bb">11,800</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="4"><span class="ws4">Value of trade</span></td> - <td class="tdr">$139,184,834</td> - <td class="tdr">$ 1,029,295</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="4"><span class="ws4">Value of ships, at $50 per ton</span></td> - <td class="tdr bb">51,464,750</td> - <td class="tdr bb"> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="4"><span class="ws4">Total value of trade and ships</span></td> - <td class="tdr">$190,649,584</td> - <td class="tdr">  $51,464,750</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc bt" colspan="6"> </td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> - -<p class="space-below2"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span></p> - -<p class="blockquot2 neg-indent"><i>Table showing the trade of France -that would pass through the Isthmus Canal, if now finished. Taken from -the official returns for 1857.</i></p> - -<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Annual saving to French trade." cellpadding="0" > - <thead><tr> - <th class="tdc bb2" colspan="6"> </th> - </tr><tr> - <th class="tdc bb" colspan="4">COUNTRIES TRADED WITH.</th> - <th class="tdc bb"> <small>EXPORTS AND <br />IMPORTS.</small></th> - <th class="tdc bb"> <small>TONNAGE.</small></th> - </tr> - </thead> - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="4">Chile</td> - <td class="tdr">$ 10,000,000</td> - <td class="tdr">$  25,688</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="4">Peru</td> - <td class="tdr">13,160,000</td> - <td class="tdr">35,096</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="4">Half of Mexico</td> - <td class="tdr">2,790,000</td> - <td class="tdr">10,004</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="4">Half of New Grenada</td> - <td class="tdr">1,090,000</td> - <td class="tdr">2,389</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="4">Ecuador</td> - <td class="tdr">440,000</td> - <td class="tdr">1,651</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="4">Bolivia</td> - <td class="tdr">100,000</td> - <td class="tdr">1,000</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="4">California</td> - <td class="tdr">2,073,859</td> - <td class="tdr">8,997</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">China</td> - <td class="tdc" rowspan="2"><img src="images/cbr-2.jpg" alt="}" width="9" height="32" /></td> - <td class="tdc" rowspan="2">  Outward only  </td> - <td class="tdc" rowspan="2"><img src="images/cbl-2.jpg" alt="{" width="9" height="32" /></td> - <td class="tdr">2,180,000</td> - <td class="tdr">2,028</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Dutch East Indies  </td> - <td class="tdr">4,440,000</td> - <td class="tdr">20,400</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="4">Sandwich Islands</td> - <td class="tdr">2,000,000</td> - <td class="tdr">4,119</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="4">Philippine Islands</td> - <td class="tdr">1,000,000</td> - <td class="tdr">1,463</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="4">Australia</td> - <td class="tdr bb">19,800,000</td> - <td class="tdr bb">50,000</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="4"><span class="ws4">Value of cargoes</span></td> - <td class="tdr">$59,073,859</td> - <td class="tdr">  $ 162,735</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="4"><span class="ws4">Value of ships at $50 per ton</span></td> - <td class="tdr bb">8,136,750</td> - <td class="tdr bb"> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="4"><span class="ws4">Toal value</span></td> - <td class="tdr">$67,210,609</td> - <td class="tdr">$8,136,750</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl bt" colspan="6"> </td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> - -<p class="space-below1 space-above1">The value of the tonnage which -would take the Darien route is, according to the above table, -$152,475,750, and the total value of exports and imports passing the -same way is:</p> - -<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Total value of trade through Darien." cellpadding="0" > - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdl">England</td> - <td class="tdr">$193,168,939</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">United States</td> - <td class="tdr">190,649,584</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">France</td> - <td class="tdr bb">67,210,609</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="ws3">Total value of trade passing the Isthmus</span><span class="ws3"> </span></td> - <td class="tdr">$451,029,132</td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> - -<p class="space-above1">But the aggregate amount of British imports -and exports from and to India and China is $378,587,122, giving the -value of the trade which would pass through the Suez and Darien Canals -$636,447,315, yearly.</p> - -<p>The rapidly growing trade between Levantine ports and India would take -the Suez route, but between the European ports and the Pacific coast of -North and South America, and between the east and west coasts of these -two continents, the American route would be exclusively employed.</p> - -<p>In selecting a route to oriental ports it is evident, from the facts -of physical geography, as stated by Lieut. Maury, Napoleon III, and -the writer in the <i>London Times</i>, that the navigator seeking to make a -rapid voyage would adopt the American route both going and returning, -except, perhaps, between Levantine and Indian ports. Between French, -English, Levantine, and Indian ports, the outward voyage by way of -Darien, or Panama, and homeward by way of Suez would, in many cases, be -favorable to the quickest trip. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span></p> - -<p>The <a href="#SUEZ_MAP">Suez Canal</a> was built by French talent, French energy, -French machinery, and French money. England and the Mediterranean States -participate in the benefit. But the larger share of the profit belongs -to France, by reason of her ports and industrial resources; and so far -as France and the Levant enter into a direct trade with India, so far, -it has been supposed, will the value of trade between Great Britain and -India be impaired.</p> - -<p>We have spoken of the piercement of the American Isthmus as an -international work. It should rather be the work of American energy, -American talent, and American money. It is part of the American -continent. No foreign nation can have the same military control of -it that Great Britain now has of the <a href="#SUEZ_MAP">Suez Canal</a>. -The benefit of its construction, although shared by the maritime -powers, will be most important to the Americas, and by reason of -resources, organization, and position, especially to the United States. -It deserves consideration as an American project.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> -<div class="chapter"><h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER III.</h2></div> - -<p class="neg-indent blockquot2"> The Canal considered as an American -Project exclusively—Currents and Winds—Resources of the Basins of -the Rivers of the Gulf and Caribbean Sea—Their Productive Capacity -compared with the Mediterranean Basins.</p> - -<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">Let</span> the reader refer to Berghaus’s -map of winds and currents, and any map of the alluvial basins of the river -systems of Europe and America. He will observe that the Caribbean Sea -and Gulf of Mexico constitute but one sea, partially divided by the -West Indies and Cuba, which, stretching toward Yucatan, is separated -from that part of Central America by a channel 100 miles wide and 6000 -feet deep.</p> - -<p>The equatorial current, crossing the ocean with the trade-winds, enters -the Caribbean Sea, and, passing between Cuba and Yucatan into the Gulf -of Mexico, flows out through the Strait of Florida. Ships from the east -following this current are led in the path of favorable winds, both -going and returning.</p> - -<p>The Pacific trade-winds and equatorial current are equally favorable to -the outward and homeward bound voyager. The skillful navigator shapes -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span> -his course north of the equatorial current when returning from China to -San Francisco or Panama.</p> - -<p>The Humboldt and Mexican currents aid the coastwise trade. Thus, by the -converging winds and currents, this great intertropical sea seems to be -designated by nature as the future commercial center of the world.</p> - -<p>The two American seas have been styled by Lieut. Maury as the heart of -the continent. Its two compartments have been compared to the auricle -and ventricle of the human heart, through which, in regular pulsations, -by unceasing systole and dyastole, the ocean currents find constant -entrance and exit, and circulate through all the world-arteries their -vivifying influence.</p> - -<p>Pursuing the analogy, the two continents, from their general shape -and the alimentary part they perform, may not inaptly be compared to -the lungs, which convert the blood of commerce into the nutrient and -productive elements which contribute to the health and growth of the -nationalities of two continents.</p> - -<p>The rivers having their natural outlet in the Caribbean Sea and the -Gulf of Mexico, bring into commercial union two regions producing all -the commodities of the globe. The rivers of North America bear to the -Gulf the successive harvests of the temperate zone, and receive in -return the fruits, woods, dyes, drugs, spices, coffee, cotton, and -tobacco of intertropical America.</p> - -<p>No part of the globe combines so many natural advantages as are found -united around this body of water. Its shores present every advantage of -soil, climate, vegetation, and convenient harbors likely to attract an -enterprising and commercial people. The table lands of Mexico, Yucatan, -Guatemala, Honduras, and Columbia afford the most salubrious climate, -scenery of the rarest beauty and sublimity, equable temperature, and an -endless succession of fruits and harvests. Mountains of perpetual snow -look down on plains of unceasing verdure. All that is requisite for the -support of life grows spontaneously.</p> - -<p>The descriptions of Humboldt represent the table lands as suitable -to the highest development of the race. One wonders that the tide of -immigration, guided by the rational instinct for superior advantages, -has not filled every bay and estuary and overspread the plains; or, -sweeping down from the north, the Anglo-Americans have not taken -possession, as the hardy races of the North of Europe overran the -degenerate mixture of nations which overspread the northern shores of -the Mediterranean. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span></p> - -<p>Those portions of the world which possess the finest climate, whose -soil returns the largest yield from the least amount of labor, are held -by degenerate and effete representatives of a moribund civilization.</p> - -<p>In America no alpine barrier interrupts communication with the -interior, but an indefinite expanse of plains, prairies, and table -lands stretch away to the north, or form broad plateau, as in Central -and South America.</p> - -<p>Millions of square miles of arable lands are intersected by rivers -of unrivaled extent. The Mississippi, rising in such proximity to -the northern lakes as to make their shores tributary to the trade of -its valley, flows through twenty degrees of latitude before reaching -the Gulf of Mexico. The Amazon, nearly at right-angles with the -Mississippi, developing its course chiefly in longitude, bears the -varied products of its valley to the ocean, where the equatorial -current makes it tributary to the Caribbean Sea. The Amazon is more -directly connected with this sea by the Orinoco, with which it is -united by the Rio Negro. Humboldt surveyed the channel joining the two -rivers, and ascertained the feasibility of a navigable channel between -them at high water.</p> - -<p>The different positions of the main commercial arteries of the two -continents—the one extending through temperate latitudes, the other -through tropical longitudes—supply the greatest variety of commodities -for commercial interchange. The Mediterranean system, finding its most -extensive development in longitude, is limited in the variety of its -products by the climatic uniformity of one zone. While American rivers -flow through twenty-five degrees of latitude, the European rivers of -the Mediterranean extend through but ten degrees.</p> - -<p>Berghaus’s map supplies data for a comparison of the river system -of the two great continent-bounded seas of the Eastern and Western -Hemispheres:</p> - -<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Area of some American rivers." cellpadding="0" > - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdr" colspan="5"><small>SQUARE<br />MILES. </small></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Area of the Mississippi</td> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2">basin, including the basins of its tributaries </td> - <td class="tdc" rowspan="2"><img src="images/cbr-2.jpg" alt="}" width="9" height="32" /></td> - <td class="tdr" rowspan="2">2,231,000</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="3"><span class="ws4">the Missouri,Ohio, Arkansas, Red River, etc.</span></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="4">Rio del Norte</td> - <td class="tdr">180,000</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" rowspan="3">South American basins </td> - <td class="tdl" rowspan="3"><img src="images/cbl-3.jpg" alt="}" width="16" height="57" /></td> - <td class="tdl">Magdelina</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdr">72,000</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Orinoco</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdr">250,000</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Amazon</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdr bb">1,512,000</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="4">Entire area of basins which drain into the Gulf of Mexico</td> - <td class="tdr"> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="4"><span class="ws4">and Caribbean Sea</span></td> - <td class="tdr">  4,245,000</td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> -<hr class="r25" /> -<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="_" cellpadding="0" > - <caption><i>Area of the Basins of the Mediterranean Systems of Rivers.</i></caption> - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdr" colspan="2"><small>SQUARE<br />MILES. </small></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">European, Euxine, and Caspian</td> - <td class="tdr">1,890,000</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Basin of the Nile</td> - <td class="tdr bb">520,000</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="ws3">Area of basins of the Mediterranean rivers  </span></td> - <td class="tdr">2,410,000</td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> - -<p class="space-above1"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span> -Area of basin of the river system of the Gulf of Mexico and the -Caribbean Sea is 4,245,000 square miles, a productive area nearly -double that of the Mediterranean, which it exceeds by 1,835,000 square miles.</p> - -<p>In the extent of its navigable rivers, the difference is -proportionately large. The Mississippi and its tributaries constitute -a continuous channel for steam navigation of 12,000 miles in extent, -which would be nearly doubled by reckoning the length of the navigable -channels at the period of high water.</p> - -<p>The river system of the Mediterranean, Euxine, and the Caspian, to -which may be added that of the Nile, will not together exceed 5000 -miles, or less than half the length of navigable channels of the -American system.</p> - -<p>The natural advantages of the Mediterranean of America may be summed -up as follows: with double the productive area, it has capacity for a -greater variety of products, by reason of its variety of climate; it -has double the extent of navigable rivers, which pour their bounties -into the same sea; and not only are the rivers and continents tributary -to this region, but the ocean currents and winds, converging at the -same point, bring the products of the Orient to exchange for those of -the New World.</p> - -<p>In a letter addressed to Mr. Rockwell, M. C., at that time secretary of -the special committee to whom was referred a resolution of Congress, -asking for information respecting routes to the Pacific, Lieut. Maury -has, with signal ability and in not too glowing language, sketched the -future of the American Mediterranean, (which is destined to surpass its -European prototype,) whose fine harbors will become the marts of an -opulent trade and the centers of a higher standard of civilization.</p> - -<p>These desirable ends will be greatly accelerated by the intermarine -canal between the two seas, by which the trade of China and Japan may -meet the commodities of Europe—</p> - -<p class="center"><span class="ws4">“Argosies of stately sails,</span><br /> -Pilots of the purple twilight, dropping down with costly bales,”</p> - -<p class="no-indent">and the products brought down by the Mississippi -and the Amazon into the Gulf of Mexico.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> -<div class="chapter"> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span> - -<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER IV.</h2></div> - -<p class="neg-indent blockquot2"> Effect of the Canal on the Interest -of the Valley of the Mississippi—Pacific Railroad as a Rival of the -Isthmean Canal—Rates of Freight on Ocean, Lakes, Rivers, Canals, and -Railroads—San Francisco and the Trade of China and Japan—Considerations -of General Interest—Probable Revenue. </p> - -<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">The</span> products of the Valley -of the Mississippi and its tributaries may be collected at points along -the river, to be shipped direct for China, Japan, Australia; and the -products of the Orient may be brought, without breaking bulk, to -Galveston, New Orleans, Mobile, Pensacola, Appalachicola, and even -Memphis, Cairo, St. Louis, Louisville, and Cincinnati, thence to be -distributed by the river system, which extends throughout the States -of the South, and reaches even to the borders of British America. With -one, or at most two, transshipments, the produce of the Indies may -be transported, by the way of the Illinois river, or the projected -improvement of the Fox and Wisconsin rivers, to Chicago and Lake -Michigan, thence to be distributed throughout the shores of the -northern lakes.</p> - -<p>Teas, silks, Japanese and East India goods may be transported by way of -the ship canal and the Mississippi river, and delivered at St. Louis at -one-third or one-fourth the cost of transportation of the same articles -by the Pacific railroad. While the Pacific railroad is a great national -highway, bringing into political and commercial union two great -sections of the country, building up cities, opening mines, bringing -under cultivation a vast extent of arable land along its route, the -proposed canal across the American Isthmus must be the sole dispenser -of the bulkier products of China and the Indies.</p> - -<p>The question may be asked how far the railroads constructed and to be -constructed between the Atlantic and Pacific, especially within the -limits of the United States of America, may supersede the commercial -advantages which would result from the canalization of the Isthmus?</p> - -<p>Trade has always increased in proportion to the facilities for -transportation; and it is evident that, even in the most populous -country, the reciprocal relation of production and consumption may be -increased by a better organization and a more judicious application of -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span> -labor. In all cases of competition between railroads with canal, -lake, or coast trade, the result has been the reduction of rates and -the increase in the quantity of material transported. Two railroads, -American and Canadian, skirt the shores of the Northern Lakes, making, -with the line of lake steamers, three competing lines. The consequence -of this rivalry has been a reduction upon freight during the summer -months, to enable the two roads to compete with the lake route and canal.</p> - -<p>To exhibit the relative cost of different methods of transportation, a -statement is subjoined. The following table, compiled from different -sources, exhibits the cost per ton per mile of transportation of -freight upon the ocean, lakes, rivers, canals, and railroads:</p> - -<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="_" cellpadding="0" > - <thead><tr> - <th class="tdc bb2" colspan="6"> </th> - </tr><tr> - <th class="tdc bb br" colspan="4">TRANSPORTATION BY</th> - <th class="tdc bb" colspan="2"> PER TON PER MILE.</th> - </tr><tr> - <th class="tdc br" colspan="4"> </th> - <th class="tdc br"><small>CENTS</small></th> - <th class="tdc"><small>MILES.</small>  </th> - </tr> - </thead> - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdl br" colspan="4">Ocean—long voyage</td> - <td class="tdc br"> </td> - <td class="tdl_sp1">1</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl br" colspan="4">Ocean—short “</td> - <td class="tdc br"> </td> - <td class="tdl_sp1">2 to 4</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Lakes—long  “</td> - <td class="tdc" rowspan="2"><img src="images/cbr-2.jpg" alt="}" width="9" height="32" /></td> - <td class="tdl br" rowspan="2" colspan="2">U. S.</td> - <td class="tdc br"> </td> - <td class="tdl_sp1">2</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Lakes—short “</td> - <td class="tdc br"> </td> - <td class="tdl_sp1">3 to 4</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl br" colspan="4">St. Lawrence River</td> - <td class="tdc br"> </td> - <td class="tdl_sp1">3</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl br" colspan="4">Hudson River</td> - <td class="tdc br"> </td> - <td class="tdl_sp1">2½</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl br" colspan="4">Ohio River—long voyage</td> - <td class="tdc br">1</td> - <td class="tdl_sp1">1.54</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl br" colspan="4">Ohio River—short “</td> - <td class="tdc br">1</td> - <td class="tdl_sp1">3.6</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl br" colspan="4">Missouri River—long voyage</td> - <td class="tdc br"> </td> - <td class="tdl_sp1">8.37</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl br" colspan="4">Missouri River—short “</td> - <td class="tdc br">2</td> - <td class="tdl_sp1">0.1</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl br" colspan="4">Mississippi River—long voyage</td> - <td class="tdc br"> </td> - <td class="tdl_sp1">5.07</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl br" colspan="4">Mississippi River—short “</td> - <td class="tdc br"> </td> - <td class="tdl_sp1">8.50</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl br" colspan="4">Erie Canal enlargement</td> - <td class="tdc br"> </td> - <td class="tdl_sp1">4</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl br" colspan="4">Railways transporting coal</td> - <td class="tdc br">1 to</td> - <td class="tdl_sp1">6</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl br" colspan="4">Reading Railroad transporting coal</td> - <td class="tdc br"> </td> - <td class="tdl_sp1">9.71</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl br" colspan="4">Reading Railroad transporting merchandise</td> - <td class="tdc br"> </td> - <td class="tdl_sp1">4.468</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl br" colspan="4">Railways—ordinary grades</td> - <td class="tdc br">1</td> - <td class="tdl_sp1">2½</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" rowspan="2">Pacific Railroad</td> - <td class="tdc" rowspan="2"><img src="images/cbl-2.jpg" alt="{" width="9" height="32" /></td> - <td class="tdc">for transporting different</td> - <td class="tdc br" rowspan="2"><img src="images/cbr-2.jpg" alt="}" width="9" height="32" /> </td> - <td class="tdc br">3</td> - <td class="tdl_sp1">2.8</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">kinds of freight.</td> - <td class="tdc br">6</td> - <td class="tdl_sp1">0.6</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl br" colspan="4">Suez Canal—$2 per ton, transit of 100 miles </td> - <td class="tdc br">2</td> - <td class="tdl_sp1">00</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl br" colspan="4">Proposed Panama Canal—$1 per ton, transit of 50 miles  </td> - <td class="tdc br">1</td> - <td class="tdl_sp1">00</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl bt" colspan="6"></td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> - -<p class="space-above1">The railroad rates above given have been -established upon thoroughfares favorable for the attainment of a -minimum. But upon all roads to be constructed between the Atlantic -and Pacific, much higher rates must prevail for many years. Hurried -construction, through a wilderness deficient in material and obstructed -by hostile savages, must increase the cost of construction. For the -same reason, the execution of the work is likely to be defective and -the location of the route imperfect. The expense of alteration and -repair must be proportionately increased. The cost of stations, machine -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span> -shops, depots of fuel, and supply of water must far exceed the -disbursements for the same objects in a settled country, possessing the -advantages of skilled labor and convenient transportation.</p> - -<p>To meet the additional expense, the rates for passengers and freights -will have to be increased to probably six or eight times the value -assigned for ordinary grades.</p> - -<p>On the other hand, ocean transportation by way of the Isthmean Canal, -collecting by tolls enough to pay the cost of repair—say one dollar -per ton transit, or one cent per ton per mile for fifty miles—would be -but one-fourth the average rate per ton per mile for the three thousand -miles of transportation on the Pacific Railroad.</p> - -<p>Passengers will always take the quickest route. Valuable packages of -goods, gold, and silver, and even teas and small packages of costly -silks, will be transported by the railroad. The Pacific coast and -the interior country lying between the head of navigation of the -tributaries of the Mississippi, will receive the commodities of the -East chiefly through the port of San Francisco.</p> - -<p>The following table shows the relative distances of San Francisco and -London from Oriental ports:</p> - -<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="_" cellpadding="0" rules="cols" > - <thead><tr> - <th class="tdc bb2" colspan="5"> </th> - </tr><tr> - <th class="tdc bb">ORIENTAL PORTS </th> - <th class="tdc bb">LONDON,<br /> VIA SUEZ. </th> - <th class="tdc bb"> SAN FRANCISCO <br />DIRECT.</th> - <th class="tdc bb">SAVING BY<br /> SAN FRANCISCO. </th> - <th class="tdc bb"> SAVING BY <br />LONDON.</th> - </tr><tr> - <th class="tdc"> </th> - <th class="tdc"><small>MILES.</small></th> - <th class="tdc"><small>MILES.</small></th> - <th class="tdc"><small>MILES.</small></th> - <th class="tdc"><small>MILES.</small></th> - </tr> - </thead> - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdl">Melbourne</td> - <td class="tdc">11,281 </td> - <td class="tdc">7,902</td> - <td class="tdc">3,379</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Yokohama</td> - <td class="tdc">11,504 </td> - <td class="tdc">7,520</td> - <td class="tdc">6,984</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Shanghai</td> - <td class="tdc">10,469 </td> - <td class="tdc">5,555</td> - <td class="tdc">4,914</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Hong Kong</td> - <td class="tdc">9,669</td> - <td class="tdc">6,355</td> - <td class="tdc">3,314</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Manila</td> - <td class="tdc">6,939</td> - <td class="tdc">6,135</td> - <td class="tdc">3,504</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Singapore</td> - <td class="tdc">8,239</td> - <td class="tdc">7,785</td> - <td class="tdc"> 454</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Penang</td> - <td class="tdc">7,856</td> - <td class="tdc">8,165</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> 306</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Calcutta</td> - <td class="tdc">7,946</td> - <td class="tdc">9,665</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">1,719</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Ceylon</td> - <td class="tdc">8,646</td> - <td class="tdc">9,378</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">2,732</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc bt" colspan="5"> </td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> - -<p class="space-above1">From the above table it is evident that England -will have a formidable rival for the trade of the East in the Pacific -ports, and the interior which they will be called on to supply.</p> - -<p>It is manifest that an intermarine canal is not impracticable to -American talent and energy. It can undoubtedly be executed by -international coöperation. It is demanded by the common interest, -commercial, political, and social, of all peoples. It is supported by -humanitarian considerations, immediate in their influence, broad and -practical in their relations to the interests of society.</p> - -<p>The chief obstacle to its execution is its cost, which would be nearly -double that of the Suez Canal. Mr. Kelly estimates that 3,090,000 tons -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span> -would pass through the American canal yearly. Assuming that its total -cost will be 150 millions of dollars, the revenue from tolls, at the -rate of one cent per ton per mile, would amount to nearly twenty per -cent. of the entire outlay.</p> - -<p>No work, so costly nor fraught with such stupendous consequences, has -ever been attempted by man. The history of civilization is the history -of the efforts of man to assert the right and to increase the means of -individual development. The monuments of science, skill, and industry, -left by ancient nations to perpetuate the names and conquests of Kings -and Pharaohs, were wrung by oppression from suffering men.</p> - -<p>To us is left the opportunity for a more extended organization—a -combined world movement—in the interest of science and religion, for -the extension of liberty, and for the diffusion of civilization among -the races of mankind.</p> - -<p>Less than the cost of one year of war, will establish for all -time—only to be shaken by a paroxysm of nature—this enduring monument -of peace and good will, and will secure to the United States a conquest -pregnant with vast moral and political possibilities. It is an object -worthy of consideration.</p> - -<p>Fifty years ago the Pacific Railroad, the Panama Railroad, the -<a href="#CENIS">Mt. Cenis Tunnel</a>, the International Telegraph -and the <a href="#SUEZ_MAP">Suez Canal</a>, were visionary schemes. -It seemed the acmé of poetical fiction when the poet spoke of girdling -the earth in forty minutes, as the work of supernatural agency. Sir -Humphrey Davy, making science the basis of fiction, attempted to arrive -at some conception of the composition of distant planets and the nature -of their inhabitants. We can now send a message across the Atlantic -in a minute, and know with certainty something of the composition of -planets, stars, and nebulæ. These achievements have become the common -property of the civilized world.</p> - -<p>The piercement of the Isthmus does not involve greater practical nor -intellectual difficulties. Neither science, ability, nor energy, is -wanting. Conviction of its utility, sufficiently wide spread to secure -the popular good will, and leading to a national movement in favor of -combined international action, will secure the early completion of this -great marine highway.</p> - -<p>To secure popular favor it seems only necessary to exhibit the material -advantages which must flow from its execution. Some of the facts, -showing how far the completion of the canal would affect the commerce -of the world, have been stated. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span></p> - -<p>A small space may be given to the probable revenue. The moderate -estimate given in Admiral Davis’s report may be assumed as a basis, -which may be safety taken as doubling itself in ten years.</p> - -<p class="space-below1">The tonnage which would pass the Isthmus yearly is, -at one dollar per ton toll, $3,094,070.</p> - -<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Annual tonnage through Isthmus." cellpadding="0" > - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdc"> At end of the </td> - <td class="tdl">first</td> - <td class="tdc"> year </td> - <td class="tdr">  $ 3,403,477</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">“<span class="ws2">“</span></td> - <td class="tdl">second</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdr">3,712,884</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">“<span class="ws2">“</span></td> - <td class="tdl">third</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdr">4,022,291</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">“<span class="ws2">“</span></td> - <td class="tdl">fourth</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdr">4,331,698</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">“<span class="ws2">“</span></td> - <td class="tdl">fifth</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdr">4,641,105</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">“<span class="ws2">“</span></td> - <td class="tdl">sixth</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdr">4,950,512</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">“<span class="ws2">“</span></td> - <td class="tdl">seventh</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdr">5,259,919</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">“<span class="ws2">“</span></td> - <td class="tdl">eighth</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdr">5,569,326</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">“<span class="ws2">“</span></td> - <td class="tdl">ninth</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdr">5,878,733</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">“<span class="ws2">“</span></td> - <td class="tdl">tenth</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdr bb">6,188,140</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="3"><span class="ws2">Gross receipts for tolls during ten years</span></td> - <td class="tdr">$47,958,085</td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> - -<p class="space-above1">This estimate is undoubtedly less than the revenue -which will be received.</p> - -<p>No conjectural estimate is made of the probable development of the -agricultural and mineral wealth of the valleys of the Mississippi and -the Amazon, of the shores of the Gulf of Mexico, Caribbean Sea, and -Pacific coast of America. And yet, in attempting to form an idea of the -probable revenue and actual value of this canal, all the industrial -resources called into being by its influence should be taken into -consideration. It is like opening the gate to commerce, which, for -centuries, man has struggled to unlock.</p> - -<p>No event in history has been followed by more marvelous consequences -than the discovery of Columbus. So closely is man bound up with matter, -that every conquest of nature not only adds to his material comfort, -but opens new fields for the moral and intellectual progress of the -race. America not only opened new industrial resources, but afforded -the population of Europe an opportunity to escape from the social, -moral, and physical oppression of caste, bigotry, and capital, which -had become intolerable.</p> - -<p>If we could lift the veil which conceals the future, and could see “the -vision of the world and the wonder that will be,” it is not improbable -that we should see the vast elements of progress latent in the American -continents, working out their legitimate and logical results, as -wonderful as those which have transpired since the colonization of -America.</p> - -<p>We should see the industrial resources—which have drawn thither in -the struggle for existence the most energetic of the races of the -globe—giving occupation to a happy and united people. The hum of -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span> -industry, and the din of the steam hammers, would mingle together with -smoke of furnaces and of factories, above the inexhaustible coal -fields of Pennsylvania, Virginia, Illinois, and Iowa. The grain of -Kentucky, Ohio, Indiana, and Kansas would be shipped to New Orleans, -to be exchanged for the cotton and sugar of the South, and the coffee, -dyes, and tobacco of Costa Rico, Havana, and Ambelema; the magnificent -table lands of Mexico, Guatemala, Yucatan, and the plateau of Bogotá, -occupied by a people more highly cultivated and capable of appreciating -the grandeur of the scenery and salubrity of the climate, and of -utilizing the fertility of the soil and the physical advantages of -those most favored regions.</p> - -<p>Opulent cities would spring up in the bays of Tampa, Mobile, and -Pensacola. New Orleans, Galveston, and Vera Cruz would rival Marseilles -and ancient Venice. From the ports of Carthagena, Sabanilla, Maracaibo, -and Para, would be shipped the produce of the valleys of the Magdelina -and the Amazon. Great as would be the transformations effected by these -changes, they would be less than those which have transformed the -continent of America into a congeries of civilized States.</p> - -<p>Such speculations have a sober basis of fact. They are not wholly -useless if they attract the attention of those who have more time -for patient investigation. Sufficient has been said to show that the -objects to be attained merit consideration.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> -<div class="chapter"><h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER V.</h2></div> - -<p class="neg-indent blockquot2"> Admiral Davis’s Report—Table of -the Tunnels of the different Isthmean Routes—Altitude of Ridge at -Darien—Comparative Cost of Canals with and without Tunnels—Lift Locks -and Thorough Cut—Tide in the Atlantic and Pacific—Moderate Lockage -can not Obstruct the Navigation—Gisborne on Thorough Cut—His Error -as to Velocity of Water—Objections to Strait—Tabular Statement of -the Cost of Tunnels, English, French, German, and American—Tunnel -of Mont Cenis—Hoosac Tunnel—Profiles of Mont Cenis and Hoosac -Tunnels—Dimensions of Ship Tunnel—Cost of Open Canal—General Michler’s -Report—Guard Locks Necessary—Cost of System of Lift Locks—Conclusions -Supported by Garella and Michel Chevalier. </p> - -<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">In</span> compliance with a -resolution of the Senate, dated March 19, 1866, we have an admirable -report from Admiral Davis. In this report the relative merit of -different lines is exhibited; carefully prepared tables, showing the -amount of freight which would pass the Isthmus; a list of ninety -publications and fourteen maps, are appended. Ten of these maps, based -on recent surveys, supply much valuable information. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span></p> - -<p>“It is to the Isthmus of Darien,” says Admiral Davis, “that we must -look for a solution of the question of an interoceanic ship canal.” And -he quotes from Airian, “who has made a careful study of this subject,” -the assertion that, “with regard to the Cordillera, in proportion as it -advances, proceeding from the base of the Isthmus, it descends a good -deal, and is only, so to speak, a range of hills or isolated peaks, the -bases of which are intersected by ravines, which point out to engineers -the true route of the canal. The Indians in the neighborhood of -Caledonia Bay make use of these passages. One of them is elevated fifty -metres (164 feet), and is covered with a luxuriant growth of mahogany, -palm, ebony, and other trees.” “This description,” Admiral Davis -remarks, “is not based on actual measurement, but from probabilities -deduced from M. Garella’s survey of another part of the Isthmus, and -from data, equally conjectural, drawn from the published statements of -Messrs. Cullen and Gisborne.”</p> - -<p>A thorough exploration may justify this conjecture, but no data -exists for fixing the absolute altitude at 164 feet. The value of the -statements of Messrs. Cullen and Gisborne may be contested.</p> - -<p class="space-below1">It will be seen from the altitude given in -the table below, that however correct in point of fact these opinions -may be, they are not sustained by the figures taken from the maps -accompanying the Admiral’s report:</p> - -<p class="neg-indent"><i>Table showing the length of Railroads and Canals, -length of Tunnels, altitudes of Summits, estimated cost of some of the -lines proposed for uniting the two Oceans, from actual surveys</i>:</p> - -<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="_" cellpadding="0" rules="cols" > - <thead><tr> - <th class="tdc bb2" colspan="8"> </th> - </tr><tr> - <th class="tdc bb"><small>ROUTES.</small></th> - <th class="tdc bb"><small>LENGTH.</small></th> - <th class="tdc bb"><small>LENGTH<br />TO BE<br />CONSTRUCTED.</small></th> - <th class="tdc bb"><small>LENGTH<br />OF<br />TUNNELS.</small></th> - <th class="tdc bb"><small>ALTITUDES<br />OF<br />SUMMIT.</small></th> - <th class="tdc bb"><small>ESTIMATED<br />COST.</small></th> - <th class="tdc bb"><small>CANAL<br />OR<br />RAILROAD.</small></th> - <th class="tdc bb"><small>AUTHORITIES<br />AND<br />REMARKS.</small></th> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"><small>MILES</small></td> - <td class="tdc"><small>MILES</small></td> - <td class="tdc"><small>MILES</small></td> - <td class="tdc"><small>FEET</small></td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - </tr> - </thead> - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdl">Tehuantepec</td> - <td class="tdc">190</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">855</td> - <td class="tdr">$ 16,900,000</td> - <td class="tdc">Canal.</td> - <td class="tdl_sp1">M. Moro.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="ws2">“</span></td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">843</td> - <td class="tdr">7,847,896</td> - <td class="tdc">Railroad.</td> - <td class="tdl_sp1">J. J. Williams.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Honduras</td> - <td class="tdc">234</td> - <td class="tdc">234</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">2956</td> - <td class="tdr"> </td> - <td class="tdc">Canal.</td> - <td class="tdl_sp1">Trautwine.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Nicaragua to Realijo</td> - <td class="tdc">298</td> - <td class="tdc">160</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">174</td> - <td class="tdr">20,000,000</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdl_sp1">Napoleon III.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="ws2">“</span><span class="ws2">“</span> Brito</td> - <td class="tdc">194</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">600</td> - <td class="tdr">32,000,000</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdl_sp1">O. W. Childs.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Panama</td> - <td class="tdc">  53⅔</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">3.7</td> - <td class="tdc">459</td> - <td class="tdr">27,000,000</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdl_sp1">M. N. Garella.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">  “</td> - <td class="tdc"> 48</td> - <td class="tdc"> 48</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">280</td> - <td class="tdr">50,000,000</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdl_sp1">Col. G. W. Hughes.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">San Blas</td> - <td class="tdc"> 30</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">7</td> - <td class="tdc">1500</td> - <td class="tdr"> </td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdl_sp1">McDougal.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Darien to San Miguel</td> - <td class="tdc"> 42</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">7 to 8</td> - <td class="tdc">980</td> - <td class="tdr">65,000,000</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdl_sp1">Gisborne.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="ws2">“</span><span class="ws2">“</span></td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">1020</td> - <td class="tdr"> </td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdl_sp1">Prevost & Strain.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="ws2">“</span>  Lara to Sucubti</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> 610?</td> - <td class="tdr"> </td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdl_sp1">Bourdial.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Atrato to Humboldt Bay</td> - <td class="tdc">126</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">3½</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdr">145,000,000</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdl_sp1">Kennish.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="ws2">“</span><span class="ws2">“</span><span class="ws3">“</span></td> - <td class="tdc"> 149⅔</td> - <td class="tdc"> 52⅔</td> - <td class="tdc">2½</td> - <td class="tdc">970</td> - <td class="tdr">134,450,154</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdl_sp1">Lt. Michler, U.S.A.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="ws2">“</span>  to Cupica</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdr">325,000,000</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdl_sp1">Trautwine.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc bt" colspan="8"> </td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> - -<p class="space-above1"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span> -From the above table it would appear that the altitude of the dividing -ridge falls off toward the two extremities of the Isthmus, viz.: near -the Tehuantepec and the Atrato routes, but the greatest depressions -have been found between Aspinwall and Panama, and on the line by the -way of Lake Nicaragua and Lake Managua.</p> - -<p>At the Isthmus of Darien <i>altitudes of from one to two thousand -feet</i> are found. Cullen’s pass of 150 feet proved to be estimated at -one-ninth of its true height. The least elevation of the divide is that -given by M. Bourdial. This engineer did not cross the Isthmus, and his -statement is so vague, the reader is left in doubt whether he actually -reached the summit. Notwithstanding this uncertainty, there still -exists a faint hope that “it is to the Isthmus of Darien we must first -look for a solution of the question of an interoceanic canal.”</p> - -<p>From another statement in this very valuable report, we feel -reluctantly compelled to dissent. By imposing unnecessary conditions -in the statement of the problem, its solution may be indefinitely -postponed.</p> - -<p>“The interoceanic canal,” it is affirmed, “in width, depth, in supply -of water, in good anchorage and secure harbors at both ends, and in -absolute freedom from obstruction by lifting-locks, or otherwise, must -possess, as nearly as possible, the character of a strait.”</p> - -<p>To insist that the canal must possess the character of a strait, may -give rise to the necessity for a thorough-cut of such extreme depth, -or a tunnel of so great length, as to render the work practically -impossible. A line suitable for a thorough-cut may possibly be found, -but so important a project should not be endangered by limiting its -practicability to a communication of that nature.</p> - -<p>If, by the employment of “lift-locks,” the cost of the canal can be -materially reduced, the question to be considered is, to what extent -such structures would obstruct navigation? This question depends upon -the amount of trade drawn to the Isthmus by the canal.</p> - -<p>The relative cost of the two methods for piercing the Isthmus can be -best determined by a comparison of the cost of a canal in an open -country with one by means of tunnels. These considerations, since they -afford criteria for judging of the merits of different routes, may be -considered more minutely. Let us assume the trade passing over the -Isthmus—were the canal now completed—to increase one hundred per -cent. in ten years; there would then be 2,066 tons in transitu daily, -requiring seven ships of about 300 tons burthen each.<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> -The progressive increase in the size of ships will raise this average to -between 500 to 1,000 tons; reducing the number of ships arriving at -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span> -the Isthmus daily, to five and three respectively. But, assuming the -smaller average, giving the larger number of seven ships daily passing -through the canal; an increase of four hundred per cent. in the trade -would be equivalent to fourteen ships, or to seven ships leaving -opposite extremities of the canal, and passing each other daily upon -homeward and outward voyages.</p> - -<p>Locks of four hundred feet long by ninety feet wide can be filled or -emptied in twenty minutes; and this time can be reduced for smaller -vessels by additional lock-gates, and for larger vessels by an increase -in the size and number of filling valves.</p> - -<p>The entire trade likely to seek this route, increased four hundred -per cent. of its present amount, could be passed through one lock in -about four hours and forty minutes. As the vessels come from opposite -directions, one-half of the number would be waiting for lockage at the -same point, which would reduce the time required for this purpose to -two hours and twenty minutes. Eight locks, having an average lift of -twelve and one-half feet, would delay the increased commerce eighteen -hours and forty minutes, and would raise the level of the canal fifty -feet; while to raise the level one hundred feet the delay would not -exceed two days.<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a></p> - -<p>As a summit level may be a necessary part of any Isthmean canal, it -is manifest that the resulting lockage can not seriously obstruct -navigation. The design of an artificial strait may therefore be -reasonably abandoned, if, by so doing, the extraordinary cost of -tunneling is excluded by the employment of a small number of lift-locks.</p> - -<p>On account of the rise of the tide on the Pacific coast guard locks, -not much less costly than lift-locks, must be an essential part of any -canal from ocean to ocean.</p> - -<p class="space-below1">The mean tide of the two oceans is about the same. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span></p> - -<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="_" cellpadding="0" rules="cols" > - <caption><i>Table of tides, according to observation, from Col. Totten’s Report.</i></caption> - <thead><tr> - <th class="tdc bb2" colspan="4"> </th> - </tr><tr> - <th class="tdc bb"> </th> - <th class="tdc bb"> PACIFIC AT <br />PANAMA.</th> - <th class="tdc bb"> PACIFIC AT <br />PANAMA.</th> - <th class="tdc bb"> ATLANTIC AT<br />ASPINWALL.</th> - </tr><tr> - <th class="tdc"> </th> - <th class="tdc"><small>MAY & JUNE</small></th> - <th class="tdc"><small>NOV. & DEC.</small></th> - <th class="tdc"><small>AUG. & SEPT.</small></th> - </tr><tr> - <th class="tdc"> </th> - <th class="tdc"><small>FEET.</small></th> - <th class="tdc"><small>FEET.</small></th> - <th class="tdc"><small>FEET.</small></th> - </tr> - </thead> - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdl">Greatest rise of tide</td> - <td class="tdc">17.72</td> - <td class="tdc">21.30</td> - <td class="tdc">1.60</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Least rise of tide</td> - <td class="tdc">7.94</td> - <td class="tdc">9.70</td> - <td class="tdc">0.62</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Average</td> - <td class="tdc">12.08</td> - <td class="tdc">14.10</td> - <td class="tdc">1.16</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Mean tide of Pacific above  </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">   mean tide of Atlantic</td> - <td class="tdc">0.759</td> - <td class="tdc">0.14</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc bt" colspan="4"> </td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> - -<p class="space-above1">Mr. Lloyd found a difference of 27.44 feet -between high and low water at Panama. The Red Sea is 3 inches higher -than the Mediterranean. The Atlantic at Brest is 3½ feet higher than -the Mediterranean at Marseilles.</p> - -<p>The small variation in the mean tide at Panama of the two oceans is -probably due to the action of winds and the Gulf Stream. At Panama the -highest flood tide rises about ten and one-half feet above the level -of the mean tide of the Atlantic, and the extreme ebb falls about the -same number of feet below it. The alternate currents through the new -strait, caused by the rise and fall of the tide, would prove a serious -inconvenience to navigation.</p> - -<p>The Pacific tide, piling up at the head of the new cut, and entering -the strait with considerable violence, would be propelled toward the -Gulf in a manner analogous to the progression of the tidal wave in -a river. Upon the ebb of the tide a reverse current would prevail. -Navigation would not only be obstructed by these alternate currents, -but the channel would be choked by drifting timber washed into the -canal during the rainy season. Silt and sand would be deposited in bars -at the outlet of the canal, or swept inward to form shoals where the -current could no longer transport it.</p> - -<p>Mr. Gisborne, in his report, devotes some space to speculations on -these results. “There can be no doubt,” he remarks, “that at high water -there will be a current from the Pacific to the Atlantic, and that -during the ebb tide there will be a current in the opposite direction. -The extent of these currents, and the place of their greatest effect, -depends on the comparative sectional area of different portions; and if -the cross-section is uniform throughout, will be some time after high -tide in the Pacific and at the Atlantic end of the canal. The phase of -the tide wave (or the appreciable effect of the tide) will take one -and one-half hours to reach from one end to the other, and presuming -the current to be uniform in the whole length”——“the question may be -examined as a maximum, <i>i. e.</i>, what will be the surface velocity of -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span> -a canal thirty miles long, having a fall of eleven feet, or with a -horizontal bottom having at one end twenty-eight feet, and at the other -thirty-nine?”</p> - -<p>Employing Du Buat’s formula, with the following quantities:</p> - -<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="_" cellpadding="0" > - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdl">Mean depth</td> - <td class="tdr">35.50</td> - <td class="tdc"> feet.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Mean width</td> - <td class="tdr">183.50</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Mean border</td> - <td class="tdr">244.80</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Area water section</td> - <td class="tdr">6,147.255</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Hydraulic mean depth  </td> - <td class="tdr">25.11</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Fall per mile</td> - <td class="tdr">0.33</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> - -<p class="no-indent">he deduces a maximum surface velocity of three miles per hour. -The assumed average fall per mile is strictly a variable function, and at -its maximum would give a result greatly in excess of that deduced by -Mr. Gisborne.</p> - -<p>There is no reason for this assumption of a fall of 0.33 of a foot per -mile. It directly involves the question to be determined, since the -velocity depends upon the inclination of the surface. The value deduced -by the formula is not the maximum but the minimum velocity attained in -the canal upon the assumed fall per mile.</p> - -<p>There is another error in Mr. Gisborne’s statement. “The tide,” he -remarks, “would take one and one-half hours to reach from one end to -the other, presuming the current to be uniform; what,” he asks, “will -be the surface velocity in a canal thirty miles long?”</p> - -<p>This statement contradicts his calculations, and involves also the -question at issue. If the tide travels to the end of a canal thirty -miles long in “one and one-half hours,” it is evident that it must move -at the rate of twenty miles per hour, a velocity which renders Mr. -Gisborne’s strait impracticable for navigation.</p> - -<p>In fact, neither assumption is tenable. The problem is very complex, -or, rather, with the data given, indeterminate. It is well known that -the tide is propagated up the channel of a river in a succession -of long waves, or swells, and that when the tidal wave is entering -the mouth of the river, the waves which have reached the head are -returning. The same movement is observed, on an exaggerated scale, -in the successive breakers which roll in to meet the one which is -returning, after it has expended its force upon the beach.</p> - -<p>In the case of the Isthmean Canal, the rising tide, after having -passed the mean, will have a downward slope into the canal. In rivers, -notwithstanding the local rise of the water, the slope is never -reversed, but is simply reduced in its angle of inclination.</p> - -<p>The problem involves the inclination of the surface, or the -determination of the limits of tidal action at successive stages of -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span> -the tide. While the head of water increases, there is also a constant -increase of the retardation of the flow of water into the canal. The -outflowing water will run more rapidly than the inflowing, on account -of the indefinite area over which it will spread and the diminution of -the retarding influences. Both outflowing and inflowing current will -seriously obstruct navigation. The banks of the canal will wash away, -and bars will accumulate about the mouth.</p> - -<p>While these objections are valid against a thorough-cut canal without -locks, they do not apply to a strait of a quarter of a mile in width. -As the cost of a canal is the chief difficulty in the way of its -construction, it is necessary to abandon the idea of a strait, and to -adopt that of a thorough-cut with guard-locks, as the only known means -of protecting the canal from the injurious effects of the tide.</p> - -<p class="space-below2">In order to form a correct opinion of the cost -of canals with and without tunnels, attention is called to the expense -incurred in the execution of this kind of work.</p> - -<p class="center"><i>Dimensions and Cost of some English Tunnels.</i></p> - -<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="_" cellpadding="0" rules="cols" > - <thead><tr> - <th class="tdc bb2" colspan="10"> </th> - </tr><tr class="font_tiny"> - <th class="tdc bb"> </th> - <th class="tdc bb"> HEIGHT. </th> - <th class="tdc bb"> WIDTH. </th> - <th class="tdc bb"> THICKNESS <br />OF<br />ARCHING.</th> - <th class="tdc bb"> LENGTH <br />IN<br />YARDS.</th> - <th class="tdc bb">KIND<br />OF<br /> MASONRY.</th> - <th class="tdc bb"> TOTAL COST.</th> - <th class="tdc bb"> COST PER <br />YARD.</th> - <th class="tdc bb">YEAR<br />WHEN<br /> BUILT. </th> - <th class="tdc bb">MATERIAL CUT<br />THROUGH.</th> - </tr><tr class="font_tiny"> - <th class="tdc"> </th> - <th class="tdc">FT.IN.</th> - <th class="tdc">FT.IN.</th> - <th class="tdc">FT.IN.</th> - <th class="tdc"> </th> - <th class="tdc"> </th> - <th class="tdc">DOLLARS.</th> - <th class="tdc">DOLLS.</th> - <th class="tdc"> </th> - <th class="tdc"> </th> - </tr> - </thead> - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdl">1 Thames & Med. Canal</td> - <td class="tdc">39.0</td> - <td class="tdc">35.6</td> - <td class="tdc">...</td> - <td class="tdc">3960</td> - <td class="tdc"> BR’K</td> - <td class="tdc">...</td> - <td class="tdc">145.00</td> - <td class="tdc">1800</td> - <td class="tdl_sp1">Chalk, Fuller’s earth.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">2 Islington, Regents Can. </td> - <td class="tdc">21.6</td> - <td class="tdc">20.6</td> - <td class="tdc">1.6</td> - <td class="tdc">900</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">...</td> - <td class="tdc">...</td> - <td class="tdc">1812</td> - <td class="tdl_sp1">London clay.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">3 Tetney, Haven Canal</td> - <td class="tdc">16.2</td> - <td class="tdc">17.0</td> - <td class="tdc">1.2</td> - <td class="tdc">  2962½ </td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc"> 563,405</td> - <td class="tdc">192.50</td> - <td class="tdc">1827</td> - <td class="tdl_sp1">Various.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">4 Walford,  N.W.R.R</td> - <td class="tdc">26.6</td> - <td class="tdc">27.0</td> - <td class="tdc">1.6</td> - <td class="tdc">1830</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">...</td> - <td class="tdc">...</td> - <td class="tdc">1838</td> - <td class="tdl_sp1">Chalk.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">5 Box Tunnel, G.W. “</td> - <td class="tdc">36.0</td> - <td class="tdc">36.0</td> - <td class="tdc">2.3</td> - <td class="tdc">3121</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">1,561,500</td> - <td class="tdc">500.00</td> - <td class="tdc">1838</td> - <td class="tdl_sp1">Freestone.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">6 Littleboro’, M.& L. “</td> - <td class="tdc">27.6</td> - <td class="tdc">27.0</td> - <td class="tdc">  1.10½ </td> - <td class="tdc">2860</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">4,255,000</td> - <td class="tdc">440.00</td> - <td class="tdc">1841</td> - <td class="tdl_sp1">Various.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">7 Thames, Foot Passage</td> - <td class="tdc"> 2.3</td> - <td class="tdc">37.6</td> - <td class="tdc">2.6</td> - <td class="tdc"> 400</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">2,273,570</td> - <td class="tdc">5,685.00 </td> - <td class="tdc">1842</td> - <td class="tdl_sp1">London clay.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">8 Bletchingly, S.E.R.R.</td> - <td class="tdc">30.0</td> - <td class="tdc">30.0</td> - <td class="tdc">  1.10½ </td> - <td class="tdc">1324</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc"> 486,185</td> - <td class="tdc">351.00</td> - <td class="tdc">1842</td> - <td class="tdl_sp1">Shale.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">9 Saltwood,   “ “</td> - <td class="tdc">30.6</td> - <td class="tdc">30.0</td> - <td class="tdc">2.3</td> - <td class="tdc"> 954</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc"> 562,710</td> - <td class="tdc">590.00</td> - <td class="tdc">1843</td> - <td class="tdl_sp1">Lower greensand.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc bt" colspan="10"> </td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> - -<p class="space-above1 space-below1">Canal tunnels are rarely larger -than 16½ feet by 18 feet high. Supposing the same dimensions to obtain -in French tunnels, the cost per lineal yard of the following named -tunnels will furnish a basis for comparison:</p> - -<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Names of tunnels." cellpadding="0" rules="cols" > - <thead><tr> - <th class="tdc bb2" colspan="3"> </th> - </tr><tr> - <th class="tdc bb">NAMES OF TUNNELS.</th> - <th class="tdc bb">LENGTH<br /> IN YARDS. </th> - <th class="tdc bb"> COST PER<br />YARD.</th> - </tr> - </thead> - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdl">Norieu, St. Quinten Canal</td> - <td class="tdc">13,128 </td> - <td class="tdc">$ 14.00 </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Pouilly, Canal de Bourgoyne</td> - <td class="tdc">3,660</td> - <td class="tdc">393.75</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Soussay, Canal de Bourgoyne</td> - <td class="tdc">3,852</td> - <td class="tdc"> 45.50</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Maurages, Canal de Marne</td> - <td class="tdc">5,320</td> - <td class="tdc">325.00</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">St. Argnan, Canal d’Ardennes  </td> - <td class="tdc"> 288</td> - <td class="tdc">200.00</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc bt" colspan="3"> </td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> - -<hr class="chap" /> -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="CENIS" id="CENIS"></a> - <a href="images/i_p046_hr.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_p046.jpg" alt="Plan and profile of Cenis tunnel." width="600" height="316" /></a> -</div> -<p class="center map_visibility">[Click image to enlarge.]</p> -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span> -Among railroad tunnels, the following are selected from different parts -of the continent:</p> - -<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="_" cellpadding="0" rules="cols" > - <thead><tr> - <th class="tdc bb2" colspan="9"> </th> - </tr><tr class="font_tiny"> - <th class="tdc bb"> NAMES OF TUNNELS. </th> - <th class="tdc bb"> LENGTH. </th> - <th class="tdc bb"> WIDTH. </th> - <th class="tdc bb"> HEIGHT <br />ABOVE<br />RAILS.</th> - <th class="tdc bb"> NUMBER <br />OF<br />SHAFTS.</th> - <th class="tdc bb"> SECTION<br />ABOVE<br />RAILS.</th> - <th class="tdc bb">COST PER<br /> RUNNING <br />YARD.</th> - <th class="tdc bb">TIME IN<br /> CONSTRUCTION. </th> - <th class="tdc bb">MATERIAL.</th> - </tr><tr> - <th class="tdc"> </th> - <th class="tdc"><small>YDS.</small></th> - <th class="tdc"><small>FT.</small></th> - <th class="tdc"><small>FT.</small></th> - <th class="tdc"> </th> - <th class="tdl_sp1"><small>SQ. FT.</small>  </th> - <th class="tdc"><small>DOLS.</small></th> - <th class="tdc"><small>MO’S.</small></th> - <th class="tdc"> </th> - </tr> - </thead> - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdl">Chezy</td> - <td class="tdc"> 496</td> - <td class="tdc">24.27</td> - <td class="tdc">18.04</td> - <td class="tdc"> 0</td> - <td class="tdl_sp1">365.84</td> - <td class="tdc">411</td> - <td class="tdc">32</td> - <td class="tdl_sp1">Sand and clay.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Arschwiller</td> - <td class="tdc">2928</td> - <td class="tdc">24.27</td> - <td class="tdc">18.04</td> - <td class="tdc"> 6</td> - <td class="tdl_sp1">374.77</td> - <td class="tdc">176</td> - <td class="tdc">95</td> - <td class="tdl_sp1">Sandstone.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Alouette</td> - <td class="tdc">1350</td> - <td class="tdc">25.58</td> - <td class="tdc">20.00</td> - <td class="tdc">21</td> - <td class="tdl_sp1">428.68</td> - <td class="tdc">305</td> - <td class="tdc">23</td> - <td class="tdl_sp1">Clay.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">La Motte</td> - <td class="tdc">279</td> - <td class="tdc">24.92</td> - <td class="tdc">21.98</td> - <td class="tdc">...</td> - <td class="tdl_sp1">519.71</td> - <td class="tdc">180</td> - <td class="tdc">30</td> - <td class="tdl_sp1">Clay, marl, sandstone.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Nerthe</td> - <td class="tdc">5072</td> - <td class="tdc">26.24</td> - <td class="tdc">24.60</td> - <td class="tdc">24</td> - <td class="tdc">...</td> - <td class="tdc">412</td> - <td class="tdc">36</td> - <td class="tdl_sp1">Limestone.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">St. Martin</td> - <td class="tdc">1509</td> - <td class="tdc">25.25</td> - <td class="tdc">19.35</td> - <td class="tdc">10</td> - <td class="tdl_sp1">415.34</td> - <td class="tdc">475</td> - <td class="tdc">60</td> - <td class="tdl_sp1">Porphyritic rock.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Blaisy</td> - <td class="tdc">4483</td> - <td class="tdc">26.24</td> - <td class="tdc">24.60</td> - <td class="tdc">20</td> - <td class="tdc">...</td> - <td class="tdc">...</td> - <td class="tdc">...</td> - <td class="tdl_sp1">Limestone.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc bt" colspan="9"> </td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> - -<p class="space-above1">The cost of the Thames tunnel was greatly increased by a shield, -designed by Brunel, to keep out the water. Omitting this tunnel from -comparison the English works exceed the French, or Continental, in cost -of construction.</p> - -<p>The boldest work of the kind yet undertaken is the <a href="#CENIS">Mt. Cenis tunnel</a>, -to connect France and Italy by a continuous railway. In length it is seven -miles, with a width of 26′ 6″ and a height of 20′ 8″. Its completion is -anticipated in April, 1871.</p> - -<p>The monthly advance by hand-labor was twenty-two and a-half yards. The -progress is doubled by machinery, and during the past year has averaged -330 feet per month. Air, compressed by water power, is conveyed -inside to give motion to chisels, which form cavities for blasting by -gunpowder. The average progress per day in 1865, with the machinery, -was about 9 feet.</p> - -<p>The estimated cost was $550 per running foot, but the rate was -increased to $640; the entire cost of the tunnel being estimated at -$9,200,000. The use of machinery at Mt. Cenis was found to expedite the -work, but at an increase of expense.</p> - -<p>The trial of machinery at the <a href="#HOOSAC">Hoosac tunnel</a>, upon the -Troy and Greenfield Railroad, has not been favorable to its employment. This -tunnel will be four and three-quarter miles long. Originally projected -with a width of 24 feet, and a height of 20 feet, it has been -contracted to 14 feet wide, and 18 feet high. The estimated cost was -$2,696,229. The rate first assumed was $137 per running foot. The rate -per cubic yard varies from $5 to $22, and $30, for the excavation of shafts. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span></p> - -<p class="space-below1">The contract prices for the <a href="#HOOSAC">Hoosac tunnel</a>, -in 1869, were as follows:</p> - -<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="_" cellpadding="0" > - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdl">Tunnel enlargement, per yard</td> - <td class="tdr">$  16.00</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Heading enlargement, east end, per yard</td> - <td class="tdr">9.00</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Heading enlargement, west end, per yard</td> - <td class="tdr">9.75</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Full size tunnel extension, east end, per yard</td> - <td class="tdr">11.00</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="ws3">“</span><span class="ws4">“</span> - <span class="ws3">west end, per yard</span></td> - <td class="tdr">12.00</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="ws3">“</span><span class="ws4">“</span> - <span class="ws3">central section, per yard</span></td> - <td class="tdr">14.00</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Central drain, with air and water pipes complete, per lineal foot</td> - <td class="tdr">13.00</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Sinking shaft (27 × 15), per foot, depth</td> - <td class="tdr">395.00</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Pipes (10 inch), set in shaft</td> - <td class="tdr">6.00</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Arching (in brick at $9 per M), per M</td> - <td class="tdr">22.00</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Excavating and constructing 50 lineal feet of stone arch, and filling  </td> - <td class="tdr">23,000.00</td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> - -<p class="space-above1">Although more than two hundred railroad tunnels -have been constructed in the United States, and an unknown number of -canal tunnels, facts in regard to them are difficult of access. Recent -bids for tunnel work upon United States railroads have been offered at -$5.40 per cubic yard for excavations. Canal tunnels, of the ordinary -dimensions of 297 square feet area, would cost $113.20 per running foot.</p> - -<p>The uncertainty of the nature of tunnel excavation, the unexpected -difficulties to be overcome, baffle all anticipatory estimate. The -variable rates in the preceding tables establish this fact. The average -cost per running yard upon French canals is about $152, which sum -probably includes arching. Rates of labor in the United States would -increase the cost about four times this amount.</p> - -<p>Comparing the contract price of American tunnels, as given above, with -the table of English tunnels, and bearing in mind that the cost of -arching is included in the latter, we find in Nos. 3, 6, and 9, the -cost of English tunnels is in excess; number 3 being nearly double, -and number 9 one-tenth more, while, in every other case, the cost at -American rates is greater, varying from one-third to five and one-half -times more.</p> - -<p>The shale, schist, and trachyte of the Isthmean ridge is of variable -consistence. Many places exhibit friable, seamy strata, disintegrating -upon exposure to the atmosphere. A tunnel of the dimensions to admit -the passage of ships, when carried through rock of this character, -will require a lining of masonry to prevent falling material from -obstructing the way.</p> - -<p>To pass ships with the topmast struck, the intrados of the arch should -be 100 feet above the surface of the water. A semi-ellipse with -semi-transverse, and conjugate diameters of 100 feet, added to the -canal prism of thirty feet in depth, will give an area of tunnel equal -to 10,104 superficial feet, or to 1,976,263 cubic yards per mile.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="HOOSAC" id="HOOSAC"></a> - <a href="images/i_p048_hr.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_p048.jpg" alt="Plan and profile of Hoosac tunnel." width="600" height="286" /></a> -</div> -<p class="center map_visibility">[Click image to enlarge.]</p> -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span> -Assuming that the cost of tunneling through the Isthmus can be executed -at $10 per cubic yard, we shall have 19,762,630 dollars as the cost of -one mile of tunnel. Estimating the excavation alone at present contract -price, $5.40 per cubic yard for small tunnels, one mile of ship tunnel -will cost $10,670,820. An open canal upon the line of the canal -proposed by General Michler, uniting the Atrato with Humboldt Bay, will -cost, according to the estimate of that officer, $1,792,202 per mile.</p> - -<p>This amount, taken from the careful and elaborate estimates contained -in General Michler’s report, may be assumed as a basis of comparison of -the two proposed methods of intermarine communication, viz.: by uniting -the two oceans upon one level by a tunnel, or by means of a moderate -number of “lift-locks.” Eight locks, four at each end of the canal, or -sixteen locks, eight at each end of the canal, will raise the summit -fifty feet above tide in the first case, and one hundred in the second, -and will cost eight millions, and sixteen millions respectively. Since -two guard locks will be requisite for either method of communication -(<i>i. e.</i> by “strait,” or canal with lift-locks), their cost should -be excluded from the above sums, which are thereby reduced to six -millions, and fourteen millions of dollars. These sums are fixed as the -probable limits of the cost of a system of lift-locks sufficient to -overcome the divide of the Isthmus, and also to supply the reader with -a standard, by which he may judge of the merits of different routes.</p> - -<p>The construction of a ship tunnel is, as has been said, “a herculean -task,” and it is not apparent that “the prejudice against it will -be removed by the operations at Mt. Cenis.” A moderate number of -lift-locks seems preferable to a tunnel of one mile in length, which, -in turn, would be more economical than an excessive number of locks. A -greater number than we have mentioned may be deemed excessive.</p> - -<p>A thorough-cut upon the level of the ocean would be a desirable method -of canalization, but it seems like hampering the important design -of an intermarine highway for the commerce of the world, with an -impracticable condition, to insist that it should possess “absolute -freedom from obstruction by lifting locks,” or that it should possess, -in any degree, the “character of a strait.”</p> - -<p>In this statement I find I have the support of M. Garella and Michel -Chavalier. The opposition to the system of lift-locks appears to have -originated in the objection expressed in Mr. Wheaton’s letter to Mr. -Buchanan, to the large number of these structures, recommended in M. -Moro’s plan for the canalization of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> -<div class="chapter"> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span> - -<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER VI.</h2></div> - -<p class="neg-indent blockquot2"> Our Geographical Knowledge of -the Isthmus—The Value of Early Narratives and Histories—Projects -for Uniting the two Oceans by Canals and Railroads—Criteria -for Assisting the Judgment—Tunnels, Harbors, Locks, Dimensions -of Canal—Tehuantepec—The Garay Grant—Moro’s Survey—Barnard’s -Survey—Honduras—A Better Route Practicable—Nicaragua—Louis Napoleon’s -Scheme—Col. Childs’ Report—Variations of Route—Advantages of -this Line—Chiriqui—St. Clair Morton—No Information Extant—Costa -Rica—Railroad Practicable—Great Altitude of Ridge—Panama—Information -Abundant—Garella’s Route—Hughes’s Route—Advantages—Cost of Canal -on this Route—Mexican Desagues—Panama and Aspinwall—Harbors Easily -Improved—Panama Railroad Company—San Blas and Bayano River—F. -W. Kelly—McDougal’s Survey—Fine Harbors—Tunnel Seven Miles -Long—Darien—Between Caledonia Bay and the Gulf of San Miguel—Baron -Humboldt—Vasco Nunez—Paterson’s Colony—Causes of Its Failure—Dr. -Cullen and Savana River—Reports the Ridge 150 Feet—English -Company—Concessions of the Granadian Government—Mr. Gisborne Sent -to Darien—His Speculations—Delayed at Carthagena—Stopped by the -Indians—Supposed Success—Misunderstanding with Dr. Cullen—Returns -to England—Provisional Directory Organized—Controversy Between -Sir Charles Fox and the London Times—Combined Expedition of Four -Governments—Lieut. Strain’s Misfortunes—Fails to Find a Pass—Dr. -Cullen and Mr. Gisborne’s Failure—Captain Prevost Fails to Cross—Dr. -Cullen Changes His Opinion—French Expedition under Bourdiol—Fails -to Cross—Granadian Expedition Fails—Condensed Statement of the -Results of all the Expeditions—Captains Prevost and Parsons see -Evidences of a Pass—Darien Not Yet Explored—San Miguel to the Gulf -of Urabá—The Atrato Route—Successful Survey—Representations of -Unprofessional Persons—Gorgoza and De La Charme—Their Route—Trautwine -—Mr. Porter and Kennish’s Routes—Lieut. Michler’s Route —Extracts -from Michler’s Report—Tunnel Two and One-Half Miles—Cost too -Small—Barometric—Levels—Humboldt’s Opinion. </p> - -<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">Having</span> hastily sketched the -relation of the proposed canal to the commerce of the world, its importance -is sufficiently apparent to justify a careful consideration of the -condition of our knowledge of the geography of the Isthmus. The facts -and reasoning of previous chapters will furnish a standard, in the -absence of a better, for trying the merits of the routes about to -be described, and will indicate the nature of the deficiency to be -supplied by future explorations.</p> - -<p>The American Isthmus extends in length about twelve hundred miles, from -the Coazacoalcos River, in Mexico, to the valley of the Atrato, in -Columbia. It includes the Mexican States of Tehuantepec, the Republics -of Yucatan, Guatemala, Belize, Honduras, San Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span> -Rica, the Mosquito Kingdom, and the State of Panama, one of the States -of Columbia. Embracing a varied and salubrious climate; a rich soil, -clothed with the luxuriance of tropical vegetation; ruins of an ancient -people, consisting of vast and silent cities, whose impressive but -grotesque architecture, embodying a civilization unique and insular, is -overgrown with forest of flor de robles, mahogany, and palm; divided -throughout its entire length by a volcanic dyke, rising to altitudes -of five to six thousand feet, and sinking into depressions two hundred -and eighty feet above the level of the sea; concealing in its strata -the matrices of gold and precious stones; expanding in Yucatan to a -width of six hundred and fifty miles, and contracting at San Blas and -Darien to thirty or forty miles—this connecting link, the result of -a submarine endogenous movement subsequent to the elevation of the -continents which it unites, opposes a solitary but not insurmountable -barrier to the commercial union of the two oceans.</p> - -<p>The narratives of Dampier, Wafer, the adventures of the Spanish -Buccaneers who infested the South Sea, and the descriptions of Las -Casas, Fonseca, Don Andres de Ariza, however interesting historically, -add but little to the physico-geographical knowledge of the country. -These histories contain accounts of earthquakes as terrific as that -which has recently visited the coast; of sieges notable for bold -assault and gallant defense; of gold mines opened and abandoned; of -strange fauna, birds of splendid plumage, and a tropical flora of -gorgeous colors; but the reader will seek in vain for information of -practical value in determining the question of a practicable route for -an interoceanic ship canal.</p> - -<p>Recent explorers have supplied much accurate information of special -routes. The following table exhibits the different projects for uniting -the Atlantic and Pacific:</p> - -<ul class="index"> -<li class="isub1">1. <span class="smcap">Tehuantepec</span>, by the Coazacoalcos and Chicapa.</li> -<li class="isub1">2. <span class="smcap">Honduras</span>.</li> -<li class="isub1">3. <span class="smcap">Nicaragua</span>, from San Juan de Nicaragua and Lake Nicaragua,</li> -<li class="isub3">five variations, viz.:</li> -<li class="isub5">R. San Carlos, G. de Nicoya,</li> -<li class="isub5">R. Nino, Tempisque, G. de Nicoya,</li> -<li class="isub5">R. Sapoa, B. Salinas,</li> -<li class="isub5">San Juan del Sud,</li> -<li class="isub5">and Brito. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span></li> - -<li class="isub2">From San Juan de Nicaragua, by way of Lake Nicaragua and Managua,</li> -<li class="isub3">three variations, viz.:</li> -<li class="isub5">R. Tamarinda.</li> -<li class="isub5">B. Realejo.</li> -<li class="isub5">B. Fonseca.</li> -<li class="isub1">4. <span class="smcap">Panama</span>, four distinct routes, viz.:</li> -<li class="isub5">Gorgona, Panama.</li> -<li class="isub5">Trinidad, Caymito.</li> -<li class="isub5">Navy Bay, R. Chagres, R. Bonito, R. Bernardo.</li> -<li class="isub5">San Blas, R. Chepo.</li> -<li class="isub1">5. <span class="smcap">Darien</span>, including the old province of Chócó; the different</li> -<li class="isub4">routes and the variations are five in number, viz.:</li> -<li class="isub5">B. Caledonia, G. San Miguel.</li> -<li class="isub5">Rs. Arguia, Paya, Tuyra, G. San Miguel.</li> -<li class="isub5">B. Napipi, Cupica.</li> -<li class="isub5">R. Truando, Kelley’s Island.</li> -<li class="isub5">R. Tuyra, G. Urabá or R. Atrato.</li> -</ul> - -<p>The above lists include canal projects; the following list enumerates -the projected railroads:</p> - -<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Projected Railroads in Central America." cellpadding="0" > - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdr">I.</td> - <td class="tdl_sp1" colspan="3">Coazacoalcos, Tehuantepec.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdr">II.</td> - <td class="tdl_sp1" colspan="3">B. Honduras to G. of Fonseca.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdr">III.</td> - <td class="tdl_sp1" colspan="3">R. San Juan, Nicaragua, Managua.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdr">IV.</td> - <td class="tdl_sp1" colspan="3">Port Limon to Caldera, Costa Rica.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdr">V.</td> - <td class="tdl_sp1" colspan="3">Chiriqui inlet to Golfo Dulce.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdr">VI.</td> - <td class="tdl_sp1" colspan="3">Aspinwall, Panama, (railroad finished.)</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdr">VII.</td> - <td class="tdl_sp1">Gorgon B., Realijo</td> - <td class="tdc" rowspan="2"><img src="images/cbr-2.jpg" alt="}" width="9" height="32" /></td> - <td class="tdl" rowspan="2"> Nicaragua</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdr">VIII.</td> - <td class="tdl_sp1">Gorgon B., San Juan del Sur. </td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> - -<p>Before describing the routes above enumerated, some criteria for -assisting the judgment may be brought together, as follows:</p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> -<p>1. The Isthmean Canal may be a thorough-cut, with guard-locks.</p> - -<p>2. It should be without a tunnel.</p> - -<p>3. It may have a summit-level and moderate lockage, to avoid -excessive tunneling and cutting.</p> - -<p>4. Great advantages in other respects—viz.: shortness of line and -fine harbors—may compensate for a short tunnel. </p> <p>5. The route -should possess good harbors, or such as can be easily improved.</p> - -<p>6. Dimension of the canal and size of the locks. The canal should -be sufficiently wide to permit ships to pass easily, or it should have -convenient turn-outs.</p> -</div> - -<p>The width of the intermarine canal proposed by Mr. Kennish, to unite -the Atrato and the Pacific, is estimated to have 200 feet. General -Michler assumes a width of 100 feet, and states that vessels can -pass alternately from one end to the other, employing tug-boats and -telegraphic signals to avoid confusion. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span></p> - -<p>The canal now in process of construction, under the direction of -General Wilson, around the Des Moines rapids on the Mississippi, has a -width of 250 feet in embankment.</p> - -<p>The Engineer in charge of the canal around the falls of the Ohio at -Louisville, proposes a width of 120 feet, which is the same as that of -the Caledonia Canal.</p> - -<p>The <a href="#SUEZ_MAP">Suez Canal</a> has a minimum width at water -surface of 190 feet. This last dimension, with a sufficient number -of turn-outs, would be suitable for the canal across the American Isthmus.</p> - -<p>The locks of the Des Moines Canal are 380 feet between gates, by 80 -feet wide. General Weitzel proposes, for the Louisville Canal, locks -400 feet between gates, and 100 feet wide. The Isthmean locks may be -400 feet between gates, and 90 feet wide.</p> - -<p>Locks of these dimensions, if all unnecessary dressing of the stone is -dispensed with, may probably be erected for one million of dollars.</p> - -<p>It is unnecessary to mention other ship canals and locks, built for the -accommodation of ships of less tonnage than those which would make the -intermarine transit.</p> - -<p>The following description, commencing at Tehuantepec, will treat of -each route in succession:</p> - -<h3>TEHUANTEPEC.</h3> - -<p>In March, 1842, Santa Anna, “for the purpose of aggrandizing the nation -and rendering the people happy,” granted certain privileges to Don -Jose de Garay, to enable him to open a line of communication between -the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, through the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. -The route was to be neutral to all nations at peace with the Mexican -Republic. The “negotiation” was permitted to hold for public use all -unoccupied land, not more than one-fourth of a league on either side -of the line, which was conceded to them in <i>fee simple</i>. The right -of collecting dues was conceded for fifty years, and the exclusive -privilege of freight, by steam vessel or railroad, for sixty years.</p> - -<p>The survey was intrusted to Sr. Moro, an Italian engineer of -distinction. The distance from sea to sea was ascertained to be 135 -miles in a straight line. Wide plains and table land adjacent each -ocean were found to be broken by the Andes, rising to the height of 650 -feet above the level of the sea.</p> - -<p>Thirty miles of the Coazacoalcos River, after passing the bar, is -navigable for ships of the largest class, and fifteen miles for vessels -of light draught, leaving 115 miles of railroad to be made. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span></p> - -<p>Sr. Moro, taking the dimensions and cost of the Caledonia Canal as -a standard, estimates the cost of a similar ship canal across the -Isthmus<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> -at $17,000,000. He includes in his estimate the cost of one -hundred and sixty-one (161) locks, which may be reduced to one hundred -and twenty. These results were not deemed satisfactory.</p> - -<p>The privileges granted to Mr. Garay were secured by P. A. Hargous and -Major (now Brevet Major-General) Barnard, Corps of Engineers. W. H. -Sidell and others were employed to survey the route of a railroad. Of -this survey we have the very interesting report of J. J. Williams, -containing information of the statistics, geology, and topography of -the country. The summit is 855 feet above tide; the entire length of -the line is 190 miles. A summit-level and tunnel would be necessary -to carry a canal across the ridge. Com’d Perry and Lieut. Temple, U. -S. N., found about twelve feet water on the Coazacoalcos bar. The bar -is supposed to be composed of hard clay, admitting of a permanent -improvement. Capt. Basil Hall, R. N., and Com. Shubrick, U. S. N., -speak of the Pacific terminus at Ventosa Bay as exceeding boisterous -and unfavorable for anchorage.</p> - -<p>The merits of this route have been minutely described by Col. J. J. -Abert, Chief Corps Topographical Engineers, and Col. G. W. Hughes, -of the same corps; and by common consent the route is regarded as -possessing “little merit as a practicable line for the construction of -a ship canal.”</p> - -<h3>HONDURAS.</h3> - -<p>A barometric survey was made of this route. With excellent harbors, it -is obstructed by an elevated dividing ridge. The topographical features -of the country indicate the probable existence of a more favorable -pass. A better route may be found by starting from the Gulf of Dulce, -and proceeding toward the town of Guatemala; or by starting from the -same point, a more southerly direction appears to possess advantages. -Inference from maps of this region must be received with caution. The -route is condemned by Admiral Davis.</p> - -<h3>NICARAGUA.</h3> - -<p>With the exception of the Panama route, no Isthmean project has -received so careful an examination as the lines passing through -Lake Nicaragua. This part of the Isthmus widens into continental -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span> -proportions of great fertility. The productive and industrial -development of this country, by means of railroad or canal, would -supply a material addition to the commerce of the world. With the -growth of Central America, our gulf ports—Galveston, New Orleans, -Mobile, Appalachicola, Pensacola, Tampa Bay, and Key West—would -increase in military and commercial importance.</p> - -<p>This line possesses additional interest for the political reasons -adduced by the Emperor Napoleon III, in a memoir prepared by him when -a prisoner at Ham. Arranged with method and prepared with care, this -pamphlet bears the impress of a sagacious judgment. “In order,” says -the writer, “that the canal should become the principal element of -the advancement of Central America, it must be cut, not through the -narrowest part of the tongue of land, but through the country which is -most populous, the most healthy, and the most fertile, and which is -crossed by the greatest number of rivers, in order that its activity -may be communicated to the remotest part of the interior. England will -see with pleasure Central America become a flourishing and powerful -State, which will establish a balance of power by creating in Spanish -America a new center of active enterprise, powerful enough to give rise -to a feeling of nationality, and to prevent, by backing up Mexico, any -further encroachment from the North.”</p> - -<p>The line selected by Louis Napoleon (although he errs in his statement -of distance), has not been improved by the changes in location proposed -by subsequent engineers. All these routes commence at San Juan de -Nicaragua, and follow the San Juan river to the Lake Nicaragua. From -this lake three other routes pass through Lake Managua to Realijo, and -to the Gulf of Fonseca. Lake Managua is about twenty feet above the -level of Lake Nicaragua. The dry season suspends the flow of water -between the lakes, and the question arises whether, even by the aid of -a dam, sufficient water can be stored in the smaller lake to feed the -summit level on each side of it during the dry season.</p> - -<p>Col. Childs’ route terminates at Brito; a fifth at San Juan del Sud, -and three other variations of route near the same point of the Pacific -coast. Col. Childs’ report, which is very complete, was submitted to -a Board of English Engineers, and to Colonels Abert and Turnbull, of -the Corps of Topographical Engineers, U. S. A. Although the survey was -thoroughly and scientifically executed, the route was condemned by -these officers, because of the insufficiency of the harbors of Brito, -and the small dimensions of the canal proposed by Colonel Childs. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span></p> - -<p>The length of the canal was divided into sections, for the convenience -of description and estimation of the cost:</p> - -<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Col. Child Brito Canal." cellpadding="0" > - <thead><tr> - <th class="tdc"> </th> - <th class="tdc"> <small>MILES.</small> </th> - <th class="tdc"> <small>FEET.</small> </th> - </tr> - </thead> - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdl">Western division, from Brito to the Lake</td> - <td class="tdc">18</td> - <td class="tdc">588</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">From Lake Nicaragua to head of San Juan</td> - <td class="tdc">56</td> - <td class="tdc">500</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Slack water of seven dams on the San Juan  </td> - <td class="tdc">90</td> - <td class="tdc">800</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Canal to San Juan del Norte</td> - <td class="tdc u"> 28 </td> - <td class="tdc bb">505</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="ws3">Total distance</span></td> - <td class="tdc">194</td> - <td class="tdc">393</td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> - -<p>The maximum width of the canal was designed to be 118 feet, and the -depth 17 feet. The descent from the lake to Brito was accomplished by -fourteen locks.</p> - -<p class="space-below1">The following table exhibits the distances from -sea to sea of the proposed lines originating at San Juan del Norte:</p> - -<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Sea to sea distance from San Juan del Norte." cellpadding="0" rules="cols" > - <thead><tr> - <th class="tdc bb2" colspan="9"> </th> - </tr><tr class="font_tiny"> - <th class="tdc bb"> ROUTES FROM THE <br />PORT OF SAN JUAN<br />TO THE PACIFIC.</th> - <th class="tdc bb"> LENGTH OF <br />THE RIO<br />SAN JUAN.</th> - <th class="tdc bb">DISTANCE<br />ON LAKE<br /> NICARAGUA. </th> - <th class="tdc bb">FROM LAKE<br /> NICARAGUA <br />TO THE<br />PACIFIC.</th> - <th class="tdc bb">FROM LAKE<br /> NICARAGUA <br />TO LAKE<br />MANAGUA.</th> - <th class="tdc bb">DISTANCE<br />INLAKE<br /> MANAGUA. </th> - <th class="tdc bb">DIST. BETWEEN<br /> LAKE MANAGUA <br />AND THE<br />PACIFIC.</th> - <th class="tdc bb"> LENGTH OF <br />ACTUAL<br />CANAL.</th> - <th class="tdc bb">TOTAL<br /> LENGTH.</th> - </tr><tr> - <th class="tdc"> </th> - <th class="tdc"><small>MILES.</small></th> - <th class="tdc"><small>MILES.</small></th> - <th class="tdc"><small>MILES.</small></th> - <th class="tdc"><small>MILES.</small></th> - <th class="tdc"><small>MILES.</small></th> - <th class="tdc"><small>MILES.</small></th> - <th class="tdc"><small>MILES.</small></th> - <th class="tdc"><small>MILES.</small></th> - </tr> - </thead> - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdl">To Brito</td> - <td class="tdc">119</td> - <td class="tdc"> 57</td> - <td class="tdc">18</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">137</td> - <td class="tdc">194</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Fonseca, Tamarinda</td> - <td class="tdc">119</td> - <td class="tdc">120</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">4</td> - <td class="tdc">50</td> - <td class="tdc">16</td> - <td class="tdc">139</td> - <td class="tdc">309</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Realijo</td> - <td class="tdc">119</td> - <td class="tdc">120</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">4</td> - <td class="tdc">50</td> - <td class="tdc">45</td> - <td class="tdc">168</td> - <td class="tdc">338</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Fonseca, Estero Real</td> - <td class="tdc">119</td> - <td class="tdc">120</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">4</td> - <td class="tdc">50</td> - <td class="tdc">20</td> - <td class="tdc">143</td> - <td class="tdc">313</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc bt" colspan="9"> </td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> - -<p class="space-above1">The ports on the Bay of Fonseca, and at -Realijo, are good, but the other ports designated as terminal points -upon the Pacific are not so favorable for shipping. San Juan del Norte, -the initial point upon the Atlantic of all these routes, will not admit -ships of large draught, and the harbor is rapidly deteriorating. All -harbors of Central and South America receiving rivers, and opening -to the northward, are decreasing in depth. The incessant wave-beat, -caused by the trade-winds and northers, acts like a ponderous hammer, -wielded by an irresistible force, whose unceasing efforts, for six -months of the year, are exerted to force the sand into the entrance of -the harbors, and to arrest the sediment brought down by the rivers. The -result is a tortuous and variable channel, and a shifting and shoaling bar.</p> - -<p>The deterioration of the harbor of San Juan de Nicaragua, or Greytown, -has been minutely discussed by a board of scientific officers of the -United States Corps of Engineers, and of the Coast Survey Department. -Their conclusions were unfavorable to the improvement of the harbor. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span></p> - -<p>Where the Cyane lay during the bombardment of Greytown a luxuriant -grass marsh is now growing. It has not been many years since this -harbor afforded refuge for shipping of ordinary draught, but it is not -unusual, at the present time, to find the harbor so completely closed -during a storm that a pedestrian may walk dry-footed across the former -entrance. Upon such occasion the harbor of Greytown is converted into -a lagoon until after the storm, when the accumulating water of the San -Juan erodes for itself a new outlet to the ocean.</p> - -<p>It is apparent some other initial point must be found before this route -can be seriously considered as a suitable terminus for interoceanic -communication. Monkey Point is said to supply a good anchorage, and has -been suggested for this purpose. Monkey Point affords anchorage for -ships drawing rather more than three fathoms. By joining the island -with a breakwater of <i>pierre perdu</i>, of the length of about twelve -hundred feet, a good harbor, affording five fathoms water, can be -obtained.</p> - -<p>The writer is not aware that any surveys have ever been made for -connecting this point with the San Juan river, or with the lakes. It -is therefore unnecessary to mention other reports upon the same route, -or to do more than to refer to the plans, profiles, and details of the -“Interoceanic Canal of Nicaragua,” submitted at the Paris exhibition by -L. J. Thome de Gamond. The report of M. de Gamond is not at hand.</p> - -<p>A healthy and productive country; two lakes affording an inexhaustible -supply for a summit level; a divide easily overcome at an altitude -represented as 174 feet, and the convenient channel of the San Juan, -through which the waters of Lakes Managua and Nicaragua find their way -from an amphitheater of hills to the Atlantic ocean, are advantages -which engineers and capitalists are loath to abandon, and which -the reader relinquishes with regret. We may expect, therefore, to -find the question continually revived. But its advantages have been -overestimated.</p> - -<p>The San Juan river has cut an outlet for the canal through the ridge, -separating Lake Nicaragua from the Atlantic; but to pierce the divide -on the opposite side, which separates the lake from the Pacific, a -tunnel of about six miles in length will be requisite. The altitude -of the divide is six hundred feet above the level of the lake. The -singular omission in Colonel Childs’ report may have led Admiral -Davis to overlook so important an objection, or perhaps he may have -thought it unnecessary to multiply objections to a route which appeared -impracticable upon other grounds. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span></p> - -<h3>CHIRIQUI.</h3> - -<p>The so-called Isthmus of Chiriqui, lying between Panama and Nicaragua, -was explored by the late Lieut. St. Clair Morton, who was killed in -the siege of Petersburg. Lieut. Morton crossed the Isthmus twice, -and pronounced the route practicable for a railroad. As no notes of -this survey are extant, curiosity in regard to this route must remain -unsatisfied. Lieut. Jeffers, U. S. N., speaks favorably of the harbors. -Mr. Evans, the geologist, discovered an inferior kind of coal. Another -reconnoissance may develop some important information.</p> - -<h3>COSTA RICA.</h3> - -<p>A railroad has been projected from Port Limon, near the tenth parallel -of latitude on the Atlantic, to Caldera, in the Gulf of Nicoya. Rising -to an altitude of 5,100 feet the route passes through a salubrious -climate, and over a productive soil. A macadamized road, 134 miles -long, with five stone bridges, has been completed along this line. As a -route for a ship canal the altitude of the summit appears to exclude it -from further consideration.</p> - -<h3>PANAMA.</h3> - -<p>As the passenger route and highway of the trade between the Atlantic -and Pacific States of America, the mention of this line arrests -attention. Information in regard to it is full and accurate. Here, -alone, in all Central America, a railroad unites the two oceans. -Confining his remarks to the project of M. Garella, Admiral Davis -pronounces his condemnation of the route.</p> - -<p>M. Garella’s route, starting from the Bay of Limon, on the Atlantic, -following the valley of the Chagres, ascending with 17 locks to the -summit, which it passes with a tunnel 17,500 feet in length, at an -altitude of 135 feet above high water in the Pacific, and descending -with 18 locks, terminates at the Bay of Vaca del Monte, on the -Atlantic. The altitude of the ridge to be pierced is 459 feet. The -commission of the “<i>Ponts et chaussés</i>” appointed to report upon -Garella’s project, object to the expense of tunneling, and to the -absence of evidence of the sufficiency of the mountain streams to feed -the summit level.</p> - -<p>But a tunnel is not a necessary plan of piercing the Isthmus at this -point, nor is a summit level 135 feet above high water an unavoidable -necessity. The Panama railroad passes the divide without a tunnel, at -an altitude of 280 feet above tide. The fact that a route possessing -such advantages should be found so near the line of M. Garella, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span> -encourages the belief that a more critical examination of other -prescribed routes may be rewarded with the same good fortune.</p> - -<p>The merits above mentioned justify a more attentive consideration. The -advantages of the route may be enumerated as follows:</p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> -<p>1. A divide 280 feet above tide.</p> - -<p>2. Distance between oceans 48 miles.</p> - -<p>3. The Chagres river, emptying into the Atlantic, and the Rio -Grande, flowing into the Pacific, together with the smaller rivers, -Maraboso, Obispo, Dominica, Mandingo, which can be made tributary to -the summit level of the canal. The rainfall in this region varies from -90 to 100 inches, being three times the amount which ordinarily falls -in the United States.</p> - -<p>4. The harbors at the termini, Panama and Aspinwall, have -accommodated the trade of California and the Atlantic States, -and are far superior to those of Port Said and Suez.</p> - -<p>5. Tunnel unnecessary.</p> -</div> - -<p>Possessing such advantages, the objections which have led to the -ignoring of this route should be noticed.</p> - -<p>The objection of the Commission of French Engineers to M. Garella’s -project has been mentioned. “The river Chagres,” it was observed, “was -gauged at Cruces and Gorgona, but the river is to be tapped above these -points.”</p> - -<p>The summit upon Garella’s line is 459 feet above tide, while upon -the line of the Panama railroad it is but 280 feet. Garella proposes -to pierce the ridge, at 135 feet above tide, with a tunnel three and -four-tenths miles in length. No tunnel is required upon the other line.</p> - -<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="_" cellpadding="0" > - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdl">Estimating the tunnel of M. Garella at the present contract price - in the United States, this part of the work alone will cost</td> - <td class="tdr_bott">$57,623,380.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="ws2">Add 47 miles of open canal</span></td> - <td class="tdr bb">84,232,491.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="ws5">Total cost of canal</span></td> - <td class="tdr">$141,855,871.</td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> - -<p>A canal by the aid of locks can be constructed between the two seas, -upon the line proposed by Col. Hughes, at a much less cost.</p> - -<p>Assuming the same dimensions of canal—100 feet wide by 30 feet -deep—and the same prices as above, taken from General Michler’s report -upon the survey of the canal for joining the Atrato and the Pacific, -and we obtain the probable cost of constructing a canal upon this line, -as follows:</p> - -<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Cost of constructing Atrato-Pacific canal." cellpadding="0" > - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdl">For 50 miles of open canal</td> - <td class="tdr">$ 89,610,150</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">12 locks raise the summit level 75 feet</td> - <td class="tdr">12,000,000</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Breakwater, ship basin, and contingencies  </td> - <td class="tdr bb">8,000,000</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="ws2">Total cost of canal</span></td> - <td class="tdr">$ 109,610,150</td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span> -This diminution of cost of $32,245,721, due to the absence of a tunnel, -upon this route, allows of a margin more than can be required for -increasing the number of the locks, or for building, graving docks, and -other auxiliary conveniences in the harbors.</p> - -<p>The execution of this work would require a cut of less dimensions than -the famous Mexican Desague of Huehuetoca, referred to by Humboldt, and -described by Admiral Fitzroy as “200 feet deep and 300 feet wide for -nearly a thousand yards, and above 100 feet deep through an extent of -nearly a thousand yards, (making altogether two miles of distance in -which the vast excavation would be capable of concealing the mast-head -of a first-rate man-of-war, executed in the last three centuries in -Central America,) should induce us to listen respectfully to the plans -of modern engineers, however startling they may appear at first.”</p> - -<p>Another objection remains to be considered: “Navy Bay is an insecure -anchorage, and the harbor upon the Pacific is altogether insufficient -for vessels of even moderate draught.” “M. Garella is obliged to -include in his estimate the sum of a million and a quarter dollars for -the improvement of this harbor.”</p> - -<p>On account of the rise of the tide, which varies as much as 22 feet, -vessels are compelled to anchor two and one-half miles from Panama, and -the passengers and freight are transported in light-draught steamers. -These difficulties may be converted, by the use of docks, as in English -harbors, into an advantage. The withdrawal of 20 to 23 feet of water at -extreme tides affords extraordinary facilities for constructing ship -basins and docks upon the natural pavement of rock which covers the -bottom of the bay in front of the City of Panama.</p> - -<p>On the other side, Limon Bay possesses sufficient depth of water, -but is open to “northers.” The entrance of these dangerous winds may -be prevented by a stone breakwater, or one composed of screw piles, -driven sufficiently near to support iron or flanged plates, sliding -vertically into position, one above another, until the requisite height -is attained, and braced strongly at the back.</p> - -<p>Notwithstanding northers, steamships arrive and depart regularly. The -Royal Mail Steamship Company are building wharves of stone and iron, -and the railroad company has projected a breakwater for the protection -of shipping.</p> - -<p>Colonel G. W. Hughes, in a letter to the Hon. J. M. Clayton, at that -time Secretary of State, makes the following observations in regard to -this route: “The line I have traced for a railroad is, I think, more -favorable for a ship canal than that suggested by M. Garella. If -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span> -we adopt the same depth of cutting he suggests for an open cut, it -will leave the bottom of the canal 44 feet above the level of the -Pacific at high tide. This would be about ten feet lower than the -bed of the river at Gorgona. An open cut two hundred feet deep would -obviate all difficulty in crossing the Chagres at Gorgona, while the -Rio Grande, the Obispo, and the Mandingo might be converted into an -immense reservoir for supplying the summit-level with water, and the -Rio Chagres above Cruces, and the Pedro, Miguel, Camero, etc., would -furnish the lower level. A spacious tide basin might be constructed at -the mouth of the Rio Grande, a few miles west of Panama.”</p> - -<p>For this project, so favorably recommended, it is necessary to obtain -the consent of the Panama Railroad Company to the use of land belonging -to their reservation.</p> - -<h3>SAN BLAS AND BAYANO RIVER.</h3> - -<p>This route is one of several surveyed under the generous patronage -of F. W. Kelly and others. The map of Mr. McDougal, the surveyor and -engineer, and the report of Admiral Davis, furnish some interesting -facts. The narrowest part of the Isthmus is found here, being thirty -miles from ocean to ocean, and here the tide of the Pacific is said to -approach within fifteen miles of the Atlantic coast.</p> - -<p>Mr. McDougal proposes to pierce the ridge, which has an altitude of -1500 feet, at a height of 93½ feet above mean tide, by a tunnel seven -miles long. The harbor of San Blas is deep and spacious. The channel -leading into the Bay of Panama has not less than eighteen feet of -water at mean low tide, while the rise of the water is sixteen feet. -This result, Admiral Davis observes, does not agree with the admiralty -charts.</p> - -<p>The map indicates the probable existence of a better route to the -north-west, and the surveyors were satisfied they saw evidences of a -depression in that direction.</p> - -<p>Admiral Davis quotes the well-merited compliment of Sir R. Murchison, -to the zeal and energy with which Mr. Kelly has pursued “this great -and philanthropic object,” in which “all civilized nations are deeply -interested.”</p> - -<h3>DARIEN.</h3> - -<p>Between Caledonia Bay and the Gulf of San Miguel every effort to -make a thorough exploration has resulted in failure. Disappointed -expectations, arduous but fruitless labors, conflicting reports, -failure, starvation, and death have stamped with ill omen every attempt -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span> -to cross this part of the Isthmus. Baron Humboldt has directed public -attention to Darien, and Admiral Davis expresses his deliberate -conviction that to this part of the Isthmus we must look for a solution -of the question of interoceanic ship communication.</p> - -<p>The history of so many attempts, proving so unexpectedly disastrous, -supplies much curious and valuable information. From the Paterson -colonization scheme to the unfortunate expedition of Lieut. Strain, one -word will characterize every attempt. The first settlement of Vasco -Nunez, in 1510, after eight years of calamitous trial, was abandoned.</p> - -<p>Paterson’s colony was remarkable in the causes which led to its -inception; in the ability and statesman-like views of him who conceived -a design so vast and benevolent; in the governments enlisted in its -favor; in the sufferings of the colonists, and in its final abandonment.</p> - -<p>William Paterson, a Scottish clergyman, of fertile resources, and great -political sagacity, the original designer of the Bank of England, -conceived the magnificent design of establishing a colony upon the -shores of Darien, based on principles of religious toleration and free -trade, which, occupying the highway of commerce, “grasping the riches -of both the Indies, and wresting the keys of commerce from Spain,” -should build up, on the shores of two oceans, cities surpassing his -own Edinburgh, and rivaling ancient Alexandria. With experience drawn -from long study and patient observation, he organized his scheme upon -liberal commercial principles, and an enlightened political policy. -Scotland, Hamburg, and Holland, contributed the sum of $4,500,000. -This large amount surprised London merchants, and spread panic in the -board of the East India Company. The unfriendly feeling of this great -corporation proved, in the end, fatal to the scheme. Aided by Spanish -intrigue, and Dutch rivalry, and bringing their vast machinery to bear -against the colonists, by argument and misrepresentation, they induced -William III. to issue an edict, forbidding all English colonies in -the West Indies from sending provisions, arms, or ammunition to the -Scottish colony of Darien.</p> - -<p>Of 1,200 colonists, three hundred of whom represented the best blood of -Scotland, thirty only returned to tell the story of their sufferings. -Dissension, disease, and starvation, had accomplished the usual -results. Thus, this design for the union of two great oceans failed; -this effort to form a nucleus of a new system of beneficent wealth, and -commerce, came to an untimely end. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span></p> - -<p>The Caledonia Bay was no longer frequented by the ships of England, -Holland and Scotland, The gold mines of Cana, worked by one thousand -men, under the Spanish domination, were destined to remain to the -present day, unmolested. The north-western slopes, and the head waters -of the Chuquanaqua, reverted to the undisputed possession of the -Indians, while, between the lower part of this river and along the -Savana, and the Bay of San Miguel, a mongrel population of 1,200 souls -cultivate bananas, and impose upon strangers.</p> - -<p>Dr. Cullen justly claims to have recalled public attention to the -merits of this route. The fine harbors of San Miguel on the Pacific, -and of Caledonia Bay and Port Escocés on the Atlantic, taken in -connection with the narrowness of the Isthmus, would attract a casual -observer. The favorable opinion of Humboldt has led many to look -hopefully to this region. The advantageous situation of the Savana -River was pointed out by Dr. Cullen, who claims to have “crossed, and -recrossed, between Caledonia Bay, and Port Escocés alone, during the -rainy season, cutting and marking his way with a machete. From the -head of the Savana,” he continues, “a ravine, three leagues in length, -extends to Caledonia Bay, and there a canal might be cut with less -difficulty than elsewhere, if it were not for the opposition of the -natives. From the sea shore (at Caledonia) a plain extends to the base -of a ridge, which runs parallel to the coast, and whose summit is 350 -feet. This ridge is not quite continuous and unbroken, but is divided -by transverse valleys, through which the Aglasenique and Aglatomente, -and other rivers have their course, and whose highest elevations do not -exceed 150 feet.”</p> - -<p>Impressed by these favorable representations, and believing Dr. -Cullen’s statement of the existence of large gold deposits near -Esperitu Santu, and in the diggings of Veraguas, the distinguished -capitalists, Sir Charles Fox, John Henderson, and Thomas Brassy, -uniting with Dr. Cullen, obtained, by a decree of the Granadian -Congress, dated Bogotá, June 1st, 1852, the concession of the exclusive -privilege of cutting a ship canal across the Isthmus of Darien, between -the Gulf of San Miguel on the Pacific, and the Bay of Caledonia on the -Atlantic, with the liberty of selecting any other point on the Atlantic -coast between Puerto de Mosquitoes, and the west mouth of the Atrato, -for the entrance of the canal; and were granted, besides the lands -necessary for the canal and its works, 2,000,000 acres of land, to be -selected in any part of the Republic. All the ports of Darien were -declared free and neutral.</p> - -<p>Notwithstanding these favorable conditions, it was deemed prudent, by -the distinguished capitalists above mentioned, to send out a competent -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span> -engineer to verify the statements of Dr. Cullen. Mr. Lionel Gisborne -was selected for the purpose, and was accompanied by Dr. Cullen, to -point out the way.</p> - -<p>Before arriving in South America Mr. Gisborne, assuming the data -supplied by Dr. Cullen to be correct, enters into some interesting -speculations. “Let us suppose,” he observes, “the summit level to be -150 feet above the level of the sea. The Atlantic rise of tide is only -3 feet (1′ 5″); that of the Pacific is 25 feet (22 to 23), therefore, -the difference in the level, at high and low tide is 11 feet (this, -although suppositious, will, I anticipate, not be far from the truth). -In such a case I would propose to cut a canal through from ocean to -ocean without any locks,” etc.</p> - -<p>Proceeding on the supposition of certain “circumstances likely to -coexist in a country whose chief geological formation is igneous,” he -proposed a second plan. “By embankments placed in the most advantageous -position” two lakes are to be formed upon each side of the ridge, -which, being cut through, ships can pass from lake to lake, and -lock down to either ocean from the opposite extremities. “The only -objection” to this plan, is, he thinks, “the loss of land inundated.” -“I hope,” he adds, “a tract of country will be found where one or the -other of these cases is applicable.” It is very remarkable that Mr. -Gisborne found a country adapted to this plan.</p> - -<p>This expedition was long delayed in Cartejena, awaiting Dr. Cullen, -who was occupied with business connected with the survey before the -Congress of Bogotá. “I determined to wait for the English mails,” -writes Mr. Gisborne, “due here the 25th, otherwise I should certainly -not spend three weeks waiting for Dr. Cullen.” On another day, “an -instrumental survey,” he prognosticates, “seems to be out of the -question, so that our levels, theodolites, sextants, and chains, will -probably remain in the same box Troughton and Simms consigned them to -on our departure from England.”</p> - -<p>Again, “I have read and listened about Darien Indians, their cruelty -and jealousy, until I am callous and unbelieving; but it frets me -to remain in doubt, ebbing out an existence in Cartejena. I have -determined,” he says, “to wait ten days longer—then D. V. Cullen, -or no Cullen, I shall try what can be done with these ungovernable -Indians.”</p> - -<p>Waiting impatiently, he speculates upon the Aurora Borealis, geology, -magnetic observations; ingeniously proposing, by the automatic action -of appropriate machinery, to make all meteorological phenomena register -its name and mission in a room selected for that purpose. This he -calls a “meteorological loom in which the web of time is spun with the -present for a pattern.” -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span></p> - -<p>“May 29th—The Bogotá mail has come, but no letter from Dr. Cullen. -Every thing here is mañana (to-morrow).”</p> - -<p>He again takes to speculating on fortifications, and the beauty of -the senoritas. A reasonable man would have been contented. But he -leaves this primrose path to write, “Dr. Cullen has neither written, -nor appeared in person, and I am beginning to have my doubts whether -he will do so.” In the meantime Cullen was hammering at the “mañana” -Congress at Bogotá.</p> - -<p>After waiting six weeks he left Cartejena in disgust, and landed, -without the indefatigable Doctor, in Caledonia Bay. Here he spent two -days wandering among the hills with his barometer, his spirits going -down as the mercury went up.</p> - -<p>He was arrested by three half-naked Indians, who, in an unintelligible -language, but plainly to be understood gestures, commanded him to -follow. This he prudently acquiesced in, but not until he had, as he -thought, ascertained the dividing ridge between the Atlantic and the -Pacific to be 272 feet above tide. Falling asleep, with a contented -mind, he thought he heard the roar of the surf of the Pacific, but his -companion, Ford, very shrewdly suggested that they were still within -hearing of the Atlantic. With a gentle admonition that they must never -be caught there again they were permitted to return to their boat.</p> - -<p>Naturally, he could not forbear another fling at the helpless Dr. -Cullen. “I had not much faith in Dr. Cullen’s map, as his descriptions -of land south-west of Port Escocés were directly contrary to the fact.”</p> - -<p>The comment, on his failure may puzzle the reader. “I am far more -satisfied at having failed in crossing from Port Escocés than to have -crossed and returned (supposing that was possible with safety), and -reported a summit 275 feet, when, within a few miles, one of 40 is to -be got further inland.”</p> - -<p>“It is dangerous to argue by induction,” observes Mr. Gisborne, and he -gives 238 pages in illustration of this truth.</p> - -<p>Nothing daunted by his failure to effect a transit from the Atlantic -side of the Isthmus, he determines to proceed to Panama, and to make -another attempt from San Miguel on the Pacific. Proceeding up the -Savana river he disembarked with his Asst. Ford, who had charge of -the mountain barometer, and penetrating two days’ journey into the -interior, he is warned by a <i>log over a stream</i> that he had reached -the country of his enemies, the Caledonia Indians. Remembering their -parting injunction he returned.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span> -“A dreamy hope of success,” he writes, “is strengthened by inductive -argument, the cause of former failures leads to generalizations of -geological theories, and topographical analogy, and it was this -conviction that cheered me under all difficulties, making suffering an -indispensable appendage of success.”</p> - -<p>Consoling himself with such reflections he met Dr. Cullen at Panama, -in high dudgeon. The Doctor reproached him with having broken his -instructions, and required that he should return to San Miguel. -Gisborne was recalcitrant. “Feeling satisfied that a ship canal could -be made across Darien, he urged Dr. Cullen to come to England, and, as -he said he was without money, I offered to advance the passage money.”</p> - -<p>This generous offer was accepted. Having found, as he believed, -a summit of 150 feet above tide, corresponding with Dr. Cullen’s -statement, he submits two plans to his employers. One for a -thorough-cut without locks; the other by the junction of two lakes, -for which he had found a suitable physical conformity, in remarkable -harmony with his prophetic speculations before reaching Cartejena.</p> - -<p>The first plan was estimated to cost £12,500,000, or about $62,500,000.</p> - -<p>The friends of the measure in London were elated by the representations -of the expeditionists.</p> - -<p>The Atlantic and Pacific Junction Company was incorporated by royal -charter, or act of Parliament. The capital, limited to £15,000,000, -was disposed of in shares of £100 each. A deposit of ten shillings on -each share was to be made without further liability, forming a sum of -£75,000 for preliminary expenses.</p> - -<p>A provisional directory was organized, with Lord Wharncliffe as -chairman. Upon the publication of their prospectus, a lively -correspondence sprang up between the <i>London Times</i> and Sir Charles -Fox. The writer of the <i>Times</i> is charged with want of appreciation -of the merits of the Darien route, and retorts, that if no one is to -question Sir Charles Fox’s views, or even speak of their inaccuracies, -there must be an end of discussion.</p> - -<p>While this controversy was raging, another expedition was being -organized, in numbers and appliances far exceeding any previous -attempt, with the same object. England, France, and the United States -coöperated with New Granada. Not since the landing of Paterson had so -formidable an expedition appeared in that region.</p> - -<p>When the Virago entered the Bay of San Miguel, the Scorpion and -l’Espeigle, with Mr. Gisborne and Dr. Cullen on board, anchored in -Caledonia Bay. The French ship, La Chimere, and the American corvette, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span> -Cyane, Lieut. Strain, at the same time joined the expedition, raising -the united crews to the number of 700 men.</p> - -<p>The Granadian Government, in furtherance of the object of the -expedition, had established a depot near the junction of the rivers -Savana and Lara. It was confidently believed that the practicability of -the Darien route was about to be set at rest forever.</p> - -<p>Relying on Mr. Gisborne’s and Dr. Cullen’s reports, Lieut. Strain, with -a party of twenty-seven men, two Granadian Commissioners, and ten days’ -provisions, pushed forward up the bed of the Caledonia River. Here, -taking advantage of an opening among the trees, he examined, with a -spy-glass, the range of Cordillera, to find a semi-circular chain 1500 -to 2000 feet in height. He concluded that this route could not be that -alluded to by Mr. Gisborne and Dr. Cullen. He still pushed forward up -arduous ascents. A seaman of the Cyane climbed a tree to reconnoiter -the country, and reported nothing but hills and mountains in every -direction. For a pathetic account of this unfortunate expedition, the -reader is referred to <i>Harper’s Monthly</i>, Vol. X.</p> - -<p>After forty days of wandering, subsisting for the time chiefly on sour -palmetto berries, emaciated with hunger, lacerated with thorns, sick, -and half naked, Strain, having hastened ahead of his party, sought -succor in Yvisa. Proceeding to the Savana, he presented himself to -the English agent, who, receiving him with every kindness, shed tears -at the sight. Securing assistance, which was reluctantly granted, at -Yvisa, he hastily returned to find the remnant of his party, feebly -struggling back toward Caledonia Bay, having lost five of their number, -among whom were the two Granadian Commissioners.</p> - -<p>Strain, mistaking the Chuquanaqua for the Savana, reached the Pacific -by the longest route. He claims that his expedition “has disproved a -magnificent preconceived theory,” and that instead of a summit-level of -150 feet, it is at least 1000 feet.</p> - -<p>Three days after the departure of Strain, “another party, composed of -English and French together, under the guidance of Dr. Cullen and Mr. -Gisborne, set out from the same point, and endeavored to follow in his -track.” “Gisborne and Cullen could not follow their own maps,” and -after having “penetrated not more than six miles in all, returned.” Mr. -Gisborne, observes the narrator in the <i>Nouvelles Annales des Voyages</i>, -“dementait complétement” his former statements. They failed to confirm -the first statements, and the London company, organized with such high -hopes, was dissolved. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span></p> - -<p>On the heels of Gisborne and Cullen, the Granadian expedition, under -the command of Codazzi, made a cotemporaneous essay. “How far,” says -Strain, “it penetrated is not known; but, struggling over the space of -a mile, it was broken up, and returned after having lost several men.”</p> - -<p>While failure and misfortune was befalling the exploring parties -starting from the Atlantic coast, another attempt was made at the same -time to effect a transit from the now notable Savana. Capt. Prevost, of -the Virago, after advancing twenty-six miles, at the rate of one and -one-half miles per day, returned again to the Savana, followed, says -Mr. Gisborne, by two hundred hostile Indians. Four sailors, left to -guard a depot of provisions, were found murdered.</p> - -<p>Capt. Prevost failed to find a practicable pass. Crossing valleys which -probably led to the Pacific, the altitude of which is not given, he -terminated his survey at a summit of 1080 feet above the level of the -ocean. “L’execution de canal interoceaneque était devenue á peu pris -impracticable,” remarks the reviewer.</p> - -<p>After an examination of the maps of Gisborne, Prevost, Strain, and -Codazzi, there seems to be a general agreement in placing the summit -of the ridge at not less than one thousand feet above the level of the -tide. The united maps of Prevost and Gisborne exhibit their routes, -proceeding from opposite points and intersecting, and the continuous -profile between the two oceans fails to solve the question of a -practicable route. As one of these parties had the advantage of Dr. -Cullen’s personal guidance, it is but fair to allow him to supplement -his first statement by an explanation of the causes which led to a -failure so complete and unexpected.</p> - -<p>Speaking of the party from the Virago, he observes that Capt. Prevost -“directed his explorations too far to the north-west.” That when it -stopped he was but thirty miles from the point where the line should pass.</p> - -<p>Strain, on the other hand, erred by going “too far to the south-west.” -In a word, the true line is to be found in the golden mean in which -Aristotle places all virtue.</p> - -<p>But he has so far modified his first statement that he now thinks a -line, “with tunneling,” may be found between Sucubti and Port Escocés. -Under nine heads, he enumerates the advantages of this route.</p> - -<p>The reader has, perhaps, concluded that, like Pantagruel’s army, this -subject is pretty well covered with tongue, and he may even adopt the -conclusion of a distinguished attorney-general upon the fallibility of -this unruly member. But one or two of the nine may be quoted. Under No. -7 Dr. Cullen states the land rises to nine hundred and thirty feet, and -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span> -that here a tunnel will be required. No. 8 states that between this -point and the Pacific no obstacle is to be found. The divide of one -hundred and fifty feet, first discovered by Dr. Cullen, expanded to ten -times that altitude.</p> - -<p>If men of intelligence and education can so err, all statements of -persons whose previous habits and studies have not fitted them for -passing judgment upon the relative merits of different canal routes -should be received with caution.</p> - -<p>The failure of this formidable effort of four Governments to discover a -practicable route for a ship canal between Caledonia Bay and the Gulf -of San Miguel, while it disappointed reasonable expectation, stimulated -public curiosity. The French, in nowise discouraged, determined to make -another effort. The Granadian Minister, Francisco Martin, and Senator -F. Barrow, signed, at Paris, a treaty embodying certain concession.</p> - -<p>According to agreement, the survey was to be conducted from the head of -the Chuquanaqua toward the village of Monti, where Codazzi represented -a summit of 460 feet.</p> - -<p>M. Bourdiol, Civil Engineer, with a party of fifteen persons—afterward -increased to twenty by the addition of some natives—proceeded -carefully, cutting their way, and chaining and leveling at the rate -of about a mile a day. Reaching the Chuquanaqua below the junction of -the Sucubti, he was compelled to desist, by the approach of the rainy -season. He returned to Panama after an absence of sixty days.</p> - -<p>The nearest approach to a determination of a pass by M. Bourdiol -appears in the rather equivocal statement, that the origin of the -valley of Monti is one hundred and eighty-two metres (about 597 feet).</p> - -<p>If all of these explorers had left some permanent mark at the -termination of their surveys, succeeding parties could have taken -up the line where the former left off, and the determination of a -practicable route could have been made in one-half the time now required.</p> - -<p>M. Bourdiol affirms that he verified the height of the Sucubti, as -given by Codazzi and Gisborne, but it is not apparent how he found the -same points determined by these engineers.</p> - -<p>Where so many failed, with every accessory and advantage likely to -assure success, the pertinent inquiry suggests itself, Is there any one -fact in common which may serve to explain failures so universal? All -find difficulties in cutting the way, requiring natives accustomed to -the use of the machete; all are misled by imperfect maps, which fail -to give the altitude of the passes and the true course of the rivers. -While one party is turned back by the rainy season, another is stopped -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span> -by the Indians, another by want of time. But one party succeeded in -crossing from sea to sea, but under such circumstances that each day -was a struggle for existence, to the exclusion of the scientific -objects of the expedition.</p> - -<p>The hostility of the Indians, although not always stated, appears to -have been the chief obstacle to a careful exploration; and internal -dissension concurred to bring failure upon the best appointed of these -expeditions.</p> - -<p>The following table presents, at one view, all that is known of the -Darien routes:</p> - -<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="_" cellpadding="0" > - <thead><tr> - <th class="tdc bb2" colspan="6"> </th> - </tr><tr> - <th class="tdc bb">NAMES.</th> - <th class="tdc bb" colspan="2">LOCALITY.</th> - <th class="tdc bb">SUMMIT<br />REPORTED</th> - <th class="tdc bb" colspan="2">REMARKS.</th> - </tr><tr> - <th class="tdc"> </th> - <th class="tdc" colspan="2"> </th> - <th class="tdc"><small>FEET.</small></th> - <th class="tdc" colspan="2"> </th> - </tr> - </thead> - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdl">Cullen</td> - <td class="tdl_sp1" colspan="2">Savana, Port Escocés</td> - <td class="tdc">150?</td> - <td class="tdl_sp1" colspan="2">“Crossed and recrossed?”</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Gisborne  </td> - <td class="tdc" colspan="2">“<span class="ws2">“</span></td> - <td class="tdc">150?</td> - <td class="tdl_sp1" colspan="2">Saw across to former position?</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Cullen</td> - <td class="tdc" rowspan="2"><img src="images/cbl-2.jpg" alt="{" width="9" height="32" /></td> - <td class="tdl_sp1">Started at</td> - <td class="tdc" rowspan="2">980!</td> - <td class="tdc" rowspan="2"><img src="images/cbl-2.jpg" alt="{" width="9" height="32" /></td> - <td class="tdl"> Second attempt and</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Gisborne</td> - <td class="tdl_sp1">Caledonia Bay.</td> - <td class="tdl"> failed to cross over.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Strain</td> - <td class="tdl_sp1" colspan="2">Caledonia Bay.</td> - <td class="tdc">1000+</td> - <td class="tdl_sp1" colspan="2">Lost his way on the Chuquanaqua.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Prevost</td> - <td class="tdl_sp1" colspan="2">Savana River.</td> - <td class="tdc">1080 </td> - <td class="tdl_sp1" colspan="2">Did not see the Pacific.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Bourdiol</td> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2"><span class="ws2">“</span><span class="ws2">“</span></td> - <td class="tdc"> 597?</td> - <td class="tdl_sp1" colspan="2">Turned back by rain.</td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> - -<p>It would appear, at the first glance, that the question of a -practicable route across the Isthmus of Darien was settled by these -explorers.<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> -Dr. Cullen, notwithstanding the unfortunate result of his early -prognostications, still remains sanguine, and opines that the valleys -of the Aglatomente and Aglasenaca afford levels favorable to a canal; -but Gisborne’s map represents the water-shed of the Aglasenaca at 1,020 -feet above the level of the sea, and supplies no indications of a lower -summit. But Capt. Prevost gives some important testimony. In a letter -to Admiral Moresby, written after the return of his expedition, he -speaks of valleys at a lower level than any yet discovered, leading to -the Pacific. His map confirms this statement. Capt. Parsons, R. N., of -the Scorpion, testifies to the same effect. From the deck of his vessel -he could discern a very decided break in the ridge, which appeared -continuous when viewed from other points.</p> - -<p>These estimates we have learned to receive with caution. “A dreamy -hope of success is strengthened by inductive argument,” observes Mr. -Gisborne, “the cause of former failures leads to generalizations,” -etc., and such faint lights have so far proved veritable -will-o’-the-wisps. In the present instance, concurrent opinion is highly -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span> -favorable. The appearance of isolated summits, and disjointed and -dislocated character of schistose and trychitic rock; the testimony -of Prevost and Parsons, to the appearance of a break in the ridge; -the fact that Col. Hughes found at Panama a summit of two hundred and -eighty feet above the sea, at two miles north of the line, upon which -Garella could not find less than four hundred and fifty-nine feet -above the same level; all these facts, if not “confirmations strong -as proofs of Holy Writ,” are more than “trifles light as air,” and go -far to confirm the opinion that the Isthmus of Darien has not been -sufficiently explored.</p> - -<h3>SAN MIGUEL TO THE GULF OF URABÀ.</h3> - -<p>Sr. Gorgoza, a Granadian, represents that he has passed over this -line, and found an altitude of one hundred and ninety feet. How this -elevation was determined without a barometer or spirit-level is not -clear. This part of the Isthmus is referred to in general terms by -Humboldt, Fitzroy, and Trautwine, but as these authorities echo each -other, the inference derives little additional strength from their -concurrence.</p> - -<h3>ATRATO.</h3> - -<p>Taking leave of the Darien surveys, the explorations in the province of -Chócó come next in order. Under this head are included the surveys made -in the valley of the Atrato. Success appears to have accompanied these -operations, as disaster followed the Darien expeditions. The hopes -centering in any one Isthmean route have been in the inverse ratio of -the information concerning them.</p> - -<p>The indispensable desiderata of a summit of moderate elevation, and -deep harbors, have not yet been found existing conjointly together. The -volcanic agency which hollowed out deep basins where ships may securely -anchor, has, at the same time, given unusual altitude to the dividing -ridge. Shallow harbors and low divides, and deep harbors and great -altitudes, accompany each other with the persistence of a law.</p> - -<p>As the explorations dissipated the hope of one route, another was -taken up. Vague rumors continually reach us similar to those we have -already encountered. One of the latest of these is this: A Mr. or Sr. -Gorgoza, a resident of New Granada, has found a short and easy transit -across the Cordillera, between the Gulf of San Miguel and Urabà (or -Darien), by ascending the Tuyra, and crossing the valley of the Atrato. -According to his statement, the depression in the divide is not more -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span> -than 190 feet above the mean tide, and the distance between head -waters, navigable by canoes, is not more than three miles.</p> - -<h3>DE LA CHARME ROUTE—BY THE WAY OF TUYRA,<br /> -PAYA, AND CAQUARRI TO THE ATRATA.</h3> - -<p>The March number of <i>Putnam’s Monthly</i> contains a description of a -route surveyed by M. De La Charme, which occupies a position between -the Darien routes, and the line between Humboldt Bay and the Atrato, -surveyed by Lieut. Michler.</p> - -<p>The article referred to gives an account of what appears to be the -latest reconnoissance made in that region, and claims for its author, -M. De La Charme, “the right of discovery.” Of this survey Sr. De -Gorgoza is the patron and prime mover.</p> - -<p>The attention of Sr. De Gorgoza was called to this route by certain -“documents” containing “hints about passages used by the Indians in -crossing the Cordilleras.” These documents consisted of “reports -by the civil and ecclesiastical authorities about the province of -Balboa, which was, at that time, of great importance, from its rich -gold mines,” and are probably as reliable as any other civil and -ecclesiastical reports of the pious marauders of that period. These -reports were accompanied by “a map,” which seems, from a reference -upon page 133, to have been that remarkable specimen of puzzling -topography, known as Arisa’s map, a copy of which may be found appended -to the report of Admiral Davis. The usual reference is made to those -unconscious pioneers of interoceanic canal routes, the filibusters, -“who carried off quantities of gold, to the great detriment of the -Spanish treasury,” etc., etc.</p> - -<p>This <i>reliable</i> evidence is further corroborated by the flight of -birds. Some Pissisi ducks providentially appear to lead our explorer -upon the right path, and M. De La Charme is so convinced that the route -will be found in the direction taken by these web-footed engineers, -that he confidently affirms “there remained to me no doubt but at this -place I should find the desired passage. So persuaded,” he “prosecuted -his work with confidence.”</p> - -<p>Many immaterial facts are circumstantially related, but we are not -told by what method the survey was conducted, nor whether M. De La -Charme was assisted in his work by professional engineers. Without such -assistance, his duties must have been complicated and laborious. As -mention is made of bogas and laborers only, we must conclude that this -arduous duty was performed without any intelligent assistance. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span></p> - -<p>He states that strict attention was given to barometric measurements. -The notes should have been supplied in proof of the accuracy of his -conclusions.</p> - -<p>The irregularities of the barometer along the dividing ridge of the -Isthmus and in South America have been noticed by Moro, Hughes, -Herndon, Maury, Michler, and other observers. Used with extreme care, -and according to the method recommended by Lieut. Col. Williamson, -U. S. A., the results obtained with this instrument are affected by -discrepancies and anomalies, which, along the Andes, vitiate the most -careful observations, and elude the grasp of the best formulæ.</p> - -<p>A favorable reconnoissance with the barometer, in this region, should -receive a careful verification with more accurate instruments, but it -can not be regarded as establishing the feasibility of a route.</p> - -<p>The map of M. De La Charme, like that of Dr. Cullen, is made up from -old maps. The additional topographical information is not laid down.</p> - -<p>Two parties were sent to the Isthmus to verify this route. One, -composed of French engineers, was under the charge of M. Flacat; the -other, composed of American engineers, was under the direction of Mr. -Spooner. With both the principals Sr. De Gorgoza quarreled, and the -parties returned without accomplishing the work for which they had made -so long a journey.</p> - -<p>The following paragraphs contain all that M. De La Charme claims to -have established. If correct, he is justly entitled to the right of -discovery, in the furtherance of which claim “he considers it his duty -to publish the present memorandum.”</p> - -<p>“This canal should go in a straight course E. 20° S. from Real Viejo to -the village of Paya, thence south-east through the passage between the -Cordilleras and the Andes, and, finally, easterly or north-easterly, -as should prove best for the navigation from the Atlantic by the -Atrato. It would not be more than fifty miles long, and would traverse -a country whose formation presents no difficulties to the opening of -the same, either in the excavation or in the removal of the materials -excavated, an important point in works of this kind.</p> - -<p>“The highest point or summit-level of the route thus explored was near -the village of Paya. It was, by barometrical measurement, one hundred -and seventy-eight feet (about 55 metres) above the level of the sea, -and this must necessarily be very nearly the true altitude. And, it may -be added, the field notes of the expedition contain satisfactory data -respecting the questions of practical engineering involved, such as -feeders, locks,” etc.</p> - -<p>So little accurate information exists in regard to the topography of -the Isthmus, there is always a probability in favor of the discovery of -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span> -new routes. But the uncertainty which must attach to the sanguine -representations based upon interested but unprofessional examinations, -has been made sufficiently apparent. Such statements can not be -accepted without verification. This is doubtless all that Sr. Gorgoza -desires.</p> - -<h3>ROUTES OF PORTER, KENNISH, AND TRAUTWINE.</h3> - -<p>In July, 1857, the results of a survey from the Atrato to the Pacific, -made by Mr. Kennish, under the direction of F. W. Kelley, were laid -before the Secretaries of War and Navy. Mr. Trautwine had previously -surveyed the Atrato from its mouth to its head, crossing the ridge in -three places, obtaining much valuable information. Mr. Porter made a -survey in 1853. The survey of Mr. Kennish, before alluded to, was made -in 1855.</p> - -<p>Commencing at the mouth of the Atrato River, the work to be done is -described as follows: The mouth of the Atrato being obstructed by bars, -the caño coquito, by which the river is to be united with the Gulf of -Urabà, having at the present time a depth of four feet water, is to be -excavated to a depth of thirty feet. From thence sixty-five miles to -the mouth of the Truando, the depth is not less than forty-seven feet. -The bar at the mouth of the Truando is eighteen feet. For six miles -the river has an average depth of fourteen feet. From thence to the -Pacific, twenty-six miles, much of the distance is through solid rock. -At 505 feet above the ocean level, Mr. Kennish proposes to pierce the -divide by a tunnel three and one-half miles in length, sufficiently -large to admit two ships abreast.</p> - -<p>The harbor at the Pacific terminus requires improvement; guard locks -not considered necessary. Total length of the line, one hundred and -twenty-six miles. The results of this survey were regarded as highly -favorable by the friends of the measure.</p> - -<p>Mr. Kelley regarded his labors and expenditures as well rewarded. -“Franklin,” he observes, “was not more delighted when he drew lightning -from the clouds, nor Columbus when he discovered America, than I was -when it was demonstrated, by instrumental measurement, that the two -oceans could be united, that all the science, industry, enlightened -enterprise, and generous expenditure had not been exhausted in vain.”</p> - -<p>To verify this survey, Congress authorized the Secretaries of War and -Navy to organize a joint expedition. In accordance with this authority, -the Secretary of the Navy designated Com. Craven. This gallant officer -was afterward sunk off Mobile, and lost with all the crew of his ship. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span></p> - -<h3>MICHLER’S ROUTE.</h3> - -<p>To Lieut. N. Michler, Corps of Topographical Engineers, (now Brevet -Brigadier-General,) the execution of the topographical survey was -assigned. The operations of this officer were published in the form of -a diary, with special scientific reports and observations, accompanied -by maps and profiles. The special reports embrace observations upon -geology, botany, hipsometrical and astronomical determinations, -climatology, and field notes.</p> - -<p>The itinerary is full and interesting, supplying information valuable -to future explorers. The reader is never asked to accept a statement -upon the <i>ipse dixit</i> of the writer. The observation of a corps of -intelligent surveyors is laid before the reader.</p> - -<p>The line adopted by General Michler may be described as follows: To -avoid the bar at the mouth of the Atrato, a canal, about two and -one-half miles, is to be cut through the channel of the caño coquito. -The mouth of this caño is protected by nature from the prevailing -winds. The Atrato affords navigation for the largest ships. The -remaining part of the line is described in General Michler’s words: -“Let the first section follow the projected line referred to above, -across the Lagunas to its intersection with the Truando; the second -section connects this last point by a straight line with the head -of the Palizadas; the third extends in a direct line to the foot of -the Saltos; the fourth in a curved line to the head of the Saltos, -including a tunnel of 800 feet through the Sierra de los Saltos; the -fifth leads directly to the mouth of the river Grundó, a tributary of -the Nercua; the sixth leaves the valley of the Nercua at the point by -a straight line, perpendicular to the axis of the Cordilleras de los -Andes, and, after piercing the mountains with a tunnel 12,500 feet -in length, continues on to the mouth of the Chuparador; the seventh -follows for some distance down the valley of the river Paracuchichí; -and, lastly, the eighth strikes in a direct line for the Bahia -Ensenadá, or Estero de Paracuchichí.</p> - -<p>“The line proposed by Mr. Kennish differs very materially from the one -just described. It leaves the Atrato at the mouth of the Truando, and -follows the meanderings of the stream to its junction with the Nercua; -it then ascends the valleys of the latter and of the Hingador, and -strikes across the mountains to the Pacific. The length of the cut by -his plan is stated in his report to be 56.08 miles.</p> - -<p>“In order to complete the line of canal communication between the -Atrato and the Pacific, it is necessary to connect the Estero de -Paracuchichí with Humboldt’s Bay. It is proposed to do this by a cut -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span> -from the former across the peninsula, and then by building out in its -prolongation, from the shores of the latter, jetties to form a passage -through the surf into deep water of the ocean. The depth of the cut -between them will have to be sufficient to allow for the swells of the -latter, at least from thirty-five to forty feet below low tide.”</p> - -<p>To connect the Atrato with the Pacific by a canal without locks, there -would be 95 miles of river navigation, and 52⅔ miles of canal, making -an aggregate length of 147⅔ miles.</p> - -<p>The following table gives the different items and the total cost -of the work:</p> - -<p class="center space-above1"><big><i>Interoceanic Ship Canal</i>.</big></p> - -<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="_" cellpadding="0" rules="cols" > - <caption><i>Summary of the estimated cost of the canal and appurtenances.</i></caption> - <thead><tr> - <th class="tdc bb2" colspan="2"> </th> - </tr><tr> - <th class="tdc bb">OBJECT OF EXPENDITURE.</th> - <th class="tdc bb">ESTIMATE BY<br />GEN. MICHLER<br /> FOR EXCAVATION<br />AND TUNNELING.</th> - </tr> - </thead> - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdl">Works at the mouth of the Atrato</td> - <td class="tdr">$<span class="ws3">500,000</span></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Excavation of earth</td> - <td class="tdr">24,835,173</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Rock cuttings</td> - <td class="tdr">64,774,950</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Tunneling</td> - <td class="tdr">13,995,000</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Pacific harbor improvements</td> - <td class="tdr">1,150,000</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Light-house</td> - <td class="tdr">35,000</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Piers</td> - <td class="tdr">25,000</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Depots on Pacific</td> - <td class="tdr">50,000</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Depots on line, and hospital</td> - <td class="tdr">35,000</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Depot at junction</td> - <td class="tdr">15,000</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Executive department</td> - <td class="tdr">120,000</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Engineer department</td> - <td class="tdr">375,000</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Medical department</td> - <td class="tdr">80,000</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Pay department</td> - <td class="tdr">90,000</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Commissary department</td> - <td class="tdr">120,000</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Quartermaster’s department</td> - <td class="tdr">135,000</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Dredging machinery</td> - <td class="tdr">350,000</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Hoisting and pumping engines’ machinery  </td> - <td class="tdr bb">875,000</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdr">$ 107,560,123</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Add 25 per cent. for contingencies</td> - <td class="tdr bb">26,890,031</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdr">$ 134,450,154</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc bt" colspan="2"> </td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> - -<p class="space-above1">This estimate supposes the dimensions of the -canal to be 100 feet wide and 30 feet deep. This rate ($2.50) per cubic -yard is evidently too small. Estimating this tunnel at the contract -price being employed ($5.40), the cost will be $30,229,200; and should -the price reach the not improbable limit of $10 per cubic yard, the -cost will be increased to $55,970,000. Substituting these sums in place -of the cost of tunneling as given in the above estimate, and the total -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span> -cost of the canal along this route will, in the first case, be -$150,684,354, and, in the second case, $176,625,154, which is not -excessive, if the tunnel is to be lined throughout.</p> - -<p>The Penaebach tunnel is the only one in England that is -self-supporting. It is driven through solid basalt. The Penmaenwhr -tunnel, pierced through hard green-stone, had to be lined throughout; -and the Bangor tunnel, supposed to be sufficiently firm, was afterward -cased with brick. It has been found necessary to line some of the -tunnels of the Washington aqueduct, which are driven through very hard -gneiss.</p> - -<p>Before taking leave of this instructive report, we have selected some -interesting portions of the narrative and scientific statements for -quotation:</p> - -<p>“The great falls of the Hingador are grand and exceedingly romantic, -and equal in height and beauty to many of those in other countries -which elicit so much admiration from all lovers of magnificent scenery. -The valley itself is pleasant to gaze upon; many bright streams gush -into it, and impart additional charms to the already picturesque -landscape of falls and rapids, and rich tropical vegetation. Several -thermal springs were discovered at the foot of the great falls.</p> - -<p>“As the party had to wade through the water, over smooth and slippery -rocks, and clamber up steep precipices, it took four days to accomplish -this section of the survey. Several fragments of rocks were broken -off at the head of the falls for subsequent analysis. According to -the report of the geologist, of which the following is an extract, -‘the rocky falls were found to be overcoated with a light, shaly -conglomerate of a cemented texture, and containing, imbedded in a -calcareous matrix, coarse sand and gravel. Higher up, in one of the -western head branches of this stream, a more consolidated semi-rock was -noticed, containing copiously interspersed fragments of little shells. -This rock seems also to be impregnated with carbonate of lime.’”</p> - -<p>The character of the natives may be gathered from the extract: “January -30th, 1858—Whilst seated on the rocks overlooking the falls, and -listening to the music of the roaring waters, as they rushed fiercely -past, with an occasional anxious glance at the curve of the river -above, in expectancy of the momentary appearance of the long-expected -canoe, the attention was suddenly drawn toward a long line of Indians, -men, women, and children, emerging from the trail over the Sierra. As -they filed by, several familiar faces were seen, and a kindly nod of -recognition given and returned. Each bore a pack, from the largest to -the smallest; these rested upon the back, and were supported by bands, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span> -composed of the bark of trees, which passed in front of the forehead. -Most of their effects were packed away in baskets, made of bark of -certain trees, and very neatly manufactured. They proved to be old -friends from Tocame, and were <i>en route</i> to make a visit to one of -their Tambos, on the Nercua. All fear as to moving ahead was dispelled -at sight of them. After depositing their loads on the rocks, near the -small haven, just above the falls, they all left again as quietly as -they had come, in order to bring up their canoes over the Saltos.</p> - -<p>“Whilst the members of the engineer corps were extremely anxious to -discharge their duties accurately and faithfully, and to prosecute, in -the most thorough manner, every conceivable examination which could, -in the remotest degree, furnish additional information in reference -to the great work upon which they were engaged; still, circumstances -over which they had no control, such as their want of provisions, and -the scarcity of money wherewith to purchase and renew even necessary -supplies, compelled them to turn back from the Pacific, and leave -unaccomplished the reconnoissance of both the Paracuchichí and Jurador -rivers. To have rendered their labors complete these examinations -should have been made in connection with their other most interesting -duties. The future survey of these streams, and more especially of the -former, together with that of the country, between its head-waters and -those of the Pavarador, a tributary of the Nercua, and also between -some of the tributaries of the Truando and the coast, at some more -southern point of Humboldt Bay, may throw a flood of light upon the -feasibility of the work in contemplation.”</p> - -<p>He again expresses his regret that he was unable to extend his -examination:</p> - -<p>“It is to be greatly regretted that circumstances prevented the party -from gaining more minute information concerning the valley of the -Paracuchichí, and of the transversal passes leading from it through -the mountains into the valley of a large tributary of the Truando, -which flows in only a few miles above its mouth. As this river has more -than twice the quantity of water possessed by the Nercua, it is highly -probable that a still more favorable route can be found leading out -from its valley above the junction.”</p> - -<p class="space-below1">The following table of comparison between altitudes, determined -by the level and by barometric observations, shows how much has been gained in -accuracy, since the time of Humboldt, in the use of the barometer: -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span></p> - -<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="_" cellpadding="0" > - <caption><i>Table of data used in computing the various heights, with the - results as compared with the heights obtained by the level.</i></caption> - <thead><tr> - <th class="tdc bb2" colspan="8"> </th> - </tr><tr class="font_tiny"> - <th class="tdc bb" colspan="3">STATIONS.</th> - <th class="tdc bb">MEAN<br />READING OF<br /> BAROMETER. </th> - <th class="tdc bb">MEAN<br /> TEMP. </th> - <th class="tdc bb"> BAROMETRIC <br />HEIGHT.</th> - <th class="tdc bb"> HEIGHT <br />BY<br />LEVEL.</th> - <th class="tdc bb"><span class="ws4">DIFFERENCE.</span></th> - </tr><tr> - <th class="tdc" colspan="3"> </th> - <th class="tdc"><small> INCHES. </small></th> - <th class="tdc"><small>DEG.</small></th> - <th class="tdr"><small>FEET.</small>  </th> - <th class="tdc"><small>FEET.</small></th> - <th class="tdr"><small>FEET.</small>  </th> - </tr> - </thead> - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="3">Sea coast</td> - <td class="tdc">29.874</td> - <td class="tdc">80. </td> - <td class="tdr_sp1">...  </td> - <td class="tdc">...</td> - <td class="tdr_sp1">...</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="3">First camp on Truando</td> - <td class="tdc">29.817</td> - <td class="tdc">75.4</td> - <td class="tdr_sp1">58.39</td> - <td class="tdc">44.57</td> - <td class="tdr_sp1">+ 13.82</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="3">Tocame</td> - <td class="tdc">29.805</td> - <td class="tdc">76.8</td> - <td class="tdr_sp1">69.6 </td> - <td class="tdc">57.39</td> - <td class="tdr_sp1">12.21</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="3">Foot of Saltos</td> - <td class="tdc">29.759</td> - <td class="tdc">76.1</td> - <td class="tdr_sp1">122.65</td> - <td class="tdc">97.5</td> - <td class="tdr_sp1">25.15</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="3">Observatory Hill</td> - <td class="tdc">29.663</td> - <td class="tdc">76.6</td> - <td class="tdr_sp1">207.45</td> - <td class="tdc">204.95</td> - <td class="tdr_sp1">2.5</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="3">Head Salto Grande</td> - <td class="tdc">29.741</td> - <td class="tdc">75.9</td> - <td class="tdr_sp1">132.3 </td> - <td class="tdc">138.79</td> - <td class="tdr_sp1">- 6.49</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="3">Head of Saltos</td> - <td class="tdc">29.737</td> - <td class="tdc">75.9</td> - <td class="tdr_sp1">138.1 </td> - <td class="tdc">183.47</td> - <td class="tdr_sp1">45.37</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="3">Junction of Rivers Nercua and Truando</td> - <td class="tdc">29.674</td> - <td class="tdc">77. </td> - <td class="tdr_sp1">192.5 </td> - <td class="tdc">192.6 </td> - <td class="tdr_sp1">+ 0.44</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="3">Tambo</td> - <td class="tdc">29.607</td> - <td class="tdc">77. </td> - <td class="tdr_sp1">260.92</td> - <td class="tdc">264.4 </td> - <td class="tdr_sp1">- 3.48</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="3">First Ridge west of Rio Nercua</td> - <td class="tdc">28.815</td> - <td class="tdc">75.2</td> - <td class="tdr_sp1">1,046.45</td> - <td class="tdc">...</td> - <td class="tdr_sp1">...</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"><a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> - Log Crossing on</td> - <td class="tdc" rowspan="3"><img src="images/cbl-3.jpg" alt="{" width="16" height="57" /></td> - <td class="tdl">No. 1362</td> - <td class="tdc">29.053</td> - <td class="tdc">75.2</td> - <td class="tdr_sp1">809.42</td> - <td class="tdc">791.23</td> - <td class="tdr_sp1">+ 18.19</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="ws4">Rio Hingador</span></td> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdc">...</td> - <td class="tdc">...</td> - <td class="tdr_sp1">Mean 879.9 </td> - <td class="tdc">...</td> - <td class="tdr_sp1">...</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdl">No. 1363</td> - <td class="tdc">28.912</td> - <td class="tdc">75.2</td> - <td class="tdr_sp1">949.94</td> - <td class="tdc">...</td> - <td class="tdr_sp1">...</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="3">Camp on Hingador</td> - <td class="tdc">29.074</td> - <td class="tdc">75.2</td> - <td class="tdr_sp1">788.6 </td> - <td class="tdc">814.32</td> - <td class="tdr_sp1">- 25.72</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="3">Dividing Ridge</td> - <td class="tdc">28.913</td> - <td class="tdc">75.2</td> - <td class="tdr_sp1">948.5</td> - <td class="tdc">947.44</td> - <td class="tdr_sp1">+ 1.06</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="3">Rio Chupepe</td> - <td class="tdc">29.631</td> - <td class="tdc">75.2</td> - <td class="tdr_sp1">240.24</td> - <td class="tdc">241.35</td> - <td class="tdr_sp1">- 1.11</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="3">Rio Totumia, below Dos Bocas</td> - <td class="tdc">29.837</td> - <td class="tdc">75.2</td> - <td class="tdr_sp1">40.6</td> - <td class="tdc">45.3</td> - <td class="tdr_sp1">5.24</td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> - -<p>These hypsometric determinations differ from the true levels at the -points of observation from two to forty-five feet. These figures fall -considerably within the limit of error considered as probable by Baron -Humboldt. This distinguished observer states that the barometer may be -trusted to determine heights to within from seventy-five or ninety feet -of the truth.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span> -<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER VII.</h2></div> - -<p class="neg-indent blockquot2"> Physico-Geographical -Features—Deficiency of Information—Barometer—Colonel -Williamson—Lieutenants Gibbon, Herndon and Maury—Señor -Moro—Popagayos—Influence of the Andes—Climate—Rainy Season—Colonel -Hughes —Statistics—Population—Indians—Vegetation—Building -Materials—Woods—Geology. </p> - -<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">The</span> present chapter includes certain -physico-geographical features subsidiary to the duties of the engineer -and explorer. The object of this paper excludes all matter, not -possessing practical value for this purpose, and admits of little more -than mere mention.</p> - -<p>The previous chapters indicate a deficiency in information in regard to -the following routes:</p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> <p>1. Nicaragua—The practicability of a route -between Monkey Point and the Lake Nicaragua, or San Juan River.</p> - -<p>2. Chiriqui—No information extant.</p> - -<p>3. Panama route, and improvement of the harbors.</p> - -<p>4. San Blas and Chepo—A better line may be practicable.</p> - -<p>5. Caledonia Bay, or the Gulf of Urabà to the Gulf of San Miguel, by -way of the Savana or Lara Rivers.</p> - -<p>6. Examination of the depression noticed by Gen. Michler.</p> - -<p>7. The line proposed by Sr. Gorgoza.</p> </div> - -<p>The elevation of the passes upon these routes should be definitely -fixed. The instrument which must determine the question of -practicability is the Wye spirit-level. If the capacity of the harbors -are insufficient for the largest class of ships, or can not be made -available at a reasonable cost, further examination is unnecessary.</p> - -<h3>BAROMETER.</h3> - -<p>Notwithstanding the improved formulæ, and more careful method of -observation recommended by Lieut.-Col. Williamson, Corps Engineers, -the barometer is subject to peculiar and anomalous variations, along -the slopes of the Cordillera of the Isthmus and the Andes. Lieuts. -Gibbon and Herndon refer to this phenomenon. Lieut. Maury attributed -the effect to the damming or piling up of the trade-winds against the -mountains. A recent traveler in the valley of the Amazon, I. Orton, -observed the same phenomenon, but objects to Maury’s theory. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span></p> - -<p>Sr. Moro makes the following observations: “If, under these -circumstances (prevalent winds), barometrical observations are made -simultaneously on both sides of the Sierra, on the side of the Gulf, -they will exhibit a lower elevation than the true one, the error being -greater as that station may happen to be lower down or more towards the -north; but if time should admit of waiting until the weather be equally -fine on both sides (which seldom happens), then the difference between -the levels of the barometrical columns is insensible.”</p> - -<p>Ventosa is peculiarly windy, and Nicaragua is subject to the Popagayos, -a species of monsoon, upon the Pacific coast. But the more placid -climate of the Atrato is similarly affected. “It is known as an -established fact,” remarks Capt. Kennish, “that the clouds seldom -pass over the Cordillera toward the Pacific, but are attracted by the -mountains, and disgorge themselves on the Atlantic side; hence the -reason of the perpetual rain, thunder, and lightning in the Atrato -Valley, while on the Pacific coast there is scarcely any rain for eight -months of the year.”</p> - -<p>This unequal meteorological condition affects the barometer, and -General Michler observed unaccountable discrepancies in the readings of -two barometers when he reached the Hingador. With this exception, the -results of this officer’s observation were as close an approximation to -the truth as can be expected in a reconnaissance, but it is impossible -to say what given observation may be affected by some unknown cause.</p> - -<p>A comparison of hypsometric determinations with the same altitudes, -ascertained by the spirit-level, will furnish some important elements -for eliminating errors. But this operation doubles the labor of the -surveyor, and time and cost of his explorations.</p> - -<p>The errors of the barometer have led to singular inferences, and the -errors of observers to many more. Humboldt, La Condamine, Boussingault, -give a decreasing pressure along the Andes; and Orton, taking this -statement for granted, asks, “Are the Andes sinking?” The evidence of -geological and historical periods is, that the Andes and sea coast are -rising. The exceptions to this rule are local, and perhaps only in -appearance.</p> - -<p>These objections to the use of this instrument only apply to situations -where the spirit-level can not be used. To determine heights -inaccessible to any other instrument, or for simultaneous observation -of the meteorological condition of an extensive area of country, the -portability of the barometer render it invaluable. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span></p> - -<p>The height of the barometric column, on the Pacific slope of the Andes, -according to Orton, is 29.930. He gives two values for the Atlantic side, -29.997 and 29.932. Michler gives the Atlantic coast of the Atrato 29.874.</p> - -<h3>CLIMATE.</h3> - -<p>A well-defined rainy season prevails for the most part throughout -the Isthmus, and permits the selection of suitable weather for -the operations of the engineer. Rain varies with proximity to the -mountains, etc., but the interval from December to May may be regarded -as the dry season. The seasons are sometimes reversed, as in Costa -Rica. There the dry season prevails upon the Pacific coast from -November to April, but on the Atlantic the contrary prevails. Fall of -rain in Honduras from May to October is 90.89 inches.</p> - -<p>The tierras templadas, or elevated table-lands, are universally -healthy, and the climate in those regions possesses a charm which -belongs exclusively to the tropics. The unhealthy influences of the -marshes and sea-coast is much exaggerated, and may be said to cease -during the winter or dry season.</p> - -<p>Col. Hughes, who visited the most insalubrious part of the Isthmus, -remarks that travelers, “who live like civilized beings,” have little -to fear from the climate. The writer spent six months, chiefly near the -sea-coast of Columbia, during part of the time compelled to sleep among -the swamps of the delta of the Magdelina, and although exposed to the -sun during the day, and sleeping in the open air at night, not one case -of febrile sickness occurred in the party of which he was a member, nor -were more than two cases of fever observed among the natives during the -period of residence.</p> - -<p>The temperature varies with the elevation above the sea. Thermometric -records are of small value without the monthly and daily means of -localities.</p> - -<p class="space-below1">The following table may give some general -notion of their range:</p> - -<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="_" cellpadding="0" rules="cols" > - <caption><big><i>Fahrenheit.</i></big></caption> - <thead><tr> - <th class="tdc bb2" colspan="7"> </th> - </tr><tr> - <th class="tdc bb"> </th> - <th class="tdc bb"> TEHUANTEPEC. </th> - <th class="tdc bb"> HONDURAS. </th> - <th class="tdc bb"> BELIZE. </th> - <th class="tdc bb"> COSTA RICA. </th> - <th class="tdc bb"> NICARAGUA. </th> - <th class="tdl_sp1 bb">ATRATO.</th> - </tr> - </thead> - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdl">May</td> - <td class="tdc">90°</td> - <td class="tdc">71°</td> - <td class="tdc">71°</td> - <td class="tdc">57°</td> - <td class="tdc">71°</td> - <td class="tdl_sp1">Average</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">June</td> - <td class="tdc">88°</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdl_sp1"> during</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">April</td> - <td class="tdc">83°</td> - <td class="tdc">to</td> - <td class="tdc">to</td> - <td class="tdc">to</td> - <td class="tdc">to</td> - <td class="tdl_sp1">February</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">May</td> - <td class="tdc">88°</td> - <td class="tdc">89°</td> - <td class="tdc">84°</td> - <td class="tdc">85°</td> - <td class="tdc">90°</td> - <td class="tdl_sp1"> 75.2</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">December and  <br />  January</td> - <td class="tdc">74°</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdl_sp1"></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc bt" colspan="7"> </td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> - -<p class="space-above1"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span> -In Guatemala average maximum 88.7°. Minimum 38.9°.</p> - -<p>Statistics, governmental and social, of Central America, are very -uncertain. The revolutionary condition of a society, in which it is -the interest of the chiefs to impose unjust burdens on the people, -and of the people to deceive; where, before an enumeration can -fairly begin, the government which authorized it may be deposed, and -another substituted in its place; the poverty, anarchy, and social -demoralization which result, are circumstances very unfavorable to a -correct determination of the resources of the country, or the number of -its population.</p> - -<p class="space-below1">The following figures may not be free from this -uncertainty, but give the best approximation that could be obtained:</p> - -<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="_" cellpadding="0" rules="cols" > - <caption><big><i>Population of the States of Central America.</i></big></caption> - <thead><tr> - <th class="tdc bb2" colspan="3"> </th> - </tr><tr> - <th class="tdc bb"> </th> - <th class="tdc bb"> SQUARE MILES. </th> - <th class="tdc bb"> POPULATION. </th> - </tr> - </thead> - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdl">Tehuantepec</td> - <td class="tdc">...</td> - <td class="tdr_sp1">61,000</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Costa Rica</td> - <td class="tdc">23,000</td> - <td class="tdr_sp1">150,000</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Nicaragua</td> - <td class="tdc">48,000</td> - <td class="tdr_sp1">290,000</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">San Salvador</td> - <td class="tdc"> 9,600</td> - <td class="tdr_sp1">294,000</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Guatemala</td> - <td class="tdc">43,380</td> - <td class="tdr_sp1">907,500</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Honduras</td> - <td class="tdc">42,000</td> - <td class="tdr_sp1">350,000</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Panama, including Darien</td> - <td class="tdc">...</td> - <td class="tdr_sp1 bb">168,000</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdr_sp1">2,220,500</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc bt" colspan="3"> </td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> - -<p class="space-above1">This population is of a mixed character, -composed of Europeans, Mestizoes, Indians, Negroes, and Zambos; the -European element being largely in the minority.</p> - -<h3>INDIANS.</h3> - -<p>Explorers in every part of the Isthmus, with the exception of Darien, -give favorable accounts of the temper of the natives. Trautwine, who -crossed the divide at several points in the province of Chócó, regarded -a bundle of cigars as the best passport. General Michler depended on -the natives for provisions during a part of his survey, and was never -disappointed.</p> - -<p>But the Darien and San Blas Indians have been permitted to threaten and -murder with impunity. They have been further emboldened by the timid -behavior, and exasperated by the conduct of expeditionists. Had the -hostile demonstration of the savages against Codazzi and Gisborne, and -the massacre of four of Capt. Prevost’s men, been promptly punished, -subsequent exploring parties might now pass through the country unmolested. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span></p> - -<p>Strain, who thoroughly distrusted them, acknowledges that in one case -his suspicions were unjust. After dismissing his guides, he remarks -that he “was afterward convinced that the Caledonia Indians, and their -Sucubti friends, intended to lead them by the most direct route to the -Savana, and that they were prevented doing so by the Indians of the -Chuquanaque, or the Chuqunos, whom they met on the seventh day’s march, -and whom from the first excited suspicion.” It would appear that this -unfortunate expedition would have been better served by a little more -confidence in these “formidable Indians,” as Gisborne calls them, and -a little acquaintance with their language, than by the fortitude it -afterward exhibited in encountering the trials which befell it.</p> - -<p>When misfortune appeals so strongly to sympathy, as it does in this -case, criticism becomes an ungracious task. Throughout this paper we -have omitted much in observing the rule, laid down for ourselves, to -indicate what should be done, rather than notice what should not have -been done. We therefore quote with pleasure the following graphic -account of the difficulty of cutting a way through the tropical -undergrowth, which we find in Mr. Gisborne’s narrative:</p> - -<p><i>Cutting the way</i>, “we were wading along the river margin, or facing -clusters of prickly stems sometimes backing this mass of vegetation. -Every step had its difficulty, and every difficulty was attended with -additional bodily suffering; but our hearts nearly failed when an -interminable mangrove wood extended as far as the eye can reach.</p> - -<p>“The twisted and interlaced roots, some eight feet high, grew out -of a bed of slimy mud, left by the tidal waters, making progress a -succession of gymnastic feats, in which the gift of balancing had no -small share. Hand and foot were equally occupied, and every muscle was -called into play; nearly an hour’s perseverance had only advanced us a -few hundred yards.”</p> - -<p>Another description of the same character will exhibit some of the -difficulties: “Occasionally a swamp, growing an impenetrable mass of -vegetation, delayed our progress and expended our energies in fruitless -hacking. The only way to get through many of these cienegas was to -fall on one’s back into the middle of the matted vegetation, and then -compress a place the length of one’s self, which those behind trod -down. After persevering in this manner for several hundred yards, an -inlet would be reached with a soft, muddy bottom, and waist deep from -the flood. On the other bank, the same mode of progress had to be -adopted, until prickly palms, and still more prickly creepers, made a -variety in the difficulty and suffering.” -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span></p> - -<p>Strain met with similar obstruction. “Hitherto, Strain had led the -party, every day cutting a path with his cutlass. This was most -laborious, and Mr. Truxton insisted on going ahead in his place. The -undergrowth was exceedingly dense, and composed, for the most part, of -‘pinello,’ or little pine, a plant resembling that which produces the -pineapple, but with longer leaves, serrated with long spines, which -produce most painful wounds, especially as the last few days’ march had -stripped the trousers from many of the party.”</p> - -<p>The best way to clear these obstructions has been found to employ -natives, with machetes. This method, invariably adopted in Central -America, has been recommended by Admiral Davis, who also advises the -explorer to carry with him a good supply of canned and concentrated -provisions.</p> - -<h3>BUILDING MATERIAL.</h3> - -<p>Suitable stone is found without difficulty. Hydraulic cement will -probably have to be imported, although hydraulic limestone is said to -have been found in the States of Vera Cruz and Oazaca.</p> - -<p>The explorer will find difficulty in discovering building sand. The -sea beaches may afford suitable sand for hydraulic work. Bricks can be -manufactured, without difficulty, at many points.</p> - -<h3>WOOD AND TIMBER.</h3> - -<p>The following, from the account of Lloyd and Sidell, gives the local -names and character of the most useful species:</p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> -<p>1. <i>Guachapali.</i>—Abundant; four or five feet in diameter, like -walnut; good under water.</p> - -<p>2. <i>Macano</i>, or <i>Cacique</i>.—Crooked, medium size; good in ground or -water; much used.</p> - -<p>3. <i>Espino Amarillo.</i>—Not abundant; good in water; yellow; not -liable to decay, or to be attacked by insects; straight; easily worked; -seven kinds.</p> - -<p>4. <i>Cedro Espinoso.</i>—Large, straight, light; heart alone good in -open air and under ground.</p> - -<p>5. <i>Cedro Cerollo.</i>—Large, crooked, durable.</p> - -<p>6. <i>Cedro real, Amargo.</i>—Finest cedar of the country; used for many -purposes in carpentry and boat-building; grows to five or six feet in -diameter, and is very common.</p> - -<p>7. <i>Nispero.</i>—Large; not easily worked; stands well when sheltered; -insects do not touch it; resists transverse strain; two kinds much esteemed. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span></p> - -<p>8. <i>Guayacan</i>, or <i>Guallacan</i> (<i>Lignum vitæ</i>).—Common; -close-grained; heavy; works well when green; grows to four or five feet -in diameter; used for gun-carriages, wheels, etc.</p> - -<p>9. <i>Algarobo.</i>—Excellent wood; hard and tough; reddish brown, with -streaks; large; common; used for gun-carriages.</p> - -<p>10. <i>Mangle Caballero</i> (<i>Mangrove</i>).—Good as the Nispero; -abundant near water; gives pieces thirty to forty feet long, and one -foot square; used for vessels.</p> - -<p>11. <i>Alcomorque</i> (cork tree).—Supplies large beams, which wear well.</p> - -<p>12. <i>Malvicino.</i>—Yellow; abundant; wears well; employed in building.</p> - -<p>13. <i>Caoba</i> (mahogany).—Large; not heavy; good for interiors; if not -properly seasoned, is brittle.</p> - -<p>14. <i>Robles.</i>—Large; not heavy; easily worked; used for paddle by -the Indians; stand well in air; two varieties, one not good.</p> - -<p>15. <i>Cocobolo Prieto.</i>—Tough, hard; beautifully figured (like -rosewood); three feet in diameter; fragrant when green; used for -carpentry and cabinet work.</p> - -<p>16. <i>Tutumia</i> (calabash tree).</p> - -<p>17. <i>Cano Blanco.</i>—Cane; good for lathing when split.</p> - -<p>18. <i>Quira.</i>—Tough, close-grained, heavy; different colors, from -light brown to very dark; very high; from one to three and one-half -feet in diameter; plentiful; used in house-building.</p> - -<p>19. <i>Madrono Fino.</i>—Like box; one and one-half foot in diameter; -excellent wood for turning.</p> -</div> - -<p>Mr. Loyd gives a list of ninety-five varieties of woods, of which list -the above are the most valuable.</p> - -<h3>GEOLOGY.</h3> - -<p>A mere enumeration of the geological specimens, which is all that -present knowledge upon this subject will permit, is not thought -desirable in this paper. Speculations and theories, if not premature, -would be out of place.</p> - -<p>The physical geography of Central America is the proper subject for -a treatise. We have already seen how the table-lands of Guatemala, -from four to five thousand feet above the level of the sea, sink to an -insignificant height at Panama and Nicaragua. “There is no spot on the -globe,” says Humboldt, “so full of volcanoes as this part of America, -between 11° and 13° of latitude.” -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span></p> - -<p class="space-below1">Two or three volcanoes, Fuego and Agua, in -the State of Guatemala, are 14,000 and 12,000 feet high. Some of the -volcanoes of Nicaragua reach a height of 7,000 feet. A common and -remarkable characteristic of all of them is, that they rise in a -conical form from the plain.</p> - -<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="_" cellpadding="0" rules="cols" > - <caption><big><i>Gold and silver produce of Central America.</i></big></caption> - <thead><tr> - <th class="tdc bb2" colspan="4"> </th> - </tr><tr> - <th class="tdc bb"> </th> - <th class="tdc bb">GOLD.</th> - <th class="tdc bb">SILVER.</th> - <th class="tdc bb"> BOTH METALS.</th> - </tr> - </thead> - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdl">1804 to 1848  </td> - <td class="tdc">$8,800,000</td> - <td class="tdc">$4,400,000</td> - <td class="tdc">$13,200,000</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">1848 to 1868</td> - <td class="tdc bb"> 5,000,000</td> - <td class="tdc bb"> 3,000,000</td> - <td class="tdc bb">  8,000,000</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">  Total</td> - <td class="tdc"> $13,800,000 </td> - <td class="tdc"> $7,400,000 </td> - <td class="tdc"> $21,200,000</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc bt" colspan="4"> </td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> - -<p class="space-above1">The mines of the Provinces of Panama and the -Veraguas are not worked so extensively as they deserve to be. A small -quantity of gold is annually produced in the Republics of Nicaragua, -Honduras, Costa Rica, and San Salvador. The Costa Rican mint, in 1852, -coined between fifty and one hundred thousand dollars annually. The -actual gold product is estimated at ten times this amount. The most -important mines in new Granada (Colombia) are found in the State of -Antioquia. In 1868, the yield was $1,500,000 gold; $193,000 silver. -The detritus of all the rivers of this State is auriferous. An English -company works the Marmato gold mine and the Santa Anna silver mine, -near Honda, on the Magdelina River. They have provided twelve stamping -mills, representing one hundred and ten heads, which crush from ten -to nineteen thousand tons per year, yielding, on an average, eleven -pennyweights eleven grains of gold per ton.</p> - -<hr class="r25" /> - -<div class="footnotes"> -<p class="f150 u"><b>Footnotes:</b></p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> -<a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> -For more detailed account of the difficulties and of the preliminary -work, the reader is referred to the pamphlets of Capt. Methven, -Pen. and Oriental Steamship Company; of J. N. Strouse, U. S. N.; -Mr. H. Mitchell, Coast Survey; Blackwood, Dec., 1869, and other -periodicals.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> -<a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> -The reader is referred to the reports of the French engineers; to the -pamphlet of J. N. Nourse, U. S. N.; Blackwood, Dec., 1869; London -Times, and other periodicals.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> -<a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> -See Delta Report of Generals Humphreys and Abbot.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> -<a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> -17,738 miles during S. W. monsoon. For a part of this table I am indebted -to Com. B. F. Sands, U. S. N.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> -<a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> -Present average of the tonnage of ships of the commercial marine is 380 -to 400 tons. The calculation supposes a commercial year of 300 days, -and that the same number of ships arrive daily.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> -<a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> -The Egyptian correspondent of the Boston Advertiser, March 15, 1870, -observes: “The channel at Lake Timseh has not much more than 19 feet -of water, as on the day of opening. We met two steamers on their way -to Bombay, an English vessel going for cotton, and the French steamer -Asie. This was evidently all the business of the day, and from the -report of the company, it is a fair average of the amount of work done. -The company say they register one thousand five hundred tons a day.”</p> - -<p>The following statement exhibits more fully the tonnage and -toll-receipts of the Suez Canal:</p> - -<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="_" cellpadding="0" > - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdl">In December, 1869 </td> - <td class="tdc"> 9</td> - <td class="tdc"> steamers and sailing ships </td> - <td class="tdr">40,000</td> - <td class="tdc"> francs</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">In January, 1870</td> - <td class="tdc">16</td> - <td class="tdc">“<span class="ws5"> </span>“</td> - <td class="tdr">170,000</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">In February, 1870</td> - <td class="tdc">28</td> - <td class="tdc">“<span class="ws5"> </span>“</td> - <td class="tdr">269,000</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">In March, 1870</td> - <td class="tdc">52</td> - <td class="tdc">“<span class="ws5"> </span>“</td> - <td class="tdr">450,000</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> -<a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> -The Caledonia Canal is 25 miles long, and 122 feet wide at water surface. -Dimensions of locks, 178½ by 39 feet. Lockage, 95 feet.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> -<a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> -An announcement in the Cincinnati Commercial declares that the -exploring party now at Darien have failed to find a practicable route -at that point.—{May 11, 1870.}</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> -<a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> -At this station the difference in the readings of the barometers was -so great that the height was computed from the mean of the readings of -each instrument separately. In other cases the united mean of both was -used. The height given in the table was computed from the readings of -the barometer which was used as a standard.</p></div> -</div> -<hr class="r25" /> -<div class="transnote bbox"> -<p class="f120 space-above1">Transcriber's Notes:</p> -<hr class="r5" /> -<p class="indent">The cover image was created by the transcriber, and is in the public domain.</p> -<p class="indent">Typographical errors have been silently corrected.</p> -<p class="indent">Inconsistent place names have been silently corrected.</p> -</div> - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Is a Ship Canal Practicable?, by -Sylvanus Thayer Abert - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK IS A SHIP CANAL PRACTICABLE? *** - -***** This file should be named 61473-h.htm or 61473-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/6/1/4/7/61473/ - -Produced by deaurider, Paul Marshall and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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