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+This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements,
+metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be
+in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES.
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+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #61123 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/61123)
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-The Project Gutenberg EBook of Shafting, Pulleys, Belting and Rope
-Transmission, by Hubert E. Collins
-
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
-other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
-whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
-the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
-www.gutenberg.org.  If you are not located in the United States, you'll have
-to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook.
-
-Title: Shafting, Pulleys, Belting and Rope Transmission
-       The Power Handbooks Library
-
-Author: Hubert E. Collins
-
-Release Date: January 6, 2020 [EBook #61123]
-
-Language: English
-
-Character set encoding: UTF-8
-
-*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SHAFTING, PULLEYS, BELTING ***
-
-
-
-
-Produced by deaurider, Alan and the Online Distributed
-Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was
-produced from images generously made available by The
-Internet Archive)
-
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-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-                    SHAFTING, PULLEYS, BELTING
-                      AND ROPE TRANSMISSION
-
-
-
-
-                      THE POWER HANDBOOKS
-
-    The best library for the engineer and the man who hopes
-                          to be one.
-
-       This book is one of them. They are all good--and
-                           they cost
-
-  =$1.00 postpaid per volume. (English price 4/6 postpaid.)=
-
-                  _SOLD SEPARATELY OR IN SETS_
-
-                   BY PROF. AUGUSTUS H. GILL
-
-         OF THE MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
-
-                     ENGINE ROOM CHEMISTRY
-
-                     BY HUBERT E. COLLINS
-
-           BOILERS               KNOCKS AND KINKS
-           SHAFT GOVERNORS       PUMPS
-           ERECTING WORK
-           PIPES AND PIPING      SHAFTING, PULLEYS AND
-                                 BELTING
-
-                     BY F. E. MATTHEWS
-
-               REFRIGERATION. (In Preparation.)
-
-                    HILL PUBLISHING COMPANY
-
-                  505 PEARL STREET, NEW YORK
-
-               6 BOUVERIE STREET, LONDON, E. C.
-
-
-
-
-                     THE POWER HANDBOOKS
-
-                 Shafting, Pulleys, Belting
-
-                             AND
-
-                      Rope Transmission
-
-                    COMPILED AND WRITTEN
-
-                             BY
-
-                      HUBERT E. COLLINS
-
-                      Published by the
-                  McGraw-Hill Book Company
-                          New York
-
-          Successors to the Book Departments of the
-
-    McGraw Publishing Company    Hill Publishing Company
-
-                   Publishers of Books for
-
-  Electrical World       The Engineering and Mining Journal
-  The Engineering Record             Power and The Engineer
-  Electric Railway Journal               American Machinist
-
-
-
-
-      _Copyright, 1908_, BY THE HILL PUBLISHING COMPANY
-
-                    _All rights reserved_
-
-         _Hill Publishing Company, New York, U.S.A._
-
-
-
-
-INTRODUCTION
-
-
-THIS handbook is intended to furnish the reader with practical help
-for the every-day handling of shafting, pulleys and belting. These are
-allied in the operation of plants and it is a pretty generally conceded
-fact that all three are much neglected by many operators.
-
-A close perusal of these pages will enable the reader to determine
-the best course to pursue in the most common instances and in various
-troubles, and in all articles there are suggestions for similar cases
-which may arise.
-
-For instance, the need of belt dressing as a preservative, now
-generally conceded by most authorities, is fully covered in Chapter
-XI and the result of a test made by disinterested parties to find the
-degree of efficiency of four of the best known dressings is given. The
-results are of importance to all belt users.
-
-A portion of the book is also given to rope transmission which is in
-more general use to-day than ever before, and in this connection some
-advice is offered by experts as to the selection and care of the rope.
-Rope splices and how to make them will also prove valuable to many
-engineers.
-
-The author wishes to make acknowledgment to various contributors
-to _Power_ whose articles are used herein, and to some special
-contributors, from whose articles small portions have been taken.
-Acknowledgment is also made to Stanley H. Moore, the author of
-"Mechanical Engineering and Machine Shop Practice" for the section on
-splicing.
-
-                             HUBERT E. COLLINS.
-
-  NEW YORK, _November_, 1908.
-
-
-
-
-CONTENTS
-
-
-  CHAP.                                                PAGE
-
-      I SHAFTING HINTS                                    1
-
-     II SHAFTING HINTS                                   21
-
-    III SHAFTING HINTS                                   32
-
-     IV TRUING UP LINE SHAFTING                          49
-
-      V APPARATUS FOR LEVELING AND LINING SHAFTING       54
-
-     VI SOME PRACTICAL KINKS                             61
-
-    VII PRACTICAL METHODS OF LOOSENING PULLEYS           65
-
-   VIII SPLICING LEATHER BELTS                           72
-
-     IX CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF LEATHER BELTS             89
-
-      X BELTING--ITS USE AND ABUSE                       99
-
-     XI A COMPARATIVE TEST OF FOUR BELT DRESSINGS       102
-
-    XII BELT CREEP                                      106
-
-   XIII ROPE DRIVES                                     108
-
-    XIV A NEW SCHEME IN ROPE TRANSMISSION               115
-
-     XV HOW TO ORDER TRANSMISSION ROPE                  122
-
-    XVI A BELTING AND PULLEY CHART                      129
-
-   XVII SPLICING ROPE                                   135
-
-  XVIII WIRE ROPE TRANSMISSION                          143
-
-
-
-
-I
-
-SHAFTING HINTS[1]
-
-
-IN the installation, maintenance and repair of shafting, as in all
-other things, there is a right and a wrong way; and though the wrong
-way ranges in its defects from matters causing trivial inconvenience
-to absolute danger, the right too often--owing to lack of knowledge or
-discernment--finds but scant appreciation.
-
-[1] Contributed to Power by Chas. Herrman.
-
-Where, as is often the case, the end of a shaft is journaled to admit
-of the use of an odd, small-bore pillow block or wall-box hanger, the
-journaled part should equal in length twice the length of the hanger
-bearing plus the length of the collar. The hanger can thus readily be
-slid out of the wall box, and the necessity of uncoupling this shaft
-length and removing it before access to the bearing for purposes of
-cleaning or repair is done away with.
-
-A plank or board _A_ (Fig. 1), about 1/4 to 1/2 inch longer than the
-distance from the bottom of the shaft to the floor, can be used to good
-advantage at such times to free the hanger of the shaft's weight, and
-to prevent the shaft's springing from its own weight and the pulleys it
-may be carrying.
-
-Should it become necessary to place a pulley with half the hub on and
-half off the journaled part, this can readily be done by the use of a
-split bushing, as shown in sectional view of Fig. 1.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 1.]
-
-Very often a small-sized bearing is used and the shaft journaled off
-to act as a collar. Of this procedure it can only be said that if done
-with the idea of making a "good job" it signally fails of its object;
-if of necessity (a collar being insufficient), then the shaft is
-heavily overloaded and serious trouble will result, because of it.
-
-It is advisable to center punch, or otherwise mark, the ends of both
-shafts held by a compression coupling close up against the coupling,
-and both edges of the coupling hub should have a punch mark just
-opposite and close to the shaft punch marks. These marks will serve
-at all times to show at a moment's glance any end or circumferential
-slippage of the shafts within the coupling. The same method can be
-resorted to for proof of pulley slippage.
-
-When a new line of shafting is put up, the foot position of each hanger
-should be clearly marked out on their respective timbers _after_ the
-shaft has been brought into alinement. Hangers can thus be easily
-put back into their proper place should timber shrinkage or heavy
-strains cause them to shift out of line. This idea can be applied to
-good advantage on old lines also, but before marking out the hanger
-positions the shaft should be tried and brought into perfect alinement.
-
-Hangers that do not allow of any vertical adjustment should not be used
-in old buildings that are liable to settle. Shafting so run pretty
-nearly always gets out and keeps out of level.
-
-In flanged bolt couplings (Fig. 1) no part of the bolt should project
-beyond the flanges. And where a belt runs in close proximity to such
-a coupling, split wood collars should be used to cover in the exposed
-coupling flanges, bolt heads and nuts. Countershafts have been torn out
-of place times innumerable by belts getting caught and winding up on
-the main line.
-
-Whenever possible a space of 8 to 10 inches should be left between the
-end of a shaft line and the wall. A solid pulley or a new coupling can
-thus readily be put on by simply uncoupling and pushing the two shaft
-lengths apart without taking either down. Ten inches does not represent
-the full scope of pulleys admissible, for so long as the pulley hub
-does not exceed a 10-inch length the pulley face (the more readily in
-proportion to the larger pulley diameter) can be edged in between the
-shafts.
-
-Fig. 2 is an instance of bad judgment in locating the bearings. In one
-case this bearing overheated; the remedy is either to re-babbitt the
-old box or replace it with a new one.
-
-Both pulleys were solid and the keys--headless ones--had been driven
-home to stay. The rims of both pulleys almost touched the wall, and the
-circumferential position on the shaft of both these pulleys was such as
-to preclude the possibility (owing to an arm of _a_ being in a direct
-line with key _B_^1 and arm of _b_ with key _a_^1) of using anything
-but a side offset key starting drift.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 2.]
-
-An effort was made to loosen _b_ (which was farthest from the wall)
-by sledge-driving it toward the wall, hoping that the pulley might
-move off the key. The key, as was afterward found out, not having been
-oiled when originally driven home had rusted in place badly; though
-the pulley was moved by sledging, the key, secure in the pulley hub,
-remained there.
-
-Ultimately one of us had to get into pulley _b_, and, removing cap _c_,
-hold the improvised side offset, long, starting drift _D_ in place
-against _B_^1 at _b_^2 while the other swung the hand sledge at _a_.
-The entering end of the key, not having been file chamfered off, as it
-should have been (see _E_), our starting drift burred it up; so, after
-having started it, we had the pleasure of getting into _b_ to file the
-key end _b_^2 into shape so as to admit of getting it out.
-
-The solid pulley _b_ has since been replaced with a split pulley.
-
-By the arrangement, as shown in Fig. 3, of the rim-friction
-clutch on the driven main shaft _B_ and the driving pulley on the
-engine-connected driving main shaft _A_, no matter whether _B_
-shaft is in use or not--_i.e._, whether the clutch be in or out of
-engagement--so long as _A_ shaft is in motion the belt _C_ is working.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 3.]
-
-Main line belts come high, and the more they are used the sooner will
-they wear out. By changing the clutch from shaft _B_ to _A_ and the
-pulley _D_ from _A_ to _B_, belt _C_ will be at rest whenever _B_ is
-not in use. Where, however, these shafts are each in a separate room or
-on a different floor (the belt running through the wall or floor and
-ceiling, as the case may be) the clutch, despite belt wear, should be
-placed directly on the driven shaft (as _B_), so as to provide a ready
-means for shutting off the power in cases of emergency.
-
-Figs. 4, 5 and 6 represent a dangerous mode, much in vogue, of driving
-an overhead floor. An extremely slack belt connects the driving shaft
-_A_ and the driven shaft _B_; when it is desired to impart motion to
-the driven shaft the belt tightener _C_ is let down and belt contact is
-thus secured.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 4.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 5.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 6.]
-
-This tightener system is called dangerous advisedly, for few are
-the shops employing it but that some employee has good cause to
-remember it. Unlike a clutch--where control of the power is positive,
-instantaneous and simple--the tightener cannot be handled, as in
-emergency cases it has to be.
-
-In any but straight up and down drives with the driven pulley equal to
-or larger (diametrically) than the driver, unless the belt have special
-leading idlers there is more or less of a constant belt contact with
-its resultant liability to start the driven shaft up unexpectedly. When
-the tightener is completely off, the belt, owing to heat, weight or
-belt fault, may at any time continue to cling and transmit power for a
-short space, despite this fact.
-
-These tighteners are usually pretty heavy--in fact, much heavier than
-the unfamiliar imagines when on the spur of emergency he grapples them,
-and trouble results.
-
-Tightener (in Fig. 5) _A_ is held in place by two threaded rods _B_--as
-shown by slot _a_ in _A_^1--and regulated and tightened by ring-nuts
-_C_ working along the threaded portion of _B_. _C_ (of Fig. 4) is also
-a poor arrangement. Fig. 6 is the best of them all.
-
-Apropos of clutches, great care must be exercised in tightening them
-up while the shafting is in motion, for if the least bit overdone the
-clutch may start up or, on being locked for trial (according to the
-clutches' structure), continue running without possibility of release
-until the main source of power be cut off. Nothing can exceed the
-danger of a clutch on a sprung shaft.
-
-Heavily loaded shafting runs to much better advantage when center
-driven than when end driven, and what often constitutes an overload
-for an end drive is but a full load for a center drive. To illustrate,
-here is one case of many: The main shaft--end driven--was so overloaded
-that it could be alined and leveled one week and be found out one
-way or the other, frequently both ways, the next week. Being tired
-of the ceaseless tinkering that the condition under which that shaft
-was working necessitated, the proprietors were given the ultimatum: A
-heavier line of shafting which would be sure to work, or a try of the
-center drive which, owing to the extreme severity of this case, might
-or might not work.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 7.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 8.]
-
-A center drive, being the cheapest, was decided upon. Pulley _A_,
-Fig. 7, which happened to be a solid, set-screw and key-held pulley,
-was removed from the end of the shaft. The split, tight-clamping-fit
-pulley _B_, Fig. 8, was put in the middle of the shaft length; the gas
-engine was shifted to accommodate the new drive, and hanger _C_^1 was
-put up as a reinforcement to hanger _C_ and as a preventive of shaft
-springing. After these changes the shaft gave no trouble, so that, as
-had been hoped, the torsional strain that had formerly all been at
-point 1 must evidently have been divided up between points 2 and 3.
-
-When a main shaft is belted to the engine and to a countershaft,
-as shown in Fig. 9, the pulley _A_^1 gets all the load of main and
-countershafts. In the arrangement shown in Fig. 10 point 1 gets _A's_
-load and 2 gets _B's_ load and is the better arrangement.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 9.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 10.]
-
-Where a machine is situated close to one of the columns or timber
-uprights of the building it is very customary to carry the belt shifter
-device upon the column, as in Fig. 11. The sudden stoppage of a machine
-seldom does any damage, whereas an unexpected starting may cause
-irreparable damage and often even endanger the limb and life of the
-machine operative.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 11.]
-
-To avoid the possibility of some passing person brushing up against
-the shifting lever and thus starting the machine, the tight and loose
-pulleys of the countershaft should be so placed that when _A_ is
-exposed--that is, away from the column--its accidental shifting shall
-stop the machine. Fig 12 makes this point clear.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 12.]
-
-This arrangement is often used to save a collar (at _A_). The oil
-runs out between the loose pulley and the bearing, especially if the
-latter be a split bearing; the loose pulley, instead of being totally
-free when the belt is on the tight pulley, acts more or less, in
-proportion to the end play of the shaft, as a buffer between the tight
-pulley and the bearing; finally, the tight pulley is deprived of the
-support (which, when under load, it can use to good advantage) a nearer
-proximity to the hanger would give it.
-
-The shafts of light-working counters should not be needlessly marred
-with spotting or flats for collar set-screws, nor should cup or pointed
-set-screws (which mar a shaft) be used. If the collar be sharply tapped
-with a hammer, diametrically opposite the set-screw, while it is being
-tightened up, all slack is taken out of the collar; and the hold is
-such that, without resource to the same expedient when loosening the
-collar, a screwdriver will scarcely avail against a slotted set-screw.
-
-When required to sink the head of a bolt into a timber to admit of the
-timbers lying snug in or against some spot, if allowable, the bolt's
-future turning can be guarded against by cutting the hole square to
-fit the bolt head. But where a washer must be used, the only positive
-and practical way to prevent the bolt from turning is to drive a nail
-(as shown) into _A_ (Fig. 13) far enough for the nail head to flush
-_B_; now bend the head down behind the bolt toward _c_. It is evident
-that if the bolt tries to turn in the direction of 3 the nail end
-(wood held) will prevent it; if toward 4, the nail head will be forced
-against the wood and catch hold of the bolt head.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 13.]
-
-Large belts of engines, dynamos, motors, etc., when in need of
-taking-up are usually attended to when the plant is shut down; that
-is, nights, Sundays or legal holidays. At such times power is not to
-be had; and if the spliced part of the belt, which must be opened,
-shortened, scraped, re-cemented and hammered, happens to be resting
-against the face of one of the pulleys, is up between some beams or
-down in a pit, the chances of the job, if done at all, being any good
-are very slim.
-
-The spliced part of a large belt should be clearly marked in some
-permanent and easily recognizable way (a rivet, or where the belt is
-rivet-held at all its joints some odd arrangement of rivets is as good
-a way as any). This marking will minimize the possibility of mistake
-and enable the engineer to place the belt splice in the position most
-favorable for the belt-maker's taking-up.
-
-In wire-lacing a belt, very often, despite all efforts and care, the
-edges of the belt (_A_, _B_) get out of line, as shown in Fig. 14,
-and make the best of jobs look poor. By securing the belt in proper
-position by two small pieces of wire passed through and fastened at 1,
-2, 3 and 4, Fig. 15, the lacing can be more conveniently accomplished
-and the edge projection is avoided. When the lacing has progressed far
-enough to necessitate the removal of wires _c_ _d_, the lacing already
-in place will keep the belt in its original position.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 14.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 15.]
-
-A wire lacing under certain conditions will run a certain length of
-time to a day. On expensive machinery whose time really is money it
-pays to renew the lacing at regular intervals so as to avoid the loss
-of time occasioned by a sudden giving out of the lace.
-
-Never throw a belt on to a rim-friction or other kind of clutch while
-the shaft is in full motion. Belts, when being thrown on, have a knack,
-peculiarly their own, of jumping off on the other side of the pulley.
-And should a belt jump over and off on the wrong side and get caught
-in the clutch mechanism, as the saying goes, "there will be something
-doing" and the show usually comes high. It pays to slow down.
-
-A mule belt (transmitting in the neighborhood of or considerably over
-25 horse-power) that runs amuck through the breaking down of the mule
-can make enough trouble in a short time to keep the most able repairing
-for a long while.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 16.]
-
-No matter what the pulley shafts holding arrangement and adjusting
-contrivance may be, all of the strain due to belt weight, tension, and
-the power transmitted falls mainly at points _A_, _A_^1, Fig. 16; and
-it is here that, sooner or later, a pin, set-screw or bolt gives way
-and the belt either gets badly torn up, rips something out of place,
-or a fold of it sweeping to the floor slams things around generally
-until the power is shut off.
-
-The remedy is obvious: Reinforce _A_, _A'_ by securing _B_, _B'_ to
-the supporting shaft _c_ at _c_^1, _c_^2. The yoke _x_ is a reliable
-and practical means to this end. Straps _a_ held by the nuts _b_ hold
-the yoke securely on the supporting shaft _c_, while the pulley-shaft
-ends _B_, _B'_ are held in the _U_ of the yoke at _w'_ at any desired
-distance from _c_ by means of the adjustment provided by the nuts _b_.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 17.]
-
-The end of a hanger bearing was badly worn (Fig. 17). The cap could
-be lifted out by removing bridge _A_, but the shaft interfered with
-the lifting of the bottom out, owing to its being held in the hanger
-slides. It had to be removed and we were called upon to put it into
-shape by re-babbitting.
-
-Being a newspaper plant, money was no object; the time limit, however,
-was three hours, or hands off. Opening the 30-inch engine belt and
-removing the interfering shaft length was out of the question in so
-short a time. So the job was done as follows: The shaft was braced
-against down sag and engine pull along the line _B_ _C_ by a piece of
-timber at _A_, and against pull on _B_ _D_ by timber arrangement _X_;
-timber _y_'s points _y_^1 and _y_^2 resting against the uprights at 1
-and 2, timber _z_ wedged in between _y_ at _y_^3 and the shaft at 4,
-thus acting as the stay along line _B_ _D_. The nuts and washers _a_,
-_a_ were removed; the bolts driven back out of the bracket; the end
-of a rope was thrown over the shaft at _b_, passed through the pulley
-and tied to the bracket and hanger which, as one piece, were then
-slid endways off the shaft and lowered to the floor. The bearing was
-cleaned, re-babbitted and scraped, everything put back, stays removed
-and the shaft running on time with a half-hour to the good.
-
-[Illustration: TIMBER ARRANGEMENT X]
-
-When desirable to keep a shaft from turning while chipping and filing
-flats, spotting in set screws or moving pulleys on it, it can be done
-by inserting a _narrow_ strip of cardboard, soft wood or several
-thicknesses of paper between the bearing cap and the top of the shaft
-and then tightening the cap down.
-
-The packing, 1-16 to 3-16 inch thick and about as long as the bearing,
-must be narrow; otherwise, as may be deduced from Fig. 18 (which shows
-the right way), by the use of a wide strip in the cap the shaft is
-turned into a wedge, endangering the safety of the cap when forced
-down. At point 3 packing does no harm, but at 1 and 2 there is just
-enough space to allow the shaft diameter to fit exactly, with no room
-to spare, into the cap bore diameter.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 18.]
-
-As a very little clamping will do a good deal of holding the clamping
-need not be overdone. A shaft can also be held from turning, or turned
-as may be desired, by holding it with a screw (monkey) wrench at any
-flat or keyway, as shown in sectional view, Fig. 19.
-
-When a shaft breaks it is either owing to torsional strain caused by
-overload, springing through lack of hanger support at the proper
-interval of shaft length, the strain of imperfect alinement or level,
-or a flaw.
-
-An immediate temporary repair may be effected by taking some split
-pulley that can best be spared from another part of the shaft and
-clamping it over the broken part of the shaft, thus converting it, as
-it were, into a compression coupling. The longer the pulley hub the
-better the hold; spotting the set-screws--that is, chipping out about
-1/8-inch holes for their accommodation into the shaft--is also a great
-help.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 19.]
-
-If when the shaft breaks it has not been sprung by the sudden dropping
-of itself and the pulleys that were on it, a permanent repair can be
-effected, after correcting the cause of the break, by the use of a
-regular key-less compression coupling.
-
-If it has been sprung, a new length comes cheapest in the wind-up; and
-if overload was the original cause of the trouble, only a heavier shaft
-or a considerable lightening of the load will prevent a repetition.
-
-In Fig. 20 _A_ shows how to drive to make belt weight count in securing
-extra contact. In _B_ this weight causes a loss of contact. Bearing
-in mind that _B_ is not only a loss from the normal contact but
-also a loss of the extra contact that _A_ gives, it will readily be
-seen how important a power-saving factor the right sort of a drive
-is--especially on high-speed small-pulley machines, such as dynamos,
-motors, fans, blowers, etc.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 20.]
-
-A good many electrical concerns mount some of their styles of dynamos
-and motors (especially the light duty, small size) upon two _V_-shaped
-rails, Fig. 21 (the bottom of the motor or dynamo base being V-grooved
-for the purpose). The machine's weight and the screws _A_ are counted
-on to keep it in place. If the machine be properly mounted on these
-rails, as regards screws _A_ in relation to its drive, the screws
-reinforce the machine's weight in holding it down and also permit a
-surer adjustment through this steady holding of the machine.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 21.]
-
-Fig. 22 shows the machine properly mounted. The belt tension and pull
-tend to draw _B_ corner of the machine toward the shaft _C_; and screw
-_B_^1 is there to resist this pull. Owing to this resistance and
-the pull along line _D_, _E_ tends to lift and slew around in _E_^1
-direction; screw _E_^2 is, however, in a position to overcome both
-these tendencies. If the screws are both in front, there is nothing
-but the machine's weight to keep the back of it from tilting up. The
-absurdity of placing the screws at _F_ and _G_, though even this is
-thoughtlessly done, needs no demonstration.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 22.]
-
-When putting a new belt on a motor or dynamo, both the driver and the
-driven are often needlessly strained by the use of belt-clamps, in the
-attempt to take as much stretch out of the belt as possible. On being
-loosely endlessed it soon requires taking up; and if only laced, when
-the time for endlessing comes the belt is botched by the splicing in
-of the piece which, owing to the insufficiency of the original belt
-length, must now be added to supply enough belt to go around, plus the
-splice.
-
-The proper mode of procedure is: Place the motor on its rails or slides
-5 inches away from its nearest possible approach to the driven shaft
-or machine and wire-lace it (wire-lacing is a very close second to an
-endless belt). Let it run for a few days, moving the motor back from
-the driven shaft as the belt stretches. When all reasonable stretch is
-out, move the motor back as close to the driven shaft as possible.
-
-The 5 inches forward motion will give 10 inches of belting, which will
-be amply sufficient for a good splice; and, further, the machine will
-be in position to allow of tightening the belt up, by simply forcing
-the motor back, for probably the belt's lifetime.
-
-
-
-
-II
-
-SHAFTING HINTS[2]
-
-
-THE bolts, set-screws, pulleys, bearings, shafting and clutches of
-a plant, although among the foremost factors in its efficiency, are
-very often neglected until they reach the stage where their condition
-absolutely compels attention.
-
-[2] Contributed to Power by Chas. Herrman.
-
-Very often this lack of proper attention is due to surrounding
-difficulties of an almost insurmountable and most discouraging nature.
-At other times it is due to a lack of proper appreciation of the damage
-resultant from seemingly insignificant neglects. How to overcome some
-of these difficulties is the object of this chapter.
-
-Fig. 23 shows a case of a turning bolt. The head is inaccessible and
-the bolt's turning with the nut, owing to burrs or rust, prevents
-either the tightening or the loosening of the nut. One to three
-fair-sized nails driven through the timber as at _C_, hard up against,
-or, better still, forced into a tangent with the bolt, will often
-suffice to hold it while the nut is being turned. In iron girders,
-beams, etc., the nail method being impossible, a slot _E_ can easily be
-cut with a hack-saw through the lower end of both the nut and bolt, so
-that the bolt may be held by a screwdriver while the nut is turned with
-a wrench.
-
-Where an extra strong screwdriver must be used, the use of two blades
-at the same time in the hack-saw frame will give a slot of the
-requisite width. Where the bolt's end projects beyond the nut and it
-is desired to tighten the nut, a Stillson wrench is often, though
-inadvisedly, called into service. This tends to spoil the lower threads
-of the bolt and thus prevents any future loosening, except by the
-cutting off of the projecting end.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 23.]
-
-As the alinement and level of shafting depend on the power of their
-hold, bolts, lag-bolts and set-screws should, when they are tightened,
-be so in fact and not in fancy.
-
-The proper way to use a wrench, especially a screw wrench, so as to
-avail yourself of every ounce of power, not of your biceps only but
-of your whole body, is as follows: Place your shoulders on a level
-with the object to be tightened, secure the wrench jaws well upon it,
-grasp the jaws with the left hand and the wrench handle with the right,
-holding both arms straight and tense; swing the upper part of the body
-to the right from the hip, backing the force of your swing up with
-the full force of your legs, steadying yourself the while with your
-left-hand grip on the wrench jaws, which are the center of your swing.
-Several such half turns, at the wind-up, will cause an extremely hard
-jam with comparative ease.
-
-In tightening up a split-pulley, the expedient of hammering the bolts
-tight, by means of an open-ended bolt-wrench and a small sledge, is
-often resorted to. If the head of the bolt be lightly tapped while the
-nut is being tightened, even a light hammering, except in the extremest
-cases, becomes unnecessary.
-
-Split-pulleys are invariably better held in place by a good clamping
-fit than by set-screws. It must also be borne in mind that, for good
-holding, set-screws must be spotted into the shaft, and this defaces
-and often materially weakens the shaft. Split-pulleys, like solid
-ones, are sometimes subject to stoppage, owing to excessive strain.
-Set-screws, at such times, cut a shaft up pretty badly; whereas, if
-clamped, only a few slight scratches would result.
-
-Where packing with paper, cardboard, emery cloth or tin becomes
-necessary to secure a good clamping fit, care should be taken to put an
-equal thickness of packing into both halves of the pulley; otherwise it
-will wabble and jump when running.
-
-Emery cloth, on account of its grittiness, is preferable for packing
-where the duty done by the pulley is light. When the duty done is
-extra heavy, emery cloth, despite its grittiness, will not do; tin or
-sheet iron, owing to body, must be used.
-
-The following is the most practical way of packing a split-pulley to a
-good clamping fit, assuming that emery cloth is to be used:
-
-The thickness of the emery cloth to be used, and whether to use one
-or more folds, can readily be ascertained by calipering the shaft
-diameter and pulley bore, or by trial-clamping the pulley by hand. In
-both of these instances, however, due allowance must be made for the
-compressiveness of the packing used. If the packing be too thin, the
-pulley will not clamp strongly enough; if too thick, the chances of
-breaking the lugs when drawing the bolts up are to be apprehended.
-
-Having determined the proper thickness of emery cloth to be used, place
-the pulley on the shaft, as shown in Fig. 24. Into the lower half _C_,
-in space _A_, which is out of contact with the shaft, place a sheet of
-emery with the emery side toward the hub and the smooth side toward the
-shaft. The width of the emery should be a little less than half of the
-shaft's circumference, and it should be long enough to project about
-one-half of an inch to an inch on each side of the hub.
-
-Now turn the pulley on the shaft so that the position of the halves
-shall become reversed (Fig. 25), _C_ on top, _B_ on bottom. See that
-the emery cloth remains in its proper position in half-hub, the smooth
-side being toward the shaft; the projecting length beyond the pulley
-hub will help you to do this.
-
-Into half-hub _B_ (space _D_) insert a similar sized piece of emery
-cloth, smooth side toward the hub and the emery side toward the shaft.
-Draw up on your bolts to clamp the pulley into position. Be sure,
-however, that no emery cloth gets in between the half-hubs or lugs at
-points 1 and 2, Fig. 25, as this would prevent their coming properly
-together; the width of the emery being less than half of the shaft's
-circumference will be a help to this end.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 24.]
-
-It often happens, owing to downright neglect or unwitting neglect,
-through the oil hole or oiler being blocked up, that a loose pulley,
-running unlubricated, cuts, heats, and finally, through heat expansion,
-seizes. It then becomes necessary to take the countershaft down, force
-the loose pulley off and file and polish the shaft up before it can be
-put back into place.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 25.]
-
-The following method avoids the taking down and putting back, provides
-an easy means for loosening up the pulley that has seized, and
-improvises, as it were, a lathe for filing and polishing the shaft.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 26.]
-
-In Fig. 26, _A_ is the loose pulley that has seized. Throw off both
-the belt that leads from the main shaft to pulleys _A_, _B_ and the
-belt that leads to the driven machine from the driving pulley _C_.
-Tie, or get somebody to hold, an iron bar in pulley _A_ at side _a_,
-as shown in Fig. 27, over an arm of the pulley, under the shaft, and
-resting against the timber, ceiling, wall or floor, in such a way as
-to prevent the pulley from turning in one direction, as shown in Fig.
-27. Now, with another bar, of a sufficient length to give you a good
-leverage, take the grip under a pulley arm and over the shaft in the
-tight pulley _B_ at _b_, which will enable you to work against the
-resistance of the bar in the loose pulley _A_.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 27.]
-
-With enough leverage, this kind of persuasion will loosen the worst
-of cases. Take the bars out and move _B_ sufficiently to the right
-to allow _A_ to take _B_'s former position. Secure _B_ by means of
-its set-screws in its new position and, by means of a piece of cord,
-fasten an arm of _A_ to one of _B_'s. It is evident that by throwing
-the main-shaft belt on to _A_ it will, through _A_'s cord connection
-with _B_, which is screwed to the shaft, cause the shaft to revolve,
-thus enabling you to file up and polish that portion of it formerly
-occupied by _A_. To prevent the countershaft from side-slipping out
-of hanger-bearing _D_^1, get somebody to hold something against
-hanger-bearing _D_^2 at _E_; or fasten a piece of wire or cord on
-the countershaft at _F_ and the hanger _D_^1, so as to prevent
-side-slipping while not interfering with revolution.
-
-Filing, polishing, a cleaning out of the oil hole or oiler, and the
-taking of proper precaution against future failure of lubrication will
-put everything into first-class order. When the loose pulley is, as it
-is best for it to be, farthest away from the bearing, held in its place
-by the tight pulley and a collar, not only is the tight pulley better
-adapted for carrying its load, owing to additional support resultant
-from its proximity to the bearing, but such matters of small repair as
-come up are much simplified.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 28.]
-
-Fig. 28 in some degree, aside from the cutting up and heating of the
-bearings, illustrates the breaking strain, in addition to the usual
-torsional strain, which becomes enhanced in direct proportion with the
-increase of breaking strain, to which an out-of-line or out-of-level
-shaft is subject. The bends are exaggerated for illustration.
-
-In this instance, the fact of one hanger-bearing being out of line
-or level subjects the shaft to a severe breaking strain. The shaft
-being both out of line and level does not, if both at the same point,
-aggravate matters, as might at first be supposed.
-
-It is true that the full torsional strength of a shaft is only equal
-to the weakest portion of it, so that three weak spots more or less
-can, theoretically, make no difference one way or the other. But,
-practically, there is the undue strain and wear of the bearings at
-these points, and if a pulley transmitting any considerable amount of
-power is situated anywhere along the length _A B_ it is sure to be
-unpleasantly in evidence at all times.
-
-Only an eighth or a quarter out, but oh, what shaft-breaking stories
-that fraction could tell!
-
-The following is a simple method for testing the alinement and level of
-a line of shafting that is already up.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 29.]
-
-As in Fig. 29, stretch a line _C_ so that it is exactly opposite the
-shafting. Set it equidistant from the shaft end centers _G_ and _F_ and
-free from all contact along its entire length except at its retaining
-ends _A_ and _B_. Now, it is self-evident, as line _C_ is straight and
-set equidistant from the shaft end centers _G_ and _F_, that if you set
-the entire center line of the shafting at the same distance from line
-_C_, as _G_ and _F_, you are bound to get your shafting into perfect
-alinement.
-
-In leveling a line of shafting that is already up, you can, by the use
-of a level and perseverance, get it right.
-
-Placing the level at _A_, you are just as likely to raise the first
-hanger as to lower the middle one. Look before you jump, even if
-compelled to climb to the top of the fence to do so. When you find a
-length of shafting out of level, try the two adjacent lengths before
-acting, and your action will be the more intelligent for it.
-
-On exceptionally long lines of shafting the following method, in
-which the level and a line constitute a check upon and a guide for
-each other, can be used to great advantage. Stretch a line so that it
-is exactly above, or, if more convenient, below the shafting to be
-leveled. With the level find a length of shafting that is level and
-adjust your line exactly parallel with this length. Your line now,
-free of contact except at its retaining ends, and level owing to its
-parallelism to the level shaft length, constitutes a safe _hight level_
-guide while the level itself can serve to verify the accuracy of the
-finished job.
-
-In lining, whether for level or alinement, unless the shafting line
-consists of the same diameter of shafting throughout its entire length,
-though of necessity measuring from the shaft circumference to the line,
-always base your calculations on the shaft centers. The figures in
-Fig. 29 will make this point clear.
-
-The manner of securing the ends of the line under different
-circumstances must be left to individual ingenuity. Only be sure that
-the line is so placed that the shafting adjustment shall not affect its
-original position with reference to the end shaft centers.
-
-Coupling clutches, _i.e._, those joining two lengths of shafting into
-one at option, will fail, utterly or partially, if the respective
-shafts which bear them are out of line or level with each other. Such a
-condition should not be tolerated on account of the danger entailed by
-the inability to shut off the power in cases of emergency.
-
-As a general rule, it is most advisable to set a clutch to take as hard
-a grip as it can without interfering with its releasing power. Where
-a clutch grips weakly, it is subject to undue wear owing to slippage,
-whereas a strongly regulated clutch absolutely prevents slippage wear.
-
-
-
-
-III
-
-SHAFTING HINTS[3]
-
-
-ENGINEERS, machinists and general mechanics are often called upon
-to turn their hands to a shafting job. We recognize that all of the
-following cannot prove new or even suggestive to most of our readers;
-still, some of it for all, and, mayhap, all for some, may not come
-amiss.
-
-[3] Contributed to Power by Chas. Herrman.
-
-We all know that to have belting run rightly on pulleys located upon
-parallel lines of shafting the shafting must be in absolutely correct
-parallel. The slightest deviation, even to a 1-16 inch, often imparts a
-marring effect, through poorly running belts, to an otherwise faultless
-job.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 30.]
-
-Fig. 30 shows how to line a countershaft as regards parallelism with
-the driving shaft when the countershaft's end-centers are availably
-situated for thus measuring. _A_ is the countershaft, _B_ the main
-shaft, _C_ is a stick of proper length about 1-1/2 inches in thickness
-and width, _D_ a heavy nail--about 20-penny will do--driven into _C_
-far enough from its end _E_ to allow of _C_'s resting squarely upon the
-top of the shaft _B_.
-
-Rest the measuring rod upon the main shaft, keeping the nail in touch
-with the shaft, so that when the _F_ end is in contact with the end of
-the countershaft the stick shall be at right angles to the main shaft,
-and then mark the exact location _a_ of the countershaft's end-center
-on the stick. Do the same at the other end of the countershaft. If
-both marks come at the same spot, your counter is parallel; if not,
-space between these two marks will show you how much and which way the
-counter is out.
-
-It may only be necessary to shift one end in or out a little; and then,
-again, it may be that to get into line you will have to throw one end
-all the way in one direction and the other all or some in the opposite
-direction. But, whichever it be, do not rest content until you have
-verified the correctness of your adjustment by a re-measurement.
-
-The nail should be well driven into _C_, so that its position will not
-readily change, and it should, preferably, be slant driven (as shown in
-Fig. 30), as it thus helps to keep the stick down in contact with the
-shaft.
-
-Where an end-center is not available or where there is no clear space
-on the main shaft, opposite a center, the method shown in Fig. 31 can
-generally be used.
-
-Rest _C_ on top of both shafts and at right angles to the driving shaft
-_B_. With _D_ pressed against _B_, place a square on stick _C_, as
-shown (stock in full contact with the top of the rod, and the tongue
-running down the side of it). Slide along _C_ toward _A_ until the
-side of the tongue touches the shaft the other side of _A_. Now mark
-a line on the stick down tongue. Do the same at the other end of
-your countershaft and the two resultant marks will be your parallel
-adjustment guides.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 31.]
-
-It often happens that a counter, or even line shaft, is end driven from
-the extreme end of the main or jack driving shaft with its other end
-running beyond the reach of the driving shaft, as shown in Fig. 32.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 32.]
-
-It is evident that neither method 1 nor 2 can here be applied to solve
-the alinement problem. If the driving pulley _B_ and the driven pulley
-_A_ are both in place, the following method can be used to advantage.
-
-Fasten, or let somebody hold, one end of a line against pulley _B_'s
-rim at _B_^1; carry the line over to _A_ at _A_^2; now sweep the loose
-_A_^2 end of the line toward pulley _A_ until the line just touches
-pulley _B_'s rim at _B_^2. When the line so touches--and it must just
-barely touch or the measurement is worthless--_A_^1 and _A_^2 of pulley
-_A_ must be just touched by or (if _B_ and _A_ are not of a like face
-width, as in Fig. 32) equidistant from the line.
-
-A single, two-hanger-supported length of shafting thus lined is bound
-to be in parallel; but where the so adjusted shaft line consists of two
-or more coupling-joined lengths supported by more than two hangers,
-only pulley _A_'s supporting portion of the shaft between its immediate
-supporting hangers 1 and 2 is sure to be lined; the rest may be more or
-less out.
-
-To make a perfect job, fix a string in parallel with shaft length 1 and
-2, stretching along the entire length of the adjusted shaft, and aline
-the rest of the shaft length to it.
-
-When there are no pulleys in place to go by, or when, as occasionally
-happens, the wabbly motion of pulley _B_ (when running) indicates that,
-having been inaccurately bored or bushed, or being located on a sprung
-shaft length, its rim line is not at right angles to the shaft line,
-the method shown in Fig. 33 can be resorted to.
-
-Instead of the nail used in methods 1 and 2, use a board about 8 to
-12 inches long and of a width equal to considerably more than half of
-shaft _B_'s diameter. By nailing this board _x_ to the measuring rod
-_c_ at any suitable angle, you will be enabled to reach from the end
-_a_ well into the shaft _B_, as at _b_, and from _b′_ well into _A_, as
-_a′_. By keeping the board _x_ along its entire length in full contact
-with the shaft _B_ at both 1 and 2, the angular position of rod _C_ is
-bound to be the same in both instances, and you will thus (by the use
-of a square, as in Fig. 31) be enabled to aline _A_ parallel with _B_.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 33.]
-
-In all instances of parallel adjustment here cited it is assumed that
-both the alined and the alined-to shafts have been, as to secure
-accuracy of result they must be, properly leveled before starting to
-aline.
-
-The above methods apply to cases where the shafting is already in
-place. Where, however, shafting is being newly installed before the
-work can be proceeded with, it is necessary, after determining on the
-location for the shafting, to get a line on the ceiling in parallel
-with the driving shaft to which to work to. Mark that point _A_ which
-you intend to be the center line for the proposed shafting upon the
-ceiling (Fig. 34).
-
-Rest your measuring rod upon the driving shaft and at right angles to
-it, with the nail against it. Hold your square with the stock below and
-the tongue against the side of the measuring stick, so that its tongue
-extremity touches the ceiling mark _A_, and then mark a line on the rod
-along the tongue side _A_. Move your rod along the driving shaft to the
-point where the other end of the proposed shafting line is to be, and,
-squaring your stick to the driving shaft with the tongue side _A_ on
-the marked line of the stick, mark your section point on the ceiling.
-Draw a line or stretch a string between these points, and you have a
-true parallel to work to.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 34.]
-
-Owing to the supporting timber _B_'s interference, a square had to
-be used; but where the ceiling is clear the rod can be cut to proper
-length or the nail be so located as to allow of using the stick
-extremity _C_ for a marking point.
-
-When a pulley is handily situated on the driving shaft, the method
-shown in Fig. 35 can be used to advantage.
-
-Let somebody hold one end of a line at 1, and when you have got its
-other end so located on the ceiling that the line just touches the
-pulley rim at 2, mark that ceiling point (we will call it 3). In the
-same way get your marks 4 and 5, each farther back than the other and,
-for the better assurance of accuracy, as to just touching at 2, remove
-and readjust the line separately each time. If now a straight line from
-3 to 5 cuts 4, your line 3, 4, 5 is at right angles to the driving
-shaft and a line at right angles to this will be parallel to the shaft.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 35.]
-
-The plumb-bob method is so familiar and, where not familiar, so easily
-thought out in its various applications, that we deem it useless to
-touch upon it.
-
-The stringers or supporting timbers of drop hangers should be equal in
-thickness to about one-fifth of the hanger drop.
-
-Where the stringers run with the hangers and crosswise of the shaft,
-both feet of a hanger base are bolted to the same stringer, and this
-should be from 1-1/4 to 1-1/2 times the width of the widest portion of
-the hanger base. As the hanger is securely bolted to its stringer, this
-extra width is in effect an enlargement of the hanger base, and thus
-enables it the better to assist the shaft's end motion.
-
-Where the stringers run with the shaft and crosswise of the hangers,
-the two feet of the hanger base are each fastened to a separate timber,
-and these should be equal in width to the length of one hanger foot,
-plus twice the amount of adjustment (if there be any) the hanger's
-supporting bolt slots will allow it. In reckoning hanger adjustment, be
-sure to figure in the bolt's diameter and to bear in mind that to get
-the utmost adjustment for the countershaft the bolts should originally
-be centered in the slot; thus a 13/16 × 1-1/2-inch slot, as it calls
-for a 3/4-inch bolt, leaves a 3/4-inch play, and this play, with the
-bolt in the center of the slot, allows of 3/8-inch adjustment either
-way. Without this extra width addition any lateral adjustment of the
-hanger would result in leaving a part of the hanger's feet without
-stringer support. Such jobs look poorly, and often run still more
-poorly. Fig. 36, in its two views, will make the above points clear.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 36.]
-
-In the stringing of countershafts whose hangers have no adjustment it
-often happens, despite all care in the laying out, that they come 1/8
-to 1/4 inch out of parallel. A very common and likewise very dangerous
-practice at such times is to substitute a smaller diameter supporting
-bolt instead of the larger size for which the hanger foot is cored or
-drilled, and to make use of the play so gained for adjustment.
-
-That shafting so carried does not come down oftener than it does is due
-solely to the foresight of the hanger manufacturers. They, in figuring
-the supporting bolt's diameter as against the strain and load to be
-sustained, are careful to provide an ample safety margin for overload,
-thus enabling the bolt substituted to just barely come within the
-safety limit under easy working conditions.
-
-The largest-sized bolt that a hanger will easily admit should
-invariably be used, and for alinement purposes either of the following
-slower but safer methods should be used.
-
-Rebore the hanger-supporting bolt holes in the stringers to a larger
-size, and use the play so gained for adjustment. It is not advisable,
-however, to rebore these holes any larger than to one and three-quarter
-times the diameter of the bolt to be used; and the diameter of the
-washers to be used on top of the stringers should be diametrically
-equal to at least twice the size of the rebored holes. That the washers
-used, under such conditions, must be of a good proportionate thickness
-goes without saying.
-
-When the reboring method cannot be used--as when the hangers are
-carried by lag screws, lag-bolts, bolts screwed directly into
-supporting iron girders, etc.--it is evident that hanger adjustment
-can be secured by packing down one foot of the hanger base, as shown in
-Fig. 37.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 37.]
-
-The piece of packing (necessarily wedge-shaped) between the hanger
-foot _B_ and the stringer _A_ tilts the bottom of the hanger forward.
-The size of the wedge regulates the amount of adjustment. Wedge-shaped
-space _D_, at foot _C_, should also be packed out so as to avoid
-throwing undue strain upon _C_'s extremity _c_. If now, the foot _c_
-of the countershaft's other supporting hanger (No. 2) be similarly and
-equally packed, as _B_ of No. 1 hanger, the shaft will have been thrown
-forward at one end and back at the other, and thus into line. The equal
-division of the adjusting wedge packing between the opposite feet of
-the two hangers enables a limited packing to do considerable adjusting
-without any undue marring effect; and, further, insures the shaft's
-remaining level, which evidently would not be the case if only one
-hanger were packed down.
-
-After so adjusting, be sure to get your hangers squarely crosswise of
-the shaft as readjusted, so that the hanger bearings will lie in a true
-line with the shaft and not bind it. At all times be sure to have your
-hangers hang or stand plumb up and down; as, if the bearings are not
-so pivoted as to be horizontally self-adjusting, excessive friction
-will be the lot of one end of the bearing with not even contact for the
-rest of it. The bearing being self-adjusting all ways, square crossing
-of the shaft line by the hanger line and plumb still remain eminently
-desirable for appearance's sake.
-
-Before a countershaft can be put up on a ceiling whose supporting
-timbers are boarded over, or in a modern fireproof structure whose
-girders and beams are so bricked and plastered in as not to show, it
-is necessary to positively locate those of them which are to carry the
-stringers.
-
-It is in the earnest endeavor to properly locate these that the
-unaccustomed hand turns a wood ceiling into a sieve and a brick one
-into a wreck. To avoid kitchen and house razing effects, try the
-following recipe:
-
-We will assume that line _A B_, Fig. 38, laid out by one of the methods
-previously described, is the center line of the proposed countershaft.
-The hanger's base length, lateral adjustment and individual foot length
-call for stringers 4-3/4 inches wide, placed 5-1/4 inches apart or
-14-3/4 inches outside (as per sketch). The floor position of the machine
-to be driven, or the driving point of the main shaft, is so located with
-reference to the countershaft that one of the supporting hangers must
-go at or very near _C_, and the countershaft's length brings the other
-hanger at or very near _D_.
-
-Now between points _C D_ and with due reference to the center line _A
-B_, lay out the position which your stringers are to occupy. It is
-self-evident that by confining your beam prospecting to the stringer
-spaces _E_ and _F_, ultimately, when the countershaft is in place, all
-the cut-up portions of the ceiling will be hidden from view.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 38.]
-
-Generally the necessary supporting beams will not all be found within
-the shaft's length distance _C D_; in such cases continue your cutting
-in the same parallel line to _A B_, as at _E_ or _F_, going from _C D_
-outwardly until you strike the sought-for beams. Having located beams,
-say 1 and 2, we find by measurement that they are 5 feet apart, and, as
-beams are generally uniformly spaced, we may start 4 feet 6 inches (go
-4 feet 6 inches and not 5 feet, to make sure not to skip beam 3 and
-thus make a cut that will not be covered by the stringers) from 1 to
-cut outwardly for the location of beam 3.
-
-Where the building's beams run parallel to the shaft, Fig. 39, mark the
-counter's-center line _A B_, and then mark the spaces--as determined by
-the countershaft length, floor position of the driven machine or the
-driving point on the main shaft--to be occupied by the stringers _C D_,
-and, starting from the center line _A B_, cut outwardly each way to the
-desired beams 1 and 2.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 39.]
-
-Where the center line as laid out (before the position of the ceiling
-beams was known) brings it close to or directly under a supporting
-beam, it is generally advisable where possible to step the counter back
-or forward to a central position between the beams.
-
-Where shafting is already in place in a building, no matter on what
-floor, valuable measurements as to beam location can thus be had
-from the plainly in sight and the reasonably deducible. Lacking
-in-place-shafting to go by, the walls, columns and main girders always
-clearly indicate the crosswise or parallel run of the ceiling beams to
-the proposed shafting line.
-
-In the usual method of locating the timbers of a boarded-over ceiling,
-a brace and bit, or a nail, can be used for the purpose. If shy of an
-awl, and in preference the other two ways, force or drive a chisel
-(cold chisel or wood) in between a tongue and groove of the ceiling
-boards in stringer space (Fig. 38) _E_ or _F_, and thus spring the
-boards sufficiently apart to insert a compass saw. With the extremity
-of a 12-inch saw a very little cutting (along the tongue and groove,
-as this shows least) will enable you to locate a beam, since they
-generally run 8, 12, 16, 20, 24 and 30 inches apart.
-
-Always, on locating your beam, run the point of your compass saw down
-the whole of the timber's width, so that any nailed-on pieces will not
-lead you into a false estimate of the beam's thickness.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 40.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 41.]
-
-Figs. 40 and 41 make this point and its object clear. The saw, in Fig.
-40, being stopped by _A_, naturally leads to the inference that _A
-B_ is the timber's thickness. By running down the timber, as in Fig.
-41, the saw's point sticking at _a_ acts as a sure detector. This
-precaution should be taken on both sides (_B_ and _A_) of the timber,
-and then, when the lags are screwed in, they can be sent home safe and
-true in the center of the timber.
-
-It often happens that in boring for the lag screws the bit strikes a
-nail and further progress at that point seems out of the question. When
-so situated, take your bit out, and running the lag screw up as far as
-it will go, by sheer force swing it three or four turns up further than
-the point where your bit struck. Removing the lag and replacing the
-bit, it will be found that the nail has been forced aside and the way
-is now clear.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 42.]
-
-Hook bolts (Fig. 42) or--as our across-the-sea cousins call
-them--"elbow bolts," despite all assertions to the contrary, are an
-easy, safe and economical stringer fastener or suspending device.
-
-Figs. 43 and 44 illustrate two very common abuses of the hook bolt. In
-the one (Fig. 43), instead of the bolt proper lying snug up against the
-beam flange with the whole of its hook resting squarely upon the beam's
-flange, its supporting countershaft is turned into a menace to limb and
-life by this "chance it" kind of erection. In the other (Fig. 44),
-though the bolts do lie snug against the flange, the hook being out of
-sight and no means being provided for telling whether the hook lies,
-as it should, at right angles to the web of the beam, even if properly
-placed at installation, timber shrinkage, vibration or a slight turn
-of the bolt when tightening the nut, all constitute dangerous factors
-tending to loosen or entirely loosen the hook's grip upon the beam
-flange.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 43.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 44.]
-
-Fig. 43 suggests its own remedy. As to Fig. 44, a screwdriver slot
-(made by a hacksaw) at the nut end of the hook bolt and running in
-the same direction as the hook, Fig. 45, will at all times serve to
-indicate the hook's position and, allowing as it does of a combined use
-of screwdriver and wrench, it can be used to prevent the bolt's turning
-when being tightened.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 45.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 46.]
-
-Where two or more hook bolts are placed close together on the same beam
-flange, a plate, preferably wrought iron with properly spaced confining
-pins for the hooks, may be placed between the beam flange and the hooks
-as in Fig. 46. Its benefits are obvious and so likewise is the use of a
-small, square, wrought-iron plate with a bolt hole through its center
-instead of hook bolts.
-
-The various styles of beam clamps carried by the hardware and supply
-trade all have their good points, and though the _C_ of their cost may
-seem to loom large, it is not a whit more emphatic, taken all in all,
-than the _W_ of their worth.
-
-
-
-
-IV
-
-TRUING UP LINE SHAFTING
-
-
-IT is assumed, for the purposes of this description, that the modern
-style of shafting, increasing in diameter by the 1/2 inch, is used, and
-that all pulleys and belts are in place. We will take a line composed
-of sizes ranging between 3-15/16 and 2-7/16 inches. This gives us four
-sizes, 3-15/16, 3-7/16, 2-15/16 and 2-7/16 inches in the line.
-
-We will first consider the plumb-bob. The accompanying sketch, Fig. 47,
-illustrates a good one.
-
-The ball is 1-1/2 inches diameter, and the large end of the tapered stem
-1/2 inch in diameter, turned parallel for a short distance at the lower
-end. The two thin sheet-steel disks, 1 and 2 inches in diameter, are
-drilled to fit snugly when pushed on to the 1/2-inch part of the stem,
-and stay there until pulled off. These disks are turned true. This
-arrangement of plumb-bob and disks enables us to deal with five sizes
-on one line, and there are not many lines that contain more.
-
-Now having our plumb-bob ready, we will stretch the line. The
-stretchers should be set horizontally by nailing a strip of wood, say 1
-× 1-1/2 × 12 inches, with a piece at each end to form a space between it
-and the wall, or place of location in line with the edge of the shaft,
-as in Fig. 48. The top of this stretcher should be low enough to clear
-the largest pulley, and high enough to clear the hat of your tallest
-man. You would perhaps find it convenient to go between the spokes of a
-large pulley.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 47.]
-
-Now having located your stretcher, find approximately the position of
-your line, and drive a nail a foot or more below it in a vertical line,
-and another nail anywhere for convenient winding. The advantage of this
-plan is that the line can be easily adjusted as it merely passes over
-the stretcher, and is free to respond to movement either way; then when
-the final adjustment is made, and is ready for its final stretch, it is
-only necessary to pinch the line to the nail with one hand, while the
-other is at liberty to unwind, stretch and rewind the line without fear
-of its shifting.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 48.]
-
-The line being adjusted over the stretchers, we will now proceed to
-set it. Begin at the 2-7/16-inch end, by throwing your plumb line over
-the shaft and setting your line at that end, right with the _center
-point_ of your bob. Having done so, go to the other or 3-15/16 end of
-your line, and set the line so that the edge of the _ball_ of your
-bob just touches it. Now go back to the 2-7/16 end and see that the
-necessary adjustment did not alter it. Having proved this, give your
-line the final stretch and try if it is right at both ends. You now
-have a center line (though the edge instead of the center of the shaft
-is used) that may remain up for days if necessary without fear of
-disturbance.
-
-It is best to go over the whole line first, before disturbing anything;
-so starting at the first hanger at the 2-7/16-inch end, throw your
-plumb line over the shaft, and record on the floor in chalk beneath
-it whether it is O. K. or wants to go either way, and how much; then
-go to the next hanger, and so on to the end. A short study of the
-conditions enables one to correct the faults, with a knowledge of the
-requirements, and consequently in the least time and with the least
-trouble.
-
-Now suppose we start at the 2-7/16-inch end to inspect the line, we
-use the center point of the bob on the line so long as we are testing
-2-7/16 inches.
-
-When we get to the 2-15/16-inch part, which is 1/2 inch larger, we use
-the half diameter of the stem, the edge of which should just touch the
-line.
-
-When we come to the 3-7/16-inch part, 1 inch larger than 2-7/16, we use
-the 1-inch disk, slip it on to the stem, and when it just touches the
-line with its edge it is O. K.
-
-The 3-15/16-inch, being 1-1/2 inches larger than the 2-7/16-inch, will
-be right when the ball of the bob is in light contact with the line.
-
-The 2-inch disk would be suitable for the next size, and other disks or
-modifications of the bob proper might be made to suit circumstances.
-
-Now having straightened the line, the next process is to level it.
-As in some cases your pulleys will be too close to place your level
-where you want, make a light iron frame as per Fig. 49, making the
-suspending members of sufficient length to admit of your reading the
-level conveniently when standing on the floor. Hang your frame on
-the shaft, and put your level on the straight-edge below; in this
-way travel along the shaft, placing your frame where convenient. Be
-sure that one end of your frame does not rest on a shaft of different
-diameter, a key, keyseat, or anything to distort the reading.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 49.]
-
-Never be content with trying your level, especially an adjusting level,
-one way; always reverse it and try again; for if it is out of truth at
-the start, you might want to go through the roof or down cellar at the
-finish. Get into a habit of reversing your level, and so prove your
-work as you proceed.
-
-
-
-
-V
-
-APPARATUS FOR LEVELING AND LINING SHAFTING
-
-
-THE first apparatus explained in this chapter was designed by the late
-Chas. A. Bauer, and is a highly perfected instrument.
-
-For those who have lined and leveled shafting with an engineer's
-transit and level it is unnecessary to say anything of the advantages
-of that method over the cruder methods usually employed. It is not only
-done much more rapidly and economically, but the greater accuracy with
-which the work is done goes on paying dividends in decreased friction
-and loss of power and in lessening of wear.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 50.]
-
-The apparatus we now illustrate (Fig. 50) has at the top a hook, which
-is passed over the shaft, as indicated; on the straight portion of
-this hook are two sliding jaws which are so set that the shaft will
-just pass between them. Set into the face of this hook is a commercial
-6-inch steel rule which facilitates the setting of the jaws, and
-they are of course so set that the tubular portion of the hook or
-leveling rod is centered vertically under the shaft. Within the outer
-tube, which is about 1 inch outside diameter and nicely japanned, is
-another tube, and inside this a third tube, these being arranged _à
-la_ telescope slide, and clamps being provided so that the length or
-distance from the shafting to the target may be anything desired from
-4 to about 10 feet. At the lower end of the third or inner tube is a
-swiveling head to which the target is attached, and nurled nuts at this
-point give means of adjusting the sighting point of the target to the
-exact hight of the transit or level sighting line.
-
-The target is a brass plate 5-1/2 inches diameter, on the face of which
-is a recess milled for the reception of a second commercial steel rule,
-which in this case is vertical and can be moved vertically and clamped
-in any desired position with reference to a line drawn upon the target.
-At the center of this scale is a very small hole through which the
-light of a hand flash lamp may shine to form the sighting point. The
-slot through the target at the right of the scale is provided with a
-single thickness of white cloth, which permits enough light to pass
-through it to help in finding the target in the field of the telescope.
-
-The object of providing a vertical adjustment for the rule on the
-target is so that when passing from one diameter of shafting to another
-in the same line, as sometimes happens, the scale can be moved up or
-down just half the difference of diameter and the sighting point thus
-be kept at a constant hight.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 51.]
-
-The target is readily detached from the rod, and may then be placed
-upon the small standard (Fig. 51) which has at its base a V adapted
-to go over the shaft. The standard is tubular and the wire (about 1/8
-inch diameter) may be adjusted and clamped at the desired hight. The
-target fits over the wire as shown (rear view of target) for leveling
-lines of shafting that may be near the floor, or, with the target
-removed, the V and wire form a sort of length gage or caliper with
-which the shaft may be made parallel to a line or wire stretched at the
-side of it. Two different lengths of wire are provided for this purpose.
-
-The plumb-bob shown is part of the equipment and is a very superior
-article. A new feature it possesses is in having its larger portion
-hexagonal instead of round, so when laid down upon a plank or
-scaffolding it will lie there instead of promptly rolling off and
-falling to the floor. The entire apparatus is, we think, very well
-designed for its purpose.
-
-
-TOOL FOR LEVELING SHAFTING
-
-The instrument shown in Fig. 52 is a good one for use in leveling up
-shafting. It can be made to fit several sizes of shaft, or all the
-sizes ordinarily found in a factory.
-
-When the instrument is placed on any piece of shaft and leveled up with
-the attached level, the plumb line will hang exactly the same distance
-from the shaft center every time. In this case the distance of line
-from center is 6 inches.
-
-A handy apparatus for use in leveling up long lines of shaft can be
-made as follows.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 52.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 53.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 54.]
-
-Take two pieces of finished material, fasten together as in Fig. 53 and
-cut out as shown at _A_ and _B_ in Fig. 54. The opening _A_ is made so
-that the piece can be hung over the shaft, and the opening _B_ is made
-for the reception of a wooden straight-edge.
-
-Make the straight-edge out of 1-1/4-inch stuff. Be sure that the edges
-are parallel, the width just enough less than the width of opening _B_,
-Fig. 55, to enter it, and the length 6 or 8 feet, to suit convenience.
-Use the apparatus with a level, as in Fig. 55, taking care that the
-suspension pieces are always on the same size shaft.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 55.]
-
-
-
-
-VI
-
-SOME PRACTICAL KINKS[4]
-
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 56.]
-
-A PULLEY on one of the motors at a certain plant had been giving some
-trouble by becoming loose and working its way along the shaft toward
-the motor bearing. Each time the pulley became loose, the set-screw
-was loosened, the pulley put back in position, the set-screw made
-tight and the motor started. After a few trials it was found that this
-would not prevent the pulley from working its way along the shaft. In
-order to overcome this difficulty the pulley was placed in its proper
-position, a line was drawn around the shaft close to the hub and, after
-the line was scribed, the pulley was removed and the shaft was burred
-upon the line as shown at _B_, Fig. 56. The pulley was then put back
-and driven close up to the burred line, the set-screw made tight and
-the pulley is now running without any apparent tendency to travel from
-its proper position. It will be seen that the position of the set-screw
-as indicated by the line at _A_ is a poor one and calculated to give
-plenty of trouble at the most inopportune time.
-
-[4] Contributed to Power by Wm. Kavanagh.
-
-Not long ago a cast-iron pulley had to move along a countershaft in
-order to make room for a pulley of another diameter. The pulley had
-not been on the shaft long, so it was thought that little work would
-be required to move it. A heavy bar was placed against the hub and a
-sledge hammer was used to strike the bar. After an hour and a half of
-heavy work the pulley was not moved over 1 inch (it had to be moved
-16 inches), so it was suggested that a Bunsen burner be attached to a
-gas pipe by means of a hose and placed beneath the hub. The plan was
-immediately adopted. The burner was placed beneath the hub, the gas lit
-and allowed to heat the hub. After about twenty-five minutes it was
-found that a blow from the bar was sufficient to move the pulley. The
-pulley was moved the 16 inches inside of twenty minutes.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 57.]
-
-A very handy arrangement for moving pulleys is a bolt and nut. Fig. 57
-shows the bolt and nut with a piece of pipe attached. A piece of pipe
-can be cut to suit the distance between the nut and hub of one pulley
-while the bolt head is against the other hub. The nut is screwed back
-upon the bolt as far as possible. A washer is then placed against the
-nut, and a piece of pipe cut to suit. Of course, the pipe must be large
-enough in diameter to fit over the bolt. If we screw back upon the nut,
-a powerful strain can be brought to bear between the hubs and in all
-probability the pulley will move.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 58.]
-
-In taking down solid pulleys from main or counter shafting it sometimes
-happens that a hanger must be removed to permit the pulley to be taken
-off. A first-rate plan is to make a couple of long bolts hooked at
-the end as shown in Fig 58; pass the hook around the shaft and the
-threaded end through a hole in the stringer. By screwing up the nut
-as shown, the shaft and remaining pulleys can be kept in position,
-obviating the use of tackle, not to mention the labor required to hoist
-back the shaft into position. The application of this contrivance is
-especially valuable where heavy cone pulleys are required to be lowered
-or changed. It will be seen that if we employ a pipe thread we will be
-enabled to suit almost any condition of length that may arise between
-the shaft and stringer.
-
-
-
-
-VII
-
-PRACTICAL METHODS OF LOOSENING PULLEYS
-
-
-WHEN a solid pulley is to be removed from a piece of shaft for any
-reason, it is not good policy to use sledge hammers on the spokes or
-hub to do it. Cast iron in pulleys is too liable to break or crack
-under repeated blows.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 59.]
-
-In Fig. 59 one ready method is illustrated by which the pulley may be
-removed. When a place between two walls can be found that will admit
-of this arrangement, proceed as shown to force the shaft through the
-pulley, substituting longer pieces of pipe as the shaft is forced
-through farther.
-
-In one case where a large pulley was stuck on a 7-inch shaft and its
-removal was imperative, the shaft was sawed off (with large hack-saws)
-close up to the pulley hub and two 5/8-inch holes were drilled into
-the shaft parallel to its axis, as shown in Fig. 60. These holes were
-drilled so that they were 90 degrees apart and came within 1/16-inch of
-the hub of the pulley. The hub was 14 inches through and these holes
-were 8 inches deep; but that was enough to loosen up the shaft so
-that when the pulley was laid over on beams with the shaft hanging
-through, a sledge hammer applied on the shaft end soon drove it out.
-
-Another way to remove a pulley is shown in Fig. 61, where a ram is
-used. The ram is another piece of old shaft. To prevent its damaging
-the pulley hub and also to have its force applied most advantageously,
-it should be used in a direct line with the direction of removal. To do
-this, the method shown in Fig. 61 is self-explanatory.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 60.]
-
-Another good method of removing an obdurate pulley is illustrated in
-Fig. 62, where the bolts _W_, _W_ must have long threads and the work
-is done by pulling up on the nuts _A_, _A_. This method can be used
-only when the end of the shaft can be reached and used as shown. In
-using this method, care must be exercised in the pulling up on the
-bolts _W_, _W_, keeping the strain equally divided between the two by
-pulling a little at a time on each.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 61.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 62.]
-
-If the pulley comes extra hard, it can be assisted when the strain is
-on the bolts by striking at _X_ with a sledge.
-
-A good device for removing motor and generator pulleys that are near
-the shaft end is shown in Fig. 63. The arms _Z_, _Z_ are adjustable to
-take hold of hub or arms, and the screw applied to the shaft center
-will do the rest.
-
-To run a pulley off a shaft without injury to the hands, use a monkey
-wrench on the rim of each pulley, as shown in Fig. 64. One pulley on
-the shaft can be selected for a hold-back; one monkey wrench there will
-hold the shaft from turning, while the other will turn around the shaft
-the pulley which it is intended to remove.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 63.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 64.]
-
-
-
-
-VIII
-
-SPLICING LEATHER BELTS[5]
-
-
-THE first thing is the tools for the different kinds of work. These may
-be usually changed somewhat to suit the taste of the user, but in the
-main the style and kind herein shown in attached drawings cannot be
-very much improved upon.
-
-[5] Contributed to Power by Walter E. Dixon, M. E.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 65.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 66.]
-
-Figs. 65 and 66 show a splice opener for heavy belts. It is made of
-1/2-inch tool steel with the point spread out about 2 inches wide and
-well tempered, after which it is ground to a good sharp edge, and then
-an oil stone run over the edge until it has been dulled so that it will
-not cut. The right kind of an edge can only be secured by trying; it is
-one of the tools that is very hard to get just right. You will notice
-that the manner in which this splitter is built may seem to be rather
-too much work to bestow on such a simple tool, but the reasons for so
-doing are as follows: in opening a 36-inch belt an old splice opener
-that was driven into the handle like an ordinary file was used and the
-handle split; that sharp point came back through the handle, and when
-it finally stopped it had gone about 2 inches into the palm of the
-operator's hand. Some 1/2-inch hexagon steel was turned down 6 inches,
-just enough to round it up; then a solid brass washer was turned out
-1-1/4 inches in diameter and 1 inch thick, a hole bored through it that
-was a driving fit on the piece of steel and was driven down to the
-shoulder. Washers were cut out of old pieces of belt and put on with a
-liberal coat of glue on both sides; when the handle was filled, a steel
-washer which was 1/2 inch thick was screwed down hard on the leather
-washers, and when it had dried well the whole was turned down to size
-shown in the sketch. Two of these tools were made, one for belts up
-to 18 inches, and another that will reach through a 40-inch belt. The
-tool shown in Fig. 67 is an ordinary heavy screwdriver with the point
-rounded nicely, and it is used to raise the thin points that the larger
-tool will sometimes tear.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 67.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 68.]
-
-Fig. 68 shows a handle made almost like the one in Fig. 65, with the
-exception that the brass washer referred to in Fig. 65 is here turned
-down to 3/4 inch, commencing 1/2 inch from the large end, which is 1
-inch in diameter. The leather washers are slipped on over the small part
-until it is filled, and then a washer is screwed on the small end and
-the whole turned as shown in the sketch. A hole that will tap out 3/8
-inch is bored in the large end of the brass center, and then tools made
-with threaded ends on them that will fit into it. These tools are made
-of 3/8-inch tool steel with scraping ends, as shown. These scrapers
-are used only for removing glue that is too hard and too thick to be
-removed by the scraper shown in Fig. 69.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 69.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 69a.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 69b.]
-
-Figs. 69, 69a and 69b show views of the only tool that is hardly worth
-being referred to as a leather-cutting tool. It is made of a thin piece
-of steel, about 18 gage, or any old hand-saw will make the very best
-scrapers that can be secured. They should be about 4 inches square,
-perhaps a little smaller, and fixed in a hardwood handle (usually of
-hard maple), simply by sawing about 2-1/2 inches into the handle and
-then driving the blade in. The saw cut should be just a trifle thinner
-than the piece of steel. Should they get loose from use, a piece of
-paper folded over the back of the blade and forced back into the handle
-with the blade will usually tighten it all right.
-
-This is the tool that will ordinarily worry the novice more than all
-the rest to keep in proper condition. Fig. 70 shows an exaggerated view
-of how the blade should look when properly finished. It should be
-hooked considerably.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 70.]
-
-Fig. 71 shows a small steel for sharpening the scraper after it is
-turned, and it should be absolutely smooth.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 71.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 72.]
-
-Fig. 72 shows the equipment for turning the edge of the scrapers. A
-large three-cornered file, about 12 inches long, which has all the
-teeth ground carefully off of it and then nicely polished, is fastened
-to a piece of good clean belt leather by means of the staples shown.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 73.]
-
-Fig. 73 shows the method employed in turning the edge of the scraper,
-which is as follows: After the blade has been set firmly in the handle,
-grind the edge rounding, as is shown in Fig. 69; then grind sharp with
-a good long taper of about 3/8, and grind from both sides just as you
-would an ordinary axe. After you have a good smooth edge on it, put
-it on an oil or water stone and put as fine an edge as possible on
-it, then put on a smooth piece of leather and hone it down until it
-would shave you. You will then have a tool that will do a world of
-work for you, "if you will turn it right." The method shown in Fig.
-73, if properly carried out, will do the trick for you; the thing to
-be remembered is that at no time in the turning of the scraper must
-the cutting edge bear on the smooth file. The first position is not
-shown right; the handle should be allowed to touch the file the first
-few times it is passed over, and then gradually raise the handle and
-keep on passing the blade from side to side, as is shown in Fig. 74;
-allowing it to slip off on the leather every time you cross the file;
-this is to keep the corners in proper shape. Another thing to remember
-is to bear down on the blade as it is passed over the file; you can't
-bear too hard; the only thing to look out for is not to raise the
-handle too fast. An ordinary blade can be turned in about fifty strokes
-across the file. The edge turned over should be at least 1/16 inch long
-and should be well hooked, as is shown in Fig. 73.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 74.]
-
-It is well to keep on hand about six of these scrapers, and as they
-get too dull to cut leather use them on glue. With one good scraper
-that is not too sharp all the glue can be cleaned off of both points
-of a 36-inch belt in from five to ten minutes. When the edge gets a
-trifle dull, use the small steel on both sides of the edge; first wet
-the steel with the lips, it makes a much better edge. For the benefit
-of beginners who may attempt to splice a belt for the first time, do
-not use a glue that will not allow you to remove the clamps and put on
-the full load in forty-five minutes after the glue has been applied and
-well rubbed down. The time given here applies only to clean belts that
-are absolutely free from all oils, and does not include old oil-soaked
-leather that no glue will ever dry on.
-
-Fig. 75 shows the equipment necessary to do a good, quick job on a
-belt, and most of them are required to be done quickly and well. With
-such an outfit and half-dozen sharp scrapers a joint in a 36-inch belt
-can be made and run again in four hours after the engine is stopped.
-This includes all the time consumed in putting on and taking off the
-clamps, etc.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 75.]
-
-The top of the platform, 76d, is level with the bottom of the belt
-and is held in position by the hooks, 76b, which are shown in Figs.
-75 and 76. These hooks slip over the 2×4-inch pieces that project
-outside the platform to which they are attached, and should be made
-of three-quarter iron and not too long, or some difficulty may be
-experienced in getting them on the two-by-fours.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 76.]
-
-The rods should be long enough to take care of the longest possible
-splice and still give plenty of room to work. There should be about
-2-1/2 feet between the inside ends of the threads and the threaded end
-should be 3 feet long. This will make the rod 8 feet 6 inches long,
-and it will be none too long at that. For instance, in removing the
-glue from the splice, if the last end point is very close to the clamp,
-there will be great difficulty in cleaning it and also in fitting the
-leather after the belt has been shortened. What is meant by the head
-end splice is the one that is on the pulley first--the arrows in Figs.
-77 and 78 will make this clear: they indicate the direction in which
-the belt should run; therefore that end of the piece of leather that
-is on the pulley first is the head end (or first end) and the end that
-leaves the pulley last is the last end. If the two belts shown in the
-sketch were reversed, the points would be turned up by everything
-that touched them; whereas, running in the direction that they do,
-everything that touches them has a tendency to rub them down.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 77.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 78.]
-
-We will suppose that the belt shown in Fig. 75 had a "first end" point
-that opened on the top of the belt instead of the bottom as this one
-does (see left-hand end of belt between the clamps, on the lower side);
-one can easily see how hard it would be to work if the clamp were near
-the point. There should always be enough room between the clamps to
-allow the splicer to take the last end (which is always the forked
-end), carry it entirely over the clamp toward the left in Fig. 75, lay
-it down on that part of the belt that is outside the clamp and slip an
-extra splicing board under it. Fasten the two belts and splicing board
-all together by means of a couple of 8-inch hand-screws (of which every
-belt splicer should have at least six or eight); then clean and shape
-it to suit the other end. It can be passed back over the clamp from
-time to time and tried for a fit.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 79.]
-
-The proper mode of procedure in splicing a belt on the pulleys is as
-follows: Decide on where the belt is to be opened, and always open it
-in the worst place in the belt for that is the place you certainly want
-to fix. Pay no attention whatever to any former splicing place that
-may be in the belt, but take it apart at any place where you are sure
-repairs are actually necessary. First put in the most convenient place
-possible the point that you have decided to open and then put the
-clamps in position. If you are sure that it is going to require very
-hard pulling to get it as tight as you wish, take a damp cloth, moisten
-the inside of the clamps and then sprinkle powdered resin on both upper
-and lower clamp. Put the "first end" clamp on first, as this is always
-the easiest point to clean and fit; decide how much you will have to
-take out, or as near as possible, measure off this amount on the belt
-and place the clamp this distance plus about 10 inches from the "first
-end" point. This extra 10 inches will give you plenty of room to clean
-the glue off and also to shorten up the belt the right amount, for all
-the shortening must be done on the "first end" point on account of the
-ease with which the new scarf can be made.
-
-Should you try to shorten up from the "last end" point, by referring
-to Fig. 78, you can easily see the amount of work you would be in
-for. There would be two thin ends to scarf, and outside ends at that;
-whereas if you shorten up from the "first end" you make only one thin
-end and that one in the inside of the belt.
-
-The first clamp, with the center mark of the clamp coinciding with
-the center of the belt, should be very tight; for should it slip when
-the load is put on, it will very probably slip in the middle of the
-belt and may not slip on the edges at all. Should you glue it in this
-condition, the chances are very much in favor of the outside edges
-giving away on a heavy load, due to the middle being too long. After
-the first clamp is in position and tightened, put on the second one and
-leave the bolts loose, so that it can be slipped easily. Then put the
-belt rods in position with just a "full nut" on each end and tighten
-the clamp. Tighten the rods enough to take most of the load, then get
-the large splitter shown in Figs. 65 and 66 and open the joint. The
-place to commence is between _X X_ in Fig. 75; this inclined point
-is about 4 inches long and must be opened at both ends of the splice
-before the middle is touched.
-
-The tool should be entered at _O_, in Fig. 78, and worked gradually
-toward _A_; when the point is raised to _A_ clear across the belt, open
-on down to _C_. After both ends of the splice have been opened up in
-this way, proceed to open the middle, which is now an easy task, there
-being no thin stock that a separating tool will pass through easily.
-After the belt is entirely apart tighten up on the rods until the belt
-is the proper tension and hang the hooks (76b, Fig. 75) on the belt
-rods. Throw the two ends of the belt back over the clamp and put the
-splicing board in position. After this is in place, throw the two ends
-of the belt back on the board and proceed to lay off the scarfs. To
-do this, first take a square and get the two thin points perfectly
-square, then put the "first end" point in between them. This is shown
-very clearly in Fig. 77, the shaded end being the last end. Of course
-the "first end" point at _C_, Fig. 77, will have to be cut off before
-the belt will lie down properly; the amount to cut off of this end will
-be just as much as you have shortened the distance between the clamps.
-After the point has been cut to the right length, take the square and
-make a mark across the belt, using the end of the thin point as your
-measure for length; then without moving the belt make a mark on the
-edge of the belt, showing just where the lower thin point came on the
-bottom. Throw the "last end" over the left-hand clamp out of the way
-and scarf down the top of the "first end" point, letting the scarf be
-about 4 inches long. Be careful not to gouge a hole in the belt where
-the scarf is started, but try to make the inclined plane from _X_ to
-_X_ perfect; try to keep the whole surface of this incline true and
-straight. After the short 4-inch scarf is finished, clean the glue off
-of the inside of the "first end"; lap up to where it enters the "last
-end"; then turn it over by bringing it over the right-hand clamp, place
-a scarfing board under it and make the scarf shown at _T_, Fig. 75.
-Now clean all glue off the "last end" lap and take a sharp scraper
-like the one shown in Fig. 69 or 69b, place a piece of glass under the
-points that have been previously squared up, and scarf them down to a
-knife-edge.
-
-After the thin points are properly scarfed, lay the whole splice back
-on the splicing board just as it will be when it is glued, and do any
-fitting that may be necessary. Be very careful to get it thin enough,
-or it will make a hammering noise when going over the pulleys. When
-scarfing down the thin points with the scrapers, be sure that they
-are very sharp; if not, they will tear the point off when it gets
-down to an edge; also give the blade a drawing motion in order to
-facilitate cutting. It may seem to the novice that to use a piece of
-glass to scarf on, when one is using a tool with a razor edge, is a
-trifle inconsistent, but it is not so in the least; if the blade is
-held well back at the top and a considerable pressure applied to it,
-there will be no danger in the edge actually touching the glass; the
-edge is turned past a right-angular position, or hooked, and the heel
-is all that touches the glass. A good piece of plate glass about 12 ×
-18 inches is large enough for any width of belt, although a piece much
-smaller will do all right. Do not attempt to do any scarfing on the
-board 76d, for if you do it will be so full of holes that have been
-gouged by the scraper that it will be ruined for any purpose.
-
-This board must be kept smooth in order to be able to do a good job of
-rubbing down when gluing. Never hammer a glue joint in order to set
-it; it is just that much unnecessary work and does absolutely no good;
-simply get a smooth block of wood 2 × 6 × 8 inches and rub hard and
-fast as soon as the glue is applied. Do not try to glue more than 6
-inches in length at one time. Use a heavy brush--a high-priced paint
-brush is the best; the regular glue brush is about the only thing in
-existence that will not put on any glue at all--about a 3-inch brush
-is the thing; have the glue just as hot as it is possible to get it.
-Keep the brush in the pot all the time the glue is heating; also have a
-strong stick made somewhat like a three-cornered file, only larger, in
-the glue--this last is used to scrape off the brush all the glue that
-it is possible to get off without allowing the glue to get too cold.
-When you take the brush out of the pot, work fast; get all the glue
-possible off the brush and get the rest on the belt at once. Make two
-or three fast strokes across the belt and close down the splice and rub
-for dear life. After the first brushful has been applied (and rubbed
-for about two minutes), have an assistant raise the point up until
-you can see the glue breaking all across the whole width of the belt.
-Then have a second brush ready and repeat the former process, with the
-exception that you need not apply the glue to both sides of the leather
-as in the first case; for if you will keep the brush down in the fork
-between the two laps you will give both sides a coat, and in addition
-to the time saved by using this method you will get the joint closed
-while the glue is hot. As fast as you go across the belt with the
-brush, have the assistant roll the belt together after you; when you
-have used all the glue out of the brush, the joint is closed and ready
-to rub. You will keep the glue much hotter by immediately closing the
-splice after the brush, and there is nothing else so important as using
-hot glue; as soon as it commences to get shiny on the surface the thing
-is all off and it will not hold anything.
-
-You cannot do any quick work with water in your glue--that is, unless
-it is old and has been heated up several times. If this is the case,
-it will have to be thinned with water. The proper consistency is about
-that of a very heavy grade of cylinder oil; if it is too thin, it will
-not dry in any reasonable time and it will also cause pockets in the
-splice by opening up after the joint has been rubbed, and the air in
-the pockets will open the whole splice. In important work never use
-a glue that will not stick so tightly between every application belt
-that after rubbing down you can give it a good, hard pull without its
-opening up. In all statements regarding the time necessary for the
-joint to dry, the belts are considered absolutely clean, dry and free
-from all oils.
-
-The most disagreeable portion of the belt repairer's work is the
-splicing and repairing of oil-soaked belts. It is a well-known fact
-that the action of oil and that of glue are in direct opposition to
-each other: the oil prevents sticking and the glue sticks, if it has
-a chance. Such being the case, the first thing to do is to eliminate
-the oil completely, and the efficiency of your joint will be in direct
-proportion to your success in getting rid of the oil. To this end
-secure a large gasoline blow torch, such as painters use to burn off
-old paint. If you are not used to it, be very careful; at all events,
-have a bucket of dry sand to use in case of trouble. Just throw the
-sand on the fire and the fire will go out--that is, if you can get the
-sand in the right place.
-
-The torch is to be used after the splice has been all completed except
-the thin points. The flame will burn them if finished, so leave them
-tolerably thick until after the oil has been removed; then finish them
-as directed before. When the scarfs have been made and the old glue
-has been removed, turn the flame (which should be an almost invisible
-blue if the torch is working properly) directly on the leather and
-move it over all the surface of the splice until the leather has
-become thoroughly heated; never allow the flame to remain directed
-at any point long enough to make the oil in the leather boil. If you
-do, the belt is burned. Continue to move the flame over the surface
-of the belt until the leather is so hot that the hand can scarcely
-be held on it. With one of the scrapers shown in Figs. 69 and 69b
-(69b preferred) scrape the oil off as the heat raises it up. Turn the
-cutting edge of the scraper up and wipe the oil off after every stroke;
-keep the scraping process going right on after the torch; never allow
-the leather to cool off until you can get practically no oil and the
-leather begins to turn brown. By heating the leather and bringing the
-oil to the surface you do just what the glue does when you put it on
-an oil-soaked belt without removing the oil. By means of the heat
-contained in it, it brings up all the oil near the surface to which it
-is applied and in consequence does not take any hold on the leather.
-
-It will take two men with all the necessary tools and appliances at
-least six hours of good hard work to remove the oil from a well-soaked
-36-inch belt--that is, to remove it to an extent sufficient to warrant
-the gluing of it.
-
-In case of overflows in which the wheel pits are liable to be filled
-with water, pour cylinder oil on all belts that are liable to get wet
-and then remove them from pulleys if they will be covered for more than
-twenty-four hours, clean them with gasoline and they will be found to
-be all right and dry.
-
-Hold a clean piece of waste against all belts at least twice every
-twenty hours, and wipe them clean.
-
-
-
-
-IX
-
-THE CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF LEATHER BELTS[6]
-
-
-OUTSIDE of the direct care and management of high-pressure boilers and
-the steam lines pertaining thereto, there is no other part of a power
-or lighting plant, mill or factory in which a large number of indirect
-connected machines are used that is of such vital importance as leather
-belting and rope drives. The subject under discussion in this chapter
-will be the former, and the selection, care and management thereof.
-
-[6] Contributed to Power by Walter E. Dixon. M. E.
-
-The first thing in order will be the selection of a leather belt, and
-when we consider that all makers make good belts, that there are no
-particular secrets in the belt-making business, and that in order to
-get the very best we must take every advantage of all small details in
-construction, it stands every engineer and belt user in hand to get all
-the information available; for we must remember that the percentage of
-good hides does not run very high, that all that are bought go into
-belt stock of some kind or other, and that some one must buy the goods
-that are not quite up to the standard of belt excellence. It is very
-evident that no man wants anything but the best when he is paying for
-the best, and it is also evident that no maker is going to say that he
-makes inferior goods; so therefore we must read the quality by what is
-in sight, and in the judging of leather that is already made up, the
-proposition resolves itself into a very hard one.
-
-The two principal things left for an opinion to be based upon as to
-quality are the relation the pieces that constitute the laps bear to
-the hide from which they were cut. They should, in belts running from
-18 to 36 inches, be cut from the center of the hides, or should be
-what is known as "center stock." Of course all belts should be "center
-stock," but where they are very narrow or so wide that one hide will
-not be wide enough to make a lap, then there is always a lot of narrow
-stock worked in that cannot always be strictly center. The next thing
-to look out for is brands that are so deep that they destroy the life
-of the leather and will cause it to break after being used. Then look
-out for the length of lap. If this is too long, you will know that it
-runs into the neck, for about all that it is possible to get out of
-average hides and still leave nothing in that is not first class is
-54 or 56 inches. Ordinarily, you can tell if a lap is "center stock"
-by the marks that run down either side of the back bone; they will
-be usually a little darker than the rest of the belt. These marks or
-streaks should be in the center of the belt. The principal objection to
-neck leather is that it is liable to stretch excessively, and on this
-account it will put too much load on the piece immediately opposite it
-in a double-ply belt; for the point of one side is in the middle of the
-lap on the other side. Next look out for holes, which will usually be
-found so nicely plugged as to escape detection unless subjected to the
-most careful examination.
-
-Next in importance is to buy a belt that has already been filled with
-some good waterproof dressing. It is quite likely that to buy a belt
-that has been filled means to buy one that perhaps has some bad leather
-in it that would be seen in a dry oak tan belt, and also that the
-adhesive power of the filled belt is not quite equal to the dry one;
-but the points that the filled one possesses over the one not filled
-are, first and mainly, "it is filled when you buy it with a preparation
-that does not injure the leather in the least," and the preparation
-you will fill it with, for it will be filled, will be engine oil and
-water, a combination that will ruin any belt made and also get it in
-six months into a condition that will make a permanent repair with glue
-impossible, for machine oil and moisture are strangers to glue and will
-ever be. More good belts are ruined by being soaked with engine oil
-until the points come loose and then pulled out of shape than from any
-other cause. Of course you may be able to keep a main engine belt that
-runs through a damp wheel pit and basement, and through a long damp
-tunnel to a main driven pulley that has two big boxes that are just as
-close to the pulley as a first-class machine designer could put them,
-and never get a drop of oil or water on it. But this is not likely.
-
-One very common cause of trouble with engine belts is the fact that
-such belts usually run under the floor, where there is considerable
-moisture. Then the oil table under the average large Corliss engine
-will leak around dash-pots and rocker-arm shafts, and some oil will
-fly from the eccentric oil cups, get into the wheel, run around the
-rim and get to the belt; if the belt is not filled a very few drops of
-oil will make a large spot on it. Then, if an engine does not run the
-whole twenty-four hours, while it is off, watch. A few drops of water
-from a leaky valve stem whose bonnet drain is stopped up, as it will
-sometimes be, has a way of getting through the floor and falling on to
-the belt and running down the inclined inside of it until it finally
-comes to the flywheel, which, with the assistance of its crowning face,
-very kindly makes a nice pocket for said water and proceeds to drink
-it up. Result: the glue is loosened and the belt may come apart in
-consequence. Should there chance to be a point just at the bottom of
-this pocket, it will get the glue soft enough to slip but may not open
-up, which is much worse than if it did open up; for it may slip away
-from the shoulder of the splice for half an inch, and when the engine
-is put to work it may close down by running under the wheel and stick.
-If it does, the result is that at no very distant day you will find a
-break at that particular place, right across the face of the belt. The
-reason is that the load was all taken off the inside half of the belt
-by point slipping, thereby making the inside of the belt too long and
-putting all the load on the outside. The outside will continue to do
-all the work until it stretches enough to bring the inside back into
-service again. During this week or month you have been pulling your
-load with a single belt, not a double one, and after a short time
-you will find the break referred to above in the shape of a clean,
-well-defined crack extending across the belt parallel with the points
-of the laps. Now of course you are going to send for the man who sold
-you the belt and ask him to fix it. If he is a wise man and understands
-his business, he won't do a thing but show you right under that crack
-a point that does not come up to where it should come. Then the thing
-for you to do is to say to him that the belt is examined every time it
-is put into service and that you have noticed that the points he refers
-to all come loose during a "run," that any one knows that a few drops
-of water would not take any belt to pieces while it was running, and if
-it was water, why did it not take it apart everywhere, etc? And finally
-crush him completely by telling him that your men have no time to put a
-pair of clamps on a belt in order to pull back into its proper position
-every point that comes loose; that if they did do it they would have no
-time for anything else, especially in the present case, and that if his
-people had made the belt right the glue would have held, anyway.
-
-After he has given you a new belt or repaired your old one, just take
-my advice and box that flywheel up above the top of the eccentric oil
-cup, at least 12 inches, and get some good, heavy tin or zinc and put a
-tight roof over the belt, under the floor.
-
-First put in a ridge pole out of 1-1/2-inch pipe, starting at the face
-of the wheel and running in the direction of the main driven pulley,
-holding it firmly in place at each end with a strong iron clamp. Then
-solder into each edge of the strip of tin, which should be long enough
-to reach beyond any possible leak through the floor or oil table, a
-piece of 1/2-inch pipe, and put the tin over the ridge pole with a piece
-of small pipe on either side. Ordinarily the belt goes out past the
-cylinder; if it runs through a bricked-up runway on its route to the
-main driven pulley, just fasten the two pieces of 1/2-inch pipe to
-either wall and have the ridge about 6 inches higher than the outside
-ones. Then every drop of oil or water that comes through the floor will
-fall on to the roof and run down to the walls and be carried down to
-the floor of the pit and have no chance to touch the belt.
-
-One of the most difficult things in the operation of large stations
-where a large number of belts are used is to keep them thoroughly
-clean and free from moisture and machine oil, the latter especially.
-One very hard problem that confronts all designers of machinery is the
-prevention of oil leakage from boxes. In several plants with as many as
-six dynamos of the same kind and the same design, at least four of the
-six have leaked oil every time they were run. The others did not leak
-as a usual thing, and all were equipped with the most modern methods of
-holding oil.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 80.]
-
-Now we come to the building of the belt, and we will notice only such
-points as interest the engineer or buyer. The first thing is to see
-that the laps are of uniform thickness, so that the belt will run
-quietly; and it should be absolutely straight when unrolled on the
-floor. If it has a long, graceful curve in it, look out; for it will
-not run straight on the pulleys until it has stretched straight, and
-by that time one of its edges may be ruined by coming in contact with
-the floor or some other obstacle. Next notice how long the leather is
-from which it is made. It should not show more than 52 inches, and
-then there will be 4 inches hidden by the point that is out of sight.
-Then see that the joints are broken properly. For instance, find the
-center of any piece of leather on one side of the belt, and then look
-on the opposite side and see if the joint is right under your center
-mark. It should be by all means, for right here lies the most important
-thing about the construction of leather belts. A belt whose laps are
-all the same length, and which has all its joints broken correctly,
-will put the same load on the glue throughout, and that is what must
-be done in order to get the best results. See Fig. 80. Here we have a
-belt that is 36 inches in width and a double ply. Now suppose there
-is a draft of 9360 pounds on this belt, that from point _A_ to point
-_B_ is 26 inches, and that the points are 4 inches long. Now we have
-26 inches plus 4 inches plus 4 inches times 36 inches for the number
-of square inches in the glued joint. This equals 1224 square inches;
-the total pull on the belt divided by 1224 will equal the load on each
-square inch of glued joint, and will equal in this case 7.65 pounds.
-Now instead of assuming distance _A--B_ in Fig. 80 to be 26 inches, let
-the lower joint get out of step with the upper ones, and conditions get
-vastly different. We will suppose that the dimensions are as given in
-Fig. 81, as was the case with a new belt that was measured less than
-one month before the observation was made and we have the following:
-Joint _A B_ is now only 10 inches, and we have 10 inches plus 4 inches
-plus 4 inches times 36 inches which equals 648 square inches, and the
-lead on the joint is now 14.44 pounds. You will readily perceive what
-an important part in the life of the belt, and the life of everything
-around the belt as far as that goes, the proper breaking of the upper
-and lower joints is. Of course the belt maker will tell you that his
-glue is just as strong as the leather itself, and he is about right
-as long as you keep the belt free from oil and water; but when the
-belt becomes filled with oil the glue rots and loses its strength much
-faster than does the leather.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 81.]
-
-No good belt needs any posts along the sides to make it run straight
-and stay on the pulleys. If the pulleys are in line and the belt
-straight, it will run straight. All belts should be made to run
-perfectly straight on pulleys, first on account of the local
-advertisement that it gives to the man who has charge of them; second,
-if they do not run true, they will be on the floor or wrapped around
-the shaft in a very few minutes, should they ever slip. Another very
-important thing in the care of belts that carry heavy loads is that if
-any of the points do come loose so far back that they will not return
-to place without putting on the clamps, put them on by all means; as
-the restoring of this point to place means that you will still retain
-in service all of your belt, as you will not do if you glue it down
-where it is and thereby cut one side completely out of service.
-
-
-HOW TO CLEAN BELTING
-
-We submit the following as the best and proper way of cleaning a
-leather belt. It may seem simple, but it is safe and effective, as has
-been proved by many people who have thus restored old and dirty belting
-which had become almost or quite unfit for use.
-
-Coil the belt loosely and place it on edge in a tank in which it may
-be covered with naphtha; a half barrel makes a good receptacle, but
-something with a tight cover would save the loss by evaporation. Put
-in enough naphtha to cover the belt completely and allow it to remain
-for ten or twelve hours; then turn the belt over, standing it upon the
-other edge. The vertical position of the belt surfaces allows the dirt
-to settle to the bottom of the receptacle as it is washed out, and
-permits naphtha to get at all the parts.
-
-After the belt has remained in the naphtha another ten or twelve hours,
-or until sufficiently clean, raise it and allow the naphtha to drip
-back into the tank. Then lay the belt flat, stretching or shaking it
-until almost dry. You will find that the naphtha will not affect the
-leather nor the cement in the center of the belt, but may open the
-joints at the edges; in which case the old cement should be scraped off
-and the edges recemented. Your belt man will know how to do this. The
-belt will now be somewhat hard, and should be treated with a reliable
-belt dressing before being replaced on the pulleys.
-
-
-
-
-X
-
-BELTING, ITS USE AND ABUSE[7]
-
-
-THERE is no class of appliances so little understood by the ordinary
-steam engineer and steam user as belts, which may be seen by the
-quantity of belting sold annually. Where one can point to a belt that
-has been in continuous use for twenty years, you can find hundreds that
-do not last one-fourth as long. Why? Not always because the buyer has
-tried to get something for nothing, but as a rule, when they do, they
-get nothing for something.
-
-[7] Contributed to Power by Wm. H. McBarnes.
-
-The average belt is a poor one, and the average buyer will not find it
-out till he has used it for some time. If you weigh the belt dealer up
-as a man who is trying to rob you, beat him down in price, then get him
-to give from 5 to 40 per cent. off, he will enter a protest, and, after
-some explanation, will come to some terms with you. Have you gained
-anything by your cleverness? Well, hardly. Belt dealers and makers,
-like almost all other dealers in supplies, aim to get nothing but
-first-class goods; but second and third, and even fourth-class goods,
-are made, and you get the quality you pay for. In the second place,
-belts wear out quickly because they do not get proper care. To let a
-belt run one moment after it gets too slack is bad practice, for it is
-apt to slip and burn all the staying qualities out of it. Another good
-reason why it should not be run slack is that the engineer or belt man,
-to save work, would be tempted to put on a dressing or, worse yet, put
-on resin to make it pull, and, in the language of Rex, "the man who
-will put resin on his belts is either a fool or a knave," for it is
-sure to spoil his belt if continued for any length of time.
-
-In an emergency, as when some unforeseen substance has found its way
-to the belt, it may be necessary, to keep from shutting down between
-hours, to use some of the so-called dressing. We know from experience
-that engineers will go to almost any extreme to get out of a tight
-place--circumstances sometimes make it necessary to keep a belt running
-when it should not--but this should not be allowed to any extent. To
-allow a belt to run too tight is just as bad, for it will make short
-life for the belt, hot boxes and scored shafting. There is not one
-in twenty who takes the time or can splice a belt properly; it is
-generally done in a hurry, any way to make it hold together, with the
-understanding that it cannot talk; but it does. How often we see boards
-nailed up or rims tacked on to keep belts from getting off the pulleys.
-All of this is good for the belt dealers.
-
-This is not all the fault of the engineer or the belt manufacturer.
-Often belts are made uneven, and soon get out of shape, even with the
-best of care. We sometimes find a belt that ordinarily runs easy on
-the pulleys and does its work with ease suddenly inclined to run to
-either one side or the other of the driven pulley. This is caused by
-one of two things--either the belt has been too slack, or the load
-increased for want of lubrication, or other causes. In either case it
-will run off if you insist on applying the power. The remedy would be
-to take up the belt, thoroughly oil the journals, or take off the extra
-load--maybe a combination of all. Still a little extra work making the
-belt tighter will enable it to run well and do the extra work just
-as long as the extra tension can be maintained. Then it may appear
-perplexing and run to one side of the driven pulley when the driven
-shaft gets out of line with the driving shaft. In a case of this kind
-the belt does not run to what is called the high side of the pulley,
-but to the low side. Another peculiar indication: If two shafts are
-parallel and there is a high place on the pulley, then a belt will run
-to the high place; but if the shafts are out of line, or, in other
-words, are not parallel, and the face of the pulley straight, then the
-belt will run to the low side or that closest to the driving shaft. The
-remedy would be to line up your shafting.
-
-The object of this chapter is not to say how belts are made, but to
-impress upon the minds of belt users that to get the best results,
-belts, like all good servants, must be well cared for, and all
-responsibility should rest with one man, just as with your engine or
-any high-priced machine.
-
-
-
-
-XI
-
-A COMPARATIVE TEST OF FOUR BELT DRESSINGS[8]
-
-
-DURING January, 1905, a comparative test of the working efficiency
-of four belt dressings and preservatives was made by T. Farmer, Jr.,
-and the writer. The test was made on the regular belt-testing machine
-of Sibley College, Cornell University, a full description of which
-appeared on pages 705-707 of Vol. 12, _Trans. A. S. M. E._ This machine
-tests the belt under actual running conditions, though our belts were
-in somewhat better than average condition. The four belts were new
-4-inch Alexander No. 1 oak-tanned single-ply, and were 30 feet long.
-Particular care was taken to keep them free from oil and dirt. The
-belts were first tested as received from the manufacturer, after which
-each belt was treated with one of the dressings and again tested.
-
-[8] Contributed to Power by William Evans.
-
-The dressings were two semi-solids, designated No. 1 and No. 2; a bar,
-No. 3, and neatsfoot oil, No. 4. As the first three are proprietary
-articles, it was not thought best to give their names, though any one
-familiar with the actions of belt dressings will readily recognize No.
-1 from its peculiar curve. In applying the dressings, we followed
-directions carefully, and in the case of Nos. 2 and 3 exceeded
-them. The belt was given a five-hour run, during which two or three
-applications of the dressing were given, and then it was set aside in
-a warm place to allow it to absorb the applied dressing. After thus
-"soaking" for at least forty-eight hours, the belt was again run, this
-time for three hours, with one more application of the dressing. As
-No. 3 was a bar of sticky dressing, it will readily be seen that this
-precaution was not really necessary. No. 4, the neatsfoot oil, was not
-applied during the last run, as we were afraid of getting too much
-oil in the belt. As this oil is so extensively used by engineers for
-dressing belts, special care was taken to get the best possible results
-with it.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 82.]
-
-In Fig. 82, the result of the test with the neatsfoot oil is shown
-graphically. This curve is platted to show the relation between initial
-tension per inch of width and horse-power per inch of width. One reason
-for the drop in horse-power in the treated belt is that the slip was
-materially increased; in the lowest tension at which any power at all
-was transmitted, about 15 pounds per inch of width, the slip ran up as
-high as 25 per cent.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 83.]
-
-In Fig. 83, which shows the comparative value of the four dressings,
-the highest horse-power delivered to the belt was taken as the
-standard. The horse-power delivered by the belt was divided by this
-standard, and the result, expressed in percentage, was used as the
-percentage of available horse-power transmitted. This comparison shows
-the great superiority of dressing No. 1 at all times, and especially at
-low tensions. In looking at this chart, it is well to remember that No.
-3 is a sticky dressing.
-
-As the time of the test was so short, we were unable to determine the
-ultimate effect of the dressings on the leather of the belts. We could
-only approximate this by a chemical test and a close examination of the
-belts at the end of each test. The chemical analysis showed no ammonia
-or rosin in any of the dressings; No. 2 had a trace of mineral acid,
-and all had oleic acid as follows: No. 1, 0.27 per cent; No. 2, 29.85
-per cent; No. 3, 3.5 per cent; No. 4, 0.7 per cent.
-
-The practical test showed no ill effects except from No. 3, the sticky
-dressing, which ripped and tore the surface of the belt. The high
-initial tensions caused overheating of the journals, even though we
-kept them flooded with oil. On the low initial tensions there was
-no tendency to heat, even when the maximum horse-power was being
-transmitted by dressing No. 1. In the latter case we oiled the bearings
-once in every two or three runs (a "run" comprised all the readings
-for one initial tension), while in the former we oiled the bearings
-after each reading and sometimes between them; even then we were afraid
-that the babbitt would get hot enough to run. The readings for each
-run varied in number from two to a dozen, but only the one giving the
-maximum horse-power was used in drawing the curves. The belt speeds
-during the tests varied between 2000 and 2500 feet per minute, most of
-the tests being made at about 2200 feet per minute.
-
-
-
-
-XII
-
-BELT CREEP
-
-
-THE question of the minimum amount of slip of a belt in transmitting
-power from one pulley to another reduces itself to a question of creep,
-for it is possible to have belts large enough so that with proper
-tensions there will be no regular slip. With a difference in tension on
-the two sides and of elasticity in the belt, creep, however, is bound
-to take place. What does it amount to and what allowance should be made
-for it? asks Prof. Wm. W. Bird of the Worcester Polytechnic Institute
-in his paper under the above title.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 84.]
-
-In Fig. 84 let _A_ be the driver and _B_ the driven, _T__{1} the
-tension in the tight side of the belt and _T__{2} in the slack side,
-the pulleys and belt running in the direction indicated. One inch of
-slack belt goes on to the pulley _B_ at _o_; at or before the point
-_p_ it feels the effect of increased tension and stretches to 1 + _s_
-inches. It now travels from _p_ to _m_ and goes on to pulley _A_
-while stretched. At or before reaching the point _n_, as the tension
-decreases, it contracts to one inch and so completes the cycle.
-
-With a light load the belt creeps ahead of the pulley _B_ at or near
-the point _p_. If the load is heavy, the creep works towards the point
-_o_ and the belt may slip; this also takes place when the belt tensions
-are too light even with small loads.
-
-The point may be easily appreciated by imagining the belt to be of
-elastic rubber. Professor Bird gives formulas for calculating the
-creep, and tests made at the Polytechnic to determine the modulus of
-elasticity. He concludes that the answer to his opening question is
-that for the common leather belt running under ordinary conditions the
-creep should not exceed one per cent. While this is sometimes called
-legitimate slip, it is an actual loss of power and cannot be avoided by
-belt tighteners or patent pulley coverings.
-
-The smooth or finished side should go next to the pulley because
-the actual area of contact is greater than when the rough side is
-in contact; consequently, the adhesion due to friction is greater.
-Moreover, the smooth side has less tensile strength than the rough
-side, so that any wear on that side will weaken the belt less than wear
-on the other side would.
-
-
-
-
-XIII
-
-ROPE DRIVES[9]
-
-
-THERE seems to be considerable difference in opinion regarding the
-various ways of applying rope to the sheaves in rope driving, viz.,
-multiple- or separate-rope system, continuous-wrap or single-rope
-system with the rope from one of the grooves running on a traveling
-take-up device, continuous-wrap or single-rope system with the take-up
-working directly on all the wraps.
-
-[9] Contributed to Power by R. Hoyt.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 85.]
-
-The multiple- or separate-rope system on a horizontal drive where the
-distance between centers is great enough so that the weight of the
-rope will give the required tension, having the tight or pulling part
-on the lower side and the sheaves of the same diameter, as in Fig. 85,
-should be very satisfactory, as old or worn ropes may be replaced by
-new ones of larger diameter, or some of the ropes may be tighter than
-others and still not alter the efficiency of the drive. It will be
-noticed in this case that a larger rope does not alter the proportional
-pitch diameters of the rope on the driving and driven sheaves; but if
-one of the sheaves is larger than the other, as in Figs. 86 and 87, and
-a new or larger rope is substituted for a worn or smaller one, or if
-some of the ropes are a great deal tighter than others, a differential
-action will be produced on the ropes owing to the fact that the larger
-or slack rope will not go as deeply into its grooves as the smaller or
-tight one. Consequently the proportionate pitch diameter on the rope
-on the driver and driven sheave will be changed. The action will depend
-upon whether the large or the small sheave is the driver. If the driver
-is the larger, and of course assuming that the slack or large rope is
-weaker than the combined tight or smaller ones, then it will have less
-strain on the pulling side; but if the driver is smaller, then the new
-or large rope will have greater strain on the pulling side. Whether the
-driver is larger or smaller, a large or slack rope affects the action
-oppositely to a small or tight rope. Fig. 87 shows how the action is
-reversed from Fig. 86.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 86.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 87.]
-
-For clearness we will exaggerate the differences in diameter in the
-sketches and figure the speeds that the different size ropes would
-produce. We will take _A_ as normal, _B_ 1 inch farther out of the
-groove, producing a difference in diameter of 2 inches; _C_ 1 inch
-deeper in the groove, producing a difference in diameter of 2 inches.
-In Fig. 85 assume for the normal diameter of driver and driven 40
-inches, 42 inches for _B_ and 38 inches for _C_, with a speed of 200
-revolutions per minute for the driver. Either _A_, _B_ or _C_ will give
-200 revolutions per minute for the driven sheave, omitting slippage,
-of course. In Fig. 86 say the normal diameter of the driver for rope
-_A_ is 60 inches and of the driven 30 inches, a speed of the driver of
-200 revolutions per minute will give the driven sheave a speed of 400
-revolutions per minute; _B_, with the driver 62 inches and the driven
-sheave 32 inches diameter, will give the latter a velocity of 387-1/2
-revolutions per minute. With _C_ the driver is 58 inches, the driven 28
-inches, and the speed given the latter 414-2/7 revolutions per minute.
-In Fig. 87, the normal diameter of the driving sheave being 30 inches
-and the driven 60 inches, a speed of the driver of 200 revolutions per
-minute will give a speed of the driven member of 100 revolutions per
-minute. With _B_, if the driver is 32 and the driven 62 inches, the
-driven sheave will have a speed of 103-7/31 revolutions per minute;
-_C_, with the driver 28 inches and the driven sheave 58 inches, will
-give the latter a speed of 96-16/29 revolutions per minute. So it will
-be readily seen what effect a large or a small rope would have.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 88.]
-
-There are some who claim that slack ropes will transmit more power
-owing to more wrap on the sheaves, while others claim that tight ropes
-are better. If a drive with all the ropes slack gave trouble by the
-ropes slipping, the first remedy tried would be tightening the ropes.
-But if the conditions were like Fig. 87, it would not be particularly
-harmful to have some of the ropes longer than others; in fact, it might
-be well, as the longer ropes would not make a complete circuit as
-quickly as the shorter ones; consequently the position of the splices
-would be continually changing. However, it seems more natural to have
-about the same pull on all the ropes, that is, not have them as shown
-in Fig. 88. In conclusion for the system, it should be noted that
-it has no means of tightening the ropes except by resplicing; it is
-not as well adapted to various conditions as the other forms; it is
-the cheapest form to install and in some cases should give excellent
-satisfaction.
-
-With the continuous-wrap system having the rope from one of the grooves
-pass over a traveling take-up, the latter has a tendency to produce
-an unequal strain in the rope. In taking up, or letting out, the
-rope must either slide around the grooves, or the strands having the
-greatest pull will wedge themselves deeper into the grooves, producing
-a smaller pitch diameter than the ones having less pull, making a
-differential action on the ropes. It is therefore probable that it
-is the differential action that takes up or lets out the ropes, the
-take-up merely acting in a sense as an automatic adjustable idler. In
-tightening, when the rope stretches or dries out, or even in running
-normal, the greatest pull will be near the take-up, but if the drive is
-exposed to moisture, and the rope shortens, it will be farthest from
-the take-up, depending proportionately on the number of grooves the
-take-up controls; so in large drives it is best to have more than one
-take-up.
-
-If one should use an unyieldable substance, as, for experiment, a
-plain wire on two drums wrapped a number of times around and also over
-a take-up, and the drums were moved together or apart, he would find
-that the wire would have to slide around the drum; but, of course,
-with a rope in a groove it is different. The rope will yield some.
-It will also go deeper into the groove. This system costs more than
-the preceding form, owing to extra expense for the traveling take-up,
-but may be applied readily to different conditions and will be quite
-satisfactory in general, if properly designed and installed.
-
-The continuous-wrap system with a take-up or tightener acting directly
-on all the wraps has practically none of the objectionable features
-mentioned in the other two forms, and is quick in action, making it
-applicable where power is suddenly thrown on or off. If the tightener
-is made automatic, it may be controlled in numerous ways, as with a
-weight or weight and lever or tackle blocks and weight, etc. It also
-may be fitted with a cylinder and piston, with a valve to prevent too
-quick action if power is suddenly thrown off or on. There is ordinarily
-practically no unequal strain on the rope. This system may be applied
-to different conditions as readily as the preceding form. Its cost is
-more than that of either of the others, as the tightener must have as
-many grooves as there are wraps. It must also have a winder to return
-the last wrap to the first groove, and to give its highest efficiency
-it must be properly designed and installed.
-
-In either of the continuous-wrap systems, if a portion of larger rope
-is used, it will produce a greater strain directly behind the large
-rope, owing to its traveling around the sheave quicker. In angle work
-there is always extra wear on the rope in the side of the groove, as
-only the center or one rope may be accurately lined; so it is not
-advisable to crowd the centers in angular drives, as the shorter the
-centers and wider the sheaves the greater the wearing angle. It must
-be remembered that the foregoing applies to ordinary simple drives
-as shown in the sketches; where the drive is complicated, it may be
-necessary to make other allowances.
-
-
-
-
-XIV
-
-A NEW SCHEME IN ROPE TRANSMISSION[10]
-
-
-THE use of manila rope for transmitting power is becoming so common as
-to attract no comment, and it possesses so many advantages in its own
-field over any other method of conveying power that some objections
-really existing are overlooked. When a rope drive is installed
-according to modern practice, it is generally so successful and
-furnishes such an agreeable and smooth running drive that any possible
-objection is silenced by the many good qualities it evidently has. But,
-as a matter of fact, the American continuous method of installing a
-rope drive has a few serious drawbacks.
-
-[10] Contributed to Power by Geo. F. Willis.
-
-Were it possible to install a drive of say thirty ropes in such a
-manner that each one of the ropes had exactly the same strain on it
-that each other rope had, and this under varying conditions of speed
-and load, it is evident that the thirty ropes would work exactly as a
-belt of proper width to carry the load would, that the ropes would be
-running with exactly the same tension clear across the width of the
-drive, like the belt. But according to the best authorities on rope
-transmission, this ideal condition is impossible to obtain.
-
-It is given as desirable, by writers on rope transmission problems, to
-use a take-up sheave for every twelve ropes, while ten is considered
-even better. The best results have been secured by using a take-up
-sheave for not more than eight ropes. But in any case the evil of
-differential driving still exists.
-
-In truth, the only drive in which perfect conditions can exist,
-according to present practice, is one using but a single rope.
-
-It is evident that when the load comes on the ropes, the entire number
-of ropes in use are only able to ultimately reach the same tension from
-the elasticity of the ropes themselves, as slipping in the grooves
-rarely occurs. But there is a continued and uneven strain on the ropes
-until the load becomes divided between them, and where ropes are used
-to drive a varying load, this strain must and does reduce the life of
-the ropes materially.
-
-Many rope transmissions have been unsatisfactory because of this, and
-when these drives have been so badly designed as to use one take-up
-sheave for more than ten ropes, they are apt to be more expensive and
-troublesome than could have been anticipated.
-
-One rope drive is known where thirty ropes are used, with only one
-take-up sheave. It has been a source of continual trouble and expense,
-and has been replaced by the English system of multiple ropes. The
-inherent troubles of this system have made the changed drive even
-worse than the original. It will now be replaced by the system here
-illustrated.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 89.]
-
-In Fig. 89 is shown a plan view of the tighteners for a thirty-one
-rope drive. As the ropes shown are 1-1/2 inches in diameter the main
-tightener sheave is shown 60 inches in diameter or forty times the
-diameter of the rope used. Mounted above the thirty-two groove sheave,
-and in the same frame, is a single groove sheave of the right diameter
-to reach the two outside ropes as shown, in this case 86 inches in
-diameter. Further details are shown in the end elevation, Fig. 90, and
-in the side elevation, Fig. 91. Allowing a working strain of say 250
-pounds to each strand of the thirty-one ropes, we have a total weight
-of 15,500 pounds which these two idler sheaves should weigh, including
-the frame holding them.
-
-These sheaves and the frame are mounted directly upon the ropes, on the
-slack side of course, and just as a tightener is mounted on a belt. The
-first rope passes around the thirty-two-groove sheave, on up over the
-single-groove sheave, and back under the multiple-groove sheave again,
-and is thus crossed over.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 90.]
-
-It is evident that a rope threaded on this drive would, by the time
-it had run ten minutes or so, have every strand in exactly the same
-tension every other strand was in, and that the ropes would remain in
-this condition in spite of variation of load and speed, as long as they
-lasted.
-
-The initial expense, including the erection, would probably be no
-more than that for the necessary six or eight single-groove idlers,
-with their shafts and boxes, tracks, etc., which would be necessary
-according to established practice. The room taken up would evidently be
-much less.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 91.]
-
-In Fig. 92 an assembled drive of this character is shown. In Fig. 93
-is shown a reverse drive, common in sawmill practice, where the two
-sheaves described would preferably be mounted on a car, with the proper
-weight to give the desired tension.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 92.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 93.]
-
-In a recent design is shown a cylinder with about 6 feet of piston
-travel, provided with a reducing valve, so that the steam pressure
-would remain constant at about 40 pounds. The cylinder is bolted to the
-mill frame, while the piston rod is connected to the car carrying the
-tightener sheaves. The cylinder is of the proper area, when furnished
-with steam at 40 pounds pressure, to put the correct strain on the
-ropes. A small steam trap is part of the equipment. This should give a
-very elastic tension, and so long as steam pressure was at 40 pounds
-or over, the tension would remain constant. With 6 feet piston travel,
-it is evident that 372 feet of stretch could be taken out of the rope,
-an amount entirely out of the question. A dog, or buffer, can be so
-located as to prevent excessive back travel of the piston and car when
-steam pressure is taken off.
-
-It is evident that this method can be applied to a drive using any
-number of ropes.
-
-
-
-
-XV
-
-HOW TO ORDER TRANSMISSION ROPE[11]
-
-
-IT is probable that more different and erroneous terms are used by
-purchasing agents and engineers when writing orders for transmission
-rope than are used to describe any other article needed about a mill.
-A knowledge of how to order clearly just the kind of rope wanted
-would prevent delays and expense to many plants. Manufacturers of
-transmission rope constantly receive orders so peculiar in their
-wording that they dare not venture an immediate shipment, but must
-first resort to the mails, telegraph or telephone to find out what is
-really desired, and, of course, these mistakes, following the law of
-"the general cussedness of things," usually occur after a breakdown at
-the very time when every minute's delay means a considerable sum of
-money lost.
-
-[11] Contributed to Power by F. S. Greene.
-
-There are in this country two manufacturers of cordage who make a
-specialty of transmission rope, and the names under which their
-rope is sold are fairly well known to all users of rope drives. In
-addition to these two concerns, there are, perhaps, three or four other
-cordage mills which make this grade of rope to some extent. From this
-comparatively small source many different brands have sprung which,
-rechristened, find their way to the market under a variety of names,
-both poetic and classic. These many names lead to frequent delays in
-ordering. The man who does the splicing at the mill has, at one time
-or another, heard of a rope glorying in the possession of some fancy
-title. It is more than probable that some salesman has told him most
-wonderful stories of what this particular rope can do; consequently
-when the time comes for a new rope, the splicer goes to the office
-and asks that so many feet of such and such a rope be ordered. The
-purchasing agent makes out the order, using this name, and sends it to
-the manufacturer, who in all probability has never heard of the rope
-and knows for a fact that it is not the brand under which any of his
-fellow manufacturers are selling rope. Before the order can be filled,
-two or more letters or telegrams must be sent and received.
-
-It frequently occurs that manufacturers receive orders specifying
-brands which never had existence at all, so far as their knowledge
-goes. One firm recently found in the same mail requests for "Fern,"
-"Juno," and "Elephant" transmission rope, though no such brands have
-ever been on the market.
-
-Another familiar mistake is the ordering of a certain color yarn
-in the rope, as if this decoration possessed some peculiar virtue.
-These colored yarns are simply a question of dye, and the rope in all
-probability would be better and stronger were they left out.
-
-Then again, we find peculiar wording as to the lubrication of a rope.
-Some people insist that the rope shall be "tallow inlaid"; others
-call for an "absolutely dry" rope or for a "water-laid" rope. All
-transmission rope, to be of any service whatsoever, must be lubricated
-and such a thing as a "dry" transmission rope or a "water-laid" one,
-whatever that term might mean, would be of but small service to the
-user. Each manufacturer has his own method or formula for lubricating,
-and if this be a plumbago or graphite-laid rope, and he is asked for
-an old-fashioned tallow-laid rope, he cannot fill orders directly from
-stock.
-
-It is unnecessary to name the number of strands, unless you wish a
-three- or six-strand rope, for a four-strand transmission rope is
-always sent, unless otherwise specified. It is also unnecessary to say
-anything about the core, as the rope is always supplied with one, and
-generally it is lubricated. Frequently five-strand rope is ordered.
-This is very confusing, as there is such a thing as a five-strand rope,
-but it is very rarely made. Ordering a five-strand rope is usually
-brought about through the error of considering the core as a fifth
-strand.
-
-It is better, though not necessary, to order by the diameter instead of
-the circumference, as transmission rope is made and usually sold upon
-diameter specification.
-
-By far the most frequent specifications received call for "long-fiber,
-four-strand rope with core," and having done this, the purchaser
-considers he has named all necessary requirements. At the present
-price of manila hemp, which varies from 7 cents per pound for the
-poorer grades to 12-1/2 cents per pound for the best, he may be quoted
-for such a rope, with entire honesty, anywhere from 11 to 17 cents
-per pound. To procure long-fiber manila hemp, and twist it into four
-strands about a core, does not make a proper transmission rope. As
-the rope will probably be required to run at a speed of from 3000 to
-5000 feet per minute and be subjected to rapid and constant bending
-throughout its entire length, the fiber should not only be long, but
-the rope should be soft and pliable. Further than this, as the fiber,
-yarns and strands must slip one upon another during the bending, the
-rope should be so lubricated as to reduce to a minimum the frictional
-wear from such slipping and rubbing, which is a much larger factor than
-is generally supposed. Again, the unusual strength of manila fiber is
-shown only when subjected to a longitudinal strain. Transversely, owing
-to the cellular formation, the fiber is relatively weak; therefore,
-in manufacturing transmission rope, the greatest care is necessary to
-secure such proportion of twist in both yarns and strand as to render
-the rope least vulnerable to crosswise strain. Nor will the term "long
-fiber" insure the purchaser obtaining the proper material in his rope,
-for the longest manila fiber, contrary to general belief, is not always
-the best from which to make a transmission rope. Some of the extremely
-long variety is coarse and brittle. The best fiber for transmission
-rope is a particular grade of manila hemp known as Zebu, Fig. 94,
-which is light in color, silky to the touch and exceedingly strong and
-flexible.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 94.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 95.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 96.]
-
-The accompanying illustration, Fig. 95, shows a close view of two
-grades of hemp, that on the left being known in the trade as
-"Superior 2ds," while the fiber to the right of the cut is "Zebu."
-Fig. 96 shows a more distant view of the same two "heads" of hemp,
-and the reader will see that in both the fiber is exceeding long,
-and if anything, that of the Superior 2ds is longer than in the Zebu.
-A transmission rope made from the latter, however, will cost the
-manufacturer from 3-1/2 to 4 cents more per pound than if he had used
-Superior 2ds, and will outlast two ropes made from the longer though
-coarser fiber.
-
-The reader, if he has perused this chapter to the present point, is
-doubtless now asking himself: "How shall I word my order when I want
-a first-class driving rope?" The safest road to follow is to write
-to some manufacturer or firm whom you know to be reliable, and ask
-for so many feet of their transmission rope, giving the name, if you
-are certain on that point, and, of course, being sure to mention the
-diameter. In case you do not know the name of his rope, word your order
-as simply and briefly as possible; for example: "One thousand feet
-1-1/2 inches diameter first quality manila transmission rope," and if
-the concern to which you write is a reputable one, you will receive a
-four-strand rope, made from Zebu manila hemp, put together with proper
-twist and lay for the service required.
-
-
-
-
-XVI
-
-A BELTING AND PULLEY CHART[12]
-
-
-RULE 1. _Pulley Speed._--When the diameter of both pulleys and the
-speed of one is given, to find the speed of the other: Place the points
-of spacing dividers upon the two given diameters in inches upon the
-scale (Fig. 97); then raise the dividers, keeping the space obtained,
-and place one point on the given speed and the other _above_ it for
-speed of _S_, or _below_ it for speed of _L_ (_S_ and _L_ meaning
-smaller and larger pulley, respectively). This point will fall upon the
-required speed.
-
-[12] Contributed to Power by A. G. Holman, M. E.
-
-Example: If the two pulley diameters are 10 and 25 inches and speed of
-larger pulley is 120 revolutions per minute, what is speed of small
-pulley?
-
-Place the points of dividers on 10 and 25 on scale _A_, then lift the
-dividers and place one point on 120 and the other above it upon the
-scale; the other point now rests on 300 as the speed of _S_. If the
-speed of _S_ had been given, one point would have been placed at 300
-and the other _below_ it, falling upon 120, the required speed of _L_.
-
-Note.--In applying this rule, if the speed comes beyond the range
-of scale _A_, the result may be read by carrying the space to the
-revolution scale on scale _B_, and proceeding in the same way.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 97.]
-
-Example: Diameter of pulleys 12 and 36 inches and speed of _L_ 500,
-what is speed of _S_? Place points of dividers on 12 and 36. Now, if
-dividers are raised and one point placed on 500 and the other above it
-on scale _A_, it will come beyond the top of the scale. Hence go to
-scale _B_, placing lower point on revolution scale at 500 and the other
-point above, which will fall upon 1500, the answer.
-
-RULE 2. _Pulley Diameters._--When the speed of both pulleys and the
-diameter of one is given, to find diameter of the other: Place points
-of dividers on the two speeds on scale _A_ or revolution scale _B_.
-Then place one point of dividers on given diameter and the other above
-it to find diameter of _L_, or below it for diameter of _S_. The figure
-thus indicated is the required diameter.
-
-Example: Speeds 180 and 450 and diameter of smaller pulley 20. What
-must be diameter of _L_?
-
-Place points of dividers on 180 and 450 on scale _A_. Then place one
-point on 20 (the given diameter). The other point falls at 50, the
-required diameter of _L_.
-
-If the point falls between two graduations in any problem, the result
-can be closely judged by the relative position.
-
-The other and more labor-saving use for this chart is its application
-to belting problems. It is generally conceded that there is no subject
-of more general interest in practical mechanics and none on which there
-is a greater difference of opinion than the proper allowance to be
-made in the selection of belt sizes for given requirements. The general
-formula for the horse-power transmitted by belting is
-
-  _HP_ = _WS_/_C_ in which _HP_ = horse-power,
-
-_W_ = width of belt in inches, _S_ = speed of belt in feet per minute,
-and _C_ = constant.
-
-The proper values of this constant, or the feet per minute that each
-inch of width must run to transmit a horse-power, under certain
-conditions, is the point in question.
-
-On the right-hand side of line _A_ on the chart is a series of lines
-representing different values for this constant. The lower one,
-marked 4, represents 400 feet belt speed per minute, the next above
-is for 500, and so on. Against some of these values are suggestions
-as to belts often recommended in connection with these constants. For
-instance, 2 to 6 _S_ suggests the constant 1100 to be used for 2- to
-6-inch single leather belt, 1000 for 6-1/2- to 10-inch single, 600 for
-2- to 6-inch double, etc.
-
-These suggestions practically agree with the advice of the Geo. V.
-Cresson Company's catalog and the deductions of Kent's Handbook.
-
-More power may be transmitted than these suggestions will allow, by
-increasing the tension, but this is accompanied by the disadvantage of
-requiring extra attention and undue pressure upon bearings.
-
-The use of the chart for horse-power and width of belting is explained
-by the following rules:
-
-RULE 3. _Horse-power of Belting._--To find the horse-power that can
-be transmitted when diameter and speed of pulley and width of belt
-are given: Place one point of dividers on scale _A_ at the width of
-belt in inches and the other point at the bottom of the line (at 1).
-Next add this space to the hight representing diameter of pulley by
-placing lower point of dividers upon the given diameter and allowing
-the other point to rest upon the scale above. Then holding the upper
-point stationary, open or close dividers until the other point falls
-upon the proper constant on the scale at right-hand side of line _A_.
-Now transfer this space last obtained to the scale _B_ by raising the
-dividers, carrying them square across to _B_ and placing the point that
-was on the constant upon the given speed on the revolution scale. Note
-the location of the other point of dividers upon the horse-power scale,
-which indicates the horse-power that can be transmitted under the given
-conditions.
-
-Example: What horse-power can be transmitted by an 8-inch double belt
-running on a 40-inch pulley at 500 feet per minute? Place one point of
-dividers on line _A_ at 8 (width of belt) and the other point at bottom
-of line. Next raise dividers and place lower point on 40 (diameter of
-pulley) and let the other point fall above upon the scale. Then close
-dividers until lower point comes to the constant for 6-1/2 to 10 double.
-Carry this space to scale _B_ with lower point on 500 on revolution
-scale. Under point now falls upon 84 on horse-power scale, which is the
-required horse-power.
-
-RULE 4. _Width of Belting._--To find the necessary width of belting
-when size and speed of pulley and the horse-power are given: Place one
-point of dividers on scale _B_ upon the horse-power and the other point
-upon the revolutions. Next transfer this space to scale _A_ by raising
-the dividers, carrying them square across and placing the point that
-was on revolutions upon the constant. Then holding the other point
-stationary, raise the point that was on the constant and open dividers
-until this point falls upon the given diameter. Now lift the dividers
-and carry the lower point down to bottom of line (the point 1). The
-upper point will now indicate the required width of belt.
-
-Note.--If, in finding width of belt, there is doubt about the proper
-constant to take, a medium value, say 6, may be assumed and a hasty
-"cut and try" will show in what classification the required belt will
-come.
-
-Example: What width of belt for 100 horse-power with 40-inch pulley at
-500 revolutions?
-
-Place point of dividers on scale _B_ upon 100 on horse-power scale and
-the other upon 500 on the revolution scale. Then carry the space to
-scale _A_ with lower point on constant 5. Then resting dividers upon
-upper point open them until lower point is at 40 (diameter). Finally,
-raise dividers and place lower point at bottom of line. Upper point is
-now at 9-1/2, indicating the nearest even width 10 as the answer.
-
-A little practice will make one familiar with these rules, and it
-will be seen that in the belting rules the four motions perform two
-multiplications and a division.
-
-
-
-
-XVII
-
-SPLICING ROPE
-
-
-THE splicing of a transmission rope is an important matter; the points
-on which the success of the splice, and incidentally the drive, depend
-being the length of the splice, which in turn depends upon the diameter
-of the rope and which is given in the table (Fig. 97a); the diameter
-of the splice, which should be the same as the diameter of the rope;
-the securing of the ends of the strands of the splice, which must be
-so fastened that they will not wear or whip out or cause the overlying
-strands to wear unduly; and the workmanship of the splice, which should
-be the best it is possible to secure. When splicing an old and a new
-piece of rope, the new piece should be thoroughly stretched, for, at
-best, it is an exceedingly difficult task on account of the stretch and
-difference in diameter of the rope.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 97a. DATA RELATIVE TO MANILA TRANSMISSION ROPE AND
-SHEAVES]
-
-  ========+========+===========+=========+=========
-          |        |           |         |
-          |        |           |         |
-          |        |           |         |
-  Diameter| Square |Approximate|Breaking | Maximum
-   of Rope|   of   |Weight per |Strength,|Allowable
-     in   |Diameter|   Foot,   | Pounds  |Tension,
-   Inches |        |  Pounds   |         | Pounds
-  --------+--------+-----------+---------+---------
-     1/2  |    .25 |     .12   |    1750 |     50
-     5/8  |  .2906 |     .16   |    2730 |     80
-     3/4  |  .5625 |     .20   |    3950 |    112
-     7/8  |  .7656 |     .26   |    5400 |    153
-   1      | 1.     |     .34   |    7000 |    200
-   1-1/8  | 1.2656 |     .43   |    8900 |    253
-   1-1/4  | 1.5625 |     .63   |  10,900 |    312
-   1-1/2  | 2.25   |     .77   |  15,700 |    450
-   1-3/4  | 3.0625 |    1.04   |  21,400 |    612
-   2      | 4.     |    1.36   |  28,000 |    800
-   2-1/4  | 5.0625 |    1.73   |  35,400 |   1012
-   2-1/2  | 6.25   |    2.13   |  43,700 |   1250
-  ========+========+===========+=========+=========
-  +====================+========+==========
-  |LENGTH OF SPLICE    |        |
-  |      IN FEET       |Smallest|  Maximum
-  +------+------+------+Diameter|   Number
-  |  3-  |  4-  |  6-  |   of   |    of
-  |Strand|Strand|Strand|Sheaves |Revolutions
-  |      |      |      |   in   |per Minute
-  |      |      |      | Inches |
-  +------+------+------+--------+-----------
-  |   6  |      |      |   20   |   1060
-  |   6  |      |      |   24   |    970
-  |   6  |    8 |      |   27   |    760
-  |   6  |    8 |      |   32   |    650
-  |   7  |   10 |  14  |   36   |    570
-  |   7  |   10 |  16  |   40   |    510
-  |   7  |   10 |  16  |   45   |    460
-  |   8  |   12 |  18  |   54   |    380
-  |   8  |   12 |  18  |   63   |    330
-  |   9  |   14 |  20  |   72   |    290
-  |   9  |   14 |  20  |   81   |    255
-  |  10  |   16 |  22  |   90   |    230
-  +======+======+======+========+==========
-
-The illustrations and instructions for making standard rope splices
-are taken, by the courtesy of the American Manufacturing Company, from
-their "Blue Book of Rope Transmission."
-
-There are many different splices now in use, but the one that
-experience has proved best is what is known as the English transmission
-splice. In describing this we take for our example a four-strand rope,
-1-3/4 inches in diameter, as spliced on sheaves in the multiple system.
-The rope is first placed around sheaves, and, with a tackle, stretched
-and hauled taut; the ends should pass each other from six to seven
-feet, the passing point being marked with twine on each rope. The rope
-is then slipped from the sheaves and allowed to rest on shafts, to give
-sufficient slack for making the splice.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 98.]
-
-Unlay the strands in pairs as far back as the twines _M_, _M′_, crotch
-the four pairs of strands thus opened (Fig. 98), cores having been
-drawn out together on the upper side. Then, having removed marking
-twine _M_, unlay the two strands 6 and 8, still in pairs, back a
-distance of two feet, to _A_; the strands 1 and 3, also in pairs,
-being carefully laid in their place. Next unlay the strands 5 and 7 in
-pairs, to _A′_, replacing them as before with 2 and 4. The rope is now
-as shown in Fig. 99. The pair of strands 6 and 8 are now separated,
-and 8 unlaid four feet back to _B_, a distance of six feet from
-center, strand 6 being left at _A_. The pair of strands 1 and 3 having
-been separated, 3 is left at _A_, as companion for 6, strand 1 being
-carefully laid in place of strand 8 until they meet at point _B_. The
-two pairs of strands 2-4 and 5-7 are now separated and laid in the same
-manner, every care being taken, while thus putting the rope together,
-that original twist and lay of strand is maintained. The protruding
-cores are now cut off so that the ends, when pushed back in rope, butt
-together.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 99.]
-
-The rope now appears as shown in Fig. 100, and after the eight strands
-have been cut to convenient working lengths (about two feet), the
-companion strands are ready to be fastened together and "tucked"; this
-operation is described for strands 2 and 7, the method being identical
-for the other three pairs. Unlay 2 and 7 for about twelve to fourteen
-inches, divide each strand in half by removing its cover yarns (see
-Fig. 101), whip with twine the ends of interior yarns 2′ and 7′; then,
-leaving cover 2, relay 2′ until near 7 and 7′, here join with simple
-knot 2′ and 7′, Fig. 102. Divide cover yarns 7, and pass 2′ through
-them, continuing on through the rope _under_ the two adjacent strands,
-avoiding the core, thus locking 2′, Fig. 103. _In no event pass 2′
-over these or any other strands._ Half-strand 7′ must now be taken
-care of; at the right of the knot made with 2′ and 7′, 2′ is slightly
-raised with a marlin spike, and 7′ passed or tucked around it two or
-three times, these two half-strands forming in this way a whole strand.
-Half-strand 7′ is tucked until cover 2 is reached, whose yarns are
-divided and 7′ passed through them and drawn under the two adjacent
-strands, forming again the lock. The strand ends at both locks are
-now cut off, leaving about two inches, so that the yarns may draw
-slightly without unlocking. This completes the joining of one pair of
-strands, Fig. 104. The three remaining pairs of strands are joined in
-the same manner.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 100.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 101.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 102.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 103.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 104.]
-
-After the rope has been in service a few days, the projecting ends
-at locks wear away, and if tucks have been carefully made, and the
-original twist of yarns preserved, the diameter of the rope will not be
-increased, nor can the splice be located when the rope is in motion.
-
-
-
-
-XVIII
-
-WIRE ROPE TRANSMISSION[13]
-
-
-WIRE ropes are extensively and successfully used in the horizontal
-and inclined transmission of great power of unlimited amount, the
-advantages over hemp rope belting being: driving at very long
-distances, comparatively small loss through slipping and the
-possibility of driving in the open air.
-
-[13] Contributed to Power by C. Boysen, M. E.
-
-Vertical transmission of power, on account of the weight of the rope,
-is excluded.
-
-Formerly the material used in the manufacture of the wires was best
-charcoal iron, but now almost exclusively tough crucible-steel wires
-are used, as steel wire ropes are stronger, do not stretch as much, and
-last longer than iron ropes.
-
-The wire ropes consist of six strands of from six to twenty wires each,
-and the strands to form the rope are woven in the opposite direction
-to the wires in the strand. In the center of each strand and in the
-center of the rope a cotton core is placed. These cores are of the
-greatest importance, for by reducing the friction of the wires against
-each other, they serve to increase the lifetime of the rope, which,
-according to the strain on the rope and the size of the smallest
-pulley, is from one to three years.
-
-To prevent rusting, the wire ropes receive a coat of boiled linseed
-oil, or a hot mixture consisting of three parts of drip oil and one
-part of resin is applied. This latter mixture at the same time improves
-the adhesion between the rope and the lining placed in the bottom
-of the pulleys, thus reducing the loss caused by slipping of the
-rope. Wire ropes used for the transmission of power should never be
-galvanized.
-
-The ends of the rope are spliced together, from 10 to 20 feet being
-necessary for a good splice; great care should be taken that the splice
-is made by experienced men, and that the rope is made long enough. A
-rope stretches constantly from the time when placed on the pulleys,
-the more so when placed on the pulleys tightly. Therefore it has to
-be made long enough to transmit power without undue tension, and
-for this reason the distance between the two pulleys has to be long
-enough and the working strain per square inch of section low enough to
-allow sufficient deflection in the rope. As a guidance to the amount
-of deflection necessary, be it said that even in a short drive the
-deflection of the rope, when not running, should not be less than
-2 feet; and for a distance of 400 feet between pulley centers, the
-deflection of the rope when running should be 5 feet in the driving
-rope and 10 feet in the driven rope.
-
-Either the top or the bottom rope may be the driving one, the former
-being preferable; but the ropes should never be crossed.
-
-Power can be transmitted to a distance of 6000 feet and more without
-great loss; but as two pulleys should on no account be more than 500
-feet apart, intermediate stations are placed along the road.
-
-Precautions should be taken against the possibility of the rope
-swaying. This may be caused either by the influence of the wind, by
-a bad splice, by the rope wearing too much, by the pulleys not being
-balanced well or by the pulleys not being in the same plane. It is of
-importance that the pulleys be exactly in line, and careful attention
-should be given to the construction and placing of the bearings.
-Although the bearings are not strained excessively, the steps are
-usually made long and movable. The connection between the shaft and the
-pulley is best made by means of tangential keys.
-
-Some engineers, when two ropes are found necessary for the transmission
-of the power in question, use pulleys containing two grooves each,
-and make the same kind of pulleys for the intermediate stations of
-long-distance driving; whereas others advise a separate pulley for each
-rope, both being connected with each other by a clutch.
-
-The diameter of the smallest pulley has to be large enough in
-comparison with the diameter of the rope or the thickness of the single
-wires used to easily overcome the stiffness in the rope. The larger the
-pulleys, the longer the rope will last.
-
-The rim of the pulley is V-shaped, and the bottom of the groove is
-dovetailed to receive a lining of wood, rubber or leather, on which
-the rope rests. The lining increases the friction and reduces the loss
-caused by slipping of the rope. Leather is the best lining and lasts
-about three years. Either old belt leather, well saturated with oil,
-or new leather, boiled in fish oil, can be taken. It is cut in pieces
-of the same size as the dovetailed part of the groove, and then placed
-on and pressed together in the latter. The pressing is done by means
-of a piece of wood. The last remaining small space in the groove is
-filled with soft rubber. If the lining has to consist of rubber, this
-is softened and hammered into the groove. For wood lining, thin blocks
-of the required size are placed into the groove through a hole provided
-in the bottom of the rim. This slot is closed by a plate and fastened
-to the bottom of the rim by means of screws after all blocks have been
-inserted. The lining has to be turned absolutely true, for which reason
-the filling is done while the pulley is still in the lathe.
-
-Pulleys up to 3 feet in diameter are built with cast-iron arms; whereas
-larger pulleys have wrought-iron arms made of round iron, cast in the
-rim and boss. Pulleys under 8 feet 6 inches in diameter are made in one
-piece, if for other reasons it is not necessary to have them in halves.
-
-Guide pulleys are used for long ropes, especially if there is not
-sufficient hight above the ground. The guide pulleys are of the same
-construction as the main pulleys, and for the driving rope they are
-also made of the same diameter. The diameter of the guide pulleys for
-the driven rope can be made from 20 to 25 per cent. smaller.
-
-The breaking strength of unannealed wires per square inch of section
-and according to thickness and quality is: For iron wires from 70,000
-to 110,000 pounds, and for steel wires from 110,000 to 130,000 pounds.
-For thinner wires a higher value is taken than for thick ones.
-
-The diameter of the wires used for making ropes for transmitting power
-is from 0.02 to 0.1 inch, and on account of the stiffness, no wires
-above the latter size should be used. A rope consisting of a greater
-number of thin wires, besides being stronger is more pliable and lasts
-longer than a rope of the same area consisting of a less number of
-thicker wires.
-
-
-
-
-INDEX
-
-
-  A
-
-  American Mfg. Co., 136
-
-
-  B
-
-  Bauer, Chas. A., 54
-
-  Beams to carry stringers, finding, 42
-
-  Bearings, locating, 3
-
-  Belt, building, 94
-
-  Belt creep, 106
-    dressing, 91, 100
-      comparative test, 102
-    running off, 101
-    shifter device upon column, 9
-    sizes, 132
-
-  Belt, leather, selection, 89
-    marking spliced part, 12
-    new, putting on, 19, 20
-    slack, 100
-    splicing on the pulleys, 81
-    throwing on, 12
-    tight, 100
-    wire-lacing, 12
-
-  Belt-clamps, use, 19
-
-  Belting and pulley chart, 129
-
-  Belting, cleaning, 97
-    horse-power transmitted, 132, 133
-    use and abuse, 99
-    width, 132
-
-  Belts, cleaning, 88
-    keeping clean, 94
-    leather, care and management, 89
-      splicing, 72
-    main line, 5
-    taking-up, 11
-
-  Bird, Prof. Wm. W., 106, 107
-
-  Blue Book of Rope Transmission, 136
-
-  Board for use in lining countershaft, 35, 36
-
-  Boiled linseed oil in wire rope, 144
-
-  Bolt and nut for moving pulleys, 62
-    for hanger, size, 40
-
-  Bolt, preventing turning, 11, 21
-
-  Boysen, C., M. E., 143
-
-  Brands, effect on leather, 90
-
-  Breaking strain on shaft, 28
-    strength of unannealed wires, 146
-
-  Bunsen burner, use in moving pulley, 62
-
-  Bushing, split, 2
-
-
-  C
-
-  Center drive for heavily loaded shaft, 7
-    stock, 90
-
-  Chart, belting and pulley, 129
-
-  Cleaning belting, 97
-
-  Clutch, rim-friction, arrangement, 5
-
-  Clutches, coupling, 31
-    tightening while shafting is in motion, 7
-
-  Collars, split wood, 3
-
-  Compass saw, use in locating beams, 45
-
-  Contact, extra, securing, 17
-
-  Continuous-wrap system of rope drive, 112
-    -wrap system with direct-acting tightener, 113
-
-  Core, cotton, of wire rope, 143
-    rope, 124
-
-  Countershaft, lining, 32, 33, 35, 36, 37
-
-  Couplings, flanged bolt, 3
-
-  Cresson Co., Geo. V., catalog, 132
-
-
-  D
-
-  Deflection of rope, 144
-
-  Diameter of splice, 136
-    rope, 124, 135
-    of wires for transmission rope, 147
-
-  Diameters, pulley, 131
-
-  Differential action on ropes, 109, 112, 116
-
-  Disks for plumb-bob, 49
-
-  Distance of power transmission by wire rope, 144
-
-  Dixon, Walter E., M. E. 72,, 89
-
-  Dressing, waterproof, for belts, 91
-
-  Driving an overhead floor, 6
-
-
-  E
-
-  Elbow bolts, 46
-
-  Emery cloth for packing, 23, 24
-
-  End drive compared with center drive, 7
-
-  English transmission splice, 136
-
-  Evans, William, 102
-
-
-  F
-
-  Farmer, T., Jr., 102
-
-  Fastening strands of splice, 136
-
-  Fiber, rope, 124
-
-  Filled belts, 91
-
-  Flanged bolt couplings, 3
-
-
-  G
-
-  Gasoline blow torch, use in getting oil out of belt, 88
-
-  Gluing a joint, 85
-
-  Greene, F. S., 122
-
-  Guide pulleys, 146
-
-
-  H
-
-  Hanger adjustment, securing, 40, 41
-    bearing, repairing worn end, 14
-    positions, marks, 3
-
-  Hanger, removing to take off pulley, 63
-    sliding out of wall box, 1
-
-  Hangers, crosswise of shaft, 42
-
-  Hangers not allowing vertical adjustment, 3
-
-  Heads of hemp, 127
-
-  Hemp, 125, 127
-
-  Herrman, Chas., 1, 21, 32
-
-  Holman, A. G., M. E., 129
-
-  Hook bolts, 46
-
-  Horse-power transmitted by belting, 132, 133
-
-  Hoyt, R., 108
-
-
-  J
-
-  Joints in leather belt, 95
-
-  Journaled end of shaft, proper length, 1
-
-
-  K
-
-  Kavanagh, Wm., 61
-
-  Kent's Handbook, 132
-
-  Kinks, practical, 61
-
-
-  L
-
-  Lag screws, boring for, 46
-
-  Laps of leather belt, length, 90
-    of leather belt, thickness, 94
-
-  Leather belts, care and management, 89
-    selection, 89
-
-  Leather-cutting tool, 75
-
-  Leather, length for belt, 90, 95
-
-  Length of splice, 135
-
-  Leveling shafting, 54, 58
-
-  Line, leveling, 52
-    setting, 51
-
-  Lining a countershaft, 32, 33, 35, 36, 37
-    of pulley, wire rope transmission, 145
-    shafting, 30, 54
-
-  Loosening pulley that has seized, 26
-
-  Lubrication of rope, 123
-
-
-  M
-
-  McBarnes, Wm. H., 99
-
-  Main shaft belted to engine and to countershaft, 8
-
-  Marks on ends of shafts, 2
-    to show hanger positions, 3
-
-  Mounting dynamos and motors, 18
-
-  Mule belt, 13
-
-  Multiple-rope system, 108
-
-
-  N
-
-  Neatsfoot oil as belt dressing, 103
-
-
-  O
-
-  Oil, boiled linseed, on wire rope, 144
-    effect on belt, 92
-    getting out of belt, 87
-
-
-  P
-
-  Packing to secure good clamping fit, 23, 24
-
-  Plank to use in sliding hanger out of wall box, 1
-
-  Plumb-bob, 49, 58
-    -bob method of lining countershaft, 38
-
-  Point slipping, 92
-
-  Power transmission by wire ropes, distance, 144
-
-  Practical kinks, 61
-
-  Pulley and belting chart, 129
-    diameters, 131, 145
-    lining, wire rope transmission, 145
-    shafts holding arrangement and adjusting contrivance, 13
-    speed, 129
-
-  Pulley, cast-iron, moving, 62
-    driving, location, 5
-    loose, 61
-    seized, loosening, 25, 26
-
-  Pulleys for wire rope transmission, 145, 147
-
-  Pulleys, guide, 146
-    loosening, 65, 67, 70
-    moving, 62
-    removing, 65, 67, 70
-    solid, 4
-    split, 5
-
-
-  R
-
-  Rope, core, 124
-    diameter, 124, 135
-    differential action, 109, 112, 116
-    drives, 108
-    fibers, 124
-    lubrication, 123
-    splicing, 135
-    strands, 124
-    transmission, 135
-      new scheme, 115
-      ordering, 122
-
-  Ropes, slack, 111
-    tight, 111
-
-  Rusting of wire rope, preventing, 144
-
-
-  S
-
-  Scrapers for removing glue, 74, 75
-
-  Scrapers, turning edge, 76, 77
-
-  Seizing of pulley, 25
-
-  Separate-rope system, 108
-
-  Set-screws, use, 23
-
-  Shaft, breaking strain, 28
-    causes of breaking, 16
-    preventing turning, 15, 16
-    repairing break, 17
-    journaled off to act as collar, 2
-    length of journaled part of end, 1
-
-  Shaft line, space between end and wall, 3
-
-  Shafting, apparatus for leveling and lining, 54
-    hints, 1, 21, 32
-    leveling, 58
-    line, turning up, 49
-    lining, 30
-    testing alinement and level, 29
-
-  Shafts of light-working counters, marring, 10
-
-  Sheaves, 135
-
-  Sheet iron for packing, 24
-
-  Sizes of belts, 132
-    of rope, effect, 110
-
-  Slack ropes, 111
-
-  Slip of belt, legitimate, 107
-
-  Space between end of shaft line and wall, 3
-
-  Speed, pulley, 129
-
-  Splice, diameter, 136
-    English transmission, 136
-    fastening strands, 136
-    length, 135
-
-  Splice opener for heavy belts, 72
-
-  Splice, wire rope, 144
-    workmanship, 136
-
-  Spliced part of belt, marking, 12
-
-  Splicing belt on the pulleys, 81
-    board, 78, 79
-    leather belts, 72
-    rope, 135
-
-  Split bushing, 2
-
-  Split-pulley, tightening, 23
-
-  Split wood collars, 3
-
-  Steel for sharpening scraper, 76
-
-  Stillson wrench, use, 22
-
-  Strands of rope, 124
-
-  Stretchers, position, 49
-
-  Stringers, locating beams to carry, 42
-
-  Stringers of drop hangers, thickness, 38
-
-  Superior 2ds hemp, 127
-
-  Swaying of rope, preventing, 145
-
-
-  T
-
-  Take-up for rope drive, 112
-    -up sheave for rope drive, 116
-
-  Testing alinement and level of shafting, 29
-
-  Tight ropes, 111
-
-  Tightener, automatic, for rope drive, 113
-
-  Tightener for 31-rope drive, 117
-    system, dangerous, 6
-
-  Tightening ropes, 112
-
-  Timbers of boarded-over ceiling, locating, 42, 45
-
-  Tin for packing, 24
-
-  Tool for leveling shafting, 58
-
-  Tools for splicing leather belts, 72
-
-  Transmission rope, 135
-    rope, ordering, 122
-
-  Transmission, wire rope, 143
-    rope, deflection of rope, 144
-
-  Traveling take-up for rope drive, 112
-
-  Tucking strands, 139
-
-  Turning edge of scrapers, 76, 77
-    up line shafting, 49
-
-
-  V
-
-  V-shaped rails, for mounting dynamos and motors, 18
-
-  Vertical adjustment for hangers, 3
-
-
-  W
-
-  Water, effect on belt, 92
-
-  Width of belting, 132, 133
-
-  Willis, Geo. F., 115
-
-  Wire diameter, for transmission rope, 147
-
-  Wire-lacing a belt, 12
-
-  Wire rope, splice, 144
-    transmission, 143
-
-  Wrench, proper way to use, 22
-
-
-  Z
-
-  Zebu manila hemp, 125, 127
-
-
-
-
-  Transcriber's Notes:
-
-  Obvious typos were silently corrected.
-
-  Archaic and variable spelling has been preserved.
-
-  Variations in hyphenation and compound words have been preserved.
-
-  Italics are shown thus: _sloping_.
-
-  Bold type is shown thus: =shout=.
-
-  Small capitals have been capitalised.
-
-  Punctuation has been preserved as it appears in the
-  original publication.
-
-  Due to space constraints the table on p135 has been split.
-
-  Subscript shown by underscore _, superscript by ^.
-
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-End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Shafting, Pulleys, Belting and Rope
-Transmission, by Hubert E. Collins
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-<pre>
-
-The Project Gutenberg EBook of Shafting, Pulleys, Belting and Rope
-Transmission, by Hubert E. Collins
-
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
-other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
-whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
-the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
-www.gutenberg.org.  If you are not located in the United States, you'll have
-to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook.
-
-Title: Shafting, Pulleys, Belting and Rope Transmission
-       The Power Handbooks Library
-
-Author: Hubert E. Collins
-
-Release Date: January 6, 2020 [EBook #61123]
-
-Language: English
-
-Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
-
-*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SHAFTING, PULLEYS, BELTING ***
-
-
-
-
-Produced by deaurider, Alan and the Online Distributed
-Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was
-produced from images generously made available by The
-Internet Archive)
-
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-
-
-
-
-</pre>
-
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/cover.jpg" alt="" />
-</div>
-
-<h1>SHAFTING, PULLEYS, BELTING
-AND ROPE TRANSMISSION</h1>
-
-
-
-
-
-<p class="c u xlarge gesperrt p2">THE POWER HANDBOOKS</p>
-
-<p class="c">The best library for the engineer and the man who hopes
-to be one.</p>
-
-<p class="c">This book is one of them. They are all good&mdash;and
-they cost</p>
-
-<p class="c"><b>$1.00 postpaid per volume. (English price 4/6 postpaid.)</b></p>
-
-
-<hr class="r5" />
-
-<p class="c medium"><i>SOLD SEPARATELY OR IN SETS</i></p>
-
-<hr class="r5" />
-
-<p class="c large"><span class="smcap">By</span> PROF. AUGUSTUS H. GILL</p>
-
-<p class="c little">OF THE MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY</p>
-
-<p class="c">ENGINE ROOM CHEMISTRY</p>
-
-<p class="c large"><span class="smcap">By</span> HUBERT E. COLLINS</p>
-
-
-<div class="center">
-<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="">
-<tr><td class="tdl">BOILERS</td><td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl">KNOCKS AND KINKS</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl">SHAFT GOVERNORS</td><td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl">PUMPS</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl">ERECTING WORK</td><td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl">SHAFTING, PULLEYS AND</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl">PIPES AND PIPING</td><td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl">BELTING</td></tr>
-</table></div>
-
-<p class="c large"><span class="smcap">By</span> F. E. MATTHEWS</p>
-
-<p class="c">REFRIGERATION. (In Preparation.)</p>
-
-<hr class="r5" />
-
-<p class="c xxxlarge">HILL PUBLISHING COMPANY</p>
-
-<p class="c large">505 PEARL STREET, NEW YORK</p>
-
-<p class="c">6 BOUVERIE STREET, LONDON, E. C.
-</p>
-
-
-
-
-<p class="c u gesperrt p4">
-THE POWER HANDBOOKS</p>
-
-<p class="c xxxlarge">Shafting, Pulleys, Belting<br />
-
-<span class="half">AND</span><br />
-
-Rope Transmission</p>
-
-<p class="c medium p4">COMPILED AND WRITTEN</p>
-
-<p class="c little">BY</p>
-
-<p class="c large">HUBERT E. COLLINS</p>
-
-<div class="bbox p6">
-
-<p class="c">Published by the</p>
-<p class="c xxxlarge">McGraw-Hill Book Company</p>
-<p class="c large">New York</p>
-
-<p class="c medium">Successors to the Book Departments of the</p>
-
-
-<div class="center">
-<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
-<tr><td class="tdl">McGraw Publishing Company</td><td class="tdr">Hill Publishing Company</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="2"><span class="medium">Publishers of Books for</span></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl">Electrical World</td><td class="tdr">The Engineering and Mining Journal</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl">The Engineering Record</td><td class="tdr">Power and The Engineer</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl">Electric Railway Journal</td><td class="tdr">American Machinist</td></tr>
-</table></div>
-
-</div>
-
-
-
-
-<p class="c p2">
-<i>Copyright, 1908</i>, <span class="smcap">by the Hill Publishing Company</span></p>
-
-<hr class="r5" />
-
-<p class="c"><i>All rights reserved</i></p>
-
-<p class="c"><i>Hill Publishing Company, New York, U.S.A.</i></p>
-
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[Pg v]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p class="ph2">INTRODUCTION</p></div>
-
-
-<p><span class="smcap">This</span> handbook is intended to furnish the reader
-with practical help for the every-day handling of
-shafting, pulleys and belting. These are allied in the
-operation of plants and it is a pretty generally conceded
-fact that all three are much neglected by many
-operators.</p>
-
-<p>A close perusal of these pages will enable the reader
-to determine the best course to pursue in the most
-common instances and in various troubles, and in all
-articles there are suggestions for similar cases which
-may arise.</p>
-
-<p>For instance, the need of belt dressing as a preservative,
-now generally conceded by most authorities,
-is fully covered in Chapter XI and the result of a test
-made by disinterested parties to find the degree of
-efficiency of four of the best known dressings is given.
-The results are of importance to all belt users.</p>
-
-<p>A portion of the book is also given to rope transmission
-which is in more general use to-day than ever
-before, and in this connection some advice is offered
-by experts as to the selection and care of the rope.
-Rope splices and how to make them will also prove
-valuable to many engineers.</p>
-
-<p>The author wishes to make acknowledgment to
-various contributors to <i>Power</i> whose articles are used<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[Pg vi]</a></span>
-herein, and to some special contributors, from whose
-articles small portions have been taken. Acknowledgment
-is also made to Stanley H. Moore, the author
-of "Mechanical Engineering and Machine Shop Practice"
-for the section on splicing.</p>
-
-<p class="r">
-<span class="smcap">Hubert E. Collins.</span></p>
-
-<p class="l"><span class="smcap">New York</span>, <i>November</i>, 1908.
-</p>
-
-<hr class="r5" />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[Pg vii]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p class="ph2">CONTENTS</p></div>
-
-<div class="center">
-<div class="highlight">
-<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
-<tr><td class="tdr"><span class="little">CHAP.</span></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdr"><span class="little">PAGE</span></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdr">I</td><td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Shafting Hints</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdr">II</td><td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Shafting Hints</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_21">21</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdr">III</td><td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Shafting Hints</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_32">32</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdr">IV</td><td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Truing up Line Shafting</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_49">49</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdr">V</td><td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Apparatus for Leveling and Lining Shafting</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_54">54</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdr">VI</td><td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Some Practical Kinks</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_61">61</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdr">VII</td><td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Practical Methods of Loosening Pulleys</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_65">65</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdr">VIII</td><td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Splicing Leather Belts</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_72">72</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdr">IX</td><td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Care and Management of Leather Belts</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_89">89</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdr">X</td><td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Belting&mdash;Its Use and Abuse</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_99">99</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdr">XI</td><td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">A Comparative Test of Four Belt Dressings</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_102">102</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdr">XII</td><td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Belt Creep</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_106">106</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdr">XIII</td><td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Rope Drives</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_108">108</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdr">XIV</td><td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">A New Scheme in Rope Transmission</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_115">115</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdr">XV</td><td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">How to Order Transmission Rope</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_122">122</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdr">XVI</td><td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">A Belting and Pulley Chart</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_129">129</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdr">XVII</td><td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Splicing Rope</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_135">135</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdr">XVIII</td><td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Wire Rope Transmission</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_143">143</a></td></tr>
-</table></div></div>
-
-<hr class="r5" />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p class="ph2">I</p></div>
-
-<h2 class="nobreak" title="SHAFTING HINTS">SHAFTING HINTS<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></h2>
-
-
-<p><span class="smcap">In</span> the installation, maintenance and repair of shafting,
-as in all other things, there is a right and a wrong
-way; and though the wrong way ranges in its defects
-from matters causing trivial inconvenience to absolute
-danger, the right too often&mdash;owing to lack of knowledge
-or discernment&mdash;finds but scant appreciation.</p>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> Contributed to Power by Chas. Herrman.</p></div>
-
-<p>Where, as is often the case, the end of a shaft is
-journaled to admit of the use of an odd, small-bore
-pillow block or wall-box hanger, the journaled part
-should equal in length twice the length of the hanger
-bearing plus the length of the collar. The hanger can
-thus readily be slid out of the wall box, and the necessity
-of uncoupling this shaft length and removing it
-before access to the bearing for purposes of cleaning
-or repair is done away with.</p>
-
-<p>A plank or board <i>A</i> (Fig. 1), about ¼ to ½ inch longer
-than the distance from the bottom of the shaft to the
-floor, can be used to good advantage at such times to
-free the hanger of the shaft's weight, and to prevent
-the shaft's springing from its own weight and the pulleys
-it may be carrying.</p>
-
-<p>Should it become necessary to place a pulley with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</a></span>
-half the hub on and half off the journaled part, this
-can readily be done by the use of a split bushing, as
-shown in sectional view of Fig. 1.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<a id="fig1" href="images/fig1big.jpg">
-<img src="images/fig1.jpg" alt="" />
-</a>
-<p class="caption center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 1.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Very often a small-sized bearing is used and the shaft
-journaled off to act as a collar. Of this procedure it
-can only be said that if done with the idea of making a
-"good job" it signally fails of its object; if of necessity
-(a collar being insufficient), then the shaft is heavily
-overloaded and serious trouble will result, because of it.</p>
-
-<p>It is advisable to center punch, or otherwise mark,
-the ends of both shafts held by a compression coupling
-close up against the coupling, and both edges of the
-coupling hub should have a punch mark just opposite
-and close to the shaft punch marks. These marks will
-serve at all times to show at a moment's glance any
-end or circumferential slippage of the shafts within
-the coupling. The same method can be resorted to
-for proof of pulley slippage.</p>
-
-<p>When a new line of shafting is put up, the foot position
-of each hanger should be clearly marked out on
-their respective timbers <i>after</i> the shaft has been brought<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span>
-into alinement. Hangers can thus be easily put back
-into their proper place should timber shrinkage or heavy
-strains cause them to shift out of line. This idea can be
-applied to good advantage on old lines also, but before
-marking out the hanger positions the shaft should be
-tried and brought into perfect alinement.</p>
-
-<p>Hangers that do not allow of any vertical adjustment
-should not be used in old buildings that are liable to
-settle. Shafting so run pretty nearly always gets out
-and keeps out of level.</p>
-
-<p>In flanged bolt couplings (Fig. 1) no part of the bolt
-should project beyond the flanges. And where a belt
-runs in close proximity to such a coupling, split wood
-collars should be used to cover in the exposed coupling
-flanges, bolt heads and nuts. Countershafts have been
-torn out of place times innumerable by belts getting
-caught and winding up on the main line.</p>
-
-<p>Whenever possible a space of 8 to 10 inches should
-be left between the end of a shaft line and the wall.
-A solid pulley or a new coupling can thus readily be
-put on by simply uncoupling and pushing the two
-shaft lengths apart without taking either down. Ten
-inches does not represent the full scope of pulleys
-admissible, for so long as the pulley hub does not exceed
-a 10-inch length the pulley face (the more readily
-in proportion to the larger pulley diameter) can be
-edged in between the shafts.</p>
-
-<p>Fig. 2 is an instance of bad judgment in locating the
-bearings. In one case this bearing overheated; the
-remedy is either to re-babbitt the old box or replace
-it with a new one.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>Both pulleys were solid and the keys&mdash;headless
-ones&mdash;had been driven home to stay. The rims of
-both pulleys almost touched the wall, and the circumferential
-position on the shaft of both these pulleys
-was such as to preclude the possibility (owing to an
-arm of <i>a</i> being in a direct line with key <i>B</i><sup>1</sup> and arm
-of <i>b</i> with key <i>a</i><sup>1</sup>) of using anything but a side offset
-key starting drift.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<a id="fig2" href="images/fig2big.jpg">
-<img src="images/fig2.jpg" alt="" />
-</a>
-<p class="caption center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 2.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>An effort was made to loosen <i>b</i> (which was farthest
-from the wall) by sledge-driving it toward the wall,
-hoping that the pulley might move off the key. The
-key, as was afterward found out, not having been oiled
-when originally driven home had rusted in place badly;
-though the pulley was moved by sledging, the key,
-secure in the pulley hub, remained there.</p>
-
-<p>Ultimately one of us had to get into pulley <i>b</i>, and,
-removing cap <i>c</i>, hold the improvised side offset, long,
-starting drift <i>D</i> in place against <i>B</i><sup>1</sup> at <i>b</i><sup>2</sup> while the other
-swung the hand sledge at <i>a</i>. The entering end of the
-key, not having been file chamfered off, as it should
-have been (see <i>E</i>), our starting drift burred it up; so,
-after having started it, we had the pleasure of getting<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span>
-into <i>b</i> to file the key end <i>b</i><sup>2</sup> into shape so as to admit
-of getting it out.</p>
-
-<p>The solid pulley <i>b</i> has since been replaced with a
-split pulley.</p>
-
-<p>By the arrangement, as shown in Fig. 3, of the rim-friction
-clutch on the driven main shaft <i>B</i> and the
-driving pulley on the engine-connected driving main
-shaft <i>A</i>, no matter whether <i>B</i> shaft is in use or not&mdash;<i>i.e.</i>,
-whether the clutch be in or out of engagement&mdash;so
-long as <i>A</i> shaft is in motion the belt <i>C</i> is working.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<a id="fig3" href="images/fig3big.jpg">
-<img src="images/fig3.jpg" alt="" />
-</a>
-<p class="caption center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 3.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Main line belts come high, and the more they are
-used the sooner will they wear out. By changing the
-clutch from shaft <i>B</i> to <i>A</i> and the pulley <i>D</i> from <i>A</i> to <i>B</i>,
-belt <i>C</i> will be at rest whenever <i>B</i> is not in use. Where,
-however, these shafts are each in a separate room or
-on a different floor (the belt running through the wall
-or floor and ceiling, as the case may be) the clutch,
-despite belt wear, should be placed directly on the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span>
-driven shaft (as <i>B</i>), so as to provide a ready means
-for shutting off the power in cases of emergency.</p>
-
-<p>Figs. 4, 5 and 6 represent a dangerous mode, much
-in vogue, of driving an overhead floor. An extremely
-slack belt connects the driving shaft <i>A</i> and the driven
-shaft <i>B</i>; when it is desired to impart motion to the
-driven shaft the belt tightener <i>C</i> is let down and belt
-contact is thus secured.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<a id="fig4" href="images/fig4big.jpg">
-<img src="images/fig4.jpg" alt="" />
-</a>
-<p class="caption center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 4, Fig. 5, Fig. 6.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>This tightener system is called dangerous advisedly,
-for few are the shops employing it but that some employee
-has good cause to remember it. Unlike a clutch&mdash;where
-control of the power is positive, instantaneous
-and simple&mdash;the tightener cannot be handled, as in
-emergency cases it has to be.</p>
-
-<p>In any but straight up and down drives with the
-driven pulley equal to or larger (diametrically) than
-the driver, unless the belt have special leading idlers
-there is more or less of a constant belt contact with its
-resultant liability to start the driven shaft up unexpectedly.
-When the tightener is completely off, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span>
-belt, owing to heat, weight or belt fault, may at any
-time continue to cling and transmit power for a short
-space, despite this fact.</p>
-
-<p>These tighteners are usually pretty heavy&mdash;in fact,
-much heavier than the unfamiliar imagines when on
-the spur of emergency he grapples them, and trouble
-results.</p>
-
-<p>Tightener (in Fig. 5) <i>A</i> is held in place by two
-threaded rods <i>B</i>&mdash;as shown by slot <i>a</i> in <i>A</i><sup>1</sup>&mdash;and
-regulated and tightened by ring-nuts <i>C</i> working along
-the threaded portion of <i>B</i>. <i>C</i> (of Fig. 4) is also a
-poor arrangement. Fig. 6 is the best of them all.</p>
-
-<p>Apropos of clutches, great care must be exercised
-in tightening them up while the shafting is in motion,
-for if the least bit overdone the clutch may start up
-or, on being locked for trial (according to the clutches'
-structure), continue running without possibility of
-release until the main source of power be cut off.
-Nothing can exceed the danger of a clutch on a sprung
-shaft.</p>
-
-<p>Heavily loaded shafting runs to much better advantage
-when center driven than when end driven, and
-what often constitutes an overload for an end drive
-is but a full load for a center drive. To illustrate,
-here is one case of many: The main shaft&mdash;end driven&mdash;was
-so overloaded that it could be alined and
-leveled one week and be found out one way or the
-other, frequently both ways, the next week. Being
-tired of the ceaseless tinkering that the condition under
-which that shaft was working necessitated, the proprietors
-were given the ultimatum: A heavier line of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span>
-shafting which would be sure to work, or a try of the
-center drive which, owing to the extreme severity of
-this case, might or might not work.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/fig5.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 7.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/fig6.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 8.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>A center drive, being the cheapest, was decided upon.
-Pulley <i>A</i>, Fig. 7, which happened to be a solid, set-screw
-and key-held pulley, was removed from the end
-of the shaft. The split, tight-clamping-fit pulley <i>B</i>,
-Fig. 8, was put in the middle of the shaft length; the
-gas engine was shifted to accommodate the new drive,
-and hanger <i>C</i><sup>1</sup> was put up as a reinforcement to hanger
-<i>C</i> and as a preventive of shaft springing. After these
-changes the shaft gave no trouble, so that, as had been
-hoped, the torsional strain that had formerly all been
-at point 1 must evidently have been divided up between
-points 2 and 3.</p>
-
-<p>When a main shaft is belted to the engine and to a
-countershaft, as shown in Fig. 9, the pulley <i>A</i><sup>1</sup> gets all
-the load of main and countershafts. In the arrangement
-shown in Fig. 10 point 1 gets <i>A's</i> load and 2 gets
-<i>B's</i> load and is the better arrangement.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/fig7.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 9&mdash;&mdash;Fig. 10.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Where a machine is situated close to one of the
-columns or timber uprights of the building it is very
-customary to carry the belt shifter device upon the
-column, as in Fig. 11. The sudden stoppage of a
-machine seldom does any damage, whereas an unexpected
-starting may cause irreparable damage and
-often even endanger the limb and life of the machine
-operative.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/fig8.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 11.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>To avoid the possibility of some passing person
-brushing up against the shifting lever and thus starting
-the machine, the tight and loose pulleys of the countershaft
-should be so placed that when <i>A</i> is exposed&mdash;that
-is, away from the column&mdash;its accidental shifting
-shall stop the machine. Fig 12 makes this point clear.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/fig9.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 12.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>This arrangement is often used to save a collar (at
-<i>A</i>). The oil runs out between the loose pulley and the
-bearing, especially if the latter be a split bearing; the
-loose pulley, instead of being totally free when the belt
-is on the tight pulley, acts more or less, in proportion to
-the end play of the shaft, as a buffer between the tight
-pulley and the bearing; finally, the tight pulley is
-deprived of the support (which, when under load, it
-can use to good advantage) a nearer proximity to the
-hanger would give it.</p>
-
-<p>The shafts of light-working counters should not be
-needlessly marred with spotting or flats for collar set-screws,
-nor should cup or pointed set-screws (which
-mar a shaft) be used. If the collar be sharply tapped
-with a hammer, diametrically opposite the set-screw,
-while it is being tightened up, all slack is taken out of
-the collar; and the hold is such that, without resource<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span>
-to the same expedient when loosening the collar, a
-screwdriver will scarcely avail against a slotted set-screw.</p>
-
-<p>When required to sink the head of a bolt into a
-timber to admit of the timbers lying snug in or against
-some spot, if allowable, the bolt's future turning can
-be guarded against by cutting the hole square to fit
-the bolt head. But where a washer must be used, the
-only positive and practical way to prevent the bolt
-from turning is to drive a nail (as shown) into <i>A</i> (Fig.
-13) far enough for the nail head to flush <i>B</i>; now bend
-the head down behind the bolt toward <i>c</i>. It is evident
-that if the bolt tries to turn in the direction of 3 the nail
-end (wood held) will prevent it; if toward 4, the nail
-head will be forced against the wood and catch hold
-of the bolt head.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/fig10.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 13.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Large belts of engines, dynamos, motors, etc., when
-in need of taking-up are usually attended to when the
-plant is shut down; that is, nights, Sundays or legal
-holidays. At such times power is not to be had; and
-if the spliced part of the belt, which must be opened,
-shortened, scraped, re-cemented and hammered, happens
-to be resting against the face of one of the pulleys,
-is up between some beams or down in a pit, the chances
-of the job, if done at all, being any good are very slim.</p>
-
-<p>The spliced part of a large belt should be clearly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span>
-marked in some permanent and easily recognizable
-way (a rivet, or where the belt is rivet-held at all its
-joints some odd arrangement of rivets is as good a way
-as any). This marking will minimize the possibility of
-mistake and enable the engineer to place the belt splice
-in the position most favorable for the belt-maker's
-taking-up.</p>
-
-<p>In wire-lacing a belt, very often, despite all efforts
-and care, the edges of the belt (<i>A</i>, <i>B</i>) get out of line, as
-shown in Fig. 14, and make the best of jobs look poor.
-By securing the belt in proper position by two small
-pieces of wire passed through and fastened at 1, 2, 3
-and 4, Fig. 15, the lacing can be more conveniently
-accomplished and the edge projection is avoided. When
-the lacing has progressed far enough to necessitate the
-removal of wires <i>c</i> <i>d</i>, the lacing already in place will
-keep the belt in its original position.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/fig11.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 14&mdash;&mdash;Fig. 15.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>A wire lacing under certain conditions will run a
-certain length of time to a day. On expensive machinery
-whose time really is money it pays to renew the
-lacing at regular intervals so as to avoid the loss of
-time occasioned by a sudden giving out of the lace.</p>
-
-<p>Never throw a belt on to a rim-friction or other kind
-of clutch while the shaft is in full motion. Belts, when
-being thrown on, have a knack, peculiarly their own,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span>
-of jumping off on the other side of the pulley. And
-should a belt jump over and off on the wrong side and
-get caught in the clutch mechanism, as the saying
-goes, "there will be something doing" and the show
-usually comes high. It pays to slow down.</p>
-
-<p>A mule belt (transmitting in the neighborhood of
-or considerably over 25 horse-power) that runs amuck
-through the breaking down of the mule can make
-enough trouble in a short time to keep the most able
-repairing for a long while.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/fig12.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 16.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>No matter what the pulley shafts holding arrangement
-and adjusting contrivance may be, all of the
-strain due to belt weight, tension, and the power
-transmitted falls mainly at points <i>A</i>, <i>A</i><sup>1</sup>, Fig. 16; and
-it is here that, sooner or later, a pin, set-screw or bolt
-gives way and the belt either gets badly torn up, rips<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span>
-something out of place, or a fold of it sweeping to the
-floor slams things around generally until the power
-is shut off.</p>
-
-<p>The remedy is obvious: Reinforce <i>A</i>, <i>A'</i> by securing
-<i>B</i>, <i>B'</i> to the supporting shaft <i>c</i> at <i>c</i><sup>1</sup>, <i>c</i><sup>2</sup>. The yoke <i>x</i>
-is a reliable and practical means to this end. Straps <i>a</i>
-held by the nuts <i>b</i> hold the yoke securely on the supporting
-shaft <i>c</i>, while the pulley-shaft ends <i>B</i>, <i>B'</i> are
-held in the <i>U</i> of the yoke at <i>w'</i> at any desired distance
-from <i>c</i> by means of the adjustment provided by the
-nuts <i>b</i>.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<a id="fig13" href="images/fig13big.jpg">
-<img src="images/fig13.jpg" alt="" />
-</a>
-<p class="caption center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 17.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The end of a hanger bearing was badly worn (Fig.
-17). The cap could be lifted out by removing bridge
-<i>A</i>, but the shaft interfered with the lifting of the bottom
-out, owing to its being held in the hanger slides. It
-had to be removed and we were called upon to put it
-into shape by re-babbitting.</p>
-
-<p>Being a newspaper plant, money was no object;
-the time limit, however, was three hours, or hands off.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span>
-Opening the 30-inch engine belt and removing the
-interfering shaft length was out of the question in so
-short a time. So the job was done as follows: The shaft
-was braced against down sag and engine pull along the
-line <i>B</i> <i>C</i> by a piece of timber at <i>A</i>, and against pull on
-<i>B</i> <i>D</i> by timber arrangement <i>X</i>; timber <i>y</i>'s points <i>y</i><sup>1</sup>
-and <i>y</i><sup>2</sup> resting against the uprights at 1 and 2, timber
-<i>z</i> wedged in between <i>y</i> at <i>y</i><sup>3</sup> and the shaft at 4, thus
-acting as the stay along line <i>B</i> <i>D</i>. The nuts and
-washers <i>a</i>, <i>a</i> were removed; the bolts driven back out
-of the bracket; the end of a rope was thrown over the
-shaft at <i>b</i>, passed through the pulley and tied to the
-bracket and hanger which, as one piece, were then
-slid endways off the shaft and lowered to the floor.
-The bearing was cleaned, re-babbitted and scraped,
-everything put back, stays removed and the shaft
-running on time with a half-hour to the good.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/fig14.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption center sans">TIMBER ARRANGEMENT X</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>When desirable to keep a shaft from turning while
-chipping and filing flats, spotting in set screws or
-moving pulleys on it, it can be done by inserting a
-<i>narrow</i> strip of cardboard, soft wood or several thicknesses
-of paper between the bearing cap and the top
-of the shaft and then tightening the cap down.</p>
-
-<p>The packing, <span class="fnum">1</span>/<span class="fden">16</span> to <span class="fnum">3</span>/<span class="fden">16</span> inch thick and about as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span>
-long as the bearing, must be narrow; otherwise, as
-may be deduced from Fig. 18 (which shows the right
-way), by the use of a wide strip in the cap the shaft
-is turned into a wedge, endangering the safety of the
-cap when forced down. At point 3 packing does no
-harm, but at 1 and 2 there is just enough space to allow
-the shaft diameter to fit exactly, with no room to spare,
-into the cap bore diameter.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/fig15.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 18.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>As a very little clamping will do a good deal of
-holding the clamping need not be overdone. A shaft
-can also be held from turning, or turned as may be
-desired, by holding it with a screw (monkey) wrench
-at any flat or keyway, as shown in sectional view,
-Fig. 19.</p>
-
-<p>When a shaft breaks it is either owing to torsional
-strain caused by overload, springing through lack of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span>
-hanger support at the proper interval of shaft length,
-the strain of imperfect alinement or level, or a flaw.</p>
-
-<p>An immediate temporary repair may be effected
-by taking some split pulley that can best be spared
-from another part of the shaft and clamping it over the
-broken part of the shaft, thus converting it, as it were,
-into a compression coupling. The longer the pulley
-hub the better the hold; spotting the set-screws&mdash;that
-is, chipping out about <span class="fnum">1</span>/<span class="fden">8</span>-inch holes for their accommodation
-into the shaft&mdash;is also a great help.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/fig16.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 19.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>If when the shaft breaks it has not been sprung by
-the sudden dropping of itself and the pulleys that were
-on it, a permanent repair can be effected, after correcting
-the cause of the break, by the use of a regular key-less
-compression coupling.</p>
-
-<p>If it has been sprung, a new length comes cheapest
-in the wind-up; and if overload was the original cause
-of the trouble, only a heavier shaft or a considerable
-lightening of the load will prevent a repetition.</p>
-
-<p>In Fig. 20 <i>A</i> shows how to drive to make belt weight
-count in securing extra contact. In <i>B</i> this weight
-causes a loss of contact. Bearing in mind that <i>B</i> is
-not only a loss from the normal contact but also a loss
-of the extra contact that <i>A</i> gives, it will readily be seen
-how important a power-saving factor the right sort of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span>
-a drive is&mdash;especially on high-speed small-pulley machines,
-such as dynamos, motors, fans, blowers, etc.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/fig17.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 20.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>A good many electrical concerns mount some of their
-styles of dynamos and motors (especially the light
-duty, small size) upon two <i>V</i>-shaped rails, Fig. 21
-(the bottom of the motor or dynamo base being V-grooved
-for the purpose). The machine's weight and
-the screws <i>A</i> are counted on to keep it in place. If
-the machine be properly mounted on these rails, as
-regards screws <i>A</i> in relation to its drive, the screws
-reinforce the machine's weight in holding it down and
-also permit a surer adjustment through this steady
-holding of the machine.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/fig18.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 21.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>Fig. 22 shows the machine properly mounted. The
-belt tension and pull tend to draw <i>B</i> corner of the
-machine toward the shaft <i>C</i>; and screw <i>B</i><sup>1</sup> is there to
-resist this pull. Owing to this resistance and the pull
-along line <i>D</i>, <i>E</i> tends to lift and slew around in <i>E</i><sup>1</sup>
-direction; screw <i>E</i><sup>2</sup> is, however, in a position to overcome
-both these tendencies. If the screws are both
-in front, there is nothing but the machine's weight
-to keep the back of it from tilting up. The absurdity
-of placing the screws at <i>F</i> and <i>G</i>, though even this is
-thoughtlessly done, needs no demonstration.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/fig19.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 22.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>When putting a new belt on a motor or dynamo,
-both the driver and the driven are often needlessly
-strained by the use of belt-clamps, in the attempt to
-take as much stretch out of the belt as possible. On
-being loosely endlessed it soon requires taking up; and
-if only laced, when the time for endlessing comes the
-belt is botched by the splicing in of the piece which,
-owing to the insufficiency of the original belt length,
-must now be added to supply enough belt to go around,
-plus the splice.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>The proper mode of procedure is: Place the motor
-on its rails or slides 5 inches away from its nearest
-possible approach to the driven shaft or machine and
-wire-lace it (wire-lacing is a very close second to an
-endless belt). Let it run for a few days, moving the
-motor back from the driven shaft as the belt stretches.
-When all reasonable stretch is out, move the motor
-back as close to the driven shaft as possible.</p>
-
-<p>The 5 inches forward motion will give 10 inches of
-belting, which will be amply sufficient for a good splice;
-and, further, the machine will be in position to allow of
-tightening the belt up, by simply forcing the motor
-back, for probably the belt's lifetime.</p>
-
-<hr class="r5" />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span></p>
-
-
-
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p class="ph2">II</p></div>
-
-<h2 class="nobreak" title="SHAFTING HINTS">SHAFTING HINTS<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></h2>
-
-
-<p><span class="smcap">The</span> bolts, set-screws, pulleys, bearings, shafting and
-clutches of a plant, although among the foremost
-factors in its efficiency, are very often neglected until
-they reach the stage where their condition absolutely
-compels attention.</p>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> Contributed to Power by Chas. Herrman.</p></div>
-
-<p>Very often this lack of proper attention is due to
-surrounding difficulties of an almost insurmountable
-and most discouraging nature. At other times it is
-due to a lack of proper appreciation of the damage
-resultant from seemingly insignificant neglects. How
-to overcome some of these difficulties is the object of
-this chapter.</p>
-
-<p>Fig. 23 shows a case of a turning bolt. The head is
-inaccessible and the bolt's turning with the nut, owing
-to burrs or rust, prevents either the tightening or the
-loosening of the nut. One to three fair-sized nails
-driven through the timber as at <i>C</i>, hard up against, or,
-better still, forced into a tangent with the bolt, will
-often suffice to hold it while the nut is being turned. In
-iron girders, beams, etc., the nail method being impossible,
-a slot <i>E</i> can easily be cut with a hack-saw
-through the lower end of both the nut and bolt, so<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span>
-that the bolt may be held by a screwdriver while the
-nut is turned with a wrench.</p>
-
-<p>Where an extra strong screwdriver must be used,
-the use of two blades at the same time in the hack-saw
-frame will give a slot of the requisite width. Where
-the bolt's end projects beyond the nut and it is desired
-to tighten the nut, a Stillson wrench is often, though
-inadvisedly, called into service. This tends to spoil the
-lower threads of the bolt and thus prevents any future
-loosening, except by the cutting off of the projecting end.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/fig20.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 23.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>As the alinement and level of shafting depend on the
-power of their hold, bolts, lag-bolts and set-screws
-should, when they are tightened, be so in fact and not
-in fancy.</p>
-
-<p>The proper way to use a wrench, especially a screw
-wrench, so as to avail yourself of every ounce of power,
-not of your biceps only but of your whole body, is as
-follows: Place your shoulders on a level with the object
-to be tightened, secure the wrench jaws well upon it,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span>
-grasp the jaws with the left hand and the wrench handle
-with the right, holding both arms straight and tense;
-swing the upper part of the body to the right from the
-hip, backing the force of your swing up with the full
-force of your legs, steadying yourself the while with
-your left-hand grip on the wrench jaws, which are the
-center of your swing. Several such half turns, at
-the wind-up, will cause an extremely hard jam with
-comparative ease.</p>
-
-<p>In tightening up a split-pulley, the expedient of
-hammering the bolts tight, by means of an open-ended
-bolt-wrench and a small sledge, is often resorted to.
-If the head of the bolt be lightly tapped while the nut
-is being tightened, even a light hammering, except
-in the extremest cases, becomes unnecessary.</p>
-
-<p>Split-pulleys are invariably better held in place by
-a good clamping fit than by set-screws. It must also
-be borne in mind that, for good holding, set-screws must
-be spotted into the shaft, and this defaces and often
-materially weakens the shaft. Split-pulleys, like solid
-ones, are sometimes subject to stoppage, owing to
-excessive strain. Set-screws, at such times, cut a shaft
-up pretty badly; whereas, if clamped, only a few slight
-scratches would result.</p>
-
-<p>Where packing with paper, cardboard, emery cloth
-or tin becomes necessary to secure a good clamping fit,
-care should be taken to put an equal thickness of packing
-into both halves of the pulley; otherwise it will
-wabble and jump when running.</p>
-
-<p>Emery cloth, on account of its grittiness, is preferable
-for packing where the duty done by the pulley<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span>
-is light. When the duty done is extra heavy, emery
-cloth, despite its grittiness, will not do; tin or sheet
-iron, owing to body, must be used.</p>
-
-<p>The following is the most practical way of packing a
-split-pulley to a good clamping fit, assuming that emery
-cloth is to be used:</p>
-
-<p>The thickness of the emery cloth to be used, and
-whether to use one or more folds, can readily be ascertained
-by calipering the shaft diameter and pulley
-bore, or by trial-clamping the pulley by hand. In both
-of these instances, however, due allowance must be
-made for the compressiveness of the packing used.
-If the packing be too thin, the pulley will not clamp
-strongly enough; if too thick, the chances of breaking
-the lugs when drawing the bolts up are to be apprehended.</p>
-
-<p>Having determined the proper thickness of emery
-cloth to be used, place the pulley on the shaft, as shown
-in Fig. 24. Into the lower half <i>C</i>, in space <i>A</i>, which is
-out of contact with the shaft, place a sheet of emery
-with the emery side toward the hub and the smooth
-side toward the shaft. The width of the emery should
-be a little less than half of the shaft's circumference,
-and it should be long enough to project about one-half
-of an inch to an inch on each side of the hub.</p>
-
-<p>Now turn the pulley on the shaft so that the position
-of the halves shall become reversed (Fig. 25), <i>C</i> on top,
-<i>B</i> on bottom. See that the emery cloth remains in its
-proper position in half-hub, the smooth side being
-toward the shaft; the projecting length beyond the
-pulley hub will help you to do this.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>Into half-hub <i>B</i> (space <i>D</i>) insert a similar sized piece
-of emery cloth, smooth side toward the hub and the
-emery side toward the shaft. Draw up on your bolts to
-clamp the pulley into position. Be sure, however,
-that no emery cloth gets in between the half-hubs or
-lugs at points 1 and 2, Fig. 25, as this would prevent
-their coming properly together; the width of the emery
-being less than half of the shaft's circumference will
-be a help to this end.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/fig21.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 24.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>It often happens, owing to downright neglect or
-unwitting neglect, through the oil hole or oiler being
-blocked up, that a loose pulley, running unlubricated,
-cuts, heats, and finally, through heat expansion, seizes.
-It then becomes necessary to take the countershaft<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span>
-down, force the loose pulley off and file and polish the
-shaft up before it can be put back into place.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/fig22.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 25.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The following method avoids the taking down and
-putting back, provides an easy means for loosening up
-the pulley that has seized, and improvises, as it were,
-a lathe for filing and polishing the shaft.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/fig25.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 26.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>In Fig. 26, <i>A</i> is the loose pulley that has seized.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span>
-Throw off both the belt that leads from the main shaft
-to pulleys <i>A</i>, <i>B</i> and the belt that leads to the driven
-machine from the driving pulley <i>C</i>. Tie, or get somebody
-to hold, an iron bar in pulley <i>A</i> at side <i>a</i>, as shown
-in Fig. 27, over an arm of the pulley, under the shaft,
-and resting against the timber, ceiling, wall or floor,
-in such a way as to prevent the pulley from turning in
-one direction, as shown in Fig. 27. Now, with another
-bar, of a sufficient length to give you a good leverage,
-take the grip under a pulley arm and over the shaft
-in the tight pulley <i>B</i> at <i>b</i>, which will enable you to work
-against the resistance of the bar in the loose pulley <i>A</i>.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/fig23.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 27.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>With enough leverage, this kind of persuasion will
-loosen the worst of cases. Take the bars out and move
-<i>B</i> sufficiently to the right to allow <i>A</i> to take <i>B</i>'s former
-position. Secure <i>B</i> by means of its set-screws in its
-new position and, by means of a piece of cord, fasten<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span>
-an arm of <i>A</i> to one of <i>B</i>'s. It is evident that by throwing
-the main-shaft belt on to <i>A</i> it will, through <i>A</i>'s
-cord connection with <i>B</i>, which is screwed to the shaft,
-cause the shaft to revolve, thus enabling you to file
-up and polish that portion of it formerly occupied by
-<i>A</i>. To prevent the countershaft from side-slipping out
-of hanger-bearing <i>D</i><sup>1</sup>, get somebody to hold something
-against hanger-bearing <i>D</i><sup>2</sup> at <i>E</i>; or fasten a piece of
-wire or cord on the countershaft at <i>F</i> and the hanger
-<i>D</i><sup>1</sup>, so as to prevent side-slipping while not interfering
-with revolution.</p>
-
-<p>Filing, polishing, a cleaning out of the oil hole or
-oiler, and the taking of proper precaution against
-future failure of lubrication will put everything into
-first-class order. When the loose pulley is, as it is best
-for it to be, farthest away from the bearing, held in its
-place by the tight pulley and a collar, not only is the
-tight pulley better adapted for carrying its load, owing
-to additional support resultant from its proximity
-to the bearing, but such matters of small repair as
-come up are much simplified.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/fig24.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 28.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Fig. 28 in some degree, aside from the cutting up and
-heating of the bearings, illustrates the breaking strain,
-in addition to the usual torsional strain, which becomes
-enhanced in direct proportion with the increase of
-breaking strain, to which an out-of-line or out-of-level<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span>
-shaft is subject. The bends are exaggerated for
-illustration.</p>
-
-<p>In this instance, the fact of one hanger-bearing being
-out of line or level subjects the shaft to a severe breaking
-strain. The shaft being both out of line and level
-does not, if both at the same point, aggravate matters,
-as might at first be supposed.</p>
-
-<p>It is true that the full torsional strength of a shaft
-is only equal to the weakest portion of it, so that three
-weak spots more or less can, theoretically, make no
-difference one way or the other. But, practically,
-there is the undue strain and wear of the bearings at
-these points, and if a pulley transmitting any considerable
-amount of power is situated anywhere along the
-length <i>A B</i> it is sure to be unpleasantly in evidence at
-all times.</p>
-
-<p>Only an eighth or a quarter out, but oh, what shaft-breaking
-stories that fraction could tell!</p>
-
-<p>The following is a simple method for testing the alinement
-and level of a line of shafting that is already up.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<a id="fig26" href="images/fig26big.jpg">
-<img src="images/fig26.jpg" alt="" />
-</a>
-<p class="caption center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 29.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>As in Fig. 29, stretch a line <i>C</i> so that it is exactly
-opposite the shafting. Set it equidistant from the
-shaft end centers <i>G</i> and <i>F</i> and free from all contact
-along its entire length except at its retaining ends <i>A</i> and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span>
-<i>B</i>. Now, it is self-evident, as line <i>C</i> is straight and set
-equidistant from the shaft end centers <i>G</i> and <i>F</i>, that
-if you set the entire center line of the shafting at the
-same distance from line <i>C</i>, as <i>G</i> and <i>F</i>, you are bound
-to get your shafting into perfect alinement.</p>
-
-<p>In leveling a line of shafting that is already up,
-you can, by the use of a level and perseverance, get it
-right.</p>
-
-<p>Placing the level at <i>A</i>, you are just as likely to raise
-the first hanger as to lower the middle one. Look
-before you jump, even if compelled to climb to the top
-of the fence to do so. When you find a length of shafting
-out of level, try the two adjacent lengths before
-acting, and your action will be the more intelligent
-for it.</p>
-
-<p>On exceptionally long lines of shafting the following
-method, in which the level and a line constitute a check
-upon and a guide for each other, can be used to great
-advantage. Stretch a line so that it is exactly above,
-or, if more convenient, below the shafting to be leveled.
-With the level find a length of shafting that is level
-and adjust your line exactly parallel with this length.
-Your line now, free of contact except at its retaining
-ends, and level owing to its parallelism to the level shaft
-length, constitutes a safe <i>hight level</i> guide while the
-level itself can serve to verify the accuracy of the
-finished job.</p>
-
-<p>In lining, whether for level or alinement, unless the
-shafting line consists of the same diameter of shafting
-throughout its entire length, though of necessity measuring
-from the shaft circumference to the line, always<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span>
-base your calculations on the shaft centers. The
-figures in Fig. 29 will make this point clear.</p>
-
-<p>The manner of securing the ends of the line under
-different circumstances must be left to individual
-ingenuity. Only be sure that the line is so placed that
-the shafting adjustment shall not affect its original
-position with reference to the end shaft centers.</p>
-
-<p>Coupling clutches, <i>i.e.</i>, those joining two lengths of
-shafting into one at option, will fail, utterly or partially,
-if the respective shafts which bear them are out of line
-or level with each other. Such a condition should not
-be tolerated on account of the danger entailed by the
-inability to shut off the power in cases of emergency.</p>
-
-<p>As a general rule, it is most advisable to set a clutch
-to take as hard a grip as it can without interfering with
-its releasing power. Where a clutch grips weakly,
-it is subject to undue wear owing to slippage, whereas
-a strongly regulated clutch absolutely prevents slippage
-wear.</p>
-
-<hr class="r5" />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p class="ph2">III</p></div>
-
-<h2 class="nobreak" title="SHAFTING HINTS">SHAFTING HINTS<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a></h2>
-
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Engineers</span>, machinists and general mechanics
-are often called upon to turn their hands to a shafting
-job. We recognize that all of the following cannot
-prove new or even suggestive to most of our readers;
-still, some of it for all, and, mayhap, all for some, may
-not come amiss.</p>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> Contributed to Power by Chas. Herrman.</p></div>
-
-<p>We all know that to have belting run rightly on
-pulleys located upon parallel lines of shafting the
-shafting must be in absolutely correct parallel. The
-slightest deviation, even to a <span class="fnum">1</span>/<span class="fden">16</span> inch, often imparts
-a marring effect, through poorly running belts, to an
-otherwise faultless job.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/fig27.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 30.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Fig. 30 shows how to line a countershaft as regards
-parallelism with the driving shaft when the countershaft's
-end-centers are availably situated for thus
-measuring. <i>A</i> is the countershaft, <i>B</i> the main shaft,
-<i>C</i> is a stick of proper length about 1½ inches in thickness<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span>
-and width, <i>D</i> a heavy nail&mdash;about 20-penny will do&mdash;driven
-into <i>C</i> far enough from its end <i>E</i> to allow of
-<i>C</i>'s resting squarely upon the top of the shaft <i>B</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Rest the measuring rod upon the main shaft, keeping
-the nail in touch with the shaft, so that when the <i>F</i>
-end is in contact with the end of the countershaft the
-stick shall be at right angles to the main shaft, and then
-mark the exact location <i>a</i> of the countershaft's end-center
-on the stick. Do the same at the other end of the
-countershaft. If both marks come at the same spot,
-your counter is parallel; if not, space between these
-two marks will show you how much and which way the
-counter is out.</p>
-
-<p>It may only be necessary to shift one end in or out
-a little; and then, again, it may be that to get into line
-you will have to throw one end all the way in one direction
-and the other all or some in the opposite direction.
-But, whichever it be, do not rest content until you have
-verified the correctness of your adjustment by a re-measurement.</p>
-
-<p>The nail should be well driven into <i>C</i>, so that its
-position will not readily change, and it should, preferably,
-be slant driven (as shown in Fig. 30), as it thus
-helps to keep the stick down in contact with the shaft.</p>
-
-<p>Where an end-center is not available or where there
-is no clear space on the main shaft, opposite a center,
-the method shown in Fig. 31 can generally be used.</p>
-
-<p>Rest <i>C</i> on top of both shafts and at right angles to
-the driving shaft <i>B</i>. With <i>D</i> pressed against <i>B</i>, place
-a square on stick <i>C</i>, as shown (stock in full contact with
-the top of the rod, and the tongue running down the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span>
-side of it). Slide along <i>C</i> toward <i>A</i> until the side of
-the tongue touches the shaft the other side of <i>A</i>. Now
-mark a line on the stick down tongue. Do the same
-at the other end of your countershaft and the two
-resultant marks will be your parallel adjustment guides.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/fig28.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 31.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>It often happens that a counter, or even line shaft,
-is end driven from the extreme end of the main or jack
-driving shaft with its other end running beyond the
-reach of the driving shaft, as shown in Fig. 32.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/fig29.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 32.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>It is evident that neither method 1 nor 2 can here
-be applied to solve the alinement problem. If the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span>
-driving pulley <i>B</i> and the driven pulley <i>A</i> are both in
-place, the following method can be used to advantage.</p>
-
-<p>Fasten, or let somebody hold, one end of a line against
-pulley <i>B</i>'s rim at <i>B</i><sup>1</sup>; carry the line over to <i>A</i> at <i>A</i><sup>2</sup>;
-now sweep the loose <i>A</i><sup>2</sup> end of the line toward pulley <i>A</i>
-until the line just touches pulley <i>B</i>'s rim at <i>B</i><sup>2</sup>. When
-the line so touches&mdash;and it must just barely touch or
-the measurement is worthless&mdash;<i>A</i><sup>1</sup> and <i>A</i><sup>2</sup> of pulley <i>A</i>
-must be just touched by or (if <i>B</i> and <i>A</i> are not of a like
-face width, as in Fig. 32) equidistant from the line.</p>
-
-<p>A single, two-hanger-supported length of shafting
-thus lined is bound to be in parallel; but where the so
-adjusted shaft line consists of two or more coupling-joined
-lengths supported by more than two hangers,
-only pulley <i>A</i>'s supporting portion of the shaft between
-its immediate supporting hangers 1 and 2 is sure to be
-lined; the rest may be more or less out.</p>
-
-<p>To make a perfect job, fix a string in parallel with
-shaft length 1 and 2, stretching along the entire length
-of the adjusted shaft, and aline the rest of the shaft
-length to it.</p>
-
-<p>When there are no pulleys in place to go by, or when,
-as occasionally happens, the wabbly motion of pulley
-<i>B</i> (when running) indicates that, having been inaccurately
-bored or bushed, or being located on a sprung
-shaft length, its rim line is not at right angles to the
-shaft line, the method shown in Fig. 33 can be resorted
-to.</p>
-
-<p>Instead of the nail used in methods 1 and 2, use a
-board about 8 to 12 inches long and of a width equal
-to considerably more than half of shaft <i>B</i>'s diameter.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span>
-By nailing this board <i>x</i> to the measuring rod <i>c</i> at any
-suitable angle, you will be enabled to reach from the
-end <i>a</i> well into the shaft <i>B</i>, as at <i>b</i>, and from <i>b′</i> well into
-<i>A</i>, as <i>a′</i>. By keeping the board <i>x</i> along its entire length
-in full contact with the shaft <i>B</i> at both 1 and 2, the
-angular position of rod <i>C</i> is bound to be the same in
-both instances, and you will thus (by the use of a square,
-as in Fig. 31) be enabled to aline <i>A</i> parallel with <i>B</i>.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/fig30.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 33.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>In all instances of parallel adjustment here cited it
-is assumed that both the alined and the alined-to
-shafts have been, as to secure accuracy of result they
-must be, properly leveled before starting to aline.</p>
-
-<p>The above methods apply to cases where the shafting
-is already in place. Where, however, shafting is being
-newly installed before the work can be proceeded with,
-it is necessary, after determining on the location for the
-shafting, to get a line on the ceiling in parallel with the
-driving shaft to which to work to. Mark that point <i>A</i>
-which you intend to be the center line for the proposed
-shafting upon the ceiling (Fig. 34).</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>Rest your measuring rod upon the driving shaft and
-at right angles to it, with the nail against it. Hold your
-square with the stock below and the tongue against the
-side of the measuring stick, so that its tongue extremity
-touches the ceiling mark <i>A</i>, and then mark a line on the
-rod along the tongue side <i>A</i>. Move your rod along
-the driving shaft to the point where the other end of
-the proposed shafting line is to be, and, squaring your
-stick to the driving shaft with the tongue side <i>A</i> on the
-marked line of the stick, mark your section point on the
-ceiling. Draw a line or stretch a string between these
-points, and you have a true parallel to work to.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/fig31.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 34.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Owing to the supporting timber <i>B</i>'s interference, a
-square had to be used; but where the ceiling is clear
-the rod can be cut to proper length or the nail be so
-located as to allow of using the stick extremity <i>C</i> for a
-marking point.</p>
-
-<p>When a pulley is handily situated on the driving
-shaft, the method shown in Fig. 35 can be used to
-advantage.</p>
-
-<p>Let somebody hold one end of a line at 1, and when
-you have got its other end so located on the ceiling
-that the line just touches the pulley rim at 2, mark that
-ceiling point (we will call it 3). In the same way get
-your marks 4 and 5, each farther back than the other<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span>
-and, for the better assurance of accuracy, as to just
-touching at 2, remove and readjust the line separately
-each time. If now a straight line from 3 to 5 cuts 4,
-your line 3, 4, 5 is at right angles to the driving shaft and
-a line at right angles to this will be parallel to the shaft.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/fig32.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 35.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The plumb-bob method is so familiar and, where not
-familiar, so easily thought out in its various applications,
-that we deem it useless to touch upon it.</p>
-
-<p>The stringers or supporting timbers of drop hangers
-should be equal in thickness to about one-fifth of the
-hanger drop.</p>
-
-<p>Where the stringers run with the hangers and crosswise
-of the shaft, both feet of a hanger base are bolted to
-the same stringer, and this should be from 1¼ to 1½
-times the width of the widest portion of the hanger base.
-As the hanger is securely bolted to its stringer, this
-extra width is in effect an enlargement of the hanger
-base, and thus enables it the better to assist the shaft's
-end motion.</p>
-
-<p>Where the stringers run with the shaft and crosswise
-of the hangers, the two feet of the hanger base are
-each fastened to a separate timber, and these should<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span>
-be equal in width to the length of one hanger foot, plus
-twice the amount of adjustment (if there be any) the
-hanger's supporting bolt slots will allow it. In reckoning
-hanger adjustment, be sure to figure in the bolt's
-diameter and to bear in mind that to get the utmost
-adjustment for the countershaft the bolts should
-originally be centered in the slot; thus a <span class="fnum">13</span>/<span class="fden">16</span> × 1½-inch
-slot, as it calls for a ¾-inch bolt, leaves a ¾-inch play,
-and this play, with the bolt in the center of the slot,
-allows of <span class="fnum">3</span>/<span class="fden">8</span>-inch adjustment either way. Without this
-extra width addition any lateral adjustment of the
-hanger would result in leaving a part of the hanger's
-feet without stringer support. Such jobs look poorly,
-and often run still more poorly. Fig. 36, in its two
-views, will make the above points clear.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<a id="fig33" href="images/fig33big.jpg">
-<img src="images/fig33.jpg" alt="" />
-</a>
-<p class="caption center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 36.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>In the stringing of countershafts whose hangers
-have no adjustment it often happens, despite all care<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span>
-in the laying out, that they come <span class="fnum">1</span>/<span class="fden">8</span> to ¼ inch out of parallel.
-A very common and likewise very dangerous practice
-at such times is to substitute a smaller diameter
-supporting bolt instead of the larger size for which the
-hanger foot is cored or drilled, and to make use of the
-play so gained for adjustment.</p>
-
-<p>That shafting so carried does not come down oftener
-than it does is due solely to the foresight of the hanger
-manufacturers. They, in figuring the supporting bolt's
-diameter as against the strain and load to be sustained,
-are careful to provide an ample safety margin for overload,
-thus enabling the bolt substituted to just barely
-come within the safety limit under easy working conditions.</p>
-
-<p>The largest-sized bolt that a hanger will easily admit
-should invariably be used, and for alinement purposes
-either of the following slower but safer methods should
-be used.</p>
-
-<p>Rebore the hanger-supporting bolt holes in the
-stringers to a larger size, and use the play so gained for
-adjustment. It is not advisable, however, to rebore
-these holes any larger than to one and three-quarter
-times the diameter of the bolt to be used; and the
-diameter of the washers to be used on top of the
-stringers should be diametrically equal to at least
-twice the size of the rebored holes. That the washers
-used, under such conditions, must be of a good proportionate
-thickness goes without saying.</p>
-
-<p>When the reboring method cannot be used&mdash;as
-when the hangers are carried by lag screws, lag-bolts,
-bolts screwed directly into supporting iron girders,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span>
-etc.&mdash;it is evident that hanger adjustment can be
-secured by packing down one foot of the hanger base,
-as shown in Fig. 37.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/fig34.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 37.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The piece of packing (necessarily wedge-shaped)
-between the hanger foot <i>B</i> and the stringer <i>A</i> tilts
-the bottom of the hanger forward. The size of the
-wedge regulates the amount of adjustment. Wedge-shaped
-space <i>D</i>, at foot <i>C</i>, should also be packed out
-so as to avoid throwing undue strain upon <i>C</i>'s extremity
-<i>c</i>. If now, the foot <i>c</i> of the countershaft's
-other supporting hanger (No. 2) be similarly and equally
-packed, as <i>B</i> of No. 1 hanger, the shaft will have been
-thrown forward at one end and back at the other, and
-thus into line. The equal division of the adjusting
-wedge packing between the opposite feet of the two
-hangers enables a limited packing to do considerable
-adjusting without any undue marring effect; and,
-further, insures the shaft's remaining level, which evi<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span>dently
-would not be the case if only one hanger were
-packed down.</p>
-
-<p>After so adjusting, be sure to get your hangers
-squarely crosswise of the shaft as readjusted, so that
-the hanger bearings will lie in a true line with the shaft
-and not bind it. At all times be sure to have your
-hangers hang or stand plumb up and down; as, if the
-bearings are not so pivoted as to be horizontally self-adjusting,
-excessive friction will be the lot of one end
-of the bearing with not even contact for the rest of it.
-The bearing being self-adjusting all ways, square
-crossing of the shaft line by the hanger line and plumb
-still remain eminently desirable for appearance's sake.</p>
-
-<p>Before a countershaft can be put up on a ceiling
-whose supporting timbers are boarded over, or in a
-modern fireproof structure whose girders and beams
-are so bricked and plastered in as not to show, it is
-necessary to positively locate those of them which
-are to carry the stringers.</p>
-
-<p>It is in the earnest endeavor to properly locate these
-that the unaccustomed hand turns a wood ceiling into
-a sieve and a brick one into a wreck. To avoid kitchen
-and house razing effects, try the following recipe:</p>
-
-<p>We will assume that line <i>A B</i>, Fig. 38, laid out by
-one of the methods previously described, is the center
-line of the proposed countershaft. The hanger's base
-length, lateral adjustment and individual foot length
-call for stringers 4¾ inches wide, placed 5¼ inches apart
-or 14¾ inches outside (as per sketch). The floor position
-of the machine to be driven, or the driving point of the
-main shaft, is so located with reference to the counter<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span>shaft
-that one of the supporting hangers must go at or
-very near <i>C</i>, and the countershaft's length brings the
-other hanger at or very near <i>D</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Now between points <i>C D</i> and with due reference to
-the center line <i>A B</i>, lay out the position which your
-stringers are to occupy. It is self-evident that by
-confining your beam prospecting to the stringer
-spaces <i>E</i> and <i>F</i>, ultimately, when the countershaft is
-in place, all the cut-up portions of the ceiling will be
-hidden from view.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/fig35.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 38.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Generally the necessary supporting beams will not
-all be found within the shaft's length distance <i>C D</i>;
-in such cases continue your cutting in the same parallel
-line to <i>A B</i>, as at <i>E</i> or <i>F</i>, going from <i>C D</i> outwardly
-until you strike the sought-for beams. Having located
-beams, say 1 and 2, we find by measurement that they
-are 5 feet apart, and, as beams are generally uniformly
-spaced, we may start 4 feet 6 inches (go 4 feet 6 inches
-and not 5 feet, to make sure not to skip beam 3 and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span>
-thus make a cut that will not be covered by the stringers)
-from 1 to cut outwardly for the location of beam 3.</p>
-
-<p>Where the building's beams run parallel to the
-shaft, Fig. 39, mark the counter's-center line <i>A B</i>, and
-then mark the spaces&mdash;as determined by the countershaft
-length, floor position of the driven machine or the
-driving point on the main shaft&mdash;to be occupied by
-the stringers <i>C D</i>, and, starting from the center line
-<i>A B</i>, cut outwardly each way to the desired beams
-1 and 2.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/fig36.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 39.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Where the center line as laid out (before the position
-of the ceiling beams was known) brings it close to or
-directly under a supporting beam, it is generally
-advisable where possible to step the counter back or
-forward to a central position between the beams.</p>
-
-<p>Where shafting is already in place in a building, no
-matter on what floor, valuable measurements as to
-beam location can thus be had from the plainly in sight
-and the reasonably deducible. Lacking in-place-shafting
-to go by, the walls, columns and main girders always
-clearly indicate the crosswise or parallel run of the
-ceiling beams to the proposed shafting line.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>In the usual method of locating the timbers of a
-boarded-over ceiling, a brace and bit, or a nail, can be
-used for the purpose. If shy of an awl, and in preference
-the other two ways, force or drive a chisel (cold chisel
-or wood) in between a tongue and groove of the ceiling
-boards in stringer space (Fig. 38) <i>E</i> or <i>F</i>, and thus
-spring the boards sufficiently apart to insert a compass
-saw. With the extremity of a 12-inch saw a very little
-cutting (along the tongue and groove, as this shows
-least) will enable you to locate a beam, since they
-generally run 8, 12, 16, 20, 24 and 30 inches apart.</p>
-
-<p>Always, on locating your beam, run the point of
-your compass saw down the whole of the timber's
-width, so that any nailed-on pieces will not lead you
-into a false estimate of the beam's thickness.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/fig37.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 40...........Fig 41.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Figs. 40 and 41 make this point and its object clear.
-The saw, in Fig. 40, being stopped by <i>A</i>, naturally
-leads to the inference that <i>A B</i> is the timber's thickness.
-By running down the timber, as in Fig. 41, the saw's
-point sticking at <i>a</i> acts as a sure detector. This precaution
-should be taken on both sides (<i>B</i> and <i>A</i>) of
-the timber, and then, when the lags are screwed in,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span>
-they can be sent home safe and true in the center of the
-timber.</p>
-
-<p>It often happens that in boring for the lag screws
-the bit strikes a nail and further progress at that point
-seems out of the question. When so situated, take your
-bit out, and running the lag screw up as far as it will go,
-by sheer force swing it three or four turns up further
-than the point where your bit struck. Removing the
-lag and replacing the bit, it will be found that the nail
-has been forced aside and the way is now clear.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/fig38.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 42.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Hook bolts (Fig. 42) or&mdash;as our across-the-sea
-cousins call them&mdash;"elbow bolts," despite all assertions
-to the contrary, are an easy, safe and economical
-stringer fastener or suspending device.</p>
-
-<p>Figs. 43 and 44 illustrate two very common abuses
-of the hook bolt. In the one (Fig. 43), instead of the
-bolt proper lying snug up against the beam flange with
-the whole of its hook resting squarely upon the beam's
-flange, its supporting countershaft is turned into a
-menace to limb and life by this "chance it" kind of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span>
-erection. In the other (Fig. 44), though the bolts
-do lie snug against the flange, the hook being out of
-sight and no means being provided for telling whether
-the hook lies, as it should, at right angles to the web
-of the beam, even if properly placed at installation,
-timber shrinkage, vibration or a slight turn of the bolt
-when tightening the nut, all constitute dangerous
-factors tending to loosen or entirely loosen the hook's
-grip upon the beam flange.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/fig39.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 43.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/fig40.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 44.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Fig. 43 suggests its own remedy. As to Fig. 44, a
-screwdriver slot (made by a hacksaw) at the nut end
-of the hook bolt and running in the same direction as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span>
-the hook, Fig. 45, will at all times serve to indicate the
-hook's position and, allowing as it does of a combined
-use of screwdriver and wrench, it can be used to prevent
-the bolt's turning when being tightened.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/fig41.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 45............Fig. 46.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Where two or more hook bolts are placed close together
-on the same beam flange, a plate, preferably
-wrought iron with properly spaced confining pins for
-the hooks, may be placed between the beam flange and
-the hooks as in Fig. 46. Its benefits are obvious and
-so likewise is the use of a small, square, wrought-iron
-plate with a bolt hole through its center instead of
-hook bolts.</p>
-
-<p>The various styles of beam clamps carried by the
-hardware and supply trade all have their good points,
-and though the <i>C</i> of their cost may seem to loom large,
-it is not a whit more emphatic, taken all in all, than
-the <i>W</i> of their worth.</p>
-
-<hr class="r5" />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span></p>
-
-
-
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p class="ph2">IV</p></div>
-
-<h2 class="nobreak">TRUING UP LINE SHAFTING</h2>
-
-
-<p><span class="smcap">It</span> is assumed, for the purposes of this description,
-that the modern style of shafting, increasing in diameter
-by the ½ inch, is used, and that all pulleys and belts
-are in place. We will take a line composed of sizes
-ranging between <span class="nowrap">3 <span class="fnum">15</span>/<span class="fden">16</span></span> and <span class="nowrap">2 <span class="fnum">7</span>/<span class="fden">16</span></span> inches. This gives us
-four sizes, <span class="nowrap">3 <span class="fnum">15</span>/<span class="fden">16</span></span>, <span class="nowrap">3 <span class="fnum">7</span>/<span class="fden">16</span></span>, <span class="nowrap">2 <span class="fnum">15</span>/<span class="fden">16</span></span> and <span class="nowrap">2 <span class="fnum">7</span>/<span class="fden">16</span></span> inches in the line.</p>
-
-<p>We will first consider the plumb-bob. The accompanying
-sketch, Fig. 47, illustrates a good one.</p>
-
-<p>The ball is 1½ inches diameter, and the large end of
-the tapered stem ½ inch in diameter, turned parallel
-for a short distance at the lower end. The two thin
-sheet-steel disks, 1 and 2 inches in diameter, are drilled
-to fit snugly when pushed on to the ½-inch part of the
-stem, and stay there until pulled off. These disks
-are turned true. This arrangement of plumb-bob and
-disks enables us to deal with five sizes on one line, and
-there are not many lines that contain more.</p>
-
-<p>Now having our plumb-bob ready, we will stretch
-the line. The stretchers should be set horizontally
-by nailing a strip of wood, say 1 × 1½ × 12 inches, with
-a piece at each end to form a space between it and
-the wall, or place of location in line with the edge of the
-shaft, as in Fig. 48. The top of this stretcher should<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span>
-be low enough to clear the largest pulley, and high
-enough to clear the hat of your tallest man. You
-would perhaps find it convenient to go between the
-spokes of a large pulley.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/fig42.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 47.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Now having located your stretcher, find approximately
-the position of your line, and drive a nail a
-foot or more below it in a vertical line, and another nail
-anywhere for convenient winding. The advantage
-of this plan is that the line can be easily adjusted as it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span>
-merely passes over the stretcher, and is free to respond
-to movement either way; then when the final adjustment
-is made, and is ready for its final stretch, it is
-only necessary to pinch the line to the nail with one
-hand, while the other is at liberty to unwind, stretch
-and rewind the line without fear of its shifting.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/fig43.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 48.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The line being adjusted over the stretchers, we will
-now proceed to set it. Begin at the <span class="nowrap">2 <span class="fnum">7</span>/<span class="fden">16</span></span>-inch end, by
-throwing your plumb line over the shaft and setting
-your line at that end, right with the <i>center point</i> of your
-bob. Having done so, go to the other or <span class="nowrap">3 <span class="fnum">15</span>/<span class="fden">16</span></span> end of
-your line, and set the line so that the edge of the <i>ball</i>
-of your bob just touches it. Now go back to the <span class="nowrap">2 <span class="fnum">7</span>/<span class="fden">16</span></span>
-end and see that the necessary adjustment did not alter
-it. Having proved this, give your line the final stretch
-and try if it is right at both ends. You now have a
-center line (though the edge instead of the center of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span>
-shaft is used) that may remain up for days if necessary
-without fear of disturbance.</p>
-
-<p>It is best to go over the whole line first, before disturbing
-anything; so starting at the first hanger at the
-<span class="nowrap">2 <span class="fnum">7</span>/<span class="fden">16</span></span>-inch end, throw your plumb line over the shaft,
-and record on the floor in chalk beneath it whether it
-is O. K. or wants to go either way, and how much;
-then go to the next hanger, and so on to the end. A
-short study of the conditions enables one to correct
-the faults, with a knowledge of the requirements, and
-consequently in the least time and with the least
-trouble.</p>
-
-<p>Now suppose we start at the <span class="nowrap">2 <span class="fnum">7</span>/<span class="fden">16</span></span>-inch end to inspect
-the line, we use the center point of the bob on the line
-so long as we are testing <span class="nowrap">2 <span class="fnum">7</span>/<span class="fden">16</span></span> inches.</p>
-
-<p>When we get to the <span class="nowrap">2 <span class="fnum">15</span>/<span class="fden">16</span></span>-inch part, which is ½ inch
-larger, we use the half diameter of the stem, the edge
-of which should just touch the line.</p>
-
-<p>When we come to the <span class="nowrap">3 <span class="fnum">7</span>/<span class="fden">16</span></span>-inch part, 1 inch larger
-than <span class="nowrap">2 <span class="fnum">7</span>/<span class="fden">16</span></span>, we use the 1-inch disk, slip it on to the stem,
-and when it just touches the line with its edge it is
-O. K.</p>
-
-<p>The <span class="nowrap">3 <span class="fnum">15</span>/<span class="fden">16</span></span>-inch, being 1½ inches larger than the <span class="nowrap">2 <span class="fnum">7</span>/<span class="fden">16</span></span>-inch,
-will be right when the ball of the bob is in light contact
-with the line.</p>
-
-<p>The 2-inch disk would be suitable for the next size,
-and other disks or modifications of the bob proper
-might be made to suit circumstances.</p>
-
-<p>Now having straightened the line, the next process
-is to level it. As in some cases your pulleys will be
-too close to place your level where you want, make a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span>
-light iron frame as per Fig. 49, making the suspending
-members of sufficient length to admit of your reading
-the level conveniently when standing on the floor.
-Hang your frame on the shaft, and put your level on
-the straight-edge below; in this way travel along the
-shaft, placing your frame where convenient. Be sure
-that one end of your frame does not rest on a shaft
-of different diameter, a key, keyseat, or anything to
-distort the reading.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/fig44.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 49.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Never be content with trying your level, especially
-an adjusting level, one way; always reverse it and try
-again; for if it is out of truth at the start, you might
-want to go through the roof or down cellar at the finish.
-Get into a habit of reversing your level, and so prove
-your work as you proceed.</p>
-
-<hr class="r5" />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span></p>
-
-
-
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p class="ph2">V</p></div>
-
-<h2 class="nobreak">APPARATUS FOR LEVELING AND<br />
-LINING SHAFTING</h2>
-
-
-<p><span class="smcap">The</span> first apparatus explained in this chapter was
-designed by the late Chas. A. Bauer, and is a highly
-perfected instrument.</p>
-
-<p>For those who have lined and leveled shafting with
-an engineer's transit and level it is unnecessary to
-say anything of the advantages of that method over
-the cruder methods usually employed. It is not only
-done much more rapidly and economically, but the
-greater accuracy with which the work is done goes on
-paying dividends in decreased friction and loss of power
-and in lessening of wear.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/fig45.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 50.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The apparatus we now illustrate (Fig. 50) has at
-the top a hook, which is passed over the shaft, as indicated;
-on the straight portion of this hook are two
-sliding jaws which are so set that the shaft will just
-pass between them. Set into the face of this hook is
-a commercial 6-inch steel rule which facilitates the
-setting of the jaws, and they are of course so set that
-the tubular portion of the hook or leveling rod is centered
-vertically under the shaft. Within the outer tube,
-which is about 1 inch outside diameter and nicely
-japanned, is another tube, and inside this a third tube,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a><br /><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span>
-these being arranged <i>à la</i> telescope slide, and clamps
-being provided so that the length or distance from the
-shafting to the target may be anything desired from
-4 to about 10 feet. At the lower end of the third or
-inner tube is a swiveling head to which the target is
-attached, and nurled nuts at this point give means of
-adjusting the sighting point of the target to the exact
-hight of the transit or level sighting line.</p>
-
-<p>The target is a brass plate 5½ inches diameter, on the
-face of which is a recess milled for the reception of a
-second commercial steel rule, which in this case is
-vertical and can be moved vertically and clamped in
-any desired position with reference to a line drawn upon
-the target. At the center of this scale is a very small
-hole through which the light of a hand flash lamp may
-shine to form the sighting point. The slot through the
-target at the right of the scale is provided with a single
-thickness of white cloth, which permits enough light
-to pass through it to help in finding the target in the
-field of the telescope.</p>
-
-<p>The object of providing a vertical adjustment for
-the rule on the target is so that when passing from one
-diameter of shafting to another in the same line, as
-sometimes happens, the scale can be moved up or down
-just half the difference of diameter and the sighting
-point thus be kept at a constant hight.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/fig46.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 51.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The target is readily detached from the rod, and may
-then be placed upon the small standard (Fig. 51) which
-has at its base a V adapted to go over the shaft. The
-standard is tubular and the wire (about <span class="fnum">1</span>/<span class="fden">8</span> inch diameter)
-may be adjusted and clamped at the desired hight. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a><br /><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span>
-target fits over the wire as shown (rear view of target)
-for leveling lines of shafting that may be near the floor,
-or, with the target removed, the V and wire form
-a sort of length gage or caliper with which the shaft
-may be made parallel to a line or wire stretched at the
-side of it. Two different lengths of wire are provided
-for this purpose.</p>
-
-<p>The plumb-bob shown is part of the equipment and
-is a very superior article. A new feature it possesses
-is in having its larger portion hexagonal instead of
-round, so when laid down upon a plank or scaffolding
-it will lie there instead of promptly rolling off and
-falling to the floor. The entire apparatus is, we think,
-very well designed for its purpose.</p>
-
-
-<p class="c large"><span class="smcap">Tool for Leveling Shafting</span></p>
-
-<p>The instrument shown in Fig. 52 is a good one for use
-in leveling up shafting. It can be made to fit several
-sizes of shaft, or all the sizes ordinarily found in a factory.</p>
-
-<p>When the instrument is placed on any piece of shaft
-and leveled up with the attached level, the plumb
-line will hang exactly the same distance from the
-shaft center every time. In this case the distance
-of line from center is 6 inches.</p>
-
-<p>A handy apparatus for use in leveling up long lines
-of shaft can be made as follows.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/fig47.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 52.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/fig48.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 53.......Fig. 54</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Take two pieces of finished material, fasten together
-as in Fig. 53 and cut out as shown at <i>A</i> and <i>B</i> in Fig.
-54. The opening <i>A</i> is made so that the piece can be
-hung over the shaft, and the opening <i>B</i> is made for
-the reception of a wooden straight-edge.</p>
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span></p>
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>Make the straight-edge out of 1¼-inch stuff. Be
-sure that the edges are parallel, the width just enough
-less than the width of opening <i>B</i>, Fig. 55, to enter it,
-and the length 6 or 8 feet, to suit convenience. Use
-the apparatus with a level, as in Fig. 55, taking care
-that the suspension pieces are always on the same size
-shaft.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/fig49.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 55.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<hr class="r5" />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span></p>
-
-
-
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p class="ph2">VI</p></div>
-
-<h2 class="nobreak" title="SOME PRACTICAL KINKS">SOME PRACTICAL KINKS<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a></h2>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/fig50.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 56.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">A pulley</span> on one of the motors at a certain plant
-had been giving some trouble by becoming loose and
-working its way along the shaft toward the motor
-bearing. Each time the pulley became loose, the set-screw
-was loosened, the pulley put back in position,
-the set-screw made tight and the motor started. After
-a few trials it was found that this would not prevent
-the pulley from working its way along the shaft. In
-order to overcome this difficulty the pulley was placed
-in its proper position, a line was drawn around the
-shaft close to the hub and, after the line was scribed,
-the pulley was removed and the shaft was burred upon
-the line as shown at <i>B</i>, Fig. 56. The pulley was then
-put back and driven close up to the burred line, the
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span>set-screw made tight and the pulley is now running
-without any apparent tendency to travel from its
-proper position. It will be seen that the position of the
-set-screw as indicated by the line at <i>A</i> is a poor one
-and calculated to give plenty of trouble at the most
-inopportune time.</p>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> Contributed to Power by Wm. Kavanagh.</p></div>
-
-<p>Not long ago a cast-iron pulley had to move along a
-countershaft in order to make room for a pulley of
-another diameter. The pulley had not been on the
-shaft long, so it was thought that little work would be
-required to move it. A heavy bar was placed against
-the hub and a sledge hammer was used to strike the
-bar. After an hour and a half of heavy work the pulley
-was not moved over 1 inch (it had to be moved 16
-inches), so it was suggested that a Bunsen burner be
-attached to a gas pipe by means of a hose and placed
-beneath the hub. The plan was immediately adopted.
-The burner was placed beneath the hub, the gas lit
-and allowed to heat the hub. After about twenty-five
-minutes it was found that a blow from the bar was sufficient
-to move the pulley. The pulley was moved the
-16 inches inside of twenty minutes.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/fig51.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 57.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>A very handy arrangement for moving pulleys is
-a bolt and nut. Fig. 57 shows the bolt and nut with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span>
-a piece of pipe attached. A piece of pipe can be cut to
-suit the distance between the nut and hub of one pulley
-while the bolt head is against the other hub. The nut
-is screwed back upon the bolt as far as possible. A
-washer is then placed against the nut, and a piece of
-pipe cut to suit. Of course, the pipe must be large
-enough in diameter to fit over the bolt. If we screw
-back upon the nut, a powerful strain can be brought
-to bear between the hubs and in all probability the
-pulley will move.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/fig52.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 58.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>In taking down solid pulleys from main or counter
-shafting it sometimes happens that a hanger must be
-removed to permit the pulley to be taken off. A first-rate
-plan is to make a couple of long bolts hooked at
-the end as shown in Fig 58; pass the hook around the
-shaft and the threaded end through a hole in the
-stringer. By screwing up the nut as shown, the shaft<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span>
-and remaining pulleys can be kept in position, obviating
-the use of tackle, not to mention the labor required to
-hoist back the shaft into position. The application
-of this contrivance is especially valuable where heavy
-cone pulleys are required to be lowered or changed.
-It will be seen that if we employ a pipe thread we will
-be enabled to suit almost any condition of length that
-may arise between the shaft and stringer.</p>
-
-<hr class="r5" />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span></p>
-
-
-
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p class="ph2">VII</p></div>
-
-<h2 class="nobreak">PRACTICAL METHODS OF LOOSENING<br />
-PULLEYS</h2>
-
-
-<p><span class="smcap">When</span> a solid pulley is to be removed from a piece
-of shaft for any reason, it is not good policy to use
-sledge hammers on the spokes or hub to do it. Cast
-iron in pulleys is too liable to break or crack under
-repeated blows.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/fig53.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 59.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>In Fig. 59 one ready method is illustrated by which
-the pulley may be removed. When a place between
-two walls can be found that will admit of this arrangement,
-proceed as shown to force the shaft through
-the pulley, substituting longer pieces of pipe as the
-shaft is forced through farther.</p>
-
-<p>In one case where a large pulley was stuck on a 7-inch
-shaft and its removal was imperative, the shaft was
-sawed off (with large hack-saws) close up to the pulley
-hub and two <span class="fnum">5</span>/<span class="fden">8</span>-inch holes were drilled into the shaft
-parallel to its axis, as shown in Fig. 60. These holes
-were drilled so that they were 90 degrees apart and
-came within <span class="fnum">1</span>/<span class="fden">16</span>-inch of the hub of the pulley. The
-hub was 14 inches through and these holes were 8 inches
-deep; but that was enough to loosen up the shaft
-so that when the pulley was laid over on beams with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a><br /><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span>
-the shaft hanging through, a sledge hammer applied
-on the shaft end soon drove it out.</p>
-
-<p>Another way to remove a pulley is shown in Fig. 61,
-where a ram is used. The ram is another piece of
-old shaft. To prevent its damaging the pulley hub
-and also to have its force applied most advantageously,
-it should be used in a direct line with the direction
-of removal. To do this, the method shown in Fig. 61
-is self-explanatory.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/fig54.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 60.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Another good method of removing an obdurate
-pulley is illustrated in Fig. 62, where the bolts <i>W</i>, <i>W</i>
-must have long threads and the work is done by pulling
-up on the nuts <i>A</i>, <i>A</i>. This method can be used only
-when the end of the shaft can be reached and used as
-shown. In using this method, care must be exercised
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a><br /><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a><br /><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span>in the pulling up on the bolts <i>W</i>, <i>W</i>, keeping the strain
-equally divided between the two by pulling a little
-at a time on each.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/fig55.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 61.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<a id="fig56" href="images/fig56big.jpg">
-<img src="images/fig56.jpg" alt="" />
-</a>
-<p class="caption center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 62.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>If the pulley comes extra hard, it can be assisted
-when the strain is on the bolts by striking at <i>X</i> with
-a sledge.</p>
-
-<p>A good device for removing motor and generator
-pulleys that are near the shaft end is shown in Fig. 63.
-The arms <i>Z</i>, <i>Z</i> are adjustable to take hold of hub or
-arms, and the screw applied to the shaft center will do
-the rest.</p>
-
-<p>To run a pulley off a shaft without injury to the
-hands, use a monkey wrench on the rim of each pulley,
-as shown in Fig. 64. One pulley on the shaft can be
-selected for a hold-back; one monkey wrench there
-will hold the shaft from turning, while the other will
-turn around the shaft the pulley which it is intended
-to remove.</p>
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/fig57.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 63.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/fig58.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 64.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<hr class="r5" />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span></p>
-
-
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p class="ph2">VIII</p></div>
-
-<h2 class="nobreak" title="SPLICING LEATHER BELTS">SPLICING LEATHER BELTS<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a></h2>
-
-
-<p><span class="smcap">The</span> first thing is the tools for the different kinds of
-work. These may be usually changed somewhat to
-suit the taste of the user, but in the main the style
-and kind herein shown in attached drawings cannot
-be very much improved upon.</p>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> Contributed to Power by Walter E. Dixon, M. E.</p></div>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/fig59.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 65........Fig. 66.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Figs. 65 and 66 show a splice opener for heavy belts.
-It is made of ½-inch tool steel with the point spread out
-about 2 inches wide and well tempered, after which it
-is ground to a good sharp edge, and then an oil stone
-run over the edge until it has been dulled so that it will
-not cut. The right kind of an edge can only be secured
-by trying; it is one of the tools that is very hard to
-get just right. You will notice that the manner in
-which this splitter is built may seem to be rather too
-much work to bestow on such a simple tool, but the
-reasons for so doing are as follows: in opening a 36-inch
-belt an old splice opener that was driven into
-the handle like an ordinary file was used and the
-handle split; that sharp point came back through the
-handle, and when it finally stopped it had gone about
-2 inches into the palm of the operator's hand. Some
-½-inch hexagon steel was turned down 6 inches, just<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a><br /><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span>
-enough to round it up; then a solid brass washer was
-turned out 1¼ inches in diameter and 1 inch thick,
-a hole bored through it that was a driving fit on the
-piece of steel and was driven down to the shoulder.
-Washers were cut out of old pieces of belt and put on
-with a liberal coat of glue on both sides; when the
-handle was filled, a steel washer which was <span class="fnum">1</span>/<span class="fden">2</span> inch
-thick was screwed down hard on the leather washers,
-and when it had dried well the whole was turned down
-to size shown in the sketch. Two of these tools were
-made, one for belts up to 18 inches, and another that
-will reach through a 40-inch belt. The tool shown in
-Fig. 67 is an ordinary heavy screwdriver with the point
-rounded nicely, and it is used to raise the thin points
-that the larger tool will sometimes tear.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/fig60.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 67.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/fig61.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 68.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Fig. 68 shows a handle made almost like the one in
-Fig. 65, with the exception that the brass washer
-referred to in Fig. 65 is here turned down to ¾ inch,
-commencing ½ inch from the large end, which is 1 inch
-in diameter. The leather washers are slipped on over
-the small part until it is filled, and then a washer is
-screwed on the small end and the whole turned as shown<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span>
-in the sketch. A hole that will tap out <span class="fnum">3</span>/<span class="fden">8</span> inch is bored
-in the large end of the brass center, and then tools
-made with threaded ends on them that will fit into it.
-These tools are made of <span class="fnum">3</span>/<span class="fden">8</span>-inch tool steel with scraping
-ends, as shown. These scrapers are used only for
-removing glue that is too hard and too thick to be
-removed by the scraper shown in Fig. 69.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/fig62.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 69......Fig. 69</span>a......<span class="smcap">Fig. 69</span>b.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Figs. 69, 69a and 69b show views of the only tool
-that is hardly worth being referred to as a leather-cutting
-tool. It is made of a thin piece of steel, about 18
-gage, or any old hand-saw will make the very best
-scrapers that can be secured. They should be about
-4 inches square, perhaps a little smaller, and fixed in a
-hardwood handle (usually of hard maple), simply by
-sawing about 2½ inches into the handle and then driving
-the blade in. The saw cut should be just a trifle thinner
-than the piece of steel. Should they get loose from use,
-a piece of paper folded over the back of the blade and
-forced back into the handle with the blade will usually
-tighten it all right.</p>
-
-<p>This is the tool that will ordinarily worry the novice
-more than all the rest to keep in proper condition.
-Fig. 70 shows an exaggerated view of how the blade<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span>
-should look when properly finished. It should be
-hooked considerably.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/fig63.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 70.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Fig. 71 shows a small steel for sharpening the scraper
-after it is turned, and it should be absolutely smooth.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/fig64.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 71.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/fig65.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 72.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Fig. 72 shows the equipment for turning the edge
-of the scrapers. A large three-cornered file, about 12
-inches long, which has all the teeth ground carefully
-off of it and then nicely polished, is fastened to a piece
-of good clean belt leather by means of the staples
-shown.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/fig66.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 73.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Fig. 73 shows the method employed in turning the
-edge of the scraper, which is as follows: After the blade
-has been set firmly in the handle, grind the edge rounding,
-as is shown in Fig. 69; then grind sharp with a good
-long taper of about <span class="fnum">3</span>/<span class="fden">8</span>, and grind from both sides just as
-you would an ordinary axe. After you have a good
-smooth edge on it, put it on an oil or water stone and
-put as fine an edge as possible on it, then put on a
-smooth piece of leather and hone it down until it
-would shave you. You will then have a tool that will
-do a world of work for you, "if you will turn it right."
-The method shown in Fig. 73, if properly carried out,
-will do the trick for you; the thing to be remembered
-is that at no time in the turning of the scraper must
-the cutting edge bear on the smooth file. The first
-position is not shown right; the handle should be
-allowed to touch the file the first few times it is passed
-over, and then gradually raise the handle and keep on
-passing the blade from side to side, as is shown in Fig.
-74; allowing it to slip off on the leather every time
-you cross the file; this is to keep the corners in proper
-shape. Another thing to remember is to bear down on
-the blade as it is passed over the file; you can't bear
-too hard; the only thing to look out for is not to raise<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span>
-the handle too fast. An ordinary blade can be turned
-in about fifty strokes across the file. The edge turned
-over should be at least <span class="fnum">1</span>/<span class="fden">16</span> inch long and should be
-well hooked, as is shown in Fig. 73.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/fig67.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 74.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>It is well to keep on hand about six of these scrapers,
-and as they get too dull to cut leather use them on glue.
-With one good scraper that is not too sharp all the glue
-can be cleaned off of both points of a 36-inch belt in
-from five to ten minutes. When the edge gets a trifle
-dull, use the small steel on both sides of the edge; first
-wet the steel with the lips, it makes a much better edge.
-For the benefit of beginners who may attempt to splice
-a belt for the first time, do not use a glue that will not
-allow you to remove the clamps and put on the full
-load in forty-five minutes after the glue has been
-applied and well rubbed down. The time given here
-applies only to clean belts that are absolutely free
-from all oils, and does not include old oil-soaked leather
-that no glue will ever dry on.</p>
-
-<p>Fig. 75 shows the equipment necessary to do a good,
-quick job on a belt, and most of them are required
-to be done quickly and well. With such an outfit and
-half-dozen sharp scrapers a joint in a 36-inch belt can<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span>
-be made and run again in four hours after the engine is
-stopped. This includes all the time consumed in putting
-on and taking off the clamps, etc.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/fig68.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 75.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The top of the platform, 76d, is level with the bottom
-of the belt and is held in position by the hooks, 76b,
-which are shown in Figs. 75 and 76. These hooks slip
-over the 2×4-inch pieces that project outside the platform
-to which they are attached, and should be made
-of three-quarter iron and not too long, or some difficulty
-may be experienced in getting them on the two-by-fours.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/fig69.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 76.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The rods should be long enough to take care of the
-longest possible splice and still give plenty of room to
-work. There should be about 2½ feet between the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span>
-inside ends of the threads and the threaded end should
-be 3 feet long. This will make the rod 8 feet 6 inches
-long, and it will be none too long at that. For instance,
-in removing the glue from the splice, if the last end
-point is very close to the clamp, there will be great
-difficulty in cleaning it and also in fitting the leather
-after the belt has been shortened. What is meant by
-the head end splice is the one that is on the pulley
-first&mdash;the arrows in Figs. 77 and 78 will make this
-clear: they indicate the direction in which the belt
-should run; therefore that end of the piece of leather
-that is on the pulley first is the head end (or first end)
-and the end that leaves the pulley last is the last end.
-If the two belts shown in the sketch were reversed,
-the points would be turned up by everything that
-touched them; whereas, running in the direction that
-they do, everything that touches them has a tendency
-to rub them down.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/fig70.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 77.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/fig71.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 78.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>We will suppose that the belt shown in Fig. 75 had
-a "first end" point that opened on the top of the belt
-instead of the bottom as this one does (see left-hand end
-of belt between the clamps, on the lower side); one
-can easily see how hard it would be to work if the clamp
-were near the point. There should always be enough<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span>
-room between the clamps to allow the splicer to take
-the last end (which is always the forked end), carry
-it entirely over the clamp toward the left in Fig. 75,
-lay it down on that part of the belt that is outside the
-clamp and slip an extra splicing board under it. Fasten
-the two belts and splicing board all together by means
-of a couple of 8-inch hand-screws (of which every belt
-splicer should have at least six or eight); then clean
-and shape it to suit the other end. It can be passed
-back over the clamp from time to time and tried for a
-fit.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/fig72.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 79.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The proper mode of procedure in splicing a belt on
-the pulleys is as follows: Decide on where the belt is
-to be opened, and always open it in the worst place
-in the belt for that is the place you certainly want to
-fix. Pay no attention whatever to any former splicing
-place that may be in the belt, but take it apart at any
-place where you are sure repairs are actually necessary.
-First put in the most convenient place possible the
-point that you have decided to open and then put the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span>
-clamps in position. If you are sure that it is going to
-require very hard pulling to get it as tight as you wish,
-take a damp cloth, moisten the inside of the clamps
-and then sprinkle powdered resin on both upper and
-lower clamp. Put the "first end" clamp on first, as
-this is always the easiest point to clean and fit; decide
-how much you will have to take out, or as near as
-possible, measure off this amount on the belt and place
-the clamp this distance plus about 10 inches from the
-"first end" point. This extra 10 inches will give
-you plenty of room to clean the glue off and also to
-shorten up the belt the right amount, for all the shortening
-must be done on the "first end" point on account
-of the ease with which the new scarf can be made.</p>
-
-<p>Should you try to shorten up from the "last end"
-point, by referring to Fig. 78, you can easily see the
-amount of work you would be in for. There would be
-two thin ends to scarf, and outside ends at that; whereas
-if you shorten up from the "first end" you make only
-one thin end and that one in the inside of the belt.</p>
-
-<p>The first clamp, with the center mark of the clamp
-coinciding with the center of the belt, should be very
-tight; for should it slip when the load is put on, it will
-very probably slip in the middle of the belt and may
-not slip on the edges at all. Should you glue it in this
-condition, the chances are very much in favor of the
-outside edges giving away on a heavy load, due to the
-middle being too long. After the first clamp is in
-position and tightened, put on the second one and
-leave the bolts loose, so that it can be slipped easily.
-Then put the belt rods in position with just a "full<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span>
-nut" on each end and tighten the clamp. Tighten the
-rods enough to take most of the load, then get the large
-splitter shown in Figs. 65 and 66 and open the joint.
-The place to commence is between <i>X X</i> in Fig. 75;
-this inclined point is about 4 inches long and must be
-opened at both ends of the splice before the middle is
-touched.</p>
-
-<p>The tool should be entered at <i>O</i>, in Fig. 78, and
-worked gradually toward <i>A</i>; when the point is raised
-to <i>A</i> clear across the belt, open on down to <i>C</i>. After
-both ends of the splice have been opened up in this way,
-proceed to open the middle, which is now an easy task,
-there being no thin stock that a separating tool will
-pass through easily. After the belt is entirely apart
-tighten up on the rods until the belt is the proper
-tension and hang the hooks (76b, Fig. 75) on the belt
-rods. Throw the two ends of the belt back over the
-clamp and put the splicing board in position. After
-this is in place, throw the two ends of the belt back on
-the board and proceed to lay off the scarfs. To do
-this, first take a square and get the two thin points
-perfectly square, then put the "first end" point in
-between them. This is shown very clearly in Fig. 77,
-the shaded end being the last end. Of course the "first
-end" point at <i>C</i>, Fig. 77, will have to be cut off before
-the belt will lie down properly; the amount to cut off
-of this end will be just as much as you have shortened
-the distance between the clamps. After the point has
-been cut to the right length, take the square and make
-a mark across the belt, using the end of the thin point
-as your measure for length; then without moving the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span>
-belt make a mark on the edge of the belt, showing just
-where the lower thin point came on the bottom.
-Throw the "last end" over the left-hand clamp out of
-the way and scarf down the top of the "first end"
-point, letting the scarf be about 4 inches long. Be
-careful not to gouge a hole in the belt where the scarf
-is started, but try to make the inclined plane from <i>X</i>
-to <i>X</i> perfect; try to keep the whole surface of this
-incline true and straight. After the short 4-inch scarf
-is finished, clean the glue off of the inside of the "first
-end"; lap up to where it enters the "last end"; then
-turn it over by bringing it over the right-hand clamp,
-place a scarfing board under it and make the scarf
-shown at <i>T</i>, Fig. 75. Now clean all glue off the "last
-end" lap and take a sharp scraper like the one shown
-in Fig. 69 or 69b, place a piece of glass under the
-points that have been previously squared up, and
-scarf them down to a knife-edge.</p>
-
-<p>After the thin points are properly scarfed, lay the
-whole splice back on the splicing board just as it will
-be when it is glued, and do any fitting that may be
-necessary. Be very careful to get it thin enough, or it
-will make a hammering noise when going over the pulleys.
-When scarfing down the thin points with the
-scrapers, be sure that they are very sharp; if not,
-they will tear the point off when it gets down to an
-edge; also give the blade a drawing motion in order
-to facilitate cutting. It may seem to the novice that
-to use a piece of glass to scarf on, when one is using a
-tool with a razor edge, is a trifle inconsistent, but it is
-not so in the least; if the blade is held well back at the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span>
-top and a considerable pressure applied to it, there will
-be no danger in the edge actually touching the glass;
-the edge is turned past a right-angular position, or
-hooked, and the heel is all that touches the glass. A
-good piece of plate glass about 12 × 18 inches is large
-enough for any width of belt, although a piece much
-smaller will do all right. Do not attempt to do any
-scarfing on the board 76d, for if you do it will be so full
-of holes that have been gouged by the scraper that it
-will be ruined for any purpose.</p>
-
-<p>This board must be kept smooth in order to be able
-to do a good job of rubbing down when gluing. Never
-hammer a glue joint in order to set it; it is just that
-much unnecessary work and does absolutely no good;
-simply get a smooth block of wood 2 × 6 × 8 inches and
-rub hard and fast as soon as the glue is applied. Do
-not try to glue more than 6 inches in length at one time.
-Use a heavy brush&mdash;a high-priced paint brush is the
-best; the regular glue brush is about the only thing in
-existence that will not put on any glue at all&mdash;about
-a 3-inch brush is the thing; have the glue just as hot
-as it is possible to get it. Keep the brush in the pot all
-the time the glue is heating; also have a strong stick
-made somewhat like a three-cornered file, only larger,
-in the glue&mdash;this last is used to scrape off the brush
-all the glue that it is possible to get off without allowing
-the glue to get too cold. When you take the brush out
-of the pot, work fast; get all the glue possible off the
-brush and get the rest on the belt at once. Make two
-or three fast strokes across the belt and close down the
-splice and rub for dear life. After the first brushful<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span>
-has been applied (and rubbed for about two minutes),
-have an assistant raise the point up until you can see
-the glue breaking all across the whole width of the belt.
-Then have a second brush ready and repeat the former
-process, with the exception that you need not apply
-the glue to both sides of the leather as in the first case;
-for if you will keep the brush down in the fork between
-the two laps you will give both sides a coat, and in
-addition to the time saved by using this method you
-will get the joint closed while the glue is hot. As fast
-as you go across the belt with the brush, have the
-assistant roll the belt together after you; when you
-have used all the glue out of the brush, the joint is
-closed and ready to rub. You will keep the glue much
-hotter by immediately closing the splice after the
-brush, and there is nothing else so important as using
-hot glue; as soon as it commences to get shiny on the
-surface the thing is all off and it will not hold anything.</p>
-
-<p>You cannot do any quick work with water in your
-glue&mdash;that is, unless it is old and has been heated up
-several times. If this is the case, it will have to be
-thinned with water. The proper consistency is about
-that of a very heavy grade of cylinder oil; if it is too
-thin, it will not dry in any reasonable time and it will
-also cause pockets in the splice by opening up after the
-joint has been rubbed, and the air in the pockets will
-open the whole splice. In important work never use a
-glue that will not stick so tightly between every application
-belt that after rubbing down you can give it
-a good, hard pull without its opening up. In all statements
-regarding the time necessary for the joint to dry,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span>
-the belts are considered absolutely clean, dry and free
-from all oils.</p>
-
-<p>The most disagreeable portion of the belt repairer's
-work is the splicing and repairing of oil-soaked belts.
-It is a well-known fact that the action of oil and that
-of glue are in direct opposition to each other: the oil
-prevents sticking and the glue sticks, if it has a chance.
-Such being the case, the first thing to do is to eliminate
-the oil completely, and the efficiency of your joint will
-be in direct proportion to your success in getting rid
-of the oil. To this end secure a large gasoline blow
-torch, such as painters use to burn off old paint. If
-you are not used to it, be very careful; at all events,
-have a bucket of dry sand to use in case of trouble.
-Just throw the sand on the fire and the fire will go out&mdash;that
-is, if you can get the sand in the right place.</p>
-
-<p>The torch is to be used after the splice has been all
-completed except the thin points. The flame will burn
-them if finished, so leave them tolerably thick until
-after the oil has been removed; then finish them as
-directed before. When the scarfs have been made and
-the old glue has been removed, turn the flame (which
-should be an almost invisible blue if the torch is working
-properly) directly on the leather and move it
-over all the surface of the splice until the leather has
-become thoroughly heated; never allow the flame
-to remain directed at any point long enough to make
-the oil in the leather boil. If you do, the belt is burned.
-Continue to move the flame over the surface of the belt
-until the leather is so hot that the hand can scarcely
-be held on it. With one of the scrapers shown in Figs.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span>
-69 and 69b (69b preferred) scrape the oil off as the
-heat raises it up. Turn the cutting edge of the scraper
-up and wipe the oil off after every stroke; keep the
-scraping process going right on after the torch; never
-allow the leather to cool off until you can get practically
-no oil and the leather begins to turn brown. By
-heating the leather and bringing the oil to the surface
-you do just what the glue does when you put it on an
-oil-soaked belt without removing the oil. By means of
-the heat contained in it, it brings up all the oil near
-the surface to which it is applied and in consequence
-does not take any hold on the leather.</p>
-
-<p>It will take two men with all the necessary tools and
-appliances at least six hours of good hard work to
-remove the oil from a well-soaked 36-inch belt&mdash;that
-is, to remove it to an extent sufficient to warrant the
-gluing of it.</p>
-
-<p>In case of overflows in which the wheel pits are liable
-to be filled with water, pour cylinder oil on all belts
-that are liable to get wet and then remove them from
-pulleys if they will be covered for more than twenty-four
-hours, clean them with gasoline and they will be
-found to be all right and dry.</p>
-
-<p>Hold a clean piece of waste against all belts at least
-twice every twenty hours, and wipe them clean.</p>
-
-<hr class="r5" />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span></p>
-
-
-
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p class="ph2">IX</p></div>
-
-<h2 class="nobreak" title="THE CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF LEATHER BELTS">THE CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF<br />
-LEATHER BELTS<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a></h2>
-
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Outside</span> of the direct care and management of high-pressure
-boilers and the steam lines pertaining thereto,
-there is no other part of a power or lighting plant, mill
-or factory in which a large number of indirect connected
-machines are used that is of such vital importance as
-leather belting and rope drives. The subject under discussion
-in this chapter will be the former, and the selection,
-care and management thereof.</p>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> Contributed to Power by Walter E. Dixon. M. E.</p></div>
-
-<p>The first thing in order will be the selection of a
-leather belt, and when we consider that all makers make
-good belts, that there are no particular secrets in the
-belt-making business, and that in order to get the very
-best we must take every advantage of all small details
-in construction, it stands every engineer and belt user
-in hand to get all the information available; for we
-must remember that the percentage of good hides
-does not run very high, that all that are bought go into
-belt stock of some kind or other, and that some one
-must buy the goods that are not quite up to the
-standard of belt excellence. It is very evident that no
-man wants anything but the best when he is paying<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span>
-for the best, and it is also evident that no maker is
-going to say that he makes inferior goods; so therefore
-we must read the quality by what is in sight, and in
-the judging of leather that is already made up, the
-proposition resolves itself into a very hard one.</p>
-
-<p>The two principal things left for an opinion to be
-based upon as to quality are the relation the pieces
-that constitute the laps bear to the hide from which
-they were cut. They should, in belts running from
-18 to 36 inches, be cut from the center of the hides, or
-should be what is known as "center stock." Of course
-all belts should be "center stock," but where they are
-very narrow or so wide that one hide will not be wide
-enough to make a lap, then there is always a lot of
-narrow stock worked in that cannot always be strictly
-center. The next thing to look out for is brands that
-are so deep that they destroy the life of the leather and
-will cause it to break after being used. Then look out
-for the length of lap. If this is too long, you will know
-that it runs into the neck, for about all that it is possible
-to get out of average hides and still leave nothing in
-that is not first class is 54 or 56 inches. Ordinarily,
-you can tell if a lap is "center stock" by the marks that
-run down either side of the back bone; they will be
-usually a little darker than the rest of the belt. These
-marks or streaks should be in the center of the belt.
-The principal objection to neck leather is that it is
-liable to stretch excessively, and on this account it will
-put too much load on the piece immediately opposite
-it in a double-ply belt; for the point of one side is in the
-middle of the lap on the other side. Next look out for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span>
-holes, which will usually be found so nicely plugged
-as to escape detection unless subjected to the most careful
-examination.</p>
-
-<p>Next in importance is to buy a belt that has already
-been filled with some good waterproof dressing. It is
-quite likely that to buy a belt that has been filled means
-to buy one that perhaps has some bad leather in it that
-would be seen in a dry oak tan belt, and also that the
-adhesive power of the filled belt is not quite equal to
-the dry one; but the points that the filled one possesses
-over the one not filled are, first and mainly, "it is filled
-when you buy it with a preparation that does not
-injure the leather in the least," and the preparation
-you will fill it with, for it will be filled, will be engine
-oil and water, a combination that will ruin any belt
-made and also get it in six months into a condition
-that will make a permanent repair with glue impossible,
-for machine oil and moisture are strangers to glue and
-will ever be. More good belts are ruined by being
-soaked with engine oil until the points come loose and
-then pulled out of shape than from any other cause. Of
-course you may be able to keep a main engine belt that
-runs through a damp wheel pit and basement, and
-through a long damp tunnel to a main driven pulley
-that has two big boxes that are just as close to the
-pulley as a first-class machine designer could put them,
-and never get a drop of oil or water on it. But this is
-not likely.</p>
-
-<p>One very common cause of trouble with engine belts
-is the fact that such belts usually run under the floor,
-where there is considerable moisture. Then the oil<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span>
-table under the average large Corliss engine will leak
-around dash-pots and rocker-arm shafts, and some oil
-will fly from the eccentric oil cups, get into the wheel,
-run around the rim and get to the belt; if the belt is
-not filled a very few drops of oil will make a large spot
-on it. Then, if an engine does not run the whole
-twenty-four hours, while it is off, watch. A few drops
-of water from a leaky valve stem whose bonnet drain is
-stopped up, as it will sometimes be, has a way of getting
-through the floor and falling on to the belt and running
-down the inclined inside of it until it finally comes
-to the flywheel, which, with the assistance of its crowning
-face, very kindly makes a nice pocket for said water
-and proceeds to drink it up. Result: the glue is
-loosened and the belt may come apart in consequence.
-Should there chance to be a point just at the bottom
-of this pocket, it will get the glue soft enough to slip
-but may not open up, which is much worse than if it
-did open up; for it may slip away from the shoulder
-of the splice for half an inch, and when the engine
-is put to work it may close down by running under the
-wheel and stick. If it does, the result is that at no
-very distant day you will find a break at that particular
-place, right across the face of the belt. The reason is
-that the load was all taken off the inside half of the
-belt by point slipping, thereby making the inside of the
-belt too long and putting all the load on the outside.
-The outside will continue to do all the work until it
-stretches enough to bring the inside back into service
-again. During this week or month you have been
-pulling your load with a single belt, not a double one,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span>
-and after a short time you will find the break referred
-to above in the shape of a clean, well-defined crack
-extending across the belt parallel with the points of
-the laps. Now of course you are going to send for the
-man who sold you the belt and ask him to fix it. If he
-is a wise man and understands his business, he won't
-do a thing but show you right under that crack a point
-that does not come up to where it should come. Then
-the thing for you to do is to say to him that the belt is
-examined every time it is put into service and that you
-have noticed that the points he refers to all come loose
-during a "run," that any one knows that a few drops
-of water would not take any belt to pieces while it
-was running, and if it was water, why did it not take
-it apart everywhere, etc? And finally crush him completely
-by telling him that your men have no time to put
-a pair of clamps on a belt in order to pull back into its
-proper position every point that comes loose; that if
-they did do it they would have no time for anything else,
-especially in the present case, and that if his people
-had made the belt right the glue would have held, anyway.</p>
-
-<p>After he has given you a new belt or repaired your
-old one, just take my advice and box that flywheel up
-above the top of the eccentric oil cup, at least 12 inches,
-and get some good, heavy tin or zinc and put a tight
-roof over the belt, under the floor.</p>
-
-<p>First put in a ridge pole out of 1½-inch pipe, starting
-at the face of the wheel and running in the direction of
-the main driven pulley, holding it firmly in place at
-each end with a strong iron clamp. Then solder into<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span>
-each edge of the strip of tin, which should be long
-enough to reach beyond any possible leak through the
-floor or oil table, a piece of ½-inch pipe, and put the tin
-over the ridge pole with a piece of small pipe on either
-side. Ordinarily the belt goes out past the cylinder;
-if it runs through a bricked-up runway on its route
-to the main driven pulley, just fasten the two pieces
-of <span class="fnum">1</span>/<span class="fden">2</span>-inch pipe to either wall and have the ridge about 6
-inches higher than the outside ones. Then every drop
-of oil or water that comes through the floor will fall
-on to the roof and run down to the walls and be carried
-down to the floor of the pit and have no chance to
-touch the belt.</p>
-
-<p>One of the most difficult things in the operation of
-large stations where a large number of belts are used is
-to keep them thoroughly clean and free from moisture
-and machine oil, the latter especially. One very hard
-problem that confronts all designers of machinery is
-the prevention of oil leakage from boxes. In several
-plants with as many as six dynamos of the same kind
-and the same design, at least four of the six have leaked
-oil every time they were run. The others did not leak
-as a usual thing, and all were equipped with the most
-modern methods of holding oil.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<a id="fig73" href="images/fig73big.jpg">
-<img src="images/fig73.jpg" alt="" />
-</a>
-<p class="caption center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 80.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Now we come to the building of the belt, and we will
-notice only such points as interest the engineer or buyer.
-The first thing is to see that the laps are of uniform
-thickness, so that the belt will run quietly; and it
-should be absolutely straight when unrolled on the floor.
-If it has a long, graceful curve in it, look out; for it will
-not run straight on the pulleys until it has stretched
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span>straight, and by that time one of its edges may be
-ruined by coming in contact with the floor or some
-other obstacle. Next notice how long the leather is
-from which it is made. It should not show more than
-52 inches, and then there will be 4 inches hidden by
-the point that is out of sight. Then see that the joints
-are broken properly. For instance, find the center of
-any piece of leather on one side of the belt, and then
-look on the opposite side and see if the joint is right
-under your center mark. It should be by all means,
-for right here lies the most important thing about the
-construction of leather belts. A belt whose laps are
-all the same length, and which has all its joints broken
-correctly, will put the same load on the glue throughout,
-and that is what must be done in order to get
-the best results. See Fig. 80. Here we have a belt
-that is 36 inches in width and a double ply. Now
-suppose there is a draft of 9360 pounds on this belt,
-that from point <i>A</i> to point <i>B</i> is 26 inches, and that
-the points are 4 inches long. Now we have 26 inches
-plus 4 inches plus 4 inches times 36 inches for the
-number of square inches in the glued joint. This
-equals 1224 square inches; the total pull on the belt
-divided by 1224 will equal the load on each square
-inch of glued joint, and will equal in this case 7.65<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span>
-pounds. Now instead of assuming distance <i>A&mdash;B</i>
-in Fig. 80 to be 26 inches, let the lower joint get out
-of step with the upper ones, and conditions get vastly
-different. We will suppose that the dimensions are as
-given in Fig. 81, as was the case with a new belt that
-was measured less than one month before the observation
-was made and we have the following: Joint <i>A B</i>
-is now only 10 inches, and we have 10 inches plus 4
-inches plus 4 inches times 36 inches which equals 648
-square inches, and the lead on the joint is now 14.44
-pounds. You will readily perceive what an important
-part in the life of the belt, and the life of everything
-around the belt as far as that goes, the proper breaking
-of the upper and lower joints is. Of course the belt
-maker will tell you that his glue is just as strong as the
-leather itself, and he is about right as long as you keep
-the belt free from oil and water; but when the belt becomes
-filled with oil the glue rots and loses its strength
-much faster than does the leather.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<a id="fig74" href="images/fig74big.jpg">
-<img src="images/fig74.jpg" alt="" />
-</a>
-<p class="caption center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 81.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>No good belt needs any posts along the sides to make
-it run straight and stay on the pulleys. If the pulleys
-are in line and the belt straight, it will run straight.
-All belts should be made to run perfectly straight on
-pulleys, first on account of the local advertisement
-that it gives to the man who has charge of them;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span>
-second, if they do not run true, they will be on the floor
-or wrapped around the shaft in a very few minutes,
-should they ever slip. Another very important thing in
-the care of belts that carry heavy loads is that if any of
-the points do come loose so far back that they will not
-return to place without putting on the clamps, put them
-on by all means; as the restoring of this point to place
-means that you will still retain in service all of your
-belt, as you will not do if you glue it down where it is
-and thereby cut one side completely out of service.</p>
-
-
-<p class="c large"><span class="smcap">How to Clean Belting</span></p>
-
-<p>We submit the following as the best and proper way
-of cleaning a leather belt. It may seem simple, but it
-is safe and effective, as has been proved by many people
-who have thus restored old and dirty belting which
-had become almost or quite unfit for use.</p>
-
-<p>Coil the belt loosely and place it on edge in a tank
-in which it may be covered with naphtha; a half barrel
-makes a good receptacle, but something with a tight
-cover would save the loss by evaporation. Put in
-enough naphtha to cover the belt completely and allow
-it to remain for ten or twelve hours; then turn the belt
-over, standing it upon the other edge. The vertical
-position of the belt surfaces allows the dirt to settle
-to the bottom of the receptacle as it is washed out,
-and permits naphtha to get at all the parts.</p>
-
-<p>After the belt has remained in the naphtha another
-ten or twelve hours, or until sufficiently clean, raise it
-and allow the naphtha to drip back into the tank. Then
-lay the belt flat, stretching or shaking it until almost<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span>
-dry. You will find that the naphtha will not affect the
-leather nor the cement in the center of the belt, but may
-open the joints at the edges; in which case the old
-cement should be scraped off and the edges recemented.
-Your belt man will know how to do this. The belt will
-now be somewhat hard, and should be treated with a
-reliable belt dressing before being replaced on the
-pulleys.</p>
-
-<hr class="r5" />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span></p>
-
-
-
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p class="ph2">X</p></div>
-
-<h2 class="nobreak" title="BELTING, ITS USE AND ABUSE">BELTING, ITS USE AND ABUSE<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a></h2>
-
-
-<p><span class="smcap">There</span> is no class of appliances so little understood
-by the ordinary steam engineer and steam user as belts,
-which may be seen by the quantity of belting sold annually.
-Where one can point to a belt that has been in
-continuous use for twenty years, you can find hundreds
-that do not last one-fourth as long. Why? Not always
-because the buyer has tried to get something for nothing,
-but as a rule, when they do, they get nothing for
-something.</p>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> Contributed to Power by Wm. H. McBarnes.</p></div>
-
-<p>The average belt is a poor one, and the average
-buyer will not find it out till he has used it for some
-time. If you weigh the belt dealer up as a man who
-is trying to rob you, beat him down in price, then get
-him to give from 5 to 40 per cent. off, he will enter
-a protest, and, after some explanation, will come to
-some terms with you. Have you gained anything by
-your cleverness? Well, hardly. Belt dealers and
-makers, like almost all other dealers in supplies, aim
-to get nothing but first-class goods; but second and
-third, and even fourth-class goods, are made, and you
-get the quality you pay for. In the second place, belts
-wear out quickly because they do not get proper care.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span>
-To let a belt run one moment after it gets too slack
-is bad practice, for it is apt to slip and burn all the
-staying qualities out of it. Another good reason why
-it should not be run slack is that the engineer or belt
-man, to save work, would be tempted to put on a dressing
-or, worse yet, put on resin to make it pull, and, in
-the language of Rex, "the man who will put resin on
-his belts is either a fool or a knave," for it is sure to
-spoil his belt if continued for any length of time.</p>
-
-<p>In an emergency, as when some unforeseen substance
-has found its way to the belt, it may be necessary, to
-keep from shutting down between hours, to use some
-of the so-called dressing. We know from experience
-that engineers will go to almost any extreme to get out
-of a tight place&mdash;circumstances sometimes make it
-necessary to keep a belt running when it should not&mdash;but
-this should not be allowed to any extent. To allow
-a belt to run too tight is just as bad, for it will make
-short life for the belt, hot boxes and scored shafting.
-There is not one in twenty who takes the time or can
-splice a belt properly; it is generally done in a hurry,
-any way to make it hold together, with the understanding
-that it cannot talk; but it does. How often we see
-boards nailed up or rims tacked on to keep belts from
-getting off the pulleys. All of this is good for the belt
-dealers.</p>
-
-<p>This is not all the fault of the engineer or the belt
-manufacturer. Often belts are made uneven, and soon
-get out of shape, even with the best of care. We sometimes
-find a belt that ordinarily runs easy on the pulleys
-and does its work with ease suddenly inclined to run<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span>
-to either one side or the other of the driven pulley.
-This is caused by one of two things&mdash;either the belt
-has been too slack, or the load increased for want of
-lubrication, or other causes. In either case it will run
-off if you insist on applying the power. The remedy
-would be to take up the belt, thoroughly oil the journals,
-or take off the extra load&mdash;maybe a combination of
-all. Still a little extra work making the belt tighter
-will enable it to run well and do the extra work just as
-long as the extra tension can be maintained. Then it
-may appear perplexing and run to one side of the driven
-pulley when the driven shaft gets out of line with the
-driving shaft. In a case of this kind the belt does not
-run to what is called the high side of the pulley, but
-to the low side. Another peculiar indication: If two
-shafts are parallel and there is a high place on the
-pulley, then a belt will run to the high place; but if
-the shafts are out of line, or, in other words, are not
-parallel, and the face of the pulley straight, then the
-belt will run to the low side or that closest to the
-driving shaft. The remedy would be to line up your
-shafting.</p>
-
-<p>The object of this chapter is not to say how belts
-are made, but to impress upon the minds of belt users
-that to get the best results, belts, like all good servants,
-must be well cared for, and all responsibility should
-rest with one man, just as with your engine or any
-high-priced machine.</p>
-
-<hr class="r5" />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span></p>
-
-
-
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p class="ph2">XI</p></div>
-
-<h2 class="nobreak" title="A COMPARATIVE TEST OF FOUR BELT DRESSINGS">A COMPARATIVE TEST OF FOUR BELT<br />
-DRESSINGS<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a></h2>
-
-
-<p><span class="smcap">During</span> January, 1905, a comparative test of the
-working efficiency of four belt dressings and preservatives
-was made by T. Farmer, Jr., and the writer. The
-test was made on the regular belt-testing machine of
-Sibley College, Cornell University, a full description of
-which appeared on pages 705-707 of Vol. 12, <i>Trans.
-A. S. M. E.</i> This machine tests the belt under actual
-running conditions, though our belts were in somewhat
-better than average condition. The four belts were
-new 4-inch Alexander No. 1 oak-tanned single-ply,
-and were 30 feet long. Particular care was taken to
-keep them free from oil and dirt. The belts were first
-tested as received from the manufacturer, after which
-each belt was treated with one of the dressings and
-again tested.</p>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> Contributed to Power by William Evans.</p></div>
-
-<p>The dressings were two semi-solids, designated No. 1
-and No. 2; a bar, No. 3, and neatsfoot oil, No. 4.
-As the first three are proprietary articles, it was not
-thought best to give their names, though any one
-familiar with the actions of belt dressings will readily
-recognize No. 1 from its peculiar curve. In applying<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span>
-the dressings, we followed directions carefully, and in
-the case of Nos. 2 and 3 exceeded them. The belt was
-given a five-hour run, during which two or three applications
-of the dressing were given, and then it was set
-aside in a warm place to allow it to absorb the applied
-dressing. After thus "soaking" for at least forty-eight
-hours, the belt was again run, this time for three hours,
-with one more application of the dressing. As No. 3
-was a bar of sticky dressing, it will readily be seen that
-this precaution was not really necessary. No. 4, the
-neatsfoot oil, was not applied during the last run, as
-we were afraid of getting too much oil in the belt. As
-this oil is so extensively used by engineers for dressing
-belts, special care was taken to get the best possible
-results with it.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/fig75.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 82.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>In Fig. 82, the result of the test with the neatsfoot
-oil is shown graphically. This curve is platted to show
-the relation between initial tension per inch of width
-and horse-power per inch of width. One reason for the
-drop in horse-power in the treated belt is that the slip<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span>
-was materially increased; in the lowest tension at which
-any power at all was transmitted, about 15 pounds
-per inch of width, the slip ran up as high as 25 per cent.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/fig76.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 83.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>In Fig. 83, which shows the comparative value of the
-four dressings, the highest horse-power delivered to the
-belt was taken as the standard. The horse-power
-delivered by the belt was divided by this standard,
-and the result, expressed in percentage, was used as the
-percentage of available horse-power transmitted. This
-comparison shows the great superiority of dressing No.
-1 at all times, and especially at low tensions. In looking
-at this chart, it is well to remember that No. 3 is a
-sticky dressing.</p>
-
-<p>As the time of the test was so short, we were unable
-to determine the ultimate effect of the dressings on the
-leather of the belts. We could only approximate this
-by a chemical test and a close examination of the belts
-at the end of each test. The chemical analysis showed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span>
-no ammonia or rosin in any of the dressings; No. 2 had
-a trace of mineral acid, and all had oleic acid as
-follows: No. 1, 0.27 per cent; No. 2, 29.85 per cent;
-No. 3, 3.5 per cent; No. 4, 0.7 per cent.</p>
-
-<p>The practical test showed no ill effects except from
-No. 3, the sticky dressing, which ripped and tore the
-surface of the belt. The high initial tensions caused
-overheating of the journals, even though we kept them
-flooded with oil. On the low initial tensions there was
-no tendency to heat, even when the maximum horse-power
-was being transmitted by dressing No. 1. In
-the latter case we oiled the bearings once in every two
-or three runs (a "run" comprised all the readings for
-one initial tension), while in the former we oiled the
-bearings after each reading and sometimes between
-them; even then we were afraid that the babbitt would
-get hot enough to run. The readings for each run
-varied in number from two to a dozen, but only the
-one giving the maximum horse-power was used in drawing
-the curves. The belt speeds during the tests varied
-between 2000 and 2500 feet per minute, most of the
-tests being made at about 2200 feet per minute.</p>
-
-<hr class="r5" />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span></p>
-
-
-
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p class="ph2">XII</p></div>
-
-<h2 class="nobreak">BELT CREEP</h2>
-
-
-<p><span class="smcap">The</span> question of the minimum amount of slip of a belt
-in transmitting power from one pulley to another
-reduces itself to a question of creep, for it is possible to
-have belts large enough so that with proper tensions
-there will be no regular slip. With a difference in tension
-on the two sides and of elasticity in the belt, creep,
-however, is bound to take place. What does it amount
-to and what allowance should be made for it? asks
-Prof. Wm. W. Bird of the Worcester Polytechnic
-Institute in his paper under the above title.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/fig77.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 84.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>In Fig. 84 let <i>A</i> be the driver and <i>B</i> the driven, <i>T</i><sub>1</sub>
-the tension in the tight side of the belt and <i>T</i><sub>2</sub> in the
-slack side, the pulleys and belt running in the direction
-indicated. One inch of slack belt goes on to the
-pulley <i>B</i> at <i>o</i>; at or before the point <i>p</i> it feels the effect
-of increased tension and stretches to 1 + <i>s</i> inches.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span>
-It now travels from <i>p</i> to <i>m</i> and goes on to pulley <i>A</i>
-while stretched. At or before reaching the point <i>n</i>,
-as the tension decreases, it contracts to one inch and
-so completes the cycle.</p>
-
-<p>With a light load the belt creeps ahead of the pulley
-<i>B</i> at or near the point <i>p</i>. If the load is heavy, the creep
-works towards the point <i>o</i> and the belt may slip; this
-also takes place when the belt tensions are too light
-even with small loads.</p>
-
-<p>The point may be easily appreciated by imagining
-the belt to be of elastic rubber. Professor Bird gives
-formulas for calculating the creep, and tests made at the
-Polytechnic to determine the modulus of elasticity.
-He concludes that the answer to his opening question
-is that for the common leather belt running under ordinary
-conditions the creep should not exceed one per
-cent. While this is sometimes called legitimate slip,
-it is an actual loss of power and cannot be avoided by
-belt tighteners or patent pulley coverings.</p>
-
-<p>The smooth or finished side should go next to the
-pulley because the actual area of contact is greater than
-when the rough side is in contact; consequently, the
-adhesion due to friction is greater. Moreover, the
-smooth side has less tensile strength than the rough side,
-so that any wear on that side will weaken the belt less
-than wear on the other side would.</p>
-
-<hr class="r5" />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span></p>
-
-
-
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p class="ph2">XIII</p></div>
-
-<h2 class="nobreak" title="ROPE DRIVES">ROPE DRIVES<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a></h2>
-
-
-<p><span class="smcap">There</span> seems to be considerable difference in opinion
-regarding the various ways of applying rope to the
-sheaves in rope driving, viz., multiple- or separate-rope
-system, continuous-wrap or single-rope system with the
-rope from one of the grooves running on a traveling
-take-up device, continuous-wrap or single-rope system
-with the take-up working directly on all the wraps.</p>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> Contributed to Power by R. Hoyt.</p></div>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/fig78.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 85.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The multiple- or separate-rope system on a horizontal
-drive where the distance between centers is great
-enough so that the weight of the rope will give the
-required tension, having the tight or pulling part on
-the lower side and the sheaves of the same diameter, as
-in Fig. 85, should be very satisfactory, as old or worn
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span>ropes may be replaced by new ones of larger diameter,
-or some of the ropes may be tighter than others and still
-not alter the efficiency of the drive. It will be noticed
-in this case that a larger rope does not alter the proportional
-pitch diameters of the rope on the driving and
-driven sheaves; but if one of the sheaves is larger than
-the other, as in Figs. 86 and 87, and a new or larger
-rope is substituted for a worn or smaller one, or if some
-of the ropes are a great deal tighter than others, a
-differential action will be produced on the ropes owing
-to the fact that the larger or slack rope will not go as
-deeply into its grooves as the smaller or tight one.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span>
-Consequently the proportionate pitch diameter on the
-rope on the driver and driven sheave will be changed.
-The action will depend upon whether the large or the
-small sheave is the driver. If the driver is the larger,
-and of course assuming that the slack or large rope is
-weaker than the combined tight or smaller ones, then
-it will have less strain on the pulling side; but if the
-driver is smaller, then the new or large rope will have
-greater strain on the pulling side. Whether the driver
-is larger or smaller, a large or slack rope affects the
-action oppositely to a small or tight rope. Fig. 87
-shows how the action is reversed from Fig. 86.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/fig79.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 86.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/fig80.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 87.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>For clearness we will exaggerate the differences in
-diameter in the sketches and figure the speeds that
-the different size ropes would produce. We will take
-<i>A</i> as normal, <i>B</i> 1 inch farther out of the groove, producing
-a difference in diameter of 2 inches; <i>C</i> 1 inch
-deeper in the groove, producing a difference in diameter
-of 2 inches. In Fig. 85 assume for the normal diameter
-of driver and driven 40 inches, 42 inches for <i>B</i> and
-38 inches for <i>C</i>, with a speed of 200 revolutions per
-minute for the driver. Either <i>A</i>, <i>B</i> or <i>C</i> will give
-200 revolutions per minute for the driven sheave,
-omitting slippage, of course. In Fig. 86 say the normal
-diameter of the driver for rope <i>A</i> is 60 inches and of the
-driven 30 inches, a speed of the driver of 200 revolutions
-per minute will give the driven sheave a speed of 400
-revolutions per minute; <i>B</i>, with the driver 62 inches
-and the driven sheave 32 inches diameter, will give
-the latter a velocity of 387½ revolutions per minute.
-With <i>C</i> the driver is 58 inches, the driven 28 inches, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span>
-the speed given the latter <span class="nowrap">414 <span class="fnum">2</span>/<span class="fden">7</span></span> revolutions per minute.
-In Fig. 87, the normal diameter of the driving sheave
-being 30 inches and the driven 60 inches, a speed of the
-driver of 200 revolutions per minute will give a speed
-of the driven member of 100 revolutions per minute.
-With <i>B</i>, if the driver is 32 and the driven 62 inches,
-the driven sheave will have a speed of <span class="nowrap">103 <span class="fnum">7</span>/<span class="fden">31</span></span> revolutions
-per minute; <i>C</i>, with the driver 28 inches and the driven
-sheave 58 inches, will give the latter a speed of <span class="nowrap">96 <span class="fnum">16</span>/<span class="fden">29</span></span>
-revolutions per minute. So it will be readily seen what
-effect a large or a small rope would have.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/fig81.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 88.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>There are some who claim that slack ropes will transmit
-more power owing to more wrap on the sheaves,
-while others claim that tight ropes are better. If a
-drive with all the ropes slack gave trouble by the ropes
-slipping, the first remedy tried would be tightening the
-ropes. But if the conditions were like Fig. 87, it would
-not be particularly harmful to have some of the ropes
-longer than others; in fact, it might be well, as the
-longer ropes would not make a complete circuit as
-quickly as the shorter ones; consequently the position
-of the splices would be continually changing. However,
-it seems more natural to have about the same pull on
-all the ropes, that is, not have them as shown in Fig. 88.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span>
-In conclusion for the system, it should be noted that
-it has no means of tightening the ropes except by resplicing;
-it is not as well adapted to various conditions
-as the other forms; it is the cheapest form to
-install and in some cases should give excellent satisfaction.</p>
-
-<p>With the continuous-wrap system having the rope
-from one of the grooves pass over a traveling take-up,
-the latter has a tendency to produce an unequal strain
-in the rope. In taking up, or letting out, the rope must
-either slide around the grooves, or the strands having
-the greatest pull will wedge themselves deeper into the
-grooves, producing a smaller pitch diameter than the
-ones having less pull, making a differential action on
-the ropes. It is therefore probable that it is the differential
-action that takes up or lets out the ropes, the
-take-up merely acting in a sense as an automatic
-adjustable idler. In tightening, when the rope stretches
-or dries out, or even in running normal, the greatest
-pull will be near the take-up, but if the drive is exposed
-to moisture, and the rope shortens, it will be farthest
-from the take-up, depending proportionately on the
-number of grooves the take-up controls; so in large
-drives it is best to have more than one take-up.</p>
-
-<p>If one should use an unyieldable substance, as, for
-experiment, a plain wire on two drums wrapped a
-number of times around and also over a take-up, and
-the drums were moved together or apart, he would find
-that the wire would have to slide around the drum;
-but, of course, with a rope in a groove it is different.
-The rope will yield some. It will also go deeper into<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span>
-the groove. This system costs more than the preceding
-form, owing to extra expense for the traveling take-up,
-but may be applied readily to different conditions and
-will be quite satisfactory in general, if properly designed
-and installed.</p>
-
-<p>The continuous-wrap system with a take-up or tightener
-acting directly on all the wraps has practically
-none of the objectionable features mentioned in the
-other two forms, and is quick in action, making it
-applicable where power is suddenly thrown on or off.
-If the tightener is made automatic, it may be controlled
-in numerous ways, as with a weight or weight and lever
-or tackle blocks and weight, etc. It also may be fitted
-with a cylinder and piston, with a valve to prevent too
-quick action if power is suddenly thrown off or on.
-There is ordinarily practically no unequal strain on the
-rope. This system may be applied to different conditions
-as readily as the preceding form. Its cost is more
-than that of either of the others, as the tightener must
-have as many grooves as there are wraps. It must also
-have a winder to return the last wrap to the first groove,
-and to give its highest efficiency it must be properly
-designed and installed.</p>
-
-<p>In either of the continuous-wrap systems, if a portion
-of larger rope is used, it will produce a greater strain
-directly behind the large rope, owing to its traveling
-around the sheave quicker. In angle work there is always
-extra wear on the rope in the side of the groove,
-as only the center or one rope may be accurately lined;
-so it is not advisable to crowd the centers in angular
-drives, as the shorter the centers and wider the sheaves<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span>
-the greater the wearing angle. It must be remembered
-that the foregoing applies to ordinary simple
-drives as shown in the sketches; where the drive is
-complicated, it may be necessary to make other allowances.</p>
-
-<hr class="r5" />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span></p>
-
-
-
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p class="ph2">XIV</p></div>
-
-<h2 class="nobreak" title="A NEW SCHEME IN ROPE TRANSMISSION">A NEW SCHEME IN ROPE<br /> TRANSMISSION<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a></h2>
-
-
-<p><span class="smcap">The</span> use of manila rope for transmitting power is
-becoming so common as to attract no comment, and it
-possesses so many advantages in its own field over any
-other method of conveying power that some objections
-really existing are overlooked. When a rope drive is
-installed according to modern practice, it is generally so
-successful and furnishes such an agreeable and smooth
-running drive that any possible objection is silenced by
-the many good qualities it evidently has. But, as a
-matter of fact, the American continuous method of
-installing a rope drive has a few serious drawbacks.</p>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> Contributed to Power by Geo. F. Willis.</p></div>
-
-<p>Were it possible to install a drive of say thirty ropes
-in such a manner that each one of the ropes had exactly
-the same strain on it that each other rope had, and this
-under varying conditions of speed and load, it is evident
-that the thirty ropes would work exactly as a belt of
-proper width to carry the load would, that the ropes
-would be running with exactly the same tension clear
-across the width of the drive, like the belt. But according
-to the best authorities on rope transmission, this
-ideal condition is impossible to obtain.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>It is given as desirable, by writers on rope transmission
-problems, to use a take-up sheave for every
-twelve ropes, while ten is considered even better.
-The best results have been secured by using a take-up
-sheave for not more than eight ropes. But in any case
-the evil of differential driving still exists.</p>
-
-<p>In truth, the only drive in which perfect conditions
-can exist, according to present practice, is one using
-but a single rope.</p>
-
-<p>It is evident that when the load comes on the ropes,
-the entire number of ropes in use are only able to
-ultimately reach the same tension from the elasticity
-of the ropes themselves, as slipping in the grooves rarely
-occurs. But there is a continued and uneven strain
-on the ropes until the load becomes divided between
-them, and where ropes are used to drive a varying load,
-this strain must and does reduce the life of the ropes
-materially.</p>
-
-<p>Many rope transmissions have been unsatisfactory
-because of this, and when these drives have been so
-badly designed as to use one take-up sheave for more
-than ten ropes, they are apt to be more expensive and
-troublesome than could have been anticipated.</p>
-
-<p>One rope drive is known where thirty ropes are used,
-with only one take-up sheave. It has been a source of
-continual trouble and expense, and has been replaced
-by the English system of multiple ropes. The inherent
-troubles of this system have made the changed drive
-even worse than the original. It will now be replaced
-by the system here illustrated.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/fig82.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 89.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>In Fig. 89 is shown a plan view of the tighteners for
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span>a thirty-one rope drive. As the ropes shown are 1½
-inches in diameter the main tightener sheave is shown
-60 inches in diameter or forty times the diameter
-of the rope used. Mounted above the thirty-two groove
-sheave, and in the same frame, is a single groove sheave
-of the right diameter to reach the two outside ropes
-as shown, in this case 86 inches in diameter. Further
-details are shown in the end elevation, Fig. 90, and in
-the side elevation, Fig. 91. Allowing a working strain
-of say 250 pounds to each strand of the thirty-one
-ropes, we have a total weight of 15,500 pounds which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span>
-these two idler sheaves should weigh, including the
-frame holding them.</p>
-
-<p>These sheaves and the frame are mounted directly
-upon the ropes, on the slack side of course, and just
-as a tightener is mounted on a belt. The first rope
-passes around the thirty-two-groove sheave, on up
-over the single-groove sheave, and back under the
-multiple-groove sheave again, and is thus crossed over.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/fig83.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 90.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>It is evident that a rope threaded on this drive
-would, by the time it had run ten minutes or so, have
-every strand in exactly the same tension every other
-strand was in, and that the ropes would remain in this
-condition in spite of variation of load and speed, as
-long as they lasted.</p>
-
-<p>The initial expense, including the erection, would
-probably be no more than that for the necessary six<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span>
-or eight single-groove idlers, with their shafts and
-boxes, tracks, etc., which would be necessary according
-to established practice. The room taken up would
-evidently be much less.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/fig84.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 91.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>In Fig. 92 an assembled drive of this character is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span>
-shown. In Fig. 93 is shown a reverse drive, common in
-sawmill practice, where the two sheaves described
-would preferably be mounted on a car, with the proper
-weight to give the desired tension.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/fig85.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 92.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<a id="fig86" href="images/fig86big.jpg">
-<img src="images/fig86.jpg" alt="" />
-</a>
-<p class="caption center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 93.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>In a recent design is shown a cylinder with about
-6 feet of piston travel, provided with a reducing valve,
-so that the steam pressure would remain constant at
-about 40 pounds. The cylinder is bolted to the mill
-frame, while the piston rod is connected to the car
-carrying the tightener sheaves. The cylinder is of the
-proper area, when furnished with steam at 40 pounds<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span>
-pressure, to put the correct strain on the ropes. A
-small steam trap is part of the equipment. This should
-give a very elastic tension, and so long as steam
-pressure was at 40 pounds or over, the tension would
-remain constant. With 6 feet piston travel, it is evident
-that 372 feet of stretch could be taken out of the
-rope, an amount entirely out of the question. A dog,
-or buffer, can be so located as to prevent excessive
-back travel of the piston and car when steam pressure
-is taken off.</p>
-
-<p>It is evident that this method can be applied to a
-drive using any number of ropes.</p>
-
-<hr class="r5" />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span></p>
-
-
-
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p class="ph2">XV</p></div>
-
-<h2 class="nobreak" title="HOW TO ORDER TRANSMISSION ROPE">HOW TO ORDER TRANSMISSION ROPE<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a></h2>
-
-
-<p><span class="smcap">It</span> is probable that more different and erroneous
-terms are used by purchasing agents and engineers
-when writing orders for transmission rope than are used
-to describe any other article needed about a mill.
-A knowledge of how to order clearly just the kind
-of rope wanted would prevent delays and expense to
-many plants. Manufacturers of transmission rope
-constantly receive orders so peculiar in their wording
-that they dare not venture an immediate shipment,
-but must first resort to the mails, telegraph or telephone
-to find out what is really desired, and, of course, these
-mistakes, following the law of "the general cussedness
-of things," usually occur after a breakdown at the
-very time when every minute's delay means a considerable
-sum of money lost.</p>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> Contributed to Power by F. S. Greene.</p></div>
-
-<p>There are in this country two manufacturers of
-cordage who make a specialty of transmission rope,
-and the names under which their rope is sold are fairly
-well known to all users of rope drives. In addition to
-these two concerns, there are, perhaps, three or four
-other cordage mills which make this grade of rope to
-some extent. From this comparatively small source<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span>
-many different brands have sprung which, rechristened,
-find their way to the market under a variety of names,
-both poetic and classic. These many names lead to
-frequent delays in ordering. The man who does the
-splicing at the mill has, at one time or another, heard
-of a rope glorying in the possession of some fancy title.
-It is more than probable that some salesman has told
-him most wonderful stories of what this particular rope
-can do; consequently when the time comes for a new
-rope, the splicer goes to the office and asks that so
-many feet of such and such a rope be ordered. The
-purchasing agent makes out the order, using this name,
-and sends it to the manufacturer, who in all probability
-has never heard of the rope and knows for a fact
-that it is not the brand under which any of his fellow
-manufacturers are selling rope. Before the order can
-be filled, two or more letters or telegrams must be
-sent and received.</p>
-
-<p>It frequently occurs that manufacturers receive
-orders specifying brands which never had existence
-at all, so far as their knowledge goes. One firm recently
-found in the same mail requests for "Fern," "Juno,"
-and "Elephant" transmission rope, though no such
-brands have ever been on the market.</p>
-
-<p>Another familiar mistake is the ordering of a certain
-color yarn in the rope, as if this decoration possessed
-some peculiar virtue. These colored yarns are simply
-a question of dye, and the rope in all probability would
-be better and stronger were they left out.</p>
-
-<p>Then again, we find peculiar wording as to the
-lubrication of a rope. Some people insist that the rope<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span>
-shall be "tallow inlaid"; others call for an "absolutely
-dry" rope or for a "water-laid" rope. All transmission
-rope, to be of any service whatsoever, must be lubricated
-and such a thing as a "dry" transmission rope or a
-"water-laid" one, whatever that term might mean,
-would be of but small service to the user. Each manufacturer
-has his own method or formula for lubricating,
-and if this be a plumbago or graphite-laid rope, and he
-is asked for an old-fashioned tallow-laid rope, he cannot
-fill orders directly from stock.</p>
-
-<p>It is unnecessary to name the number of strands,
-unless you wish a three- or six-strand rope, for a four-strand
-transmission rope is always sent, unless otherwise
-specified. It is also unnecessary to say anything
-about the core, as the rope is always supplied with one,
-and generally it is lubricated. Frequently five-strand
-rope is ordered. This is very confusing, as there is
-such a thing as a five-strand rope, but it is very rarely
-made. Ordering a five-strand rope is usually brought
-about through the error of considering the core as a
-fifth strand.</p>
-
-<p>It is better, though not necessary, to order by the
-diameter instead of the circumference, as transmission
-rope is made and usually sold upon diameter specification.</p>
-
-<p>By far the most frequent specifications received call
-for "long-fiber, four-strand rope with core," and having
-done this, the purchaser considers he has named all
-necessary requirements. At the present price of manila
-hemp, which varies from 7 cents per pound for the
-poorer grades to 12½ cents per pound for the best, he<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span>
-may be quoted for such a rope, with entire honesty,
-anywhere from 11 to 17 cents per pound. To procure
-long-fiber manila hemp, and twist it into four strands
-about a core, does not make a proper transmission rope.
-As the rope will probably be required to run at a speed
-of from 3000 to 5000 feet per minute and be subjected
-to rapid and constant bending throughout its entire
-length, the fiber should not only be long, but the rope
-should be soft and pliable. Further than this, as the
-fiber, yarns and strands must slip one upon another
-during the bending, the rope should be so lubricated as
-to reduce to a minimum the frictional wear from such
-slipping and rubbing, which is a much larger factor
-than is generally supposed. Again, the unusual
-strength of manila fiber is shown only when subjected
-to a longitudinal strain. Transversely, owing to the
-cellular formation, the fiber is relatively weak; therefore,
-in manufacturing transmission rope, the greatest
-care is necessary to secure such proportion of twist in
-both yarns and strand as to render the rope least
-vulnerable to crosswise strain. Nor will the term
-"long fiber" insure the purchaser obtaining the proper
-material in his rope, for the longest manila fiber, contrary
-to general belief, is not always the best from
-which to make a transmission rope. Some of the extremely
-long variety is coarse and brittle. The best
-fiber for transmission rope is a particular grade of manila
-hemp known as Zebu, Fig. 94, which is light in color,
-silky to the touch and exceedingly strong and flexible.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/fig87.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 94.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/fig88.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 95.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/fig89.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 96.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The accompanying illustration, Fig. 95, shows a close
-view of two grades of hemp, that on the left being
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a><br /><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span>known in the trade as "Superior 2ds," while the fiber
-to the right of the cut is "Zebu." Fig. 96 shows
-a more distant view of the same two "heads" of hemp,
-and the reader will see that in both the fiber is exceed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span>ing
-long, and if anything, that of the Superior 2ds
-is longer than in the Zebu. A transmission rope made
-from the latter, however, will cost the manufacturer
-from 3½ to 4 cents more per pound than if he had used
-Superior 2ds, and will outlast two ropes made from
-the longer though coarser fiber.</p>
-
-<p>The reader, if he has perused this chapter to the present
-point, is doubtless now asking himself: "How shall
-I word my order when I want a first-class driving
-rope?" The safest road to follow is to write to some
-manufacturer or firm whom you know to be reliable,
-and ask for so many feet of their transmission rope,
-giving the name, if you are certain on that point, and,
-of course, being sure to mention the diameter. In
-case you do not know the name of his rope, word your
-order as simply and briefly as possible; for example:
-"One thousand feet 1½ inches diameter first quality
-manila transmission rope," and if the concern to which
-you write is a reputable one, you will receive a four-strand
-rope, made from Zebu manila hemp, put together
-with proper twist and lay for the service
-required.</p>
-
-<hr class="r5" />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span></p>
-
-
-
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p class="ph2">XVI</p></div>
-
-<h2 class="nobreak" title="A BELTING AND PULLEY CHART">A BELTING AND PULLEY CHART<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a></h2>
-
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Rule 1.</span> <i>Pulley Speed.</i>&mdash;When the diameter of
-both pulleys and the speed of one is given, to find the
-speed of the other: Place the points of spacing dividers
-upon the two given diameters in inches upon the scale
-(Fig. 97); then raise the dividers, keeping the space
-obtained, and place one point on the given speed and
-the other <i>above</i> it for speed of <i>S</i>, or <i>below</i> it for speed
-of <i>L</i> (<i>S</i> and <i>L</i> meaning smaller and larger pulley, respectively).
-This point will fall upon the required
-speed.</p>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> Contributed to Power by A. G. Holman, M. E.</p></div>
-
-<p>Example: If the two pulley diameters are 10 and
-25 inches and speed of larger pulley is 120 revolutions
-per minute, what is speed of small pulley?</p>
-
-<p>Place the points of dividers on 10 and 25 on scale <i>A</i>,
-then lift the dividers and place one point on 120 and
-the other above it upon the scale; the other point now
-rests on 300 as the speed of <i>S</i>. If the speed of <i>S</i> had
-been given, one point would have been placed at 300
-and the other <i>below</i> it, falling upon 120, the required
-speed of <i>L</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Note.&mdash;In applying this rule, if the speed comes
-beyond the range of scale <i>A</i>, the result may be read
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a><br /><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span>by carrying the space to the revolution scale on scale
-<i>B</i>, and proceeding in the same way.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<a id="fig90" href="images/fig90big.jpg">
-<img src="images/fig90.jpg" alt="" />
-</a>
-<p class="caption center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 97.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Example: Diameter of pulleys 12 and 36 inches
-and speed of <i>L</i> 500, what is speed of <i>S</i>? Place points
-of dividers on 12 and 36. Now, if dividers are raised
-and one point placed on 500 and the other above it
-on scale <i>A</i>, it will come beyond the top of the scale.
-Hence go to scale <i>B</i>, placing lower point on revolution
-scale at 500 and the other point above, which will fall
-upon 1500, the answer.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Rule 2.</span> <i>Pulley Diameters.</i>&mdash;When the speed of
-both pulleys and the diameter of one is given, to find
-diameter of the other: Place points of dividers on the
-two speeds on scale <i>A</i> or revolution scale <i>B</i>. Then
-place one point of dividers on given diameter and the
-other above it to find diameter of <i>L</i>, or below it for
-diameter of <i>S</i>. The figure thus indicated is the required
-diameter.</p>
-
-<p>Example: Speeds 180 and 450 and diameter of
-smaller pulley 20. What must be diameter of <i>L</i>?</p>
-
-<p>Place points of dividers on 180 and 450 on scale <i>A</i>.
-Then place one point on 20 (the given diameter). The
-other point falls at 50, the required diameter of <i>L</i>.</p>
-
-<p>If the point falls between two graduations in any
-problem, the result can be closely judged by the relative
-position.</p>
-
-<p>The other and more labor-saving use for this chart
-is its application to belting problems. It is generally
-conceded that there is no subject of more general interest
-in practical mechanics and none on which there is a
-greater difference of opinion than the proper allowance<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span>
-to be made in the selection of belt sizes for given requirements.
-The general formula for the horse-power
-transmitted by belting is</p>
-
-<p class="c">
-<i>HP</i> = <i>WS</i>/<i>C</i> in which <i>HP</i> = horse-power,
-</p>
-
-<p><i>W</i> = width of belt in inches, <i>S</i> = speed of belt in
-feet per minute, and <i>C</i> = constant.</p>
-
-<p>The proper values of this constant, or the feet per
-minute that each inch of width must run to transmit
-a horse-power, under certain conditions, is the point
-in question.</p>
-
-<p>On the right-hand side of line <i>A</i> on the chart is a
-series of lines representing different values for this
-constant. The lower one, marked 4, represents 400
-feet belt speed per minute, the next above is for 500,
-and so on. Against some of these values are suggestions
-as to belts often recommended in connection with
-these constants. For instance, 2 to 6 <i>S</i> suggests the
-constant 1100 to be used for 2- to 6-inch single leather
-belt, 1000 for 6½- to 10-inch single, 600 for 2- to 6-inch
-double, etc.</p>
-
-<p>These suggestions practically agree with the advice
-of the Geo. V. Cresson Company's catalog and the
-deductions of Kent's Handbook.</p>
-
-<p>More power may be transmitted than these suggestions
-will allow, by increasing the tension, but this is
-accompanied by the disadvantage of requiring extra
-attention and undue pressure upon bearings.</p>
-
-<p>The use of the chart for horse-power and width of
-belting is explained by the following rules:</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span></p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Rule 3.</span> <i>Horse-power of Belting.</i>&mdash;To find the
-horse-power that can be transmitted when diameter
-and speed of pulley and width of belt are given: Place
-one point of dividers on scale <i>A</i> at the width of belt
-in inches and the other point at the bottom of the
-line (at 1). Next add this space to the hight representing
-diameter of pulley by placing lower point of
-dividers upon the given diameter and allowing the other
-point to rest upon the scale above. Then holding the
-upper point stationary, open or close dividers until the
-other point falls upon the proper constant on the scale
-at right-hand side of line <i>A</i>. Now transfer this space
-last obtained to the scale <i>B</i> by raising the dividers,
-carrying them square across to <i>B</i> and placing the point
-that was on the constant upon the given speed on the
-revolution scale. Note the location of the other point
-of dividers upon the horse-power scale, which indicates
-the horse-power that can be transmitted under the
-given conditions.</p>
-
-<p>Example: What horse-power can be transmitted
-by an 8-inch double belt running on a 40-inch pulley
-at 500 feet per minute? Place one point of dividers
-on line <i>A</i> at 8 (width of belt) and the other point at
-bottom of line. Next raise dividers and place lower
-point on 40 (diameter of pulley) and let the other point
-fall above upon the scale. Then close dividers until
-lower point comes to the constant for 6½ to 10 double.
-Carry this space to scale <i>B</i> with lower point on 500 on
-revolution scale. Under point now falls upon 84 on
-horse-power scale, which is the required horse-power.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Rule 4.</span> <i>Width of Belting.</i>&mdash;To find the necessary<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span>
-width of belting when size and speed of pulley and the
-horse-power are given: Place one point of dividers
-on scale <i>B</i> upon the horse-power and the other point
-upon the revolutions. Next transfer this space to scale
-<i>A</i> by raising the dividers, carrying them square across
-and placing the point that was on revolutions upon the
-constant. Then holding the other point stationary,
-raise the point that was on the constant and open
-dividers until this point falls upon the given diameter.
-Now lift the dividers and carry the lower point down
-to bottom of line (the point 1). The upper point will
-now indicate the required width of belt.</p>
-
-<p>Note.&mdash;If, in finding width of belt, there is doubt
-about the proper constant to take, a medium value,
-say 6, may be assumed and a hasty "cut and try"
-will show in what classification the required belt will
-come.</p>
-
-<p>Example: What width of belt for 100 horse-power
-with 40-inch pulley at 500 revolutions?</p>
-
-<p>Place point of dividers on scale <i>B</i> upon 100 on horse-power
-scale and the other upon 500 on the revolution
-scale. Then carry the space to scale <i>A</i> with lower
-point on constant 5. Then resting dividers upon
-upper point open them until lower point is at 40 (diameter).
-Finally, raise dividers and place lower point
-at bottom of line. Upper point is now at 9½, indicating
-the nearest even width 10 as the answer.</p>
-
-<p>A little practice will make one familiar with these
-rules, and it will be seen that in the belting rules the
-four motions perform two multiplications and a division.</p>
-
-<hr class="r5" />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span></p>
-
-
-
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p class="ph2">XVII</p></div>
-
-<h2 class="nobreak">SPLICING ROPE</h2>
-
-
-<p><span class="smcap">The</span> splicing of a transmission rope is an important
-matter; the points on which the success of the splice,
-and incidentally the drive, depend being the length
-of the splice, which in turn depends upon the diameter
-of the rope and which is given in the table (Fig. 97a);
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span>the diameter of the splice, which should be the same
-as the diameter of the rope; the securing of the ends
-of the strands of the splice, which must be so fastened
-that they will not wear or whip out or cause the overlying
-strands to wear unduly; and the workmanship
-of the splice, which should be the best it is possible to
-secure. When splicing an old and a new piece of
-rope, the new piece should be thoroughly stretched,
-for, at best, it is an exceedingly difficult task on
-account of the stretch and difference in diameter of
-the rope.</p>
-
-<p class="c large"><span class="smcap">Data Relative to Manila Transmission Rope and Sheaves</span></p>
-
-<div class="center">
-<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
-<tr><td class="tdl bt br"></td><td class="tdl bt br"></td><td class="tdr bt br"></td><td class="tdr bt br"></td><td class="tdr bt br"></td><td class="tdc bt br bb" colspan="3">Length of Splice<br />in Feet</td><td class="tdr bt br"></td><td class="tdr bt"></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdc br"><b>A</b></td><td class="tdc br"><b>B</b></td><td class="tdc br"><b>C</b></td><td class="tdc br"><b>D</b></td><td class="tdc br"><b>E</b></td><td class="tdc br"><b>F</b></td><td class="tdc br"><b>G</b></td><td class="tdc br"><b>H</b></td><td class="tdc br"><b>I</b></td><td class="tdc"><b>J</b></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdr bt br"><span class="fnum">1</span>/<span class="fden">2</span></td><td class="tdl bt br">.25</td><td class="tdr br bt">.12</td><td class="tdr br bt">1750</td><td class="tdr bt br">50</td><td class="tdr br bt">6</td><td class="tdr bt br"></td><td class="tdr br bt"></td><td class="tdr br bt">20</td><td class="tdr bt">1060</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdr br"><span class="fnum">5</span>/<span class="fden">8</span></td><td class="tdl br">.2906</td><td class="tdr br">.16</td><td class="tdr br">2730</td><td class="tdr br">80</td><td class="tdr br">6</td><td class="tdr br"></td><td class="tdr br"></td><td class="tdr br">24</td><td class="tdr">970</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdr br"><span class="fnum">3</span>/<span class="fden">4</span></td><td class="tdl br">.5625</td><td class="tdr br">.20</td><td class="tdr br">3950</td><td class="tdr br">112</td><td class="tdr br">6</td><td class="tdr br">8</td><td class="tdr br"></td><td class="tdr br">27</td><td class="tdr">760</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdr br"><span class="fnum">7</span>/<span class="fden">8</span></td><td class="tdl br">.7656</td><td class="tdr br">.26</td><td class="tdr br">5400</td><td class="tdr br">153</td><td class="tdr br">6</td><td class="tdr br">8</td><td class="tdr br"></td><td class="tdr br">32</td><td class="tdr">650</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl br">1</td><td class="tdl br">1.</td><td class="tdr br">.34</td><td class="tdr br">7000</td><td class="tdr br">200</td><td class="tdr br">7</td><td class="tdr br">10</td><td class="tdr br">14</td><td class="tdr br">36</td><td class="tdr">570</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl br"><span class="nowrap">1 <span class="fnum">1</span>/<span class="fden">8</span></span></td><td class="tdl br">1.2656</td><td class="tdr br">.43</td><td class="tdr br">8900</td><td class="tdr br">253</td><td class="tdr br">7</td><td class="tdr br">10</td><td class="tdr br">16</td><td class="tdr br">40</td><td class="tdr">510</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl br"><span class="nowrap">1 <span class="fnum">1</span>/<span class="fden">4</span></span></td><td class="tdl br">1.5625</td><td class="tdr br">.63</td><td class="tdr br">10,900</td><td class="tdr br">312</td><td class="tdr br">7</td><td class="tdr br">10</td><td class="tdr br">16</td><td class="tdr br">45</td><td class="tdr">460</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl br"><span class="nowrap">1 <span class="fnum">1</span>/<span class="fden">2</span></span></td><td class="tdl br">2.25</td><td class="tdr br">.77</td><td class="tdr br">15,700</td><td class="tdr br">450</td><td class="tdr br">8</td><td class="tdr br">12</td><td class="tdr br">18</td><td class="tdr br">54</td><td class="tdr">380</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl br"><span class="nowrap">1 <span class="fnum">3</span>/<span class="fden">4</span></span></td><td class="tdl br">3.0625</td><td class="tdr br">1.04</td><td class="tdr br">21,400</td><td class="tdr br">612</td><td class="tdr br">8</td><td class="tdr br">12</td><td class="tdr br">18</td><td class="tdr br">63</td><td class="tdr">330</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl br">2</td><td class="tdl br">4.</td><td class="tdr br">1.36</td><td class="tdr br">28,000</td><td class="tdr br">800</td><td class="tdr br">9</td><td class="tdr br">14</td><td class="tdr br">20</td><td class="tdr br">72</td><td class="tdr">290</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl br"><span class="nowrap">2 <span class="fnum">1</span>/<span class="fden">4</span></span></td><td class="tdl br">5.0625</td><td class="tdr br">1.73</td><td class="tdr br">35,400</td><td class="tdr br">1012</td><td class="tdr br">9</td><td class="tdr br">14</td><td class="tdr br">20</td><td class="tdr br">81</td><td class="tdr">255</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl br bb"><span class="nowrap">2 <span class="fnum">1</span>/<span class="fden">2</span></span></td><td class="tdl br bb">6.25</td><td class="tdr br bb">2.13</td><td class="tdr br bb">43,700</td><td class="tdr br bb">1250</td><td class="tdr br bb">10</td><td class="tdr br bb">16</td><td class="tdr br bb">22</td><td class="tdr br bb">90</td><td class="tdr bb">230</td></tr>
-</table></div>
-
-<p class="c caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 97</span>a.</p>
-
-<p class="c large"><span class="smcap">Key to above table</span></p>
-
-
-<div class="center">
-<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="">
-<tr><td class="tdl"><b>A</b></td><td class="tdl">Diameter of Rope in Inches</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl"><b>B</b></td><td class="tdl">Square of Diameter</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl"><b>C</b></td><td class="tdl">Approximate Weight per Foot, Pounds</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl"><b>D</b></td><td class="tdl">Breaking Strength, Pounds</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl"><b>E</b></td><td class="tdl">Maximum Allowable Tension, Pounds</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl"><b>F</b></td><td class="tdl">3-Strand</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl"><b>G</b></td><td class="tdl">4-Strand</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl"><b>H</b></td><td class="tdl">6-Strand</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl"><b>I</b></td><td class="tdl">Smallest Diameter of Sheaves in Inches</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdl"><b>J</b></td><td class="tdl">Maximum Number of Revolutions per Minute</td></tr>
-</table></div>
-
-
-<p>The illustrations and instructions for making standard
-rope splices are taken, by the courtesy of the
-American Manufacturing Company, from their "Blue
-Book of Rope Transmission."</p>
-
-<p>There are many different splices now in use, but the
-one that experience has proved best is what is known
-as the English transmission splice. In describing this
-we take for our example a four-strand rope, 1¾ inches
-in diameter, as spliced on sheaves in the multiple
-system. The rope is first placed around sheaves, and,
-with a tackle, stretched and hauled taut; the ends
-should pass each other from six to seven feet, the passing
-point being marked with twine on each rope.
-The rope is then slipped from the sheaves and allowed
-to rest on shafts, to give sufficient slack for making
-the splice.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/fig91.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 98.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Unlay the strands in pairs as far back as the twines
-<i>M</i>, <i>M′</i>, crotch the four pairs of strands thus opened
-(Fig. 98), cores having been drawn out together on
-the upper side. Then, having removed marking
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span>twine <i>M</i>, unlay the two strands 6 and 8, still in pairs,
-back a distance of two feet, to <i>A</i>; the strands 1 and 3,
-also in pairs, being carefully laid in their place. Next
-unlay the strands 5 and 7 in pairs, to <i>A′</i>, replacing
-them as before with 2 and 4. The rope is now as
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span>shown in Fig. 99. The pair of strands 6 and 8 are
-now separated, and 8 unlaid four feet back to <i>B</i>, a
-distance of six feet from center, strand 6 being left at
-<i>A</i>. The pair of strands 1 and 3 having been separated,
-3 is left at <i>A</i>, as companion for 6, strand 1 being carefully
-laid in place of strand 8 until they meet at point<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span>
-<i>B</i>. The two pairs of strands 2-4 and 5-7 are now
-separated and laid in the same manner, every care
-being taken, while thus putting the rope together,
-that original twist and lay of strand is maintained.
-The protruding cores are now cut off so that the ends,
-when pushed back in rope, butt together.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/fig92.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 99.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The rope now appears as shown in Fig. 100, and
-after the eight strands have been cut to convenient
-working lengths (about two feet), the companion
-strands are ready to be fastened together and
-"tucked"; this operation is described for strands 2
-and 7, the method being identical for the other three
-pairs. Unlay 2 and 7 for about twelve to fourteen
-inches, divide each strand in half by removing its
-cover yarns (see Fig. 101), whip with twine the ends
-of interior yarns 2′ and 7′; then, leaving cover 2, relay
-2′ until near 7 and 7′, here join with simple knot 2′
-and 7′, Fig. 102. Divide cover yarns 7, and pass 2′
-through them, continuing on through the rope <i>under</i>
-the two adjacent strands, avoiding the core, thus
-locking 2′, Fig. 103. <i>In no event pass 2′ over these or
-any other strands.</i> Half-strand 7′ must now be taken
-care of; at the right of the knot made with 2′ and 7′,
-2′ is slightly raised with a marlin spike, and 7′ passed
-or tucked around it two or three times, these two
-half-strands forming in this way a whole strand.
-Half-strand 7′ is tucked until cover 2 is reached,
-whose yarns are divided and 7′ passed through them
-and drawn under the two adjacent strands, forming
-again the lock. The strand ends at both locks are
-now cut off, leaving about two inches, so that the
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a><br /><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a><br /><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span>yarns may draw slightly without unlocking. This
-completes the joining of one pair of strands, Fig. 104.
-The three remaining pairs of strands are joined in the
-same manner.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/fig93.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 100.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/fig94.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 101.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/fig95.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 102.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/fig96.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 103.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/fig97.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 104.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>After the rope has been in service a few days, the
-projecting ends at locks wear away, and if tucks have
-been carefully made, and the original twist of yarns
-preserved, the diameter of the rope will not be increased,
-nor can the splice be located when the rope
-is in motion.</p>
-
-<hr class="r5" />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span></p>
-
-
-
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p class="ph2">XVIII</p></div>
-
-<h2 class="nobreak" title="WIRE ROPE TRANSMISSION">WIRE ROPE TRANSMISSION<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a></h2>
-
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Wire</span> ropes are extensively and successfully used
-in the horizontal and inclined transmission of great
-power of unlimited amount, the advantages over hemp
-rope belting being: driving at very long distances,
-comparatively small loss through slipping and the
-possibility of driving in the open air.</p>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> Contributed to Power by C. Boysen, M. E.</p></div>
-
-<p>Vertical transmission of power, on account of the
-weight of the rope, is excluded.</p>
-
-<p>Formerly the material used in the manufacture
-of the wires was best charcoal iron, but now almost
-exclusively tough crucible-steel wires are used, as steel
-wire ropes are stronger, do not stretch as much, and last
-longer than iron ropes.</p>
-
-<p>The wire ropes consist of six strands of from six to
-twenty wires each, and the strands to form the rope
-are woven in the opposite direction to the wires in the
-strand. In the center of each strand and in the center
-of the rope a cotton core is placed. These cores are of
-the greatest importance, for by reducing the friction
-of the wires against each other, they serve to increase
-the lifetime of the rope, which, according to the strain<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span>
-on the rope and the size of the smallest pulley, is from
-one to three years.</p>
-
-<p>To prevent rusting, the wire ropes receive a coat
-of boiled linseed oil, or a hot mixture consisting of
-three parts of drip oil and one part of resin is applied.
-This latter mixture at the same time improves the adhesion
-between the rope and the lining placed in the
-bottom of the pulleys, thus reducing the loss caused by
-slipping of the rope. Wire ropes used for the transmission
-of power should never be galvanized.</p>
-
-<p>The ends of the rope are spliced together, from 10
-to 20 feet being necessary for a good splice; great care
-should be taken that the splice is made by experienced
-men, and that the rope is made long enough. A rope
-stretches constantly from the time when placed on the
-pulleys, the more so when placed on the pulleys tightly.
-Therefore it has to be made long enough to transmit
-power without undue tension, and for this reason the
-distance between the two pulleys has to be long enough
-and the working strain per square inch of section low
-enough to allow sufficient deflection in the rope. As
-a guidance to the amount of deflection necessary, be
-it said that even in a short drive the deflection of the
-rope, when not running, should not be less than 2 feet;
-and for a distance of 400 feet between pulley centers,
-the deflection of the rope when running should be 5 feet
-in the driving rope and 10 feet in the driven rope.</p>
-
-<p>Either the top or the bottom rope may be the driving
-one, the former being preferable; but the ropes should
-never be crossed.</p>
-
-<p>Power can be transmitted to a distance of 6000 feet<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span>
-and more without great loss; but as two pulleys
-should on no account be more than 500 feet apart,
-intermediate stations are placed along the road.</p>
-
-<p>Precautions should be taken against the possibility
-of the rope swaying. This may be caused either by the
-influence of the wind, by a bad splice, by the rope
-wearing too much, by the pulleys not being balanced
-well or by the pulleys not being in the same plane. It
-is of importance that the pulleys be exactly in line,
-and careful attention should be given to the construction
-and placing of the bearings. Although the bearings
-are not strained excessively, the steps are usually
-made long and movable. The connection between the
-shaft and the pulley is best made by means of tangential
-keys.</p>
-
-<p>Some engineers, when two ropes are found necessary
-for the transmission of the power in question, use
-pulleys containing two grooves each, and make the
-same kind of pulleys for the intermediate stations of
-long-distance driving; whereas others advise a separate
-pulley for each rope, both being connected with each
-other by a clutch.</p>
-
-<p>The diameter of the smallest pulley has to be large
-enough in comparison with the diameter of the rope
-or the thickness of the single wires used to easily overcome
-the stiffness in the rope. The larger the pulleys,
-the longer the rope will last.</p>
-
-<p>The rim of the pulley is V-shaped, and the bottom of
-the groove is dovetailed to receive a lining of wood, rubber
-or leather, on which the rope rests. The lining increases
-the friction and reduces the loss caused by slipping of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span>
-the rope. Leather is the best lining and lasts about
-three years. Either old belt leather, well saturated
-with oil, or new leather, boiled in fish oil, can be taken.
-It is cut in pieces of the same size as the dovetailed
-part of the groove, and then placed on and pressed together
-in the latter. The pressing is done by means
-of a piece of wood. The last remaining small space in
-the groove is filled with soft rubber. If the lining has
-to consist of rubber, this is softened and hammered
-into the groove. For wood lining, thin blocks of the
-required size are placed into the groove through a hole
-provided in the bottom of the rim. This slot is closed
-by a plate and fastened to the bottom of the rim by
-means of screws after all blocks have been inserted.
-The lining has to be turned absolutely true, for which
-reason the filling is done while the pulley is still in the
-lathe.</p>
-
-<p>Pulleys up to 3 feet in diameter are built with cast-iron
-arms; whereas larger pulleys have wrought-iron
-arms made of round iron, cast in the rim and boss.
-Pulleys under 8 feet 6 inches in diameter are made in
-one piece, if for other reasons it is not necessary to have
-them in halves.</p>
-
-<p>Guide pulleys are used for long ropes, especially
-if there is not sufficient hight above the ground. The
-guide pulleys are of the same construction as the main
-pulleys, and for the driving rope they are also made of
-the same diameter. The diameter of the guide pulleys
-for the driven rope can be made from 20 to 25 per cent.
-smaller.</p>
-
-<p>The breaking strength of unannealed wires per square<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span>
-inch of section and according to thickness and quality
-is: For iron wires from 70,000 to 110,000 pounds,
-and for steel wires from 110,000 to 130,000 pounds.
-For thinner wires a higher value is taken than for thick
-ones.</p>
-
-<p>The diameter of the wires used for making ropes for
-transmitting power is from 0.02 to 0.1 inch, and on
-account of the stiffness, no wires above the latter size
-should be used. A rope consisting of a greater number
-of thin wires, besides being stronger is more pliable
-and lasts longer than a rope of the same area consisting
-of a less number of thicker wires.</p>
-
-<hr class="r5" />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a><br /><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span></p>
-
-
-
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p class="ph2">INDEX</p></div>
-
-
-<ul class="index"><li class="ifrst">A</li>
-
-<li class="indx">American Mfg. Co., <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li>
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">B</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Bauer, Chas. A., <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Beams to carry stringers, finding, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Bearings, locating, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Belt, building, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Belt creep, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">dressing, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li>
-<li class="isub2">comparative test, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">running off, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">shifter device upon column, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">sizes, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Belt, leather, selection, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">marking spliced part, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">new, putting on, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">slack, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">splicing on the pulleys, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">throwing on, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">tight, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">wire-lacing, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Belt-clamps, use, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Belting and pulley chart, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Belting, cleaning, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">horse-power transmitted, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">use and abuse, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">width, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Belts, cleaning, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">keeping clean, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">leather, care and management, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li>
-<li class="isub2">splicing, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">main line, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">taking-up, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Bird, Prof. Wm. W., <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Blue Book of Rope Transmission, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Board for use in lining countershaft, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Boiled linseed oil in wire rope, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Bolt and nut for moving pulleys, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">for hanger, size, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Bolt, preventing turning, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Boysen, C., M. E., <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Brands, effect on leather, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Breaking strain on shaft, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">strength of unannealed wires, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Bunsen burner, use in moving pulley, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Bushing, split, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></li>
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">C</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Center drive for heavily loaded shaft, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">stock, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Chart, belting and pulley, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cleaning belting, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Clutch, rim-friction, arrangement, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Clutches, coupling, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">tightening while shafting is in motion, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Collars, split wood, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Compass saw, use in locating beams, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Contact, extra, securing, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Continuous-wrap system of rope drive, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">-wrap system with direct-acting tightener, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Core, cotton, of wire rope, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">rope, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Countershaft, lining, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Couplings, flanged bolt, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cresson Co., Geo. V., catalog, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li>
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">D</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Deflection of rope, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Diameter of splice, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">rope, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">of wires for transmission rope, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Diameters, pulley, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Differential action on ropes, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Disks for plumb-bob, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Distance of power transmission by wire rope, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Dixon, Walter E., M. E. <a href="#Page_72">72</a>,, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Dressing, waterproof, for belts, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Driving an overhead floor, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li>
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">E</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Elbow bolts, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Emery cloth for packing, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">End drive compared with center drive, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">English transmission splice, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Evans, William, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li>
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">F</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Farmer, T., Jr., <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Fastening strands of splice, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Fiber, rope, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Filled belts, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Flanged bolt couplings, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li>
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">G</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Gasoline blow torch, use in getting oil out of belt, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Gluing a joint, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Greene, F. S., <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Guide pulleys, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></li>
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">H</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Hanger adjustment, securing, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">bearing, repairing worn end, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">positions, marks, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Hanger, removing to take off pulley, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">sliding out of wall box, <a href="#Page_1">1</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Hangers, crosswise of shaft, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Hangers not allowing vertical adjustment, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Heads of hemp, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Hemp, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Herrman, Chas., <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Holman, A. G., M. E., <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Hook bolts, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Horse-power transmitted by belting, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Hoyt, R., <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li>
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">J</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Joints in leather belt, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Journaled end of shaft, proper length, <a href="#Page_1">1</a></li>
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">K</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Kavanagh, Wm., <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Kent's Handbook, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Kinks, practical, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li>
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">L</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Lag screws, boring for, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Laps of leather belt, length, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">of leather belt, thickness, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Leather belts, care and management, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">selection, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Leather-cutting tool, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Leather, length for belt, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Length of splice, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Leveling shafting, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Line, leveling, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">setting, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Lining a countershaft, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">of pulley, wire rope transmission, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">shafting, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Loosening pulley that has seized, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Lubrication of rope, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li>
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">M</li>
-
-<li class="indx">McBarnes, Wm. H., <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Main shaft belted to engine and to countershaft, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Marks on ends of shafts, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">to show hanger positions, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Mounting dynamos and motors, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Mule belt, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Multiple-rope system, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li>
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">N</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Neatsfoot oil as belt dressing, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li>
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">O</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Oil, boiled linseed, on wire rope, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">effect on belt, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">getting out of belt, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li>
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">P</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Packing to secure good clamping fit, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Plank to use in sliding hanger out of wall box, <a href="#Page_1">1</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Plumb-bob, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">-bob method of lining countershaft, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Point slipping, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Power transmission by wire ropes, distance, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Practical kinks, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Pulley and belting chart, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">diameters, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">lining, wire rope transmission, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">shafts holding arrangement and adjusting contrivance, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">speed, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Pulley, cast-iron, moving, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">driving, location, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">loose, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">seized, loosening, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Pulleys for wire rope transmission, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Pulleys, guide, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">loosening, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">moving, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">removing, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">solid, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">split, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li>
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">R</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Rope, core, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">diameter, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">differential action, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">drives, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">fibers, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">lubrication, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">splicing, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">strands, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">transmission, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li>
-<li class="isub2">new scheme, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li>
-<li class="isub2">ordering, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Ropes, slack, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">tight, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Rusting of wire rope, preventing, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li>
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">S</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Scrapers for removing glue, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Scrapers, turning edge, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Seizing of pulley, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Separate-rope system, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Set-screws, use, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Shaft, breaking strain, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">causes of breaking, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">preventing turning, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">repairing break, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">journaled off to act as collar, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">length of journaled part of end, <a href="#Page_1">1</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Shaft line, space between end and wall, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Shafting, apparatus for leveling and lining, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">hints, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">leveling, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">line, turning up, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">lining, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">testing alinement and level, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Shafts of light-working counters, marring, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Sheaves, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Sheet iron for packing, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Sizes of belts, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">of rope, effect, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Slack ropes, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Slip of belt, legitimate, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Space between end of shaft line and wall, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Speed, pulley, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Splice, diameter, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">English transmission, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">fastening strands, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">length, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Splice opener for heavy belts, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Splice, wire rope, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">workmanship, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Spliced part of belt, marking, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Splicing belt on the pulleys, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">board, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">leather belts, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">rope, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Split bushing, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Split-pulley, tightening, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Split wood collars, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Steel for sharpening scraper, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Stillson wrench, use, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Strands of rope, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Stretchers, position, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Stringers, locating beams to carry, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Stringers of drop hangers, thickness, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Superior 2ds hemp, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Swaying of rope, preventing, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></li>
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">T</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Take-up for rope drive, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">-up sheave for rope drive, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Testing alinement and level of shafting, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Tight ropes, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Tightener, automatic, for rope drive, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Tightener for 31-rope drive, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">system, dangerous, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Tightening ropes, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Timbers of boarded-over ceiling, locating, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Tin for packing, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Tool for leveling shafting, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Tools for splicing leather belts, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Transmission rope, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">rope, ordering, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Transmission, wire rope, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">rope, deflection of rope, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Traveling take-up for rope drive, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Tucking strands, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Turning edge of scrapers, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">up line shafting, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li>
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">V</li>
-
-<li class="indx">V-shaped rails, for mounting dynamos and motors, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Vertical adjustment for hangers, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li>
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">W</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Water, effect on belt, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Width of belting, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Willis, Geo. F., <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Wire diameter, for transmission rope, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Wire-lacing a belt, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Wire rope, splice, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">transmission, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Wrench, proper way to use, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li>
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">Z</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Zebu manila hemp, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></li></ul>
-
-<div class="transnote">
-
-<p class="c">Transcriber's Notes:</p>
-
-<p>Punctuation has been preserved as it appears in the original publication.</p>
-
-<p>Archaic and variable spelling has been preserved.</p>
-
-<p>Variations in hyphenation and compound words have been preserved.</p>
-
-<p>Obvious typos were silently corrected.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-<pre>
-
-
-
-
-
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