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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..4bb87ff --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #60605 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/60605) diff --git a/old/60605-0.txt b/old/60605-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 826ca2c..0000000 --- a/old/60605-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,15476 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Industrial Poisoning, by Joseph Rambousek - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Industrial Poisoning - From Fumes, Gases and Poisons of Manufacturing Processes - -Author: Joseph Rambousek - -Translator: Thomas M. Legge - -Release Date: November 1, 2019 [EBook #60605] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK INDUSTRIAL POISONING *** - - - - -Produced by Suzanne Lybarger, Brian Janes and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - - - - - -INDUSTRIAL POISONING - -FROM FUMES, GASES AND POISONS OF MANUFACTURING PROCESSES - - BY THE SAME AUTHOR - - LEAD POISONING AND LEAD ABSORPTION: - - THE SYMPTOMS, PATHOLOGY AND PREVENTION, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE - TO THEIR INDUSTRIAL ORIGIN AND AN ACCOUNT OF THE PRINCIPAL - PROCESSES INVOLVING RISK. - - By THOMAS M. LEGGE M.D. (Oxon.), D.P.H. (Cantab.), H.M. Medical - Inspector of Factories; Lecturer on Factory Hygiene, University - of Manchester; and KENNETH W. GOADBY, D.P.H. (Cantab.), - Pathologist and Lecturer on Bacteriology, National Dental - Hospital. Illustrated. viii+308 pp. 12s. 6_d._ net. - - LONDON: EDWARD ARNOLD. - - - - - INDUSTRIAL POISONING - - FROM FUMES, GASES AND POISONS - OF MANUFACTURING PROCESSES - - BY - DR. J. RAMBOUSEK - PROFESSOR OF FACTORY HYGIENE, - AND CHIEF STATE HEALTH OFFICER, PRAGUE - - TRANSLATED AND EDITED BY - THOMAS M. LEGGE, M.D., D.P.H. - H.M. MEDICAL INSPECTOR OF FACTORIES - JOINT AUTHOR OF ‘LEAD POISONING AND LEAD ABSORPTION’ - - WITH ILLUSTRATIONS - - LONDON - EDWARD ARNOLD - 1913 - - - - -TRANSLATOR’S PREFACE - - -I undertook the translation of Dr. Rambousek’s book because it seemed to -me to treat the subject of industrial poisons in as novel, comprehensive, -and systematic a manner as was possible within the compass of a single -volume. Having learnt much myself from Continental writings on industrial -diseases and factory hygiene, I was anxious to let others also see how -wide a field they had covered and how thorough were the regulations for -dangerous trades abroad, especially in Germany. A praiseworthy feature of -Dr. Rambousek’s book was the wealth of references to the work of foreign -writers which is made on almost every page. To have left these names -and references, however, in the text as he has done would have made the -translation tedious reading, and therefore for the sake of those who -desire to pursue inquiry further I have adopted the course of collecting -the great majority and placing them all together in an appendix at the -end of the volume. - -Dr. Rambousek as a medical man, a chemist, and a government official -having control of industrial matters, is equipped with the very special -knowledge required to describe the manufacturing processes giving rise -to injurious effects, the pathology of the lesions set up, and the -preventive measures necessary to combat them. In his references to work -done in this country he has relied largely on abstracts which have -appeared in medical and technical journals published on the Continent. I -have only thought it necessary to amplify his statements when important -work carried out here on industrial poisoning,—such as that on nickel -carbonyl and on ferro-silicon—had been insufficiently noted. Such -additions are introduced in square brackets or in footnotes. - -In his preface Dr. Rambousek says ‘the book is intended for all who -are, or are obliged to be, or ought to be, interested in industrial -poisoning.’ No words could better describe the scope of the book. - -The work of translation would never have been begun but for the -assistance given me in Parts II and III by my sister, Miss H. Edith -Legge. To her, and to Mr. H. E. Brothers, F.I.C., who has been to the -trouble of reading the proofs and correcting many mistakes which my -technical knowledge was insufficient to enable me to detect, my best -thanks are due. - -I am indebted to Messrs. Davidson & Co., Belfast, for permission to use -figs. 46 and 48; to Messrs. Locke, Lancaster & Co., Millwall, for fig. -27; to Mr. R. Jacobson, for figs. 30, 33, 37, 38, and 43; to Messrs. -Siebe, Gorman & Co., for figs. 32, 39, and 40; to Messrs. Blackman & Co. -for fig. 47; to Messrs. Matthews & Yates for fig. 54; to H.M. Controller -of the Stationery Office for permission to reproduce figs. 52, 53, and -54, and the diagrams on p. 284; and lastly to my publisher, for figs. 41, -42, 43, and 49, which are taken from the book by Dr. K. W. Goadby and -myself on ‘Lead Poisoning and Lead Absorption.’ - - T. M. L. - -HAMPSTEAD, _May 1913_. - - - - -CONTENTS - - - PAGE - - INTRODUCTION xiii - - Part I.—Description of the industries and processes attended - with risk of poisoning: incidence of such poisoning - - CHEMICAL INDUSTRY 1 - Sulphuric acid industry (sulphur dioxide): use of sulphuric acid 4 - Its effects on health 9 - Hydrochloric acid, saltcake and soda industry 14 - Their effects on health 20 - Use of sulphate and sulphide of soda 22 - Ultramarine 22 - Sulphonal 22 - Diethyl sulphate 23 - Chlorine, chloride of lime and chlorates 23 - Their effect on health 26 - Other chlorine compounds and their use as well as bromine, - iodine and fluorine 29 - Chlorides of phosphorus 30 - Chlorides of sulphur 31 - Zinc chloride 32 - Rock salt 32 - Organic chlorine compounds 32 - Carbon oxychloride (phosgene) 32 - Carbon chlorine compounds (aliphatic) 33 - Methyl chloride 33 - Methylene chloride 34 - Carbon tetrachloride 34 - Ethyl chloride 34 - Monochloracetic acid 34 - Chloral 34 - Chloroform 34 - Chloride of nitrogen 35 - Cyanogen chloride 35 - Chlorobenzene 35 - Benzo trichloride, benzyl chloride 35 - Nitro- and dinitro-chlorobenzene 35 - Iodine and iodine compounds 36 - Bromine and bromine compounds 36 - Methyl iodide and methyl bromide 36 - Fluorine compounds 37 - Hydrofluoric and silicofluoric acids 38 - Manufacture and uses of nitric acid 39 - Its effect on health 40 - Nitric and nitrous salts and compounds 44 - Barium nitrate 44 - Ammonium nitrate 44 - Lead nitrate 44 - Mercurous and mercuric nitrate 44 - Silver nitrate 45 - Sodium nitrite 45 - Amyl nitrite 45 - Manufacture of explosives and their effects 45 - Fulminate of mercury 46 - Nitro-glycerin 46 - Dynamite 47 - Gun cotton 48 - Collodion cotton, smokeless powder 48 - Manufacture of phosphorus and lucifer matches and their effects 49 - Other uses of phosphorus and compounds of phosphorus 52 - Phosphor-bronze 52 - Sulphide of phosphorus 52 - Phosphoretted hydrogen 52 - Superphosphate and artificial manure 53 - Basic slag 54 - Chromium compounds and their uses 55 - Sodium and potassium bichromate 55 - Lead chromate and chrome colours 55 - Their effect on health 56 - Manganese compounds and their effects 58 - Mineral oil industry and the use of petroleum and benzine 59 - Chemical cleaning 61 - Their effect on health 61 - Recovery and use of sulphur 64 - Its effect on health 65 - Sulphuretted hydrogen and its effect 65 - Preparation and use of carbon bisulphide in vulcanising, &c. 68 - Its effect on health 69 - Preparation of illuminating gas 71 - Its effect on health 74 - Coke ovens and risk from them 77 - Other kinds of power and illuminating gas 80 - Producer gas 80 - Blast furnace gas 82 - Water gas 82 - Dowson and Mond gas 82 - Suction gas 83 - Acetylene (calcium carbide) 85 - Their effect on health 87 - Ammonia and ammonium compounds 90 - Use of ammonia and its effects 92 - Cyanogen compounds 93 - Use of cyanide, and their effects 95 - Coal tar and tar products 96 - Their effects on health 101 - Artificial organic dye stuffs (coal tar colours) 107 - Their effects on health 112 - RECOVERY AND USE OF METALS 120 - Lead poisoning in general 120 - Lead, silver and zinc smelting 122 - Spelter works 125 - Lead poisoning in lead smelting and spelter works 126 - White lead and other use of lead colours 131 - Lead poisoning in the manufacture and use of white lead - and lead paints 132 - Manufacture of electric accumulators 134 - The ceramic industry 135 - Coarse ware pottery 136 - Manufacture of stove tiles 137 - Stoneware and porcelain 138 - Lead poisoning in letterpress printing 138 - Lead poisoning in filecutting, polishing precious stones, - musical instrument making, &c. 140 - Mercury (poisoning in its recovery and use) 141 - Mercurial poisoning in water-gilding, coating mirrors, in - felt hat making, &c. 142 - Arsenic (poisoning in its recovery and in use of arsenic and - arsenic compounds) 143 - Recovery of arsenic and white arsenic 143 - Poisoning by arseniuretted hydrogen gas 145 - Antimony 146 - Extraction of iron 146 - Ferro-silicon 149 - Zinc 151 - Copper, brass (brassfounders’ ague) 151 - Metal pickling 152 - OTHER INDUSTRIES 153 - Treatment of stone and earths; lime burning, glass 153 - Treatment of animal products 154 - Preparation of vegetable foodstuffs 154 - Poisonous woods 154 - Textile industry 156 - - Part II.—Pathology and treatment of industrial poisoning - - INDUSTRIAL POISONS IN GENERAL 157 - Channels of absorption, classification, susceptibility, - immunity 158 - Fate of poisons in the body—absorption, cumulative action, - excretion 162 - General remarks on treatment 163 - INDUSTRIAL POISONS IN PARTICULAR 169 - Group: mineral acids, halogens, inorganic halogen compounds, - alkalis 169 - Hydrochloric acid 170 - Hydrofluoric and silico-fluoric acids 171 - Sulphur dioxide and sulphuric acid 171 - Nitrous fumes, nitric acid 172 - Chlorine, bromine, iodine 173 - Chlorides of phosphorus, sulphur and zinc 174 - Ammonia 175 - Alkalis 176 - Group: Metals and metal-compounds 176 - Lead and its compounds 177 - Zinc and its alloys 182 - Mercury and its compounds 183 - Manganese and its compounds 184 - Chromium and its compounds 185 - Nickel salts (nickel carbonyl) 186 - Copper 188 - Silver and its compounds 188 - Group: Arsenic, Phosphorus 189 - Arsenic and its oxides 189 - Phosphorus 190 - Phosphoretted hydrogen 191 - Group: Sulphuretted hydrogen, carbon bisulphide, and cyanogen - (nerve poisons) 192 - Sulphuretted hydrogen 192 - Carbon bisulphide 193 - Cyanogen compounds 195 - Group: Arseniuretted hydrogen and carbonic oxide (blood - poisons) 197 - Group: Hydrocarbons of the aliphatic and aromatic series and - their halogen and hydroxyl substitution products 202 - Sub-group: Hydrocarbons of mineral oils and their distillation - products (benzine, paraffin, &c.) 202 - Sub-group: Hydrocarbons of the aromatic series 204 - Benzene and its homologues 204 - Naphthalene 208 - Sub-group: Halogen substitution products of the aliphatic - series (narcotic poisons) 208 - Sub-group: Halogen substitution products of the benzene - series 209 - Sub-group: Hydroxyl substitution products of the fatty - series 210 - Group: Nitro- and amido-derivatives of the aliphatic and - aromatic series 211 - Sub-group: Nitro-derivatives of the aliphatic series 212 - Sub-group: Nitro- and amido-derivatives of the aromatic - series 212 - Turpentine, pyridene, alkaloids, nicotine, poisonous woods 215 - - Part III.—Preventive measures against industrial poisoning - - GENERAL PREVENTIVE MEASURES 217 - International action, notification of poisoning, schedules - of poisons 218 - Special preventive measures for workers—selection, periodical - medical examination, co-operation of workers, &c. 226 - Rescue appliances 230 - Washing accommodation and baths 237 - Removal of dust and fumes by exhaust ventilation 242 - PREVENTIVE MEASURES IN PARTICULAR INDUSTRIES 256 - Sulphuric acid industry 256 - Hydrochloric acid and soda industries 257 - Chlorine, bleaching powder, chlorine compounds 259 - Manufacture of nitric acid and explosives 260 - Artificial manures, basic slag 261 - Chromium and its compounds 265 - Petroleum, benzine 267 - Phosphorus, lucifer matches 268 - Bisulphide of carbon 271 - Illuminating gas, tar production 275 - Gas power plant 276 - Acetylene gas installations 278 - Ammonia 279 - Cyanogen, cyanogen compounds 280 - Coal tar, tar products 280 - Organic dye-stuffs, coal tar colours 285 - Recovery and use of metals 288 - Iron 289 - Lead 292 - Lead smelting 299 - Electric accumulators 305 - White lead and lead colours 310 - Letterpress printing 316 - Ceramic industry 319 - File cutting 321 - Other uses of lead 322 - Zinc smelting 323 - Brass casting, metal pickling 325 - Recovery and use of mercury 326 - Arsenic and its compounds 328 - Gold and silver 329 - PREVENTIVE MEASURES IN OTHER TRADES 329 - Manufacture and use of varnishes 330 - Production of vegetable foods 332 - Wood working 335 - Paper manufacture 336 - Textile industries 336 - - APPENDIX 339 - - INDEX 355 - - - - -INTRODUCTION - - -The attempt to systematise from the scientific standpoint the mass of -material that has been collected about poisons is a very heavy task, even -for the toxicologist who desires to treat his subject comprehensively. -How much greater is the difficulty of writing a systematic book on -industrial poisoning keeping practical application in the forefront! - -Technical considerations which are decisive in the causation and -prevention of industrial poisoning are here of especial moment, and must -naturally influence classification of the subject-matter when the object -is to assist those concerned in factory hygiene. - -Bearing this in mind, I have divided the subject into three parts. The -arrangement of the first, which gives as complete a statement as possible -of the occurrence of industrial poisoning, into industries and processes -was determined on technical grounds. The second, which amplifies the -first, attempts to summarise the pathology or symptoms of the various -forms of poisoning. The references to the literature of the particular -subjects—as exhaustive as I could make them—will lighten further study. -To these two parts, following on knowledge of causation and symptoms, the -third, in which preventive measures are outlined, is linked. - -The apparent drawback in use of the book is that one form of poisoning -has often to be referred to in three places. But, I hope, this is more -than counterbalanced by the completeness of the scheme which results from -the subdivision of the subject. - -The pathology of industrial poisoning necessitates frequent repetition -when describing the branches of industry giving rise to the -intoxication, as one and the same form can occur in the most varied -processes. The numerous instances of actual cases of poisoning quoted -must therefore be regarded as conforming to the same pathological type. -Similarly, preventive measures require separate systematic treatment in -order to avoid constant repetition which would otherwise obscure the -general survey. Quite a number of means of prevention apply equally -to several industries in which the same cause is at work. The success -attained by thus simplifying the issues is the greater because such -common measures are the easier to carry through and to supervise. - -The method therefore has been adopted only after serious reflection and -has been directed mainly by practical considerations. - -Recent cases which have either been reported or come to the knowledge -of the author have been given, with particulars as exact as possible. -Cases dating back some time have been omitted intentionally so as to -exclude everything which did not correspond with the present conditions -of industry and trade. Historical facts only receive consideration in so -far as they are fundamentally important and necessary for the sake of -completeness. - -The details given in Part I of actual instances will supply material for -fresh efforts, renewed investigation, and new points of attack. - - - - -INDUSTRIAL POISONING - - - - -PART I - -_DESCRIPTION OF THE INDUSTRIES AND PROCESSES ATTENDED WITH RISK OF -POISONING; INCIDENCE OF SUCH POISONING_ - - - - -I. THE CHEMICAL INDUSTRY - - -GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS AS TO INCIDENCE OF INDUSTRIAL POISONING - -The chemical industry offers naturally a wide field for the occurrence of -industrial poisoning. Daily contact with the actual poisonous substances -to be prepared, used, stored, and despatched in large quantity gives -opportunity for either acute or chronic poisoning—in the former case -from sudden accidental entrance into the system of fairly large doses, -as the result of defective or careless manipulation, and, in the latter, -constant gradual absorption (often unsuspected) of the poison in small -amount. - -The industry, however, can take credit for the way in which incidence -of industrial poisoning has been kept down in view of the magnitude and -variety of the risks which often threaten. This is attributable to the -comprehensive hygienic measures enforced in large chemical works keeping -abreast of modern advance in technical knowledge. A section of this -book deals with the principles underlying these measures. Nevertheless, -despite all regulations, risk of poisoning cannot be wholly banished. -Again and again accidents and illness occur for which industrial -poisoning is responsible. Wholly to prevent this is as impossible as -entirely to prevent accidents by mechanical guarding of machinery. - -Owing to the unknown sources of danger, successful measures to ward it -off are often difficult. The rapid advance of this branch of industry, -the constant development of new processes and reactions, the frequent -discovery of new materials (with properties at first unknown, and for a -long time insufficiently understood, but nevertheless indispensable), -constantly give rise to new dangers and possibilities of danger, of which -an accident or some disease with hitherto unknown symptoms is the first -indication. Further, even when the dangerous effects are recognised, -there may often be difficulty in devising appropriate precautions, as -circumstances may prevent immediate recognition of the action of the -poison. We cannot always tell, for instance, with the substances used -or produced in the processes, which is responsible for the poisoning, -because, not infrequently, the substances in question are not chemically -pure, but may be either raw products, bye-products, &c., producing -mixtures of different bodies or liberating different chemical compounds -as impurities. - -Hence difficulty often arises in the strict scientific explanation -of particular cases of poisoning, and, in a text-book such as this, -difficulty also of description. A rather full treatment of the technical -processes may make the task easier and help to give a connected picture -of the risks of poisoning in the chemical industry. Such a procedure may -be especially useful to readers insufficiently acquainted with chemical -technology. - -We are indebted to Leymann[1] and Grandhomme[2] especially for knowledge -of incidence of industrial poisoning in this industry. The statistical -data furnished by them are the most important proof that poisoning, at -any rate in large factories, is not of very frequent occurrence. - -Leymann’s statistics relate to a large modern works in which the number -employed during the twenty-three years of observation increased from -640 in the year 1891 to 1562 in 1904, giving an average of about 1000 -yearly, one-half of whom might properly be defined as ‘chemical workers.’ -The factory is concerned in the manufacture of sulphuric, nitric, and -hydrochloric acids, alkali, bichromates, aniline, trinitro-phenol, -bleaching powder, organic chlorine compounds, and potassium permanganate. - -These statistics are usefully complemented by those of Grandhomme drawn -from the colour works at Höchst a-M. This large aniline works employs -from 2600 to 2700 workers; the raw materials are principally benzene and -its homologues, naphthalene and anthracene. The manufacture includes the -production of coal-tar colours, nitro- and dinitro-benzene, aniline, -rosaniline, fuchsine, and other aniline colours, and finally such -pharmaceutical preparations as antipyrin, dermatol, sanoform, &c. Of the -2700 employed, 1400 are chemical workers and the remainder labourers. - -These two series of statistics based on exact observations and covering -allied chemical manufacture are taken together. They seek to give the -answer to the question—How many and what industrial poisonings are found? - -The figures of Leymann (on an average of 1000 workers employed per annum) -show 285 cases of poisoning reported between the years 1881 and 1904. Of -these 275 were caused by aniline, toluidine, nitro- and dinitro-benzene, -nitrophenol, nitrochloro and dinitrochloro benzene. Three were fatal -and several involved lengthy invalidity (from 30 to 134 days, owing to -secondary pneumonia). Included further are one severe case of chrome -(bichromate) poisoning (with nephritis as a sequela), five cases of lead -poisoning, three of chlorine, and one of sulphuretted hydrogen gas. In -the Höchst a-M. factory (employing about 2500 workers) there were, in the -ten years 1883-92, only 129 cases of poisoning, of which 109 were due to -aniline. Later figures for the years 1893-5 showed 122 cases, of which 43 -were due to aniline and 76 to lead (contracted mostly in the nitrating -house). Grandhomme mentions further hyperidrosis among persons employed -on solutions of calcium chloride, injury to health from inhalation of -methyl iodide vapour in the antipyrin department, a fatal case of benzene -poisoning (entering an empty vessel in which materials had previously -been extracted with benzene), and finally ulceration and perforation of -the septum of the nose in several chrome workers. - -The number of severe cases is not large, but it must be remembered that -the factories to which the figures relate are in every respect models -of their kind, amply provided with safety appliances and arrangements -for the welfare of the workers. The relatively small amount of poisoning -is to be attributed without doubt to the precautionary measures taken. -Further, in the statistics referred to only those cases are included -in which the symptoms were definite, or so severe as to necessitate -medical treatment. Absorption of the poison in small amount without -producing characteristic symptoms, as is often the case with irritating -or corrosive fumes, and such as involve only temporary indisposition, are -not included. Leymann himself refers to this when dealing with illness -observed in the mineral acid department (especially sulphuric acid), and -calls attention to the frequency of affections of the respiratory organs -among the persons employed, attributing them rightly to the irritating -and corrosive effect of the acid vapour. Elsewhere he refers to the -frequency of digestive disturbance among persons coming into contact -with sodium sulphide, and thinks that this may be due to the action of -sulphuretted hydrogen gas. - -Nevertheless, the effect of industrial poisons on the health of workers -in chemical factories ought on no account to be made light of. The -admirable results cited are due to a proper recognition of the danger, -with consequent care to guard against it. Not only have Grandhomme -and Leymann[A] rendered great services by their work, but the firms -in question also, by allowing such full and careful inquiries to be -undertaken and published. - - -SULPHURIC ACID (SULPHUR DIOXIDE) - -MANUFACTURE.—Sulphur dioxide, generally obtained by roasting pyrites in -furnaces of various constructions, or, more rarely, by burning brimstone -or sulphur from the spent oxide of gas-works, serves as the raw material -for the manufacture of sulphuric acid. Before roasting the pyrites is -crushed, the ‘lump ore’ then separated from the ‘smalls,’ the former -roasted in ‘lump-burners’ or kilns (generally several roasting furnace -hearths united into one system), and the latter preferably in Malétra and -Malétra-Schaffner shelf-burners (fig. 1) composed of several superimposed -firebrick shelves. The pyrites is charged on to the uppermost shelf and -gradually worked downwards. Pyrites residues are not suitable for direct -recovery of iron, but copper can be recovered from residues sufficiently -rich in metal by the wet process; the residues thus freed of copper and -sulphur are then smelted for recovery of iron. - -[Illustration: FIG. 1.—Pyrites Burner for Smalls (_after Lueger_)] - -Utilisation for sulphuric acid manufacture of the sulphur dioxide given -off in the calcining of zinc blende (see Spelter works), impracticable in -reverberatory furnaces, has been made possible at the Rhenania factory by -introduction of muffle furnaces (several superimposed), because by this -means the gases led off are sufficiently concentrated, as they are not -diluted with the gases and smoke from the heating fires. This method, -like any other which utilises the gases from roasting furnaces, has -great hygienic, in addition to economical, advantages, because escape -of sulphur dioxide gas is avoided. Furnace gases, too poor in sulphur -dioxide to serve for direct production of sulphuric acid, can with -advantage be made to produce liquid anhydrous sulphur dioxide. Thus, the -sulphur dioxide gas from the furnaces is first absorbed by water, driven -off again by boiling, cooled, dried, and liquefied by pressure. - -The gaseous sulphur dioxide obtained by any of the methods described is -converted into sulphuric acid either by (_a_) the chamber process or -(_b_) the contact process. - -In the _lead chamber process_ the furnace gases pass through flues in -which the flue dust and a portion of the arsenious acid are deposited -into the Glover tower at a temperature of about 300° C., and from there -into the lead chambers where oxidation of the sulphur dioxide into -sulphuric acid takes place, in the presence of sufficient water, by -transference of the oxygen of the air through the intervention of the -oxides of nitrogen. The gases containing oxides of nitrogen, &c., which -are drawn out of the lead chambers, have the nitrous fumes absorbed -in the Gay-Lussac tower (of which there are one or two in series), by -passage through sulphuric acid which is made to trickle down the tower. -The sulphuric acid so obtained, rich in oxides of nitrogen, and the -chamber acid are led to the Glover tower for the purpose of denitration -and concentration, so that all the sulphuric acid leaves the Glover -as Glover acid of about 136-144° Tw. Losses in nitrous fumes are best -made up by addition of nitric acid at the Glover or introduction into -the first chamber. The deficiency is also frequently made good from -nitre-pots. - -The lead chambers (fig. 2) are usually constructed entirely—sides, -roof, and floor—of lead sheets, which are joined together by means of a -hydrogen blowpipe. The sheets forming the roof and walls are supported, -independent of the bottom, on a framework of wood. The capacity varies -from 35,000 to 80,000 cubic feet. The floor forms a flat collecting -surface for the chamber acid which lutes the chamber from the outer air. -The necessary water is introduced into the chamber as steam or fine water -spray. - -The Glover and Gay-Lussac towers are lead towers. The Glover is lined -with acid-proof bricks and filled with acid-proof packing to increase -the amount of contact. The Gay-Lussac is filled with coke over which -the concentrated sulphuric acid referred to above flows, forming, after -absorption of the nitrous fumes, nitro-sulphuric acid. - -[Illustration: FIG. 2A.—Lead Chamber System—Section through X X (_after -Ost_) - -FIG. 2B.—Lead Chamber System—Plan - - A Pyrites Burner - B Glover Tower - C Draft Regulator - D, D´ Lead Chambers - E Air Shaft - F, F,´ F,´´ F´´´ Acid Reservoirs - G Acid Egg - H Cooler - J Gay-Lussac Tower] - -As already stated, two Gay-Lussac towers are usually connected together, -or where there are several lead-chamber systems there is, apart from the -Gay-Lussac attached to each, a central Gay-Lussac in addition, common -to the whole series. The introduction of several Gay-Lussac towers -has the advantage of preventing loss of the nitrous fumes as much as -possible—mainly on economical grounds, as nitric acid is expensive. But -this arrangement is at the same time advantageous on hygienic grounds, as -escape of poisonous gases containing nitrous fumes, &c., is effectually -avoided. The acids are driven to the top of the towers by compressed air. -The whole system—chambers and towers—is connected by means of wide lead -conduits. Frequently, for the purpose of quickening the chamber process -(by increasing the number of condensing surfaces) Lunge-Rohrmann plate -towers are inserted in the system—tall towers lined with lead in which -square perforated plates are hung horizontally, and down which diluted -sulphuric acid trickles. - -To increase the draught in the whole system a chimney is usual at -the end, and, in addition, a fan of hard lead or earthenware may be -introduced in front of the first chamber or between the two Gay-Lussac -towers. Maintenance of a constant uniform draught is not only necessary -for technical reasons, but has hygienic interest, since escape of -injurious gases is avoided (see also Part III). - -The chamber acid (of 110°-120° Tw. = 63-70 %) and the stronger Glover -acid (of 136°-144° Tw. = 75-82 %) contain impurities. In order to obtain -for certain purposes pure strong acid the chamber acid is purified and -concentrated. The impurities are notably arsenious and nitrous acids -(Glover acid is N free), lead, copper, and iron. Concentration (apart -from that to Glover acid in the Glover tower) is effected by evaporation -in lead pans to 140° Tw. and finally in glass balloons or platinum stills -to 168° Tw. (= 97 %). The lead pans are generally heated by utilising the -waste heat from the furnaces or by steam coils in the acid itself, or -even by direct firing. - -Production of sulphuric acid by the _contact method_ depends on the fact -that a mixture of sulphur dioxide and excess of oxygen (air) combines -to form sulphur trioxide at a moderate heat in presence of a contact -substance such as platinised asbestos or oxide of iron. The sulphur -dioxide must be carefully cleaned and dried, and with the excess of air -is passed through the contact substance. If asbestos carrying a small -percentage of finely divided platinum is the contact substance, it is -generally used in the form of pipes; oxide of iron (the residue of -pyrites), if used, is charged into a furnace. Cooling by a coil of pipes -and condensation in washing towers supplied with concentrated sulphuric -acid always forms a part of the process. A fan draws the gases from the -roasting furnaces and drives them through the system. The end product -is a fuming sulphuric acid containing 20-30 per cent. SO₃. From this by -distillation a concentrated acid and a pure anhydride are obtained. From -a health point of view it is of importance to know that all sulphuric -acid derived from this anhydride is pure and free from arsenic. - -The most important _uses_ of sulphuric acid are the following: as chamber -acid (110°-120° Tw.) in the superphosphate, ammonium sulphate, and alum -industries; as Glover acid (140°-150° Tw.) in the Leblanc process, i.e. -saltcake and manufacture of hydrochloric acid, and to etch metals; as -sulphuric acid of 168° Tw. in colour and explosives manufacture (nitric -acid, nitro-benzene, nitro-glycerine, gun-cotton, &c.); as concentrated -sulphuric acid and anhydride for the production of organic sulphonic -acids (for the alizarin and naphthol industry) and in the refining of -petroleum and other oils. Completely de-arsenicated sulphuric acid -is used in making starch, sugar, pharmaceutical preparations, and in -electrical accumulator manufacture. - -EFFECTS ON HEALTH.—The health of sulphuric acid workers cannot in general -be described as unfavourable. - -In comparison with chemical workers they have, it is said, relatively -the lowest morbidity. Although in this industrial occupation no -special factors are at work which injure in general the health of the -workers, there is a characteristic effect, without doubt due to the -occupation—namely, disease of the respiratory organs. Leymann’s figures -are sufficiently large to show that the number of cases of diseases -of the respiratory organs is decidedly greater in the sulphuric acid -industry than among other chemical workers. He attributes this to the -irritating and corrosive effect of sulphur dioxide and sulphuric acid -vapour on the mucous membrane of the respiratory tract, as inhalation -of these gases can never be quite avoided, because the draught in the -furnace and chamber system varies, and the working is not always uniform. -Strongly irritating vapours escape again in making a high percentage -acid in platinum vessels, which in consequence are difficult to keep -air-tight. Of greater importance than these injurious effects from -frequent inhalation of small quantities of acid vapours, or employment -in workrooms in which the air is slightly charged with acid, is the -accidental sudden inhalation of large quantities of acid gases, which may -arise in the manufacture, especially by careless attendance. Formerly -this was common in charging the roasting furnaces when the draught in the -furnace, on addition of the pyrites, was not strengthened at the same -time. This can be easily avoided by artificial regulation of the draught. - -Accidents through inhalation of acid gases occur further when entering -the lead chambers or acid tanks, and in emptying the towers. Heinzerling -relates several cases taken from factory inspectors’ reports. Thus, in a -sulphuric acid factory the deposit (lead oxysulphate) which had collected -on the floor of a chamber was being removed: to effect this the lead -chambers were opened at the side. Two of the workers, who had probably -been exposed too long to the acid vapours evolved in stirring up the -deposit, died a short time after they had finished the work. A similar -fatality occurred in cleaning out a nitro-sulphuric acid tank, the -required neutralisation of the acid by lime before entering having been -omitted. Of the two workers who entered, one died the next day; the other -remained unaffected. The deceased had, as the post mortem showed, already -suffered previously from pleurisy. A fatality from breathing nitrous -fumes is described fully in the report of the Union of Chemical Industry -for the year 1905. The worker was engaged with two others in fixing a fan -to a lead chamber; the workers omitted to wait for the arrival of the -foreman who was to have supervised the operation. Although the men used -moist sponges as respirators, one of them inhaled nitrous fumes escaping -from the chamber in such quantity that he died the following day. - -Similar accidents have occurred in cleaning out the Gay-Lussac towers. -Such poisonings have repeatedly occurred in Germany. Fatal poisoning is -recorded in the report of the Union of Chemical Industry, in the emptying -and cleaning of a Gay-Lussac tower despite careful precautions. The -tower, filled with coke, had been previously well washed with water, and -during the operation of emptying, air had been constantly blown through -by means of a Körting’s injector. The affected worker had been in the -tower about an hour; two hours later symptoms of poisoning set in which -proved fatal in an hour despite immediate medical attention. As such -accidents kept on recurring, the Union of Chemical Industry drew up -special precautions to be adopted in the emptying of these towers, which -are printed in Part III. - -Naturally, in all these cases it is difficult to say exactly which of the -acid gases arising in the production of sulphuric acid was responsible -for the poisoning. In the fatal cases cited, probably nitrous fumes -played the more important part. - -Poisoning has occurred in the transport of sulphuric acid. In some of -the cases, at all events, gaseous impurities, especially arseniuretted -hydrogen, were present. - -Thus, in the reports of the German Union of Chemical Industry for the -year 1901, a worker succumbed through inhalation of poisonous gases in -cleaning out a tank waggon for the transport of sulphuric acid. The tank -was cleaned of the adhering mud, as had been the custom for years, by a -man who climbed into it. No injurious effects had been noted previously -at the work, and no further precautions were taken than that one worker -relieved another at short intervals, and the work was carried on under -supervision. On the occasion in question, however, there was an unusually -large quantity of deposit, although the quality of the sulphuric acid was -the same, and work had to be continued longer. The worker who remained -longest in the tank became ill on his way home and died in hospital -the following day; the other workers were only slightly affected. The -sulphuric acid used by the firm in question immediately before the -accident came from a newly built factory in which anhydrous sulphuric -acid had been prepared by a special process. The acid was Glover acid, -and it is possible that selenium and arsenic compounds were present -in the residues. Arseniuretted hydrogen might have been generated in -digging up the mud. Two similar fatalities are described in the report of -the same Union for the year 1905. They happened similarly in cleaning out -a sulphuric acid tank waggon, and in them the arsenic in the acid was the -cause. Preliminary swilling out with water diluted the remainder of the -sulphuric acid, but, nevertheless, it acted on the iron of the container. -Generation of hydrogen gas is the condition for the reduction of the -arsenious acid present in sulphuric acid with formation of arseniuretted -hydrogen. In portions of the viscera arsenic was found. Lately in the -annual reports of the Union of Chemical Industry for 1908 several cases -of poisoning are described which were caused by sulphuric acid. A worker -took a sample out of a vessel of sulphuric acid containing sulphuretted -hydrogen gas. Instead of using the prescribed cock, he opened the -man-hole and put his head inside, inhaling concentrated sulphuretted -hydrogen gas. He became immediately unconscious and died. Through -ignorance no use was made of the oxygen apparatus. - -Another fatality occurred through a foreman directing some workers, -contrary to the regulations against accidents from nitrous gases, to -clean a vessel containing nitric and sulphuric acids. They wore no air -helmets: one died shortly after from inhalation of nitrous fumes. Under -certain circumstances even the breaking of carboys filled with sulphuric -acid may give rise to severe poisoning through inhalation of acid gases. -Thus a fatality[1] occurred to the occupier of a workroom next some -premises in which sulphuric acid carboys had been accidentally broken. -Severe symptoms developed the same night, and he succumbed the next -morning in spite of treatment with oxygen. A worker in the factory became -seriously ill but recovered. - -A similar case is described[2] in a factory where concentrated sulphuric -acid had been spilt. The workers covered the spot with shavings, -which resulted in strong development of sulphur dioxide, leading to -unconsciousness in one worker. - -The frequent observation of the injurious effect of acid gases on the -teeth of workers requires mention; inflammation of the eyes of workers -also is attributed to the effects of sulphuric acid. - -Leymann’s statistics show _corrosions and burns_ among sulphuric acid -workers to be more than five times that among other classes. Such burns -happen most frequently from carelessness. Thus, in the reports of the -Union of Chemical Industry for 1901, three severe accidents are mentioned -which occurred from use of compressed air. In two cases the acid had been -introduced before the compressed air had been turned off; in the third -the worker let the compressed air into the vessel and forgot to turn off -the inlet valve. Although the valves were provided with lead guards, -some of the acid squirted into the worker’s face. In one case complete -blindness followed, in a second blindness in one eye, and in the third -blindness in one eye and impaired vision of the other. - -Besides these dangers from the raw material, bye-products, and products -of the manufacture, _lead poisoning_ has been reported in the erection -and repair of lead chambers. The lead burners generally use a hydrogen -flame; the necessary hydrogen is usually made from zinc and sulphuric -acid and is led to the iron by a tube. If the zinc and sulphuric acid -contain arsenic, the very dangerous arseniuretted hydrogen is formed, -which escapes through leakages in the piping, or is burnt in the flame to -arsenious acid. - -Further, the lead burners and plumbers are exposed to the danger of -chronic lead poisoning from insufficient observance of the personal -precautionary measures necessary to guard against it (see Part III). -Those who are constantly engaged in burning the lead sheets and pipes of -the chambers suffer not infrequently from severe symptoms. Unfortunately, -the work requires skill and experience, and hence alternation of -employment is hardly possible. - -Finally, mention should be made of poisoning by _arseniuretted hydrogen -gas_ from vessels filled with sulphuric acid containing arsenic as an -impurity, and by sulphuretted hydrogen gas in purifying the acid itself. -In the manufacture of liquid _sulphur dioxide_, injury to health can -arise from inhalation of the acid escaping from the apparatus. The most -frequent cause for such escape of sulphur dioxide is erosion of the walls -of the compressor pumps and of the transport vessels, in consequence of -the gas being insufficiently dried, as, when moist, it attacks iron. - -Sulphur dioxide will come up for further consideration when describing -the industrial processes giving rise to it, or in which it is used. - - -HYDROCHLORIC ACID, SALTCAKE, AND SODA - -MANUFACTURE.—The production of hydrochloric acid (HCl), sodium sulphate -(Na₂SO₄), and sodium sulphide (Na₂S) forms part of the manufacture of -soda (Na₂CO₃) by the Leblanc process. The products first named increase -in importance, while the Leblanc soda process is being replaced more and -more by the manufacture of soda by the Solvay ammonia process, so much so -that on the Continent the latter method predominates and only in England -does the Leblanc process hold its ground. - -Health interests have exercised an important bearing on the development -of the industries in question. At first, in the Leblanc process the -hydrochloric acid gas was allowed to escape into the atmosphere, being -regarded as a useless bye-product. Its destructive action on plant -life and the inconvenience caused to the neighbourhood, in spite of -erection of high chimneys, demanded intervention. In England the evils -led to the enactment of the Alkali Acts—the oldest classical legislative -measures bearing on factory hygiene—by which the Leblanc factories were -required to condense the vapour by means of its absorption in water, and -this solution of the acid is now a highly valued product. And, again, -production of nuisance—inconvenience to the neighbourhood through the -soda waste—was the main cause of ousting one of the oldest and most -generally used methods of chemical industrial production. Although every -effort was made to overcome the difficulties, the old classical Leblanc -process is gradually but surely yielding place to the modern Solvay -process, which has no drawback on grounds of health. - -We outline next the main features of the _Leblanc soda process_, which -includes, as has been mentioned, also the manufacture of hydrochloric -acid, sodium sulphate and sulphide. - -The first part of the process consists in the production of the sulphate -from salt and sulphuric acid, during which hydrochloric acid is formed; -this is carried out in two stages represented in the following formulæ: - - 1. NaCl + H₂SO₄ = NaHSO₄ + HCl. - 2. NaCl + NaHSO₄ = Na₂SO₄ + HCl. - -The first stage in which bisulphate is produced is carried out at a -moderate heat, the second requires a red heat. The reactions, therefore, -are made in a furnace combining a pan and muffle furnace. - -This saltcake muffle furnace is so arranged that the pan can be shut -off from the muffle by a sliding-door (D). The pan (A) and muffle (E) -have separate flues for carrying off the hydrochloric acid developed (B, -F). First, common salt is treated with sulphuric (Glover) acid in the -cast-iron pan. When generation of hydrochloric acid vapour has ceased, -the sliding-door is raised and the partly decomposed mixture is pushed -through into the muffle, constructed of fire-resisting bricks and tiles, -and surrounded by the fire gases. While the muffle is being raised to -red heat, the sulphate must be repeatedly stirred with a rake in order, -finally, while still hot and giving off acid vapour, to be drawn out at -the working doors into iron boxes provided with doors, where the material -cools. The acid vapour given off when cooling is drawn through the top of -the box into the furnace. - -[Illustration: FIG. 3.—Saltcake Muffle Furnace—Section _(after Ost_) - -A Pan; B, F Pipes for hydrochloric acid vapour; D Shutter; E Muffle, O -Coke fire.] - -Mechanical stirrers, despite their advantage from a health point of view, -have not answered because of their short life. - -The valuable bye-product of the sulphate process, _hydrochloric acid_, is -led away separately from the pan and the muffle, as is seen, into one -absorption system. The reason of the separation is that the gas from the -pan is always the more concentrated. The arrangement of the absorbing -apparatus is illustrated in fig. 4. - -[Illustration: FIG. 4A.—Preparation of Hydrochloric Acid—Plan (_after -Lueger_) - - A, A´ Earthenware pipes - B, B´ Sandstone cooling towers - C, C Series of Woulff’s bottles - D, E Condenser wash towers - -FIG. 4B.—Elevation] - -The gases are led each through earthenware pipes or channels of stone -pickled with tar (A´), first into small towers of Yorkshire flags (B), -where they are cooled and freed from flue dust and impurities (sulphuric -acid) by washing. They are next led through a series (over fifty) of -Woulff bottles (bombonnes) one metre high, made of acid-resisting -stoneware. The series is laid with a slight inclination towards the -furnace, and water trickles through so that the gases coming from the -wash towers are brought into contact with water in the one case already -almost saturated, whilst the gas which is poorest in hydrochloric acid -meets with fresh water. From the bombonne situated next to the wash tower -the prepared acid is passed as a rule through another series. The last -traces of hydrochloric acid are then removed by leading the gases from -the Woulff bottles up two water towers of stoneware (D and E), which are -filled partly with earthenware trays and partly with coke; above are -tanks from which the water trickles down over the coke. The residual -gases from both sets of absorbing apparatus now unite in a large Woulff -bottle before finally being led away through a duct to the chimney stack. - -Less frequently absorption of hydrochloric acid is effected without use -of Woulff bottles, principally in wash towers such as the Lunge-Rohrmann -plate tower. - -In the purification of hydrochloric acid, de-arsenicating by sulphuretted -hydrogen or by barium sulphide, &c., and separation of sulphuric acid by -addition of barium chloride, have to be considered. - -Another method for production of sulphate and hydrochloric acid, namely, -the Hargreaves process, is referred to later. - -We return now to the further working up of the sodium sulphate into -sulphide and soda. The conversion of the sulphate into soda by the -Leblanc method is effected by heating with coal and calcium carbonate, -whereby, through the action of the coal, sodium sulphide forms first, -which next with the calcium carbonate becomes converted into sodium -carbonate and calcium sulphide. - -The reactions are: - - Na₂SO₄ + 2C = Na₂S + 2CO₂ - Na₂S + CaCO₃ = Na₂CO₃ + CaS - CaCO₃ + C = CaO + 2CO. - -The reactions are carried out in small works in open reverberatory -furnaces having two platforms on the hearth, and with continuous raking -from one to the other which, as the equations show, cause escape of -carbonic acid gas and carbonic oxide. - -Such handworked furnaces, apart from their drawbacks on health grounds, -have only a small capacity, and in large works their place is taken by -revolving furnaces—closed, movable cylindrical furnaces—in which handwork -is replaced by the mechanical revolution of the furnace and from which a -considerably larger output and a product throughout good in quality are -obtained. - -The _raw soda_ thus obtained in the black ash furnace is subjected to -lixiviation by water in iron tanks in which the impurities or tank -waste (see below) are deposited. The crude soda liquor so obtained is -then further treated and converted into calcined soda, crystal soda, or -caustic soda. In the production of calcined soda the crude soda liquor is -first purified (‘oxidised’ and ‘carbonised’) by blowing through air and -carbonic acid gas, pressed through a filter press, and crystallised by -evaporation in pans and calcined, i.e. deprived of water by heat. - -[Illustration: FIG. 5.—Revolving Black Ash Furnace—Elevation (_after -Lueger_) - -A Firing hearth; B Furnace; C Dust box.] - -_Crystal soda_ is obtained from well-purified tank liquor by -crystallising in cast-iron vessels. - -Caustic soda is obtained by introducing lime suspended in iron cages into -the soda liquor in iron caustic pots, heating with steam, and agitating -by blowing in air. - -The resulting clear solution is drawn off and evaporated in cast-iron -pans. - -As already mentioned, the _tank waste_ in the Leblanc process, which -remains behind—in amount about equal to the soda produced after -lixiviation of the raw soda with water—constitutes a great nuisance. -It forms mountains round the factories, and as it consists principally -of calcium sulphide and calcium carbonate, it easily weathers under -the influence of air and rain, forming soluble sulphur compounds and -developing sulphuretted hydrogen gas—an intolerable source of annoyance -to the district. - -At the same time all the sulphur introduced into the industry as -sulphuric acid is lost in the tank waste. This loss of valuable material -and the nuisance created led to attempts—partially successful—to recover -the sulphur. - -The best results are obtained by the Chance-Claus method, in which the -firebrick ‘Claus-kiln’ containing ferric oxide (previously heated to -dull redness) is used. In this process calcium sulphide is acted on by -carbonic acid with evolution of gas so rich in sulphuretted hydrogen that -it can be burnt to sulphur dioxide and used in the lead chambers for -making sulphuric acid. Sulphur also as such is obtained by the method. - -These sulphur-recovery processes which have hardly been tried on -the Continent—only the United Alkali Company in England employs the -Chance-Claus on a large scale—were, as has been said, not in a position -to prevent the downfall of the Leblanc soda industry. Before describing -briefly the Solvay method a word is needed as to other processes for -manufacture of sulphate and hydrochloric acid. - -_Hargreaves’ process_ produces sodium sulphate (without previous -conversion of sulphur dioxide into sulphuric acid) directly by the -passage of gases from the pyrites burners, air and steam, through salt -blocks placed in vertical cast-iron retorts, a number of which are -connected in series. A fan draws the gases through the system and leads -the hydrochloric acid fumes to the condenser. - -Sodium sulphate is used in the manufacture of glass, ultramarine, &c. -Further, the sulphate is converted into Glauber’s salts by dissolving the -anhydrous sulphate obtained in the muffle furnace, purifying with lime, -and allowing the clear salt solution to crystallise out in pans. - -A further use of the sulphate is the preparation of sodium sulphide, -which is effected (as in the first part of the Leblanc soda process) by -melting together sulphate and coal in a reverberatory furnace. If the -acid sulphate (bisulphate) or sulphate containing bisulphate is used much -sulphur dioxide gas comes off. - -The mass is then lixiviated in the usual soda liquor vats and the lye -either treated so as to obtain crystals or evaporated to strong sodium -sulphide which is poured like caustic soda into metal drums where it -solidifies. - -In _Solvay’s ammonia soda process_ ammonia recovered from the waste -produced in the industry is led into a solution of salt until saturation -is complete. This is effected generally in column apparatus such as is -used in distillation of spirit. The solution is then driven automatically -by compressed air to the carbonising apparatus in which the solution -is saturated with carbonic acid; this apparatus is a cylindrical tower -somewhat similar to the series of vessels used for saturating purposes in -sugar factories through which carbonic acid gas passes. In this process -crystalline bi-carbonate of soda is first formed, which is separated -from the ammoniacal mother liquor by filtration, centrifugalisation, -and washing. The carbonate is then obtained by heating (calcining in -pans), during which carbonic acid gas escapes, and this, together with -the carbonic acid produced in the lime kilns, is utilised for further -carbonisation again. The lime formed during the production of carbonic -acid in the lime kilns serves to drive the ammonia out of the ammoniacal -mother liquor, so that the ammonia necessary for the process is recovered -and used over and over again. The waste which results from the action of -the lime on the ammonium chloride liquor is harmless—calcium chloride -liquor. - -The _electrolytic_ manufacture of soda from salt requires mention, in -which chlorine (at the anode) and caustic soda (at the cathode) are -formed; the latter is treated with carbonic acid to make soda. - -EFFECTS ON HEALTH.—Leymann’s observations show that in the department -concerned with the Leblanc soda process and production of sodium -sulphide, relatively more sickness is noted than, for example, in the -manufacture of sulphuric and nitric acids. - -In the preparation of the sulphate, possibility of injury to health or -poisoning arises from the fumes containing hydrochloric or sulphuric acid -in operations at the muffle furnace; in Hargreaves’ process there may be -exposure to the effect of sulphur dioxide. Hydrochloric and sulphuric -acid vapours can escape from the muffle furnace when charging, from -leakages in it, and especially when withdrawing the still hot sulphate. -Large quantities of acid vapours escape from the glowing mass, especially -if coal is not added freely and if it is not strongly calcined. Persons -employed at the saltcake furnaces suffer, according to Jurisch, apart -from injury to the lungs, from defective teeth. The teeth of English -workers especially, it is said, from the practice of holding flannel in -their mouths with the idea of protecting themselves from the effect of -the vapours, are almost entirely eroded by the action of the hydrochloric -acid absorbed by the saliva. Hydrochloric acid vapour, further, can -escape from the absorbing apparatus if this is not kept entirely -sealed, and the hydrochloric acid altogether absorbed—a difficult -matter. Nevertheless, definite acute industrial poisoning from gaseous -hydrochloric acid is rare, no doubt because the workers do not inhale it -in concentrated form. - -Injury to the skin from the acid absorbed in water may occur in filling, -unloading, and transport, especially when in carboys, but the burns, -if immediately washed, are very slight in comparison with those from -sulphuric or nitric acids. Injury to health or inconvenience from -sulphuretted hydrogen is at all events possible in the de-arsenicating -process by means of sulphuretted hydrogen gas. At the saltcake furnace -when worked by hand the fumes containing carbonic oxide gas may be -troublesome. In the production of caustic soda severe corrosive action on -the skin is frequent. Leymann found that 13·8 per cent. of the persons -employed in the caustic soda department were reported as suffering from -burns, and calls attention to the fact that on introducing the lime -into the hot soda lye the contents of the vessel may easily froth over. -Heinzerling refers to the not infrequent occurrence of eye injuries in -the preparation of caustic soda, due to the spurting of lye or of solid -particles of caustic soda. - -The tank waste gives rise, as already stated, to inconvenience from the -presence of sulphuretted hydrogen. In the recovery of the sulphur and -treatment of the tank waste, sulphuretted hydrogen and sulphur dioxide -gases are evolved. According to Leymann, workers employed in removing -the waste and at the lye vats frequently suffer from inflammation of -the eyes. Further, disturbance of digestion has been noted in persons -treating the tank waste, which Leymann attributes to the unavoidable -development of sulphuretted hydrogen gas. - -In the manufacture of sodium sulphide similar conditions prevail. Leymann -found in this branch relatively more cases of sickness than in any other; -diseases of the digestive tract especially appeared to be more numerous. -Leymann makes the suggestion that occurrence of disease of the digestive -organs is either favoured by sodium sulphide when swallowed as dust, or -that here again sulphuretted hydrogen gas plays a part. Further corrosive -effect on the skin and burns may easily arise at work with the hot -corrosive liquor. - -In the Solvay ammonia process ammonia and carbonic acid gas are present, -but, so far as I know, neither injury to health nor poisoning have been -described among persons employed in the process. Indeed, the view is -unanimous that this method of manufacture with its technical advantages -has the merit also of being quite harmless. As may be seen from the -preceding description of the process there is no chance of the escape of -the gases named into the workrooms. - - -USE OF SULPHATE AND SULPHIDE - -_Ultramarine_ is made from a mixture of clay, sulphate (Glauber’s -salts), and carbon—sulphate ultramarine; or clay, sulphur, and -soda—soda ultramarine. These materials are crushed, ground, and burnt -in muffle furnaces. On heating the mass in the furnace much sulphur -dioxide escapes, which is a source of detriment to the workmen and the -neighbourhood. - -_Sulphonal_ (CH₃)₂C(SO₂C₂H₅)₂, diethylsulphone dimethylmethane, -used medically as a hypnotic, is obtained from mercaptan formed by -distillation of ethyl sulphuric acid with sodium or potassium sulphide. -The mercaptan is converted into mercaptol, and this by oxidation with -potassium permanganate into sulphonal. The volatile mercaptan has a most -disgusting odour, and clings for a long time even to the clothes of those -merely passing through the room. - -_Diethyl sulphate_ ((C₂H₅)₂SO₄).—Diethyl sulphate obtained by the -action of sulphuric acid on alcohol has led to poisoning characterised -by corrosive action on the respiratory tract.[1] As the substance in -the presence of water splits up into sulphuric acid and alcohol, this -corrosive action is probably due to the acid. It is possible, however, -that the molecule of diethyl sulphate as such has corrosive action. - -Contact with diethyl sulphate is described as having led to fatal -poisoning.[2] - -A chemist when conducting a laboratory experiment dropped a glass flask -containing about 40 c.c. of diethyl sulphate, thereby spilling some over -his clothes. He went on working, and noticed burns after some time, -quickly followed by hoarseness and pain in the throat. He died of severe -inflammation of the lungs. A worker in another factory was dropping -diethyl sulphate and stirring it into an at first solid, and later -semi-liquid, mass for the purpose of ethylating a dye stuff. In doing -so he was exposed to fumes, and at the end of the work complained of -hoarseness and smarting of the eyes. He died of double pneumonia two days -later. Post mortem very severe corrosive action on the respiratory tract -was found, showing that the diethyl sulphuric acid had decomposed inside -the body and that nascent sulphuric acid had given rise to the severe -burns. The principal chemist who had superintended the process suffered -severely from hoarseness at night, but no serious consequences followed. - -It is stated also that workmen in chemical factories coming into contact -with the fumes of diethyl sulphate ester suffer from eye affections.[3] - - -CHLORINE, CHLORIDE OF CALCIUM, AND CHLORATES - -MANUFACTURE.—The older processes depend on the preparation of chlorine -and hydrochloric acid by an oxidation process in which the oxidising -agent is either a compound rich in oxygen—usually common manganese -dioxide (pyrolusite)—or the oxygen of the air in the presence of heated -copper chloride (as catalytic agent). The former (Weldon process) is -less used now than either the latter (Deacon process) or the electrolytic -manufacture of chlorine. - -In the _Weldon process_ from the still liquors containing manganous -chloride the manganese peroxide is regenerated, and this so regenerated -Weldon mud, when mixed with fresh manganese dioxide, is used to initiate -the process. This is carried out according to the equations: - - MnO₂ + 4HCl = MnCl₄ + 2H₂O - MnCl₄ = MnCl₂ + Cl₂. - -[Illustration: FIG. 6.—Preparation of Chlorine—Diaphragm Method (_after -Ost_)] - -Hydrochloric acid is first introduced into the chlorine still (vessels -about 3 m. in height, of Yorkshire flag or fireclay), next the Weldon -mud gradually, and finally steam to bring the whole to boiling; chlorine -comes off in a uniform stream. The manganous chloride still liquor is run -into settling tanks. The regeneration of the manganous chloride liquor -takes place in an oxidiser which consists of a vertical iron cylinder in -which air is blown into the heated mixture of manganous chloride and milk -of lime. The dark precipitate so formed, ‘Weldon mud,’ as described, is -used over again, while the calcium chloride liquor runs away. - -The _Deacon process_ depends mainly on leading the stream of hydrochloric -acid gas evolved from a saltcake pot mixed with air and heated into a -tower containing broken bricks of the size of a nut saturated with -copper chloride. Chlorine is evolved according to the equation: - - 2HCl + O = 2Cl + H₂O. - -[Illustration: FIG. 7.—Preparation of Chlorine—Bell Method (_after Ost_)] - -The _electrolytic production_ of chlorine with simultaneous production -of _caustic alkali_ is increasing and depends on the splitting up of -alkaline chlorides by a current of electricity. The chlorine evolved at -the anode and the alkaline liquor formed at the cathode must be kept -apart to prevent secondary formation of hypochlorite and chlorate (see -below). This separation is generally effected in one of three ways: (1) -In the diaphragm process (Griesheim-Elektron chemical works) the anode -and cathode are kept separate by porous earthenware diaphragms arranged -as illustrated in fig. 6. The anode consists of gas carbon, or is made -by pressing and firing a mixture of charcoal and tar; it lies inside the -diaphragm. The chlorine developed in the anodal cell is carried away by -a pipe. The metal vessel serves as the cathode. The alkali, which, since -it contains chloride, is recovered as caustic soda after evaporation -and crystallisation, collects in the cathodal space lying outside the -diaphragm. (2) By the Bell method (chemical factory at Aussig) the -anodal and cathodal fluids, which keep apart by their different specific -weights, are separated by a stoneware bell; the poles consist of sheet -iron and carbon. The containing vessel is of stoneware. (3) In the -mercury process (England) sodium chloride is electrolysed without a -diaphragm, mercury serving as the cathode. This takes up the sodium, -which is afterwards recovered from the amalgam formed by means of water. - -If _chlorate_ or _hypochlorite_ is to be obtained electrolytically, -electrodes of the very resistant but expensive platinum iridium are used -without a diaphragm. Chlorine is developed—not free, but combined with -the caustic potash. The bleaching fluid obtained electrolytically in this -way is a rival of bleaching powder. - -_Bleaching powder_ is made from chlorine obtained by the Weldon or Deacon -process. Its preparation depends on the fact that calcium hydrate takes -up chlorine in the cold with formation of calcium hypochlorite after the -equation: - - 2Ca(OH)₂ + 4Cl = Ca(ClO)₂ + CaCl₂ + 2H₂O. - -The resulting product contains from 35 to 36 per cent. chlorine, which is -given off again when treated with acids. - -The preparation of chloride of lime takes place in bleaching powder -chambers made of sheets of lead and Yorkshire flagstones. The lime is -spread out on the floors of these and chlorine introduced. Before the -process is complete the lime must be turned occasionally. - -In the manufacture of bleaching powder from Deacon chlorine, Hasenclever -has constructed a special cylindrical apparatus (fig. 8), consisting of -several superimposed cast-iron cylinders in which are worm arrangements -carrying the lime along, while chlorine gas passes over in an opposite -direction. This continuous process is, however, only possible for the -Deacon chlorine strongly diluted with nitrogen and oxygen and not for -undiluted Weldon gas. - -_Liquid chlorine_ can be obtained by pressure and cooling from -concentrated almost pure Weldon chlorine gas. - -_Potassium chlorate_, which, as has been said, is now mostly obtained -electrolytically, was formerly obtained by passing Deacon chlorine into -milk of lime and decomposing the calcium chlorate formed by potassium -chloride. - -Chlorine and chloride of lime are used for bleaching; chlorine further -is used in the manufacture of colours; chloride of lime as a mordant in -cloth printing and in the preparation of chloroform; the chlorates are -oxidising agents and used in making safety matches. The manufacture of -organic chlorine products will be dealt with later. - -[Illustration: FIG. 8.—Preparation of Bleaching Powder. Apparatus of -Hasenclever (_after Ost_) - -A Hopper for slaked lime; W Worm conveying lime; Z Toothed wheels; -K Movable covers; C Entrance for chlorine gas; D Pipe for escape of -chlorine-free gas; B Outlet shoot for bleaching powder] - -EFFECTS ON HEALTH.—In these industries the possibility of injury to -health and poisoning by inhalation of chlorine gas is prominent. Leymann -has shown that persons employed in the manufacture of chlorine and -bleaching powder suffer from diseases of the respiratory organs 17·8 per -cent., as contrasted with 8·8 per cent. in other workers: and this is -without doubt attributable to the injurious effect of chlorine gas, which -it is hardly possible to avoid despite the fact that Leymann’s figures -refer to a model factory. But the figures show also that as the industry -became perfected the number of cases of sickness steadily diminished. - -Most cases occur from unsatisfactory conditions in the production of -chloride of lime, especially if the chloride of lime chambers leak, if -the lime is turned over while the chlorine is being let in, by too early -entrance into chambers insufficiently ventilated, and by careless and -unsuitable methods of emptying the finished bleaching powder. - -The possibility of injury is naturally greater from the concentrated gas -prepared by the Weldon process than from the diluted gas of the Deacon -process—the more so as in the latter the bleaching powder is made in -the Hasenclever closed-in cylindrical apparatus in which the chlorine -is completely taken up by the lime. The safest process of all is the -electrolytic, as, if properly arranged, there should be no escape of -chlorine gas. The chlorine developed in the cells (when carried out on -the large scale) is drawn away by fans and conducted in closed pipes to -the place where it is used. - -Many researches have been published as to the character of the skin -affection well known under the name of _chlorine rash_ (chlorakne). -Some maintain that it is not due to chlorine at all, but is an eczema -set up by tar. Others maintain that it is due to a combined action of -chlorine and tar. Support to this view is given by the observation that -cases of chlorine rash, formerly of constant occurrence in a factory -for electrolytic manufacture of chlorine, disappeared entirely on -substitution of magnetite at the anode for carbon.[1] The conclusion -seems justified that the constituents of the carbon or of the surrounding -material set up the condition. - -Chlorine rash has been observed in an alkali works where chlorine was -not produced electrolytically, and under conditions which suggested that -compounds of tar and chlorine were the cause. In this factory for the -production of salt cake by the Hargreaves’ process cakes of rock salt -were prepared and, for the purpose of drying, conveyed on an endless -metal band through a stove. To prevent formation of crusts the band -was tarred. The salt blocks are decomposed in the usual way by sulphur -dioxide, steam, and oxygen of the air, and the hydrochloric acid vapour -led through Deacon towers in which the decomposition of the hydrochloric -acid into chlorine and water is effected by metal salts in the manner -characteristic of the Deacon process. These salts are introduced in small -earthenware trays which periodically have to be removed and renewed; -the persons engaged in doing this were those affected. The explanation -was probably that the tar sticking to the salt blocks distilled in the -saltcake furnaces and formed a compound with the chlorine which condensed -on the earthenware trays. When contact with these trays was recognised as -the cause, the danger was met by observance of the greatest cleanliness -in opening and emptying the Deacon towers. - -Leymann[2] is certain that the rash is due to chlorinated products which -emanate from the tar used in the construction of the cells. And the -affection has been found to be much more prevalent when the contents of -the cells are emptied while the contents are still hot than when they are -first allowed to get cold. - -Lehmann[3] has approached the subject on the experimental side, and is of -opinion that probably chlorinated tar derivatives (chlorinated phenols) -are the cause of the trouble. Both he and Roth think that the affection -is due not to external irritation of the skin, but to absorption of the -poisonous substances into the system and their elimination by way of the -glands of the skin. - -In the section on manganese poisoning detailed reference is made to the -form of illness recently described in persons employed in drying the -regenerated Weldon mud. - -Mercurial poisoning is possible when mercury is used in the production of -chlorine electrolytically. - -In the manufacture of chlorates and hypochlorite, bleaching fluids, &c., -injury to health from chlorine is possible in the same way as has been -described above. - - -OTHER CHLORINE COMPOUNDS. BROMINE, IODINE, AND FLUORINE - -Chlorine is used for the production of a number of organic chlorine -compounds, and in the manufacture of bromine and iodine, processes -which give rise to the possibility of injury to health and poisoning by -chlorine; further, several of the substances so prepared are themselves -corrosive or irritating or otherwise poisonous. Nevertheless, severe -poisoning and injurious effects can be almost entirely avoided by -adoption of suitable precautions. In the factory to which Leymann’s -figures refer, where daily several thousand kilos of chlorine and organic -chlorine compounds are prepared, a relatively very favourable state of -health of the persons employed was noted. At all events the preparation -of chlorine by the electrolytic process takes place in closed vessels -admirably adapted to avoid any escape of chlorine gas except as the -result of breakage of the apparatus or pipes. When this happens, however, -the pipes conducting the gas can be immediately disconnected and the -chlorine led into other apparatus or into the bleaching powder factory. - -As such complete precautionary arrangements are not everywhere to be -found, we describe briefly the most important of the industries in -question and the poisoning recognised in them. - -_Chlorides of phosphorus._—By the action of dry chlorine on an excess -of heated amorphous phosphorus, trichloride is formed (PCl₃), a -liquid having a sharp smell and causing lachrymation, which fumes -in the air, and in presence of water decomposes into phosphorous -acid and hydrochloric acid. On heating with dry oxidising substances -it forms phosphorus oxychloride (see below), which is used for the -production of acid chlorides. By continuous treatment with chlorine -it becomes converted into phosphorus pentachloride (PCl₅), which also -is conveniently prepared by passing chlorine through a solution of -phosphorus in carbon bisulphide, the solution being kept cold; it is -crystalline, smells strongly, and attacks the eyes and lungs. With excess -of water it decomposes into phosphoric acid and hydrochloric acid: -with slight addition of water it forms phosphorus oxychloride (POCl₃). -On the large scale this is prepared by reduction of phosphate of lime -in the presence of chlorine with carbon or carbonic oxide. Phosphorus -oxychloride, a colourless liquid, fumes in the air and is decomposed by -water into phosphoric acid and hydrochloric acid. - -In the preparation of chlorides of phosphorus, apart from the danger of -chlorine gas and hydrochloric acid, the poisonous effect of phosphorus -and its compounds (see Phosphorus) and even of carbon disulphide (as -the solvent of phosphorus) and of carbonic oxide (in the preparation of -phosphorus oxychloride) have to be taken into account. - -Further, the halogen compounds of phosphorus exert irritant action on -the eyes and lungs similar to chloride of sulphur as a result of their -splitting up on the moist mucous membranes into hydrochloric acid and an -oxyacid of phosphorus.[4] - -Unless, therefore, special measures are taken, the persons employed -in the manufacture of phosphorus chlorides suffer markedly from the -injurious emanations given off.[5] - -Leymann[6] mentions one case of poisoning by phosphorus chloride as -having occurred in the factory described by him. By a defect in the -outlet arrangement phosphorus oxychloride flowed into a workroom. -Symptoms of poisoning (sensation of suffocation, difficulty of breathing, -lachrymation, &c.) at once attacked the occupants; before much gas had -escaped, the workers rushed out. Nevertheless, they suffered from severe -illness of the respiratory organs (bronchial catarrh and inflammation of -the lungs, with frothy, blood-stained expectoration, &c.).[7] - -_Chlorides of sulphur._—Monochloride of sulphur (S₂Cl₂) is made by -passing dried, washed chlorine gas into molten heated sulphur. The oily, -brown, fuming liquid thus made is distilled over into a cooled condenser -and by redistillation purified from the sulphur carried over with it. -Sulphur monochloride can take up much sulphur, and when saturated is used -in the vulcanisation of indiarubber, and, further, is used to convert -linseed and beetroot oil into a rubber substitute. Monochloride of -sulphur is decomposed by water into sulphur dioxide, hydrochloric acid, -and sulphur. By further action of chlorine on the monochloride, sulphur -dichloride (SCl₂) and the tetrachloride (SCl₄) are formed. - -In its preparation and use (see also Indiarubber Manufacture) the -injurious action of chlorine, of hydrochloric acid, and of sulphur -dioxide comes into play. - -The monochloride has very irritating effects. Leymann cites an industrial -case of poisoning by it. In the German factory inspectors’ reports for -1897 a fatal case is recorded. The shirt of a worker became saturated -with the material owing to the bursting of a bottle. First aid was -rendered by pouring water over him, thereby increasing the symptoms, -which proved fatal the next day. Thus the decomposition brought about by -water already referred to aggravated the symptoms. - -_Zinc chloride_ (ZnCl₂) is formed by heating zinc in presence of -chlorine. It is obtained pure by dissolving pure zinc in hydrochloric -acid and treating this solution with chlorine. Zinc chloride is -obtained on the large scale by dissolving furnace calamine (zinc -oxide) in hydrochloric acid. Zinc chloride is corrosive. It is used -for impregnating wood and in weighting goods. Besides possible injury -to health from chlorine and hydrogen chloride, risk of arseniuretted -hydrogen poisoning is present in the manufacture if the raw materials -contain arsenic. Eulenburg considers that in soldering oppressive zinc -chloride fumes may come off if the metal to be soldered is first wiped -with hydrochloric acid and then treated with the soldering iron. - -_Rock salt._—Mention may be made that even to salt in combination with -other chlorides (calcium chloride, magnesium chloride, &c.) injurious -effects are ascribed. Ulcers and perforation of the septum of the nose in -salt-grinders and packers who were working in a room charged with salt -dust are described.[8] These effects are similar to those produced by the -bichromates. - - -Organic Chlorine Compounds - -_Carbon oxychloride_ (COCl₂, carbonyl dichloride, phosgene) is produced -by direct combination of chlorine and carbonic oxide in presence of -animal charcoal. Phosgene is itself a very poisonous gas which, in -addition to the poisonous qualities of carbonic oxide (which have to be -borne in mind in view of the method of manufacture), acts as an irritant -of the mucous membranes. Commercially it is in solution in toluene and -xylene, from which the gas is readily driven off by heating. It is used -in the production of various colours, such as crystal violet, Victoria -blue, auramine, &c. - -A fatal case of phosgene gas poisoning in the report of the Union of -Chemical Industry for 1905 deserves mention. The phosgene was kept in a -liquefied state in iron bottles provided with a valve under 2·3 atm. -pressure. The valve of one of these bottles leaked, allowing large escape -into the workroom. Two workers tried but failed to secure the valve. The -cylinder was therefore removed by a worker, by order of the manager, -and placed in a cooling mixture, as phosgene boils at 8° C. The man in -question wore a helmet into which air was pumped from the compressed air -supply in the factory. As the helmet became obscured through moisture -after five minutes the worker took it off. A foreman next put on the -cleaned mask, and kept the cylinder surrounded with ice and salt for -three-quarters of an hour, thus stopping the escape of gas. Meanwhile, -the first worker had again entered the room, wearing a cloth soaked in -dilute alcohol before his mouth, in order to take a sack of salt to the -foreman. An hour and a half later he complained of being very ill, became -worse during the night, and died the following morning. Although the -deceased may have been extremely susceptible, the case affords sufficient -proof of the dangerous nature of the gas, which in presence of moisture -had decomposed into carbonic acid and hydrochloric acid; the latter had -acutely attacked the mucous membrane of the respiratory passages and set -up fatal bronchitis. Further, it was found that the leaden plugs of the -valves had been eroded by the phosgene. - -Three further cases of industrial phosgene poisoning have been -reported,[9] one a severe case in which there was bronchitis with -blood-stained expectoration, great dyspnœa, and weakness of the heart’s -action. The affected person was successfully treated with ether and -oxygen inhalations. Phosgene may act either as the whole molecule, or is -inhaled to such degree that the carbonic oxide element plays a part. - -In another case of industrial phosgene poisoning the symptoms were those -of severe irritation of the bronchial mucous membrane and difficulty of -breathing.[10] The case recovered, although sensitiveness of the air -passages lasted a long time. - -_Carbon chlorine compounds_ (_aliphatic series_).—_Methyl chloride_ -(CH₃Cl) or chlormethane is prepared from methyl alcohol and hydrochloric -acid (with chloride of zinc) or methyl alcohol, salt, and sulphuric acid. -It is prepared in France on a large scale from beetroot _vinasse_ by dry -distillation of the evaporation residue. The distillate, which contains -methyl alcohol, trimethylamine, and other methylated amines, is heated -with hydrochloric acid; the methyl chloride so obtained is purified, -dried and compressed. It is used in the preparation of pure chloroform, -in the coal-tar dye industry, and in surgery (as a local anæsthetic). In -the preparation of methyl chloride there is risk from methyl alcohol, -trimethylamine, &c. Methyl chloride itself is injurious to health. - -_Methylene chloride_ (CH₂Cl₂, dichlormethane) is prepared in a similar -way. It is very poisonous. - -_Carbon tetrachloride_ (CCl₄, tetrachlormethane) is technically -important. It is prepared by passing chlorine gas into carbon bisulphide -with antimony or aluminium chloride. Carbon tetrachloride is a liquid -suitable for the extraction of fat or grease (as in chemical cleaning), -and has the advantage of being non-inflammable. Carbon tetrachloride, so -far as its poisonous qualities are concerned, is to be preferred to other -extractives (see Carbon Bisulphide, Benzine, &c.); for the rest it causes -unconsciousness similar to chloroform. - -When manufactured industrially, in addition to the poisonous effect of -chlorine, the poisonous carbon bisulphide has also to be borne in mind. - -_Ethyl chloride_ (C₂H₅Cl) is made in a way analogous to methyl chloride -by the action of hydrochloric acid on ethyl alcohol and chloride of zinc. -It is used in medicine as a narcotic. - -_Monochloracetic acid._—In the preparation of monochloracetic acid -hydrochloric acid is developed in large quantity. From it and anthranilic -acid artificial indigo is prepared (according to Heuman) by means of -caustic potash. - -_Chloral_ (CCl₃CHO, trichloracetaldehyde) is produced by chlorinating -alcohol. Chloral is used in the preparation of pure chloroform and (by -addition of water) of chloral hydrate (trichloracetaldehyde hydrate), the -well-known soporific. - -_Chloroform_ (CHCl₃, trichlormethane).—Some methods for the preparation -of chloroform have been already mentioned (Chloral, Methyl Chloride). -Technically it is prepared by distillation of alcohol or acetone with -bleaching powder. The workers employed are said to be affected by the -stupefying vapours. Further, there is the risk of chlorine gas from use -of chloride of lime. - -_Chloride of nitrogen_ (NCl₃) is an oily, volatile, very explosive, -strongly smelling substance, which irritates the eyes and nose violently -and is in every respect dangerous; it is obtained from the action of -chlorine or hypochlorous acid on sal-ammoniac. The poisonous nature of -these substances may come into play. Risk of formation of chloride of -nitrogen can arise in the production of gunpowder from nitre containing -chlorine. - -_Cyanogen chloride_ (CNCl).—Cyanogen chloride is made from hydrocyanic -acid or cyanide of mercury and chlorine. Cyanogen chloride itself is an -extremely poisonous and irritating gas, and all the substances from which -it is made are also poisonous. According to Albrecht cyanogen chloride -can arise in the preparation of red prussiate of potash (by passage of -chlorine gas into a solution of the yellow prussiate) if the solution is -treated with chlorine in excess; the workers may thus be exposed to great -danger. - -_Chlorobenzene._—In his paper referred to Leymann cites three cases of -poisoning by chlorobenzene, one by dinitrochlorobenzene, and, further, -three cases of burning by chlorobenzene and one by benzoyl chloride -(C₆H₅COCl). The last named is made by treating benzaldehyde with -chlorine, and irritates severely the mucous membranes, while decomposing -into hydrochloric acid and benzoic acid.[11] Benzal chloride (C₆H₅CHCl₂), -benzo trichloride (C₆H₅CCl₃), and benzyl chloride (C₆H₅CH₂Cl) are -obtained by action of chlorine on boiling toluene. The vapours of these -volatile products irritate the respiratory passages. In the manufacture -there is risk from the effect of chlorine gas and toluene vapour (see -Benzene, Toluene). - -Leymann[12] describes in detail six cases of poisoning in persons -employed in a chlorobenzene industry, of which two were due to -nitrochlorobenzene. Symptoms of poisoning—headache, cyanosis, fainting, -&c.—were noted in a person working for three weeks with chlorobenzene.[13] - -In Lehmann’s opinion chlorine rash, the well-recognised skin affection -of chlorine workers, may be due to contact with substances of the -chlorbenzol group.[14] - -_Iodine and iodine compounds._—Formerly iodine was obtained almost -exclusively from the liquor formed by lixiviation of the ash of seaweed -(kelp, &c.); now the principal sources are the mother liquors from -Chili saltpetre and other salt industries. From the concentrated liquor -the iodine is set free by means of chlorine or oxidising substances -and purified by distillation and sublimation. Iodine is used for the -preparation of photographic and pharmaceutical preparations, especially -iodoform (tri-iodomethane, CHI₃), which is made by acting with iodine and -caustic potash on alcohol, aldehyde, acetone, &c. - -Apart from possible injurious action of chlorine when used in the -preparation of iodine, workers are exposed to the possibility of chronic -iodine poisoning. According to Ascher[15] irritation effects, nervous -symptoms, and gastric ulceration occur in iodine manufacture and use. -He considers that bromide of iodine used in photography produces these -irritating effects most markedly. Layet and also Chevallier in older -literature have made the same observations. - -The Swiss Factory Inspectors’ Report for 1890-1 describes two acute -cases of iodine poisoning in a factory where organic iodine compounds -were made; one terminated fatally (severe cerebral symptoms, giddiness, -diplopia, and collapse). - -_Bromine and bromine compounds._—Bromine is obtained (as in the case of -iodine) principally from the mother liquors of salt works (especially -Stassfurt saline deposits) by the action of chlorine or nascent oxygen -on the bromides of the alkalis and alkaline earths in the liquors. They -are chiefly used in photography (silver bromide), in medicine (potassium -bromide, &c.), and in the coal-tar dye industry. - -The danger of bromine poisoning (especially of the chronic form) is -present in its manufacture and use, but there is no positive evidence of -the appearance of the bromine rash among the workers. On the other hand, -instances are recorded of poisoning by methyl bromide, and the injurious -effect of bromide of iodine has been referred to. - -_Methyl iodide and methyl bromide._—Methyl iodide (CH₃I), a volatile -fluid, is obtained by distillation of wood spirit with amorphous -phosphorus and iodine; it is used in the production of methylated -tar colours and for the production of various methylene compounds. -Grandhomme describes, in the paper already referred to, six cases, some -very severe, of poisoning by the vapour of methyl iodide among workers -engaged in the preparation of antipyrin, which is obtained by the action -of aceto-acetic ether on phenyl hydrazine, treatment of the pyrazolone -so obtained with methyl iodide, and decomposition of the product with -caustic soda. A case of methyl iodide poisoning is described in a factory -operative, who showed symptoms similar to those described for methyl -bromide except that the psychical disturbance was more marked.[16] - -Three cases of methyl bromide (CH₃Br) poisoning are described in persons -preparing the compound.[17] One of these terminated fatally. There -is some doubt as to whether these cases were really methyl bromide -poisoning. But later cases of methyl bromide poisoning are known, and -hence the dangerous nature of this chemical compound is undoubted. Thus -the Report of the Union of Chemical Industry for 1904 gives the following -instance: Two workers who had to deal with an ethereal solution of methyl -bromide became ill with symptoms of alcoholic intoxication. One suffered -for a long time from nervous excitability, attacks of giddiness, and -drowsiness. Other cases of poisoning from methyl bromide vapour are -recorded with severe nervous symptoms and even collapse. - -_Fluorine compounds._—_Hydrogen fluoride_ (HFl) commercially is a watery -solution, which is prepared by decomposition of powdered fluorspar by -sulphuric acid in cast-iron vessels with lead hoods. The escaping fumes -are collected in leaden condensers surrounded with water; sometimes to -get a very pure product it is redistilled in platinum vessels. - -Hydrogen fluoride is used in the preparation of the fluorides of -antimony, of which antimony fluoride ammonium sulphate (SbFl₃(NH₄)₂SO₄) -has wide use in dyeing as a substitute for tartar emetic. It is produced -by dissolving oxide of antimony in hydrofluoric acid with addition of -ammonium sulphate and subsequent concentration and crystallisation. -Hydrofluoric acid is used for etching glass (see also Glass Industry). - -In brewing, an unpurified silico-fluoric acid mixed with silicic acid, -clay, oxide of iron, and oxide of zinc called Salufer is used as a -disinfectant and preservative. - -_Hydrofluoric acid and silicofluoric acid_ (H₂SiFl₆) arise further -in the superphosphate industry by the action of sulphuric acid on the -phosphorites whereby silicofluoric acid is obtained as a bye-product -(see also Manufacture of Artificial Manure). Hydrofluoric acid and its -derivatives both in their manufacture and use and in the superphosphate -industry affect the health of the workers. - -If hydrogen fluoride or its compounds escape into the atmosphere they -attack the respiratory passages and set up inflammation of the eyes; -further, workers handling the watery solutions are prone to skin -affections (ulceration). - -The following are examples of the effects produced.[18] A worker in an -art establishment upset a bottle of hydrofluoric acid and wetted the -inner side of a finger of the right hand. Although he immediately washed -his hands, a painful inflammation with formation of blisters similar to a -burn of the second degree came on within a few hours. The blister became -infected and suppurated. - -A man and his wife wished to obliterate the printing on the top of -porcelain beer bottle stoppers with hydrofluoric acid. The man took a -cloth, moistened a corner of it, and then rubbed the writing off. After a -short time he noticed a slight burning sensation and stopped. His wife, -who wore an old kid glove in doing the work, suffered from the same -symptoms, the pain from which in the night became unbearable, and in -spite of medical treatment gangrene of the finger-tips ensued. Healing -took place with suppuration and loss of the finger-nails. - -Injury of the respiratory passages by hydrofluoric acid has often been -reported. In one factory for its manufacture the hydrofluoric acid vapour -was so great that all the windows to a height of 8 metres were etched -dull. - -Several cases of poisoning by hydrofluoric acid were noted by me when -examining the certificates of the Sick Insurance Society of Bohemia. In -1906 there were four due to inhalation of vapour of hydrofluoric acid in -a hydrofluoric acid factory, with symptoms of corrosive action on the -mucous membrane of the respiratory tract. In 1907 there was a severe case -in the etching of glass.[19] - - -NITRIC ACID. - -MANUFACTURE AND USES.—_Nitric acid_ (HNO₃) is obtained by distillation -when Chili saltpetre (sodium nitrate) is decomposed by sulphuric acid in -cast-iron retorts according to the equation: - - NaNO₃ + H₂SO₄ = NaHSO₄ + HNO₃. - -Condensation takes place in fireclay Woulff bottles connected to a -coke tower in the same way as has been described in the manufacture of -hydrochloric acid. - -[Illustration: FIG. 9.—Preparation of Nitric Acid (_after Ost_)] - -Lunge-Rohrmann plate towers are also used instead of the coke tower. -Earthenware fans—as is the case with acid gases generally—serve to -aspirate the nitrous fumes. - -To free the nitric acid of the accompanying lower oxides of nitrogen -(as well as chlorine, compounds of chlorine and other impurities) air -is blown into the hot acid. The mixture of sodium sulphate and sodium -bisulphate remaining in the retorts is either converted into sulphate by -addition of salt or used in the manufacture of glass. - -The nitric acid obtained is used either as such or mixed with sulphuric -acid or with hydrochloric acid. - -Pure nitric acid cannot at ordinary atmospheric pressure be distilled -unaltered, becomes coloured on distillation, and turns red when exposed -to light. It is extremely dangerous to handle, as it sets light to straw, -for example, if long in contact with it. It must be packed, therefore, in -kieselguhr earth, and when in glass carboys forwarded only in trains for -transport of inflammable material. - -Red, _fuming nitric acid_, a crude nitric acid, contains much nitrous -and nitric oxides. It is produced if in the distillation process less -sulphuric acid and a higher temperature are employed or (by reduction) if -starch meal is added. - -The successful production of nitric acid from the air must be referred -to. It is effected by electric discharges in special furnaces from which -the air charged with nitrous gas is led into towers where the nitric -oxide is further oxidised (to tetroxide), and finally, by contact with -water, converted into nitric acid. - -Nitric acid is used in the manufacture of phosphoric acid, arsenious -acid, and sulphuric acid, nitro-glycerin and nitrocellulose, smokeless -powder, &c. (see the section on Explosives), in the preparation of -nitrobenzenes, picric acid, and other nitro-compounds (see Tar Products, -&c.). The diluted acid serves for the solution and etching of metals, -also for the preparation of nitrates, such as the nitrates of mercury, -silver, &c. - -EFFECTS ON HEALTH.—Leymann considers that the average number of cases and -duration of sickness among persons employed in the nitric acid industry -are generally on the increase; the increase relates almost entirely to -burns which can hardly be avoided with so strongly corrosive an acid. The -number of burns amounts almost to 12 per cent. according to Leymann’s -figures (i.e. on an average 12 burns per 100 workers), while among the -packers, day labourers, &c., in the same industry the proportion is only -1 per cent. Affections of the respiratory tract are fairly frequent (11·8 -per cent. as compared with 8·8 per cent. of other workers), which is no -doubt to be ascribed to the corrosive action of nitrous fumes on the -mucous membranes. Escape of acid fumes can occur in the manufacture of -nitric acid though leaky retorts, pipes, &c., and injurious acid fumes -may be developed in the workrooms from the bisulphate when withdrawn from -the retorts, which is especially the case when excess of sulphuric acid -is used. The poisonous nature of these fumes is very great, as is shown -by cases in which severe poisoning has been reported from merely carrying -a vessel containing fuming nitric acid.[1] - -Frequent accidents occur through the corrosive action of the acid or -from breathing the acid fumes—apart from the dangers mentioned in the -manufacture—in filling, packing, and despatching the acid—especially -if appropriate vessels are not used and they break. Of such accidents -several are reported. - -Further, reports of severe poisoning from the use of nitric acid are -numerous. Inhalation of nitrous fumes (nitrous and nitric oxides, &c.) -does not immediately cause severe symptoms or death; severe symptoms tend -to come on some hours later, as the examples cited below show. - -Occurrence of such poisoning has already been referred to when describing -the sulphuric acid industry. In the superphosphate industry also -poisoning has occurred by accidental development of nitric oxide fumes on -sodium nitrate mixing with very acid superphosphate. - -Not unfrequently poisoning arises in pickling metals (belt making, -pickling brass; cf. the chapter on Treatment of Metals). Poisoning by -nitrous fumes has frequently been reported from the action of nitric acid -on organic substances whereby the lower oxides of nitrogen—nitrous and -nitric oxides—are given off. Such action of nitric acid or of a mixture -of nitric and sulphuric acid on organic substances is used for nitrating -purposes (see Nitroglycerin; Explosives; Nitrobenzol). - -Through want of care, therefore, poisoning can arise in these industries. -Again, this danger is present on accidental contact of escaping acid with -organic substances (wood, paper, leather, &c.), as shown especially by -fires thus created.[2] - -Thus, in a cellar were five large iron vessels containing a mixture of -sulphuric and nitric acids. One of the vessels was found one morning to -be leaking. The manager directed that smoke helmets should be fetched, -intending to pump out the acid, and two plumbers went into the cellar -to fix the pump, staying there about twenty-five minutes. They used -cotton waste and handkerchiefs as respirators, but did not put on the -smoke helmets. One plumber suffered only from cough, but the other died -the same evening with symptoms of great dyspnœa. At the autopsy severe -inflammation and swelling of the mucous membrane of the palate, pharynx -and air passages, and congestion of the lungs were found. - -Two further fatal cases in the nitrating room are described by Holtzmann. -One of the two complained only a few hours after entering the room of -pains in the chest and giddiness. He died two days later. The other died -the day after entering the factory, where he had only worked for three -hours. In both cases intense swelling and inflammation of the mucous -membrane was found. - -Holtzmann mentions cases of poisoning by nitrous fumes in the heating of -an artificial manure consisting of a mixture of saltpetre, brown coal -containing sulphur, and wool waste. Fatalities have been reported in -workers who had tried to mop up the spilt nitric acid with shavings.[3] -We quote the following other instances[4]: - -(1) Fatal poisoning of a fireman who had rescued several persons from a -room filled with nitrous fumes the result of a fire occasioned by the -upsetting of a carboy. The rescued suffered from bronchial catarrh, the -rescuer dying from inflammation and congestion of the lungs twenty-nine -hours after the inhalation of the gas. - -(2) At a fire in a chemical factory three officers and fifty-seven -firemen became affected from inhalation of nitrous fumes, of whom one -died. - -(3) In Elberfeld on an open piece of ground fifty carboys were stored. -One burst and started a fire. As a strong wind was blowing the firemen -were little affected by the volumes of reddish fumes. Soon afterwards at -the same spot some fifty to sixty carboys were destroyed. Fifteen men -successfully extinguished the fire in a relatively still atmosphere in -less than half an hour. At first hardly any symptoms of discomfort were -felt. Three hours later all were seized with violent suffocative attacks, -which in one case proved fatal and in the rest entailed nine to ten days’ -illness from affection of the respiratory organs. - -The Report of the Union for Chemical Industry for 1908 describes a -similar accident in a nitro-cellulose factory. - -Of those engaged in extinguishing the fire twenty-two were affected, and -in spite of medical treatment and use of the oxygen apparatus three died. - -From the same source we quote the following examples: - -In a denitrating installation (see Nitro-glycerin; Explosives) a man was -engaged in blowing, by means of compressed air, weak nitric acid from a -stoneware vessel sunk in the ground into a washing tower. As the whole -system was already under high pressure the vessel suddenly exploded, and -in doing so smashed a wooden vat containing similar acid, which spilt on -the ground with sudden development of tetroxide vapours. The man inhaled -much gas, but except for pains in the chest felt no serious symptoms at -the time and continued to work the following day. Death occurred the next -evening from severe dyspnœa. - -A somewhat similar case occurred in the nitrating room of a dynamite -factory in connection with the cleaning of a waste acid egg; the vessel -had for several days been repeatedly washed out with water made alkaline -with unslaked lime. Two men then in turn got into the egg in order to -remove the lime and lead deposit, compressed air being continuously blown -in through the manhole. The foreman remained about a quarter of an hour -and finished the cleaning without feeling unwell. Difficulty of breathing -came on in the evening, and death ensued on the following day. - -In another case a worker was engaged in washing nitroxylene when, through -a leak, a portion of the contents collected in a pit below. He then -climbed into the pit and scooped the nitroxylene which had escaped into -jars. This work took about three-quarters of an hour, and afterwards he -complained of difficulty of breathing and died thirty-six hours later.[5] - -A worker again had to control a valve regulating the flow to two large -vessels serving to heat or cool the nitrated liquid. Both vessels were -provided with pressure gauges and open at the top. Through carelessness -one of the vessels ran over, and instead of leaving the room after -closing the valve, the man tried to get rid of the traces of his error, -remaining in the atmosphere charged with the fumes,[6] and was poisoned. - - -Nitric and Nitrous Salts and Compounds - -When dissolving in nitric acid the substances necessary for making the -various nitrates, nitric and nitrous oxides escape. In certain cases -nitric and hydrochloric acids are used together to dissolve metals such -as platinum and gold and ferric oxides, when chlorine as well as nitrous -oxide escapes. Mention is necessary of the following: - -_Barium nitrate_ (Ba(NO₃)₂) is prepared as a colourless crystalline -substance by acting on barium carbonate or barium sulphide with nitric -acid. Use is made of it in fireworks (green fire) and explosives. In -analogous way strontium nitrate (Sr(NO₃)₂) is made and used for red fire. - -_Ammonium nitrate_ (NH₄NO₃), a colourless crystalline substance, is -obtained by neutralising nitric acid with ammonia or ammonium carbonate, -and is also made by dissolving iron or tin in nitric acid. It is used in -the manufacture of explosives. - -_Lead nitrate_ (Pb(NO₃)₂), a colourless crystalline substance, is made by -dissolving lead oxide or carbonate in nitric acid. It is used in dyeing -and calico printing, in the preparation of chrome yellow and other lead -compounds, and mixed with lead peroxide (obtained by treatment of red -lead with nitric acid) in the manufacture of lucifer matches. Apart from -risk from nitrous fumes (common to all these salts) there is risk also of -chronic lead poisoning. - -_Nitrate of iron_ (Fe(NO₃)₂), forming green crystals, is made by -dissolving sulphide of iron or iron in cold dilute nitric acid. The -so-called nitrate of iron commonly used in dyeing consists of basic -sulphate of iron (used largely in the black dyeing of silk). - -_Copper nitrate_ (Cu(NO₃)₂), prepared in a similar way, is also used in -dyeing. - -_Mercurous nitrate_ (Hg₂(NO₃)₂) is of great importance industrially, and -is produced by the action of cold dilute nitric acid on an excess of -mercury. It is used for ‘carotting’ rabbit skins in felt hat making, for -colouring horn, for etching, and for forming an amalgam with metals, in -making a black bronze on brass (art metal), in painting on porcelain, &c. - -_Mercuric nitrate_ (Hg(NO₃)₂) is made by dissolving mercury in nitric -acid or by treating mercury with excess of warm nitric acid. Both the -mercurous and mercuric salts act as corrosives and are strongly poisonous -(see also Mercury and Hat Manufacture). - -_Nitrate of silver_ (AgNO₃) is obtained by dissolving silver in nitric -acid and is used commercially as a caustic in the well-known crystalline -pencils (lunar caustic). Its absorption into the system leads to -accumulation of silver in the skin—the so-called argyria (see Silver). -Such cases of chronic poisoning are recorded by Lewin.[7] Argyria occurs -among photographers and especially in the silvering of glass pearls owing -to introduction of a silver nitrate solution into the string of pearls by -suction. In northern Bohemia, where the glass pearl industry is carried -on in the homes of the workers, I saw a typical case. The cases are now -rare, as air pumps are used instead of the mouth. - -_Sodium nitrite_ (NaNO₂) is obtained by melting Chili saltpetre with -metallic lead in cast-iron vessels. The mass is lixiviated and the -crystals obtained on evaporation. The lead oxide produced is specially -suitable for making red lead. Cases of lead poisoning are frequent and -sometimes severe. Roth[8] mentions a factory where among 100 employed -there were 211 attacks in a year. - -_Amyl nitrite_ (C₅H₁₁NO₂) is made by leading nitrous fumes into iso-amyl -alcohol and distilling amyl alcohol with potassium nitrite and sulphuric -acid. It is a yellowish fluid, the fumes of which when inhaled produce -throbbing of the bloodvessels in the head and rapid pulse. - -For other nitric acid compounds see the following section on Explosives -and the section on Manufacture of Tar Products (Nitro-benzene, &c.). - - -Explosives - -Numerous explosives are made with aid of nitric acid or a mixture of -nitric and sulphuric acids. Injury to health and poisoning—especially -through development of nitrous fumes—can be caused. Further, some -explosives are themselves industrial poisons, especially those giving off -volatile fumes or dust. - -The most important are: - -_Fulminate of mercury_ (HgC₂N₂O₂) is probably to be regarded as the -mercury salt of fulminic acid, an isomer of cyanic acid. It is used -to make caps for detonating gunpowder and explosives, and is made by -dissolving mercury in nitric acid and adding alcohol. The heavy white -crystals of mercury fulminate are filtered off and dried. Very injurious -fumes are produced in the reaction, containing ethyl acetate, acetic -acid, ethyl nitrate, nitrous acid, volatile hydrocyanic acid compounds, -hydrocyanic acid, ethyl cyanide, cyanic acid; death consequently can -immediately ensue on inhalation of large quantities. The fulminate is -itself poisonous, and risk is present in filtering, pressing, drying, -and granulating it. Further, in filling the caps in the huts numerous -cases of poisoning occur. Heinzerling thinks here that mercury fumes are -developed by tiny explosions in the pressing and filling. In a factory in -Nuremburg 40 per cent. of the women employed are said to have suffered -from mercurial poisoning. Several cases in a factory at Marseilles are -recorded by Neisser.[9] In addition to the risk from the salt there is -even more from nitrous fumes, which are produced in large quantity in the -fulminate department. - -_Nitro-glycerin_ (C₃H₅(O—NO₂)₃, dynamite, explosive -gelatine).—Nitro-glycerin is made by action of a mixture of nitric and -sulphuric acids on anhydrous glycerin. The method of manufacture is as -follows (see fig. 10): glycerin is allowed to flow into the acid mixture -in leaden vessels; it is agitated by compressed air and care taken that -the temperature remains at about 22° C., as above 25° there may be risk. -The liquid is then run off and separates into two layers, the lighter -nitro-glycerin floating on the top of the acid. The process is watched -through glass windows. The nitro-glycerin thus separated is run off, -washed by agitation with compressed air, then neutralised (with soda -solution) and again washed and lastly filtered. The acid mixture which -was run off is carefully separated by standing, as any explosive oil -contained in it will rise up. The waste acid freed from nitro-glycerin is -recovered in special apparatus, being denitrified by hot air and steam -blown through it. The nitrous fumes are condensed to nitric acid. The -sulphuric acid is evaporated. - -_Dynamite_ is made by mixing nitro-glycerin with infusorial earth -previously heated to redness and purified. - -_Blasting gelatine_ is made by dissolving gun cotton (collodion wool, -nitro-cellulose) in nitro-glycerin. Both are pressed into cartridge shape. - -Nitro-glycerin itself is a strong poison which can be absorbed both -through the skin and from the alimentary canal. Kobert describes a case -where the rubbing of a single drop into the skin caused symptoms lasting -for ten hours. Workmen engaged in washing out nitro-glycerin from the -kieselguhr earth, having in doing so their bare arms immersed in the -liquid, suffered. Although it be granted that nitro-glycerin workers -become to a large extent acclimatised, cases of poisoning constantly -occur in explosives factories referable to the effect of nitro-glycerin. - -Persons mixing and sieving dynamite suffer from ulcers under the nails -and at the finger-tips which are difficult to heal. Further, where the -apparatus employed is not completely enclosed nitrous fumes escape and -become a source of danger. Formerly this danger was constantly present -in the nitrating house where nitration was effected in open vessels. -Now that this is usually done in closed nitrating apparatus with glass -covers the danger is mainly limited to the acid separating house, wash -house, and especially the room in which denitration of the waste acids is -effected. - -[Illustration: FIG. 10.—Preparation of Nitro-glycerin. Nitrating Vessel -(_after Guttmann_) - -A Glycerine reservoir; C Fume flue; D Acid supply pipe; E, G Compressed -air supply; H, J Cooling coil.] - -A fatal case in a nitro-glycerin factory was reported in 1902 where, -through carelessness, a separator had overflowed. The workman who tried -to wash away the acid with water inhaled so much of the nitrous fumes -that he succumbed sixteen hours later. - -Other cases of poisoning by nitrous fumes occurring in the denitrating -department are described in detail in the section on the use of nitric -acid. - -One of these occurred to a man forcing dilute nitric acid from an -earthenware egg by means of compressed air into a washing tower. The egg -burst and broke an acid tank. The workman died on the following day. - -A fatal case occurred in a dynamite factory in cleaning out a storage -tank for waste acid in spite of previous swilling and ventilation. - -_Gun cotton_ (_pyroxyline_) and its use.—Pyroxyline is the collective -name for all products of the action of nitric acid on cellulose (cotton -wool and similar material); these products form nitric acid ester of -cellulose (nitro-cellulose). - -Gun cotton is formed by the action of strong nitric acid on cellulose -(cotton wool). A mixture of sulphuric and nitric acids is allowed to act -on cotton wool (previously freed from grease, purified, and dried), with -subsequent pressing and centrifugalising. In the nitrating centrifugal -machine (in the Selvig-Lange method) both processes are effected at the -same time. - -The interior of this apparatus is filled with nitric acid, cotton wool is -introduced, the acid fumes exhausted through earthenware pipes, and the -remainder of the acid removed by the centrifugal machine; the nitrated -material is then washed, teazed in teazing machines, again washed, -neutralised with calcium carbonate, again centrifugalised, and dried. -Since drying in drying stoves is a great source of danger of explosion, -dehydration is effected with alcohol, and the gun cotton intended for -the production of smokeless powder carried directly to the gelatinising -vessels (see Smokeless Powder). - -Gun cotton, apart from its use for smokeless powder, is pressed in prisms -and used for charging torpedoes and sea mines. - -_Collodion cotton_ is a partially nitrated cellulose. It is prepared -generally in the same way as gun cotton, except that it is treated with -a more dilute acid. It is soluble (in contradistinction to gun cotton) -in alcohol-ether, and the solution is known as collodion (as used in -surgery, photography, and to impregnate incandescent gas mantles). Mixed -with camphor and heated collodion forms celluloid. - -In Chardonnet’s method for making artificial silk collodion is used by -forcing it through fine glass tubes and drawing and spinning it. The -alcohol-ether vapours are carried away by fans and the spun material is -de-nitrated by ammonium sulphide. - -_Smokeless powder_ is a gun cotton powder—that is gun cotton the -explosive power of which is utilised by bringing it into a gelatinous -condition. This is effected by gelatinising the gun cotton with -alcohol-ether or acetone (sometimes with addition of camphor, resin, -&c.). A doughy, pasty mass results, which is then rolled, washed, dried, -and pressed into rods. Nobel’s nitroleum (artillery powder) consists half -of nitro-glycerin and half of collodion cotton. In the production of gun -cotton and collodion cotton the workers are affected and endangered by -nitric and nitrous fumes unless the nitrating apparatus is completely -airtight. - -Erosion of the incisor teeth is general, but use of the new nitrating -apparatus, especially of the nitrating centrifugal machines already -described, has greatly diminished the evil. In making collodion, -celluloid and artificial silk, in addition to the risks referred to -in the production of gun cotton, the vapour from the solvents, ether, -alcohol, acetone, acetic-ether, and camphor, comes into consideration, -but there is no account of such poisoning in the literature of the -subject. - -Other explosives which belong to the aromatic series are described in the -chapter on Tar Derivatives, especially picric acid. - - -PHOSPHORUS AND PHOSPHORUS MATCHES - -The total production of _phosphorus_ is not large. Formerly it was -prepared from bone ash. Now it is made from phosphorite, which, as -in the super-phosphate industry, is decomposed by means of sulphuric -acid, soluble phosphate and calcium sulphate being formed; the latter -is removed, the solution evaporated, mixed with coal or coke powder, -distilled in clay retorts, and received in water. - -Phosphorus is also obtained electro-chemically from a mixture of -tricalcium phosphate, carbon, and silicic acid, re-distilled for further -purification, and finally poured under water into stick form. - -_Red phosphorus_ (amorphous phosphorus) is obtained by heating yellow -phosphorus in the absence of air and subsequently extracting with carbon -bisulphide. - -_Phosphorus matches_ are made by first fixing the wooden splints in -frames and then dipping the ends either into paraffin or sulphur which -serve to carry the flame to the wood. Then follows dipping in the -phosphorus paste proper, for which suitable dipping machines are now -used. The phosphorus paste consists of yellow phosphorus, an oxidising -agent (red lead, lead nitrate, nitre, or manganese dioxide) and a binding -substance (dextrine, gum); finally the matches are dried and packed. - -_Safety matches_ are made in the same way, except that there is no -phosphorus. The paste consists of potassium chlorate, sulphur, or -antimony sulphide, potassium bichromate, solution of gum or dextrine, -and different admixtures such as glass powder, &c. These matches are -saturated with paraffin or ammonium phosphate. To strike them a special -friction surface is required containing red phosphorus, antimony -sulphide, and dextrine. In the act of striking the heat generated -converts a trace of the red phosphorus into the yellow variety which -takes fire. - -Danger to health arises from the poisonous gases evolved in the -decomposition of the calcined bones by sulphuric acid. When phosphorus is -made from phosphorite the same dangers to health are present as in the -production of super-phosphate artificial manure, which is characterised -by the generation of hydrofluoric and fluosilicic acids. In the -distillation of phosphorus phosphoretted hydrogen and phosphorus fumes -may escape and prove dangerous. - -Industrial poisoning from the use of white phosphorus in the manufacture -of matches has greater interest than its occurrence in the production -of phosphorus itself. Already in 1845 chronic phosphorus poisoning -(phosphorus necrosis) had been observed by Lorinser, and carefully -described by Bibra and Geist in 1847. In the early years of its use -phosphorus necrosis must have been fairly frequent in lucifer match -factories, and not infrequently have led to death. This necessitated -preventive measures in various States (see Part III); cases became fewer, -but did not disappear altogether. - -Especially dangerous is the preparation of the paste, dipping, and -manipulations connected with drying and filling the matches into boxes. -According to the reports of the Austrian factory inspectors there are -about 4500 lucifer match workers in that country, among whom seventy-four -cases of necrosis are known to have occurred between the years 1900 and -1908 inclusive. - -Teleky[1] considers these figures much too small, and from inquiries -undertaken himself ascertained that 156 cases occurred in Austria -between 1896 and 1906, while factory inspectors’ reports dealt with only -seventy-five. He was of opinion that his own figures were not complete, -and thinks that in the ten years 1896 to 1905 there must have been from -350 to 400 cases of phosphorus necrosis in the whole of Austria. Despite -strict regulations, modern equipment of the factories, introduction of -improved machinery, and limitation of the white phosphorus match industry -to large factories, it has not been possible to banish the risk, and the -same is true of Bohemia, where there is always a succession of cases. -Valuable statistics of phosphorus necrosis in Hungary are available.[2] -In 1908 there were sixteen factories employing 1882 workers of whom -30 per cent. were young—children even were employed. The industry is -carried on in primitive fashion without hygienic arrangements anywhere. -It is strange that, notwithstanding these bad conditions, among a large -number of the workers examined only fourteen active cases were found, in -addition to two commencing, and fifteen cured—altogether thirty-one cases -(excluding fifty-five cases in which there was some other pathological -change in the mouth). Altogether ninety-three cases since 1900 were -traced in Hungary, and in view of the unsatisfactory situation preventive -measures, short of prohibition of the use of white phosphorus, would be -useless. - -In England among 4000 lucifer match workers there were thirteen cases -in the years 1900 to 1907 inclusive. Diminution in the number was due -to improved methods of manufacture and periodical dental examination -prescribed under Special Rules. - -Phosphorus necrosis is not the only sign of industrial phosphorus -poisoning, as the condition of fragilitas ossium is recognised.[3] -From what has been said it is evident that preventive measures against -phosphorus poisoning, although they diminish the number, are not able to -get rid of phosphorus necrosis, and so civilised States have gradually -been driven to prohibit the use of white phosphorus (for the history of -this see Part III). - -Use of chrome salts (especially potassium bichromate) in the preparation -of the paste causes risk of poisoning in premises where ‘Swedish’ -matches are made. Attention has been called to the frequency of chrome -ulceration.[4] The paste used consists of 3-6 per cent. chrome salt, so -that each match head contains about ½ mg. Wodtke found among eighty-four -workers early perforation of the septum in thirteen. Severe eczema also -has been noted. - -It is even alleged that red phosphorus is not entirely free from danger. -Such cachexia as has been noted may be referable to the absorption of -potassium chlorate. - - -Other Uses of Phosphorus and Compounds of Phosphorus - -Isolated cases of phosphorus poisoning have been observed in the -manufacture of phosphor-bronze. This consists of 90 parts copper, 9 parts -tin, and 0·5 to 0·75 phosphorus. - -_Sulphides of phosphorus_ (P₂S₅, P₄S₃, P₂S₃) are made by melting together -red phosphorus and sulphur. They make a satisfactory substitute for the -poisonous yellow phosphorus and are considered non-poisonous, but the -fact remains that they give off annoying sulphuretted hydrogen gas. - -_Phosphoretted hydrogen gas_ (PH₃) rarely gives rise to industrial -poisoning. It may come off in small amounts in the preparation of -acetylene and in the preparation of, and manipulations with, white -phosphorus. It is stated that in acetylene made of American calcium -carbide 0·04 per cent. of phosphoretted hydrogen is present, and in -acetylene from Swedish calcium carbide 0·02 per cent.; Lunge and -Cederkreutz found an acetylene containing 0·06 per cent. These amounts -might cause poisoning if the gas were diffused in confined spaces. -Poisoning, in part attributable to phosphoretted hydrogen gas, is brought -about through ferro-silicon (see under Ferro-silicon). - - -Superphosphate and Artificial Manure - -_Superphosphate_, an artificial manure, is prepared from various -raw materials having a high proportion of insoluble basic calcium -phosphate (tricalcium phosphate), which by treatment with sulphuric -acid are converted into the soluble acid calcium phosphate (monocalcium -phosphate) and calcium sulphate. Mineral substances such as phosphorites, -coprolites, guano, bone ash, &c., serve as the starting-point. Chamber -acid, or sometimes the waste acid from the preparation of nitro-benzene -or purification of petroleum, are used in the conversion. The raw -materials are ground in closed-in apparatus, under negative pressure, -and mixed with the sulphuric acid in wooden lead-lined boxes or walled -receptacles. The product is then stored until the completion of the -reaction in ‘dens,’ dried, and pulverised in disintegrators. - -In the manufacture of bone meal extraction of the fat from the bones with -benzine precedes treatment with acid. - -A further source of artificial manure is _basic slag_—the slag left in -the manufacture of steel by the Gilchrist-Thomas method—which contains -10-25 per cent. of readily soluble phosphoric acid. It requires, -therefore, only to be ground into a very fine powder to serve as a -suitable manure. - -Owing to the considerable heat generated by the action of the sulphuric -acid when mixed with the pulverised raw materials (especially in the -conversion of the phosphorites) hydrofluoric and silicofluoric acid -vapours are evolved in appreciable amount, and also carbonic and -hydrochloric acid vapours, sulphur dioxide, and sulphuretted hydrogen -gas. These gases—notably such as contain fluorine—if not effectually -dealt with by air-tight apparatus and exhaust ventilation—may lead to -serious annoyance and injury to the persons employed. Further, there is -risk of erosion of the skin from contact with the acid, &c. - -A case is described of pustular eczema on the scrotum of a worker engaged -in drying sodium silicofluoride, due probably to conveyance of irritating -matter by the hands. After the precaution of wearing gloves was adopted -the affection disappeared. - -A marked case of poisoning by nitrous fumes even is recorded in the -manufacture of artificial manure from mixing Chili saltpetre with a very -acid superphosphate. - -Injurious fumes can be given off in the rooms where bones are stored and, -in the absence of efficient ventilation, carbonic acid gas can accumulate -to an amount that may be dangerous. - -The fine dust produced in the grinding of _basic slag_ has, if inhaled, a -markedly corrosive action on the respiratory mucous membrane attributed -by some to the high proportion (about 50 per cent.) in it of quicklime. -As a matter of fact numerous small ulcers are found on the mucous -membranes of basic slag grinders and ulceration of the lung tissue has -been observed. The opinion is expressed that this is due to corrosive -action of the dust itself, and not merely to the sharp, jagged edged -particles of dust inhaled. And in support of this view is cited the -frequency with which epidemics of pneumonia have been noted among -persons employed in basic slag works. Thus in Nantes thirteen cases of -severe pneumonia followed one another in quick succession. And similar -association has been noted in Middlesbrough, where the action of the -basic slag dust was believed to injure the lung tissue and therefore to -provide a favourable soil for the development of the pneumonia bacillus. -Statistics collected by the Imperial Health Office showed that in the -three years 1892, 1893, and 1894, 91·1 per cent., 108·9 per cent., and -91·3 per cent. respectively of the workers became ill, the proportion -of respiratory diseases being 56·4 per cent., 54·4 per cent., and 54·3 -per cent. respectively. A case of severe inflammation of the lungs is -described in a labourer scattering basic slag in a high wind which drove -some of it back in his face. - -Lewin has described a case in which a worker scattering a mixture of -basic slag and ammonium superphosphate suffered from an eczematous -ulceration which, on being scratched by the patient, became infected and -led to death from general blood poisoning. Lewin regarded the fatal issue -as the sequela of the scattering of the manure. - -Inflammation of the conjunctiva and of the eyelids has been recorded. - - -CHROMIUM COMPOUNDS AND THEIR USES - -Chrome ironstone, lime, and soda are ground and intimately mixed. They -are next roasted in reverberatory furnaces, neutral _sodium chromate_ -being formed. This is lixiviated and converted into sodium bichromate -(Na₂Cr₂O₇) by treatment with sulphuric acid. Concentration by evaporation -follows; the concentrated liquor is crystallised in cast-iron tanks. The -crystals are centrifugalised, dried, and packed. _Potassium bichromate_ -may be made in the same way, or, as is usually the case, out of sodium -bichromate and potassium chloride. - -The bichromates are used in the preparation and oxidation of chrome -colours, but their principal use is in dyeing and calico printing, -bleaching palm oil, purifying wood spirit and brandy, in the preparation -of ‘Swedish’ matches, in the manufacture of glass, in photography, in -dyeing, in tanning, and in oxidation of anthracene to anthraquinone. - - -Lead Chromate and Chrome Colours - -_Chrome yellow_ is neutral lead chromate (PbCrO₄). It is obtained by -precipitating a solution of potassium bichromate with lead acetate or -lead nitrate, or by digesting the bichromate solution with lead sulphate, -and is used as a paint and in calico and cloth printing. With Paris or -Berlin blue it forms a _chrome green_. _Chrome orange_, i.e. basic lead -chromate (PbCrO₄Pb(OH)₂) is made by adding milk of lime to lead chromate -and boiling. - -_Chromium_ and _chromic acid salts_ are widely used in dyeing and -printing, both as mordants and oxidising agents and as dyes (chrome -yellow, chrome orange). In mordanting wool with potassium chromate the -wool is boiled in a potassium chromate solution to which acids such as -sulphuric, lactic, oxalic, or acetic are added. - -In dyeing with chrome yellow, for instance, the following is the process. -Cotton wool is saturated with nitrate or acetate of lead and dried, -passed through lime water, ammonia, or sodium sulphate, and soaked in a -warm solution of potassium bichromate. The yellow is converted into the -orange colour by subsequent passage through milk of lime. - -_Chrome tanning._—This method of producing chrome leather, first patented -in America, is carried out by either the single or two bath process. - -In the two bath process the material is first soaked in a saturated -solution of bichromate and then treated with an acid solution of -thiosulphate (sodium hyposulphite) so as to reduce completely the chromic -acid. The process is completed even with the hardest skins in from two to -three days. - -In the single bath method basic chrome salts are used in highly -concentrated form. The skins are passed from dilute into strong -solutions. In this process also tanning is quickly effected. - -EFFECTS ON HEALTH.—Among the persons employed in the bichromate factory -of which Leymann has furnished detailed particulars, the number of sick -days was greater than that among other workers. - -Further, _erosion of the skin_ (_chrome holes_) is characteristic of -the manufacture of bichromates. These are sluggish ulcers taking a long -time to heal. This is the main cause of the increased general morbidity -that has been observed. The well-known perforation of the septum of the -nose without, however, causing ulterior effects, was observed by Leymann -in all the workers in the factory. This coincides with the opinion of -others who have found the occurrence of chrome holes, and especially -perforation of the septum, as an extraordinarily frequent occurrence. -Many such observations are recorded,[1] and also in workers manufacturing -‘Swedish’ matches. Thus of 237 bichromate workers, ulcers were present -in 107 and perforation in 87. According to Lewin, who has paid special -attention to the poisonous nature of chromium compounds, they can act in -two ways: first, on the skin and mucous membrane, where the dust alights, -on the alimentary tract by swallowing, and on the pharynx by inhalation. -Secondly, by absorption into the blood, kidney disease may result. - -The opinion that chromium, in addition to local, can have constitutional -effect is supported by other authorities. Leymann describes a case -of severe industrial chrome poisoning accompanied by nephritis in a -worker who had inhaled and swallowed much chromate dust in cleaning -out a vessel. Regulations for the manufacture of bichromates (see Part -III) have no doubt improved the condition, but reports still show that -perforation of the septum generally takes place. - -It must be borne in mind that practically all chromium compounds are not -alike poisonous. Chrome ironstone is non-poisonous, and the potassium -and sodium salts are by far the most poisonous, while the neutral -chromate salts and chromic oxide are only slightly so. Pander found that -bichromates were 100 times as poisonous as the soluble chromium oxide -compounds, and Kunkel is of opinion that poisonous effect shown by the -oxides is attributable to traces of oxidation into chromic acid. - -Lewin, on the other hand, declares in a cautionary notice for chrome -workers generally that all chromium compounds are poisonous, and -therefore all the dyes made from them.[2] - -In the manufacture of bichromates, chance of injury to health arises -partly from the dust, and partly from the steam, generated in pouring -water over the molten mass. The steam carries particles of chromium -compounds with it into the air. In evaporating the chromate solutions, -preparation of the bichromate, breaking the crystals, drying and packing, -the workers come into contact with the substance and the liquors. Chrome -ulceration is, therefore, most frequently found among those employed in -the crystal room and less among the furnace hands. - -From 3·30 to 6·30 mg. of bichromate dust have been found in 1 c.m. of air -at breathing level in the room where chromate was crushed, and 1·57 mg. -where it was packed. Further, presence of chromium in the steam escaping -from the hot chrome liquors has been proved.[3] - -Poisoning from use of chrome colours is partly attributable to lead, as, -for example, in making yellow coloured tape measures, yellow stamps, and -from the use of coloured thread. Gazaneuve[4] found 10 per cent. of lead -chromate in such thread, in wool 18 per cent., and in the dust of rooms -where such yarn was worked up 44 per cent. - -Use of chrome colours and mordants is accompanied by illness which -certainly is referable to the poisonous nature of the chrome. In France -use of chromic and phosphoric acid in etching zinc plates has caused -severe ulceration. - -Bichromate poisoning has been described among photographers in Edinburgh -in the process of carbon printing, in which a bichromate developer is -used.[5] - -There is much evidence as to occurrence of skin eruptions and -development of pustular eczema of the hands and forearms of workers in -chrome tanneries.[6] In a large leather factory where 300 workers were -constantly employed in chrome tanning nineteen cases of chrome ulceration -were noted within a year. Injury to health was noted in a chrome tannery -in the district of Treves, where the two bath process was used, from -steam developed in dissolving the chromate in hot water. - -Finally, I have found several records in 1907 and 1908 of perforation of -the septum in Bohemian glass workers. - - -MANGANESE COMPOUNDS - -The raw material of the manganese industry is _hausmannite_ (manganese -dioxide, MnO₂). This is subjected to a crushing process, sorted, sieved, -finely ground, washed, and dried. The pure finely ground manganese -dioxide is much used in the chemical industry, especially in the -recovery of chlorine in the Weldon process and in the production of -_potassium permanganate_, which is obtained by melting manganese dioxide -with caustic soda and potassium chlorate or nitre, lixiviation and -introduction of carbonic acid, or better by treatment with ozone. - -Manganese is also used in the production of colours: the natural and -artificial umbers contain it; in glass works it is used to decolourise -glass, and also in the production of coloured glass and glazes; in the -manufacture of stove tiles, and in the production of driers for the -varnish and oil industry. Manganese and compounds of manganese are -dangerous when absorbed into the system as dust. - -Already in 1837 nervous disorders had been described in workmen who -ground manganese dioxide.[1] The malady was forgotten, until Jaksch[2] -in Prague in 1901 demonstrated several such cases in persons employed -in a large chemical factory in Bohemia, from the drying of Weldon mud. -In the same year three similar cases were also described in Hamburg.[3] -In 1902 Jaksch observed a fresh case of poisoning, and in the factory -in question described a condition of manganophobia among the workers, -obviously hysterical, in which symptoms of real manganese poisoning were -simulated. In all some twenty cases are known. Jaksch is of opinion that -it is manganese dust rich in manganese protoxide that is alone dangerous, -since, if the mud has been previously treated with hydrochloric acid, by -which the lower oxides are removed, no illness can be found. The most -dangerous compounds are MnO and Mn₃O₄. - - -PETROLEUM - -OCCURRENCE AND USES.—Crude petroleum flows spontaneously from wells in -consequence of high internal pressure of gas or is pumped up. In America -and Russia also it is conveyed hundreds of miles in conduits to the ports -to be led into tank steamers. - -The crude oil is a dark-coloured liquid which, in the case of -Pennsylvanian mineral oil, consists mainly of a mixture of hydrocarbons -of the paraffin series, or, in Baku oil, of those of the naphtha series. -There are in addition sulphur compounds, olefines, pyridin, &c. The -crude oil is unsuitable for illuminating purposes and is subjected to a -distillation process. It is split up into three fractions by a single -distillation, namely, (_a_) benzines (boiling-point 150° C.), (_b_) -lighting oil (boiling-point 150°-300° C.); at a temperature of 300° C. -the distillation is stopped so that (_c_) the residuum boiling above 300° -C. remains. Distillation is effected (in America) in large stills, in -which periodically benzine and lighting oil up to 300° C. is distilled -and the residuum run off. In Baku continuously working batteries of -so-called cylindrical boilers are used, into which the crude oil -streams. In the first set of boilers, the temperature in which rises to -150° C., the benzine is distilled off, and in the succeeding ones, heated -to 300° C., the illuminating petroleum oils (kerosine), the residuum -flowing continually away. - -The _mineral oil residues_ are used as fuel. Heating by this means, -tried first only in Russia, is spreading, especially for the heating of -boilers, in which case the liquid fuel is blown in generally as a spray. -The combustion if rightly planned is economical and almost smokeless. - -The American oil residuum, rich in paraffin, is distilled, the distillate -is cooled and separated by pressure into solid paraffin and liquid oil. -The latter and the Russian mineral oil residues which are free from -paraffin are widely used as lubricants. In the production of lubricants -the residues are distilled at low temperature (in vacuo or by aid of -superheated steam) and separated into various qualities by fractional -cooling, are then purified with sulphuric acid, and finally washed with -caustic soda solution. - -In the preparation of vaseline the residum is not distilled, but purified -only with fuming sulphuric acid and decolourised with animal charcoal. - -The _illuminating oil_ is next subjected to a purifying process -(refining); it is first treated with sulphuric acid and well agitated -by means of compressed air. The acid laden with the impurities is drawn -off below, and the oil freed from acid by washing first with caustic -soda and subsequently with water. It is then bleached in the sun. For -specially fine and high flash point petroleum the oil undergoes a further -distillation and purification with acid. - -The fractions of crude petroleum with low boiling-point (under 150° C.) -are known commercially as raw _benzine_ or _petrol naphtha_. It is used -for cleaning, in extraction of fats and oils, and for benzine motors. - -Frequently raw benzine is subjected to a purifying process and to -fractional distillation. Purification is carried out by means of -sulphuric acid and soda liquor and subsequent separation into three -fractions and a residue which remains in the retort—(_a_) _petroleum -ether_ (called gasoline, canadol, and rhigoline), which comes over -between 40° and 70° C., and serves for carburetting water gas and other -similar gases, as a solvent for resin, oil, rubber, &c.; (_b_) _purified -benzine_ (70°-120° C.) is used as motor spirit and in chemical cleaning; -(_c_) _ligroine_ (120°-135° C.), used for illuminating purposes; and -(_d_) the _residual oil_ (above 135° C.) serves for cleaning machinery -and, especially, as a solvent for lubricating oil, and instead of -turpentine in the production of lacquers, varnishes, and oil colours. - -In _chemical cleaning_ works benzine is used in closed-in washing -apparatus, after which the clothes are centrifugalised and dried. In -view of the risk of fire in these manipulations, originating mainly from -frictional electricity, various substances are recommended to be added -to the benzine, of which the best known is that recommended by Richter, -consisting of a watery solution of oleate of sodium or magnesium. - -EFFECTS ON HEALTH.—Industrial poisoning in the petroleum industry is -attributable to the gases given off from crude petroleum or its products -and to inhalation of naphtha dust. Poisoning occurs principally in -the recovery of petroleum and naphtha from the wells, in storage and -transport (in badly ventilated tanks on board ship, and in entering -petroleum tanks), in the refinery in cleaning out petroleum stills and -mixing vessels, and in emptying out the residues. Further cases occur -occasionally from use of benzine in chemical cleaning. - -In addition to poisoning the injurious effect of petroleum and its -constituents on the skin must be borne in mind. Opinion is unanimous -that this injurious action of mineral oil is limited to the petroleum -fractions with high boiling-point and especially petroleum residues. - -Statistics officially collected in Prussia show the general health of -petroleum workers to be favourable. These statistics related to 1380 -persons, of whom forty-three were suffering from symptoms attributable -to their occupation. Of these forty-three, nine only were cases of -poisoning, the remainder being all cases of petroleum acne. - -The conditions also in French refineries from statistics collected in -the years 1890-1903 seem satisfactory. Eighteen cases of petroleum acne -were reported, eleven of which occurred at the paraffin presses, five in -cleaning out the still residues, and two were persons filling vessels. - -The conditions are clearly less favourable in the Russian petroleum -industry.[1] - -The workers at the naphtha wells suffer from acute and chronic affections -of the respiratory organs. Those suffer most who cover the wells with -cast iron plates to enable the flow of naphtha to be regulated and led -into the reservoirs. In doing this they inhale naphtha spray. - -Lewin[2] describes cases of severe poisoning with fatal issue among -American workers employed in petroleum tanks. One man who wished to -examine an outlet pipe showed symptoms after only two minutes. Weinberger -describes severe poisoning of two workers engaged in cleaning out a -vessel containing petroleum residue. - -Interesting particulars are given of the effect of petroleum emanations -on the health of the men employed in the petroleum mines of Carpathia, -among whom respiratory affections were rarely found, but poisoning -symptoms involving unconsciousness and cerebral symptoms frequently. -These experiences undoubtedly point to differing physiological effects of -different kinds of naphtha. - -This is supported by the view expressed by Sharp in America that -different kinds of American petroleum have different effects on the -health of the workers, which can be easily credited from the different -chemical composition of crude naphthas. Thus in Western Virginia, where a -natural heavy oil is obtained, asphyxia from the gas is unknown, although -transient attacks of headache and giddiness may occur, whereas in Ohio, -where light oils are obtained, suffocative attacks are not infrequent. -And it is definitely stated that some naphtha products irritate the -respiratory passages, while others affect the central nervous system.[3] - -The authors mentioned refer to occurrence of cases of poisoning in the -refining of naphtha from inhalation of the vapour of the light oils -benzine and gasoline. Fatal cases have been recorded in badly ventilated -workrooms in which the products of distillation are collected. Workers -constantly employed in these rooms develop chronic poisoning, which is -reported also in the case of women employed with benzine. Intoxication is -frequently observed, it is stated, among the workmen employed in cleaning -out the railway tank waggons in which the mineral oils and petroleum are -carried. - -Foulerton[4] describes severe poisoning in a workman who had climbed into -a petroleum reservoir, and two similar cases from entering naphtha tanks -are given in the Report of the Chief Inspector of Factories for 1908. Two -fatal cases are reported by the Union of Chemical Industry in Germany -in 1905 in connection with naphtha stills. Such accidents are hardly -possible, except when, through insufficient disconnection of the still -from the further system of pipes, irrespirable distillation gases pass -backwards into the opened still where persons are working. Ordinary cocks -and valves, therefore, do not afford sufficient security. Thus, several -workers engaged in repairing a still were rendered unconscious by gases -drawn in from a neighbouring still, and were only brought round after -oxygen inhalation. - -Gowers describes a case of chronic poisoning following on frequent -inhalation of gases given off from a petroleum motor, the symptoms -being slurring speech, difficulty of swallowing, and weakness of the -orbicularis and facial muscles. Gowers believed this to be petroleum -gas poisoning (from incomplete combustion), especially as the symptoms -disappeared on giving up the work, only to return on resuming it again.[5] - -Girls employed in glove cleaning and rubber factories are described as -having been poisoned by benzine.[6] Poisoning of chauffeurs is described -by several writers.[7] - -Recent literature[8] tends to show marked increase in the number of -cases of poisoning from greater demand for benzine as a motive power for -vehicles. Such cases have been observed in automobile factories, and are -attributable to the hydrocarbons of low boiling-point which are present -as impurities in benzine. - -A worker in a paraffin factory had entered an open benzine still to -scrape the walls free of crusts containing benzine. He was found -unconscious and died some hours later. It appeared that he had been in -the still several hours, having probably been overcome to such an extent -by the fumes as to be unable to effect his escape. - -Attempt to wipe up benzine spilt in the storage cellar of a large -chemical cleaning works resulted in poisoning. - -A night worker in a bone extracting works having turned on the steam, -instead of watching the process fell asleep on a bench. In consequence -the apparatus became so hot that the solder of a stop valve melted, -allowing fumes to escape. The man was found dead in the morning. In a -carpet cleaning establishment three workers lost consciousness and were -found senseless on the floor. They recovered on inhalation of oxygen. - -One further case reported from the instances of benzine poisoning -collected recently[9] is worth quoting. A worker in a chemical factory -was put to clean a still capable of distilling 2500 litres of benzine. -It contained remains of a previous filling. As soon as he had entered -the narrow opening he became affected and fell into the benzine; he -was carried unconscious to the hospital, his symptoms being vomiting, -spastic contraction of the extremities, cyanosis, weak pulse, and loss of -reflexes, which disappeared an hour and a half later. - -The occurrence of skin affections in the naphtha industry has been noted -by several observers, especially among those employed on the unpurified -mineral oils. Eruptions on the skin from pressing out the paraffin and -papillomata (warty growths) in workers cleaning out the stills are -referred to by many writers,[10] Ogston in particular. - -Recent literature refers to the occurrence of petroleum eczema in a -firebrick and cement factory. The workers affected had to remove the -bricks from moulds on to which petroleum oil dropped. An eczematous -condition was produced on the inner surface of the hands, necessitating -abstention from work. The pustular eczema in those employed only a short -time in pressing paraffin in the refineries of naphtha factories is -referred to as a frequent occurrence. Practically all the workers in -three refineries in the district of Czernowitz were affected. The view -that it is due to insufficient care in washing is supported by the report -of the factory inspector in Rouen, that with greater attention in this -matter on the part of the workers marked diminution in its occurrence -followed. - - -SULPHUR - -RECOVERY AND USE.—Sulphur, which is found principally in Sicily (also in -Spain, America, and Japan), is obtained by melting. In Sicily this is -carried out in primitive fashion by piling the rock in heaps, covering -them with turf, and setting fire to them. About a third of the sulphur -burns and escapes as sulphur dioxide, while the remainder is melted and -collects in a hole in the ground. - -The crude sulphur thus wastefully produced is purified by distillation in -cast-iron retorts directly fired. It comes on the market as stick or roll -sulphur or as flowers of sulphur. - -Further sources for recovery of sulphur are the Leblanc soda residues -(see Soda Production), from which the sulphur is recovered by the -Chance-Claus process, and the gas purifying material (containing up to 40 -per cent.), from which the sulphur can be recovered by carbon bisulphide -(see Illuminating Gas Industry). - -The health conditions of the Sicilian sulphur workers are very -unsatisfactory, due, however, less to the injurious effect of the -escaping gases (noxious alike to the surrounding vegetation) than to the -wretched social conditions, over exertion, and under feeding of these -workers. - -Of importance is the risk to health from sulphuretted hydrogen gas, -from sulphur dioxide in the recovery of sulphur from the soda residues, -and from carbon bisulphide in the extraction of sulphur from the gas -purifying material. - - -SULPHURETTED HYDROGEN GAS - -Sulphuretted hydrogen gas is used in the chemical industry especially -for the precipitation of copper in the nickel and cobalt industry, in -de-arsenicating acid (see Hydrochloric and Sulphuric Acids), to reduce -chrome salts in the leather industry, &c. In addition it arises as a -product of decomposition in various industries, such as the Leblanc soda -process, in the preparation of chloride of antimony, in the decomposition -of barium sulphide (by exposure to moist air), in the treatment of gas -liquors, and in the preparation of carbon bisulphide: it is present -in blast furnace gas, is generated in mines (especially in deep seams -containing pyrites), arises in tar distillation, from use of gas lime -in tanning, and in the preparation and use of sodium sulphide: large -quantities of the gas are generated in the putrefactive processes -connected with organic sulphur-containing matter such as glue making, -bone stores, storage of green hides, in the decomposition of waste water -in sugar manufacture and brewing, in the retting of flax, and especially -in sewers and middens. - -Both _acute_ and _chronic_ poisoning are described. - -The following case is reported by the Union of Chemical Industry in 1907: -Three plumbers who were employed on the night shift in a chemical factory -and had gone to sleep in a workroom were found in a dying condition two -hours later. In the factory barium sulphide solution in a series of large -saturating vessels was being converted into barium carbonate by forcing -in carbonic acid gas; the sulphuretted hydrogen gas evolved was collected -in a gasometer, burnt, and utilised for manufacture of sulphuric acid. In -the saturating vessels were test cocks, the smell from which enabled the -workers to know whether all the sulphuretted hydrogen gas had been driven -out. If this was so the contents of the retort were driven by means of -carbonic acid gas into a subsidiary vessel, and the vessel again filled -with barium sulphide liquor. From these intermediate vessels the baryta -was pumped into filter presses, the last remains of sulphuretted hydrogen -gas being carried away by a fan into a ventilating shaft. The subsidiary -vessel and ventilating shaft were situated in front of the windows of -the repairing shop. On the night in question a worker had thoughtlessly -driven the contents out of one saturating vessel before the sulphuretted -hydrogen gas had been completely removed, and the driving belt of the fan -was broken. Consequently, the sulphuretted hydrogen gas escaping from -the subsidiary vessel entered through the windows of the workshop and -collected over the floor where the victims of the unusual combination of -circumstances slept. - -In another chemical works two workers suffered from severe poisoning -in the barium chloride department. The plant consisted of a closed vat -which, in addition to the openings for admitting the barium sulphide -liquor and sulphuric acid, had a duct with steam injector connected -with the chimney for taking away the sulphuretted hydrogen gas. Owing -to a breakdown the plant was at a standstill, as a result of which the -ventilating duct became blocked by ice. When the plant was set in motion -again the sulphuretted hydrogen gas escaped through the sulphuric acid -opening. One of the workers affected remained for two days unconscious.[1] - -The report of the Union of Chemical Industry for 1905 cites a case -where an agitating vessel, in which, by action of acid on caustic -liquor, sulphuretted hydrogen gas was given off and drawn away by a fan, -had to be stopped to repair one of the paddles. The flow of acid and -liquor was stopped, and the cover half removed. The deposit which had -been precipitated had to be got rid of next in order to liberate the -agitator. The upper portion of the vessel was washed out with water, -and since no further evolution of sulphuretted hydrogen was possible -from any manufacturing process, the work of removing the deposit was -proceeded with. After several bucketfuls had been emptied the man inside -became unconscious and died. The casualty was no doubt due to small -nests of free caustic and acid which the spading brought into contact -and subsequent developement of sulphuretted hydrogen afresh. A case -is reported of sulphuretted hydrogen poisoning in a man attending to -the drains in a factory tanning leather by a quick process. Here, when -sulphurous acid acts on sodium sulphide, sulphuretted hydrogen is given -off. In cleaning out a trap close to the discharge outlet of a tannery -two persons were rendered unconscious, and the presence of sulphuretted -hydrogen was shown by the blackening of the white lead paint on a house -opposite and by the odour.[2] - -In the preparation of ammonium salts Eulenberg[3] cites several cases -where the workers fell as though struck down, although the processes were -carried on in the open air. They quickly recovered when removed from the -spot. - -Oliver cites the case where, in excavating soil for a dock, four men -succumbed in six weeks; the water contained 12 vols. per cent. of -sulphuretted hydrogen. - -Not unfrequently acute poisoning symptoms result to sewer men. Probably -sulphuretted hydrogen gas is not wholly responsible for them, nor for -the chronic symptoms complained of by such workers (inflammation of the -conjunctiva, bronchial catarrh, pallor, depression). - -In the distillation processes connected with the paraffin industry -fatalities have been reported. - - -CARBON BISULPHIDE - -MANUFACTURE.—Carbon bisulphide is prepared by passing sulphur vapour over -pure coal brought to a red heat in cast-iron retorts into which pieces of -sulphur are introduced. The crude carbon bisulphide requires purification -from sulphur, sulphuretted hydrogen, and volatile organic sulphur -compounds by washing with lime water and subsequent distillation. - -Use is made of it principally in the extraction of fat and oil from bones -and oleaginous seeds (cocoanut, olives, &c.), for vulcanising, and as a -solvent of rubber. It is used also to extract sulphur from gas purifying -material and for the preparation of various chemical substances (ammonium -sulphocyanide, &c.), as well as for the destruction of pests (phylloxera -and rats). - -Fat and oil are extracted from seeds, bones, &c., by carbon bisulphide, -benzine, or ether, and, to avoid evaporation, the vessels are as airtight -as possible and arranged, as a rule, for continuous working. - -_Vulcanisation_ is the rendering of rubber permanently elastic by its -combination with sulphur. It is effected by means of chloride of sulphur, -sulphide of barium, calcium, or antimony, and other sulphur-containing -compounds, heat and pressure, or by a cold method consisting in the -dipping of the formed objects in a mixture of carbon bisulphide and -chloride of sulphur. The process of manufacture is briefly as follows: -The raw material is first softened and washed by hot water and kneading -in rolls. The washed and dried rubber is then mixed on callender -rolls with various ingredients, such as zinc white, chalk, white -lead, litharge, cinnabar, graphite, rubber substitutes (prepared by -boiling vegetable oils, to which sulphur has been added, with chloride -of sulphur). In vulcanising by aid of heat the necessary sulphur or -sulphur compound is added. Vulcanisation with sulphur alone is only -possible with aid of steam and mechanical pressure in various kinds of -apparatus according to the nature of the article produced. In the cold -vulcanisation process the previously shaped articles are dipped for a few -seconds or minutes in the mixture of carbon bisulphide and chloride of -sulphur and subsequently dried in warm air as quickly as possible. - -In view of the poisonous nature of carbon bisulphide, benzine is much -used now. In the cold method use of chloride of sulphur in benzine can -replace it altogether. - -Instead of benzine other solvents are available—chlorine substitution -products of methane (dichlormethane, carbon tetrachloride). In other -processes _rubber solvents_ are largely used, for instance, acetone, oil -of turpentine, petroleum benzine, ether, and benzene. Rubber solutions -are used for waterproofing cloth and other materials. - -Similar to the preparation and use of rubber is that of guttapercha. But -vulcanisation is easier by the lead and zinc thiosulphate process than by -the methods used in the case of rubber. - -EFFECTS ON HEALTH OF CS₂ AND OTHER DANGERS TO HEALTH IN THE RUBBER -INDUSTRY.—In the manufacture of carbon bisulphide little or no danger is -run either to health or from fire. - -In the rubber trade the poisonous nature of _benzine_ and _chloride of -sulphur_ have to be borne in mind, and also the considerable risk of -_lead poisoning_ in mixing. Cases of plumbism, especially in earlier -years, are referred to.[1] - -_Benzine_ poisoning plays only a secondary part in the rubber industry. -No severe cases are recorded, only slight cases following an inhalation -of fumes. - -Cases of poisoning are recorded in a motor tyre factory in Upsala.[2] -Nine women were affected, of whom four died. Whether these cases were due -to benzene or petroleum benzine is not stated. It is remarkable that two -such very different substances as benzene and benzine should be so easily -confused. - -But that in the rubber industry cases of benzene poisoning do actually -occur is proved by the following recent cases: Rubber dissolved in benzol -was being laid on a spreading machine in the usual way. Of three men -employed one was rendered unconscious and died.[3] - -In a rubber recovery process a worker was rendered unconscious after -entering a benzol still, also two others who sought to rescue him. Only -one was saved. - -Cases of aniline poisoning are reported where aniline is used for -extracting rubber.[4] - -_Chloride of sulphur_, by reason of its properties and the readiness -with which it decomposes (see Chloride of Sulphur), causes annoyance to -rubber workers, but rarely poisoning. - -Much importance attaches to _chronic carbon bisulphide poisoning_ in the -rubber industry. Many scientists have experimented as to its poisonous -nature (see especially on this Part II, p. 194). - -Lehmann’s[5] experiments show that a proportion of 0·50-0·7 mg. of CS₂ -per litre of air causes hardly any symptoms; 1·0-1·2 mg. slight effects -which become more marked on continued exposure; 1·5 mg. produces severe -symptoms. About 1·0 mg. per litre of air is the amount which may set up -chronic effects. In vulcanising rooms this limit may easily be exceeded -unless special preventive measures are adopted. - -Laudenheimer[6] has made several analyses of the proportion of CS₂ in -workrooms. Thus 0·9-1·8 mg. per litre of air were found in a room where -pouches were vulcanised; 0·5-2·4 mg. were aspirated one-half metre -distant from the dipping vessels; and 0·18-0·27 mg. in the room for -making ‘baby comforters.’ - -In analyses made some years ago proportions of 2·9-5·6 mg. were obtained. - -Although literature contains many references to CS₂ poisoning, too -much importance ought not to be attached to them now in view of the -arrangements in modern well-equipped vulcanising premises. Laudenheimer -has collected particulars of 31 cases of brain, and 19 of nervous, -diseases among 219 persons coming into contact with CS₂ between 1874 -and 1908, all of whom had been medically attended. In the last ten -years, however, the psychical symptoms were seven times less than in the -preceding period. Between 1896 and 1898 the average proportion of brain -disease in the vulcanising department was 1·95 per cent., and of nervous -diseases 0·22 per cent., as compared with 0·92 per cent. and 0·03 per -cent. in the textile. Moreover, he maintains that practically all workers -who come at all into contact with CS₂ must be to some extent affected -injuriously by it. - -Studies on the injurious nature of CS₂ date from the years 1851-60, when -the French writers Pazen, Duchenne, Beaugrand, Piorry, &c., came across -cases from the Parkes’ process (cold vulcanisation by means of CS₂ and -SCl₂). Delpech[7] published in 1860 and 1863 details of twenty-four -severe cases in rubber workers, some of which were fatal, and at the -same time described the pitiable conditions under which the work was -carried on. - -In Germany Hermann, Hirt and Lewin, and Eulenberg dealt with the subject, -but their work is more theoretical in character; and in Laudenheimer’s -work referred to the histories of several cases are given in detail. - -Mention should be made of the injury caused to the skin by the fluids -used in extraction of fat and in vulcanising—especially by benzine -and carbon bisulphide. Perrin considers the effect due partly to the -withdrawal of heat and partly to the solvent action on the natural -grease, producing an unpleasant feeling of dryness and contraction of the -skin. - - -ILLUMINATING GAS - -Illuminating gas is obtained by the dry distillation of coal. The -products of distillation are subjected on the gasworks to several -purifying processes, such as condensation in coolers, moist and dry -purifying, from which valuable bye-products (such as tar, ammonia, -cyanogen compounds) are obtained. The purified gas is stored in gas -holders containing on an average 49 per cent. hydrogen, 34 per cent. -methane, 8 per cent. carbonic oxide, 1 per cent. carbon dioxide, 4 -per cent. nitrogen, and about 4 per cent. of the heavy hydrocarbons -(ethylene, benzene vapour, acetylene, and their homologues) to which the -illuminating properties are almost exclusively due. - -The most important stages in its preparation will be shortly described. -_Distillation_ is effected in cylindrical, usually horizontal, fireclay -retorts placed in a group or setting (fig. 11), which formerly were -heated by coke but in modern works always by gas. Charging with coal and -removal of the coke takes place about every four hours, often by means of -mechanical contrivances. - -Iron pipes conduct the products of distillation to the _hydraulic main_. -This is a long covered channel extending the entire length of the stack -and receiving the gas and distillate from each retort. In it the greater -part of the tar and of the ammoniacal water condense and collect under -the water which is kept in the main to act as a seal to the ends of the -dip pipes, to prevent the gas from passing back into the retort when -the latter is opened. While the liquid flows from the hydraulic main -into cisterns, the gas passes into _coolers_ or _condensers_, tall iron -cylinders, in which, as the result of air and water cooling, further -portions of the tar and ammoniacal liquor are condensed. To free it still -more from particles of tar the gas passes through the _tar separator_. - -[Illustration: FIG. 11.—Manufacture of Illuminating Gas. Horizontal -fireclay retorts placed in a setting and heated by gas(_after Ost_)] - -The tar which remains behind flows through a tube to the cistern. From -the tar separator the gas goes through _scrubbers_ (fig. 12), where the -gas is washed free of ammonia and part of the sulphuretted hydrogen and -carbon dioxide with water. The scrubbers are tower-like vessels filled -with coke or charcoal through which the gas passes from below upwards, -encountering a spray of water. Several scrubbers in series are used, so -that the water constantly becomes richer in ammonia. Mechanical scrubbers -are much used, so-called standard washers; they are rotating, horizontal -cylinders having several chambers filled with staves of wood half dipping -in water. In them the same principle of making the gas meet an opposing -stream of water is employed, so that the last traces of ammonia are -removed from the gas. - -The various purifying apparatus through which the gas has to pass cause -considerable resistance to its flow. Escape in various ways would occur -had the gas to overcome it by its own pressure, and too long contact of -the gas with the hot walls of the retorts would be detrimental. Hence an -exhauster is applied to the system which keeps the pressure to the right -proportion in the retorts and drives on the gas. - -[Illustration: FIG. 12.—Washer or Scrubber] - -After purification in the scrubbers _dry purification_ follows, having -for its object especially removal of compounds of sulphur and cyanogen -and carbon dioxide. To effect this several shallow receptacles are -used, each having a false bottom upon which the purifying material is -spread out. The boxes are so arranged that the gas first passes through -purifying material which is almost saturated and finally through fresh -material, so that the material becomes richer in sulphur and cyanogen -compounds. The _gas purifying material_ formerly used was slaked lime, -and it is still frequently used, but more generally bog iron ore or -artificially prepared mixtures are used consisting mostly of oxide of -iron. The saturated purifying material is regenerated by oxidation on -spreading it out in the air and turning it frequently. After having been -thus treated some ten times the mass contains 50 per cent. sulphur, and -13 to 14 per cent. ferrocyanide. - -[Illustration: FIG. 13.—Manufacture of Illuminating Gas. Diagrammatic -view (_after Lueger_) A Retort setting and hydraulic main; B Condensers -and coolers; C Exhauster; D Well; E Water tank; F Tar extractor; -G Scrubber; H Purifier; I Station meter; K Gas holder; L Pressure -regulator.] - -The _naphthalene_ in illuminating gas does not separate in the condenser, -and therefore is generally treated in special apparatus by washing the -gas with heavy coal tar. - -The gas purified, as has been described, is measured by a meter and -stored in gasometers. These are bells made up of sheet iron which hang -down into walled receptacles filled with water to act as a water seal, -and are raised by the pressure of the gas which streams into them. The -gas passes to the network of mains by pressure of the weight of the -gasometer, after having passed through a pressure regulating apparatus. - -As to recovery of bye-products in the illuminating gas industry, see the -sections on Ammonia, Cyanogen Compounds, Tar, Benzene, &c. - -EFFECT ON HEALTH.—Opinions differ as to the effect on health which -employment in gas works exerts. This is true of old as well as of modern -literature. - -Hirt[1] maintains that gas workers suffer no increase in illness because -of their employment. They reach, he says, a relatively high age and their -mortality he puts down at from 0·5 to 1 per cent. (my own observations -make me conclude that the average mortality among persons insured in sick -societies in Bohemia is 1 per cent., so that Hirt’s figure is not high). - -Layet[2] agreed with Hirt, but was of opinion that gas workers suffered -from anæmia and gastro-intestinal symptoms attributable to inhalation of -injurious gases. The sudden symptoms of intoxication, ‘exhaustion and -sinking suddenly into a comatose condition,’ which he attributes to the -effect of hydrocarbons and sulphuretted hydrogen gas, may well have been -the symptoms of carbonic oxide poisoning. - -Goldschmidt[3] in recent literature considers manufacture of illuminating -gas by no means dangerous or unhealthy, and speaks of no specific -maladies as having been observed by him. Nevertheless, he admits with -Layet that the men employed in the condensing and purifying processes are -constantly in an atmosphere contaminated by gas, and that the cleaning -and regeneration of the purifying mass is associated with inflammation of -the eyes, violent catarrh, and inflammation of the respiratory passages, -since, on contact of the purifying mass with the air, hydrocyanic acid -gas, sulphocyanic acid gas, and fumes containing carbolic, butyric, and -valerianic acids are generated. - -Other writers[4] refer to the injurious effects from manipulating the -purifying material. In general, though, they accept the view, without -however producing any figures, that work in gas works is unattended with -serious injury to health and that poisonings, especially from carbonic -oxide, are rare. Such cases are described,[5] but the authors are not -quite at one as to the healthiness or otherwise of the industry. The one -opinion is based on study of the sick club reports for several years of -a large gas works employing some 2400 workers (probably Vienna).[6] The -average frequency of sickness (sickness percentage), excluding accidents, -was 48·7 per cent. The conclusion is drawn that the health conditions -of gas workers is favourable. It is pointed out, however, that diseases -of the respiratory and digestive organs (12·8 and 10·16 per cent. of -the persons employed) are relatively high, and that the mortality (1·56 -per cent.) of gas-workers is higher than that of other workers. This -is attributed to the constant inhalation of air charged with injurious -gases. Work at the retorts, coke quenching, and attending to the -purifying plant are considered especially unhealthy. - -The other figures relate to the Magdeburg gas works; they are higher -than those quoted. The morbidity of the gas workers was found to be 68·5 -per cent., of which 18 per cent. was due to disease of the digestive -system, 20·5 per cent. to disease of the respiratory organs, and 1 per -cent. to poisoning. No details of the cases of poisoning are given. -Carbonic oxide poisoning is said to be not infrequent, the injurious -effect of cleaning the purifiers is referred to, and poisoning by -inhalation of ammonia is reported as possible. - -Still, no very unfavourable opinion is drawn as to the nature of the -work. The sickness frequency in sick clubs is about 50 per cent., and -even in well-managed chemical works Leymann has shown it to be from 65 to -80 per cent. The recently published elaborate statistics of sickness and -mortality of the Leipzig local sickness clubs[7] contain the following -figures for gas workers: Among 3028 gas workers there were on an -average yearly 2046 cases of sickness, twenty deaths, and four cases of -poisoning. The total morbidity, therefore, was 67·57 per cent., mortality -0·66 per cent., and the morbidity from poisoning 0·13 per cent. Diseases -of the respiratory tract equalled 10·63 per cent., of the digestive -tract 10·87 per cent., of the muscular system 13·10 per cent., and from -rheumatism 11·10 per cent. These figures, therefore, are not abnormally -high and the poisoning is very low. - -Still, industrial cases of poisoning in gas works are recorded. Of these -the most important will be mentioned. Six persons were employed in a -sub-station in introducing a new sliding shutter into a gas main, with -the object of deviating the gas for the filling of balloons. A regulating -valve broke, and the gas escaped from a pipe 40 cm. in diameter. Five -of the men were rendered unconscious, and resuscitation by means of -oxygen inhalation failed in one case. In repairing the damage done two -other cases occurred.[8] In emptying a purifier a worker was killed from -failure to shut off the valve. - -Besides poisoning from illuminating gas, industrial poisoning in gas -works is described attributable, in part at least, to ammonia. Thus the -report of the factory inspectors of Prussia for 1904 narrates how a -worker became unconscious while superintending the ammonia water well, -fell in, and was drowned. - -A further case is described in the report of the Union of Chemical -Industry for 1904. In the department for concentrating the gas liquor -the foreman and an assistant on the night shift were getting rid of the -residues from a washer by means of hot water. The cover had been removed, -but, contrary to instructions, the steam had not been shut off. Ammonia -fumes rushed out and rendered both unconscious, in which condition there -were found by the workmen coming in the morning.[9] - -In the preparation of ammonium sulphate, probably in consequence of -too much steam pressure, gas liquor was driven into the sulphuric acid -receiver instead of ammonia gas. The receiver overflowed, and ammonia gas -escaped in such quantity as to render unconscious the foreman and two men -who went to his assistance.[10] - -The use of illuminating gas in industrial premises can give rise to -poisoning. Thus the women employed in a scent factory, where so-called -quick gas heaters were used, suffered from general gas poisoning.[11] - -In Great Britain in 1907 sixteen cases of carbonic oxide poisoning from -use of gas in industrial premises were reported. - - -COKE OVENS - -Coke is obtained partly as a residue in the retorts after the production -of illuminating gas. Such _gas coke_ is unsuitable for metallurgical -purposes, as in the blast furnace. Far larger quantities of coal are -subjected to dry distillation for metallurgical purposes in coke ovens -than in gas works. Hence their erection close to blast furnaces. In the -older form of coke oven the bye-products were lost. Those generally used -now consist of closed chambers heated from the outside, and they can be -divided into coke ovens which do, and those which do not, recover the -bye-products. These are the same as those which have been considered -under manufacture of illuminating-gas—tar, ammonia, benzene and its -homologues, cyanogen, &c. In the coke ovens in which the bye-products are -not recovered the gases and tarry vapours escaping on coking pass into -the heating flues, where, brought into contact with the air blast, they -burn and help to heat the oven, while what is unused goes to the main -chimney stack. - -[Illustration: FIG. 14.—Distillation Coke Oven (_after Lueger_) - -A, A´ Coal to be coked; B, B´ Standpipes; C Hydraulic main; D Condensing -apparatus; E Purified gas: F, F´ Air inlets; G G,´ G´´ Combustion -chambers.] - -In the modern _distillation ovens_ with recovery of the bye-products the -gases escaping from the coal are led (air being cut off as completely as -possible) through ascending pipes into the main collector, where they are -cooled, and the tarry ingredients as well as a part of the ammonia are -absorbed by water; subsequently the gases pass through washing apparatus -with a view to as complete a recovery of the ammonia and benzene as -possible. The purified gases are now again led to the ovens and burnt -with access of air in the combustion chambers between two ovens. -Generally these ovens are so constructed as to act as non-recovery ovens -also (especially in starting the process). - -The coal is charged into the ovens through charge holes on the top -and brought to a level in the chambers either by hand or mechanically. -Removal of the coke block after completion of the coking operation is -done by a shield attached to a rack and pinion jack. Afterwards the coke -is quenched with water. - -Recovery of the _bye-products_ of coke distillation ovens is similar to -the method described for illuminating gas, i.e. first by condensation -with aid of air or water cooling, then direct washing with water -(generally in scrubbers), whereby tar and ammonia water are recovered. -_Recovery of benzene_ and its homologues (see Benzene later) depends on -the fact that the coke oven gases freed from tar and ammonia are brought -into the closest possible contact with the so-called wash oils, i.e. coal -tar oils with high boiling-point (250-300° C.). For this purpose several -washing towers are employed. The waste oil enriched with benzene is -recovered in stills intermittently or continuously and used again. - -EFFECTS ON HEALTH.—Injury to health from work at coke ovens is similar -to that in the manufacture of illuminating gas. There is the possibility -of carbonic oxide poisoning from escape of gas from leakage in the -apparatus. As further possible sources of danger ammonia, cyanogen and -sulpho-cyanogen compounds, and benzene have to be borne in mind. - -In the distillation of the wash oil severe poisoning can arise, as in a -case described, where two men were fatally poisoned in distilling tar -with wash oil.[1] - -The details of the case are not without interest. The poisoning occurred -in the lavatory. The gases had escaped from the drain through the -ventilating shaft next to the closet. The gases came from distillation of -the mixture of tar and wash oil, and were driven by means of air pumps -in such a way that normally the uncondensed gases made their way to the -chimney stack. On the day of the accident the pumps were out of use, and -the gases were driven by steam injectors into the drain. Analysis showed -the gases to contain much sulphuretted hydrogen. When this was absorbed, -a gas which could be condensed was obtained containing carbon bisulphide -and hydrocarbons of unknown composition (? benzene). Only traces of -cyanogen and sulpho-cyanogen compounds were present. Physiological -experiment showed that poisoning was attributable mainly to sulphuretted -hydrogen gas, but that after this was removed by absorption a further -poisonous gas remained. - - -Other Kinds of Power and Illuminating Gas - -_Producer gas_ or _generator gas_.—Manufacture of producer gas consists -in dealing separately with the generation of the gas and the combustion -of the gases which arise. This is effected by admitting only so much air -(primary air supply) to the fuel as is necessary to cause the gases to -come off, and then admitting further air (secondary supply) at the point -where the combustion is to take place; this secondary supply and the gas -formed in the gas producer are heated in regenerators before combustion -by bringing the gases to be burnt into contact with _Siemens’s heaters_, -of which there are four. Two of these are always heated and serve to heat -the producer gas and secondary air supply. - -[Illustration: FIG. 15.—Horizontal Regenerative Grate (_after Lueger_)] - -A producer gas furnace, therefore, consists of a gas producer, a gas main -leading to the furnace hearth, the heater, and the chimney. - -[Illustration: FIG. 16.—Step Regenerative Grate (_after Lueger_)] - -The gas producer is a combustion chamber filled with coal in which -the coal in the upper layer is burnt. Generators may have horizontal -or sloping grate (see figs. 15 and 16). The _Siemens’s_ heaters or -regenerators are chambers built of, and filled loosely with, fireclay -bricks and arranged in couples. Should the gas producers become too hot, -instead of the chambers subdivided air heaters are used, whereby the hot -furnace gases are brought into contact with a system of thin-walled, -gastight fireclay pipes, to which they give up their heat, while the -secondary air supply for the furnace is led beside these pipes and so -becomes heated indirectly. Previous heating of the producer gas is here -not necessary; no valves are needed because the three streams of gas all -pass in the same direction. - -[Illustration: FIG. 17A.—Siemens’s Regenerative Furnace - -L Air; G Gas - -FIG. 17B.—Siemens’s Regenerative Furnace] - -Such air heating arrangements are used for heating the retorts in gas -works, for melting the ‘metal’ in glass works, and very generally in -other industries, as they offer many technical and hygienic advantages. -Generator gas from coke contains 34 per cent. carbonic oxide, 0·1 per -cent. hydrogen, 1·9 per cent. carbon dioxide, and 64 per cent. nitrogen. - -_Blast furnace gas._—Blast furnace gas is formed under the same -conditions as have been described for generator gas; it contains more -carbon dioxide (about 10 per cent.). (Further details are given in the -section on Iron—Blast Furnaces.) - -_Water gas._—Water gas is made by the passage of steam through -incandescent coal, according to the equation: - - C + H₂O = CO + 2H. - -The iron gas producer, lined with firebrick, is filled with anthracite -or coke and heated by blowing hot air through it. This causes producer -gas to escape, after which steam is blown through, causing water gas to -escape—containing hydrogen and carbonic oxide to the extent of 45-50 per -cent., carbon dioxide and nitrogen 2-6 per cent., and a little methane. - -The blowing of hot air and steam is done alternately, and both kinds of -gas are led away and collected separately, the water gas being previously -purified in scrubbers, condensers, and purifiers. It serves for the -production of high temperatures (in smelting of metals). Further, when -carburetted and also when carefully purified in an uncarburetted state, -it serves as an illuminant. The producer gas generated at the same time -is used for heating purposes (generally for heating boilers). - -_Dowson gas._—Dowson gas is obtained by collecting and storing together -the gases produced in the manner described for water gas. Under the -grating of the wrought-iron gas producer (lined with firebrick and -similarly filled with coke or anthracite) a mixture of air and steam, -produced in a special small boiler, is blown through by means of a -Körting’s injector. - -Before storage the gas is subjected to a purifying process similar to -that in the case of water gas. The mixed gas consists of 1 vol. water gas -and 2-3 vols. producer gas, with about 10-15 vols. per cent. H, 22-27 -vols. per cent. CO, 3-6 per cent. CO₂, and 50-55 per cent. N. It is an -admirable power gas for driving gas motors (fig. 18). - -_Mond gas_ similarly is a mixed gas obtained by blowing much superheated -steam into coal at low temperature. Ammonia is produced at the same time. - -[Illustration: FIG. 18.—Power Gas Installation (_after Lueger_) - - A Steam boiler - a Steam injector - B Furnace - b Charging hopper - c Cover g - d Valve C - e Cock D - f Vent pipe - g Steam Pipe - C Washer - D Coke tower - E Sawdust purifier] - -_Suction gas._—In contradistinction to the Dowson system, in which air -mixed with steam is forced into the producer by a steam injector, in the -suction gas plant the air and steam are drawn into the generator by the -apparatus itself. The whole apparatus while in action is under slight -negative pressure. A special steam boiler is unnecessary because the -necessary steam is got up in a water container surrounding or connected -with the cover of the generator. The plant is set in motion by setting -the fire in action by a fan. - -[Illustration: FIG. 19.—Suction Gas Plant (_after Meyer_)] - -Fig. 19 shows a suction gas plant. B is the fan. Above the generator -A and at the lower part of the feed hopper is an annular vessel for -generating steam, over the surface of which air is drawn across from -the pipe e, passing then through the pipe f into the ash box g, and -then through the incandescent fuel. The gas produced is purified in the -scrubber D, and passes then through a pipe to the purifier containing -sawdust and to the motor. - -_Carburetted gas._—Gas intended for illuminating purposes is carburetted -to increase its illuminating power, i.e. enriched with heavy -hydrocarbons. Carburetting is effected either by a hot method—adding the -gases distilled from mineral or other oils—or by a cold method—allowing -the gas to come into contact with cold benzol or benzine. Coal gas as -well as water gas is subjected to the carburetting process, but it -has not the same importance now in relation to illuminating power, as -reliance is more and more being placed on the use of mantles. - - -ACETYLENE - -_Calcium carbide._—Acetylene is prepared from calcium carbide, which on -contact with water gives off acetylene. - -_Calcium carbide_ is prepared electro-chemically. A mixture of burnt lime -and coke is ground and melted up together at very high temperature in an -electric furnace, in doing which there is considerable disengagement of -carbonic oxide according to the equation: - - CaO + 3C = CaC₂ + CO. - -The furnaces used in the production of calcium carbide are of different -construction. Generally the furnace is of the nature of an electric arc, -and is arranged either as a crucible furnace for intermittent work or -like a blast furnace for continuous work. - -Besides these there are resistance furnaces in which the heat is created -by the resistance offered to the passage of the current by the molten -calcium carbide. - -The carbonic oxide given off in the process causes difficulty. In many -furnaces it is burnt and so utilised for heating purposes. The calcium -carbide produced contains as impurities silicon carbide, ferro-silicon, -calcium sulphide, and calcium phosphide. - -_Acetylene_ (C₂H₂), formed by the decomposition of calcium carbide by -means of water (CaC₂ + 2H₂O = Ca(OH)₂ + C₂H₂), furnishes when pure an -illuminating gas of great brilliancy and whiteness. Its production is -relatively easy. Used for the purpose are (1) apparatus in which water -is made to drop on the carbide, (2) apparatus in which the carbide dips -into water and is removed automatically on generation of the gas, (3) -apparatus in which the carbide is completely immersed in water, and (4) -apparatus in which the carbide in tiny lumps is thrown on to water. These -are diagrammatically represented in figs. 20A to 20D. - -[Illustration: FIG. 20A. - -FIG. 20B. - -FIG. 20C. - -FIG. 20D. - -Acetylene Apparatus—diagrammatic (_after Lueger_) A Dripping; B Dipping; -C Submerging; D Throwing in] - -The most important impurities of acetylene are ammonia, sulphuretted -hydrogen gas, and phosphoretted hydrogen. Before use, therefore, it -is subjected to purification in various ways. In Wolf’s method the -gas is passed through a washer (with the object of removing ammonia -and sulphuretted hydrogen gas) and a purifying material consisting -of chloride of lime and bichromate salts. In Frank’s method the gas -passes though a system of vessels containing an acid solution of copper -chloride, and also through a washer. Chloride of lime with sawdust is -used as a purifying agent. Finally, the gas is stored and thence sent to -the consumer (see fig. 21). - -[Illustration: FIG. 21.—Acetylene Gas Apparatus (_after Lueger_)] - -EFFECTS ON HEALTH.—Almost all the poisoning caused in the industries in -question is due to carbonic oxide gas, of which water gas contains 41 per -cent., generator gas 35 per cent., and suction and Dowson gas 25 per cent. - -That industrial carbonic oxide poisoning is not rare the reports of the -certifying surgeons in Great Britain sufficiently show. In the year 1906 -fifty-five persons are referred to as having suffered, with fatal issue -in four. In 1907 there were eighty-one, of which ten were fatal. Of the -1906 cases twenty resulted from inhalation of producer, Mond, or suction -gas, sixteen from coal gas (in several instances containing carburetted -water gas), seventeen from blast furnace gas, and one each from charcoal -fumes from a brazier, and from the cleaning out of an oil gas holder. - -As causes of the poisoning from suction gas were (1) improper situation -of gas plant in cellar or basement, allowing gas to collect or pass -upward; (2) defective fittings; (3) starting the suction gas plant by the -fan with chimney valve closed; (4) cleaning out ‘scrubbers’ or repairing -valves, &c.; (5) defective gasometer. In the seventeen cases due to blast -furnace gas six were due to conveyance of the gas by the wind from a flue -left open for cleaning purposes into an engineering shed, two to charging -the cupola furnace, two to entering the furnace, and four to cleaning the -flues. - -The following are instances taken from recent literature on gas -poisoning[1]: Several cases of poisoning by _water gas_ occurred in a -smelting works. The poisoning originated when a blowing machine driven -by water gas was started. Owing to premature opening of the gas valve -two men employed in a well underneath the machine were overcome. The -attendant who had opened the valve succeeded in lifting both from the -well; but as he was trying to lift a third man who had come to his -assistance and fallen into the well he himself fell in and was overcome. -The same fate befell the engineer and his assistant who came to the -rescue. All efforts to recover the four men by others roped together -failed, as all of them to the number of eight were rendered unconscious. -With the aid of rescue appliances (helmets, &c.) the bodies were -recovered, but efforts at artificial respiration failed. - -A workman was killed by _suction gas_ while in the water-closet. It -appeared that some time previously when the plant was installed the -ventilating pipe between the purifier and motor, instead of being led -through the roof, had been led out sideways on a level with the floor -immediately above the closet. - -In another case the suction gas attendant had taken out the three-way -cock between the generator and motor for repairs and had not reinserted -it properly, so that when effort was made to start the motor this -failed, as gas only and no air was drawn in. The motor was thought to -be at fault, and the fan was worked so vigorously that the gas forced -its way out through the packing of the flange connections and produced -symptoms of poisoning in the persons employed. - -More dangerous than suction gas plants, in which normally no escape -takes place, are installations depending on gas _under pressure_. Such -an installation was used for heating gas irons in a Berlin laundry. The -arrangements were considered excellent. The gas jets were in stoves -from which the fumes were exhausted. The gas was made from charcoal -and contained 13 per cent. of hydrogen. No trace of carbonic oxide was -found in the ironing room on examination of the air. After having been -in use for months the mechanical ventilation got out of order, with the -result that twelve women suffered severely from symptoms of carbonic -oxide poisoning, from which they were brought round by oxygen inhalation. -The laundry reverted to the use of illuminating gas. The conclusion -to be drawn is that installations for gas heating are to be used with -caution.[2] - -Industrial poisoning from _blast furnace gas_ is frequent. Two fatal -cases were reported[3] in men employed in the gas washing apparatus. They -met their death at the manhole leading to the waste-water outlet. In -another case a workman entered the gas main three hours after the gas had -been cut off to clear it of the dust which had collected. He succumbed, -showing that such accumulations can retain gas for a long time. Steps had -been taken three hours previously to ventilate the portion of gas main in -question. - -A fatal case occurred in the cleaning out of a blast furnace flue which -had been ventilated for 1½ hours by opening all manholes, headplates, &c. -The foreman found the deceased with his face lying in the flue dust; both -he and a helper were temporarily rendered unconscious. - -Cases of poisoning by _generator gas_ are described.[4] A workman who had -entered a gasometer containing the gas died in ten minutes, and another -remained unconscious for ten days and for another ten days suffered from -mental disturbance, showing itself in hebetude and weakness of memory. - -_Acetylene_ is poisonous to only a slight extent. Impurities in it, such -as carbon bisulphide, carbonic oxide (present to the extent of 1-2 per -cent.), and especially phosphoretted hydrogen gas, must be borne in mind. - -American calcium carbide[5] yields acetylene containing 0·04 per cent. of -phosphoretted hydrogen; Lunge and Cederkreutz have found as much as 0·06 -per cent. in acetylene. - - -AMMONIA AND AMMONIUM COMPOUNDS - -PREPARATION.—Ammonia and ammonium salts are now exclusively obtained as -a bye-product in the dry distillation of coal, from the ammonia water in -gas works, and as a bye-product from coke ovens. - -The ammonia water of gas works contains from 2-3 per cent. of ammonia, -some of which can be recovered on boiling, but some is in a non-volatile -form, and to be recovered the compound must be decomposed. The volatile -compounds are principally ammonium carbonate and, to a less extent, -ammonium sulphide and cyanide; the non-volatile compounds are ammonium -sulphocyanide, ammonium chloride, sulphate, thiosulphate, &c. Other -noteworthy substances in ammonia water are pyridine, pyrrol, phenols, -hydrocarbons, and tarry compounds. - -Decomposition of the non-volatile compounds is effected by lime. Hence -the ammonia water is distilled first alone, and then with lime. The -distillate is passed into sulphuric acid, ammonium sulphate being formed. -Distillation apparatus constructed on the principle usual in rectifying -spirit is used, so that continuous action is secured; the ammonia water -flows into the apparatus continuously and is freed of the volatile -compounds by the steam. At a later stage milk of lime is added, which -liberates the ammonia from the nonvolatile compounds. - -Of the ammonium salts there require mention: - -_Ammonium sulphate_ ((NH₄)₂SO₄), which serves for the production of other -ammonium salts. It is usually centrifugalised out from the sulphuric acid -tank previously described. - -_Ammonium chloride_ (sal-ammoniac, NH₄Cl) is formed by bringing the -ammonia fumes given off in the process described in contact with -hydrochloric acid vapour. The crude salt so obtained is recrystallised or -sublimed. - -_Ammonium phosphate_ ((NH₄)₂HPO₄) is made in an analogous manner by -leading ammonia into phosphoric acid. It is useful as an artificial -manure. - -_Ammonium carbonate_ is made either by bringing together ammonia vapour -and carbonic acid or by subliming ammonium sulphate with calcium -carbonate. It is very volatile. The thick vapour is collected and -purified in leaden chambers. - -[Illustration: FIG. 22.—Preparation of Ammonia. Column Apparatus of -Feldman (_after Ost_) - -A, B, C Columns; D Saturator; (a) Settling tank and regulator for flow of -ammonia; (b) Economiser; (f) Milk of lime; (g) Pump] - -_Caustic ammonia_ is prepared either from gas liquor or, more usually, -from ammonium sulphate by distillation with caustic alkali in a -continuous apparatus. - -USE OF AMMONIA.—Ammonia is used in laundries and bleaching works in -dyeing and wool washing. It is used especially in making ammonium salts, -in the preparation of soda by the Solvay process (see Soda Manufacture), -and in making ice artificially. - -It is used also in the preparation of indigo, in lacquers and colours, -and the extraction of chloride of silver, &c. - -EFFECTS ON HEALTH.—Industrial ammonia poisoning is rare. It occurs -most frequently in gas works and occasionally in its use, especially -the manufacture of ammonium salts. Those engaged in subliming ammonium -carbonate incur special risk, but often it is not the ammonia vapour so -much as the escaping evil-smelling gases containing carbon bisulphide and -cyanogen compounds which are the source of trouble. - -Occasionally in the production of ice through leakage or by the breaking -of carboys of ammonia accidental poisoning has occurred. - -Some cases are cited from recent literature: - -A worker was rendered unconscious and drowned in an ammonia water -well.[1] Two workers were poisoned (one fatally) in the concentration of -gas liquor. Three workers were gassed (one fatally) in the preparation -of ammonium sulphate in a gas works. Probably as the result of excessive -steam pressure gas water was driven over with the ammonia into the -sulphuric acid vessel.[2] - -Eulenberg[3] reports the occurrence of sulphuretted hydrogen gas -poisoning in the production of ammonium salts. The workers succumbed as -though shot, although work was being carried on in the open air. They -recovered when removed from the poisonous atmosphere. - -In a large room of a chemical factory phosphoric acid was being saturated -with ammonia gas water in an iron lead-lined vessel. Carbonic acid gas -and hydrogen gas were evolved, but not to such extent as to be noticeable -in the large room. A worker not employed in the room had to do something -close to the vessel, and inhaled some of the fumes given off. A few -yards from the vessel he was found lying unconscious, and although -removed into the open air failed to respond to the efforts at artificial -respiration.[4] - -Lewin, in an opinion delivered to the Imperial Insurance Office, -describes poisoning in a man who during two days had been employed -repairing two ammonia retorts in a chemical factory. On the evening of -the second day he suffered from severe symptoms of catarrh, from which -he died five days later. Lewin considered the case to be one of acute -ammonia poisoning.[5] - -Ammonia is frequently used in _fulling_ cloth, the fumes of which collect -on the surface after addition of sulphuric acid to the settling vats. -This is especially liable to occur on a Monday, owing to the standing -of the factory over the Sunday, so that entrance into the vats without -suitable precautions is strictly forbidden. Despite this, a worker did -go in to fetch out something that had fallen in, becoming immediately -unconscious. A rescuer succumbed also and lost his life. The first worker -recovered, but was for long incapacitated by paralytic symptoms. - -Cases of poisoning in _ice factories_ and refrigerator rooms from -defective apparatus are reported. - -Acute and chronic poisoning among sewer men are due mainly to -sulphuretted hydrogen gas and only partly to ammonia. The more ammonia -and the less sulphuretted hydrogen sewer gases contain the less poisonous -are they. - - -CYANOGEN COMPOUNDS - -TREATMENT OF THE MATERIALS USED IN GAS PURIFYING.—Cyanogen compounds -are still sometimes prepared by the original method of heating to -redness nitrogenous animal refuse (blood, leather, horn, hair, &c.) with -potash and iron filings; potassium cyanide is formed from the nitrogen, -carbon, and alkali, and this with the sulphur and iron present is easily -converted into potassium ferrocyanide (yellow prussiate of potash, -K₄FeC₆N₆) by lixiviation of the molten mass. It crystallises out on -evaporation. - -Cyanogen compounds are obtained in large quantity from the material -used in purifying the gas in gas works. This saturated spent material -contains, in addition to 30-40 per cent. of sulphur, 8-15 per cent. of -cyanogen compounds and 1-4 per cent. of sulphocyanogen compounds. - -By lixiviation with water the soluble ammonium salts are extracted from -the purifying material. This solution furnishes _sulphocyanide of -ammonium_, from which the remaining unimportant sulphocyanide compounds -are obtained (used in cloth printing). The further treatment of the -purifying material for potassium ferrocyanide is rendered difficult -because of the sulphur, which is either removed by carbon bisulphide -and the ferrocyanide obtained by treatment with quicklime and potassium -chloride, or the mass is mixed with quicklime, steamed in closed vessels, -lixiviated with water, and decomposed by potassium chloride; ferrocyanide -of potassium and calcium separates out in crystals, and this, treated -with potash, yields potassium ferrocyanide. - -The well-known non-poisonous pigment Prussian blue is obtained by -decomposing ferrocyanide of potash with chloride or oxide of iron in -solution. - -_Potassium cyanide_ (KCN) is prepared from potassium ferrocyanide by -heating in absence of air, but it is difficult to separate it entirely -from the mixture of iron and carbon which remains. All the cyanogen is -more easily obtained in the form of potassium and sodium cyanide from -potassium ferrocyanide by melting it with potash and adding metallic -sodium. - -The very poisonous _hydrocyanic acid_ (prussic acid, HCN) is formed by -the action of acids on potassium or sodium cyanide; small quantities -indeed come off on mere exposure of these substances to the air. The -increasing demand for potassium cyanide has led to experimental processes -for producing it synthetically. - -One method consists in the production of potassium cyanide from potash -and carbon in a current of ammonia gas. Small pieces of charcoal are -freed from air, saturated with a solution of potash, dried in the absence -of air, and heated in upright iron cylinders to 100° C., while a stream -of ammonia gas is passed through. - -Again, sodium cyanide is prepared from ammonia, sodium, and carbon by -introducing a definite amount of sodium and coal dust into melted sodium -cyanide and passing ammonia through. The solution is then concentrated in -vacuo and sodium cyanide crystallises out on cooling. - -USE OF CYANIDES.—Potassium cyanide is principally used in the recovery -of gold, in gold and silver electroplating, in photography, for -soldering (it reduces oxides and makes metallic surfaces clean), for -the production of other cyanogen compounds, for the removal of silver -nitrate stains, &c. Hydrocyanic acid gas is given off in electroplating, -photography, in smelting fumes, in tanning (removing hair by gas lime), -&c. - -EFFECTS ON HEALTH.—Industrial cyanogen poisoning is rare. Weyl[1] states -that he could find no case in any of the German factory inspectors’ -reports for the twenty years prior to 1897, nor in some twenty-five -volumes of foreign factory inspectors’ reports. I have found practically -the same in my search through the modern literature. - -Of the very few references to the subject I quote the most important. - -A case of (presumably) chronic hydrocyanic acid poisoning is described in -a worker engaged for thirteen years in silver electroplating of copper -plates.[2] The plates were dipped in a silver cyanide solution and then -brushed. After two years he began to show signs of vomiting, nausea, -palpitation, and fatigue, which progressed and led to his death. - -A case of sudden death is described[3] occurring to a worker in a sodium -cyanide factory who inhaled air mixed with hydrocyanic acid gas from a -leaky pipe situated in a cellar. The factory made sodium cyanide and -ammonium sulphate from the residue after removal of the sugar from -molasses. This is the only definite case of acute cyanogen poisoning in a -factory known to me. I believe that under modern conditions, in which the -whole process is carried on under negative pressure, chance of escape of -cyanogen gases is practically excluded. - -It should be mentioned that hydrocyanic acid vapour is given off in the -burning of celluloid. In this way eight persons were killed at a fire in -a celluloid factory.[4] - -Skin affections are said to be caused by contact with fluids containing -cyanogen compounds, especially in electroplating. It is stated that -workers coming into contact with solutions containing cyanides may -absorb amounts sufficient to cause symptoms, especially if the skin -has abrasions. Such cases are described.[5] In electroplating, further, -in consequence of the strong soda solutions used, deep ulceration and -fissures of the skin of the hand can be caused. - - -COAL TAR AND TAR PRODUCTS - -Of the products of the illuminating gas industry tar has considerably the -most importance. Coal tar as such has varied use in industry, but far -greater use is made of the products obtained by fractional distillation -from it such as benzene, toluene, naphthalene, anthracene, carbolic acid, -pyridine, and the other constituents of tar, a number of which form the -starting-point in the production of the enormous coal-tar dye industry. -Especially increasing is the consumption of benzene. In Germany alone -this has increased in ten years from 20 to 70 million kilos. This is -partly due to the need of finding some cheap substitute for benzine, the -consumption and cost of which has increased, and it has in many respects -been found in benzene. - -Besides benzene and its homologues, toluene, anthracene, and naphthalene -are valuable. Anthracene is used in the manufacture of alizarine and -naphthalene in that of artificial indigo and of the azo-colours. Carbolic -acid (phenol) and the homologous cresols serve not only as disinfectants -but also in the manufacture of numerous colours and in the preparation -of picric acid and salicylic acid. Further, a number of pharmaceutical -preparations and saccharin are made from the constituents of tar. - -The important _constituents of tar_ are: - -1. Hydrocarbons of the methane series: paraffins, olefines; hydrocarbons -of the aromatic series: benzene and its homologues, naphthalene, -anthracene, phenanthrene, &c. - -2. Phenols (cresols, naphthols). - -3. Sulphides: sulphuretted hydrogen, carbon bisulphide, mercaptan, -thiophene. - -4. Nitrogen compounds: ammonia, methylamine, aniline, pyridine, &c. - -5. Fifty to sixty per cent. of tar consists of pitch constituting a -mixture of many different substances which cannot be distilled without -decomposition. - -_Crude tar_, i.e. tar which separates in the dry distillation of coal, -is employed as such for preserving all kinds of building materials, -for tarring streets, as plastic cement, as a disinfectant, in the -preparation of roofing paper or felt, lampblack, briquettes, &c. - -_Brattice cloth_ and _roofing felt_ are made by passing the materials -through hot tar and incorporating sand with them; in doing this heavy -fumes are given off. - -_Lampblack_ is made by the imperfect combustion of tar or tar oil by -letting them drop on to heated iron plates with as limited an air supply -as possible; the burnt gases laden with carbon particles are drawn -through several chambers or sacks in which the soot collects. - -[Illustration: FIG. 23.—Tar Still (_after Krämer_)] - -_Briquettes_ (patent fuel) are made by mixing small coal (coal dust) with -tar or pitch and then pressing them in moulds. - -The separation and recovery of the valuable ingredients is effected by -_fractional distillation_. This is carried out by heating the tar at -gradually increasing temperature in a wrought-iron still, the bottom -of which is arched and having a cast-iron still head, or in horizontal -boilers by direct fire. Before commencing the distillation the tar is -freed as far as possible of water by storage. On gradual increase of -temperature the volatile constituents, the so-called ‘light oil,’ and -later the heavier volatile constituents come over. The constituents are -liberated in a gaseous state and are collected in fractions. The pitch -remains behind in the still. Considerable quantities of coal tar are not -distilled for pitch. Often the light oils and a portion of the heavy oils -are collected, when soft pitch remains, or, if the light oils and only -a very small portion of the heavy oils are collected, _asphalt_ remains -behind, this residue being used as a basis for the manufacture of roofing -felt. The vapours are condensed in iron coils round which cold water -circulates. The receivers in which the distillate is caught are changed -at definite times as the temperature gradually rises. If five fractions -have come over they are called (1) first runnings, (2) light oil to 170° -C., (3) middle oil (carbolic oil to 230° C.), (4) heavy oil to 270° C., -and lastly (5) anthracene oil, which distills at over 270° C.; the pitch -remaining behind is let out of the still by an opening at the bottom. - -We will briefly sketch the further treatment and use of these fractions, -so far as a knowledge of the most important processes is necessary for -our purpose. - -1. The _light oils_ (including first runnings) coming over up to 170° C. -are again distilled and then purified with sulphuric acid in lead-lined -cast-iron or lead-lined wooden tanks. The dark-coloured acid used for -purifying after dilution with water, which precipitates tarry matters, -is treated for ammonium sulphate; the basic constituents of the light -oils extracted with sulphuric acid and again liberated by lime yield -_pyridine_ (C₅H₅N) and the homologous pyridine bases, a mixture of which -is used for denaturing spirit. After the light oils have been washed -with dilute caustic soda liquor, whereby the phenols are removed, they -are separated by another fractional distillation into (_a_) crude benzol -(70°-130° C.) and (_b_) solvent naphtha (boiling-point 130°-170° C.). - -_Crude benzol_ (70°-140° C.) consists chiefly of benzene and toluene -and is separated into its several constituents in special rectifying -apparatus. For this production of pure benzene (boiling-point 80°-82° C.) -and pure toluene (boiling-point 110° C.) fractionating apparatus is used -(fig. 24). - -The _commercial products_ in use which are obtained from the fractional -distillation of the light oil are: - -(_a_) _Ninety per cent. benzol_, so called because in the distillation 90 -per cent, should come over at a temperature of 100° C. It is made up of -80-85 per cent. benzene, 13-15 per cent. toluene, 2-3 per cent. xylene, -and contains, as impurities, traces of olefines, paraffins, sulphuretted -hydrogen, and other bodies. - -(_b_) _Fifty per cent. benzol_ contains 50 per cent. of constituents -distilling at 100° C. and 90 per cent. at 120° C.; it is a very mixed -product, with only 40-50 per cent. of benzene. - -(_c_) _Solvent naphtha_, so called because it is largely used for -dissolving rubber, is free from benzene, but contains xylene and its -homologues and other unknown hydrocarbons. - -[Illustration: FIG. 24.—Column Apparatus of Hickman for Distillation of -Benzene (_after Ost_) - -A Still body; B Analysing column; C Cooler; D Condenser for pure -distillate.] - -Benzol is widely used. Ninety per cent. benzol is largely used in -the chemical industry, serving for the preparation of dye stuffs, -pharmaceutical preparations, scents, &c. In other industries it took the -place of benzine and also of turpentine oil, especially in the paint -industry, since it evaporates quickly and readily dissolves resins. -Hence it is used in the preparation of quick drying ship’s paints, as a -protection against rust, and as an isolating lacquer (acid proof colours) -for electrical apparatus, in the production of deck varnishes, and as a -solvent of resins. - -This use of benzol in the paint industry is by no means unattended with -danger, as benzol is poisonous. Far less harmful, if not altogether -without risk, is use of benzol free solvent naphtha—but this evaporates -only slowly and hence cannot take the place of benzol. - -Benzol serves further for fat extraction from bones in manure factories -and of caffein from coffee beans. - -Again, it is used as a motive power in motor vehicles. - -The solvent naphtha above mentioned with boiling-point above 140° C. and -all the light oils are employed in chemical cleaning and for dissolving -indiarubber (see Indiarubber). - -These are known in the trade erroneously as ‘benzine,’ which -unfortunately often leads to confusion with petroleum benzine (see -Petroleum) and to mistakes in toxicological accounts of poisoning. - -2. Between 150° and 200° C. the _middle oil_ comes over, from which on -cooling _naphthalene_ (C₁₀H₈) crystallises out, and is subsequently -washed with caustic soda liquor and with acid; it is re-distilled and -hot pressed. The remaining liquor yields, when extracted with caustic -soda, _phenol_ (carbolic acid, C₆H₅OH), which, on addition of sulphuric -acid or carbonic acid, separates from the solution and then—generally in -special factories—is obtained pure by distillation and special purifying -processes. - -From the sodium salt of carbolic acid (sodium phenolate) _salicylic -acid_ (C₆H₄OH.COOH) is obtained by combination with compressed CO₂ at a -temperature of 150° C. _Picric acid_ (trinitrophenol, C₆H₂OH.(NO₂)₃) is -obtained by treating phenol with a mixture of sulphuric and nitric acids -(nitration). The yellow crystals of this explosive which separate are -carefully washed, recrystallised, centrifugalised, and dried. - -3. The _heavy oils_ which come over between 200° and 300° C. containing -cresols, naphthols, naphthaline, quinoline bases, fluid paraffins, &c., -are seldom separated further. The disinfectants lysol, sapocarbolic, &c., -are obtained from such fractions. - -The heavy oils are much in use for _impregnating wood_ (piles, railway -sleepers, &c.), to prevent rotting. This is done in special creosoting -installations. The wood is first freed from moisture under vacuum and -lastly the heavy oil forced in. This is a better means of preserving -timber than the analogous method by means of chloride of zinc. - -4. _Anthracene oil_ or ‘green oil’ comes over between 300° and 400° C. -and contains the valuable anthracene which crystallises out, is separated -from the oil in filter presses, or dried in centrifugal machines. -_Alizarin_ dyes are made from it. Raw anthracene oil further is used -commercially as a paint under the name of carbolineum for preserving wood. - -5. The _pitch_ remaining behind in the still serves (like tar) for -making varnishes, patent fuel, &c. For our purpose use of pitch in -the preparation of iron varnishes which adhere to metals and protect -them from oxidation have interest. Pitch and the heavy oils are melted -together or, if for thin varnishes, dissolved in solvent naphtha. The -volatile constituents evaporate after the coat has been applied. - -EFFECTS ON HEALTH.—Severe injury to health or poisoning cases scarcely -arise through manipulations with or use of tar. Inhalation, however, of -large quantities of tar vapour is without doubt unpleasant, as a number -of poisonous substances are contained in the fumes. And the ammonia water -which separates on standing can give off unpleasantly smelling odours -from the sulphur compounds in it, especially if it comes into contact -with waste acids, with consequent development of sulphuretted hydrogen -gas. - -I could not find in the literature of the subject references to any -clearly proved case of poisoning from tar emanations. But deserving of -mention in this connection are the _effects on the skin_ caused by tar. - -Workers coming into contact with tar suffer from an inflammatory -affection of the skin, so-called tar eczema, which occasionally takes -on a cancerous (epithelioma) nature similar to chimney-sweep’s cancer, -having its seat predominantly on the scrotum. In lampblack workers who -tread down the soot in receptacles the malady has been observed to affect -the lower extremities and especially the toes. - -In tar distillation and in the _production_ and _use_ of _benzene_ -industrial poisoning frequently occurs. Many cases are recorded, but in -several the immediate exciting cause is doubtful, and consequently it is -often difficult to classify the cases. - -Most frequently the manufacture and use of benzene come in question. -Besides this, in tar distillation poisoning may be caused by other -substances, such as sulphuretted hydrogen gas, carbonic oxide gas, &c. In -the production of antipyrin, aspirin, &c., and in the preparation and use -of anthracene injury to health is recognised. - -From the list of recognised cases of these forms of poisoning the most -characteristic are chosen from the recent literature on the subject. - -The Prussian factory inspectors’ reports for 1904 describe the following: -In cleaning out a tar still two workers were killed by inhalation of gas. -The nature of the gas was not ascertained. But what probably happened was -that the cock on the foul gas pipe collecting the gases from the stills -leaked and allowed fumes to pass over from one still to another. - -A foreman and worker were rendered unconscious on entering a receiver -for heavy oil for cleaning purposes. On treatment with oxygen gas they -speedily recovered. - -_Industrial benzene poisoning_ is especially frequent now in view of the -increasing use to which it is put. Several cases have proved fatal. - -A worker, for instance, forgot to open the cock for the water to cool the -condenser, so that some of the benzene vapour remained uncondensed. The -case proved fatal. - -The Report of the Union of Chemical Industry for 1905 stated that a -worker on night duty, whose duty it was to regulate the introduction -of steam and the cooling of the benzol plant, was found lying dead in -front of the building. Inquiry showed that he had not opened the valve -for running the distillate into the appropriate receiver. Eight thousand -litres overflowed. - -In an indiarubber extracting factory a worker was rendered unconscious -while inspecting a benzol still; before entering he had omitted to -observe the instructions to drive steam through and have a mate on watch -at the manhole. Two other workmen were similarly affected who went to the -rescue without adoption of precautions. Only one survived. - -In a further accident (already mentioned under ‘Coke Furnaces’) two -workmen were killed. In the factory in question the thick tar from the -coke ovens was being distilled under slight pressure. The air pumps, -however, were out of order, and temporary use was being made of Körting’s -injectors, whereby the steam and tar constituents were cooled and led -into the drain in front of the closet, near to which was a ventilating -shaft. Probably, in addition to benzene and its homologues, sulphuretted -hydrogen and cyanogen compounds were present in the poisonous gases. - -In cleaning out a benzene extracting apparatus a workman was killed by -the stagnant fumes in it. - -A similar case of benzene poisoning occurred in a naphthalamine works -through inspecting an extracting vessel which had contained benzene -and naphthalamine and had to be cleaned. The vessel had been empty for -twenty-two hours and had been washed and ventilated, but through a -leaking pipe benzene had dropped down into it. The workman engaged was -rendered unconscious inside the retort, but was rescued by an engineer -equipped with a breathing helmet. Others who without such apparatus tried -to effect a rescue were overcome, and one who had entered the retort -succumbed.[1] - -Benzene poisoning has often occurred in the cleaning of tanks, &c., for -the transport and storage of the substance. The following examples are -taken from the Reports of the Union of Chemical Industry. - -A worker during the pause for breakfast had, unknown to his employer, -cleaned out an empty truck for crude benzol. Later he was with difficulty -removed unconscious through the manhole and could not be resuscitated. -Only a short time previously a similar occurrence had taken place in the -same factory. - -Two further fatal cases were reported in 1908 in the cleaning out of -railway tank waggons. The tank had previously been thoroughly sprayed -with water. The partition plates which are required in such tanks -increase the difficulty of cleaning from the manhole. After the foreman -had tested the air by putting his head inside and considered it free from -danger, a man entered to clean out the deposit; another man on watch -outside had evidently gone in for rescue purposes. Resuscitation in both -cases failed. - -A worker died and several were affected in the cleaning out of a benzol -storage tank in a tar distillery. The tank had had air blown through it -several weeks before, and had been thoroughly cleaned by steam and water. -Also in the inspection the greatest care was taken in only permitting -work for short spells. This shows that, notwithstanding great care, the -last traces of benzol cannot be entirely removed and that quite small -quantities are sufficient to cause severe and even fatal poisoning. -Workers should only clean out tanks, therefore, when properly equipped -with helmets. - -In the German factory inspectors’ reports for 1902 a case of intoxication -is described in a man who was engaged painting the inside of an iron -reservoir with an asphalt paint dissolved in benzol. - -Of special interest is a fatal case from inhalation of benzol fumes in -a rubber factory. Rubber dissolved in benzol was being rubbed into the -cloth on a spreading machine in the usual way. The cloth then passes -under the cleaning doctor along the long heated plate to the end rolls. -Of the three men employed at the process one was found to be unconscious -and could not be brought round again. - -The cases described[2] of poisoning with impure benzol in a pneumatic -tyre factory in Upsala are, perhaps, analogous. Here nine young women had -severe symptoms, four of whom died. - -In reference to the cases which occurred in rubber factories it is -conceivable that carbon bisulphide played a part, since in such factories -not only are mixtures of benzol and carbon bisulphide used, but also -frequently the ‘first runnings’ of benzol, which, on account of the high -proportion (sometimes 50 per cent.) of carbon bisulphide in them, make an -excellent solvent for rubber. - -From some coke ovens crude benzol was collected in two large iron -receivers. They were sunk in a pit projecting very little above the -ground. To control the valves the workmen had to mount on the receiver, -the manholes of which were kept open during filling. The pit was roofed -over and two wooden shafts served both for ventilation and as approaches -to the valves. One summer day benzol had been blown in the usual way -into a railway truck and a worker had entered the space to control the -valves. Some time afterwards he was found in a doubled-up position on -the receiver, grasping the valves, from which later he fell off down to -the bottom of the pit. Three rescuers entered, but had to retire as they -became affected. A fourth worker, in the presence of the manager, was let -down by a rope, but succumbed immediately and was dragged up a corpse. -Finally, equipped with a smoke helmet, a rescuer brought up the lifeless -body of the first man. It was believed that the benzol had distilled -over warm and had evaporated to such an extent as to fill with fumes the -unsuitably arranged and inadequately ventilated space. Possibly other -volatile compounds were responsible for the poisoning.[3] - -A similar though less serious accident occurred to a foreman who forgot -to set the cooling apparatus at work at the commencement of distillation, -and became unconscious from the escaping fumes, as also did a rescuer. -The latter was brought round by oxygen inhalation, but the former, -although alive when recovered, succumbed despite efforts at artificial -respiration. - -A fatal case occurred in an aniline factory where benzol fumes had -escaped owing to faulty arrangement of the valves. The worker, although -ordered at once to leave the room, was found there ten minutes later dead. - -Interesting are the following cases of accidents due to use of paints -containing benzol. - -In painting a retort with an anti-corrosive paint called ‘Original -Anti-corrosive,’ unconsciousness followed on completion of the painting, -but by prompt rescue and medical assistance life was saved. The accident -was attributed to benzol fumes from the paint insufficiently diluted by -the air coming in at the open manhole. A similar case arose from use -of a rust-preventing paint—‘Preolith’—and only with difficulty was the -man using it pulled out from the inside of the steam boiler. Although -resuscitated by oxygen inhalation, he was incapacitated for eight days. -Crude benzol was a constituent of ‘Preolith.’ Obviously use of such -paints in closely confined spaces is very risky. - -The frequency of such poisonings caused Schaefer,[4] Inspector of -Factories in Hamburg, to go fully into the question. He lays stress on -the dangerous nature of paints containing a high proportion of benzol, -but considers use of unpurified constituents with boiling-point between -130°-170° C., such as solvent naphtha, as free from risk (cf. in Part II -the experiments on benzene and the commercial kinds of benzol). Schaefer -mentions that in 1903 and 1904 cases of unconsciousness from painting -the inside of boilers were numerous. The proportion of benzol in the -paints was 20-30 per cent. In 1905 and 1906 the cases were attributable -rather to inhalation of hydrocarbons in cleaning of apparatus. Use of -‘Dermatin’ affected two painters. One case in 1906 happened to a man -painting the double bottom of a ship in Hamburg harbour with ‘Black -Varnish Oil’ through the manhole, in doing which he inhaled much of the -fumes. This paint consisted of coal-tar pitch in light coal-tar oil, the -latter constituent (distilling at 170° C.) amounting to 31-33 per cent. -Investigation showed further that the bulk of the tar oil volatilised at -ordinary temperatures and so quickly dried. Sulphuretted hydrogen gas was -given off on slight warming. The person after using it for some time felt -poorly, and then became ill with severe inflammation of the respiratory -passages, which proved fatal after twenty-four days. - -Several similar cases occurred in 1908 and 1909. Painting the inside -of a boiler with ‘Auxulin’ caused unconsciousness in four persons, -of whom three were rescuers. A fatal case was due to use of a patent -colour containing 30-40 per cent. benzol in an entirely closed-in space -(chain-well), although the worker was allowed out into fresh air at -frequent intervals. - -A case of chronic industrial xylene poisoning is described in a worker -using it for impregnating indiarubber goods. The symptoms were nervous, -resembling neurasthenia. - -Some of the cases of poisoning, especially when severe and fatal, in -the production of distillation constituents of coal tar are doubtless -attributable to _sulphuretted hydrogen gas_. Thus in England, in the -years 1901-3, there were eleven fatal and as many other severe cases -reported from tar distilleries, of which the majority were due to -sulphuretted hydrogen gas. - -One case of _carbonic oxide_ poisoning in coal-tar distillation is -described.[5] In cleaning out pitch from a still fourteen days after the -last distillation a workman succumbed to carbonic oxide poisoning. This -is at all events a rare eventuality, since no other case is to be found -in the literature of the subject, but it is a proof that in the last -stage of coal-tar distillation carbonic oxide plays a part. - -Mention must be made of the frequent occurrence of severe skin affections -in _anthracene workers_; they take the form of an eruption on the hands, -arms, feet, knees, &c., and sometimes develop into cancer. - -Observations in a chemical factory since 1892 showed that of thirty thus -affected in the course of ten years twenty-two came into contact with -paraffin. - - -Artificial Organic Dye Stuffs (Coal-tar Colours) - -MANUFACTURE.—The starting-points for the preparation of artificial -coal-tar dyes are mainly those aromatic compounds (hydrocarbons) -described in the preceding section. Besides these, however, there are the -derivatives of the fatty series such as methyl alcohol (wood spirit), -ethyl alcohol, phosgene, and, latterly, formaldehyde. - -The _hydrocarbons of the benzene series_ from tar distillation are -delivered almost pure to the colour factory. Of these benzene, toluene, -xylene, naphthalene, anthracene, and the phenols, cresols, &c., have to -be considered. - -Further treatment is as follows: - -1. Nitration, i.e. introduction of a nitro-group by means of nitric acid. - -2. Reduction of the nitrated products to amines. - -3. Sulphonation, i.e. conversion to sulphonic acids by means of -concentrated sulphuric acid. - -4. The sulphonic acids are converted into phenols by fusing with caustic -soda. - -5. Introduction of chlorine and bromine. - -_Nitro-derivatives_ are technically obtained by the action of a mixture -of nitric and concentrated sulphuric acids on the aromatic body in -question. The most important example is _nitrobenzene_. - -Benzene is treated for several hours in cylindrical cast-iron pans with -nitric and concentrated sulphuric acids. The vessel is cooled externally -and well agitated. A temperature of 25° C. should not be exceeded. - -[Illustration: FIG. 25.—Preparation of Intermediate Products in the -Aniline Colour Industry (Closed Apparatus), showing Arrangement for -Condensation (_after Leymann_)] - -On standing the fluid separates into two layers: the lower consists of -dilute sulphuric acid in which there is still some nitric acid, and -the upper of nitrobenzene. The latter is freed of remains of acid by -washing and of water by distillation. _Toluene_ and _xylene_ are nitrated -in the same way. _Dinitro products_ (such as metadinitrobenzene) are -obtained by further action of the nitro-sulphuric acid mixture on the -mononitro-compound at higher temperature. - -For conversion of phenol into _picric acid_ (trinitrophenol) the use of a -nitro-sulphuric acid mixture is necessary. - -The _aromatic bases_ (aniline, toluidine, xylidine) are obtained by -reduction of the corresponding nitro-compound by means of iron filings -and acid (hydrochloric, sulphuric, or acetic). Thus in the case of -_aniline_ pure nitrobenzene is decomposed in an iron cylindrical -apparatus, provided with agitators and a condenser, and avoidance of a -too violent reaction, by means of fine iron filings and about 5 per cent. -hydrochloric acid. After completion of the reaction the contents are -rendered alkaline by addition of lime and the aniline distilled over. -Manufacture of _toluidine_ and _xylidine_ is analogous. - -_Dimethylaniline_ is obtained by heating aniline, aniline hydrochloride, -and methyl alcohol. - -_Diethylaniline_ is prepared in an analogous way with the use of ethyl -alcohol. - -By the action of nitrous acid (sodium nitrite and hydrochloric acid) on -the acid solution of the last-named compound the _nitroso compounds_ are -formed. - -_Sulphonic acids_ arise by the action of concentrated or fuming sulphuric -acid on the corresponding bodies of the aromatic series: benzene -disulphonic acid from benzene and fuming sulphuric acid, &c. - -_Phenols_ and _cresols_ are obtained pure from tar distillation. The -remaining hydroxyl derivatives (resorcin, α- and β-naphthol, &c.), are -generally obtained by the action of concentrated caustic soda on aromatic -sulphonic acids. - -The most important aromatic aldehyde, _benzaldehyde_, is obtained from -toluene; on introducing chlorine at boiling temperature benzyl chloride -is first formed, then benzal-chloride and finally benzo-trichloride. In -heating benzal-chloride with milk of lime (under pressure) benzaldehyde -is formed (C₆H₅COH). - -_Picric acid_ and _naphthol yellow_ belong to the _nitro dyestuffs_; the -last named is obtained by sulphonating α-naphthol with fuming sulphuric -acid and by the action of nitric acid on the sulphonated mixture. - -Nitroso derivatives of aromatic phenols yield (with metal oxides) the -material for production of nitroso dyestuffs. To these belong naphthol -green, &c. - -The most important _azo dyestuffs_ technically are produced in principle -by the action of nitrous acid on the aromatic amines. The amido compound -is converted into the diazo salt by treatment with sodium nitrite in -acid solution. Thus diazo-benzene is made from aniline. Diazo compounds -are not usually isolated but immediately coupled with other suitable -compounds—amido derivatives, phenols—i.e. converted into azo compounds. - -[Illustration: FIG. 26.—Nitrating Plant (_after Leymann_) - - I Nitric acid - II Balance - III Storage tank - IV Nitrating pan - V Waste acid tank - VI Acid egg - VII Hydrocarbon - VIII Balance - IX Storage tank - X Washing vessel - XI Centrifugal machine - XII Egg - - - - Exhaust ventilation pipe.] - -The combination of the two constituents takes place at once and -quantitatively. The colour is separated from the aqueous solution by -salting-out, and is then put through a filter press. The reactions -are carried out generally in wooden vats arranged in stages. Besides -a second, a third constituent can be introduced, and in this way -naphthol—and naphthylamine sulphonic acids yield a large number of -colouring matters. A very large number of azo dyestuffs can thus be -produced by the variation of the first component (the primary base) with -the second and again with the third component, but it would carry us too -far to deal further with their preparation. - -_Anthracene colours_—yielding so-called direct dyes—are prepared -from anthracene, which is converted into anthraquinone by the action -of bichromate and dilute sulphuric acid when heated; the crude -‘quinone’ is purified with concentrated sulphuric acid and converted -into anthraquinone monosulphonic acid to serve in the preparation of -_alizarin_, which is made from it by heating for several days with -concentrated caustic soda to which sodium chlorate is added. The process -is carried on in cast-iron pans provided with agitators. - -_Alizarin_ is the starting-point for the alizarin dyes, but of their -production we will not speak further, as they, and indeed most of the -coal-tar dyes, are non-poisonous. - -_Indigo_ to-day is generally obtained by synthesis. It is prepared from -phenylglycine or phenylglycine ortho-carboxylic acid, which on heating -with sodamide becomes converted into indoxyl or indoxyl carboxylic -acid. These in presence of an alkali in watery solution and exposure to -the oxygen of the air immediately form indigo. The necessary glycine -derivatives are obtained by the action of monochloracetic acid on aniline -or anthranilic acid, which again are derived from naphthalene (by -oxidation to phthalic acid and treatment of phthalimide with bleaching -powder and soda liquor). - -_Fuchsin_ belongs to the group of triphenylmethane dyestuffs, with the -production of which the epoch of coal-tar colour manufacture began, from -the observation that impure aniline on oxidation gave a red colour. The -original method of manufacture with arsenic acid is practically given up -in consequence of the unpleasant effects which use and recovery of large -quantities of arsenic acid gave rise to. The method consisted in heating -a mixture of aniline and toluidine with a solution of arsenic acid under -agitation in cast-iron cylinders. The cooled and solidified mass from the -retorts was boiled, and from the hot solution, after filtration, the raw -fuchsin was precipitated with salt and purified by crystallisation. - -Now by the usual nitrobenzene process, aniline, toluidine, nitrobenzene, -and nitrotoluene are heated with admixture of hydrochloric acid and some -iron protochloride or zinc chloride. Further treatment resembles the -arsenic process. - -By alkylation, i.e. substitution of several hydrogen atoms of the -amido-groups by ethyl, &c., through the action of alkyl halogens -and others, it was found possible to convert fuchsin into other -triphenylmethane colours. But it was soon found simpler to transfer -already alkylated amines into the colours in question. Thus, for example, -to prepare _methyl violet_ dimethyl aniline was heated for a long time -with salt, copper chloride, and phenol containing cresol in iron mixing -drums. The product is freed from salt and phenol by water and calcium -hydrate, subsequently treated with sulphuretted hydrogen or sodium -sulphide, and the colour separated from copper sulphide by dissolving in -dilute acid. - -Mention must be made, finally, of the _sulphur dyes_ obtained by heating -organic compounds with sulphur or sodium sulphide. For the purpose -derivatives of diphenylamine, nitro- and amido-phenols, &c., serve as the -starting-point. - -EFFECTS ON HEALTH.—From what has been said of the manufacture of coal-tar -dyes it is evident that poisoning can arise from the initial substances -used (benzene, toluene, &c.), from the elements or compounds employed -in carrying out the reactions (such as chlorine, nitric acid, sulphuric -acid, arsenious acid, sodium sulphide, and sulphuretted hydrogen gas), -from the intermediate bodies formed (nitro and amido compounds, such as -nitrobenzene, dinitrobenzene, aniline, &c.), and that, finally, the end -products (the dyes themselves) can act as poisons. It has already been -said that most of the dyes are quite harmless unless contaminated with -the poisonous substances used in their manufacture. - -We have seen that many of the raw substances used in the manufacture -of coal-tar dyes are poisonous, and we shall learn that several of the -intermediate products (especially the nitro and amido compounds) are so -also. - -According to Grandhomme,[1] of the raw materials benzene is the one -responsible for most poisoning. He describes two fatal cases of benzene -poisoning. In one case the worker was employed for a short time in a room -charged with benzene fumes, dashed suddenly out of it, and died shortly -after. In the other, the workman was employed cleaning out a vessel in -which lixiviation with benzene had taken place. Although the vessel -had been steamed and properly cooled, so much benzene fume came off in -emptying the residue as to overcome the workman and cause death in a -short time. - -Grandhomme describes no injurious effect from naphthalene nor, indeed, -from anthracene, which he considered was without effect on the workers. - -Similarly, his report as to nitrobenzene was favourable. No reported case -of poisoning occurred among twenty-one men employed, in some of whom -duration of employment was from ten to twenty years. Aniline poisoning, -however, was frequent among them. In the three years there was a total -of forty-two cases of anilism, involving 193 sick days—an average of -fourteen cases a year and sixty-four sick days. None was fatal and some -were quite transient attacks. - -In the fuchsin department no cases occurred, and any evil effects in the -manufacture were attributable to arsenic in the now obsolete arsenic -process. Nor was poisoning observed in the preparation of the dyes in -the remaining departments—blues, dahlias, greens, resorcin, or eosin. In -the manufacture of methylene blue Grandhomme points out the possibility -of evolution of arseniuretted hydrogen gas from use of hydrochloric acid -and zinc containing arsenic. Poisoning was absent also in the departments -where alizarine colours and pharmaceutical preparations were made. - -Among the 2500-2700 workers Grandhomme records 122 cases of industrial -sickness in the three years 1893-5, involving 724 sick days. In addition -to forty-two cases of anilism there were seventy-six cases of lead -poisoning with 533 sick days. Most of these were not lead burners, but -workers newly employed in the nitrating department who neglected the -prescribed precautionary measures. Lastly, he mentions the occurrence of -chrome ulceration. - -The frequency of sickness in the Höchst factory in each of the years -1893-5 was remarkably high: 126 per cent., 91 per cent., and 95 per -cent. Much less was the morbidity in the years 1899-1906—about 66 per -cent.—recorded by Leymann[2]—probably the same Höchst factory with 2000 -to 2200 employed. And the cases of industrial poisoning also were less. -He cites only twenty-one in the whole of the period 1899-1906. Of these -twelve were due to aniline, involving thirty sick days, only five to lead -poisoning, with fifty-four sick days, one to chrome ulceration, one to -arseniuretted hydrogen gas (nine sick days), and one fatal case each from -sulphuretted hydrogen gas and from dimethyl sulphate. In 1899, of three -slight cases of aniline poisoning one was attributable to paranitraniline -(inhalation of dust), and the two others to spurting of aniline oil on -to the clothing, which was not at once changed. Of the four cases in -1900, one was a plumber repairing pipes conveying aniline and the others -persons whose clothes had been splashed. - -In 1903 a worker employed for eleven and a half years in the aniline -department died of cancer of the bladder. Such cancerous tumours have -for some years been not infrequently observed in aniline workers, and -operations for their removal performed. Leymann thinks it very probable -that the affection is set up, or its origin favoured, by aniline. This -view must be accepted, and the disease regarded as of industrial origin. -Three slight cases in 1904 and 1905 were due partly to contamination of -clothing and partly to inhalation of fumes. Of the five cases of lead -poisoning three were referable to previous lead employment. Perforation -of the septum of the nose by bichromate dust was reported once only. A -fatal case from sulphuretted hydrogen gas and a case of poisoning by -arseniuretted hydrogen gas occurred in 1906, but their origin could not -be traced. - -In large modern aniline dye factories, therefore, the health of the -workers is, on the whole, good and industrial poisoning rare. Comparison -of the two sets of statistics show that improvement in health has -followed on improved methods of manufacture. Such cases of aniline -poisoning as are reported are usually slight, and often accounted for by -carelessness on the part of the workers. - -Data as to the health of workers in factories manufacturing or using -nitro compounds are given in the English factory inspectors’ reports -for 1905. Even with fortnightly medical examination in them, more than -half the workers showed signs of anæmia and slight cyanosis. Two men in -a factory employing twelve men in the manufacture of nitro compounds -were treated in hospital for cyanosis, distress of breathing, and general -weakness. One had only worked in the factory for nine days. In another -badly ventilated factory, of twenty persons examined fourteen showed -bluish-grey coloration of the lips and face, ten were distinctly anæmic, -and six showed tremor and weakness of grasp. - -Nitrobenzene poisoning arises from the fumes present in aniline and -roburite factories. Acute and chronic poisoning by nitro compounds of -the benzene series are described, brought about by accident (fracture -of transport vessels) and by carelessness (splashing on to clothes). -Cases of optic neuritis (inflammation of the optic nerve) as a result of -chronic nitrobenzene poisoning are described. - -Dinitrobenzene and other nitro and dinitro compounds are present -in safety explosives. Thus roburite and bellite consist of -metadinitrobenzene and ammonium nitrate; ammonite of nitronaphthalene and -ammonium nitrate; securite of the materials in roburite with ammonium -oxalate in addition. In roburite there may be also chlorinated nitro -compounds. - -Leymann,[3] describing accidents in the preparation of nitrophenol -and nitrochloro compounds, mentions four fatal cases occurring in the -manufacture of black dyes from mono- and di-nitrophenols as well as -mono- and di-nitrochlorobenzene and toluene. In three of the cases -dinitrophenol was the compound at fault owing to insufficient care in -the preparation,—the result of ignorance until then of risk of poisoning -from mono- and tri-nitrophenol. One of the men had had to empty a washing -trough containing moist dinitrophenol. He suddenly became collapsed, with -pain in the chest, vomiting, fever, and convulsions, and died within -five hours. Another suffered from great difficulty of breathing, fever, -rapid pulse, dilatation of the pupils, and died within a few hours in -convulsions. Two further cases of nitrochlorobenzene poisoning are -referred to, one of which was fatal. Four chlorobenzene workers after a -bout of drinking were found unconscious in the street, and only recovered -after eight to ten hours in hospital. The symptoms were grey-blue colour -of the skin, pallor of mucous membranes, lips, nose, and conjunctivæ, -and peculiar chocolate-coloured blood. - -Many cases of poisoning from roburite are recorded.[4] In the Witten -roburite factory it is stated that during the years 1890-7 almost all -the workers had been ill.[5] Only three looked healthy—all the others -suffered from more or less pallor, blue lips, and yellowish conjunctivæ. - -A case of chlorobenzene poisoning was reported with symptoms of headache, -cyanosis, fainting attacks, difficulty of breathing, &c., in a man who -had worked only three weeks with the substance.[6] - -In the nitrotoluene department of an explosives factory a number of -the workmen suffered from symptoms of distress in breathing, headache, -&c., of whom two, employed only a short time, died. The poisoning was -attributed, partly to nitrotoluene and partly to nitrous fumes. As a -contributing cause it was alleged that in view of shortage of hands -unsuitable persons were engaged who neglected precautions.[7] - -Nitronaphthalene is said to cause inflammation and opacity of the -cornea,[8] attributable either to long-continued exposure (four to eight -months) to nitronaphthalene vapour or to spurting of the liquid into the -eye. - -I could not find reference in literature to actual cases of poisoning by -picric acid. They are referred to in a general way only as causing skin -affections. - -Aniline poisoning arises generally from inhalation, but absorption -through the skin and less frequently inhalation of dust of aniline -compounds cause it. We have already laid stress on the frequently severe -cases resulting from carelessness in spilling on to or splashing of, -clothes without at once changing them, breaking of vessels containing it, -and entering vessels filled with the vapour. In literature of old date -many such cases have been described, and it was stated that workers were -especially affected on hot days, when almost all showed cyanosis. Such -observations do not state fairly the conditions to-day in view of the -improvements which Grandhomme and Leymann’s observations show have taken -place in aniline factories. Still, cases are fairly frequent. Thus in a -factory with 251 persons employed, thirty-three cases involving 500 days -of sickness were reported. - -The Report of the Union of Chemical Industry for 1907 cites the case of a -worker who was tightening up the leaky wooden bung of a vessel containing -aniline at a temperature of 200° C. He was splashed on the face and arms, -and although the burns were not in themselves severe he died the next day -from aniline absorption. - -Cases of anilism are not infrequent among dyers. The reports of the -Swiss factory inspectors for 1905 describe a case where a workman worked -for five hours in clothes on to which aniline had spurted when opening -an iron drum. Similar cases are described in the report of the English -factory inspectors for the same year. Aniline black dyeing frequently -gives rise to poisoning, and to this Dearden[9] of Manchester especially -has called attention. - -Typical aniline poisoning occurred in Bohemia in 1908 in a cloth presser -working with black dyes. While crushing aniline hydrochloride with -one hand, he ate his food with the other. That the health of persons -employed in aniline black dyeing must be affected by their work is shown -by medical examination. For instance, the English medical inspector of -factories in the summer months of 1905 found among sixty persons employed -in mixing, preparing, and ageing 47 per cent. with greyish coloration of -lips and 57 per cent. characteristically anæmic. Further, of eighty-two -persons employed in padding, washing, and drying, 34 per cent. had grey -lips, 20 per cent. were anæmic, and 14 per cent. with signs of acute or -old effects of chrome ulceration. Gastric symptoms were not infrequently -complained of. The symptoms were worse in hot weather. - -Use of aniline in other industries may lead to poisoning. Thus in the -extraction of foreign resins with aniline seventeen workers suffered -(eleven severely). Interesting cases of poisoning in a laundry from use -of a writing ink containing aniline have been recorded.[10] - -Reference is necessary to tumours of the bladder observed in aniline -workers. The first observations on the subject were made by Rehn of -Frankfurt, who operated in three cases. Bachfeld of Offenbach noticed in -sixty-three cases of aniline poisoning bladder affections in sixteen. -Seyberth described five cases of tumours of the bladder in workers -with long duration of employment in aniline factories.[11] In the -Höchst factory (and credit is due to the management for the step) every -suspicious case is examined with the cystoscope. In 1904 this firm -collected information from eighteen aniline factories which brought to -light thirty-eight cases, of which eighteen ended fatally. Seventeen were -operated on, and of these eleven were still alive although in three there -had been recurrence. - -Tumours were found mostly in persons employed with aniline, -naphthylamine, and their homologues, but seven were in men employed with -benzidine. - -Cases of benzene and toluidine poisoning in persons superintending tanks -and stills have been described. - -Industrial paranitraniline poisoning has been described, and a fatal case -in the Höchst dye works was attributed by Lewin (as medical referee) to -inhalation of dust. Before his death the workman had been engaged for -five hours in hydro-extracting paranitraniline. - -Paraphenylene diamine leads not unfrequently to industrial poisoning -from use of ursol as a dye. It produces skin eruptions and inflammation -of the mucous membrane of the respiratory passages.[12] No doubt the -intermediate body produced (diimine) acts as a powerful poison. - -A case of metaphenylene diamine poisoning is quoted in the Report of the -Union of Chemical Industry for 1906. A worker had brought his coffee and -bread, contrary to the rules, into the workroom and hidden them under a -vessel containing the substance. Immediately after drinking his coffee he -was seized with poisoning symptoms, and died a few days later. Some of -the poison must have dropped into his coffee. - -Few instances of poisoning from pure aniline colours are recorded. - -At first all tar colours were looked upon as poisonous, but as they were -mostly triphenylmethane colours they would contain arsenious acid. When -the arsenic process was given up people fell into the other extreme -of regarding not only the triphenylmethane colours but all others as -non-poisonous, until experience showed that production and use of some of -the tar colours might affect the skin. - -Finally, mention must be made of inflammation of the cornea caused by -methyl violet dust. The basic aniline dyes are said to damage the eye. -As opposed to this view is the fact that methyl violet and auramine are -used as anti-bactericidal agents, for treatment of malignant tumours, and -especially in ophthalmic practice. - - - - -II. SMELTING OF METALS - - -LEAD (ZINC, SILVER) - -OCCURRENCE OF INDUSTRIAL LEAD POISONING IN GENERAL - -_Chronic lead poisoning_ plays the most important rôle in industrial -metallic poisoning, and indeed in industrial poisoning generally. The -result everywhere where inquiry into industrial poisoning has been -instituted has been to place the number of cases of lead poisoning at -the top of the list; for one case of other forms of industrial poisoning -there are twenty of lead. - -In the last few years a very extensive literature and one not easily -to be surveyed has grown up on the subject of chronic industrial lead -poisoning. I cannot attempt as I have done with other forms of poisoning -to do justice to all sources of literature on this subject. - -As there is no obligation to notify industrial lead poisoning[B]—or -indeed any form of industrial poisoning—in many countries, the most -important source of information is wanting. Nevertheless more or less -comprehensive inquiries as to the extent of the disease in general have -been made in different countries and large cities which furnish valuable -data. - -An idea of the yearly number of cases of lead poisoning occurring in -Prussia is given in the following statistics of cases treated in Prussian -hospitals for the years 1895-1901: - - +-------+--------+----------+--------+ - | Year. | Males. | Females. | Total. | - +-------+--------+----------+--------+ - | 1895 | 1120 | 43 | 1163 | - | 1899 | 1601 | 23 | 1624 | - | 1900 | 1509 | 14 | 1523 | - | 1901 | 1359 | 24 | 1383 | - +-------+--------+----------+--------+ - -The occupation of these cases was as follows: - - +-------+----------------+-------------+-----------+ - | Year. | Metallic Lead. | White Lead. | Painters. | - +-------+----------------+-------------+-----------+ - | 1895 | 364 | 312 | 347 | - | 1899 | 551 | 310 | 460 | - | 1900 | 516 | 360 | 378 | - | 1901 | 498 | 282 | 339 | - +-------+----------------+-------------+-----------+ - -About half the cases, therefore, are caused by use of white lead. The -report of the sick insurance societies of the Berlin painters gives -information as to the proportion treated in hospital to those treated at -home, which was as 1:4. - -The industries may be classified according to risk as follows[1]: - -White lead workers, 33 per cent.; red lead workers, 32 per cent.; shot -and lead pipe workers, 20 per cent.; painters, 7-10 per cent.; lead and -zinc smelters, 8-9 per cent.; printers, 0·5 per cent. - -In Austria through the Labour Statistical Bureau comprehensive -information is being collected as to the occurrence of lead poisoning in -the most dangerous trades, but is not yet published. The reports of the -factory inspectors give a very incomplete picture; for example, in 1905 -only fifteen cases are referred to. In the most recent report (1909) -information of lead poisoning is only given for thirty works. Teleky -has made a general survey of the occurrence of lead poisoning from the -reports of the Austrian sick insurance societies.[2] From this we gather -that in Vienna, with an average membership of 200,000, there were, in -the five year period 1902-6, 634, 656, 765, 718, 772 cases of illness -involving incapacity from mineral poisons, which Teleky assumes were -practically all cases of lead poisoning. By circularising Austrian sick -insurance societies outside Vienna with a membership of about 400,000, -Teleky obtained information of 189 cases, which he considers too few. - -In 1906-1908 inquiry was made by the sick insurance societies in Bohemia -as to the extent of lead poisoning. With an average number employed of -from 700,000 to 850,000 information was obtained of 91, 147, and 132 -cases in the three years in question. The increase in 1907 was probably -accounted for by the greater attention paid to the subject.[3] The -number of ascertained cases of lead poisoning treated by the societies -of Hungary was 225 in 1901 and 161 in 1902. Teleky again considers these -figures too low, which is proved by Toth’s publications as to lead -poisoning in Hungarian lead smelting works, and especially Chyzer’s on -lead poisoning among Hungarian potters. Legge has reported fully in -the second International Congress for Industrial Diseases in Brussels -(September 1910) on occurrence of industrial lead poisoning in Great -Britain in the years 1900 to 1909. During that period 6762 cases with 245 -deaths occurred. The number of cases in the course of the ten years had -diminished by 50 per cent. These figures appear remarkably small, but -it has to be borne in mind that the statistics referred to related only -to cases occurring in factories and workshops, and do not include cases -among house painters and plumbers. The number of such cases which came to -the knowledge of the Factory Department in 1909 was 241 (with 47 deaths) -and 239 in 1908 (with 44 deaths). - - -LEAD, SILVER, AND ZINC SMELTING - -_Lead_ is obtained almost entirely from galena by three different -processes. In the _roast and reaction process_ galena is first roasted at -500°-600° C. and partially converted into lead oxide and lead sulphate: -on shutting off the air supply and increase of temperature the sulphur -of the undecomposed galena unites with the oxygen of the lead oxide -and sulphate to form sulphur dioxide, while the reduced metallic lead -is tapped. In the _roast and reduction_ process the ore is completely -calcined so as to get rid of sulphur, arsenic, and antimony. The oxides -(and sulphates) formed are reduced by means of coke in a blast furnace. -This process is generally applicable and is, therefore, that most in use. -The _precipitation_ process consists chiefly in melting galena with coke -and iron flux, whereby the lead is partly freed from the sulphur, and, in -addition to lead, iron sulphide is formed, which acts on the remaining -lead sulphide, producing a lead matte which can be further treated. - -[Illustration: FIG. 27.—Smelting Furnace, showing mechanical charging -and exhaust ventilation applied to slag runs, &c. (_Locke, Lancaster & -W. W. & R. Johnson & Sons, Ltd. By permission of the Controller of H.M. -Stationery Office._)] - -The roast and reaction process is carried out in specially constructed -reverberatory furnaces; small furnaces with small amounts of ore and at -as low a temperature as possible are the rule in the Kärntner process. -In the English process large amounts of ore are melted in large furnaces -at high temperatures so as to oxidise the material. The so-called -Tarnowitz process combines these two—large amounts of ore are roasted -in large furnaces at a moderate temperature. In the roast and reduction -process it depends on the nature of the ore whether the roasting is done -in reverberatory or blast furnaces. Generally the ore is in the form -of powder—less often in pieces. Pyritic ore (ore with much sulphur) is -almost always roasted in blast furnaces, and the sulphur dioxide evolved -can be used in the manufacture of sulphuric acid. Open-hearth furnaces -are rarely used now. Reverberatory furnaces are employed most frequently. - -The lead thus obtained contains several other metals, especially silver, -copper, arsenic, antimony, iron, zinc, bismuth, and tin. Lead containing -silver (work-lead) is next _de-silverised_, after which follows refining -to get rid of the other impurities. For de-silverising work-lead rich -in silver (containing about 10 per cent.) _cupellation_ is practised, -in which the silver lead is melted and oxidised so that the lead is -converted into _litharge_, metallic silver remaining behind. In a -cupellation furnace the flame strikes on the top of the lead bath, and -at the same time air under slight pressure is driven in; the litharge -which forms is removed through suitable openings. The litharge that is -first formed contains silver and is treated again; the remainder is ready -for market. After the litharge has run off silver appears, containing -still 5-10 per cent. of lead, and it is again submitted to an analogous -refining process. Work-lead which does not contain enough silver to be -cupelled at once is generally treated first by either the Pattinson or -the Parkes’ process. - -In the _Pattinson_ crystallising process work-lead is melted in open -semi-circular pots: as the pots cool crystals of lead poor in silver form -on the surface and are transferred by a perforated ladle into the next -pot: the silver collects in the small amount of molten lead remaining -behind. Lead that has become enriched by repeated crystallisation -contains a high percentage of silver and is cupelled. The _Parkes’_ -process or _zinc de-silverisation_ depends on the formation of a -lead-zinc alloy which is less fusible than lead. Work-lead is melted -and agitated with addition of pure zinc. The crust which first rises on -cooling contains gold, copper, zinc, and lead, and is removed. Further -addition of zinc is then made: the rich silver crust which separates -is subsequently freed from lead by gradual heating in a reverberatory -furnace, and from zinc, in a zinc distilling retort. Other impurities -are got rid of by oxidising in reverberatory or other furnaces. Small -quantities of antimony and arsenic are removed by stirring with fresh -green sticks. - -_Zinc_ is obtained principally from blende (sulphide of zinc) and from -calamine (carbonate of zinc). The process of zinc recovery depends on the -production of zinc oxide and reduction of this by carbon to metallic zinc. - -Conversion of the ore to zinc oxide is effected by roasting. Since -the temperature at which reduction takes place is higher than the -melting-point of zinc the latter is volatilised (distilled) and must be -condensed in suitable condensers. - -Calamine is calcined in a blast furnace. Blende was formerly roasted in -reverberatory furnaces, but such nuisance arose to the neighbourhood from -sulphur dioxide vapour that now Hasenclever-Helbig calcining furnaces -are used. These furnaces furnish a gas so rich in sulphur dioxide that -they serve at once for the production of sulphuric acid. The Hasenclever -furnaces consist of muffles placed one above another: the finely ground -ore is charged through hoppers above and then raked down from muffle to -muffle. - -Reduction is carried out in the Belgian or Silesian process by strongly -heating calcined matte with coal in retorts. The zinc as it distils is -caught in special condensing receptacles (prolongs). After distillation -is complete the residue is raked out of the muffle and the furnace -charged afresh. As zinc ores generally contain much lead, the work-zinc -is therefore refined by remelting in a reverberatory furnace, during -which process the impurities collect on the zinc as dross and are removed -by agitation with sal-ammoniac or magnesium chloride. - -[Illustration: FIG. 28.—Arrangement of Spelter Furnace showing -Ventilating Hood.] - -RISK OF POISONING IN LEAD, SILVER, AND ZINC SMELTING.—As the description -of the manipulations in smelting processes shows, all involve risk of -lead poisoning. As a matter of fact in lead smelting much lead passes -into the atmosphere. In the smelting works at Tarnowitz yearly some -36,000 kilos of oxidised lead escape. - -Estimations[4] of the amount of lead in air samples collected in lead -smelting works have been made. Thus in a cubic metre of air immediately -over the slag run from 0·0029 to 0·0056 g. of lead were found, so -that a worker in a ten-hour day would inhale from 0·013 to 0·025 g. of -lead. In a cubic metre of air immediately above the Parkes’ melting-pot -from 0·0056 to 0·0090 g. were found, so that a worker would inhale -daily from 0·0252 to 0·0405 g. if he kept constantly close to the pot. -On the handles of a de-silveriser 0·112 g. were found. In Hungarian -lead-smelting works the water in which the hands had been washed was -found to contain 1·27 g. of lead per litre. The hands of litharge -grinders and sifters showed the highest amounts. - -Work carried on in lead-smelting works may be divided into five classes -according to risk. Those most exposed to risk are the smelters at lead -hearths and reverberatory furnaces, persons employed at the lead and -slag runs, flue cleaners, and in crushing and packing flake litharge. -Next come those employed at the refining furnaces, those breaking up the -roasted ore, blast furnace workers, and those employed at the cupellation -process. Attended with danger also is the removal of lead ashes and -distillation of the zinc crust. Less dangerous are transport of material, -crushing and mixing the ore, refining the work-lead and zinc crust, and -work at the Pattinson and Parkes’ processes. - -In zinc smelting risk of lead poisoning is great, no matter which process -is in question, because of the high proportion of lead in the ore and -work-zinc. Swedish blende contains as much as 9 per cent. of lead, and -Upper Silesian 2½ per cent. or less. There is risk in calcination, but it -is much less than in the distillation process.[5] - -There are no quite satisfactory statistics as to the number of cases -of lead poisoning in smelting works. Nevertheless, a number of recent -publications give valuable data for certain smelting works in Germany, -Austria, and Hungary. - -From details[6] of lead poisoning at Tarnowitz it would appear that the -conditions have materially improved since 1884, the cases having declined -from 32·7 per 100 employed in 1884 to 6·2 in 1894 and 1895. The following -figures show the proportion affected in the different processes in the -years 1901 and 1902: - - Process. Year. No. Employed. Cases. Per Cent. - - Reverberatory Furnace { 1901 131 11 8·3 - { 1902 111 4 3·6 - Blast Furnace { 1901 152 47 30·9 - { 1902 187 21 11·1 - Cupelling Furnace { 1901 12 1 8·3 - { 1902 12 1 8·3 - De-silverising { 1901 32 10 31·2 - { 1902 34 7 20·6 - Other Employment { 1901 300 7 2·3 - { 1902 350 2 0·6 - -In one smelting works the percentage attack rate was 17·8 in 1901, and -27·1 in 1902. Here the number of workers had increased from 73 in 1901 to -129 in 1902, and the absolute and relative increase probably has relation -to the well-known fact that newly employed untrained workers become -affected. Similar incidence according to process can be given for the -Friedrich’s smelting works during the years 1903-1905: - - Process. Year. No. Employed. Cases. Per Cent. - - Reverberatory Furnace { 1903 86 12 13·9 - { 1904 87 8 9·2 - { 1905 83 11 13·3 - Blast Furnace { 1903 267 59 22·1 - { 1904 232 24 10·3 - { 1905 247 27 10·9 - De-silverising { 1903 56 12 21·4 - { 1904 73 4 5·5 - { 1905 75 4 5·3 - Cupelling { 1903 16 4 25·0 - { 1904 15 1 6·7 - { 1905 14 1 7·1 - Other Employment { 1903 330 5 1·5 - { 1904 309 4 1·3 - { 1905 347 7 2·0 - -Among 3028 cases of lead poisoning treated between 1853 and 1882 in -smelting works near Freiberg (Saxony) gastric symptoms were present in -1541, rheumatic pains in 215, cerebral symptoms in 144, paralysis in 58, -and lead colic in 426. - -The recent reports of the German factory inspectors point still to rather -high incidence in many lead smelting works. Thus in the district of Aix -la Chapelle in 1909 there were sixty cases involving 1047 sick days, as -compared with 58 and 878 in 1908. - -In a well-arranged smelting works near Wiesbaden fifty-two and forty-two -cases were reported in 1908 and 1909 respectively, among about 400 -persons employed. This relatively high number was believed to be closely -connected with frequent change in the _personnel_. Introduction of the -Huntingdon-Heberlein method is thought to have exercised an unfavourable -influence. - -Other smelting works in Germany appear to have a relatively small number -of reported cases. Thus in 1909 among 550 workers employed in four -smelting works in the Hildesheim district only four cases were reported, -and in the district of Potsdam among 600 smelters only five were found -affected on medical examination. There is no doubt that many of the cases -described as gastric catarrh are attributable to lead. Full information -as to the conditions in Austria is contained in the publication of the -Imperial Labour Statistical Bureau. In this comprehensive work the -conditions in smelting works are described. In the lead smelting works -at Przibram the cases had dropped from an average of 38·2 among the -4000-5000 persons employed to twenty-two in 1894 and to six in 1903, but -only the severer cases are included. No single case has occurred among -the 350-450 persons engaged in mining the ore, as galena (lead sulphide) -is practically non-poisonous. It was found, for example, that 50 per -cent. of the furnace men had (according to their statement) suffered from -lead colic. Of eight employed in the Pattinson process, seven stated they -had suffered from colic. The lead smelting works in Gailitz showed marked -frequency of lead poisoning—here the appointed surgeon attributed anæmia -and gastric and intestinal catarrh to lead: - - Illness of Saturnine Origin. - Year. No. Lead Colic. Per Cent. - Employed. Anæmia. Intestinal Catarrh. due to - Gastric Total Lead Total Lead. - Catarrh. Sickness. Sickness. - 1899 61 14 2 76 16 108 178 60·0 - 1900 57 6 2 16 5 29 80 36·2 - 1901 48 4 2 17 1 24 60 40·0 - 1902 47 — — 24 6 30 56 53·5 - 1903 49 — 3 11 4 18 57 31·6 - -The diminution in the number of cases, especially of colic, is -attributable to the efforts of the appointed surgeon. - -At Selmeczbanya a diminution from 196 cases in 1899 (50·7 per cent.) to -six (2·2 per cent.) in 1905 had taken place. These figures point clearly -to the success of the hygienic measures adopted in the last few years. - -In the large spelter works of Upper Silesia during the years 1896-1901, -among 3780 persons employed, there were eighty-three cases of lead colic -and paralysis, that is, about 2·2 per cent. each year. The following -tables show the incidence among spelter workers in the works in question -from 1902 to 1905: - - ILLNESS AMONG ZINC SMELTERS - - Lead Colic - Year. and Kidney Gastric Anæmia. Rheumatism. No. - Lead Paralysis. Disease. Catarrh. Employed. - - 1902 29 18 137 18 448 4417 - 1903 28 21 151 24 470 4578 - 1904 44 23 181 35 596 4677 - 1905 50 18 223 40 612 4789 - - Average 0·8% 0·5% 3·7% 0·6% 11·5% 4615 - - ILLNESS AMONG CALCINERS - - Lead Colic - Year. and Kidney Gastric Anæmia. Rheumatism. No. - Lead Paralysis. Disease. Catarrh. Employed. - - 1902 — — 5 1 78 1149 - 1903 — — 9 — 112 1087 - 1904 2 — 68 1 136 1140 - 1905 1 2 47 2 134 1159 - - Average 0·08% 0·05% 2·6% 0·1% 10·2% 1134 - -In thirty-two spelter works in the district of Oppeln in the year 1905, -among 4789 spelter workers proper, there were 50 cases of colic, 18 of -kidney disease, 223 of gastric and intestinal catarrh, 40 of anæmia, and -612 of rheumatism, and among 1159 calciners 1 case of colic, 2 of kidney -disease, 47 of gastric catarrh, 2 of anæmia, and 134 of rheumatism. Cases -are much more numerous in spelter works where Swedish blende containing -lead is worked. It is remarkable, however, that in large spelter works in -Upper Silesia, where for years no cases of lead poisoning were reported, -medical examination showed that 20·5 per cent. had signs of lead -absorption. - - -White Lead and Lead Colours - -MANUFACTURE.—The primitive Dutch process consisted in placing lead grids -in earthenware pots containing dilute acetic acid and covering them -with tan bark. Fermentation ensued with evolution of carbonic acid gas -and increase in temperature. The acetic acid vapour forms, with aid of -atmospheric oxygen, first basic lead acetate, which, by the action of -the carbonic acid gas, becomes converted into white lead and neutral -lead acetate. The product is crushed, sieved, and dried. In the German -or Austrian process thin sheets of metallic lead are hung saddle-wise -in chambers. Acetic acid vapour and carbonic acid gas (produced by -burning coke) are led in from below. The chamber is then sealed and kept -so for a considerable time. When the chamber is ‘ripe’ the white lead -that has formed is taken out, freed from uncorroded lead by spraying, -dried, finely ground, and packed. White lead comes on the market either -as a powder or incorporated with oil. Of the remaining lead colours, -red lead (Pb₃O₄) is much used. It is produced by heating lead oxide in -reverberatory furnaces with access of air and stirring. - - -Lead Poisoning in the Manufacture of White Lead and Lead Colours - -The manufacture by the German process may be divided into three -categories according to the degree of risk run: - -1. The most dangerous processes are hanging the plates in the chambers, -work at the filter press, drying, pulverising, and packing by hand. - -2. Less dangerous are transport to the washer, washing, and grinding. - -3. Relatively the least dangerous are casting the plates, transport of -them to the chambers, drying, mechanical packing, and mixing with oil. - -The number of cases of lead poisoning in white lead factories is often -relatively great despite regulations. Casual labourers especially run -the greatest risk. This is frequently brought out in the reports of the -German factory inspectors, who connect the high proportion of cases -directly with the large number of unskilled workers. Regulations are -really only successful in factories with regular employment. - -This has been found also in Great Britain, where the Medical Inspector -of Factories showed that the cases among regular workers numbered 6 per -cent. and among casual workers 39 per cent. - -The following table gives particulars as to the occurrence of lead -poisoning in the white lead factories in the district of Cologne in 1904, -some of which have admirable hygienic arrangements: - - +-----------+--------------+-----------------+---------------+--------+ - | | | No. Employed. |Cases of Lead | | - | | | |Poisoning. | | - | | +-----------------+---------------+ No. of | - | Place. | Manufacture. |Regular |Regular |Cases of| - | | | |Casual | |Casual |Gastric | - | | | | |Average | |Total|Catarrh.| - +-----------+--------------+-----+-----+-----+----+----+-----+--------+ - |Cologne I. | White lead {| 46 | 59 | 32 | 9 | 16 | 25 | 16 | - | | {| 173 | 95 | 127 | 13 | 17 | 30 | 22 | - | ” I. | Litharge and{| 46 | 4 | 38 | 5 | 1 | 6 | 7 | - | | red lead {| 76 | 62 | 49 | 3 | 4 | 7 | 15 | - | | Chromate {| 14 | 2 | 11 | — | — | — | 5 | - | | {| 43 | 72 | 33 | — | — | — | 7 | - |Cologne II.| White lead, {| | | | | | | | - | | litharge, {| 107 | 332 | 91 | 6 | 34 | 40 | 30 | - | | and red lead{| 102 | 332 | 76 | 9 | 19 | 28 | 38 | - +-----------+--------------+-----+-----+-----+----+----+-----+--------+ - -It is worth noting that cases of lead poisoning have been reported in the -manufacture of zinc white, as, for example, in Bohemia in 1907 and 1908. - - -USE OF LEAD COLOURS AND PAINTS (HOUSE PAINTERS, DECORATORS, ETC.) - -Use of lead colours, especially by painters and decorators, causes -relatively much lead poisoning. Apart from ignorance of danger on -the part of the worker, and lack of personal cleanliness, unsuitable -methods of working add to the danger, especially dry rubbing of painted -surfaces, which gives rise to much dust containing lead. Again, the -crushing and mixing of lumps of white lead and rubbing lead colours with -the hand are very dangerous. - -The following German and Austrian figures enable conclusions to be -drawn as to the frequency of lead poisoning among painters. In the sick -insurance societies of Frankfurt-a-M. in 1903 of every 100 painters 11·6 -suffered from an attack of lead poisoning. The similar sick insurance -society of painters in Berlin has kept useful statistics which are given -in the following table for the ten years 1900-9: - - +--------+----------+------------+--------------+ - | | | No. | | - | | No. of | of Cases | Cases per | - | Year. | Members. | of Lead | 100 Members. | - | | | Poisoning. | | - +--------+----------+------------+--------------+ - | 1900 | 3889 | 357 | 9·18 | - | 1901 | 3616 | 335 | 9·26 | - | 1902 | 3815 | 308 | 8·07 | - | 1903 | 4397 | 470 | 10·69 | - | 1904 | 5029 | 516 | 10·26 | - | 1905 | 5328 | 471 | 8·84 | - | 1906 | 5355 | 347 | 6·48 | - | 1907 | 5173 | 379 | 7·32 | - | 1908 | 4992 | 298 | 5·97 | - | 1909 | 4781 | 285 | 5·96 | - +--------+----------+------------+--------------+ - |Average | 4637 | 376·6 | 8·11 | - +--------+----------+------------+--------------+ - -This shows that lead poisoning among the painters of Berlin is happily -diminishing, which may be attributed to recent regulations. The society, -however, complains in its reports that not all cases of lead appear -as such in their statistics, and believes that all diseases entered -as rheumatism, gastric catarrh, nervous complaints, heart and kidney -disease, should be regarded as associated with lead. The kinds of work in -which painters suffer most are painting iron girders and machines, sheet -metal and iron furniture, railway waggons, agricultural implements, coach -painting, cabinet-making, shipbuilding, and the use of red and white -lead. The use of lead colours, _lead acetate_, and _lead chromate_ often -give rise to lead poisoning. Colours containing lead are not infrequently -used in the textile industry in dyeing, printing, and finishing. White -lead has been used for weighting the weft. - -Teleky has described cases of lead poisoning in which _silk thread_ was -weighted with acetate of lead. As a consequence a number of women engaged -in sewing on fringes with the thread suffered. The English factory -inspectors’ reports describe cases from manipulating _yarn dyed with -chromate of lead_.[7] - -_Chromate of lead_ and _white lead_ are used in colouring oil-cloth, -artificial flowers, paper, rubber goods, pencils, penholders, socks, -sealing-wax, candles, and stamps. - - -USE OF LEAD IN THE CHEMICAL INDUSTRY - -Lead poisoning has been frequently observed in such branches of the -chemical industry as require large leaden or lead-lined vessels and -pipes: the persons affected are principally those engaged in lead burning. - -Risk is considerable in manufacture of lead acetate. The most dangerous -processes are drying and packing the crystals. - - -MANUFACTURE OF ELECTRIC ACCUMULATORS - -The manufacture of accumulators begins with the casting of lead plates, -which are then polished and dressed. Next follows ‘pasting,’ that is, -smearing the negative plate with a paste of litharge, the positive plate -being ‘formed’ by having an electric current passed through so that the -lead is converted into spongy peroxide. The wooden boxes in which the -plates are assembled are lead-lined. - -The most dangerous processes are casting, wire-brushing, and pasting—the -latter especially when done by hand. - -In the years 1908 and 1909 among about 761 workers employed in the -accumulator factories of Cologne there were fifty-six cases of lead colic -and seventy-nine of gastric and intestinal catarrh. Further figures -for German accumulator works show that in the two largest accumulator -factories in the district of Potsdam employing 142 workers there were -fifteen cases in 1904. In Great Britain, in the ten years 1900-1909, 285 -cases were reported—an average of about thirty a year. - - -THE CERAMIC INDUSTRY - -Risk is present in several branches of the ceramic industry. It is -greatest in glazing earthenware, but not infrequent also in the porcelain -and glass industries. It is impossible to deal with the extensive -literature on this subject exhaustively. A comprehensive and detailed -survey of lead poisoning in the ceramic industry on the Continent is -that by Kaup. Distinction is made between leadless glazes which melt -at high temperature and lead glazes which have the advantage of a low -melting-point. Galena and litharge are used in the preparation of glazes -for common earthenware and red and white lead for ware of better quality. -Distinction has to be made between a lead silicious glaze for pottery -ware, a lead and boric acid glaze for stoneware, and a lead and zinc -oxide glaze for ordinary faience and stoneware. Seegar, the celebrated -expert, praises the advantage of lead glaze and the use of lead in the -ceramic industry—it is indeed practically indispensable—and speaks of the -poisonous nature of lead as its only fault. The components of the glaze -must have definite relation to the hardness or softness of the body. The -higher the proportion of silicic acid in the glaze the harder the firing -it will stand; the more the flux materials are in excess the lower will -the melting point be. - -The most important flux materials are, arranged in order of decreasing -fusibility, lead oxide, baryta, potash, soda, zinc oxide, chalk, -magnesia, and clay. - -The _glaze_ is made by first mixing the ingredients dry, and then -either fritting them by fluxing in a reverberatory furnace and finally -grinding them very finely in water or using the raw material direct. In -the fritting process in the case of the lead glazes the soluble lead -compounds become converted into less soluble lead silicates and double -silicates. - -The glaze is applied in different ways—dipping, pouring, dusting, -blowing, and volatilising. Air-dried and biscuited objects are dipped; -pouring the glaze on is practised in coarse ware, roofing-tiles, &c.; -dusting (with dry finely ground glaze, litharge, or red lead) also in -common ware; glaze-blowing (aerographing) and glaze dusting on porcelain. -In these processes machines can be used. Bricks are only occasionally -glazed with glazes of felspar, kaolin, and quartz, to which lead oxide -is often added in very large quantity. Lead poisoning in _brick works_ -in view of the infrequent use of lead is not common, but when lead is -used cases are frequent. Kaup quotes several cases from the factory -inspectors’ reports: thus in three roof-tiling works examination by the -district physician showed that almost all the workers were affected. - -_Coarse ware pottery_ is made of pervious non-transparent clay with -earthy fracture—only a portion of this class of ware (stoneware) is -made of raw materials which fire white. Such ware generally receives a -colourless glaze. The clay is shaped on the potter’s wheel, and is then -fired once or, in the better qualities, twice. - -Grinding the ingredients of the glaze is still often done in primitive -fashion in mortars. The glaze is usually composed of lead oxide and -sand, often with addition of other lead compounds as, for example, in -quite common ware, of equal parts of litharge, clay, and coarse sand. -Sometimes, instead of litharge, galena (lead sulphide) or, with better -qualities of ware, red lead or ‘lead ashes’ are used. - -The grinding of the glazes in open mills or even in mortars constitutes a -great danger which can be prevented almost entirely by grinding in ball -mills. The glaze material is next mixed with water, and the articles are -either dipped into the creamy mass or this is poured over them. In doing -this the hands, clothes, and floors are splashed. The more dangerous -dusting-on of glaze is rarely practised. Occasionally mechanical -appliances take the place of hand dipping. Placing the ware in the glost -oven is done without placing it first in saggars. - -In the better qualities of pottery cooking utensils, which are fired -twice, a less fusible fritted lead glaze is generally used. Coloured -glaze contains, besides the colouring metallic oxides, 30-40 per cent. of -litharge or red lead. - -As Kaup shows, Continental factory inspectors’ reports make only isolated -references to occurrence of lead poisoning in potteries. Insight into the -conditions in small potteries is obtained only from the Bavarian reports. -In Upper Bavaria ninety-three potteries employ 157 persons who come into -contact with lead glaze. Eleven cases were known to have occurred in the -last four years. Teleky found thirty-six cases of lead poisoning (mostly -among glostplacers) in the records of the Potters’ Sick Insurance Society -of Vienna. - -Chyzer has described the striking conditions in Hungary. There there -are about 4000 potters, of whom 500 come into contact with lead glaze. -Chronic lead poisoning is rife among those carrying on the occupation as -a home industry. Members of the family contract the disease from the dust -in the living rooms. This dust was found to contain from 0·5 to 8·7 per -cent. of lead. - -In the china and earthenware factories in Great Britain, in the ten years -1900-9, 1065 cases with fifty-seven deaths were reported. - -_Manufacture of stove tiles._—The application of glaze to stove tiles is -done in different ways. The two most important kinds are (1) fired tiles -and (2) slipped tiles. In the production of fired tiles a lead-tin alloy -consisting of 100 parts lead and 30-36 parts tin—so-called ‘calcine’—are -melted together in fireclay reverberatory or muffle furnaces and raked -about when at a dull red heat so as to effect complete oxidation. The -material when cool is mixed with the same quantity of sand and some -salt, melted in the frit kiln, subsequently crushed, ground, mixed with -water, and applied to the previously fired tiles. In this process risk -is considerable. Presence of lead in the air has been demonstrated even -in well-appointed ‘calcine’ rooms. In unsuitably arranged rooms it was -estimated that in a twelve-hour day a worker would inhale 0·6 gramme of -lead oxide and that 3-8 grammes would collect on the clothes. - -_Slipped tiles_ are made in Meissen, Silesia, Bavaria, and Austria by -first applying to them a mixture of clay and china clay. The glaze -applied is very rich in lead, containing 50-60 parts of red lead or -litharge. Generally the glaze is applied direct to the unfired tiles -and fired once. Figures as to occurrence of poisoning in Germany are -quoted by Kaup from the towns of Velten and Meissen. Among from 1748 to -2500 persons employed thirty-four cases were reported in the five years -1901-5. Thirteen cases were reported as occurring in the three largest -factories in Meissen in 1906. - -From other districts similar occurrence of poisoning is reported. In -Bohemia in a single factory in 1906 there were fourteen cases with one -death, in another in 1907 there were fourteen, and in 1908 twelve cases; -eight further cases occurred among majolica painters in 1908. - -_Stoneware and porcelain._—Hard stoneware on a base of clay, limestone, -and felspar has usually a transparent lead glaze of double earth -silicates of lead and alkalis, with generally boric acid to lower the -fusing-point; the lead is nearly always added in the form of red lead -or litharge. The portion of the glaze soluble in water is fritted, and -forms, when mixed with the insoluble portion, the glaze ready for use. -The frit according to Kaup contains from 16 to 18 per cent. of red lead, -and the added material (the mill mixing) 8-26 parts of white lead; the -glaze contains from 13 to 28 parts of lead oxide. The ware is dipped or -the glaze is sometimes aerographed on. Ware-cleaning by hand (smoothing -or levelling the surface with brushes, knives, &c.) is very dangerous -work unless carried out under an efficient exhaust. Colouring the body -itself is done with coloured metal oxides or by applying clay (slipping) -or by the direct application of colours either under or over the glaze. -Some of the under-glaze colours (by addition of chrome yellow or nitrate -of lead or red lead) contain lead and are applied with the brush or -aerograph or in the form of transfers. - -_Plain earthenware_ is either not glazed or salt glazed; only when -decorated does it sometimes receive an acid lead glaze. - -_Porcelain_ receives a leadless glaze of difficultly fusible silicate -(quartz sand, china clay, felspar). Risk is here confined to painting -with lead fluxes (enamel colours) containing lead. These fluxes are -readily fusible glasses made of silicic acid, boric acid, lead oxide, and -alkalis, and contain much lead (60-80 per cent. of red lead). - -In the _glass industry_ lead poisoning may occur from use of red lead as -one of the essential ingredients. In Great Britain, in the years 1900-9, -forty-eight cases were reported in glass polishing from use of putty -powder. - - -LETTERPRESS PRINTING, ETC. - -Type metal consists of about 67 per cent. lead, 27 per cent. antimony, -and 6 per cent. tin, but sometimes of 75 per cent. lead, 23 per cent. -antimony, and 2 per cent. tin. - -The actual printer comes least of all in contact with lead. Use of lead -colours (white lead, chromate of lead, &c.) may be a source of danger, -especially in the preparation of printing inks from them and in cleaning -the printing rolls. A further, if slight, danger arises from the use of -bronze powder consisting of copper, zinc, and tin. The two last-named -metals contain from 0·1 to 0·5 per cent. of lead, and in the application -and brushing off of the bronze there is a slight risk. - -The compositor is exposed to constant danger from handling the type and -disturbing the dust in the cases. This dust may contain from 15 to 38 -per cent. of lead. Blowing the dust out of the cases with bellows is -especially dangerous, and want of cleanliness (eating and smoking in the -workroom) contributes to the risk. - -Type founders and persons engaged in rubbing and preparing the type -suffer. Introduction of type-casting machines (linotype, monotype) has -lessened the danger considerably. - -No lead fumes are developed, as a temperature sufficiently high to -produce them is never reached. In all the processes, therefore, it is -lead dust which has to be considered. - -The following figures of the Imperial Statistical Office as to occurrence -of lead poisoning among printers in Vienna indicate the relative danger: - - +---------------------------+-----------+-----------+----------+ - |Occupation. |Average No.|Average No.|Percentage| - | |of Members,| of Cases, | of Cases,| - | |1901-1906. |1901-1906. |1901-1906.| - +---------------------------+-----------+-----------+----------+ - |Compositors | 3182 | 90·3 | 2·8 | - |Printers | 809 | 20·3 | 2·4 | - |Casters and Stereotypers | 241 | 15·8 | 6·6 | - |Females employed in casting| 74 | 8·17 | 10·8 | - +---------------------------+-----------+-----------+----------+ - -In Bohemia there is reference to thirty-eight cases in letterpress -printing in 1907 and twenty-seven in 1908. - -Among 5693 persons treated for lead poisoning between the years 1898 and -1901 in hospitals in Prussia, 222 were letterpress printers. - -Between 1900 and 1909 in Great Britain 200 cases of lead poisoning were -reported. - - -VARIOUS BRANCHES OF INDUSTRY - -The number of industries using lead is very large. Layet as long ago as -1876 enumerated 111. We, however, limit ourselves to those in which the -risk is considerable. - -Use of _lead beds_ in _file-cutting_ has given rise to many cases. -Further, to harden the file it is dipped into a bath of molten lead. -From 3 to 6 per cent. of lead has been found in the dust in rooms where -hardening is done. - -Of 7000 persons employed in file-cutting in the German Empire in the -years 1901-5 on an average 30·5 or 0·43 per cent. were affected yearly. -In Great Britain 211 cases were reported in the years 1900-9. - -In _polishing precious stones_ formerly many cases of lead poisoning -occurred, the reason being that the polishers come into contact with -particles of lead and fix the diamonds to be polished in a vice composed -of an alloy of lead and tin. Danger is increased when the stones are -actually polished on revolving leaden discs. In Bohemia granite polishing -used to be done in this way, but is now replaced in many factories by -carborundum (silicon carbide). - -Musical instrument making in Bohemia in the years 1906-8 was found -regularly to give rise to cases of lead poisoning from use of molten lead -in filling them with a view to shaping and bending. In lead pipe and -organ pipe works, lead burning, plumbing, &c., considerable risk is run. - -Often the causes of lead poisoning are difficult to discover, and, when -found, surprising. Thus shoemakers have suffered from holding leaden -nails in the mouth. Again, cases in women have been reported from cutting -out artificial flowers or paper articles with aid of lead patterns, or -counting stamps printed in lead colours.[8] - - -MERCURY - -As metallic mercury gives off vapour even at ordinary temperatures, -poisoning can occur not only in the recovery of the metal from the ore, -but also in all processes in which it is used. - -Chronic industrial poisoning occurs principally in the preparation and -use of mercury salts, in recovery of the metal itself and of other metals -with use of an amalgam, in water gilding, from use of nitrate of mercury -in the preparation of rabbit fur for felt hat making, from use of mercury -pumps in producing the vacuum in electric filament lamps, and in making -barometers and thermometers. - -PREPARATION.—Mercury is obtained by roasting cinnabar (sulphide of -mercury). When cinnabar is heated with access of air the sulphide burns -to sulphur dioxide and the mercury volatilises and is subsequently -condensed. Formerly the process was carried on in open hearths; now it -is done usually in blast furnaces. The mercury is condensed in Idria -in large chambers cooled with water, while at Almaden in Spain it is -collected in a series of small earthenware receptacles (aludels), from -small openings in which the mercury flows in gutters and collects. The -mercury so recovered is usually redistilled. - -On the walls of the condensers a deposit of sulphide and oxide of mercury -collects, removal of which is one of the operations most attended with -risk. - -Recovery of silver or gold by amalgamation with mercury is carried on -only in America. The metallic silver or gold is taken up by the mercury, -from which it is recovered by distillation. - -The conditions in the quicksilver mines of Idria in Austria have improved -of late years. Thus in the five years prior to 1886 of 500 cases of -illness more than 11 per cent. were due to chronic mercurial poisoning. -In 1906, 209 persons were employed, of whom only one-third were permanent -hands. Among these the sickness rate was very high (95-104 per cent.). -Of 741 cases of illness among the miners there were six of mercury -poisoning, and of 179 among persons employed in recovery of the metal, -twelve cases.[1] - -The conditions of employment in the cinnabar mines of Monte Amiata in -Italy have recently been described in detail.[2] Here, although the -recovery of the metal is carried out in modern furnaces, thus greatly -reducing the danger, nevertheless nearly all the furnace workers suffer -from chronic poisoning. - -In _silvering of mirrors_ the leaf of tinfoil was spread out on an -inclined table; mercury was poured over it and the sheet of glass laid -on the top with weights. The superfluous mercury was squeezed out and -ran away owing to the sloping position of the table. Now this process, -even in Fürth, is almost entirely replaced by the nitrate of silver and -ammonia process. Years ago the number of cases of poisoning was very -serious in places where, as in Fürth, the work was carried on as a home -industry. - -In the production of _incandescent electric bulbs_ danger arises from -breaking of the glass pipes of the pumps and scattering of mercury on -the floor of the workrooms. Since there is a growing tendency to replace -mercury pumps by air pumps such cases ought to become rare. - -In _water gilding_—a process little employed now—the metal objects -(military buttons, &c.) to be gilded, after treatment with a flux, are -brushed over with the mercury amalgam, and subsequently fired to drive -off the mercury. Unless careful provision is made to carry away the -vapour chronic poisoning cannot fail to occur. Even sweeps have been -affected after cleaning the chimneys of water gilders’ workshops. In -Great Britain, between 1899 and 1905, six cases were reported among water -gilders. - -In the _manufacture of barometers_ and thermometers mercury poisoning is -not infrequent. Between 1899 and 1905 sixteen such cases were reported in -England; during the same period there were seventeen cases among those -putting together electrical meters. - -Risk of mercurial poisoning is constantly present in _hatters’ furriers’ -processes_ and in subsequent processes in felt hat factories. The risk -from use of nitrate of mercury is considerable to those brushing the -rabbit skins with the solution (carotting), and subsequently drying, -brushing, cutting, locking, and packing them. According to Hencke in -100 kilos of the carotting liquid there are 20 kilos of mercury. In -England, in the years 1899-1905, thirteen cases of mercurial poisoning -were reported in hatters’ furriers’ processes. Among eighty-one persons -so employed the medical inspector found twenty-seven with very defective -teeth as the result of the employment, and seventeen with marked tremor. - -In the _manufacture of mercurial salts_ poisoning occurs chiefly when -they are made by sublimation, as in the manufacture of vermilion, of -corrosive sublimate (when mercurous sulphate is sublimed with salt), and -in the preparation of calomel (when sublimate ground with mercury or -mercurous sulphate mixed with mercury and salt is sublimed). Between 1899 -and 1905 in England seven cases were reported from chemical works. As -to occurrence of mercury poisoning from _fulminate of mercury_, see the -chapter on Explosives. - - -ARSENIC - -Chronic industrial _arsenical poisoning_, both as to origin and course, -is markedly different from the acute form. - -The chronic form arises mainly from inhalation of minute quantities of -metallic arsenic or its compounds in recovery from the ore, or from the -use of arsenic compounds in the manufacture of colours, in tanyards, and -in glass making. Acute industrial _arseniuretted hydrogen poisoning_ is -especially likely to occur where metals and acids react on one another -and either the metal or the acid contains arsenic in appreciable amount. -Further, arseniuretted hydrogen may be contained in gases given off in -smelting operations and in chemical processes. - -RECOVERY OF ARSENIC AND WHITE ARSENIC.—Pure arsenic is obtained from -native cobalt and arsenical pyrites by volatilisation on roasting the -ore in the absence of air. After the furnace has been charged sheet iron -condensing tubes are affixed to the mouths of the retorts, which project -out of the furnace, and to these again iron or earthenware prolongs. -Arsenic condenses on the sides of the sheet metal tubes and amorphous -arsenic, oxides, and sulphides in the prolongs. After sublimation has -been completed the contents of the prolongs are removed and used for -production of other arsenic compounds; the (generally) argentiferous -residues in the retorts are removed and further treated in silver -smelting works; finally, the crusts of crystalline arsenic (artificial -fly powder) are knocked out from the carefully unrolled sheet iron tubes. - -As can be readily understood from the description opportunity of -poisoning from volatilisation of arsenic and of arsenic compounds is -considerable. Metallic arsenic is used for making hard shot, and for -increasing the brilliancy and hardness of metal alloys (type metal, &c.). - -_White arsenic_ (arsenic trioxide) is obtained by roasting with access of -air in reverberatory furnaces arsenical ores and smelting residues. The -vapours of white arsenic sublime and are condensed as a powder in long -walled channels or in chambers, and are resublimed in iron cylinders. -White arsenic is used in making colours, in glass (for decolourising -purposes), as an insecticide in the stuffing of animals, &c. - -INDUSTRIAL ARSENIC POISONING.—In the _extraction of arsenic_ and -preparation of arsenious acid danger is present. But reliable accounts in -literature of poisoning among those engaged in arsenic works are wanting. - -Those engaged in roasting operations and packing suffer much from skin -affections. Similar poisoning is reported in the smelting of other -arsenical ores—nickel, cobalt, lead, copper, iron, and silver, from -arsenic compounds present in the fumes. This is especially the case in -the smelting of tin, which generally contains arsenical pyrites. - -Danger is present also in _unhairing_ (i.e. removing the wool from sheep -skins), since the skins imported from Buenos Aires and Monte Video are -treated with a preservative which, in addition to sodium nitrate, soda, -and potash, contains generally arsenious acid. - -In _tanneries_ a mixture of arsenic sulphide (realgar) and lime is used -for unhairing. Arsenic is used also for preserving and stuffing animal -furs; but although affections of the skin are described I cannot find -reference to arsenical poisoning. - -The inspector for East London in 1905 refers to severe eczematous -eruptions on face, neck, and hands, affecting workers in a _sheep dip_ -works—mainly in the packing of the light powder in packets. - -Formerly the use of arsenic in the manufacture of colours was great, -especially of _emerald (Schweinfurter) green_. This is made by dissolving -arsenious acid in potash with addition of acetate of copper. Drying and -grinding the material constitute the main danger. Scheele’s green is -another arsenical colour. - -Use of _arsenic colours_ is becoming less and less. But in colour -printing of paper and colouring of chalk they are still employed. They -are used, too, as mordants in dyeing, but cases of poisoning from these -sources in recent years are not to be found. - -The dust in many glass works contains, it is stated, as much as 1·5 per -cent of white arsenic. - -Despite the numerous opportunities for arsenical poisoning in industries -it is rare or, at any rate, is only rarely reported. - -ARSENIURETTED HYDROGEN POISONING.—Industrial poisoning from arseniuretted -hydrogen is caused mostly by inhalation of the gases developed by the -action on one another of acids and metals which contain arsenic. Hydrogen -gas as usually prepared for filling balloons gives occasion for poisoning. - -In Breslau in 1902 five workmen became affected, of whom three died from -inhalation of arseniuretted hydrogen gas in filling toy balloons.[1] - -Further, use of hydrogen in lead burning may expose to risk, and also -preparation of zinc chloride flux. - -Of thirty-nine recorded cases of arseniuretted hydrogen poisoning twelve -were chemists, eleven workers filling toy balloons, seven aniline -workers, five lead smelters, three balloonists, and in one the origin -could not be traced. Nineteen of these proved fatal within from three to -twenty-four days.[2] - -Cases are recorded (1) in the reduction of nitroso-methylaniline with -zinc and hydrochloric acid; (2) in the preparation of zinc chloride from -zinc ashes and hydrochloric acid; (3) from manufacture of zinc sulphate -from crude sulphuric acid and zinc dust; (4) in spelter works in the -refining of silver from the zinc crust with impure hydrochloric acid; and -(5) in the formation room of accumulator factories. - -The English factory inspectors’ report describes in 1906 occurrence -of three cases in an electrolytic process for the recovery of copper -in which the copper dissolved in sulphuric acid was deposited at the -cathode, and hydrogen at the lead anode. In the 1907 report mention is -made of two cases, one affecting a chemist separating bismuth from a -solution of bismuth chloride in hydrochloric acid, and the other (which -proved fatal) a man who had cleaned a vitriol tank. - -The poisoning resulting from ferro-silicon is in part referable to -development of arseniuretted hydrogen gas. - - -ANTIMONY - -It seems doubtful if industrial poisoning can really be traced to -antimony or its compounds; generally the arsenic present with the -antimony is at fault. Erben[1] considers that industrial antimony -poisoning occurs among workmen employed in smelting antimony alloys in -making tartar emetic through inhalation of fumes of oxide of antimony. - -A case is cited of a workman in Hamburg engaged in pulverising pure -antimony who was attacked with vomiting which lasted for several days, -and the inspector of factories noted epistaxis (nose bleeding) and -vomiting as following on the crushing of antimony ore. - -Compositors in addition to chronic lead poisoning may suffer, it is -alleged, from chronic antimony poisoning, showing itself in diminution -in the number of white blood corpuscles and marked eosinophilia. These -changes in the blood could be brought about experimentally in rabbits. -Antimony was found by the Marsh test in the stools of those affected. - - -IRON - -_Pig iron_ is obtained by smelting iron ores in blast furnaces (fig. 29), -through the upper opening of which charges of ore, limestone or similar -material to act as a flux, and coke are fed in succession. The furnaces -are worked continuously, using a blast of heated air; carbon monoxide is -produced and effects the reduction of the ore to molten iron. The latter -accumulates in the hearth and is covered with molten slag; this flows -constantly away through an opening and is collected in slag bogies for -removal, or is sometimes cooled in water. - -The crude iron is tapped from time to time, and is led in a fluid -condition into moulds called ‘pigs,’ in which it solidifies. Cast iron is -occasionally used direct from the blast furnace for the purpose of making -rough castings, but generally it is further refined before being used in -a foundry by remelting with cast iron scrap in a cupola furnace. - -[Illustration: FIG. 29. - -_a_ Hearth; _b_ Bosh; _c_ Shaft; _d_ Gas uptake; _e_ Down-comer; _f_ -Tuyères with water cooling arrangement; _g_ Blast pipes; _h_ Tapping -hole; _k_ Supporting columns; _l_ Furnace bottom; _m_ Charging hopper; -_n_ Bell with raising and lowering arrangement.] - -_Wrought iron_ is made by treating pig iron in refinery and puddling -furnaces; in these much of the carbon is removed as carbon monoxide, and -from the puddling furnace the iron is obtained as a pasty mass which can -be worked into bars, rods, or plates. - -_Steel_ is made in various ways. The Acid Bessemer process consists in -forcing compressed air in numerous small streams through molten cast -iron, in iron vessels (converters) which are lined with ganister, a -silicious sandstone. These can be rotated on trunnions. Basic Bessemer -steel is made in similar converters by the Thomas-Gilchrist or basic -process, which can be applied to pig irons containing phosphorus. The -latter is removed by giving the converter a basic lining of calcined -magnesium limestone mixed with tar. - -In the _Martin_ process steel is obtained by melting together pig iron -with steel scrap, wrought iron scrap, &c., on the hearth of a Siemens -regenerative furnace with a silicious lining. - -In iron smelting the most important danger is from _blast furnace -gas_ rich in carbonic oxide. Sulphur dioxide, hydrocyanic acid, and -arseniuretted hydrogen gas may possibly be present. - -When work was carried out in blast furnaces with open tops the workers -engaged in charging ran considerable risk. But as the blast furnace gas -is rich in carbonic oxide and has high heating capacity these gases -are now always led off and utilised; the charging point is closed by a -cup (Parry’s cup and cone charger) and only opened from time to time -mechanically, when the workers retire so far from the opening as to be -unaffected by the escaping gas. The gas is led away (fig. 29) through a -side opening into special gas mains, is subjected to a purifying process -in order to rid it of flue dust, and then used to heat the blast, fire -the boilers, or drive gas engines. - -Severe blast furnace gas poisoning, however, does occur in entering the -mains for cleaning purposes. Numerous cases of the kind are quoted in the -section on Carbonic oxide poisoning. - -The gases evolved on tapping and slag running can also act injuriously, -and unpleasant emanations be given off in granulating the slag (by -receiving the fluid slag in water). - -In the puddling process much carbonic oxide is present. Other processes, -however, can scarcely give rise to poisoning. - -The _basic slag_ produced in the Thomas-Gilchrist process is a valuable -manure on account of the phosphorus it contains; it is ground in -edge runners, and then reduced to a very fine dust in mills and -disintegrators. This dust has a corrosive action already referred to in -the chapter on Phosphorus and Artificial Manures. - -The poisoning caused by _ferro-silicon_ is of interest. Iron with high -proportion of silicon has been made in recent years on a large scale -for production of steel. Some 4000 tons of ferro-silicon are annually -exported to Great Britain from France and Germany. It is made by -melting together iron ore, quartz, coke, and lime (as flux) at very -high temperature in electrical furnaces. The coke reduces the quartz -and ore to silicon and metal with the production of ferro-silicon. -Certain grades, namely those with about 50 per cent. silicon, have -the property of decomposing or disintegrating into powder on exposure -for any length of time to the air, with production of very poisonous -gases containing phosphoretted and arseniuretted hydrogen. The iron and -quartz often contain phosphates, which in presence of carbon and at the -high temperature of the electrical furnace would no doubt be converted -into phosphides combining with the lime to form calcium phosphide; -similarly any arsenic present would yield calcium arsenide. These -would be decomposed in presence of water and evolve phosphoretted and -arseniuretted hydrogen gas. In addition to its poisonous properties it -has also given rise to explosions. - -[In January 1905 fifty steerage passengers were made seriously ill and -eleven of them died. In 1907 five passengers died on a Swedish steamer -as the result of poisonous gases given off from ferro-silicon, and -more recently five lives were lost on the steamer _Aston_ carrying -the material from Antwerp to Grimsby.[C] This accident led to full -investigation of the subject by Dr. Copeman, F.R.S., one of the Medical -Inspectors of the Local Government Board, Mr. S. R. Bennett, one of H.M. -Inspectors of Factories, and Dr. Wilson Hake, Ph.D., F.I.C., in which the -conclusions arrived at are summarised as follows: - - 1. Numerous accidents, fatal and otherwise, have been caused - within the last few years by the escape of poisonous and - explosive gases from consignments of ferro-silicon, which, - in every instance, have been found to consist of so-called - high-grade ferro-silicon, produced in the electric furnace. - - 2. These accidents, for the most part, have occurred during - transport of the ferro-silicon by water, whether in sea-going - vessels or in barges and canal-boats plying on inland waters. - - 3. These accidents have occurred in various countries and on - vessels of different nationalities, while the ferro-silicon - carried has, in almost every instance, been the product of a - different manufactory. - - 4. Ferro-silicon, especially of grades containing from 40 per - cent. to 60 per cent. of silicon, is invariably found to evolve - considerable quantities of phosphoretted hydrogen gas, and, in - less amount, of arseniuretted hydrogen, both of which are of a - highly poisonous nature. A certain amount of the gas evolved - is present, as such, in the alloy, being ‘occluded’ in minute - spaces with which its substance is often permeated. - - 5. As the result of careful investigation, it has been - shown that certain grades of ferro-silicon—notably such as - contain about 33 per cent., 50 per cent., and 60 per cent. of - silicon—even when manufactured from fairly pure constituents, - are both brittle and liable to disintegrate spontaneously, this - latter characteristic being apt to be specially marked in the - case of the 50 per cent. grade. - - All these grades are commonly employed at the present time. - - 6. In the event of disintegration occurring, the amount of - surface exposed will, obviously, be greater than if the mass - were solid. - - 7. Evolution of poisonous gases is greatly increased by the - action of moisture, or of moist air, under the influence - of which phosphoretted hydrogen is generated from calcium - phosphide, which, in turn, is formed, in large part, at any - rate, from the calcium phosphate present in anthracite and - quartz, at the high temperature of the electric furnace. If - spontaneous disintegration of the alloy also occurs, much - larger quantities of gas would be given off from such friable - and unstable material, other conditions being equal. The - greater or less tendency of a given sample to evolve poisonous - gases, and even a rough estimate of their probable amount may - be arrived at by the use of test-papers prepared with silver - nitrate. - - 8. There is no evidence that low-grade ferro-silicon (10 to - 15 per cent.), produced in the blast-furnace, has ever given - rise to accidents of similar character to those known to have - been caused by the high-grade electrically produced alloy. - Blast-furnace ferro-silicon does not evolve poisonous gases - even in presence of moisture. - - 9. As regards ferro-silicon produced in the electric furnace, - the evidence available goes to show that certain percentage - grades are practically quite innocuous. This statement applies - to grades of alloy of a silicon content up to and including - 30 per cent., and probably also, though in considerably less - degree, to those of 70 per cent. and over. - - 10. In view of the fact that the use of ferro-silicon of grades - ranging between 30 per cent. and 70 per cent. apparently is - not essential in metallurgical operations, with the possible - exception of basic steel manufacture, it will be advisable that - the production of this alloy of grades ranging between these - percentages should be discontinued in the future. - - 11. The proprietors of iron and steel works making use - of ferro-silicon will assist in the protection of their - workpeople, and at the same time act for the public benefit by - restricting their orders to grades of this material, either - not exceeding 30 per cent., or of 70 per cent. and upwards, - according to the special nature of their requirements. - - 12. But as, pending international agreement on the question, - intermediate percentages of ferro-silicon will doubtless - continue to be manufactured and sold, the issue, by the Board - of Trade, of special regulations will be necessary in order to - obviate, so far as may be possible, chance of further accidents - during the transport of this substance. - - _Inter alia_, these regulations should require a declaration - of the nature, percentage, date of manufacture, and place of - origin of any such consignment. - -The suggested regulations are printed on p. 291.] - - -ZINC - -Industrial poisoning from zinc is unknown. The chronic zinc poisoning -among spelter workers described by Schlockow with nervous symptoms is -undoubtedly to be attributed to lead. - - -COPPER: BRASS - -_Occurrence of brass-founder’s ague._—Opinion is divided as to whether -pure copper is poisonous or not. Lehmann has at any rate shown -experimentally that as an industrial poison it is without importance. - -Occurrence, however, of brass-founder’s ague is undoubtedly frequent. -Although neither pure zinc nor pure copper give rise to poisoning, yet -the pouring of brass (an alloy of zinc and copper) sets up a peculiar -train of symptoms. As the symptoms are transient, and medical attendance -is only very rarely sought after, knowledge of its frequency is difficult -to obtain. - -Sigel,[1] who has experimented on himself, believes that the symptoms -result from inhalation of superheated zinc fumes. In large well-appointed -brass casting shops (as in those of Zeiss in Jena) incidence is rare. - -Lehmann[2] very recently has expressed his decided opinion that -brass-founder’s ague is a zinc poisoning due to inhalation of zinc -oxide and not zinc fumes. This conclusion he came to as the result of -experiments on a workman predisposed to attacks of brass-founder’s ague. -Lehmann’s surmise is that the symptoms are due to an auto-intoxication -from absorption of dead epithelial cells lining the respiratory tract, -the cells having been destroyed by inhalation of the zinc oxide. He found -that he could produce typical symptoms in a worker by inhalation of the -fumes given off in burning pure zinc. - -_Metal pickling._—The object of metal dipping is to give metal objects, -especially of brass (buckles, lamps, electric fittings, candlesticks, -&c.), a clean or mat surface and is effected by dipping in baths of -nitric, hydrochloric, or sulphuric acid. Generally after dipping in -the dilute bath the articles go for one or two minutes into strong -acid, from which injurious fumes, especially nitrous fumes, develop -with occasionally fatal effect (see the chapter on Nitric Acid). -Unfortunately, there are no references in the literature of the subject -as to the frequency of such attacks. - -Recovery of gold and silver has been already referred to in the chapters -on Mercury, Lead, and Cyanogen. - -Mention must be made of _argyria_. This is not poisoning in the proper -sense of the word, as injury to health is hardly caused. Argyria results -from absorption of small doses of silver salts which, excreted in the -form of reduced metallic silver, give the skin a shiny black colour. -Cases are most frequently seen in silverers of glass pearls who do the -work by suction. Local argyria has been described by Lewin in silvering -of mirrors and in photographers. - - - - -III. OCCURRENCE OF INDUSTRIAL POISONING IN VARIOUS INDUSTRIES - - -The most important facts have now been stated as to the occurrence of -poisoning in industry, and there remain only a few gaps to fill in and to -survey briefly the risks in certain important groups of industry. - - -TREATMENT OF STONE AND EARTHS - -Lime Burning: Glass Industry - -Lead poisoning in the ceramic industry (earthenware, porcelain, glass, -polishing of precious stones, &c.) has been dealt with in detail in the -chapter on Lead. There is further the possibility of chrome-ulceration, -of arsenic poisoning, and conceivably also of manganese. Further, -poisoning by _carbonic oxide_ and carbon dioxide may occur from the -escape of furnace gases where hygienic conditions are bad. In charging -lime kilns poisoning by carbonic oxide has occurred. The report of the -Union of Chemical Industry in 1906 describes the case of a workman who -was assisting in filling the kiln with limestone. As the furnace door -was opened for the purpose gas escaped in such amount as to render him -unconscious. He was picked up thirty minutes later, but efforts at -resuscitation failed. - -Carbonic oxide poisoning, again, may arise from the use of Siemens -regenerative furnaces, especially glass furnaces: details are given in -the chapter on Illuminating Gas. - -_Hydrofluoric acid_ is present as an industrial poison in _glass etching_ -(see Fluorine Compounds). Persons employed in this process suffer from -inflammation of the respiratory tract and ulceration of the skin of the -hands. I could not find any precise statement as to the frequency of the -occurrence of such injuries. Use of sand-blasting to roughen the surface -of glass has to some extent taken the place of etching by hydrofluoric -acid. - - -TREATMENT OF ANIMAL PRODUCTS - -In _tanning_ use of arsenic compounds for detaching the wool from skins -and of gas lime for getting rid of hair may cause injury to health. With -the latter there is possibility of the action of cyanogen compounds (see -the chapters on Arsenic and Cyanogen). - - -PREPARATION OF VEGETABLE FOOD STUFFS AND THE LIKE - -In _fermentation_ processes as in breweries and the sugar industry -accumulations of carbonic acid gas occur, and suffocation from this -source has been repeatedly described. Mention in this connection -should be made of the use of salufer containing some 2 per cent. of -silicofluoric acid as a preservative and antiseptic in beer brewing. In -the _sulphuring_ of hops, wine, &c., the workers may run risk from the -injurious action of sulphur dioxide. _Arsenic_ in the sulphuric acid -used for the production of _dextrine_ may set up industrial poisoning. -Poisoning from _ammonia_ gas can occur in _cold storage_ premises. -Industrial poisoning from tobacco is not proved, but the injurious effect -of the aroma and dust of tobacco—especially in women—in badly arranged -tobacco factories is probable. - - -WOOD WORKING - -_Injurious woods._—In recent literature there are several interesting -references to injury to health from certain poisonous kinds of wood—skin -affections in workers manipulating satinwood, and affections of the heart -and general health in workers making shuttles of African boxwood. Details -of these forms of poisoning are reported from England and Bavaria. The -wood used for making the shuttles was West African boxwood (Gonioma -Kamassi). It appears that the wood contains an alkaloidal poison which -affects the heart’s action. The workers suffered from headache, feeling -of sleepiness, lachrymation, coryza, difficulty of breathing, nausea, and -weakness. Four workers had to give up the work because of the difficulty -in breathing. Inquiry was made by Dr. John Hay of Liverpool in 1908 and -by the medical inspector of factories in 1905. The following table shows -the symptoms found: - - +----------------------+-----------------------------------+ - | | Persons Examined. | - | +-----------------+-----------------+ - | Symptoms. | 1905. | 1907-1908. | - | +-------+---------+-------+---------+ - | |Number.|Per cent.|Number.|Per Cent.| - | (1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | (5) | - +----------------------+-------+---------+-------+---------+ - |Headache | 27 | 24·1 | 18 | 22·8 | - |Feeling of somnolence | 10 | 9·0 | 17 | 21·5 | - |Running of eyes | 13 | 11·6 | 9 | 11·3 | - |Running of nose | 28 | 25·0 | 20 | 28·0 | - |Breathing affected | 34 | 30·4 | 13 | 16·4 | - |Nausea or sickness | 13 | 11·6 | 3 | 3·8 | - |Faintness or weakness | 11 | 9·6 | 1 | 1·2 | - +----------------------+-------+---------+-------+---------+ - -The later inquiry shows considerable diminution in the amount of -complaint as to respiratory trouble. This may have been due to the -improved conditions of working, freely acknowledged by the men. Men were -examined who had complained of the effects of the wood in 1905, and had -continued uninterruptedly at the same kind of work during the interval -without any obvious further injury to their health, although they -preferred working on other woods. - -East Indian boxwood had to be discarded in the shuttle trade owing to -its irritant action on the eyes. Sabicu wood from Cuba was stated to -give off ‘a snuffy dust under the machine and hand planes, the effect of -which upon the worker is to cause a running at the eyes and nose, and a -general feeling of cold in the head. The symptoms pass off in an hour or -so after discontinuance of work.’ Reference was made in the report for -1906 to eczematous eruptions produced by so-called Borneo rosewood, a -wood used owing to its brilliant colour and exquisite grain in fret-saw -work. The Director of the Imperial Institute experimented with this wood, -but failed to discover injurious properties in it. At the same time -experiments with the wood and sawdust of East and West Indian satinwood -were undertaken, but also without result. - -From inquiries subsequently made it appeared that much confusion existed -as to the designation ‘satinwood,’ as under this name were classed both -East and West Indian satinwood and also satin walnut. The evidence was -clear that East Indian satinwood was more irritating than West Indian. -Satin walnut wood is apparently harmless. In the shipbuilding yards of -East London, Glasgow, and Bristol affections of the skin were recognised, -but susceptibility to the wood varied. One man asserted that merely -laying a shaving on the back of his hand would produce a sore place. The -injurious effects here seem to disappear quickly. Exhaust ventilation is -applied, but there is a tendency to give up the use of the wood. - -Isolated cases of illness have been ascribed to working teak and olive -wood. In Sheffield the following are held to be irritating: ebony, -magenta rosewood, West Indian boxwood, cocos wood. Some kinds of mahogany -are said to affect the eyes and nose. - -Use of methylated spirit in polishing furniture is said to lead to injury -to health although not to set up actual poisoning. Lead poisoning can -occur from the sand-papering of coats of paint applied to wood. - -In impregnating wood with creosote and tar the effects on the skin noted -in the chapter on Tar are observed. - - -TEXTILE INDUSTRY - -In getting rid of the grease from animal wool carbon bisulphide or -_benzine_ may be used. - -The process of _carbonising_ in the production of shoddy may give rise to -injury to health from acid fumes. Lead poisoning used to be caused by the -knocking together of the leaden weights attached to the Jacquard looms. -This is a thing of the past, as now iron weights are universal. - -Opportunity for lead poisoning is given in the weighting of -yarn—especially of silk with lead compounds. - -In _bleaching_ use of chlorine and sulphur dioxide has to be borne in -mind. - -In _chemical cleaning_ poisoning by benzine may occur. - -In _dyeing_ and _printing_ use of poisonous colours is lessening, as -they have been supplanted by aniline colours. On occurrence of aniline -poisoning in aniline black dyeing see the section on Aniline. Use of lead -colours and of chromate of lead are dealt with in special sections. - - - - -PART II - -_THE SYMPTOMS AND TREATMENT OF INDUSTRIAL POISONING_ - - -In this section the most important diseases and symptoms of industrial -poisoning will be described. In doing this—considering the mainly -practical purpose of this book—theoretical toxicological details and any -full discussion of disputed scientific points will be omitted. - - - - -I. INTRODUCTORY - - -Hitherto in this book we have intentionally followed the inductive -method, from the particular to the general: we began by citing a -number of important instances of industrial poisoning, but only now -will endeavour be made to give a definition of the terms ‘poison’ and -‘poisoning.’ - -Attempts at such definitions are numerous; every old and new text-book -of toxicology contains them. A few only hold good for our purpose. It -is characteristic that Lewin, after attempting a definition of the -conception ‘poisoning,’ himself rejects it and declares that he can see -no practical disadvantage in the impossibility of defining this notion, -because deductions based upon the knowledge of undoubted cases can never -be dispensed with, even if a definition were possible: one justification -the more for our inductive method. - -But we will not quite dispense with a definition. - -_Poisons are certain substances which are able chemically to act on an -organism in such a way as to effect a permanent or transient injury to -its organs and functions; an injury consequently to the health and -well-being of the person affected; this injury we call poisoning._ - -In the present book we have refrained from including industrial -infections among industrial poisonings, and the subject has been limited -to poisoning in the restricted and current sense of the word. - -An industrial poison is a poison employed, produced, or somehow -occasioned in industrial occupation, which is brought about -inadvertently, and consequently against the will of the person poisoned. - -From a simple survey of the action of industrial poisons in general we -may group them as follows: - - 1. Poisons which act _superficially_, i.e. which cause in the - organs which they touch gross anatomical lesions (irritation, - corrosion, &c.)—so-called contact-effect. To this class belong - especially irritant and corrosive poisons. - - 2. _Blood_ poisons, i.e. poisons which are absorbed by the - blood and change it; this change can affect either the blood - colouring-matter, with which certain poisons form chemical - compounds, or the blood corpuscles themselves can be altered or - destroyed (for instance, poisons having a hæmolytic action). - - 3. Poisons with definite _internal_ action, so-called remote or - specific effect. To this class belong the poisons which, after - being absorbed into the system, act upon definite organs or - tissues in a specific manner (nerve poisons, heart poisons, &c.). - -It is indeed possible for one and the same poison to display two or all -three of these modes of action. - -The effect of poison depends upon an interaction of the poison and the -organism, or its single organs. Selection as regards quality and quantity -is a property of the organism as well as of the poison: the nature and -amount of the poison taken in are determining factors on the one side, -and on the other the constitution, size, and weight of the affected -organism. The chemical constitution of the poisonous substance determines -the qualitative property of the poison. - -Further, certain physical properties of the poison determine its action, -especially its form, solubility in water, and its power of dissolving -fat. These affect its susceptibility to absorption, to which point we -shall return shortly; the hygroscopic capacity of a poison produces a -highly irritant and corrosive action. - -Industrial poisons can be absorbed (1) as solid substances, (2) as -liquids, and (3) as gases. Since industrial poisoning, as defined -above, is of course neither desired nor intended by the sufferer, who -unsuspectingly takes into his system poison used or developed in the -factory, solid substances in finely divided condition—in the form of -dust—can be considered as industrial poisons. Accordingly, industrial -poisons can be classed as due to dust, gases, and liquids. - -The poison may be introduced into the body through the functional -activity of the organism by the lungs or alimentary tract, or it may -penetrate the uninjured or injured surface of the skin. - -Industrial poisons which contaminate the air of the factory are -inhaled—these are consequently either poisonous dusts or gases and -vapours. - -As a rule, only industrial poisons in a liquid form enter through the -skin, which may be either intact or wounded; gaseous poisons seldom do; -poisons in the form of fat or dust can only pass through the skin after -they have been first dissolved by the secretions of the skin or of a -wound, so that they come to be absorbed in solution. Most frequently -those liquid poisons which are capable of dissolving the fat of the skin -are thus absorbed, and next, such liquids as have a corrosive effect, -breaking down the resistance of the skin covering and producing an -inflamed raw surface. But such poisons much more easily enter through the -mucous membrane, as this naturally offers a much weaker resistance than -the skin. - -From a quantitative point of view it is especially the amount of poison -actively assimilated which determines the effect. Every poison is without -effect if assimilated in correspondingly small quantities. There is -consequently a minimum poisonous dose, after which the poison begins to -act; but this minimum dose can only be ascertained and specified when the -qualitative properties and the weight of the organism are also taken -into consideration; it has therefore a relative value. The strongest -effect which a poison is able to produce is the destruction of the life -functions of the organism, the fatal effect. This fatal dose, however, -can only be determined relatively to the qualities of the organism in -question. - -Not only is the absolute quality of the poison of decisive significance, -but the degree of concentration often influences its action, that is -to say, the greater or less amount of effective poison contained in -the substance conveying it into the organism; concentration plays an -important part in many industrial poisons, especially, as is obvious, in -corrosive poisons. - -A further important point is the time which it takes to absorb the -poison. The action of the poison—the whole expression of the symptoms of -poisoning—is essentially influenced by this fact. - -Usually gradual and repeated absorption of small quantities produces slow -onset of symptoms, while sudden absorption of larger quantities of poison -brings about rapid onset of illness. In the former case the poisoning -is called _chronic_, in the latter, _acute_. Acute industrial poisoning -is sometimes so sudden that the affected person cannot withdraw himself -in time from the influence of the poison, nor prevent its entrance in -considerable quantities into his system; this is often caused by the -fact that the effect of the poison is so rapid that he is often suddenly -deprived of power to move or of consciousness, and remains then exposed -to the action of the poison until help comes. Such accidents are mostly -caused by poisonous gases. Occasionally also considerable quantities of -poison enter quite unnoticed into the body, such as odourless poisonous -gases in breathing, or poisonous liquids through the skin. In chronic -industrial poisoning unsuspected accumulation of poison takes place, -until symptoms of illness ultimately reveal themselves; as the first -stages of poisoning are not recognised in time by the person affected, -he continues exposed to the influence of the poison for weeks, months, -even years, until the chronic effect has reached its full development and -becomes obvious. Such insidious industrial poisoning arises through the -continual absorption into the lungs or stomach of small quantities of -poisonous dust, gases, and vapours, during constant or frequent work in -an atmosphere containing such gases; poisonous liquids also, by soiling -hands and food, or by penetrating the skin, can produce slow industrial -poisoning. - -Industrial poisoning which in respect of its duration stands midway -between acute and chronic is called sub-acute poisoning. This usually -means that more frequent absorption of greater quantities of poison has -taken place, though not in doses large enough to produce an immediately -acute effect. This is important legally because industrial poisonings -caused through the sudden absorption of poison in sufficient quantity -to act immediately or to bring about subsequent symptoms of poisoning, -are reckoned as accidents. Thus acute and many sub-acute industrial -poisonings are accounted accidents. Chronic industrial poisonings, -acquired gradually, count as illnesses. But as in certain cases it -cannot be decided whether sudden or gradual absorption of the industrial -poison is in question, this distinction is an unnatural one. It is also -unnatural in the legal sense, for there is often no material reason for -regarding as legally distinct cases of chronic and acute industrial -poisoning. To this we shall refer later in discussing the question of -insurance against industrial poisoning. - -We have from the outset assumed that the effect of the poison depends -not only on the nature of the poison itself, but also on that of the -organism, considered both quantitatively and qualitatively. - -Significant in a quantitative respect is the body weight of the organism, -and the fatal dose of the poison must be ascertained and stated in -connection with the body weight, calculated as a rule per kilo of the -live weight. - -The qualitative point of view must reckon with the differing -susceptibility of organisms for poison. This varying susceptibility to -the action of poison, the causes of which are very obscure, is called -disposition. - -Different species (of animals and men) exhibit often very different -degrees of susceptibility towards one and the same poison; the -differences in this respect are often very considerable, and one cannot -simply transfer the experience experimentally gained from one species of -animal to man or another species of animal, without further experiment. -Besides disposition, sex, and still more age, often determine within the -same species marked difference of susceptibility to a poison. Further, -there is an individual disposition due to qualities peculiar to the -individual, which makes some persons more than usually immune and others -specially susceptible. Individuals weakened by illness are particularly -susceptible to poisoning. Two diseases, in especial, favour the operation -of poison, influencing disastrously the capacity for assimilating -food, and reducing the general resisting power of the body; of these -tuberculosis stands first. - -Individual disposition plays in industrial poisoning a part which must -not be under-estimated; it determines the possibility of acclimatisation -to a poison; some individuals capable of resistance habituate -themselves—often comparatively easily—to a poison, and become, up to a -certain limit, immune against it, that is, they can tolerate a quantity -which would be injurious to others not so accustomed. With other -individuals, however, the opposite effect is apparent. Repeated exposure -to the action of the poison leads to an increased susceptibility, so -that acclimatisation is not possible. Innate hyper-sensitiveness of the -individual towards a poison is called idiosyncrasy. Frequently, for -example, this quality shows itself as hyper-sensitiveness of the skin -towards the harmful action of certain poisons. A marked lowering in the -sensitiveness, innate or acquired, of the organism towards a poison is -called immunity. - -The possibility of the absorption and action of a poison -presupposes—speaking generally—its solubility, and indeed its solubility -in the body juices. - -In general, poison can be absorbed at very different points of the body; -so far as industrial poisons are concerned, these are the mucous membrane -of the respiratory passages, the mucous membrane of the digestive tract, -and the skin, intact or broken. The rapidity of absorption depends on the -nature of the poison, of the individual, and the channel of absorption. -Of industrial poisons gases are relatively the most quickly absorbed; -sometimes indeed so swiftly that the effect follows almost immediately. - -Elimination of industrial poisons is effected principally by the -kidneys, the intestinal canal, the respiratory organs, and, more rarely, -the skin. Rapidity of elimination also depends on the nature of the -poison and of the person poisoned. - -If elimination is insufficient, or absorption takes place more quickly -than excretion, the poison accumulates in the body, and has a cumulative -effect which in chronic industrial poisonings plays a very important -rôle. Under certain circumstances poisons are not thrown off, but stored -up—fixed—in the body. - -The poison absorbed in the body can act unchanged from the place where it -is stored. A number of poisons, however, undergo in the organism chemical -change through which the action of the poison is partly lessened, -rarely increased. Among such changes and weakening of the poison are: -oxidation, as, for example, of organic poisons into their final products -(carbonic acid, water, &c.), oxidation of benzene into phenol, oxidation -of sulphur dioxide into sulphuric acid, &c.; reduction in the case of -metals, peroxides, &c.; neutralisation of acids by alkaline juices; -chemical union (for instance, of aromatic compounds with sulphuric acid). -The splitting up of albuminous bodies is not of importance in regard to -industrial poisons. - - -GENERAL REMARKS ON THE TREATMENT OF INDUSTRIAL POISONINGS - -Although in industrial poisoning the importance of treatment is small in -comparison with that of preventive measures, in discussing particular -forms of poisoning, full weight must be given to it; and in order to -avoid repetition, certain points will be brought forward here. - -Of the treatment of chronic industrial poisonings not much in general can -be said; unfortunately, special treatment has often little chance. It -will usually be of advantage to maintain the activity of the excretory -organs. So far as there is question of poisons affecting metabolism and -injuriously influencing the general state of nutrition, treatment aiming -at improving the general health and strength offers hope of success. -For nervous symptoms, especially paralysis, disturbance in sensation, -&c., treatment generally suitable to nervous diseases can be tried -(electro-therapeutics, baths, &c.). In treatment of acute industrial -poisonings, which often demand the prompt intervention of laymen, ‘first -aid’ is more hopeful. - -The most important general rules of treatment arise in reference to -irritant poisons which produce ulceration of the skin, and further in -regard to those poisons which cause unconsciousness, especially blood -poisons. - -When an irritant poison is acting on the skin, the first object to be -aimed at is naturally the immediate removal of the cause of corrosion -by water, or, better still, neutralisation by an alkaline solution (for -example, soda solution) in the case of corrosive acids, and weak acids -(organic acids, acetic acid, citric acid) in the case of caustic action -by alkalis. Such remedies must be at hand in factories as part of the -equipment for first aid, where irritant poisonings can occur. - -In those industrial poisonings which result in loss of consciousness, -arrest of respiration and suffocation, attempts at resuscitation should -at once be made. In these attempts at resuscitation, _artificial -respiration_ is of the greatest importance; of course the sufferer must -first be withdrawn from the influence of the poison, i.e. be brought into -fresh air. Great care must be taken, especially where it is necessary to -enter places filled with a poisonous atmosphere, to prevent the rescuers, -as is often the case, themselves falling victims to the influence of the -poison. They should be provided with suitable smoke helmets or breathing -apparatus. - -We will not describe the methods of resuscitation and artificial -respiration universally enjoined; they can be found in every first-aid -handbook. - -Emphasis is laid on the great importance of _treatment by oxygen_ in -cases of industrial poisoning through gaseous blood poisons, as this -treatment is attended with good results. Apparatus for the administration -of oxygen should be kept wherever there exists the possibility of such -poisoning, especially in mines, smelting works, chemical factories, and -chemical laboratories. - -Oxygen treatment rests on the fact that by raising the pressure of the -oxygen from 113 mm., as it is generally in ordinary air, to 675 mm., -which is reached in presence of pure oxygen, the quantity of oxygen -absorbed in the blood rises from 0·3 to 1·8 per 100 c.c. Further, -the saturation of the hæmoglobin, the colouring matter of the blood, -undergoes an increase of 2·4 per cent. This increase of oxygen in the -blood can save life in cases where through poisoning a deficiency of -oxygen has resulted. - -The introduction of oxygen is done by special apparatus which acts -essentially on the principle that during inhalation oxygen is pressed -into the lungs which are below normal physiological pressure, while -exhalation is effected by a deflating arrangement when the poisoned -individual no longer breathes of his own accord. When natural breathing -begins, the introduction of oxygen without special apparatus generally -suffices. - -[Illustration: FIG. 30.—Dräger’s Oxygen Box - -I Oxygen cylinder; A Valve on cylinder; B Manometer; C Key for opening -and closing the flow of oxygen; F Economiser; H Facepiece.] - -Dräger’s _oxygen apparatus_ (fig. 30) consists of a small oxygen cylinder -provided with a closing valve, a small manometer, a so-called ‘automatic’ -reducing valve with an arrangement for opening and closing the oxygen -supply, a bag to act as a receiver or economiser, a breathing mask, and -a metal tube connecting the breathing mask with the other parts of the -apparatus. The oxygen cylinder, when filled, contains about 180 litres of -oxygen, and the manometer allows the manipulator to control at any time -whatever oxygen it still contains. The automatic arrangement not only -reduces the pressure but at the same time controls the supply of oxygen. -This dose is fixed at three litres of oxygen per minute, so that the -apparatus with the same oxygen cylinder will last for sixty minutes. The -oxygen is not inhaled pure, but is mixed with atmospheric air according -to need, and in order to make this possible the breathing mask is -provided with a small hole through which atmospheric air finds entrance. - -[Illustration: FIG. 31.—Oxygen Inhaling Apparatus] - -[Illustration: FIG. 32.—Showing apparatus in use (_Siebe, Gorman & Co._)] - -As the oxygen flows continuously from the cylinder waste during -exhalation is prevented by the economiser, in which, during exhalation, -the inflowing oxygen accumulates, to be absorbed again in inhalation. A -small relief valve in the screw head of the bag prevents the entrance -into it of exhaled air. - -[Illustration: FIG. 33.—Dräger’s Pulmotor (_R. Jacobson_)] - -Another oxygen inhaling apparatus for resuscitating purposes, that of -Siebe, Gorman & Co., is illustrated in figs. 31 and 32. - -Dräger also constructs an apparatus called the ‘Pulmotor’ which -simultaneously accomplishes the introduction of oxygen and artificial -respiration. - -Inflation and deflation are effected by an injector driven by compressed -oxygen; this alternately drives fresh air enriched with oxygen into the -lungs and then by suction empties them again. While with the mechanical -appliances of resuscitation belonging to older systems the hand of the -helper regulated the rate of breathing, in the case of the Pulmotor -the lungs, according to their size, automatically fix the rate of -breathing; as soon as the lungs are filled the apparatus of its own -accord marks the moment for ‘deflation,’ and as soon as they are emptied -of ‘inflation.’ This automatic reversal is effected by a little bellows -which is connected with the air tubes. During inflation the same pressure -is exerted in the bellows as in the lungs. As soon as the lungs are -filled, the pressure in the bellows increases and it expands, its forward -movement causing the reversal to deflation. When the lungs are emptied -the bellows contracts, and through this contraction results the reversal -to inflation. - -If, in an exceptional case, the breathing for some reason does not act -automatically, the hand of the helper can manipulate it by means of a -backward and forward movement of a lever. According to choice, either a -nose-mask or a mask covering both mouth and nose can be worn. - -Combined with the regular apparatus for resuscitation is an ordinary -apparatus for the inhalation of oxygen; by the simple altering of a -lever, either the one or the other can be employed. - - - - -II. INDUSTRIAL POISONING IN PARTICULAR INDUSTRIES - - -After the foregoing general remarks we may now consider various points of -view in regard to classification of industrial poisonings into groups: - - (1) Toxicological, based on the action of the poisons. - - (2) Chemical, based on the chemical composition of the poisons. - - (3) Physical, based on the varying density of the poisons. - (Division into solid (in form of dust), gaseous, and liquid - poisons.) - -To which may be added: - - (4) Classification according to the source of the poisoning and - therefore according to industry, upon which Part I is mainly - based. - -In this section (Part II) a system is adopted which takes into -consideration as far as possible all the principles of division mentioned -above, in order to classify industrial poisonous substances in such a -manner that general practical conclusions can be clearly drawn, and -supervision rendered easy. - - -_GROUP: MINERAL ACIDS, HALOGENS, INORGANIC HALOGEN COMPOUNDS, ALKALIS_ - -Common to this group is a strong corrosive and irritant effect, varying -however in degree; as gases this group corrode or inflame the mucous -membrane of the respiratory passages, and in liquid form or in solution, -the skin. - -Besides this superficial effect single members of this group, especially -those containing nitrogen, produce a remote effect upon the blood. - -After absorption of the acids a decrease in the alkalinity of the blood -can take place and in its power to take up carbonic acid, thus vitally -affecting the interchange of gases in the body, and producing symptoms of -tissue suffocation. - -As regards treatment in the case of acids and alkalis, neutralisation -has been already mentioned; further, oxygen treatment may be recommended -in cases where the blood has been injuriously affected. In cases of -poisoning through breathing in acid vapours, inhalation of extremely -rarefied vapour of ammonia or of a spray of soda solution (about 1 per -cent.) is advisable. - - -MINERAL ACIDS - -=Hydrochloric Acid= (HCl) is a colourless, pungently smelling gas which -gives off strong white fumes. Experiments on animals, carefully carried -out by Leymann, produced the following symptoms. - -Even in a concentration of 2-5 per thousand clouding of the cornea -ensues, and after about an hour inflammation of the conjunctiva, violent -running from every exposed mucous membrane with marked reddening, and -frequently inflammation (necrosis) of the septum of the nose; the lungs -are distended with blood, here and there hæmorrhages occur in the -respiratory and also in the digestive tracts. The animal dies of œdema -(swelling) of the lungs and hæmorrhage into the lungs if exposed long -enough to the action of HCl, even though (according to Lehmann) there may -not be accumulation of HCl in the blood; the chief effect is the irritant -one; 1·5-5 per thousand parts HCl in the air suffices, after three or -four hours’ exposure, to affect smaller animals (rabbits) so much that -they die during the experiment or shortly after it. Man can tolerate an -atmosphere containing 0·1 to 0·2 per thousand HCl; a somewhat greater -proportion of HCl produces bronchial catarrh, cough, &c. - -The solution of hydrochloric acid in water is about 40 per cent. Simply -wetting the skin with concentrated solution of hydrochloric acid does not -generally have an irritant effect unless persisted in for some time; the -action of the acid, when continued, has a marked effect upon the mucous -membranes and upon the eyes. - -The same treatment already recommended in the introductory remarks on -poisoning by inhalation of acid fumes in general applies. - -=Hydrofluoric Acid= (HFl), a pungently smelling, colourless gas, causes -even in weak solutions (0·02 per cent.) irritant symptoms (catarrh of the -mucous membrane of the respiratory organs, lachrymation, &c.). Stronger -solutions set up obstinate ulcers, difficult to heal, in the mucous -membrane and the skin. - -=Silico-fluoric Acid= (H₂SiFl₆) produces an analogous though somewhat -less marked corrosive action. - -As regards treatment the reader is again referred to the introductory -sentences on this group. - -=Sulphur Dioxide= (SO₂) is a colourless, pungently smelling gas which, -acting in low concentration or for a short period, causes cough and -irritation of the mucous membrane of the respiratory passages and of the -eyes; acting for a longer period, it sets up inflammation of the mucous -membrane, bronchial catarrh, expectoration of blood, and inflammation of -the lungs. - -As Ogata and Lehmann have proved by experiments—some of them made on -man—a proportion of 0·03-0·04 per thousand of sulphur dioxide in the air -has a serious effect on a person unaccustomed to it, while workmen used -to this gas can tolerate it easily. - -As sulphur dioxide probably does not affect the blood, treatment by -oxygen inhalation is useless. Otherwise the treatment spoken of as -applying to acid poisonings in general holds good. - -=Sulphuric Acid= (H₂SO₄). Concentrated sulphuric acid occasionally -splashes into the eye or wets the skin, causing severe irritation and -corrosion, unless the liquid is quickly washed off or neutralised. If the -action of the acid persists, the corrosive effect becomes deepseated and -leads to disfiguring scars. - -=Nitrous Fumes, Nitric Acid.=—Nitric oxide (NO) oxidises in the air -with formation of red fumes composed of nitrogen trioxide (N₂O₃) and -nitrogen peroxide (NO₂). These oxides are contained in the gases evolved -from fuming nitric acid and where nitric acid acts upon metals, organic -substances, &c. - -Industrial poisoning by nitrous fumes is dangerous; unfortunately it -frequently occurs and often runs a severe, even fatal, course; sometimes -numerous workers are poisoned simultaneously. The main reason why nitrous -fumes are so dangerous is because their effect, like that of most other -irritant gases, is not shown at once in symptoms of irritation, such -as cough, cramp of the glottis, &c., which would at least serve as a -warning to the affected person; on the contrary, generally no effect at -all is felt at first, especially if the fumes are not very concentrated. -Symptoms of irritation usually appear only after some hours’ stay in -the poisonous atmosphere. By this time a relatively large quantity of -the poisonous gas has been absorbed, and the remote effect on the blood -induced. - -The first symptoms of irritation (cough, difficulty of breathing, -nausea, &c.) generally disappear when the affected person leaves the -charged atmosphere, and he then often passes several hours without -symptoms, relatively well. Later severe symptoms supervene—often rather -suddenly—difficulty of breathing, fits of suffocation, cyanosis, and -copious frothy blood-stained expectoration with symptoms of inflammation -of the bronchial tubes and lungs. These attacks may last a longer or -shorter time, and in severe cases can lead to death; slight cases end in -recovery, without any sequelæ. - -In poisoning by nitrous acid fumes, oxygen inhalation, if applied in -time, undoubtedly holds out hope of success, and should always be tried. -Chloroform has been repeatedly recommended as a remedy. Probably its -inhalation produces no actual curative effect, but only an abatement of -the symptoms through the narcosis induced. - -Nitric acid (HNO₃) in solution has an irritant corroding action if, when -concentrated, it comes into contact with the skin or mucous membrane. - - -THE HALOGENS (CHLORINE, BROMINE, IODINE) - -Chlorine (Cl) is a yellow-green, pungently smelling gas, Bromine (Br) a -fuming liquid, and Iodine (I) forms crystals which volatilise slightly at -ordinary temperatures. - -According to Lehmann’s experiments on animals the effect of chlorine -gas and bromine fumes is completely similar. Lehmann and Binz assume -that chlorine has a twofold effect: (1) narcotic, paralysing the outer -membrane of the brain, and (2) the well-known irritant action upon the -mucous membrane, producing a general catarrh of the air passages, and -inflammation of the lungs; it is, however, only the latter which causes -menace to life. Other writers do not mention the narcotic effect upon -the brain and assume that the halogens when brought into contact with -the mucous membrane are quickly converted into halogen hydrides, and, -as such, produce a corrosive effect. According to Lehmann, even 0·01 -per thousand Cl or Br in the air is injurious, even 0·1 per thousand -produces ulceration of the mucous membrane, and one or two hours’ -exposure to the poison endangers life. Lehmann has further tested (on -dogs) acclimatisation to chlorine, and finds that after a month the power -of resistance to chlorine appears to be increased about ten times. In a -further series of experiments the same author has proved that even the -smallest quantities of chlorine present in the atmosphere are completely -absorbed in breathing. - -Continued or frequent action of chlorine upon the organism produces -symptoms which have been described as chronic chlorine poisoning—such as -anæmia and indigestion, in addition to catarrhal and nervous symptoms. -Further, in factories where chlorine is produced by the electrolytic -process, workers were found to be suffering from the so-called chlorine -rash (first observed by Herxheimer). This skin disease consists in an -inflammation of the glands of the skin, with occasional development of -ulcers and scars. Severe cases are accompanied by digestive disturbance. -Bettmann, Lehmann, and others maintain that it is not caused by chlorine -alone, but by chlorinated tar products, which are formed in the -production of chlorine and hydrochloric acid. - -In acute cases of chlorine poisoning oxygen treatment should be tried, -but in any case the patient should have free access to pure air. -Approved remedies are inhalation of soda spray or very dilute ammonia, -or of a vapourised solution of sodium hypochlorite. If the patient is in -great pain, he may be allowed to inhale cocaine solution (0·2 per cent.). - -The administration of arsenic (solutio arsenicalis) is recommended, -especially in cases of acne. In general the usual treatment for diseases -of the skin is followed; salicylic acid lotions, sulphur baths, and -sulphur ointments may be made use of. - -=Chlorides.=—_Chlorides of Phosphorus_, _Phosphorus-trichloride_ (PCl₃), -and _Phosphorus oxychloride_ (POCl₃), are strong-smelling liquids, -fuming in the air, and when brought into contact with water decomposing -into phosphorous acid and hydrochloric acid. These halogen compounds -of phosphorus have a violently irritant action upon the respiratory -organs and the eyes, in that they decompose on the mucous membrane into -hydrochloric acid and an oxyacid of phosphorus. Inhalation of the fumes -of these compounds causes cough, difficulty of breathing, inflammation of -the respiratory passages, and blood-stained expectoration. - -Treatment is similar to that for acid poisoning in general and -hydrochloric acid in particular. - -Similar to that of the chlorides of phosphorus is the action of -_chlorides of sulphur_, of which _sulphur monochloride_ (S₂Cl)₂ is of -industrial hygienic importance as it is employed in the vulcanising of -indiarubber. It is a brown, oily, fuming liquid, which, mixed with water -or even in damp air, decomposes into sulphur dioxide and hydrochloric -acid. The fumes of sulphur monochloride have therefore a marked irritant -effect, like that of hydrochloric acid and sulphur dioxide. The action of -sulphur chloride was thoroughly studied by Lehmann. Industrial poisoning -by sulphur chloride is mentioned by Leymann and also in the reports of -the Prussian factory inspectors for 1897. The latter case ended fatally -owing to the ignorance of the would-be rescuers: a workman had spilt -trichloride of phosphorus upon his clothes, and the by-standers, not -knowing its dangerous action when combined with water, poured water on -him. - -Treatment is similar to that of poisoning from hydrochloric acid or -sulphur dioxide. - -_Chloride of zinc_ (zinc chloride, ZnCl₂) likewise has corroding and -irritant action upon the mucous membrane of the respiratory organs. - - -AMMONIA - -Ammonia (NH₃) is a colourless, pungent-smelling gas which dissolves -to the extent of about 33 per cent. in water. Inhaled, it first -produces violent reflex coughing, then irritation and corrosion of the -mucous membrane of the respiratory organs, and finally death through -suffocation (spasm of the glottis) if exposure to its action has lasted -a sufficiently long time. Microscopic sections exhibit a diphtheritic -appearance of the mucous membrane, and inflammation of the lungs. The -effects upon the central nervous system (irritation of the medulla -and spinal cord) which are peculiar to ammonia compounds need not be -considered, as the corrosion of the respiratory passage is sufficient -alone to cause death. When the action of the gas is less intense, the -patient rallies from the first stage, but often severe symptoms come on -later affecting the lungs. - -Lehmann in experiments upon himself could tolerate as much as 0·33 per -thousand NH₃ for thirty minutes; he found in gas works (with fairly -marked odour) hardly more than 0·1 per thousand NH₃ in the atmosphere, -and considers 0·5 per thousand distinct evidence of excess. He found -that he could produce in dogs acclimatisation up to 1·0 per thousand -NH₃ (five times as much as could at first be borne). About 88 per cent. -of the ammonia contained in the air is absorbed in breathing; ammonia -is said to exercise also a reducing action upon the oxygen of the blood -(oxyhæmoglobin). - -Chronic poisoning by ammonia can hardly be said to occur. In those who -clean out sewers and drains, the inflammation of the eyes and digestive -disturbance attributed partly to ammonia are probably due more to the -action of sulphur compounds—ammonium sulphide and sulphuretted hydrogen. -Irritation due to solution of ammonia does not come into account in -industrial employment. - -As regards treatment, fresh air or administration of oxygen is most -likely to be successful. Inhalation also of very dilute acetic acid -vapour, steam, or spray of sodium carbonate is advocated. - - -ALKALIS - -The alkaline hydroxides (potassium and sodium hydroxide, KOH, NaOH) -have an albumen-dissolving and therefore caustic effect. Industrially -it occurs in the caustic action of concentrated (often hot) lyes upon -the skin or upon the eye—through splashing. Quicklime (CaO) has also a -caustic action, producing inflammation of the skin or eyes (especially in -those engaged in the preparation of mortar). - -Under this head comes also the effect upon the respiratory -passages—described by several authors—caused in the production of -artificial manure discussed at length in Part I. - -As regards treatment of the irritant effect of alkalis, what has been -said as to corrosives in general applies here (rinsing with water or weak -organic acids), and in inflammation of the eye caused by lime a drop of -castor oil is recommended. - - -_GROUP: METALS AND METAL-COMPOUNDS_ - -The various substances of this group differ markedly in their action. -Under this heading come principally chronic metal poisonings, -characterised by a general, often very intense, disturbance of nutrition, -which justifies their delineation as ‘metabolic poisons’; among these -poisons also are included certain others which produce chronic poisoning -accompanied by severe disturbance of the peripheral and central nervous -system. - -The corrosive action common to the metal oxides (when acting in a -concentrated condition), attributable to the formation of insoluble -albuminates, need not, in industrial poisoning, be taken so much into -account. The corrosive effect is characteristic only of the compounds, -especially of the acid salts of chromium, which, as an acid-forming -element, may be classed in the preceding group. Disturbance of health -in workmen handling nickel compounds are also ascribed to the corrosive -action of these substances. - - -LEAD, LEAD COMPOUNDS - -Lead poisoning is the most frequent and important chronic industrial -poisoning; the symptoms are very varied and associated with the most -different groups of organs. We shall describe the typical course of a -case of industrial lead poisoning, laying stress, however, on the fact -that numerous cases follow an irregular course, in that special symptoms -or complications of symptoms are in some especially accentuated, while in -others they become less marked or are absent altogether. - -A premonitory indication of chronic lead poisoning is a blue line -on the gum, indicated by a slate gray or bluish black edging to the -teeth, the appearance of which is usually accompanied by an unpleasant -sweetish taste in the mouth. The cause of this blue line was for some -time disputed. It is obviously due to the formation and deposit of -sulphide of lead through the action of sulphuretted hydrogen arising from -decomposition in the mouth cavity. At the same time a general feeling of -malaise and weakness often comes on, occasionally accompanied by tremor -of the muscles and disinclination for food, at which stage the sufferer -consults the doctor. Frequently he complains also of pains in the -stomach, not difficult to distinguish from the lead colic to be described -later. Usually the patient already exhibits at this stage general -emaciation and marked pallor. - -The blue line was formerly considered a characteristic early indication -of lead poisoning; but it has now been proved that occasionally it is -absent even in severe attacks. But although the blue line may fail as -an ‘initial symptom,’ it will nevertheless be a valuable aid to the -practitioner in the recognition of lead poisoning. It is worth while -to mention the fact that other metallic poisons produce a very similar -‘line,’ especially mercury, also iron and silver (as in the case of -argyria); it has been stated that the blue line can be simulated by -particles of charcoal on the gum. The pallor of the patient at the -commencement of lead poisoning drew attention to the condition of the -blood. The diminution in the amount of hæmoglobin often met with, which -under certain circumstances is accompanied by diminution of the red -blood cells, offers nothing characteristic. On the other hand, structural -changes in the red blood cells—presence of basophil granules in them—are -asserted by a number of writers to be characteristic of the first stages -of lead poisoning. The basophil granules are believed to be due to -regenerative changes in the nucleus. But these changes are also found in -pernicious anæmia, cancer, leucæmia, anæmia, tuberculosis, &c.; also in a -number of poisonings such as phenylhydrazine, dinitrobenzene, corrosive -sublimate, and others; they are therefore the less characteristic of -chronic lead poisoning, as occasionally they cannot be found in actual -lead poisoning, a point upon which I have convinced myself in the case -both of men and animals. Still, the appearance of much basophilia in the -red blood cells is a valuable aid to diagnosis, especially as the method -of staining to demonstrate them is simple. - -Other anomalies of the blood observed in lead poisoning may here be -mentioned. Glibert found a striking diminution in the elasticity of the -red blood corpuscles, and experiments I have made point to the fact that -the power of resistance of the red blood corpuscles to chemically acting -hæmolytic agents, such as decinormal soda solution, is considerably -reduced. - -The pulse is generally hard and of high tension, especially during the -attacks of colic. Further, cramp of the bloodvessels (also in the retinal -arteries) has been observed. To these functional disturbances in the -circulation are added sometimes definite changes in the vessel wall. -Later, obliterative arteritis comes on (in the brain arteries), and -arteriosclerosis. - -The most important symptom of fully developed lead poisoning is colic, -which is usually preceded by the initial symptoms described (especially -the gastric symptoms), but not always so, as occasionally colic sets in -without any warning. The colic pains often set in with marked vehemence. -They radiate from the navel on all sides, even through the whole body; -the abdomen is contracted and as hard as a board. Pressure on the -lower part diminishes the pain somewhat, so that the sufferer often -involuntarily lies flat on his stomach. During the attack the pulse is -often remarkably slow. Constipation occurs, and often does not yield -to purgatives. The attacks last sometimes for hours, occasionally for -days, or the pains can (with remissions) even distress the patient for -weeks. The frequency of attacks is also very variable. Occasionally one -attack follows another, often there are intervals of weeks, even years, -according to the severity of the poisoning and duration of exposure. -If the patient is removed from the injurious action of lead, as a rule -recovery soon ensues. - -[Illustration: FIG. 34.—Paralysis of the Ulnar Nerve in Lead Poisoning] - -[Illustration: FIG. 34A.—Different Types of Paralysis of the Radial Nerve -in Hungarian Potters poisoned by Lead (_after Chyzer_)] - -Often with the colic, or at any rate shortly after it, appear lead -tremor and arthralgia, paroxysmal pain mostly affecting the joints, but -occasionally also the muscles and bones. They are often the precursor of -severe nervous symptoms which affect the peripheral and central nervous -system. In a lead poisoning case running a typical course the predominant -feature is the peripheral motor paralysis of the extensors of the -forearms. Next the muscles supplied by the radial and ulnar nerves are -affected. Often the progress of the paralysis is typical; it begins with -paralysis of the extensor digitorum communis, passes on to the remaining -extensors, then to the abductor muscles of the hand; the supinator -longus and triceps escape. Sometimes the shoulder muscles are attacked; -also paralysis in the region supplied by the facial nerve and of the -lower extremities is observed. It appears plausible that overstrain of -single groups of muscles plays a decisive part; this seems proved by -the fact that paralysis first affects, among right-handed people, the -right hand (especially of painters), but in the case of left-handed, -the left hand; and among children the lower extremities are often -attacked first. Disturbance of sight increasing to amaurosis is often -an indication of severe brain symptoms. The view of some writers that -the cause of the sight disturbance lies in vasomotor influences (cramp -of the bloodvessels) is very probable, and supports the view that the -brain symptoms are entirely due to diseases of the arteries (arteritis). -These symptoms are distinguished by the collective name of saturnine -encephalopathy; they include apoplexy, hemiplegia, epilepsy, delirium, -and mania. The brain symptoms may cause death. - -As later symptoms of lead poisoning may be mentioned lead gout and kidney -disease (lead nephritis). The genesis of both these diseases is much -disputed. It seems to be proved that the gout is true gout (with presence -of tophi) and that the contracted kidney is indistinguishable from -ordinary chronic Bright’s disease. - -The kidney symptoms suggest that a regular excretion of lead through the -urine takes place which, if it were a fact, would have been an important -aid to diagnosis. But often analysis of urine for presence of lead is -negative. Excretion of lead by the skin is scarcely to be credited, -although occasionally affirmed. Elimination of lead is effected mainly -through the intestines (probably for the most part as sulphide of lead). - -All lead compounds more or less are to be regarded as poisonous, although -the intensity of the action depends on the amount absorbed. For this its -solubility in water or in weak acids (hydrochloric acid of the gastric -juice) is the simplest test. According to this acetate of lead, lead -chloride, carbonate of lead (white lead), oxide of lead (lead dross), -minium (red oxide of lead) are relatively the most poisonous. Lead -sulphate and lead iodide are to be regarded as relatively less poisonous, -although by no means innocuous. The least poisonous, if not altogether -innocuous, is sulphide of lead, because it is an insoluble lead compound. - -Treatment of lead poisoning ought to aim first and foremost at the -elimination of lead from the body. But unfortunately such attempts have -had little success. Treatment of symptoms is all that for the most -part is possible. Administration of iodide of potassium to assist the -excretion of lead has not been found the success which many anticipated. -This remedy however, can be tried; better results are to be expected -from careful regulation of the bowels by means of purgatives. During -colic administration of opium or morphia may be advisable to relieve pain -and overcome the probable cramp of the intestinal muscles. The cautious -administration of atropine (occasionally with cocaine) also serves -the same purpose. Hot compresses and mustard plasters may be applied, -and liquid diet should be given. Lead cachexia must be treated by -strengthening diet. Electrical treatment for lead paralysis is advocated. -From baths (sulphur baths) nothing more is to be expected than a bracing -effect—elimination of lead through increased diaphoresis is hardly to be -hoped for. - - -ZINC (ZINC ALLOYS) - -Zinc (Zn) melts at 412° C. and distills at about 900° C.; exposed to -the air it burns, when heated, into zinc oxide. Older writers, when -investigating gastric and intestinal diseases and affections of the -nervous system observed in zinc smelters, regarded them as the result of -chronic zinc poisoning; but it may now be accepted as certain that these -symptoms are due to the lead always present in the zinc. - -On the other hand so-called _brass-founders’ ague_ may be regarded as -a form of acute industrial zinc poisoning. Brass-founders’ ague occurs -exclusively in brass casters, and not in zinc workers. Sigel and Lehmann -have shown that founders’ ague is also caused by pure zinc if this is -heated so strongly that it burns. - -Premonitory symptoms often occur before the onset of the disease; usually -they appear early, soon after casting has begun. The workman has general -malaise accompanied by slight cough, nausea, throat irritation, &c., but -these symptoms mostly disappear, returning again after a few hours with -renewed violence, often in the evening before going to bed. Frequently, -trembling sets in rather suddenly, often accompanied by headache, nausea, -and muscular pains, and soon develops into a pronounced shivering fit, -lasting generally about a quarter of an hour, but in severe cases for -several hours (with intervals). At the same time the breathing is hurried -and the heart’s action quickened (asthma and palpitation). Often the -temperature rises as high as 104° F. The attack ends with profuse -perspiration, and the patient sinks exhausted to sleep, awaking in the -morning generally quite restored or with but slight signs of fatigue; -only rarely is he unable to resume work. - -It is noteworthy that some workmen are extraordinarily susceptible to -brass-founders’ ague, and are attacked again and again, while others -remain completely immune, so that idiosyncrasy and immunity both play -a part. Workmen who are susceptible to the disease, yet without marked -disposition (idiosyncrasy) towards it, can become acclimatised to the -poison. Lehmann has succeeded in artificially producing an attack in -a brass-caster who was highly susceptible. The symptoms in him were -the result of work with pure zinc in a burning condition. The proof, -therefore, is clear that brass-founders’ ague is due to zinc, and not, as -some authors have supposed, to copper or the simultaneous action of both -metals. The symptoms are produced through inhalation of zinc oxide, not -zinc fumes. - -Lehmann conjectures that brass-founders’ ague may be a secondary fever -due to absorption into the system of the remains of cells in the -respiratory tract that have been killed by the action of the zinc. - -The treatment can only be symptomatic; as the attack is so transient, -medical attendance is hardly necessary. - - -MERCURY, MERCURY COMPOUNDS - -Mercury (Hg), on account of its volatility, is classed among industrial -poisons. Although boiling at 360° C. it is volatile even at ordinary -temperature. Industrial mercurial poisoning is caused by the frequent -inhalation of small quantities of vapour, sometimes, but more rarely, of -dust containing mercury, and assumes usually a chronic form. - -Industrial mercurial poisoning often begins with inflammation of the -mucous membrane of the mouth and gums. There is increased flow of saliva, -a disagreeable metallic taste in the mouth, and foul breath. This may be -limited to a simple inflammation of the gum, or go on to ulceration with -falling out of teeth, or even to gangrene of the gum and mucous membrane -inside the mouth. Gastric attacks also occur in the early stages; -occasionally, however, they are absent. - -The main symptoms of chronic mercurial poisoning are nervous and -psychical derangement, to which in severe cases are added general -disturbance of digestion and loss of strength. - -Sometimes, after repeated attacks, more or less severe, a cachectic -condition is induced, showing itself in general emaciation, decrease -of strength, atrophy of the muscles, anæmia, and disturbed digestion, -which—often intensified by some intercurrent disease, such as -tuberculosis—lead to death. Slight cases of mercurialism recover, leaving -no evil results, if the patient is removed in time from the influence of -the poison. - -The treatment of chronic mercury poisoning is symptomatic. To allay the -inflammation of the mucous membrane of the mouth the patient should use -a mouth wash of potassium chlorate and peroxide of hydrogen; the general -condition should be raised by strengthening, unstimulating food; for the -nervous symptoms baths and electricity should be tried; and for very -marked erythism and tremor recourse to narcotics may be necessary. - -Industrial mercurial poisoning is produced not only by metallic mercury -but also by many compounds, of which industrially the oxides are the -most important. Nitrate of mercury (Hg₂(NO₃)₂) comes into account in the -treatment of fur. Mercury cyanide (HgCy₂) deserves mention, as small -quantities cause mercurial and large quantities cyanogen poisoning. - - -MANGANESE, MANGANESE COMPOUNDS - -Manganese (Mn) or manganese compounds are used industrially in fine -powder; continuous absorption of dust containing manganese produces -chronic manganese poisoning. Instances of such poisoning are not very -numerous; altogether about twenty cases have been described. Recent -publications agree in asserting that only the dust rich in manganese -protoxide is dangerous. - -Industrial manganese poisoning runs its course extraordinarily slowly, -and resembles chronic poisoning by other heavy metals, such as lead and -mercury, in that nervous and psychical symptoms, rather than digestive, -are prominent. Sometimes—but not always—the disease is introduced or -accompanied by psychical symptoms, both of excitement and depression -(hilarity, laughing, or depression and weeping). In the course of the -disease nervous disturbances arise, deafness, tingling, paralysis and -paræsthesia, in the arms and legs, giddiness, difficulty of walking, -tremor, increased knee-jerks and difficulty in speech. Often at the same -time swelling of the lower extremities (œdema) and loss of strength -(cachexia, marasmus) come on. Slight cases make a good recovery. An -interesting case of illness is described by Jaksch as manganophobia, in -which the symptoms were simulated, and were brought on solely by the fear -of manganese poisoning. - -As regards treatment, electricity, massage, and baths are advocated to -allay the nervous symptoms, as in the case of chronic metal poisoning and -suitable strengthening food. - - -CHROMIUM, CHROME COMPOUNDS - -Chromium trioxide (CrO₃) dissolves in water, forming chromic acid -(H₂CrO₄); of the salts of chromic acid the neutral and acid alkaline -salts concern our inquiry. These are normal and acid sodium or potassium -chromate (K₂CrO₄ and K₂Cr₂O₇). Chromate of lead (PbCrO₄) can cause lead -poisoning. - -Poisoning can be produced by dust and by alkaline chromates, the -latter, when hot, giving off steam which, as has been proved, contains -excessively fine chrome particles. Chrome compounds attack especially the -surface of the body, the skin and the mucous membrane. - -The bichromate and chromate dust produce ulcers where slight injuries -to the skin already exist. The ulcers develop slowly, and have a -smooth, heaped-up, undermined edge; deep-seated, they can even pierce -to the bone; they heal with great difficulty. Naturally they occur most -frequently on the uncovered parts of the body, especially on the arms -and hands. Characteristic also is an analogous ulceration attacking -the mucous membrane of the nose, from which hardly any chrome worker -(especially if brought into contact with chromate dust) is free. -Perforation and destruction of the cartilaginous septum of the nose is -very common. Ulcers on the mucous membrane at the entrance of the throat -(on tonsils and palate or in the larynx) have been occasionally observed. - -Absorption of small quantities of chrome compounds into the body are said -to cause disturbances of digestion of an inflammatory character, and -especially inflammation of the kidneys. - -The treatment of chrome ulcers is similar to that of other chronic -ulcers. An antidote for industrial chrome poisoning is not known. - - -OTHER METALS AND METAL COMPOUNDS - -=Nickel Salts.=—Of late years in nickel-plating establishments an -eczematous inflammation of the skin has been described affecting -first of all the hands, and occasionally spreading over the arms and -even the whole body. The skin becomes inflamed, and vesicles appear -on the affected part. Some persons are extraordinarily susceptible -to this disease, others only become so after having worked for years -quite unaffected, and are then obliged to give up their occupation. -Probably the action of nickel salts (especially nickel sulphate) used -in electrolytic baths causes the disease. But it was in fact traced by -several writers to contact with benzene, petroleum, and lime by the -workmen. The simultaneous action of these substances upon the skin -would no doubt encourage its appearance. The application to the skin of -vaseline or cream is recommended. Careful cleanliness and attention to -the skin is on the whole by far the most reliable protection. - -[=Nickel carbonyl= (Ni(CO)₄).—Mond, Langer, and Quincke in 1890 -discovered that, on passing a current of carbon monoxide over finely -divided (pyrophoric) metallic nickel, a gaseous compound of nickel and -carbon monoxide was formed. When heated to 150° C. the gas decomposes -into its constituents and metallic nickel is deposited. - -Nickel carbonyl is a clear, pale straw-coloured liquid, volatilising -at room temperature. It has a peculiar soot-like smell detectable when -present to the extent of about 1 vol. in 2,000,000, while the Bunsen -flame becomes luminous when nickel carbonyl is present in the air to the -extent of 1 vol. in 400,000—two facts of great importance in detecting -escape of the gas in the manufacture of pure nickel by the Mond process. - -_Occurrence of poisoning by nickel carbonyl._—At the first introduction -of the process about 1902, before the dangerous properties of the gas had -been sufficiently recognised, some twenty-five men were poisoned, of whom -three died. Poisoning only occurred when, as a result of the breakdown -of the automatic working of the plant, hand labour took the place of -machinery. - -This very rare form of poisoning has been very fully investigated by -H. W. Armit (_Journ. of Hygiene_, 1907, p. 526, and 1908, p. 565). The -symptoms in man, he says, were transient headache and giddiness and at -times dyspnœa, quickly passing off on removal to fresh air. After from -twelve to thirty-six hours the dyspnœa returned, cyanosis appeared, and -the temperature began to be raised. Cough with more or less blood-stained -sputum appeared on the second day. The pulse rate became increased, but -not in proportion to the respiratory rate. The heart remained normal. -Delirium of varying types frequently occurred. Death took place in the -fatal cases between the fourth and eleventh days. The chief changes -found post mortem were hæmorrhages in the lungs, œdema of the lungs, and -hæmorrhages in the white matter of the brain, while some doubt exists as -to whether any blood changes were present. - -Precisely analogous results were found in experiments on animals -(rabbits, cats, and dogs). - -The points Armit investigated experimentally were (1) Is the carbon -monoxide of the compound wholly or partly responsible for the symptoms, -or (2), is nickel carbonyl absorbed as such, or (3), is it the nickel -of the compound which produces the symptoms? His conclusions are that -the poisonous effects of nickel carbonyl are entirely due to the nickel -of the compound. The peculiar toxicity is due to the fact that, being -introduced in a gaseous form, the nickel is deposited as a slightly -soluble compound in a very fine state of subdivision over the immense -area of the respiratory surface. Nickel carbonyl when mixed with air -cannot be absorbed as such by an animal as it becomes split up into the -nickel containing substance (possibly hydrated basic carbonate of nickel) -and carbon monoxide before or soon after reaching the alveoli of the -lungs. The nickel is dissolved from the respiratory surface by the tissue -fluids and is then taken up by the blood. The hæmorrhages found after -death follow as the result of fatty degeneration of the vessel walls -which is the specific pathological change set up by nickel.] - -=Copper.=—Symptoms which have been described by some writers as chronic -industrial copper poisoning are probably due to admixtures of other -poisonous metals, especially lead and arsenic. Although some copper -workers, especially those careless of cleanliness, exhibit hair and teeth -coloured by the action of copper compounds (green tinge on hair and edge -of teeth), symptoms of illness traceable to copper are not demonstrable. - -_Brass-founders’ fever_, which by some earlier writers was ascribed to -copper or combined copper and zinc action, is traceable to zinc (see -Zinc). - -=Ferro-silicon.=—The illnesses due to this are phosphoretted or -arseniuretted hydrogen poisoning (see pp. 191 and 197). - -=Silver and Silver Compounds.=—Gradual absorption of small quantities -of a solution of silver may produce industrial argyria, often beginning -with the appearance of a black edge to the gums and darkening of the hair -and nails, followed by black spots on the skin which in severe cases -coalesce, so that the whole or almost the whole surface of the body -becomes black and glossy. - -Argyria is due to the absorption of silver compounds into the -circulation, and subsequent deposition of the reduced silver in the body -(liver, kidneys, spinal cord, &c.). The black colouring of the skin is -caused by the action of light. - -No interference with health worth mentioning is observed. - - -_GROUP: ARSENIC, PHOSPHORUS_ - -The poisons (gradually absorbed) belonging to this group are mainly such -as affect metabolism; they impair the processes essential to metabolism -(in especial the oxidation processes) and cause severe damage to the -cells, through destruction of albumen. The poisons of this group also -have a paralysing effect upon the central nervous system. - -Generally speaking the effects produced by the poisons of this group vary -considerably. Among the arsenic compounds arseniuretted hydrogen, which -is supremely a blood poison, must be excluded from the group and included -among the blood poisons. - - -ARSENIC, OXIDES OF ARSENIC - -Pure _metallic arsenic_ (As) is considered innocuous. _Oxides of arsenic_ -especially are held to be industrial poisons such as arsenic trioxide -(As₂O₃), the anhydride of arsenious acid (H₃AsO₃), a white powder, which -is known under the name of white arsenic; _arsenic acid_ (H₃AsO₄), which -forms crystals easily soluble in water, and the salts of these acids, -especially copper arsenite, formerly employed in the production of dyes, -and also _arsenic chloride_ (arsenic trichloride, AsCl₃). _Arseniuretted -hydrogen_ will be treated separately as it has a completely different -poisonous effect from that of the oxidic compounds of arsenic. _Arsenic -sulphides_ (realgar, AsS₂, and orpiment, AsS₃) are regarded as innocuous -in consequence of their insolubility in a pure state. But it may be -remarked that arsenic sulphides (sulphur arsenic ores) which are used -industrially, and even metallic arsenic, are to be considered poisonous, -as they contain oxidic arsenic compounds in great quantity. - -Chronic arsenical poisoning is caused by gradual absorption through the -respiratory or digestive tracts of small quantities of the oxidic arsenic -compounds either in solution or as dust or fumes. - -The disease usually begins with digestive derangement which shows -itself in more or less severe gastric and intestinal catarrh (loss of -appetite, vomiting and diarrhœa); sometimes there are severe affections -of the respiratory tract,—pharyngeal and bronchial catarrhs; often the -illness is accompanied by skin affections of various kinds, rashes, -pustular eczema, loosening of the nails, abscesses, dark pigmentation -of particular parts of the skin, and other symptoms. The nervous -symptoms vary much according to the severity of the disease; first of -all, deafness and feeling of pins and needles, or loss of sensation -(paræsthesia and anæsthesia) of the extremities. Further, rheumatic -joint pains, weakness of the extremities and characteristic symptoms of -paralysis occur, with accompanying atrophy of the muscles, and gradual -loss of energy leading to total incapacity for work. Severe cases end in -general exhaustion and loss of strength, with signs of severe injury to -the central nervous system, such as epileptic fits, mental hebetude, &c. - - -PHOSPHORUS - -_Phosphorus_ (P) is polymorphic; red (amorphous) phosphorus is innocuous, -while white or yellow is poisonous. Phosphorus at various stages of -oxidation is little if at all poisonous. White phosphorus is volatile -and fumes in the air—the fumes consisting of phosphorus, phosphoric and -phosphorous acids. - -Chronic industrial phosphorus poisoning is produced by continued -inhalation of the fumes of white phosphorus resulting in inflammation -of the periosteum of the bone, with which necrosis and formation of new -bone are associated. It attacks especially the lower jawbone (ossifying -periostitis). The inflammation begins with increased flow of saliva, -painful swelling of the gums, which, as it increases, brings about the -death of the jawbone (necrosis, phosphorus necrosis). This becomes -covered again with newly formed bone substance from the periosteum. The -process ends with the formation of a fistula (a passage filled with pus), -which discharges outwards, and through which the dead bone (sequestrum) -is eventually cast off. Occasionally the process attacks the upper jaw, -rarely other bones. - -With these characteristic symptoms of phosphorus necrosis, derangement of -nutrition together with anæmia, indigestion and bronchial catarrh, may -be associated. Further, a general brittleness of the bones (fragilitas -ossium) is observed with the result that the long bones of the leg or arm -sometimes break at relatively small exertion of force; such cases from -Bohemia came lately under my notice. - -Some authorities regard caries of the teeth as the pre-disposing cause of -phosphorus necrosis; according to this view the carious teeth constitute -the means of entrance for the poison. Opposed to this so-called ‘local’ -theory is the view that chronic phosphorus poisoning is a ‘general’ one. -The truth may lie midway. On the one hand phosphorus necrosis probably -arises partly from the general poisonous action of the phosphorus, and on -the other from local inflammation which leads to the occurrence of local -symptoms. The general symptoms of chronic phosphorus poisoning described -above support this view, especially the effect observed on the bones of -the skeleton. This view is also strengthened by the fact that workmen -with perfectly sound teeth, who had been exposed to phosphorus fumes for -many years, were attacked by necrosis only when traumatic inflammation -produced by chance injury was set up. - -The treatment of phosphorus necrosis is surgical. Formerly the treatment -recommended was to wait for formation of new bone and exfoliation of the -dead bone (expectant treatment); the necrosed portions of bone were then -extracted through the fistula. Recently early operative interference has -succeeded in preserving the periosteum which enabled the new bone to form. - - -Phosphoretted Hydrogen - -Industrial poisoning by gaseous phosphoretted hydrogen (PH₃) calls for -attention in connection with the preparation and employment of calcium -carbide (acetylene) and also of ferro-silicon. - -Phosphoretted hydrogen is a dangerous poison. Even 0·025 per cent. in -the air is harmful to animals after a time; 0·2 per cent. PH₃ in the air -quickly causes death. - -The poison produces changes in the lungs, though without injuring the -respiratory passages by corrosion, and finally has a paralysing effect -upon the central nervous system. It has no effect upon the blood. An -autopsy on a person who has died of phosphoretted hydrogen poisoning -reveals as a rule no characteristic sign, except centres of inflammation -in the lungs. - -The symptoms of phosphoretted hydrogen poisoning are—difficulty of -breathing, cough, fainting fits, noises in the ears, and nausea; -in severe cases coma and death. Slight cases soon recover without -after-effects. - - -_GROUP: SULPHURETTED HYDROGEN, CARBON BISULPHIDE, AND CYANOGEN (NERVE -POISONS)_ - -In this group are comprised industrial poisons the principal effect of -which is upon the nervous system, especially the central nervous system. -The chemical composition of the separate members of the group differs -much. - - -SULPHURETTED HYDROGEN - -Industrial poisoning by pure sulphuretted hydrogen (SH₂), the well-known -colourless, nauseous-smelling gas, occurs comparatively rarely. Poisoning -is generally acute, but chronic illness in workers has been traced back -to inhalation of the gas. - -This poison exerts a paralysing action upon the central nervous system -and is slightly irritating to the mucous membranes and respiratory organs. - -Its action can be described as follows: When absorbed into the blood -union of the poison with the alkaline constituents takes place with -formation of an alkaline sulphide. Presence of only slight quantities -of sulphuretted hydrogen in the air acts injuriously. Lehmann has shown -that about 0·15 to 0·2 per thousand sulphuretted hydrogen is not without -effect, and that prolonged inhalation of 0·5 per thousand becomes -dangerous. Continued exposure to the poison seems only to increase -susceptibility to its action. An almost complete absorption of the whole -of the sulphuretted hydrogen present in the air breathed takes place. - -Continued inhalation of small quantities of sulphuretted hydrogen -produces irritation of the mucous membrane, cough, and lacrymation; -headache, giddiness, nausea, and mental dulness soon ensue; occasionally -also symptoms of intestinal catarrh follow; if at this stage—or after -a longer exposure to the action of a smaller amount—the patient is -withdrawn from its further influence, there still continue for some time -symptoms of irritation of the mucous membrane (such as inflammation of -the conjunctiva and of the respiratory passages). - -Further exposure or absorption of greater amounts induces general -discomfort and passes on to a second stage of convulsions and delirium. - -Inhalation of a large dose of sulphuretted hydrogen causes almost -instantaneous death; the affected person falls dead—often without -a sound—as if struck by a blow; occasionally a short stage of -unconsciousness, with symptoms of suffocation, precede death. - -This acute form often occurs, especially in acute sewer gas poisoning. -Besides this, a sub-acute form of sewer gas poisoning is recognised -which is attributable, in part at least, to the action of sulphuretted -hydrogen, the prominent symptoms being irritation of the mucous membranes -and of the intestinal canal. In other severe cases symptoms of the -central nervous system preponderate (headache, giddiness, and delirium). -These forms of poisoning can be caused not only by sulphuretted hydrogen, -but also by other poisonous gases which are found in drains or sewers. - -As regards treatment, continued inhalation of oxygen, supported by -artificial respiration, is often, in serious cases, effective. In severe -poisonings also saline injections and bleeding may be advocated. Other -symptoms (catarrh, &c.) must be treated symptomatically. - - -CARBON BISULPHIDE - -Pure carbon bisulphide (CS₂) is a colourless, peculiar-smelling liquid -which boils at 46° C. - -As Lehmann has shown, even 1·5 to 3·0 mg. CS₂ per litre of air produces -distress—with acute symptoms of poisoning (congestion, giddiness, -sickness, &c.). - -Industrial carbon bisulphide poisoning is, however, chronic in nature and -induced by continuous inhalation of small quantities of the fumes. To -understand the action of carbon bisulphide, its capacity for dissolving -fats and fatty substances must be taken into account. Its injurious -effect extends to the nerve tissues (central and peripheral nervous -system) and the glandular tissues. - -Throughout chronic industrial carbon bisulphide poisoning, which has -been described fully by Delpech, Laudenheimer, and others, nervous and -psychical symptoms predominate, together with severe chronic digestive -derangement. - -The patient after exposure for some time suffers from violent headache, -giddiness, and sickness; he has sensations of cold, pains in the -limbs, a feeling of ‘needles and pins,’ and itching in different parts -of the body. Gradually a condition of general excitement develops. -Sleeplessness, cramps, and palpitation set in. At the same time the -nervous system becomes involved—hypersensitiveness, loss of sensation -or complete numbness of some parts of the skin, diminution of muscular -power, disturbances of movement, twitching, violent trembling, wasting -of the muscles, and paralysis; the sight also is sometimes affected. -The stage of excitement, in which the patient often becomes strikingly -loquacious without cause, passes gradually, as the nervous symptoms -develop, into the stage of depression; sometimes this takes weeks and -months; excitement and gaiety give place to deep depression; other -symptoms appear—weakness of memory, mental dulness, and difficulty in -speaking. The powers of sensation become affected, paralysis increases, -and digestive disturbances, anæmia, and general loss of strength are -manifest. Occasionally definite mental disease (psychosis, mania, -melancholia, dementia, &c.) develops. - -Certain cases of chronic carbon bisulphide poisoning in indiarubber -workers have come under my notice, and some remarks concerning them -may be of interest. The characteristic symptoms are essentially as -follows: the invalid appears in the consulting-room in a bent position, -leaning upon a stick with head and hands shaking. The gait is clumsy -(spastic-paralysis) so that the patient ‘steps’ rather than walks. When -seated, the tremor ceases to some extent, but in purposive movements -increases rapidly, involving the whole body, so that an exact systematic -examination becomes impossible, and the invalid sinks back into the -chair exhausted and bathed in perspiration. He complains of cold in -the extremities. He looks pale; the skin of the upper extremities is -totally without feeling, as also is the upper part of the feet; the skin -of the head is hypersensitive; the muscular strength of the arms is -almost lost; testing the strength brings on marked shaking, followed by -a fainting-fit caused by exhaustion. The extremities of the patient are -cyanotic (livid); the knee jerks are exaggerated. The patient suffers -from indigestion, constipation, headache, and giddiness; he is irritable, -and depressed; his memory is weak; mental derangement cannot be proved. - -Chronic carbon bisulphide poisoning is rarely fatal. Slight cases end in -recovery after more or less long continuance; in severe cases improvement -occasionally takes place, but serious nervous disturbance (paralysis, -weakness of the muscles, deterioration of intellect) usually persists. - -Treatment is symptomatic, aiming especially at relieving the nervous -symptoms and improving the state of nutrition. If psychical disturbances -are prominent, treatment in an institution is necessary. - - -CYANOGEN AND CYANOGEN COMPOUNDS (CYANOGEN GAS, PRUSSIC ACID, CYANIDES) - -Industrial cyanogen poisoning is not frequent. _Cyanogen gas_ (C₂N₂, -existing in small quantities in furnace gas, illuminating gas, and other -kinds of gas) and especially _hydrocyanic acid_ (CNH, prussic acid) are -considered industrial poisons; the latter is a very unstable, colourless, -pungent-smelling liquid, boiling at 27° C. Among the cyanides employed -industrially and having an effect similar to that of prussic acid must be -mentioned _cyanide of potassium_ and _cyanide of sodium_ (KCN and NaCN), -_cyanide of silver_ (AgCN) and _cyanide of mercury_ (Hg[CN]₂). - -Cyanogen and cyanogen compounds are extraordinarily powerful poisons. The -minimum dose lies, as Lehmann has proved by experiments on animals, at -about 0·05 per thousand of hydrocyanic acid in the atmosphere breathed; -1-5 mg. per kg. weight is fatal to animals; to man about 60 mg. would be -fatal. - -The poisonous action of cyanogen and cyanogen compounds depends upon -their power of preventing absorption of oxygen from the blood by the -tissues with the result that the venous blood flowing to the heart -retains the bright red colour which otherwise only arterial blood -exhibits. This effect is due to cessation of the gaseous exchange in the -body, and results in tissue suffocation. At the same time these poisons -have at first an exciting and then a paralysing effect upon the central -nervous system. In severe poisoning the nerve effect is masked by the -effect upon the exchange of gases in the blood, since this quickly leads -to death. - -Most of the cases of industrial poisoning under this heading result from -inhalation; absorption of liquid cyanogen compounds through the skin can -rarely come into consideration. - -If large quantities of hydrocyanic acid have been inhaled, death ensues -very quickly. The person affected falls down suddenly, breathes with -difficulty, the pulse soon becomes imperceptible, and after a more or -less long stage of deep unconsciousness (coma) life becomes extinct. - -In slight cases of poisoning the patient feels a sensation of irritation -in the throat, giddiness, sickness, and difficulty in breathing; -occasionally such disturbances persist for some time. - -Some writers have described symptoms in workers manipulating prussic -acid and cyanides, which they believe to be due to chronic prussic -acid poisoning. Complaint is made of oppression of the chest, throat -irritation, giddiness, difficulty in breathing, palpitation, hebetude, -exhaustion, and nausea and vomiting; in certain instances the attack, -aggravated by exhaustion and weakness, culminates in death. It is a -question whether such poisonings are chronic in the true sense of the -word. In view of the mode of action of hydrocyanic acid, such cases -of sickness should rather be accounted acute or sub-acute poisonings -through repeated action of small quantities of the poison. - -It may be mentioned that in persons working with alkaline cyanides -(especially in electro-plating) skin affections occasionally occur; these -are traceable to the caustic effect of alkaline cyanides. - -Treatment by oxygen inhalation with simultaneous artificial respiration -holds out most prospect of success. This holds good for acute poisoning -by the other poisons belonging to this group. Besides this, saline -injections and bleeding are recommended, and also the administration of -an infusion of sodium thiosulphate solution. - - -_GROUP: ARSENIURETTED HYDROGEN AND CARBONIC OXIDE (BLOOD POISONS)_ - -Included in this group, as in the former one, are substances chemically -very different from each other, but of which the action is especially -on the blood. Besides this common effect, these substances also produce -various other effects, such as local irritation, effect on the nervous -system, &c. The industrial blood poisons, which according to their -chemical constitution are classed among the aliphatic and the aromatic -series of organic compounds, will, for the sake of clearness, be -discussed in the following chapters. - - -ARSENIURETTED HYDROGEN - -Acute arseniuretted hydrogen poisoning, produced by inhalation of -relatively very small quantities of arseniuretted hydrogen gas (AsH₃) -is in most cases industrial in origin. The absorption of an amount -corresponding to about 0·01 mg. arsenic suffices to produce severe -poisoning symptoms. The poisonous effect results chiefly from action upon -the red blood corpuscles, which are dissolved (hæmolysis). Arseniuretted -hydrogen is therefore a genuine blood poison. The effect upon the -blood, if not immediately fatal to life, is to cause the dissolved -blood-colouring matter to pass into the tissues where, though some is -deposited, most goes to, and acts injuriously on, the organs, especially -the liver, spleen, and kidneys. In cases running at once a fatal course, -the impoverishment of the blood caused by the lack of colouring matter -necessary to internal respiration produces tissue suffocation, which is -therefore the primary cause of death. In cases not immediately fatal, the -injury to the functions of the organs alluded to (for instance, cessation -of the functions of the kidneys, &c.) may lead to death secondarily. - -Symptoms of the disease appear often only some time after the poisoning -has set in, and begin with general malaise, sickness, collapse, fainting -fits, and difficulty of breathing; after some hours the characteristic -signs follow—the urine becomes dark red to black, containing quantities -of blood colouring matter and dissolved constituents of the blood, and -later also bile colouring matter, so that a coppery jaundice comes on if -the illness is prolonged. The region of the liver, spleen, and kidneys -is painful. Severe cases often end fatally during the first stage of -the illness, more rarely later, with increased difficulty of breathing; -sometimes death occurs after a preceding comatose stage marked by -convulsions and delirium. In slighter poisoning cases the symptoms abate -in a few days and recovery follows. - -The treatment of arseniuretted hydrogen poisoning is similar to that -adopted in the case of all other blood poisonings: in addition, if -possible, direct transfusion of blood from the artery of the giver into -the vein of the receiver, liquid nourishment, saline injections, and, -above all, prolonged oxygen inhalation. - - -CARBONIC OXIDE (CO) - -Carbonic oxide (CO) is a colourless, odourless gas which frequently -causes both acute and, it is said, chronic industrial poisoning. - -Carbonic oxide is a very poisonous gas; even as little as 0·5 per -thousand in the atmosphere breathed has a poisonous effect; about 2-3 per -thousand can be dangerous to life. - -Its poisonous effect results from its power of combining with the -blood-colouring matter or hæmoglobin to form carboxy-hæmoglobin; the -affinity of carbonic oxide for the hæmoglobin of the blood is more than -200 times greater than that of oxygen, so that, however small the amount -of carbonic oxide in the air, it is inevitably absorbed by the blood and -retained. The blood so altered, assumes a cherry-red colour, is unable to -effect the necessary exchange of gases for internal respiration, and in -consequence of the lack of oxygen suffocation ensues. - -Without doubt, however, carbonic oxide has also an immediate effect -upon the central nervous system (first excitation, followed quickly -by paralysis). It is maintained also that besides the action upon the -hæmoglobin it favours coagulation of the blood through the disintegration -of the blood corpuscles. The last-mentioned action is thought to account -for the sequelæ of carbonic oxide poisoning, but they can also naturally -be accounted for by the direct effect of the poison. - -Onset of symptoms is very sudden if a large quantity of pure carbonic -oxide is inhaled. The affected person immediately falls down unconscious -and succumbs after drawing a few breaths with difficulty. - -In less acute cases the illness begins with premonitory symptoms, -generally headache, sickness, giddiness, sleepiness, though in cases -of fairly rapid absorption these are absent, and are naturally absent -also when the poisoning creeps upon the affected persons while asleep, -as occasionally happens in cabins, &c., in factories. If the poisoning -continues, increasing mental dulness, accompanied by nausea and vomiting, -leads sometimes to a short stage of seemingly drunken excitement, which -preludes deep unconsciousness during which there is often a convulsive -stage, followed by complete loss both of sensation and of reflex action; -the breathing becomes shallow and intermittent, the pulse small and -irregular, and finally death ensues. Occasionally in the stage of -unconsciousness, death is hastened by entrance of vomited matter into the -respiratory passages. Bright red patches are seen on the body after death. - -If persons affected by severe carbonic oxide poisoning are withdrawn -from the poisonous atmosphere after having reached the stage of -unconsciousness, they may recover, but often with difficulty; not -infrequently—in spite of suitable treatment—death occurs some -considerable time later from the symptoms described above. Still, in many -cases, under the influence of right treatment, gradual recovery has been -brought about, even after long unconsciousness accompanied by repeated -convulsions. In the rescued the symptoms described as characteristic of -the first stage often continue for at least a day. Further, they are -liable to a number of serious after effects, such as severe inflammation -of the lungs due to infection by the entrance of vomited matter into the -air passages, skin affections (rashes), and especially severe nervous and -mental affections. Frequently these develop from centres of softening -in the brain or from inflammation of the peripheral nerves (neuritis); -occasionally the poisoning may really only be the predisposing cause for -the outbreak of an existing psychical disease. It is not our task to -enumerate all the extremely varied disturbances which are observed after -carbonic acid gas poisoning. Neuralgias and paralyses have been described -as associated with the peripheral nerve symptoms over areas supplied -by different nerves; various forms of diseases of the brain and spinal -cord (poliomyelitis, paralysis, sclerosis, &c.); and finally a series of -psychoses (neurasthenia, melancholia, mania, &c.), occasionally passing -into dementia and imbecility. Glycosuria (sugar in the urine) has also -been noted as a sequela. - -Chronic carbonic oxide poisoning, arising from continued inhalation of -small quantities of the gas, sets in usually with symptoms similar to -those of acute carbonic oxide poisoning; if the worker continues exposed -to danger, severe symptoms may arise which point to marked alteration of -the blood and later also of the digestion and bodily functions. Under -certain circumstances severe nervous and mental affections are said -to occur similar to those which we have mentioned as sequelæ of acute -carbonic oxide poisoning (convulsions, disturbances of mental activity, -symptoms which resemble progressive muscular atrophy, &c.). - -In acute carbonic oxide poisoning oxygen inhalation indefatigably -continued and supported by artificial respiration is often successful. -The serious danger from this form of poisoning renders it very necessary -that in all premises where there is risk provision should be made for -the administration of oxygen. The sequelæ can of course only be treated -symptomatically. - - -OXYCHLORIDE OF CARBON (PHOSGENE) - -Oxychloride of carbon (COCl₂), also called phosgene, is, at the ordinary -temperature, a colourless gas with a disagreeable smell. This decomposes -in moist air into carbonic oxide, hydrochloric acid, or chlorine, and -produces a strongly irritant local effect upon the mucous membranes. -Industrial poisoning by phosgene is characterised by great difficulty -in breathing and inflammation of the respiratory tract (bronchitis and -bloodstained expectoration). - -Several cases have been treated successfully by oxygen inhalation. - - -NICKEL CARBONYL - -The effects of nickel carbonyl are described on pp. 186-8. - - -CARBONIC ACID - -Carbonic acid (CO₂), a colourless gas, is heavier than air (specific -weight, 1·526), and therefore, wherever it collects, sinks to the ground. -Carbonic acid is only very slightly poisonous; about 10 per cent. -carbonic acid in the air causes asphyxia. The extinguishing of a candle -flame will serve as an indication that the amount of carbonic acid in -the atmosphere has reached this point. Cases of industrial carbonic acid -asphyxia are sudden; they do not occur frequently. - -The gradual action of the gas when mixed with air produces first a -tingling sensation on the surface of the body, reddening of the face, -irritation of the mucous membrane and the respiratory organs, after -which succeed difficulty in breathing, palpitation, fainting, and -unconsciousness. - -Sudden and fatal poisoning occurs industrially. Upon entering places -filled with carbonic acid gas the affected person falls down dead almost -immediately. These are cases of asphyxia, in which the lack of oxygen -certainly plays the greatest part. If those affected by acute carbonic -acid poisoning are removed in time out of the dangerous atmosphere they -usually recover quickly. - -Oxygen inhalations and artificial respiration are to be applied in -severer cases. There are no sequelæ. - - -_GROUP: HYDROCARBONS OF THE ALIPHATIC AND AROMATIC SERIES AND THEIR -HALOGEN AND HYDROXYL SUBSTITUTION PRODUCTS_ - -The industrial poisons comprised in this group have as their principal -general effect injurious action upon the functions of the central -nervous system (paralysis or causing excitation) which is prominent in -most of the cases of industrial poisoning caused by these substances. -This effect is most marked in the case of the readily volatile (low -boiling) hydrocarbons, while those less volatile and boiling at a higher -temperature often have collateral effects (such as local irritation). -The characteristic poisonous effect caused by the chlorine and -hydroxyl-substitution products (chloroform and alcohol group) is also -mainly on the central nervous system (narcosis). - - -HYDROCARBONS OF MINERAL OIL - -BENZINE, LIGROINE, PETROLEUM, PARAFFIN, VASELINE - -_Mineral oil_ (crude petroleum) has, according to its origin, differing -composition. Thus in American mineral oil hydrocarbons of the methane -series preponderate; in the Russian, hydrocarbons of the aromatic series. -Reference has been made in Part I. to this point, as well as to the -separation of crude petroleum into its different fractions. - -The injury to health produced by crude petroleum and its derivatives is -of two kinds. Direct contact with liquid petroleum and the semi-liquid -and solid deposit after distillation (paraffin) cause local injury to the -skin. Inhalation of the volatile constituents of raw petroleum causes -symptoms affecting mainly the central nervous system. They have moreover -a markedly irritating effect upon the mucous membrane of the respiratory -organs. These substances clearly exhibit the characteristic we have -referred to, namely, that the hydrocarbons boiling at low temperature act -as nerve poisons, whereas those boiling at a higher temperature produce a -local irritant effect. - -The skin affections take the form of inflammation of the hair follicles -(acne), eruptions with characteristic formation of vesicles, and -pimples and pustules which precede the deep-seated formation of ulcers, -abscesses, &c. - -In paraffin workers the acne-like skin inflammations are known as -‘paraffin eczema.’ They develop sometimes into cancer of the skin (warty -and epitheliomatous growths). - -In the general poisoning produced by inhalation of petroleum fumes the -effect upon the central nervous system is all the more plainly and -clearly marked when the irritant effect of the hydrocarbons boiling at -higher temperature is slight or absent; that is, in the case of poisoning -which arises solely from industrial products of low boiling hydrocarbons; -among these benzine is included. - -Acute poisoning from inhalation of benzine fumes begins with headache, -sickness, and attacks of giddiness resembling alcoholic intoxication. If -very much has been inhaled, the patient quickly becomes unconscious, with -occasionally muscular tremors, convulsions, difficulty in breathing, and -cyanosis. - -In cases of poisoning by inhalation of fumes of crude petroleum, these -symptoms may be complicated by coughing, intense inflammation of the -mucous membrane of the respiratory organs—congestion, bronchitis, -bloodstained expectoration, and inflammation of the lungs. In workers -who frequently remain long in an atmosphere filled with benzine fumes, -further symptoms of chronic benzine poisoning show themselves—mental -hebetude, pains in the limbs, trembling, weakness of the muscles, and -other disturbances of the nervous system; in such cases these may really -be signs of continued attacks of acute or sub-acute poisoning; many -benzine workers are anæmic. - -The treatment of acute benzine poisoning consists in oxygen inhalation, -with simultaneous artificial respiration. Treatment of chronic -derangement of health is symptomatic. - - -HYDROCARBONS OF THE AROMATIC SERIES - -BENZENE AND ITS HOMOLOGUES - -_Benzene_ (C₆H₆) is a characteristically smelling (aromatic) liquid which -boils at 80·5° C. Acute benzene poisoning, which plays an important part -as an industrial poisoning, is caused by inhalation of benzene fumes. The -various kinds of benzol used commercially contain, besides benzene, alkyl -benzenes, especially _toluene_ (methylbenzene, C₆H₅.CH₃, boiling-point -111° C.); _xylene_ (dimethylbenzene, C₆H₄[CH₃]₂, boiling-point 140° -C.); _pseudocumene_ and _mesitylene_ (tri-methylbenzene, C₆H₃[CH₃]₃, -boiling-point 169° or 163° C.); the regular presence of _thiophene_ -(C₄H₄S, boiling-point 84° C.) in commercial benzol must also be taken -into account. Industrial benzol poisoning arises, therefore, as a rule, -not from the action of pure benzene vapour, but from fumes which contain -a mixture of the compounds mentioned. - -The course run by industrial benzol poisoning is often very acute, if -large quantities are inhaled—death occurring suddenly, after a short -illness with symptoms of vertigo. Gradual inhalation of lesser quantities -gives rise to headache, giddiness, malaise, then twitchings appear -which develop into convulsions, and lastly unconsciousness. In order to -ascertain in what manner the various substances contained in commercial -benzol share in the poisonous effect, experimental research seemed to me -to be indispensable, especially as published statements so far gave no -accurate data. - -Two cases of industrial benzol poisoning have given rise to close -experimental research upon the poisonous nature of benzene. - -Lewin undertook experiments on animals; which he confined under bells -and caused to inhale fumes of chemically pure and impure benzene. He -mentions that even at comparatively low concentration poisoning results, -and indeed more readily and certainly from the action of impure than pure -benzene. Lewin found that when air was made to flow slowly first through -benzene and then into the bell, symptoms of paralysis, convulsions, -and unconsciousness showed themselves in from four to six minutes. -After-effects by this means could not be observed. Lewin maintains, -however, that in man even slight acute action of benzene can be followed -by after-effects (giddiness, sickness, headache, distress in breathing, -and oppression of the heart). - -Santesson made researches upon the poisonous action of benzene in -connection with occurrence of certain cases of poisoning through ‘impure -benzol’ (coal-tar benzene) in a rubber tyre factory. In the factory -mentioned nine young women were poisoned, of whom four died. The symptoms -shown were lassitude, anæmia, giddiness, headache, vomiting, and fever. -Post mortem, hæmorrhages and fatty degeneration of the endothelium of the -bloodvessels and various organs were found. Experimental research showed -that commercial benzol and chemically pure benzene had the same effect. -Santesson did not succeed in his experiments on animals in producing -chronic poisoning by inhalation of benzine and of benzene fumes (which -two completely different poisons he does not distinguish strictly from -each other, as is the case, unfortunately, with many other writers). My -experimental researches upon the poisonous effect of pure benzene, pure -toluene, cumene, thiophene, and the most important kinds of commercial -benzol gave the following results: - -For rabbits the limit of toxicity is a proportion of 0·015 to 0·016 per -thousand pure benzene in the air, that is 0·015 to 0·016 c.c. benzene -vapour per litre of air. - -A concentration of 0·056-0·057 per thousand pure benzene in the air -causes in rabbits at once—after one minute—twitching of the muscles; -after eight minutes, convulsions; after ten minutes, deep narcosis; and -after twenty-five minutes, coma. If the animal is taken out of the bell -in time, even if it has shown marked symptoms, it recovers very quickly -(in two to ten minutes) without manifesting any after effects. Even in -animals repeatedly exposed to the poison sequelæ were not observed. - -Dogs are somewhat more susceptible to pure benzene than rabbits; 0·024 -per thousand causes after ten minutes severe convulsions, which after -twenty minutes become continuous; 0·042 per thousand kills after twenty -minutes (sudden death in a state of tetanus). - -Cats are less sensitive than dogs and more sensitive than rabbits; -0·03-0·04 per thousand causes after ten minutes attacks of cramp and, -after twenty minutes, convulsions; 0·05 per thousand at once brings on -poisoning symptoms. As regards the character of the symptoms (cramps, -convulsions, quick recovery, no after effects) the above statements apply -to all three kinds of animals (rabbit, dog, and cat). - -Chloral hydrate completely checks the convulsions and enables animals to -tolerate higher concentrations of benzene for a longer time. - -Benzene is thus to be counted among nerve irritant poisons. The -convulsions are probably provoked by excitement of the motor centres in -the brain. - -In view of the fact that thiophene in a concentration of 0·03-0·05 per -thousand in the air was borne by animals for an hour without producing -any symptoms of poisoning, the proportion of thiophene in commercial -benzol must be looked upon as practically non-injurious. - -The so-called 90 _benzol_—a commercial benzol of which 90 per cent. -distils at 100° C.—has naturally a somewhat weaker action, although, in -respect of the poisoning symptoms produced, it is similar to that of pure -benzene. - -_Pure toluene_ (boiling-point 111° C.) and purified toluol (commercial -product, boiling-point 109°-112° C.) produce, when inhaled, gradually -increasing narcosis in the three kinds of animals referred to; they -produce no symptoms of convulsions or spasms. - -After the animals have been taken out of the bell, recovery is not so -rapid as after benzine inhalation, but takes from half an hour to one -hour. In rabbits and cats 0·046-0·05 per thousand produces after fifteen -minutes staggering and paresis; after thirty minutes deep narcosis. The -dog is again somewhat more susceptible, as little as 0·034 per thousand -causing these symptoms in the same time. - -‘Purified toluol’ (commercial product) acts somewhat less rapidly -than pure toluene, but this small difference in effect need hardly be -considered. - -Other poisons were also investigated:— - -_Solvent naphtha I_, a commercial product, of which 90 per cent. -comes over at 160° C.; it contains little toluene, chiefly xylene, -pseudocumene, and cumene. - -_Solvent naphtha II_, of which 90 per cent. comes over at 175° C, it -contains besides xylene, chiefly pseudocumene, mesitylene, cumene, &c. - -The fumes of solvent naphtha I cause, when inhaled by rabbits, dogs, and -cats, gradual narcosis, although not nearly so quickly as toluene at -similar concentrations; recovery usually takes over an hour after the -deeply narcotised animals have been removed from the bell. Rabbits and -cats are affected in about equal degree. The dog is the more sensitive. -Rabbits and cats can tolerate about 0·012-0·013 per thousand of the -fumes of solvent naphtha I in the atmosphere for a long time without any -symptoms. Only after breathing for fifty minutes air containing 0·0536 -per thousand do they become narcotised. In the dog 0·036 per thousand -causes narcosis only after thirty minutes. - -With the fumes of solvent naphtha II I could not affect rabbits at all. -The cat also, in spite of long inhalation of the heavy fumes, showed no -marked symptoms of poisoning. In the dog gradual narcosis came about only -after an hour’s inhalation of 0·048 per thousand. - -The fumes of pure _xylene_ caused narcosis in rabbits after forty -minutes’ inhalation of 0·05 per thousand in the atmosphere; after being -taken out of the bell the animals recovered slowly (after half an hour to -one hour). - -_Cumene_ causes no symptoms after one hour’s inhalation in a -concentration of 0·06 to 0·07 per thousand. This explains the effects of -solvent naphtha I (in which xylene preponderates) and solvent naphtha II -(in which pseudocumene, cumene, &c., preponderate). After effects were -not observed. - -Benzol and toluol fumes, and particularly those of solvent naphtha, -exercise a distinctly irritant effect upon the mucous membrane, which, -however, passes off without after effects. - -Pure benzene, therefore, proved the most poisonous of the substances -under investigation. When inhaled its effect (convulsions, with quick -recovery) differs essentially from that of toluene, solvent naphtha, -xylene, and cumene (gradual narcosis, slow recovery). The fumes of the -various kinds of commercial benzol (solvent naphtha) boiling at a higher -temperature are practically non-poisonous (solvent naphtha II). Pure -benzene fumes are, however poisonous, even in very small quantities in -the air. The limit for animals lies at 0·015-0·016 per thousand. - -Lehmann has shown in a recent work that man, exposed to a mixture of -benzene and air, absorbs 80 per cent. of the benzene. - -Treatment of acute industrial benzene poisoning consists in severe cases -of artificial respiration, with simultaneous administration of oxygen; in -slight cases it is sufficient to bring the patient into fresh air. - -_Naphthalene._—Naphthalene, which is insoluble in water, has irritant -effect upon the mucous membrane and upon the skin when brought into -contact with it. - -Long continuance in an atmosphere containing naphthalene as dust or fumes -causes headache, nausea, giddiness, &c. - - -HALOGEN SUBSTITUTION PRODUCTS - -ALIPHATIC SERIES (NARCOTIC POISONS) - -The halogen substitution products of the aliphatic series are not of -much account as industrial poisons. They have generally a narcotic -effect, that is, a paralysing effect upon the central nervous system, -usually preceded by a short stage of excitement. This effect shows itself -typically on inhalation of chloroform (methanetrichloride, CHCl₃), which -however plays no part as an industrial poison. The narcotic effect of -the other alkyl chlorides is less than that of chloroform. With carbon -tetrachloride (CCl₄) the narcotic effect is only half that of chloroform; -it causes, however, a more violent excitation; inhaling the fumes brings -on nausea, coughing, sickness, headache, &c. - -_Methylchloride_ (CH₃Cl) has a less narcotising effect. On the other hand -it has a stronger local irritant action, which is indeed present also in -chloroform, though not so apparent. This gas, as is well known, is used -as a local anæsthetic in medicine. - -Pure _methylene chloride_ (CH₂Cl₂) similarly is much less powerful than -chloroform. Severe poisoning, alleged to have resulted from methylene -chloride was caused by a mixture, called indeed methylene chloride, but -composed of methylalcohol and chloroform. - -Of the remaining halogen substitution products of methane, _methyl -bromide_ (CH₃Br) and _methyl iodide_ (CH₃I) have given rise to industrial -poisoning. - -These poisons also act in the same way as the alkyl chlorides, but the -excitement accompanying the narcosis is more marked—so far as the scanty -observations allow conclusions to be drawn. The symptoms first show -themselves in sickness, giddiness, hebetude, slowing of respiratory -movements and of the heart’s action; convulsions or delirium ensue. - -Treatment consists in artificial respiration or promotion of breathing -by a plentiful supply of fresh air or oxygen; in pronounced narcosis -stimulating remedies should be applied. - - -BENZENE SERIES - -_Chlorobenzene_, and _nitro-_ and _dinitro-chlorobenzene_ and -_benzoylchloride_, have given rise to industrial poisoning. - -To chlorobenzene similar action is attributed as to benzene (headache, -fainting, rapid breathing, cyanosis); changes in the blood (methæmoglobin -formation) have also been observed. - -Nitro- and dinitro-chlorobenzene are active poisons; the effect -corresponds in general to that of nitro- and dinitrobenzene, but in -addition the fumes or dust have markedly irritant action on the skin -(dermatitis). - -_Benzoylchloride_ (C₆H₅COCl), a colourless, pungent-smelling liquid, -produces a violently irritant effect upon the mucous membrane, -decomposing into hydrochloric acid and benzoic acid. - -Treatment is analogous to that of benzene poisoning, and in cases of -benzoyl chloride poisoning to that by hydrochloric acid. - -It may be mentioned that chlorine rash is attributed to the action of -chlorinated tar products (chlorobenzene compounds). - - -HYDROXYL SUBSTITUTION PRODUCTS - -FATTY SERIES (ALCOHOLS) - -The hydroxyl substitution products of the fatty series belong mainly -to the narcotic poisons; the greater the molecular weight of the -alcohol, the more marked is usually the narcotic effect. According to -this propylalcohol is eighteen times as poisonous as ethylalcohol; -butylalcohol and amylalcohol have from 36 to 120 times as great a -narcotic effect as methylalcohol. - -_Methylalcohol_ (wood spirit, CH₃OH) plays relatively the greatest part -among alcohols as an industrial poison, because it is employed as a -means of denaturing spirit. Its poisonous nature is relatively great, -being very persistent. Industrial poisoning by methylalcohol is due to -inhalation of the vapour and is rarely of a severe nature. The fumes -have a strongly irritant effect upon the mucous membrane, giving rise to -throat irritation, cough, hoarseness, and in severe cases bronchitis and -inflammation of the conjunctiva of the eye. In addition inhalation of -methylalcohol vapour causes headache, giddiness, nausea (inclination to -vomit), and occasionally also twitchings and tremor. - -The _higher alcohols_ (propyl-, butyl-, amyl-alcohol, C₃H₇.OH, C₄H₉.OH, -and C₅H₁₁.OH) occur in fusel oil. They cause but slight (if any) -industrial poisoning. Cases of more severe industrial poisoning through -amylalcohol fumes have been described (in factories for smokeless -powder), with symptoms of sickness, headache, giddiness, with fatal -issue in some cases, preceded by severe nervous symptoms (convulsions or -delirium). - -Beyond speedy removal out of the dangerous atmosphere, probably no -special treatment is needed in these cases of industrial poisoning from -alcoholic vapour. - - -_GROUP: NITRO AND AMIDO COMPOUNDS OF THE ALIPHATIC AND AROMATIC SERIES -(BLOOD POISONS WHICH FORM METHÆMOGLOBIN)_ - -Characteristic of the nitro and amido compounds of the aliphatic and -aromatic series of the organic substances is their action upon the -blood. The normal oxyhæmoglobin (blood-colouring matter) is changed -into methæmoglobin, with which the oxygen is so firmly combined that -the internal exchange of gases necessary to life becomes impossible. -Methæmoglobin has a dark chocolate-brown colour and a clearly defined -characteristic spectrum. - -Of the poisons belonging to this group several are important. In so -far as these substances are volatile—and this is generally the case -with those causing industrial poisoning—effects are due to inhalation -of fumes, but it is proved that the poisons of this group in liquid -form can be absorbed by the intact skin, and this channel of absorption -is characteristic of industrial poisoning. Severe poisoning results -especially from wetting the skin by spilling on the clothes, &c. - -The grey-blue discoloration of the mucous membrane, especially of the -lips, is characteristic; sometimes also the skin is altered in colour. -This discoloration is often noticed by others before the patient feels -unwell. Soon the person affected has general nausea, vomiting, headache, -giddiness, severe nervous symptoms, feeling of anxiety, and difficulty -of breathing; in severe cases unconsciousness comes on, and death occurs -with increasing cyanosis (lividity). - -Treatment is naturally that which has been emphasised in the introductory -words to Part II, which hold for all blood poisonings. In mild cases -oxygen treatment has given good results. In all factories where such -poisoning can occur provision should be made for immediate oxygen -treatment. Besides this, the workers must be adequately instructed as to -the danger and symptoms of poisoning, especially of the characteristic -premonitory skin discoloration, in order to be able to assist their -fellows. - - -NITROCOMPOUNDS - -ALIPHATIC SERIES - -_Nitro-glycerin_ (triple nitric acid ester of glycerin, C₃H₅.[NO₃]₃), -the well-known oily explosive liquid, has also an irritant local effect. -When absorbed into the body, in addition to methæmoglobin formation, it -causes dilatation of the bloodvessels, slowing of the respiration and -heart’s action, and attacks of suffocation. The general remarks upon this -group apply here, but symptoms referable to central paralysis occur as -the methæmoglobin formation is slow. Industrial poisoning arises through -inhalation of gases containing nitro-glycerin and also by absorption -through the skin. Statements as to its poisonous nature are very varied. -Under certain conditions moistening the skin with small quantities of -nitro-glycerin suffices to produce symptoms. Probably the susceptibility -of different persons varies greatly. - -_Amylnitrite_ (nitric acid amyl ester, C₅H₁₁NO₂), a characteristically -smelling liquid, acts similarly. The fumes of amylnitrite, even when -inhaled in small quantities, cause marked dilatation of the bloodvessels, -through paralysis of the muscular walls of the bloodvessels, thus causing -marked flushing of the face; the pulse becomes quick, then weak and slow. - - -NITRO AND AMIDO COMPOUNDS - -AROMATIC SERIES - -The substances of this group are important. - -_Nitrobenzene_ (C₆H₅NO₂, named oil of mirbane), a yellowish liquid of -characteristic smell, induces especially the formation of methæmoglobin -in the blood; the effect upon the central nervous system (first -excitation, then depression) is often absent. The description of the -disease in general in the introductory words of this whole group is -characteristic. Occasionally signs of asphyxia show themselves; sometimes -there are twitchings, disturbance of the power of sensation, and -convulsions; early discoloration of the mucous membrane and the skin, -which assume a blue to grey-black colour, is characteristic. - -Chronic poisoning is also attributed to nitrobenzene, showing itself in -lassitude, headache, malaise, giddiness, and other disturbances of the -nervous system. - -_Nitrotoluene_ (C₆H₄CH₃NO₂), of which the ortho-compound acts most -powerfully, and also _nitroxylene_ (C₆H₃[CH₃]₂NO₂) have similar but less -marked effect. - -The _dinitrobenzenes_ (C₆H₄[NO₂]₂) are stable bodies. Meta-dinitrobenzene -inhaled as dust or otherwise, can produce marked poisoning symptoms -essentially the same as those described. Especially characteristic is the -early dark discoloration of the skin. - -Symptoms resembling nitrobenzene poisoning in general are caused by -_nitrophenols_ (C₆H₄.OH.NO₂), of which paranitrophenol is the most -toxic; also by _dinitrophenols_ (C₆H₃[NO₂]₂OH), solid crystalline -substances which melt at different temperatures, and the _mono-_ and -_di-nitrochlorobenzenes_ (C₆H₄.Cl.NO₂ and C₆H₃.Cl[NO₂]₂). In cases of -industrial poisoning by dinitrophenol, observed by Leymann, the workers -were taken suddenly ill, with symptoms of collapse, pains in the chest, -vomiting, distress of breathing, rapid pulse, and convulsions, and died -within a few hours. At the autopsy a yellow substance was found with -picric acid reaction which appeared to be di- or tri-nitrophenol. In -other cases, some fatal, of industrial nitrochlorobenzene poisoning, also -observed by Leymann, the typical grey-blue discoloration of the skin -was obvious, and the chocolate-brown colour of the blood produced by -methæmoglobin. - -_Trinitrophenol_ (picric acid, C₆H₂[NO₂]₃OH) is a yellow crystalline -compound with bitter taste; poisoning by this substance exhibits clearly -strong local irritant action (upon skin, mucous membrane, and intestinal -canal, and especially upon the kidneys), besides effect on the blood and -central nervous system. Prolonged action of picric acid upon the skin -causes inflammation. Absorption of picric acid dust causes inflammation -of the mucous membrane of the respiratory passages and symptoms of -gastric and intestinal catarrh as well as inflammation of the kidneys. - -A jaundice-like discoloration of the skin and darkening of the urine are -also characteristic; sometimes picric acid poisoning produces a rash -resembling that of measles and scarlet fever. - -_Nitronaphthalene_ (C₁₀H₇[NO₂]) and _nitronaphthol_ (C₁₀H₆.NO₂.OH) in -addition to methæmoglobin formation have an irritant action. It is stated -also that dulness of the cornea is produced. - -_Azobenzenes_ also, which are to be considered as intermediate between -nitrobenzene and aniline, form methæmoglobin (azobenzene, C₆H₅N = NH₅C₆). - -_Aniline_ (amidobenzene, C₆H₅.NH₂), a colourless, oily liquid of aromatic -smell, has only slight local irritant effect. In the frequent cases -of industrial poisoning by ‘aniline oil’ or aniline hydrochloride, in -which the aniline enters through the skin or is inhaled in the form -of fume, there appear the typical symptoms common to this group, of -the action upon the blood through methæmoglobin formation: headache, -weakness, cyanosis, difficulty in breathing, &c., to which are added -nervous symptoms such as convulsions and psychical disturbance, although -these play a subordinate part in industrial poisoning. In severe cases -the typical symptoms of air hunger are shown. Occasionally recovery -only takes place gradually, and signs of irritation of the kidneys -and inflammation of the urinary organs are seen. These symptoms occur -only rarely in acute industrial poisoning, but are, however, in so far -worthy of notice because of the frequent occurrence of tumours in the -bladder among aniline workers. It is possible that here the irritant -action of the urine which contains aniline plays a part. The tumours -in the bladder operated upon, in some cases with success, were many of -them non-malignant (papillomata), but some were carcinomata (cancerous -new growths) running a malignant course, and recurring after operation. -In the urine the aniline combines with sulphuric acid, and is partly -excreted as paramidophenol sulphuric acid. - -The treatment of aniline poisoning is the same as that for all the -poisons of this group. In view of the occurrence of tumours of the -bladder in aniline workers, they should be instructed to seek medical -aid on the first indications of trouble, so that a careful cystoscopic -examination may be made. - -_Toluidine_ (C₆H₄.CH₃.NH₂), which is mixed with aniline for industrial -use, produces the same symptoms with marked irritation of the renal -organs. - -Of the _nitroanilines_ (C₆H₄.NH₂.NO₂) _paranitroaniline_ is the most -poisonous. Characteristic of the action of this compound is methæmoglobin -formation, central paralysis and paralysis of the heart’s action. - -Of the _benzenediamines_, _paraphenylene diamine_ (C₆H₄[NH₂]₂) may be -regarded as an industrial poison. The irritant action of this substance -is prominent; it induces skin affections, inflammation of the mucous -membranes, more especially of the respiratory organs, and sometimes -inflammation of the kidneys. They have been noted in workers using ursol -as a dye; here, doubtless, the action of diimine (C₆H₄.NH.NH.) must be -taken into account, which arises as an intermediate product and exercises -a markedly irritant action. Further, the general effect of paraphenylene -diamine is an irritant one upon the central nervous system. - - -_APPENDIX_ - -TURPENTINE, PYRIDINE BASES, ALKALOIDS - -_Turpentine oil._.—Turpentine oil is a peculiar-smelling, colourless -liquid of the composition C₁₀H₁₆; different reactions show that -turpentine oil contains the aromatic nucleus (cymene). It is used in -the manufacture of varnish, and thus can cause industrial poisoning -by inhalation of fumes. Even from 3 to 4 mg. of vapour of turpentine -oil per litre of air brings on severe symptoms. Turpentine oil acts as -a local irritant, and when absorbed into the system has an exciting -effect upon the central nervous system. Inhalation of large quantities -of turpentine vapour cause rapid breathing, palpitation, giddiness, -stupor, convulsions, and other nervous disturbances, pains in the chest, -bronchitis, and inflammation of the kidneys. The last-mentioned symptom -also arises from the chronic action of turpentine vapours. - -_Pyridine._—Pyridine (C₅H₅N), a colourless liquid of peculiar odour, is -employed as well as methylalcohol in denaturing alcohol. The disturbance -of health observed in workers occupied with the denatured spirit are -probably mainly due to the inhalation of fumes of methylalcohol. Pyridine -is comparatively innocuous. Eczema, from which persons suffer who -come into contact with denatured spirit, is ascribed to the action of -pyridine. Larger doses produce a paralysing effect, but this need not be -considered in its industrial use. - -_Nicotine, tobacco._—According to various published statements, effects -among tobacco factory workers are attributed to the nicotine contained -in tobacco dust and to the aroma which fills the air. Nicotine in large -doses has at first an exciting followed by a paralysing effect upon the -central nervous system; it causes moreover contraction of the unstriped -muscles and has a local irritant effect. - -The symptoms of illness ascribed to nicotine are: conjunctivitis, catarrh -of the air passages, palpitation, headache, want of appetite, and, -particularly, tendency to abortion and excessive menstruation. Severe -industrial poisoning due to nicotine has only been observed in workers -who chewed tobacco leaves. - -_Poisonous wood._—The symptoms of disease noticed in workers who -manipulate certain kinds of wood are attributed by some writers to the -presence of alkaloids. Such knowledge as we have of the illness due to -them—they are evidently of the nature of poisoning—is referred to at the -end of Part I. - - - - -PART III - -_PREVENTIVE MEASURES AGAINST INDUSTRIAL POISONING_ - - - - -I - -_GENERAL MEASURES_ - - -In discussing preventive measures against industrial poisoning the -deductive method from the general to the particular will be followed. The -numerous instances of poisoning mentioned in Part I afford a practical -basis on which to formulate general rules before passing on to describe -special measures. Technical details will be omitted, as they must be left -to the technical expert whose business it is to draw up the plans as a -whole and to modify them according to the requirements of individual -cases. - -In the effort to control industrial poisoning and disease it is necessary -to insist absolutely on the concerted action of all concerned. In this -co-operation every one is called who through his knowledge and sphere of -activity is in a position to assist. - -The medical man comes in with his special knowledge of the action of -poisons as toxicologist, as practising physician (especially as works -surgeon and doctor of the sick insurance society), and also in an -official capacity as appointed surgeon or medical officer of health; the -technical expert comes in as engineer, as manager, as foreman, and as -factory inspector. But above all the interest and active co-operation of -employers and employed are needed as well as the organisations of both. -That the workers should understand and co-operate is essential for the -success of preventive measures, and subsequently it will be shown in what -direction this co-operation is most necessary. - -To make possible such co-operation interest must be aroused and -suitable information and teaching supplied to the parties concerned. -Medical men and practical workers require to receive instruction in -industrial hygiene, and teaching on this subject should be arranged -for in secondary and technical schools. Medical men and others who, as -officials and insurance doctors, are brought constantly into touch with -industrial workers should have opportunity—by means of special courses -and lectures—to keep pace with advancing knowledge in this direction. -Beside these there are, as educative organisations, special Institutes -of Industrial Hygiene and special hospitals for treatment of diseases -of occupation which bring together the patients and the teaching staff -and so facilitate pursuit of knowledge and research. A beginning of -this kind has already been made by the Industrial Hygiene Institute, -Frankfurt a.-Main, and the hospital for diseases of occupation at Milan, -showing that the ideas are attainable. International agencies which unite -all circles interested in the subject irrespective of profession or -nationality in common interchange of thought and discussion are of great -significance for uniform development of needful preventive measures; -international congresses, often in connection with exhibitions, have -given valuable stimulus and have been the starting-point of permanent -international societies, unions, and organisations. The significance -for our inquiry of these international efforts will be more closely -considered in the following pages. - - - - -II - -_GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS ON SOCIAL AND LEGISLATIVE MEASURES_ - -INTERNATIONAL PREVENTIVE MEASURES, NOTIFICATION OF INDUSTRIAL POISONING, -LISTS AND SCHEDULES OF INDUSTRIAL POISONS - - -Experience and inquiry in the field of industrial poisoning led to a -series of demands which, supported as they were by a general movement -for the protection of workers, were soon followed by regulations and -legislative action. For a long time efforts have been directed to treat -industrial disease and poisoning in the same way as has been done in -the case of industrial accidents. The question, however, is attended -with much greater difficulty. On the other hand, uniform international -regulation of questions affecting prevention of disease is called for -both on humanitarian and economic grounds. - -The idea of international legislation for the protection of workers -was first mooted about the year 1870. The possibility and need of such -intervention was much discussed and interest in it kept constantly alive, -especially in Switzerland, until the organisations of the workers took -up the idea. Several attempts failed. In France in 1883 a proposal of -the Socialist party aiming at international agreement on the subject -of protection of the workers was rejected. In 1885 (in opposition -to Hertling) Prince Bismarck expressed himself strongly against the -possibility of such international protection. But the stone, once set -rolling, could not be stayed. In the years 1886, 1887, and 1888 the -French and English trade unions, as well as the Swiss Federal Council, -took up the question afresh. These endeavours at last took tangible shape -in the first International Conference for the protection of workers held -in Berlin in March 1890. This date remains a landmark in the history of -the subject, but not until ten years later—1900—did the Congress held -in Paris for the international legal protection of workers lead to the -establishment of what had been repeatedly urged, namely, creation of an -International Bureau. This was inaugurated at Basle in 1901 and forms the -headquarters of the National Associations for Labour Legislation called -into being in various countries. - -This International Association meets regularly in conference, as in -Cologne (1902), Berne (1905), Lucerne (1908), Lugano (1910), and Zurich -(1912). The questions raised in the International Labour Bureau, -which receives financial aid from a number of States, are fully and -scientifically discussed with the object of finding a basis on which to -bring into agreement the divergent laws of the different countries. A -further task of this strictly scientific institution is the collection -and publication of literature bearing on the protection of workers in -one and another country, distribution of information, and the editing of -reports and memoranda. The question of prevention of industrial poisoning -has always taken a foremost place in the programme of the International -Association and in the agenda of the International Labour Bureau. At its -first meeting a resolution was adopted advocating the prohibition of the -use of white phosphorus and white lead, and the Labour Bureau in Basle -was instructed to take the necessary steps. Special, if not prohibitive, -economical considerations foreshadowed difficulties—all the greater -because the matter at issue concerned prohibition of articles playing -a part in the markets of the world. Just on that account international -treatment of such questions is necessary, since a peaceful and orderly -solution can only be arrived at on such lines. International effort -endeavours here to press with equal weight on the countries competing -with one another commercially, so that in the protection of the workers -economic adjustment is sought in order that efforts based on humanitarian -grounds shall not at the same time cause economic disadvantages, the aim -being to produce general welfare and not merely protection of one class -at the expense of another. - -Through these international agreements between various countries success -in the direction aimed at is hopeful, and indeed to a certain extent—as -in the phosphorus and lead questions—actually attained. Thus, for -example, Germany and Italy were in a position to enforce prohibition of -the use of white phosphorus early, while their neighbour Austria, on -account of commercial and political considerations and the conditions of -the home lucifer match industry, has only recently decided on prohibition. - -As international agreement for the protection of workers is advisable -on economic grounds, so also is it reasonable and just from purely -humanitarian reasons that workers, without reference to civil condition -or nationality, should be equally protected. On this point it is proposed -to take a vote and to press only for those reforms which are thoroughly -sound and recognised as necessary. - -The first step in such a comprehensive attack is precise knowledge of -the extent and source of origin of the particular forms of industrial -poisoning and disease and the collection of reliable statistics. This -suggested the obligation to notify such cases to the proper authorities -in the same way as is now done in the case of infectious disease. A -motion to this effect had already been passed at the Conference of the -International Association for Labour Legislation held in Basle, and a -request was made to the Labour Bureau to prepare a list of the diseases -and poisonings in question. To them we shall refer later, but a schedule -is necessary as a basis to work upon. Yet even when this is done there -are obviously great difficulties to be overcome in carrying out the -requirement of notification when the aim is kept in mind of collecting -complete statistical data for controlling the conditions giving rise -to industrial disease. The proposal of the International Association -seeks to make notification obligatory on the part both of the medical -practitioner in attendance and the occupier, and in connection with -this to secure the co-operation of the Sick Insurance Society.[D] The -proposal to require the appointed surgeons and surgeons of the Insurance -Society to notify all cases is hardly feasible in view of their dependent -position. Nor can the obligation on the occupiers lead to the desired -result because of their lack of medical knowledge and the fact that -by notifying they might be forced to act to their own disadvantage. A -successful effort in this direction is recorded in Saxony, where lead -poisoning was first made a notifiable disease, and later the general duty -of notification of industrial poisoning was prescribed by Order dated -March 4, 1901. - - +-----------------------+-----------------------------------------------+ - | | Reported Cases.[E] | - | Disease and Industry. +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+ - | | 1912. | 1911. | 1910. | 1909. | 1908. | 1907. | - | (1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | (5) | (6) | (7) | - +-----------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+ - |Lead Poisoning |587 (44|669 (37|505 (38|553 (30|646 (32|578 (26| - | 1. Smelting of metals| 56 (7| 48 (3| 34 (5| 66 (5| 70 (2| 28 (2| - | 2. Brass works | 5 | 9 (1| 7 | 5 | 6 | 9 (1| - | 3. Sheet lead and | | | | | | | - | lead piping | 6 | 12 | 4 | 9 (2| 14 | 6 | - | 4. Plumbing and | | | | | | | - | soldering | 35 (5| 37 (2| 25 (1| 28 | 27 | 20 (2| - | 5. Printing | 37 | 32 (2| 33 (4| 21 (1| 30 (2| 26 (3| - | 6. File cutting | 13 | 18 (2| 9 (1| 8 | 9 (2| 10 | - | 7. Tinning | 15 (11| 13 | 17 | 22 | 10 | 25 | - | 8. White lead | 23 | 41 (2| 34 (1| 32 (2| 79 (3| 71 | - | 9. Red lead | 3 | 13 (1| 10 | 10 | 12 | 7 | - | 10. China and | | | | | | | - | earthenware | 80 (14| 92 (6| 77 (11| 58 (5|117 (12|103 (9| - |10a. Litho-transfers | 1 (1| 1 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 10 | - | 11. Glass cutting and | | | | | | | - | polishing | 1 (1| 5 | — | 4 (2| 3 (1| 4 | - | 12. Vitreous | | | | | | | - | Enamelling | 5 | 19 (1| 17 | 7 | 7 | 6 | - | 13. Electric | | | | | | | - | accumulators | 38 (1| 24 (1| 31 | 27 (2| 25 (1| 21 | - | 14. Paints and colours| 19 | 21 | 17 (1| 39 (2| 25 | 35 (1| - | 15. Coach building | 84 (7|104 (5| 70 (6| 95 (6| 70 (3| 70 (3| - | 16. Ship building | 34 (2| 36 (6| 21 (2| 27 (1| 15 | 22 (1| - | 17. Paint used in | | | | | | | - | other industries| 48 (3| 56 (1| 51 (3| 42 | 47 (1| 49 (2| - | 18. Other industries | 84 (2| 88 (4| 47 (3| 52 (2| 78 (5| 56 (2| - | | | | | | | | - |Phosphorus Poisoning | — | — | — | 3 | 1 | 1 (1| - | | | | | | | | - |Arsenic Poisoning | 5 | 10 (1| 7 | 4 | 23 (1| 9 (2| - | | | | | | | | - |Mercurial Poisoning | 17 | 12 | 10 (1| 9 | 10 | 7 | - | | | | | | | | - |Anthrax | 47 | 64 (11| 51 (9| 56 (12| 47 (7| 58 (11| - | Wool | 31 (6| 35 (10| 28 (3| 28 (3| 18 (3| 23 (3| - | Horsehair | 7 | 8 (1| 6 (1| 8 (2| 10 | 17 (4| - | Handling of hides and | | | | | | | - | skins | 8 | 20 | 14 (3| 18 (6| 13 (1| 12 (2| - | Other industries | 1 | 1 | 3 (2| 2 (1| 6 (3| 6 (2| - +-----------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+ - - +--------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+--------+ - | | 1906. | 1905. | 1904. | 1903. | 1902. | 1901. | 1900. | - | | (8) | (9) | (10) | (11) | (12) | (13) | (14) | - +--------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+--------+ - |Lead |632 (33|592 (23|597 (26|614 (19|629 (14|863 (34|1058 (38| - | 1. | 38 (1| 24 (1| 33 (1| 37 (2| 28 | 54 (3| 34 (1| - | 2. | 11 | 5 (1| 10 (1| 15 | 5 | 6 (1| 3 | - | 3. | 7 | 9 | 7 | 11 | 12 | 17 | 17 (1| - | 4. | 16 (4| 24 (2| 21 (3| 26 | 23 (1| 23 | 9 | - | 5. | 16 (2| 19 (4| 15 | 13 (2| 19 | 23 (1| 18 (2| - | 6. | 15 | 12 | 20 (4| 24 (2| 27 (1| 46 (7| 40 (3| - | 7. | 18 (1| 14 (1| 10 | 14 | 11 | 10 | 5 | - | 8. |108 (7| 90 |116 (2|109 (2|143 (1|189 (7| 358 (6| - | 9. | 6 | 10 | 11 | 6 | 13 | 14 | 19 | - | 10. |107 (4| 84 (3|106 (4| 97 (3| 87 (4|106 (5| 200 (3| - | 10a. | 5 | 5 | 3 | 3 | 2 | 7 | 10 | - | 11. | 4 (1| 3 | — | 4 | 8 (2| 11 (3| 7 | - | 12. | 4 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 3 (1| 9 | 11 | - | 13. | 26 | 27 (1| 33 | 28 | 16 (1| 49 (1| 33 | - | 14. | 37 | 57 (1| 32 (1| 39 (1| 46 | 56 | 56 (1| - | 15. | 85 (7| 56 (3| 49 (4| 74 (5| 63 (1| 65 (4| 70 (5| - | 16. | 26 (1| 32 (2| 48 | 24 (1| 15 (1| 28 (1| 32 (2| - | 17. | 37 (3| 49 (2| 27 (3| 46 (1| 44 (1| 61 | 50 (5| - | 18. | 66 (2| 70 (1| 53 (3| 40 | 64 | 89 (1| 86 (4| - | | | | | | | | | - |Phosphorus | — | 3 (1| 1 (1| — | 1 (2| 4 | 3 | - | | | | | | | | | - |Arsenic | 5 | 1 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 12 (1| 22 (3| - | | | | | | | | | - |Mercurial | 4 | 8 | 3 | 8 | 8 | 18 | 9 | - | | | | | | | | | - |Anthrax | 67 (22| 59 (18| 50 (10| 47 (12| 38 (9| 39 (10| 37 (7| - | Wool | 24 (8| 34 (12| 12 (1| 20 (5| 12 (2| 6 (4| 9 (2| - | Horsehair | 10 (4| 7 (1| 12 (4| 7 (1| 10 (2| 9 (1| 12 (3| - | Hides | 19 (7| 17 (4| 18 (3| 12 (1| 11 (5| 20 (5| 9 (1| - | Other | 14 (3| 1 (1| 8 (2| 8 (5| 5 | 4 | 7 (1| - +--------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+--------+ - -My own experience does not lead me to expect much in elucidation of -industrial diseases from the Sick Insurance Societies. In Austria they -make a statistical return as to the causation of illness to the central -authorities. I have myself—in my capacity as an official of the State -Central Board—examined these in order to try and gain knowledge of -the extent of industrial disease in Bohemia. In spite of the returns -drawn up by the district surgeon who visits the factories in question, -it was impossible for me to obtain a complete picture of the extent -of industrial sickness. The reports only give valuable data on which -to base action in particular cases, and from this standpoint I do not -under-estimate their value. But so far as the expressed wish of the -International Association is concerned they appear to fulfil it, inasmuch -as for specially dangerous trades special reports are issued, the -Austrian law for sick insurance requiring such industries to institute -separate sick insurance funds with separate statistics. Hence, under -present conditions, I do not see how the duty of notification will be -effective. There remains the endeavour to secure insurance and the -right to claim compensation for industrial disease in the same way as -is provided for accidents. This point was fully discussed at the eighth -International Congress for Workmen’s Insurance held in Rome in 1908. -There is no valid ground for granting compensation only for _sudden_ -disturbance of health arising in the course of employment by accident or -acute poisoning, and withholding it in the case of _gradual_ disturbance -of health caused equally by the trade, as the effects of such chronic -indisposition weigh often no less heavily on the sufferer. Inclusion -of industrial disease in the same category as accident insurance, as -indeed has been done in France, Switzerland and Great Britain, has, -apart from the fact that it is dictated by fairness and humanity, the -advantage of removing existing hardship and of solving doubtful cases. -Correct statistics, further, would thus be obtainable for the first -time, and the employer by insurance would be freed from the legal -proceedings now frequently brought against him for injury due to chronic -industrial poisoning. And it seems the more right and just course to -institute a general scheme of insurance against industrial disease than -to have recourse to an Employer’s Liability Act in this or that case, -particularly as the question often arises in regard to a disease which -develops gradually—In whose employment was the disease contracted? - -Clearly in such a scheme of insurance against both accident and -industrial disease only specific industrial diseases would be included, -i.e. diseases in which the connection with the industry can be clearly -established as due to causes inherent in the industry, and traceable to -definite materials used. Such diseases as tuberculosis and the effects -of dust inhalation (bronchitis, &c.), which as industrial diseases occur -only too often, cannot be called specific, because they arise outside -the industry and make decision impossible as to whether or not in a -particular case the disease owed its origin to the occupation. In order -to determine what should be regarded as specific industrial poisons it -was deemed necessary to draw up a schedule. For one such list Sommerfeld -(in collaboration with Oliver and Putzeys) is responsible, Carozzi of -Milan for a second, and Fischer[F] for a third, published in 1910. Those -by Sommerfeld and Fischer are constructed in similar fashion—enumeration -of (1) the poisonous substance, (2) the industries in which it is made -or used, (3) the channel of absorption, and (4) the symptoms produced. -Sommerfeld enumerates the poisons in alphabetical order, noting against -each the requisite preventive measures, while Fischer adopts a chemical -classification, confining himself to general introductory remarks as to -prevention. - -Sommerfeld proposes to limit notification to poisoning sharply -defined as to the symptoms set up, such as lead, phosphorus, mercury, -arsenic, chromium, carbonic oxide, aniline, benzene, nitrobenzene, -carbon bisulphide, and nitrous fumes. This simplifies the obligation -to notify, but does not dissipate the fears expressed above as to the -difficulty, because in the present development of the chemical industries -new substances involving new danger to the persons handling them are -constantly being discovered, and thus there can be no finality as to -which industrial poisonings should entitle to compensation. And if -recourse were had from time to time to additions of new substances to -the schedule, reliance would have to be placed on experience with regard -to each substance added, and thus the actual individual who had suffered -would not benefit. Fischer, indeed, acknowledges that any schedule must -be incomplete, and emphasises the fact that continual additions would -be necessary; otherwise it would be better to refrain altogether from -publication of a list. Such lists may be valuable guides, but no sure -foundation for insurance legislation. The only possible way to do this -is to give as far as possible a correct definition of the industrial -diseases entitling to compensation and, in isolated cases, to leave the -decision to the expert opinion of competent judges. - -Extension of workmen’s insurance to cover chronic industrial poisoning -is, however, most desirable in the interest of employers and employed, -and also of science. The German accident insurance legislation is -especially suited to do this, since the trade organisations direct their -attention not only to the prevention of accidents but of industrial -diseases also. - - - - -III - -_SPECIAL PREVENTIVE MEASURES FOR WORKERS_ - -SELECTION, CHOICE OF TRADE, ALTERNATION OF EMPLOYMENT, MEDICAL CONTROL, -SAFETY APPLIANCES, INSTRUCTION AND CO-OPERATION OF WORKERS, CLOTHING, -ATTENTION TO CLEANLINESS, FOOD, GENERAL WELFARE - - -As a practical measure in protection against trade risk selection of -those capable of resisting danger has to be considered. It is obviously -desirable to select for employment in a dangerous trade persons -possessing powers of resistance, because predisposition and resistance -to the action of poisons differ markedly in individuals. To some extent -such a selection comes of itself, as those who are very susceptible -are obliged by repeated attacks to give up the work. The social and -physical misery, undeserved loss of employment, illness, and perhaps -early death following on this kind of selection might be checked by -timely medical examination so as to weed out the unfit. But medical -examination prior to admission into a dangerous trade (actually practised -in many industries involving risk of poisoning) inflicts hardship on -those seeking employment, and recruits the ranks of the unwillingly -unemployed. It would be much better were it possible to meet the need -of selection by pertinent direction and guidance in choice of calling. -There should be insistence in technical schools especially on the -dangers inherent in certain industries, school medical examination as to -physical qualifications for certain industries, and careful note made of -individual suitability in labour bureaus, apprentice agencies, and the -like. - -Young female workers, naturally less able to resist, should be excluded -from work involving risk of poisoning—a principle which has been acted on -in the legislation of civilised countries. - -Further, workers engaged in industries involving risk should not be -exposed to the pernicious influence for too long a time. Hence the -hours of employment should be shortened in occupations proved to be -injurious to health. An important aid in this respect is alternation of -employment. Change of occupation is particularly recommended where the -nature of the poisoning of which there is risk is cumulative in action, -because in the intervals from the work the system will rid itself of the -accumulated store. In this way a number of skilled resistant workers, -familiar with the risk and knowing how to meet it, will be maintained. -Casual labour works in a vicious circle—increase of fresh workers -increases the danger and the number of cases of poisoning, and, _vice -versa_, these augment again the need of change in the personnel, so that -the number of cases of poisoning rises very high. Thus the industry -itself may be endangered, since its prosperity depends mainly upon the -existence of a skilled staff of workers. In dangerous trades, therefore, -Hermann Weber’s words, ‘Change of work instead of change of workers,’ -have much force. - -Periodical medical examination in these industries cannot well be omitted -in order to weed out the physically unfit, and to suspend from work those -who show early symptoms. Note should be kept of the state of health of -the workers, the results of the periodical medical examination, the -duration of symptoms, and the treatment of any illness that occurs. -Medical supervision presupposes special training and experience in the -medical man entrusted with the task. - -Further, in some industries in which poisonous materials are used, -especially such as set up acute sudden poisoning, there should be a -trained staff competent to recognise the first symptoms of poisoning and -to render first aid, and having at its disposal adequate means of rescue. - -Apart from the rescue appliances generally needed in dangerous trades, -stress must be laid on the value of oxygen apparatus as a means of -saving life. In addition to what is needed for the sufferer there must -be defensive apparatus at hand for the rescuers (breathing helmets, -&c.), to facilitate and make safe their rescue work when in a poisonous -atmosphere. Without such defensive equipment rescuers should never -venture into gas conduits, or into any place where presumably a poisonous -atmosphere is to be met with. It hardly requires to be said that in -dangerous industries medical aid should be within easy reach; in large -works actual medical attendance may be necessary. - -In acute as well as in chronic cases of poisoning early medical -intervention is advisable. Hence medical aid should be sought on the -earliest appearance of symptoms, and the worker, therefore, should -know the nature and action of the poison with which he comes into -contact. This brings us to the subject of the education of the worker -and particularly observance of all those rules and regulations in which -his co-operation is necessary. This co-operation of the workers is -indispensable; it is the most important condition of effective defence. -The best regulations and preventive measures are worthless if the worker -does not observe them. He must be taught their aim, the way of using the -means of defence; he must be admonished to use them, and, if necessary, -compelled to do so. The co-operation of workmen’s organisations in this -matter can avail much, since a workman most readily follows the advice of -a fellow-worker. - -Teaching of the kind suggested can be done in different ways. Apart from -lectures and practical courses, concise instructions, either in the -form of notices or as illustrated placards, should be posted up in the -workrooms or handed in the form of leaflets particularly to the newly -employed. Distribution of such leaflets might well be placed as a duty on -the employer. - -Of preventive measures applying to the individual those are of prime -importance which serve to protect the worker, as far as is practicable, -from coming into contact with the poison. Protection of this kind is -attained by wearing suitable clothing, use of respirators, and careful -cleanliness—especially before partaking of food. It cannot be too -strongly urged that these precautions are a very potent defence against -the danger of industrial poisoning, especially of the chronic forms, -and in teaching workers their importance must be insisted on. It is not -sufficient merely to put on overalls over the ordinary clothes. The -ordinary clothes must be taken off before the commencement of work, and -working suits put on, to be taken off again before the principal midday -meal and before leaving work. They should be made of smooth, durable, -washable material, and be properly washed and dried not less often than -once a week. They must be plainly cut without folds or pockets. - -Direct handling of the poisonous substances is to be avoided, but where -this is necessary impervious gloves may have to be worn, especially in -the case of poisons which can be absorbed through, or act injuriously on, -the skin. If there is risk of splashing or spilling of poisonous liquids -on to the clothes, impermeable or partly impermeable overalls (aprons, -&c.) should be worn. The obligation of providing the overalls or working -suits falls naturally on the employer in industries where poisonous -substances are used, and there is equally obligation on the employee to -use the articles provided. - -Suitable cloakroom accommodation is essential, by which is meant room not -only to change clothes with cupboards or hooks on one side for clothing -taken off on commencement of work and on the other the working suits, -but also ample washing accommodation. These cupboards should be double, -that is, be divided by a partition into two parts, one serving for the -ordinary and the other for the working clothes. - -[Illustration: FIG. 35.—Aluminium Respirator] - -Protection of the respiratory organs can to some extent be obtained by -so-called respirators worn over the mouth and nose. Often they consist -simply of a moist sponge or folds of cloth, or again may be complicated -air-proof affairs enclosing mouth and nose, or the whole face like a -mask, or even the head like a helmet; they fit close, and the aperture -for respired air is provided with filtering material (cotton wool, &c.) -placed between two layers of wire gauze. The outer layer of the gauze -moves on a hinge, so that the filtering material can be renewed after -each time that it has been used. The construction of respirators is -extraordinarily varied. One form is illustrated. They must be light, and -in order not to obstruct breathing seriously they are often provided -with valves—closing during inspiration and opening during exhalation. -Generally the respirators in common use do not quite satisfactorily -fulfil the conditions required. After a time the pressure becomes -irksome, the face becomes hot, breathing more difficult, and discomfort -from wearing them unbearable. - -Respirators are only to be regarded in the light of secondary aids and -for occasional use. - -During temporary exposure to an atmosphere charged with poisonous dust -the wearing of an efficient apparatus—preferably one protecting the -head—is very desirable. - -[Illustration: FIG. 36.—Smoke Helmet, Flexible Tubing, and Foot Bellows -(_Siebe, Gorman & Co._)] - -Respirators afford no protection, or a very imperfect one, against -dangerous gases or fumes. If soaked with an absorbing or neutralising -fluid they can scarcely be worn for any length of time. - -In an atmosphere charged with poisonous gas recourse should be had either -to a smoke helmet with flexible tubing and bellows or to an oxygen -breathing apparatus so constructed that the workman carries the necessary -supply of oxygen with him in a knapsack on his back. In the latter case -oxygen from a compressed cylinder of the gas is conveyed to the breathing -mask, so that respiration is independent of the surrounding atmosphere. - -[Illustration: FIG. 37.—Diagram of Draeger 1910-11, Pattern H (_R. -Jacobson_) - -P Alkali cartridges; K Cooler; C Aspirating pipe; L₁ Purified air; L₂ -Expired air.] - -The mode of working is represented diagrammatically in figs. 37 and 40. -After putting on the helmet, the bag is first filled with fresh air, the -air valve is then closed, and the valve of the oxygen cylinder unscrewed -so as to permit of the flow of the oxygen which, mixes with the air in -the bag, and begins to circulate; the expired air passes through the -caustic potash pellets P, which free it of carbonic acid gas, so that, -with a fresh supply of oxygen from the cylinder through the pipe C, it -is regenerated and made fit for breathing again. The pressure in the -cylinder is measured by a manometer, which indicates also when the supply -of oxygen gives out. - -[Illustration: FIG. 38.—Showing the Potash Cartridge No. 2 with Change -Mechanism X; No. 2 Oxygen Cylinder with Spanner V; and on the Left a -Hexagonal Socket U, for unscrewing the Locking Nuts of Reserve Cylinders -(_R. Jacobson_)] - -[Illustration: FIG. 39.—‘Proto’ patent self-contained breathing apparatus -(_Siebe, Gorman & Co._)] - - Another apparatus—the ‘Proto’ patent self-contained breathing - apparatus (Fleuss-Davis patents)—is also illustrated in fig. - 39. Illustration 40 gives a diagrammatic view of the principle - upon which it is designed. The instructions for using the - ‘Proto’ apparatus are as follows: - - _The oxygen cylinders_ (B, B), having been charged with oxygen - through the nipple at (H) to a pressure of 120 atmospheres - (about 1800 lbs. per square inch), are to be re-attached to - the belt as shown, and the reducing valve, with its tubes, - &c., is to be connected to the nipple at (H). This supply is - sufficient for fully two hours. - - _Charging the breathing bag._—Put 4 lbs. of stick caustic - _soda_ into the bag (D), i.e. 2 lbs. into each compartment, - and immediately fasten the mouth of the bag by means of the - clamps and wing nuts (O). If the apparatus is not to be used - at once, but is to be hung up for use at some future time, the - indiarubber plug which is supplied with the apparatus should be - tightly fitted into the mouthpiece in order to prevent access - of air to the caustic soda, and to preserve it until required - for use. - - See that the inlet and outlet valves (T and S) and the - connection (N) are screwed up tightly. - - The small relief valve (K) is only to be opened (by pressing - it with the finger) when the bag becomes unduly inflated - through excess of oxygen. This may occur from time to time, - as the reducing valve is set to deliver more than the wearer - actually requires. - - _Equipment._—The whole apparatus is supported upon a broad belt - which is strapped round the body. The bag is also hung by a - pair of shoulder braces. - - The wearer having put the equipment over his shoulders, fastens - the belt and takes the plug out of the mouthpiece. The moment - the mouthpiece is put into the mouth or the mask is adjusted, - the main valve (H) is to be opened not more than one turn and - the necessary supply of oxygen will then flow into the bag. It - is advisable to open the by-pass (I) to inflate partially the - breathing bag (D) for a start, but this valve should again be - screwed up quite tight and not touched again, except in the - case of emergency as previously described should the bag become - deflated. Breathing will then go on comfortably. - - Should the by-pass (I) on the reducing valve (C) get out of - order then the wearer should turn on the by-pass (I) from time - to time to give himself the necessary quantity of oxygen, but, - as stated above, this is only to be done in case of deflation - of the bag. The best guide as to the quantity of oxygen to - admit _in the above circumstances_ is the degree of inflation - of the breathing bag. It will be found to be quite satisfactory - if the bag be kept moderately distended. - - _After using the apparatus._—The caustic soda should _at once_ - be thrown away, but if it is neglected and the soda becomes - caked, it must be dissolved out with warm water before putting - in a fresh supply. Caustic soda will not damage vulcanised - indiarubber, but it will damage canvas and leather, and will - burn the skin if allowed to remain upon it. - - If the apparatus is to be used again at once, it can be - recharged with caustic soda at once, but if it is only to be - charged ready for use at some future time the indiarubber bag - should be thoroughly washed out with warm water and dried - inside with a cloth or towel. - - When emptying or recharging the rubber bag with caustic soda, - it must always be removed from the canvas bag. After use each - day, it is advisable to wash the rubber mouthpiece (or mask, - as the case may be) with yellow soap and water. This acts as a - preservative to the indiarubber. - - Every man who is to use the apparatus should have his own - mouthpiece and noseclip, or mask, as the case may be, under - his own special care, both for sanitary reasons and so that he - may shape and adjust the mask to fit himself comfortably and - air-tightly, to such an extent that if the outlets are stopped - up by the hands while the mask is held in position by its bands - no breath can pass in or out. - -[Illustration: FIG. 40.—‘Proto’ Patent Self-breathing Apparatus (_Siebe, -Gorman & Co._)] - -[Illustration: FIG. 41.—Arrangement of Cloak-room, Washing and Bath -Accommodation, and Meal-room in a White Lead Factory] - -Where poisonous substances giving off dust or fumes are used, regular -washing and rinsing the mouth (especially before meals and on leaving) -is of great importance. Naturally the washing conveniences (basins, -soap, brushes, towels) must be sufficient and suitable, and the workers -instructed as to the importance of cleanliness by the foreman. They -should be urged to bath in rotation, and time for it should be allowed -during working hours. - -The taking of meals and use of tobacco in the workrooms must be -prohibited. Meal rooms should be so arranged as to be contiguous to the -cloakroom and washing accommodation, the worker gaining access to the -meal room through the cloakroom and bathroom. The arrangement described -is illustrated in fig. 41. The meal room serves also the purpose of a -sitting-room during intervals of work, and it goes without saying that -cloakroom and lavatory accommodation are as necessary in small as in -large premises. - -Simple lavatory basins of smooth impervious surface fitted with a waste -pipe and plug, or tipping basins, are recommended in preference to -troughs which can be used by several persons at once. Troughs, however, -without a plug, and with jets of warm water, are free from objection. - -The douche bath has many advantages for workmen over the slipper bath. -The initial cost is comparatively small, so that it can be placed at the -disposal of the workers at very small outlay. Maintenance and cleanliness -of douche baths are more easily secured than of other kinds, where -changing the water and keeping the bath in good order involve time and -expense. A dressing-room should form part of the douche or slipper bath -equipment. Walls and floors must be impervious and, preferably, lined -with smooth tiles or cement. It is better that the shower bath should be -under the control of the worker by a chain rather than be set in motion -by means of mechanism when trodden upon. The arrangement of baths is -illustrated in fig. 43. In many large works large bath buildings have -been erected. Fig. 44 is a plan of the splendid bath arrangements at the -colour works of Messrs. Lucius, Meister & Brüning of Höchst a.-M. - -[Illustration: FIG. 42.—Good Washing and Bath Accommodation in a Lead -Smelting Works] - -[Illustration: FIG. 43.—Washing Trough, Douche Baths, and Clothes -Cupboards, Type common on the Continent] - -[Illustration: FIG. 44A.—Baths in the Höchst Aniline Works (_after -Grandhomme_)] - -[Illustration: FIG. 44B.—Ground Floor] - -[Illustration: FIG. 44C.—First Floor. _a_, _c_, Baths (slipper and -douche) for workmen; _b_, Washing accommodation for workmen; _d_, _e_, -Baths for officials; _g_, Attendant’s quarters; _f_, Hot air (Turkish) -baths; _i_, Warm water reservoir.] - -Naturally maintenance of the general health by good nourishing diet is -one of the best means of defence against onset of chronic industrial -poisoning. Over and over again it has been noticed that ill-fed workers -speedily succumb to doses of poison which well-nourished workers can -resist. It is not our province here to discuss fully the diet of a -working-class population. We merely state that it is a matter of vital -importance to those employed in dangerous trades. The question of a -suitable drink for workers to take the place of alcohol calls for special -attention, as, when complicated with alcoholism, both acute and chronic -poisonings entail more serious results than they otherwise would do. -Over-indulgence in alcohol, owing to its effect on the kidneys, liver, -digestion, nervous system, and power of assimilation generally, requires -to be checked in every way possible. Apart from good drinking water, -milk, coffee, tea, fruit juices and the like, are excellent. Milk is -especially recommended, and should be supplied gratis to workers in -dangerous trades, notably where there is risk of lead poisoning. - -Lastly, other features such as games and exercise in the open air, -which help to strengthen bodily health, must not be forgotten. In this -connection much good work has already been done by employers’ and -workers’ organisations. - - - - -IV - -_GENERAL REMARKS ON PREVENTIVE MEASURES_ - -GENERAL PRINCIPLES, SUBSTITUTES FOR DANGEROUS MATERIALS, CLEANLINESS OF -WORKROOMS, CUBIC SPACE, VENTILATION, REMOVAL OF DUST AND FUMES - - -Preventive measures against industrial poisoning aim at an unattainable -goal of so arranging industrial processes that employment of poisonous -substances would be wholly avoided. Such an ideal must be aimed at -wherever practicable. Prohibition of direct handling of poisonous -substances is also sometimes demanded, which presupposes (although it is -not always the case) that this is unnecessary or can be made unnecessary -by suitable mechanical appliances. We have to be contented, therefore, -for the most part, with removal of injurious dust and fumes as quickly -as possible at the point where they are produced, and regulations -for the protection of workers from industrial poisoning deal mainly -with the question of the prevention of air contamination and removal -of contaminated air. Substitution of non-injurious for injurious -processes is only possible in so far as use of the harmless process -gives technically as good results as the other. If such a substitute -can be found let it be striven for. Mention has already been made of -international prohibition of certain substances, and attention has been -drawn to economical considerations affecting this point. - -Prohibition obviously may paralyse branches of industry and hit heavily -both employers and employed. The skilled trained workers are just the -ones to suffer, since they are no longer in a position to take up another -equally remunerative trade. - -Judgment has to be exercised before enforcing new regulations in order -that good and not harm may follow. If a satisfactory substitute be -discovered for methods of work injurious to health, then ways and -means will be found to make the alteration in the process economically -possible. It may, however, demand sacrifice on the part of employers and -employed, but the progress is worth the sacrifice. - -The following are instances of substitution of safe processes for those -involving risk: generation of dust can sometimes be avoided by a ‘wet’ -method (watering of white lead chambers, grinding pulp lead with oil, -damping of smelting mixtures, &c.); the nitrate of silver and ammonia -process has replaced the tin and mercury amalgam used in silvering of -mirrors; electroplating instead of water gilding (coating objects with -mercury amalgam and subsequently volatilising the mercury); enamelling -with leadless instead of lead enamels; use of air instead of mercury -pumps in producing the vacuum in incandescent electric lamps. - -Dealing further with the sanitation of the factory and workshop after -personal cleanliness, the next most important measure is cleanliness of -the workroom and purity of the air. Workrooms should be light and lofty; -and have floors constructed of smooth impervious material easily kept -clean. The walls should be lime-washed or painted with a white oil paint. -Angles and corners which can harbour dirt should be rounded. Cleansing -requires to be done as carefully and as often as possible, preferably by -washing down or by a vacuum cleaner. Saturation of the floor with dust -oil is recommended by some authorities in trades where poisonous dust is -developed and is permitted as an alternative to the methods described. I -refrain from expressing an opinion on this method of laying dust, since -by adoption of the practice insistence on the need for removal of the -poisonous material from the workrooms loses its force—a thing, in my -opinion, to be deprecated. - -The necessity of keeping the atmosphere of workrooms pure and fresh -makes it essential that there should be sufficient cubic space per -person and that proper circulation of the air should be maintained. The -minimum amount of cubic space legally fixed in many countries—10-15 -cubic metres—is a minimum and should be greatly exceeded where possible. -Natural ventilation which is dependent upon windows, porosity of building -materials, cracks in the floors, &c., fails when, as is desirable for -purposes of cleanliness, walls and floors are made of smooth impermeable -material, and natural ventilation will rarely supply the requisite cubic -feet of fresh air quickly enough. Ordinarily, under conditions of natural -ventilation, the air in a workroom is renewed in from one to two hours. -Artificial ventilation therefore becomes imperative. Natural ventilation -by opening windows and doors can only be practised in intervals of work -and as a rule only in small workrooms. During work time the draught and -reduction of temperature so caused produce discomfort. - -_Artificial ventilation_ is effected by special openings and ducts -placed at some suitable spot in the room to be ventilated and arranged -so that either fresh air is introduced or air extracted from the room. -The first method is called propulsion, the latter exhaust ventilation. -Various agencies will produce a draught in the ventilating ducts, namely, -difference of temperature between the outside and inside air, which can -be artificially strengthened (_a_) by utilising the action of the wind, -(_b_) by heating the air in the exhaust duct, (_c_) by heating apparatus, -and (_d_) by mechanical power (use of fans). - -Where advantage is taken of the action of the wind the exit to the -ventilating duct must be fitted with a cowl. - -The draught in pipes is materially increased if they are led into furnace -flues or chimneys; in certain cases there is advantage in constructing -perpendicular ventilating shafts in the building extending above the roof -and fitted with cowls. Combination of heating and ventilation is very -effective. - -[Illustration: FIG. 45.—Steam Injector (_after Körting_), showing steam -injector and air entry] - -In workrooms, however, where there is danger of poisoning by far the -most effective method of ventilation is by means of fans driven by -mechanical power. All the means for securing artificial ventilation -hitherto mentioned depend on a number of factors (wind, difference of -temperature, &c.), the influence of which is not always in the direction -desired. Exact regulation, however, is possible by fans, and the quantity -of air introduced or extracted can be accurately calculated beforehand -in planning the ventilation. In drawing up such a plan, detailing the -arrangement, proportions of the main and branch ducts, expenditure of -power, &c., a ventilating engineer should be consulted, as it is his -business to deal with complicated problems of ventilation depending -entirely for success on the design of the ventilation. - -Injectors are usually only employed for special technical or economical -reasons. A jet of steam or compressed air which acts on the injector -creates a partial vacuum and so produces a powerful exhaust behind. Fig. -45 shows the mechanism of an injector. They are used for exhausting acid -fumes which would corrode metal fans and pipes, and for explosive dust -mixtures where fans are inadmissible. - -[Illustration: FIG. 46.—Propeller Fan coupled to Electromotor (_Davidson -& Co., Ltd._)] - -In the industries described in this book fans are most commonly used. -These are, in the main, wheels with two or more wing-shaped flattened -blades. Some are encased, others are open and fitted by means of annular -frames in the ducts according to the intended effect and kind of fan. -Fans are of two kinds, propeller and centrifugal, and, according to the -pressure they exert, of low, medium, or high pressure. They are now often -driven electrically, in which case there is advantage in coupling them -directly with the motor. - -_Propeller fans_ have curved screw-shaped blades and are set at -right angles in the duct upon the column of air in which they act by -suction. The air is moved in the direction of the axis of the fan, and -generally it is possible, by reversing the action, to force air in -instead of extracting it. The draught produced is a low-pressure one -(generally less than 15 mm. of water). The current of air set in motion -travels at a relatively slow speed, yet such fans are capable, when -suitably proportioned, of moving large volumes of air. Propeller fans -are specially suitable for the general ventilation of rooms when the -necessary change of air is not being effected by natural means. - -[Illustration: FIG. 47.—The Blackman (Belt-driven) Fan.] - -_Centrifugal_ or _high-pressure fans_ (see figs. 48A and 48B) are always -encased in such a way that the exhaust ducts enter on one or both sides -of the axis. The air thus drawn in is thrown by the quickly rotating -numerous straight blades to the periphery and escapes at the outlet. -The centrifugal fan travels at a great speed, and the air current -has therefore great velocity and high pressure. When the pressure is -less than 120 mm. it is described as a medium, and when greater, a -high-pressure fan. For the former a galvanised iron casing suffices; -for the latter the casing requires to be of cast iron. Medium pressure -centrifugal fans are used to exhaust dust or fumes locally from the point -at which they are produced. They play a great part in industrial hygiene. - -[Illustration: FIG. 48A.—‘Sirocco’ Centrifugal Fan] - -[Illustration: FIG. 48B.—Showing exhaust aperture and fan blades] - -High-pressure fans are used mainly for technical purposes, as, for -example, the driving of air or gas at high pressure. Localised -ventilation is needed to limit diffusion of dust and fumes, which -is attained in a measure also by separation of those workrooms in -which persons come into contact with poisonous materials from others. -Separation of workrooms, however, is not enough, as it is the individual -who manipulates the poison for whom protection is desired. To enclose or -hood over a dusty machine or fume-producing apparatus completely, or to -close hermetically a whole series of operations by complicated technical -arrangements, is only possible when no opening or hand feeding is -required. Dangerous substances can only be wholly shut in by substitution -of machinery for handwork. - -[Illustration: FIG. 49.—Localised Exhaust Ventilation in a Colour Factory -(_Sturtevant Engineering Co., Ltd._)] - -[Illustration: FIG. 50A. - -FIG. 50B. - -Ball Mills] - -Where, however, absolute contact is unavoidable the dust or fume must -be carried away at its source. This is done by exhaust ventilation, -locally applied, in the following manner: A suitable hood or air guide -of metal or wood is arranged over the point where the dust is produced, -leaving as small an opening as possible for necessary manipulations. The -hood is connected with a duct through which the current of air travels. -An exhaust current dependent upon heat will only suffice in the case -of slight development of dust or fumes. As a rule exhaust by a fan is -necessary. Where exhaust ventilation has to be arranged at several -points all these are connected up by branch ducts with the main duct -and centrifugal fan. Where the ducts lie near the floor it is advisable -to fix adjustable openings in them close to the floor to remove the -sweepings. - -[Illustration: FIG. 51.—Ventilated Packing Machine (_after Albrecht_) - -_A_ Worm; _B_ Collector; _D_ Fan; _E_ Filter bag; _J_, _F_ Movable -shutters; _H_ Jolting arrangement] - -It is important for the exhaust system of ventilation to be designed -in general so that the dust is drawn away from the face of the worker -downwards and backwards. Many horrible arrangements are found in which -the dust is first aspirated past the mouth and nose before it is drawn -into a hood overhead. The proportions of the branch pipes to the main -duct require to be thought out, and friction and resistance to the flow -must be reduced as far as possible by avoidance of sharp bends. Branch -pipes should enter the main duct at an angle of thirty degrees. A -completely satisfactory system requires very special knowledge and often -much ingenuity when the apparatus is complicated. - -Disintegrators and edge runners can generally be covered in and the cover -connected with an exhaust. Ball mills, when possible, are best as the -rotating iron cylinder containing the steel balls and the material to be -pulverised is hermetically closed. - -Powdered material can be carried mechanically from one place to another -by worms, screws, endless bands, or be driven in closed pipes by means -of compressed air. The inevitable production of dust in packing can be -avoided by the use of ventilated packing machines, which are especially -necessary in the case of white lead, bichromates, basic slag, &c. - -[Illustration: FIG. 52.] - -The difficulty is great in preventing dust in sieving and mixing, since -this is mainly done by hand. Still here, for example, by use of cases -with arm-holes and upper glass cover, injury to health can be minimised. -Benches with a wire screen and duct through which a downward exhaust -passes are useful in sorting operations (fig. 52). - -Fig. 53 illustrates a grinding or polishing wheel fitted with localised -exhaust. - -[Illustration: FIG. 53.—Removing Dust from Bobs and Mops (_James Keith -& Blackman Co., Ltd. By permission of the Controller of H.M. Stationery -Office_)] - -To prevent escape of injurious gases all stills and furnaces must be kept -as airtight as possible and preferably under a slight negative pressure. -Agitators must be enclosed and should be fitted with arrangements for -carrying on the work mechanically or by means of compressed air and, if -necessary, exhaust ventilation applied to them. The aim should be to -enclose entirely drying and extracting apparatus. - -[Illustration: FIG. 54.—‘Cyclone’ Separator (_Matthews & Yates, Ltd._)] - -An important question remains as to what shall be done with the dust and -fumes extracted. In many cases they cannot be allowed to escape into -the atmosphere outside, and in the interests of economy recovery and -utilisation of the waste is the thing to aim at. This vital subject can -only receive barest mention here. The dust or fumes extracted require to -be subjected to processes of purification with a view to recovery of the -often valuable solid or gaseous constituents and destruction of those -without value. - -[Illustration: FIG. 55A. FIG. 55B. - -Dust-filter of Beth-Lübeck (_after Albrecht_)] - -[Illustration: FIG. 56.—Dust-filter of Beth-Lübeck—Detail] - -Collection of dust may take place in settling chambers as in a cyclone -separator in which the air to be purified is made to travel round the -interior of a cone-shaped metal receptacle, depositing the dust in its -passage (see fig. 54). - -[Illustration: FIG. 57.—Arrangement for Precipitating Dust (_after -Leymann_) - -_A_ Entry of dust laden air; _B_ Fan; _C_ Purified air; _D_ Pipe carrying -away water and last traces of dust; _E_ Worm carrying away collection of -dust.] - -The most effective method, however, is filtration of the air through -bags of canvas or other suitable fabric as in the ‘Beth’ filter (see -figs. 55 and 56). In the ‘Beth’ filter a mechanical knocking apparatus -shakes the dust from the bag to the bottom of the casing, where a worm -automatically carries it to the collecting receptacle. In the absence of -mechanical knocking the filtering material becomes clogged and increases -the resistance in the system. Contrivances of the kind unintelligently -constructed become a source of danger to the workers. Dust of no value -is usually precipitated by being made to pass through a tower down which -a fine spray of water falls. If the gases and fumes can be utilised they -are either absorbed or condensed—a procedure of the utmost importance for -the protection of the workers. - -Condensation of the gases into a liquid is effected by cooling and is -an essential part of all processes associated with distillation. The -necessary cooling is effected either by causing the vapours to circulate -through coils of pipes surrounded by cold water or by an increase in the -condensing surface (extension of walls, &c.), and artificial cooling of -the walls by running water. - -Absorption of gases and fumes by fluids (less often by solid substances) -is effected by bubbling the gas through vessels filled with the absorbing -liquid or conducting it through towers (packed with coke, flints, &c.), -or chambers down or through which the absorbent flows. Such absorption -towers and chambers are frequently placed in series. - -The material thus recovered by condensation and absorption may prove to -be a valuable bye-product. Frequently the gases (as in blast furnace gas, -coke ovens, &c.) are led away directly for heating boilers, or, as in the -spelter manufacture, to make sulphuric acid. - - - - -V - -_PREVENTIVE REGULATIONS FOR CHEMICAL INDUSTRIES_ - - -Sulphuric Acid Industry - -(See also pp. 4-14 and 171) - -Danger arises from escape of acid gases or in entering chambers, towers, -containers, &c., for cleaning purposes. The whole chamber system, -therefore, requires to be impervious and the sulphur dioxide and nitrous -gases utilised to their fullest extent—a procedure that is in harmony -with economy in production. The pyrites furnace must be so fired as to -prevent escape of fumes, which is best attained by maintenance of a -slight negative pressure by means of fans. The cinders raked out of the -furnace because of the considerable amount of sulphur dioxide given off -from them should be kept in a covered-in place until they have cooled. -Any work on the towers and lead chambers, especially cleaning operations, -should be carried out under strict regulations. Such special measures -for the emptying of Gay-Lussac towers have been drawn up by the Union -of Chemical Industry. Before removal of the sediment on the floor they -require a thorough drenching with water, to be repeated if gases are -present. Perfect working of the Gay-Lussac tower at the end of the -series of chambers is essential to prevent escape of acid gases. In a -well-regulated sulphuric acid factory the average total acid content of -the final gases can be reduced to 0·1 vol. per cent. Under the Alkali -Works Regulation Act of 1881 the quantity was limited to 0·26 per cent. -of sulphur dioxide—and this should be a maximum limit. - -_Entering and cleaning out chambers and towers_ should only be done, if -practicable, by workmen equipped with breathing apparatus, and never -without special precautionary measures, as several fatalities have -occurred at the work. Towers, therefore, are best arranged so as to allow -of cleaning from the outside; if gases are noticed smoke helmets should -be donned. The same holds good for entering tanks or tank waggons. After -several cases of poisoning from this source had occurred in a factory the -following official regulations were issued: - - The deposit on the floor of waggons or tanks shall be removed - either by flushing with water without entering the tank itself, - or if the tank be entered the deposit is to be scooped out - without addition of water or dilute soda solution. - - Flushing out shall only be done after the workmen have got out. - - Workmen are to be warned every time cleaning is undertaken that - poisonous gases are developed when the deposit on the floor is - diluted. - - Acid eggs, further, are to be provided with a waste pipe and - manhole to enable cleaning to be done from outside. - -The poisoning likely to arise is partly due to arsenic impurity -(development of arseniuretted hydrogen gas) in the sulphuric acid used. -Unfortunately arsenic free acid is very difficult to obtain. - - -Hydrochloric Acid—Saltcake and Soda Industries - -(See also pp. 15-23 and 170) - -Preventive measures here depend upon observance of the general principles -already discussed. - -The _saltcake pan_ and reverberatory furnace require to be accurately and -solidly constructed and the process carefully regulated. Regulations -indeed were drawn up at an early date in England as to their working -to prevent escape of gases when adding the acid, raking over in the -reverberatory furnace, and withdrawal of the still fuming saltcake. - -The following are the most important of these recommendations: - - The saltcake pan must not be charged when overheated. - - Sulphuric acid shall be added only after all the salt has been - charged and the door shut. - - If hydrochloric acid fumes escape at the door when the Glover - acid flows in the flow must be interrupted. - - All doors must be closed while work is in progress. - - Definite times shall be fixed for withdrawal of the saltcake in - order to try and ensure that it be not still fuming, but should - this be the case cold sulphate of soda shall be sprinkled over - it. - -The general principle should be observed of maintaining a slight negative -pressure in the furnace by insertion of a fan in the gas conduit so as to -avoid possible escape of gas. The fuming saltcake is best dealt with by -depositing it at once to cool in ventilated receptacles or chambers. - -On grounds of economy and hygiene as complete an absorption as possible -of the hydrochloric acid gas developed in the saltcake and soda ash -process is to be aimed at, by conveying it through impervious conduits -to the bombonnes and lofty absorption tower filled with coke or flints -down which water trickles. The entire loss of hydrochloric acid should -not amount to more than 1·5 per cent. of the whole. Under the Alkali Act -at first 5 per cent. was allowed, but this is excessive now in view of -improved methods of condensation. - -In the _Leblanc_ process the revolving furnace is on health grounds to -be preferred to the hand furnace. Such a furnace occupies the space -of but three hand furnaces and can replace eighteen of them. The vast -accumulation of waste, consisting mainly of calcium sulphide, and -generating sulphuretted hydrogen gas in such amount as to constitute -a nuisance, is only partially prevented by the Chance-Claus and other -methods of recovery, and makes it most desirable to adopt the Solvay -ammonia process. - -_Note._—_Sulphonal, Oxalic acid, Ultramarine, Alum._—The production of -_sulphonal_ is intensely unpleasant owing to the disagreeable smell (like -cats’ excrement) of the mercaptan developed. All work therefore must be -carried on in air-tight apparatus under negative pressure and careful -cooling. Any escaping fumes must be absorbed in solution of acetone and -fine water spray. - -Preparation of _oxalic acid_ unless carried on in closed-in vessels gives -rise to injurious and troublesome fumes. If open pans are used, hoods and -ducts in connection with a fan should be placed over them. - -Grinding of _ultramarine_ and _alum_ requires to be done in closed-in -mills, and any dust drawn away by locally applied ventilation and -filtered. The gases given off in the burning process contain 3 per cent. -of sulphur dioxide, which requires to be absorbed—a procedure most easily -effected in towers where the upstreaming gas comes into contact with a -dilute solution of lime or soda. - - -Chlorine, Bleaching Powder, Chlorine Compounds - -(See also pp. 23-9 and 173) - -What has been said as to imperviousness of apparatus, negative pressure -maintained by the tall chimney stack or earthenware or fireclay fan, -&c., applies equally here. The exhaust ventilation is also required to -aspirate the gas into the bleaching chambers. - -At the end of the system there must be either a tower packed with -quicklime to absorb the last traces of chlorine or such a number of -bleach chambers into which the gas can be led that no chlorine escapes. -Production of chlorine gas electrolytically is to be preferred to other -processes on hygienic grounds. - -Careful cleanliness is the best prophylactic against occurrence of -_chlorine rash_ among persons employed in the electrolytic production of -chlorine. In some factories attempt has been made to use other substances -(magnetite) instead of carbon for the anode, and the success attending -their adoption is further proof that the tar cement at the anode helped -to cause the acne. - -In the _Weldon_ process care must be taken that the water lutes are -intact, and the stills must not be opened before the chlorine has been -drawn off. All processes in which manganese dust can arise (grinding -of manganese dioxide and drying of Weldon deposit) should be done -under locally applied exhaust. The _bleaching powder_ chambers must be -impervious and care taken that they are not entered before the chlorine -has been absorbed. Usually the number of lime chambers connected up with -each other is such that no chlorine escapes free into the air. Emptying -of the finished product should not be done by hand, as considerable -quantities of chlorine escape and make the work extremely irksome. -Mechanical methods of emptying should be adopted in substitution for hand -labour, and of these the Hasenclever closed-in apparatus is the best. - - -Nitric Acid and Explosives - -(See also pp. 39-49 and 172) - -In the production of _nitric acid_ complete imperviousness of the system -and as complete condensation of the gases as possible by means of -tourilles, cooling condensers, and the requisite number of towers are -necessary. The method suggested by Valentine of manufacture of nitric -acid in apparatus under a partial vacuum has advantages from a hygienic -standpoint. Earthenware fans are used to force the nitric acid gases -onwards and have the advantage of creating a negative pressure. Great -care is needed in handling, emptying, packing, conveying, and storing the -acid in consequence of the danger from breaking or spilling. The bottles -used must be in perfect condition and must be well packed. No greater -stock of nitric acid should be allowed in a room than is absolutely -necessary, and care must be exercised in the event of a carboy breaking -that the spilt acid does not come into contact with organic substances, -as that would increase development of nitrous fumes. - -Workers must be warned not to remain in rooms in which acid has been -spilt. They are only to be entered by workers equipped with breathing -apparatus (smoke helmets). - -Among the special regulations on the subject may be mentioned those -of the Prussian Ministerial Decree, dated January 8, 1900, concerning -nitrous fumes and means of protection for workers employed with the acid. -What has been said on p. 257 in regard to the transport of sulphuric acid -applies equally to nitric acid. - -In the _nitrating_ process in the manufacture of explosives (see p. -47) it is essential that the apparatus is hermetically closed, that -agitation is done mechanically, or better still by means of compressed -air, and that any fumes developed are exhausted and condensed. In the -preparation of _nitro-glycerin_ (see p. 46) the gases developed in the -nitration of the waste acid require to be carefully condensed. Contact -of nitro-glycerin with the skin has to be avoided and the attention -of the workers drawn to the danger. Preparation of _gun cotton_ (see -p. 48) takes place in machines which are at the same time nitrating -and centrifugalising machines. The apparatus is first filled with -the nitrating acid and the cotton added; the fumes are drawn off by -earthenware ducts and fans, and lastly the bulk of the acid is removed by -centrifugal action. Such machines carry out effectually the principles of -industrial hygiene. - -In the preparation of _fulminate of mercury_ nitrous fumes, cyanogen -compounds, and acetic acid compounds are developed by the action of -the nitric acid on mercury, and require to be dealt with by exhaust -ventilation.[G] - - -Artificial Manures, Fertilizers - -(See also pp. 53 and 54) - -In grinding phosphorite and superphosphates, corrosive dust is produced. -All grinding operations must, therefore, be carried out automatically -in closed apparatus (ball mills, disintegrators, &c.). In making the -phosphorite soluble by treatment with sulphuric acid, and subsequent -drying of the product, corrosive hydrofluoric acid gas is developed, -which requires to be carried away by an acid proof exhaust fan, and -condensed in a tower by water (see fig. 58). The modern revolving drying -machines are especially serviceable. - -[Illustration: FIG. 58.—Washing tower for hydrofluoric acid (_after -Leymann_.)] - -In the production of _basic slag_ corrosive dust is given off, causing -ulceration of the mucous membrane. Grinding and other manipulations -creating dust must be carried on in apparatus under local exhaust -ventilation. The following—somewhat shortened—are the German Imperial -Regulations, dated July 3, 1909, for basic slag factories. - - BASIC SLAG REGULATIONS - - 1. Workrooms in which basic slag is crushed, ground, or stored - (if not in closed sacks) shall be roomy and so arranged as to - ensure adequate change of air. Floors shall be of impervious - material allowing of easy removal of dust. - - 2. Preliminary breaking of the slag by hand shall not be done - in the grinding rooms, but either in the open air or in open - sheds. - - 3. Slag crushers, grinding mills, and other apparatus shall be - so arranged as to prevent escape of dust as far as possible - into the workrooms. They shall be provided with exhaust - ventilation and means for collecting the dust if this cannot be - done in the absence of dust. - - 4. Arrangements shall be made whereby barrows conveying - material to the grinding mills shall be emptied directly into - partially hooded hoppers provided with exhaust ventilation so - as to prevent escape of dust into the workrooms. - - 5. The casing and joints of the grinding mills, ducts, dust - collectors and sieves shall be airtight; if leaks are noticed - they must be repaired forthwith. - - 6. Ducts, dust collectors and sieves shall be so arranged as to - enable periodical cleansing to be undertaken from the outside. - - 7. Repairs of the plant mentioned in Para. 5 in which workers - are exposed to inhalation of slag dust shall be entrusted by - the occupier only to such workers as wear respirators supplied - for the purpose or other means of protecting mouth and nostrils - such as wet sponges, handkerchiefs, &c. - - 8. Emptying of slag powder from the grinding mills and dust - collectors and transference to the store rooms shall only - be done in accordance with special regulations designed to - minimise dust. - - 9. Filling slag powder into sacks from the outlets of the - mills, elevating and discharging it into receptacles shall only - be done under efficient exhaust ventilation. - - 10. Sacks in which the powder is transported and piled in heaps - shall be of a certain defined strength to be increased in the - case of sacks to be piled in heaps more than 3½ metres in - height. Special rooms separated from other workrooms shall be - provided for storage of slag powder in sacks. Only the sacks - representing the previous day’s production may be stored in the - grinding rooms. - - Basic slag in powder and not in sacks shall be kept in special - storage rooms shut off entirely from other workrooms. No person - shall enter such storage rooms when they are being filled or - emptied. Discharging the contents of the sacks into them shall - be done under exhaust ventilation. - - 11. The floors of the workrooms described in Para. 1 shall be - cleaned before the commencement of each shift or in an interval - during each shift. No person except those engaged in cleaning - shall be present during the operation. If cleaning is effected - by sweeping, the occupier shall require the persons doing it to - wear the respirators provided or other protection for the mouth - and nose. - - 12. The occupier shall not permit the workers to bring spirits - into the factory. - - 13. A lavatory and cloakroom and, separated from them and in - a part of the building free from dust, a meal room shall be - provided. These rooms shall be kept clean, free from dust, and - be heated during the winter. - - In the lavatory and cloakroom water, soap, and towels shall be - provided and adequate arrangements shall be made for keeping - the clothing taken off before commencing work. - - The occupier shall give the persons employed opportunity to - take a warm bath daily before leaving work in a bathroom - erected inside the factory and heated during the winter. - - 14. No woman or male young person under eighteen years of age - shall work or remain in a room into which basic slag is brought. - - Persons under eighteen years of age shall not be employed in - beating sacks which have contained basic slag. - - 15. No person employed in breaking or grinding, emptying, - packing, or storing basic slag, shall work more than ten hours - daily. - - There shall be intervals during working hours amounting in the - aggregate to two hours, one of them lasting at least an hour. - If duration of employment daily is limited to seven hours with - never longer than four hours’ work without an interval, only - one interval of at least one hour is required. - - 16. For work mentioned in Para. 15 no person shall be employed - without a certificate from an approved surgeon stating that he - is free of disease of the lungs and not alcoholic. The occupier - shall place the supervision of the health of the workers under - a surgeon who shall examine them at least once a month for - signs of disease of the respiratory organs and alcoholism. - Workers engaged in the operations mentioned in Para. 15 shall - be suspended from employment when the surgeon suspects such - illness or alcoholism. Those showing marked susceptibility to - the effect of basic slag dust shall be permanently suspended. - - 17. A health Register shall be kept in which shall be entered - the precise employment, duration of work, and state of health - of the persons employed. - - 18. The occupier shall obtain a guarantee from the workers that - no alcohol or food shall be taken into the workrooms. - - -Preparation of Hydrofluoric Acid - -(See also pp. 37 and 171) - -The fumes given off in the preparation of hydrofluoric acid require to be -collected in leaden coolers and vessels; that which escapes requires to -be absorbed by a water spray in towers. The apparatus must be impervious -and kept under a slight negative pressure. - - -Chromium Compounds - -(See also pp. 55-8 and 185) - -The German Imperial Decree, dated May 16, 1907, contains the preventive -measures necessary in bichromate factories. According to this, workers -suffering from ulceration of the skin (chrome holes, eczema) are not to -be employed except on a medical certificate that they are free from such -affections, and daily examination for signs of ulceration is enjoined, -so that those affected may receive prompt treatment. Further, periodical -medical examination of the workers is required at monthly intervals. -Respirators (for work in which dust cannot be avoided), with lavatory, -cloakroom, and meal room accommodation, are to be provided, and also -baths. In handling bichromates wearing of impervious gloves may be -necessary, and smearing the hands and face with vaseline is recommended. -In addition diffusion of dust and fumes must be minimised; machines -in which mixing, crushing, and grinding are done must be impervious, -and provided with exhaust ventilation. Charging of the furnaces, where -possible, should be effected mechanically and the fumes developed both in -manipulation of the furnaces and from hot bichromate liquor removed by an -exhaust. - -A leaflet containing directions for workers coming into contact with -chromium compounds in chemical factories, dyeing, tanning, wood staining, -calico printing, wall paper printing, painting, &c., has been drawn up by -Lewin. It contains a list of the poisonous chrome compounds and of the -industries in which chrome poisoning occurs, information as to the action -of chrome upon the skin and mucous membrane, and the preventive measures -necessary. Among the last named are: smearing the skin with oil, use of -impervious gloves, respirators in work where dust arises, necessity of -cleanliness, and periodical medical examination. - -For the _chrome tanning industry_ the following leaflet was drawn up -by the Imperial Health Office in Berlin, which succinctly states the -measures against chrome poisoning in these industries and contains much -practical information for the workers: - - In chrome tanning by the two bath process, the first bath - containing potassium bichromate and hydrochloric acid has a - corroding effect upon broken surfaces of the skin (scratches, - chapped hands, eruptions, &c.). In consequence, they develop - into round ulcers (chrome holes) with hard raised edges which - are difficult to heal and go on increasing in size unless work - at the process is temporarily given up. In persons with very - sensitive skin, even though the surface may be intact, handling - the liquor brings on sometimes an obstinate rash (eczema) on - the hands and forearms. - - The solution used in the one bath process has no corrosive - action, but it is a strong poison, just as is the solution of - potassium bichromate of the two bath process. If swallowed, the - solutions cause vomiting, diarrhœa, kidney trouble, and even - death. Chromium compounds can also enter the body through skin - wounds and cause illness. - - _Prevention._—In order to prevent the occurrence of chrome - ulceration, workers employed with chrome or chrome solutions - must be especially careful in avoiding injury to the skin of - the hands or forearms. This applies especially to workers who - carry the vessels containing bichromate, who weigh and dissolve - the potassium bichromate, or who come into contact with the - tanning liquor or with undressed skins and hides which have - lain in the liquor. - - If, in spite of precautions, eruptions, rashes, or ulceration - occur, all work necessitating contact with corrosive tanning - liquors should be suspended until they are healed. - - In order to reduce risk of action of the liquor on the skin, - workers employed in the process described would do well if, - before commencing work, they carefully smeared hands and - forearms with unsalted lard, vaseline, or the like, and during - work avoided, as much as possible, soiling the bare hands and - arms with the liquor. - - If, nevertheless, a worker has contracted a chrome hole, or - eruption, he should consult a medical man, informing him at the - same time of the nature of his work. - - To avoid internal absorption of chrome, workers preparing the - baths must carefully avoid inhaling the dust of chromium salts. - These and all other workers engaged with the liquors containing - chromium must not take food and drink while at work. Working - suits should be taken off and face and hands washed with soap - before eating or drinking, and before leaving the factory. - - -Petroleum, Benzine - -(See also pp. 59-64 and 222-4) - -As crude petroleum and the higher fractions first distilled from it -affect the skin injuriously, wetting the skin should be avoided, and -careful cleanliness on the part of the workers enjoined. Workers exposed -to the influence of gases escaping from naphtha springs and wells should -be equipped with breathing apparatus (smoke helmets); this applies to -those who have to enter stills and other apparatus connected with the -distillation of petroleum. - -In the preparation of petroleum by sulphuric acid sulphur dioxide in -great quantity is developed, constituting a distinct danger to the -workers. This process, therefore, should be carried on in closed vessels -furnished with mechanical stirrers or compressed air agitators. The most -suitable apparatus is that illustrated in fig. 13. - -Petroleum tanks must be thoroughly aired before they are cleaned and -should be entered only by workers equipped with breathing apparatus. -Apparatus containing petroleum and benzine requires, as far as possible, -to be closed in and air tight (as, for example, in the extraction of fat -from bones and oil seed, in the rubber industry, and in chemical cleaning -establishments); where benzine fumes develop they should be immediately -drawn away by suitably applied exhaust ventilation. This is necessary, on -account of the danger of fire, in chemical cleaning establishments where -purification is effected by means of benzine in closed drums. - -Regulations for benzine extraction plants are contained in the Prussian -Ministerial Decree, dated January 5, 1909, for benzine extraction -works, and also in that of August 3, 1903, for dry-cleaning premises, -to which last were added ‘Directions for safety,’ containing important -regulations as to risk from fire. From our standpoint the following -points are of interest: care is to be taken to provide and maintain -exhaust ventilation directly across the floor. The air, however, must -not be allowed to pass near any fire. Drying rooms especially are to be -lofty and airy, and separated from other workrooms. In factories with -mechanical power the authorities may require provision of artificial -ventilation for the drying rooms. Washing machines, centrifugalising -machines, and benzine rinsing vessels should be furnished with -well-fitting covers to be removed only for such time as is absolutely -necessary for putting in and taking out the articles to be cleaned, -shaken, or rinsed. The vessels named are to be examined as to their -imperviousness at least once every quarter by a properly qualified -person. The condition in which they are found is to be noted in a book to -be shown to the Factory Inspector and police authorities on demand. - -Lastly, substitution for benzine of other less poisonous substances such -as carbon tetrachloride has been urged. - - -Phosphorus, Lucifer Matches - -(See also pp. 49-53 and 190) - -In view of the danger of the lucifer match industry, measures were -taken at an early date in almost all civilised states to guard against -phosphorus poisoning, and in many countries have led to the prohibition -of the use of white phosphorus. Complete prohibition of its manufacture -and use was first enacted in Finland (1872) and in Denmark (1874). -Prohibition was decreed in Switzerland in 1879 (in January 1882 this was -revoked, but again enacted in 1893), and in the Netherlands in 1901. In -Germany the law prohibiting the use of white phosphorus came into force -in January 1908, and runs as follows: - - 1. White or yellow phosphorus shall not be employed in the - production of matches and other lighting substances. Lighting - substances made with white phosphorus shall not be kept for - sale, or sold, or otherwise brought on the market. Provided - that this shall not apply to ignition strips which serve for - the lighting of safety lamps. - - 2. Persons wilfully infringing this law shall be punished - by a fine of 2000 marks. If the infringement occurs through - ignorance the fine shall consist of 150 marks. - - In addition to the fine, all prohibited articles produced, - imported, or brought into the trade shall be confiscated, - as well as the implements used in their production, without - reference to whether they belong to the person convicted or - not. If prosecution or conviction of the guilty party cannot be - brought home, confiscation nevertheless is to be carried out - independently. - -Roumania and France have a state monopoly of matches; in these states -no white phosphorus matches have been produced since 1900 and 1898 -respectively. France, by the Law of December 17, 1908, signified -concurrence with the International Convention in regard to the -prohibition of the use of white phosphorus. - -In Sweden and Norway the prohibition of white phosphorus is in force -only for the home trade. A Swedish Decree, dated December 9, 1896, -permitted factories carrying on the manufacture for export to use white -phosphorus, and almost precisely similar provisions are contained in the -Norwegian Decree. The Swedish Decree, dated March 30, 1900, permits white -phosphorus matches to be exported, but not to be sold in the country. In -Austria difficulties in regard to prohibition of white phosphorus arose -owing to trade conditions (especially in the East), and the attitude of -the states competing in the lucifer match trade, particularly Italy and -Japan. Austria, therefore, made agreement with international prohibition -of white phosphorus, dependent on the attitude of Japan; since Japan did -not concur, the decision of Austria fell through. When, however, Italy in -the year 1906 joined the Convention, the difficulties were also overcome -in Austria, and by a law similar to that of Germany, dated July 13, 1909, -prohibition of the manufacture and sale of white phosphorus matches dates -from the year 1912.[H] - -Belgium has refrained from prohibition of white phosphorus, but on the -other hand has passed a series of enactments relating to the match -manufacture, of which the most essential are here cited, since they -characterise the measures which come into consideration for factories in -which white phosphorus is still employed. - - _Royal Decree, dated March 25, 1890, modified by the Royal - Decree, dated February 12, 1895, and November 17, 1902, - concerning employment in lucifer match factories._ - - 1. In match factories where white phosphorus is used, mixing - the paste and drying the dipped matches shall be carried on in - a place specially set apart for the purpose. - - 2. Mixing the paste shall be carried on in an entirely closed - vessel or in one connected with an efficient exhaust draught - locally applied. - - The proportion of white phosphorus in the paste shall not - exceed in weight 8 per cent. of the total material, not - including water. - - 3. Hoods and ducts communicating with an exhaust draught shall - be installed at the level of the plates for dipping white - phosphorus matches, and over the vessels containing the paste. - - 4. Drying rooms for white phosphorus matches, if entered by the - workers, shall be mechanically ventilated. - - 5. Rooms in which phosphorus fumes can arise shall be lofty and - well ventilated, preferably by an exhaust at the level of the - work benches, communicating with the main chimney stack. - - The workrooms shall be kept clean. No food or drink shall be - taken in them. - - 6. In every match factory the workers shall have at their - disposal a special cloak room and suitable and sufficient - washing accommodation, so as to be able to change clothes - before commencing, and at the end of, work, and to wash the - hands and face on leaving. - - Cleanliness will be obligatory upon the workers manipulating - phosphorus paste or matches. - - 7. Workers coming into contact with phosphorus paste or matches - shall be examined monthly by a surgeon appointed by the - Minister of Industry, who shall be paid by the occupier. - - Workers having decayed, unstopped teeth, or exhibiting symptoms - of gingivitis or stomatitis, or in poor health at the time of - examination, shall be temporarily suspended from work. - - The surgeon shall enter the results of his monthly examinations - in a prescribed register. - - This register shall be shown to the Factory Inspector on demand. - -These decrees are supplemented by further orders regarding the taking of -samples of paste in match factories and store houses (Royal Orders of -March 25, 1890; February 12, 1895; April 18, 1898; November 17, 1902). - -As is evident from the Belgian enactment, in states where prohibition of -white phosphorus is not in force, palliative measures only are possible -and even then they can only be enforced in large factories when automatic -machinery is used to eliminate hand labour in dangerous operations. In -this respect the introduction of closed, ventilated, mechanical mixing -apparatus provided with mechanical stirrers, closed and ventilated -mechanical dipping and drying apparatus, are especially important. -Certain modern American machines carry through the whole complicated -process of the phosphorous match industry automatically. Seeing that -prohibition of white phosphorus is an accomplished fact and that matches -free from risk in their manufacture answer every purpose, the universal -enforcement of the prohibition of white phosphorus should be striven for -in civilised states. - - -Carbon bisulphide - -(See also pp. 68-71 and 193-5) - -Use of carbon bisulphide in the vulcanising of indiarubber goods by -dipping them into the liquid and subsequently drying them (usually in -a current of hot air) causes development of carbon bisulphide fumes in -considerable quantity, especially if the articles to be dried are laid -on shelves or hung up in the workroom, a procedure which should never be -permitted. Drying must be carried out under local exhaust ventilation. - -All vessels holding carbon bisulphide used for dipping can be placed in -a wooden channel above the dipping vessels, provided with openings for -manipulation, and connected with an exhaust system. - -The following are the German Imperial Regulations, dated March 1, 1902, -for vulcanising of indiarubber by means of carbon bisulphide: - - VULCANISING BY MEANS OF CARBON BISULPHIDE - - (Notice concerning the erection and management of industrial - premises in which indiarubber goods are vulcanised by means of - carbon bisulphide or chloride of sulphur.) - - The following regulations shall apply in accordance with - paragraph 120 (_e_) of the Industrial Code: - - 1. The floor of such rooms as are used for the vulcanising - of indiarubber goods by means of carbon bisulphide shall not - be lower than the surrounding ground. The rooms shall have - windows opening into the outer air, and the lower halves shall - be capable of being opened so as to render possible sufficient - renewal of air. - - The rooms shall be ventilated by fans mechanically driven. With - the approval of the higher authorities permission to dispense - with mechanical draught may be allowed, provided that in other - ways powerful change of air is secured. With the approval of - the higher authorities special ventilating arrangements can be - dispensed with if the fumes of carbon bisulphide are removed - immediately, at the point where they are produced, by means - of a powerful draught, and in this way purity of the air be - secured. - - 2. The vulcanising rooms shall not be used as a dwelling, or - for sleeping in, or for preparing food in, or as a store, - or drying room, nor shall other processes than those of - vulcanising be carried on in them. No persons, except those - engaged in vulcanising processes, shall be allowed in the rooms. - - There shall be at least 20 cubic meters (700 cubic feet) of air - space allowed for each person employed therein. - - 3. Only such quantities of carbon bisulphide shall be brought - into the vulcanising rooms as shall serve for the day’s supply. - Further storage shall be made in a special place separate from - the workrooms. Vessels to hold the vulcanising liquid shall be - strongly made, and when filled and not in use shall be well - covered. - - 4. Vulcanising and drying rooms shall be warmed only by steam - or hot-water pipes. - - These rooms shall be lighted only by means of strong - incandescent electric lamps. - - Exceptions from paragraphs 1 and 2 may be allowed by the higher - authorities. - - 5. Machines intended for vulcanising long sheets of cloth shall - be covered over (_e.g._, with a glass casing) so as to prevent - as far as possible the entrance of carbon bisulphide fumes into - the workrooms, and from the casing the air shall be drawn away - effectually by means of a fan mechanically driven. Entrance to - the space which is enclosed shall only be allowed in case of - defects in the working. - - In cases where a covering of the machine is not practicable - for technical reasons the higher authorities can, if suitable - means of protection are used (especially when the machine is - placed in an open hall, and provided that no person works at - the machine for more than two days a week), allow of exception - to the above arrangement. - - 6. Vulcanising of other articles (not mentioned in par. 5), - unless carried out in the open air, shall be done in covered-in - boxes into which the worker need only introduce his hands, and - so arranged as to keep the fumes away from the face of the - worker. - - The air must be drawn away from the box by means of a powerful - draught. - - 7. Rule 6 shall apply in vulcanising both the outside and - inside of indiarubber goods. In vulcanising the inside no - worker shall be allowed to suck the fluid through with the - mouth. - - 8. The goods after their immersion in the vulcanising fluid - shall not lie open in the room, but shall either be placed - under a ventilated cover or at once be carried into the drying - chamber. - - The drying chamber or drying rooms in which the wares are - exposed to artificial heat immediately after vulcanising - shall be so arranged that actual entrance into them for the - putting in or taking out of the vulcanised goods shall not - be necessary. No person shall be allowed to enter the drying - chamber while work is going on. The higher authorities can - permit of exceptions to this rule in the case of the drying of - long rolls if sufficient protecting arrangements are made. - - 9. When vulcanisation is effected by means of chloride of - sulphur the vessels or chambers used for holding it shall be so - arranged that escape of the fumes is prevented. - - No person shall enter the vulcanising chamber until the air in - the chamber has been completely changed; it shall not be used - for purposes other than vulcanising. - - 10. Employment in vulcanising with carbon bisulphide or in - other work exposing the workers to carbon bisulphide vapour - shall not be allowed without a break for more than two hours - and in no case for more than four hours in one day; after two - hours a pause of at least one hour must be allowed before - resumption. - - No person under 18 years of age shall be employed. - - 11. The occupier shall provide all workers employed in work - mentioned in paragraph 10 with proper and sufficient overalls. - By suitable notices and supervision he shall see that when not - in use they are kept in their proper place. - - 12. Separate washing accommodation and dressing-rooms for each - sex shall be provided, distinct from the workrooms, for all - persons employed as stated in paragraph 11. - - Water, soap, and towels and arrangements for keeping the - clothes put off before the commencement of work shall be - provided in sufficient amount. - - 13. The occupier shall appoint a duly qualified medical - practitioner (whose name shall be sent to the Inspector of - Factories) to supervise the health of those exposed to the - effects of carbon bisulphide. He shall examine the workers once - every month with a view to the detection of poisoning by carbon - bisulphide. - - By direction of the medical practitioner workers showing signs - of carbon bisulphide poisoning shall be suspended from work - and those who appear peculiarly susceptible shall be suspended - permanently from work in processes mentioned in paragraph 10. - - 14. The occupier shall keep a book, or make some official - responsible for its keeping, of the changes in the personnel in - the processes mentioned in paragraph 10 and as to their state - of health. The book shall contain— - - (1) The name of the person keeping the book; - - (2) The name of the appointed surgeon; - - (3) Surname, Christian name, age, residence, date of first - employment, and date of leaving of every worker mentioned in - paragraph 10, and the nature of the employment; - - (4) The date of any illness and its nature; - - (5) Date of recovery; - - (6) The dates and results of the prescribed medical examination. - - 15. The occupier shall require the workers to subscribe to the - following conditions:— - - No worker shall take food into the vulcanising rooms; - - The workers shall use the protection afforded in paragraphs 5-7 - and use the overalls in the work named; - - The workers shall obey the directions of the occupier given in - accordance with Rule 5, paragraphs 1 and 2, Rule 8, paragraphs - 1 and 2, and Rule 9, paragraph 2. Workers contravening these - orders shall be liable to dismissal without further notice. - - If in a factory regulations already exist (paragraph 134(a) of - the Industrial Code) the above shall be included. - - 16. In the vulcanising rooms mentioned in Rule 1 there shall be - posted up a notice by the police stating— - - (_a_) The cubic capacity of the rooms; - - (_b_) The number of workers who may be employed. - - Further, in every vulcanising room there shall be posted up in - a conspicuous place and in clear characters Rules 1-15 and the - conditions in paragraph 15. - -Reference should be made also to the Prussian Ministerial Decree, dated -February 23, 1910, on the preparation, storing, and manufacture of carbon -bisulphide, and to the French Ministerial Circular, dated January 20, -1909 (Manufacture of Indiarubber). - -Employment of benzine and chloride of sulphur for vulcanising is, from a -hygienic standpoint, to be preferred to that of the much more dangerous -carbon bisulphide. The same applies also to the process of the extraction -of fat. - -In the references made to general arrangements for the protection of -workers dealing with poisons, stress was laid on the complete enclosing -of extraction apparatus. This applies, of course, to extraction by means -of carbon bisulphide, both on grounds of economy, health, and risk from -fire. - -On account of the risk to health, efforts have been made to substitute -other means of equal efficiency, free from danger. Such a substitute may -be found in _carbon tetrachloride_. This extracts well, and dissolves -grease spots (like benzine), is not explosive, is scarcely inflammable, -and is less poisonous than the substances commonly used for extraction. -Its employment is to be recommended on hygienic grounds, but the -relatively high price may stand in the way of its use. - - -Illuminating Gas Industry. Production of Tar and Coke - -(See also pp. 71-90 and 199) - -In illuminating gas factories imperviousness of the whole working system -is especially important from an economical and hygienic standpoint, -since only in this way can danger to the working staff be avoided. This -applies especially to the retorts, from which no gas should be allowed -to escape. If the exhaust is working satisfactorily this should not be -possible, as the pressure of the gas in the retorts during distillation -will be a negative one. Correct regulation of pressure is thus of the -greatest importance in the prevention of poisoning in gas works. - -Further, special precaution is necessary in operations with gas purifying -material containing cyanogen, since otherwise the workers suffer from the -gases developed from the gas lime. - -Work with gas purifying material should be so arranged that injurious -gases are carried away by suitable ventilating arrangements. -Consideration for the neighbourhood forbids their discharge into the open -air, and forbids also operations with the gas purifying material in the -open air; therefore non-injurious removal of these gases is necessary. - -Quenching of the coke also should, on account of the annoyance to the -working staff and to lessen nuisance to the neighbourhood, be carried out -so that the fumes are drawn into the main chimney stack. - -In coke ovens escape of tarry constituents and of poisonous emanations -are prevented by imperviousness of the apparatus, by sufficiency of the -exhaust draught, and especially by passing the products of distillation, -which cannot be condensed, under a fire, or by absorbing them either with -water or oil. - -Special precautionary measures are needed further in the distillation of -the washing oil, and generally escape of poisonous emanations must be -prevented by the greatest possible imperviousness of the distillation -system and corresponding regulation of pressure. - - -Gas Motors (Power Gas Stations) - -(See also pp. 80-5) - -The following points, taken from an Austrian Ministerial Decree (dated -December 2, 1903), for the prevention of poisoning in power gas works, -may be useful: - - POWER GAS INSTALLATIONS - - In mixed gas installations (Dowson, water gas) of the older - system, the way in which the gas is produced causes the whole - apparatus and pipes to be under slight negative pressure, - because the steam required for the process must be blown into - the generator. In these works, therefore, a small special steam - boiler is required and a gas receiver to store the gas. - - In more modern suction generator gas installations the piston - is used to suck in steam and air as well as the gases arising - in the generator and to draw them into the motor cylinder. Thus - the whole system is kept in a condition of slight negative - pressure during the process. While the suction generator gas - system is working, only so much gas is produced as the motor - uses for the time being, so that with this system there is no - greater store of gas than is requisite. - - In such an installation the following rules should be borne in - mind: - - 1. All the apparatus (gas pipes, valves, &c.) must be - constructed and maintained in a completely impervious - condition. Any water seals especially which may be in use must - receive attention. - - 2. Precautions must be taken to prevent the gases from the - generator passing into the coolers and purifiers when the - engine is at rest. - - 3. Care is to be taken when the apparatus is at rest to prevent - any possible subsequent escape of gas into the room where the - apparatus is installed. - - 4. The return of explosive gas out of the gas engine into the - gas pipe by failure to ignite or other accident, must be made - impossible. - - 5. The apparatus through which the generator is charged must - possess a tightly fitting double valve to prevent escape of gas - into the room during charging. - - 6. The pipes for conducting away the unpleasantly smelling - bituminous constituents in the water mixed with sulphuretted - hydrogen from the scrubbers must not communicate with the - workroom. - - 7. Precautions must be taken to minimise the danger during the - cleaning of the generator (removal of ashes and slag). - - 8. All stop-cocks and valves are to be so arranged that their - position at any time (open or shut) is clearly visible from - outside. - - 9. Purifiers with a capacity greater than two cubic meters - must be provided with appliances which make possible thorough - removal of the gas before they are opened. - - 10. The gas washing and cleaning apparatus and pipes are to be - fitted with gauges indicating the pressure existing in them at - any moment. - - 11. When a suction gas plant is first installed and also at - times when there is no gas in the pipes and plant between the - generator and the engine, gas must be blown in until all air is - expelled before the engine is set going. - - 12. During the cleaning of apparatus and pipes which, when in - action, contain gas, the rooms must be thoroughly ventilated. - - 13. Rooms in which suction gas plant is installed must be of - such a height that all the plant and its connections can be - easily reached for cleaning, &c., and be capable of such free - ventilation as to render impossible an accumulation of gas. - - 14. These rooms must be separated from living rooms by a wall - without any openings in it. Emanations also must be prevented - as far as possible from entering into living or working rooms - situated over the gas engine. - - 15. Erection of apparatus for generating and purifying suction - gas in cellars shall only be allowed if specially effective - ventilation is provided by natural or mechanical means. - -Other Regulations are those of the Prussian Ministerial Decree, dated -June 20, 1904, as to the arrangement and management of suction gas -premises. - - -ACETYLENE GAS INSTALLATIONS - -(See also pp. 85-7) - -The following regulations for the protection of workers in acetylene gas -installations are taken from the Prussian Ministerial Decree, dated 2 -November, 1897: - - 1. Preparation and condensation of acetylene on the one hand, - and liquefaction on the other, must be carried on in separate - buildings. - - 2. If the pressure employed for condensation of the gas exceeds - eight atmospheres, this work must take place in a room set - apart for the purpose. - - 3. Rooms in which acetylene is prepared, condensed, or - liquefied shall not be used as, nor be in direct connection - with, living rooms. They must be well lighted and ventilated. - - 4. The carbide must be kept in closed watertight vessels, so - as to ensure perfect dryness and only such quantities shall - be taken out as are needed. The vessels must be kept in dry, - light, well-ventilated rooms; cellar rooms may not be used for - storage purposes. - - 5. Crushing of carbide must be done with the greatest possible - avoidance of dust. Workers are to be provided with respirators - and goggles. - - 6. Acetylene gasometers must be fitted up in the open air or in - a well-ventilated room, separated from the gas generator. Every - gas receiver must have a water gauge showing the pressure in - the receiver. - - 7. Between the gasometer and receiver a gas purifier must be - provided so as to remove impurities (phosphoretted hydrogen, - arseniuretted hydrogen, carbon bisulphide, ammonia, &c.). - - 8. Condensation of acetylene gas at a pressure exceeding ten - atmospheres shall only be done in combination with cooling. - - -DISTRIBUTION AND USE OF POWER AND ILLUMINATING GAS - -The Austrian Gas Regulations (of July 18, 1906) contain general -provisions as to impermeability and security of the gas pipes and the -precautions to be observed in their installation. Special directions -follow as to main flues, material, dimensions, branches, and connections, -valve arrangements, testing of the pipes against leakage, directions -for discovering leaks, and other defects; also the nature of the branch -pipes (dimensions and material), valves, cocks, syphons, water seals, and -pressure gauges. In addition there are directions as to testing pipes and -how to deal with escape of gas, freezing of pipes, and other mishaps. - - -Ammonia - -(See also pp. 90-3 and 175) - -In the production of ammonia and ammonium salts (ammonium sulphate) -combination of the ammoniacal vapour with the sulphuric acid is -accompanied with the formation of volatile dangerous gases containing -sulphuretted hydrogen and cyanogen compounds, which produce marked -oppression and sometimes endanger the health of the workers. Drawing-off -these fumes into the furnace (practised sometimes in small industries) -is not advisable, as the sulphuretted hydrogen is burnt to sulphur -dioxide; if it is burnt absorption of the sulphur dioxide should follow, -or working it up into sulphuric acid (Leymann). Often these gases are -freed from cyanogen compounds and sulphuretted hydrogen by means of gas -purifying materials, such as are used in gas works. The whole apparatus -must be impervious. Where liquids containing ammonia are used exhaust -ventilation is necessary. - - -Cyanogen, Cyanogen Compounds - -(See also pp. 93-5 and 195-7) - -Processes in which cyanogen gas can develop, require to be done under a -powerful exhaust draught. - -In the production of cyanogen compounds possibility of the escape of -hydrocyanic acid (prussic acid) has to be borne in mind. Such escape is -possible in its production from raw animal products. - -The most careful cleanliness and observance of general measures for -personal hygiene are necessary in factories in which cyanogen compounds -are manufactured or handled. In crushing cyanide of potassium the workers -should wear indiarubber gloves and respirators. The products should be -stored in closed vessels in dry store rooms set apart for the purpose. - -Modern cyanide of potassium factories which work up molasses, from which -the sugar has been removed, and also residuary distillery liquors, so -far conform with hygienic requirements that all the apparatus is under -negative pressure, so that poisonous gases cannot escape into the -workrooms. - - -Coal Tar, Tar Products - -(See also pp. 96-119) - -Care must be taken for the removal of injurious gases developed in the -manipulation and use of tar (tar distillation) and in the processes -of cleaning connected therewith. This can be most effectively done by -carrying on the processes in closed apparatus. Hofmann describes such -a factory where all mixing vessels in which the distillation products -are further treated are completely closed in, so that even in mixing and -running off, no contact is possible with the material. - -The vessels for holding tar, tar-water, &c., must be impervious and -kept covered. Only the cold pitch and asphalt should be stored in open -pits. The cooling of the distillation products and residues, so long as -they give off poisonous and strongly-smelling fumes, should be carried -out in metal or bricked receivers. Such directions find a place in the -‘Technical Instructions’ appended to the German Factory Code. Without -doubt, tar is, because of its smell and for other reasons, unpleasant to -handle, and the danger to health from contact with it is not a matter -of indifference. Spilling of small quantities of tar during transport -and other manipulations can hardly be avoided. Careful cleanliness, -therefore, on the part of workers is strongly urged. It may be mentioned -that if tar is covered with a layer of tar-water, treatment with acid -fluids develops sulphur and cyanogen compounds, which may affect the -workers. Tar water should, therefore, be separated carefully from the tar -and used for the preparation of ammonia. - -The same remarks as to cleanliness, &c., apply in the manufacture of -felt, lamp-black, and briquettes, with use of tar. Saturation of felt, -and manufacture of tar plaster should be done in closed apparatus. -In the production of lamp-black, even with a great number of soot -chambers, there is escape of soot causing nuisance to workers and the -neighbourhood. Complete avoidance of this seems to be difficult, so that -measures for personal hygiene must be assured. In briquette factories it -has been found useful to heat the tar by means of steam instead of by -direct fire, which renders possible the use of a closed apparatus and -mechanical stirring. - -In the distillation of tar, during the first distillation period (first -runnings) unpleasant and injurious gases containing ammonia and sulphur -escape from the stills. These should (according to Leymann) be carried -away through closed pipes branching off from the lower end of the -running-off pipe, either into the furnace (in doing which a possible back -flash of flame is to be guarded against) or be subjected to purification -by lime or oxide of iron (similar to that in the case of illuminating -gas) with a view to recovery of ammonia and sulphur. The lower end of the -distillation pipes should be U-shaped so as to form a liquid seal—the -pipes for the drawing off of the gases branching off before the curve. In -the later stages of distillation risk can be checked by careful cooling -and imperviousness of the apparatus. - -Very unpleasant yellow fumes develop in great quantity when pitch is run -off from the hot still. Hence hot pitch should not be run off into open -pitch receptacles, but be cooled first in closed receptacles. - -The crude products obtained by distillation (light oil, creosote oil) -are subjected to purification consisting in treatment on the one hand -with alkali and on the other with acid and followed by fractional -distillation. In these processes injurious fumes may develop, therefore -they must—as already mentioned—be carried on in closed vessels provided -with means of escape for fumes and appliances for mechanical stirring; -the fumes drawn off must be led into the chimney stack. - -In the distillation of brown coal, of tar, and of resin, it is necessary, -as in the distillation of coal tar, to insist above all on careful -cooling and condensation, and thorough absorption of uncondensed gases -in washing towers. Special precautionary rules are necessary to guard -against the danger of entering tar stills for cleaning purposes. Such -directions were approved in Great Britain in 1904 in view of accidents -which occurred in this way: - - TAR DISTILLING - - The following directions[I] are approved by the Home Office - and are applicable to factories in which is carried on the - distillation of tar for the production of naphtha, light oil, - creosote oil, and pitch. - - 1. During the process of cleaning, every tar still should - be completely isolated from adjoining tar stills either by - disconnecting the pipe leading from the swan neck to the - condenser worm, or by disconnecting the waste gas pipe fixed - to the worm end or receiver. Blank flanges should be inserted - between the disconnections. In addition, the pit discharge pipe - or cock at the bottom of the still should be disconnected. - - 2. Every tar still should be ventilated and allowed to cool - before persons are allowed to enter. - - 3. Every tar still should be inspected by the foreman or other - responsible person before any workman is allowed to enter. - - 4. The inspecting foreman on first entering any tar still - or tank, and all persons employed in tar stills or tanks in - which there are no cross stays or obstructions likely to cause - entanglement, should be provided with a belt securely fastened - round the body with a rope attached, the free end being left - with two men outside whose sole duty should be to watch and - draw out any person appearing to be affected by gas. The belt - and rope should be adjusted and worn in such a manner that the - wearer can be drawn up head foremost and through the manhole - and not across it. - - 5. A bottle of compressed oxygen, with mouthpiece, should be - kept at all times ready for use; and printed instructions as - to the use of this bottle, and the method to be employed for - resuscitation by means of artificial respiration should be kept - constantly affixed. A draft of such instructions is appended. - - 6. A supply of suitable chemical respirators properly charged - and in good condition should be kept ready for use in case - of emergency arising from sulphuretted hydrogen or certain - poisonous gases. (Granules of carbon saturated with a solution - of caustic soda readily absorb sulphuretted hydrogen and may be - used for charging respirators.) - - 7. The use of naked lights should be strictly prohibited in - any portion of the works where gas of an inflammable nature is - liable to be given off. - - 8. Each still should be provided with a proper safety valve, - which should at all times be kept in efficient working - condition. - - -GASSING - - _Symptoms._—The first symptoms are giddiness, weakness in the - legs, and palpitation of the heart. If a man feels these he - should at once move into fresh warm air, when he will quickly - recover if slightly affected. He should avoid exposure to cold. - He should not walk home too soon after recovery; any exertion - is harmful. - - _First Aid._—Remove the patient into fresh warm air. Send for - the oxygen apparatus. Send for a doctor. Begin artificial - breathing at once if the patient is insensible and continue it - for at least half-an-hour, or until natural breathing returns. - Give oxygen[J] at the same time and continue it after natural - breathing returns. - - _Artificial Breathing_ (_Schäfer Method_).—Place the patient - face downwards as shown in the diagrams. - - Kneel at the side of the patient and place your hands flat in - the small of his back with thumbs nearly touching, and the - fingers spread out on each side of the body over the lowest - ribs (_see_ Diagram 1). - - [Illustration: DIAGRAM 1] - - Then promote artificial breathing by leaning forward over the - patient and, without violence, produce a firm, steady, downward - pressure (_see_ Diagram 2). Next release all pressure by - swinging your body backwards without lifting your hands from - the patient (_see_ Diagram 1). - - [Illustration: DIAGRAM 2] - - Repeat this pressure and relaxation of pressure without any - marked pause between the movements, _about 15 times a minute_, - until breathing is established. - -In my opinion as expressed in the general discussion, use of breathing -apparatus (smoke helmets) with oxygen is strongly advisable; these -implements must be put on before entering the still. - -In creosoting wood, opening the apparatus and taking out the steeped -wood should only be done when the apparatus is sufficiently cooled, as -otherwise injurious fumes escape. - -In heating asphalt unpleasant fumes arise which should be drawn off into -a furnace, or absorbed by a condenser charged with oil (Leymann); open -pans should be avoided, as injurious to workers. - - -Organic Dye-stuffs, Coal-Tar Colours. - -(See also pp. 107-19 and 204-15) - -The hygienic measures to be adopted for the prevention of industrial -poisoning in coal-tar colour factories are chiefly concerned with the -poisonous nature on the one hand of the raw material (benzene, toluene, -&c.) and on the other of the intermediate products (nitrobenzene, -aniline, toluidine, &c.) and the subsidiary substances (chlorine, acids, -especially nitric acid, &c.,) used. - -The most important measures are as follows: - -In purifying the raw materials (benzene, &c.) the distillation requires -to be done under effective cooling and in impervious apparatus. If -injurious solvents are employed (such as pyridine in the production of -anthracene) the manipulations should be performed in closed apparatus -if possible, under negative pressure. The fumes exhausted should be -carefully condensed by cooling or absorbed by a spray of water or oil. - -In view of the poisonous nature of benzene, the apparatus, stills, -receivers, tanks, tank waggons, &c., should only be entered for the -purpose of cleaning or repairing after preliminary thorough removal of -all residue of benzene, complete isolation from all similar apparatus -near, and thorough ventilation. Workers entering the stills, &c., -should always be equipped with breathing apparatus (smoke helmets) and -with a supply of oxygen. Other aids, such as safety belts which are held -by helpers, are not here advocated in view of the often sudden fatal -poisoning, especially as the rescuer is easily induced to spring to the -assistance of his unfortunate mate without the necessary equipment. The -frequency of such accidents calls urgently for the use of breathing -apparatus. - -In the manufacture of _diazo-_ and _nitroso-compounds_ and generally in -nitrating operations poisonous nitrous fumes are developed. By reduction -in an acid solution, acid fumes and singularly pungent-smelling compounds -can be given off. If reduction by means of tin is practised, the arsenic -in the tin can cause evolution of the extremely poisonous arseniuretted -hydrogen gas. In sulphonating, sulphur dioxide can develop; and -sulphuretted hydrogen gas on heating with sulphur or sulphide of sodium. - -All manipulations should take place in tightly closed-in apparatus -provided with exhaust, and the gases drawn off should be absorbed or -effectively carried away. In the case of many injurious gases it is -not sufficient merely to conduct them into the flue; they ought to -be condensed and got rid of. Thus acid fumes (nitrous fumes, sulphur -dioxide, hydrochloric acid vapour, chlorine gas) are neutralised by water -or milk of lime, or a solution of soda; ammonia or alcohol by water; -sulphuretted hydrogen and arseniuretted hydrogen by lime and oxide of -iron; aniline, &c., by dilute acids. - -Production of _nitrobenzene_, by nitrating benzene requires to be done in -closed apparatus, provided with mechanical agitators. In the subsequent -separation of the nitrating acids from the resulting nitro-compounds, -escape of vapourised nitro-compounds can scarcely be avoided even if -closed apparatus is used. Provision, therefore, must be made for abundant -ventilation of the workrooms. The reduction of the nitro-compounds -(nitrobenzene, nitrotoluene) to aniline (toluidine) must similarly take -place in closed agitating vessels. Introduction of the iron filings and -sulphuric or hydrochloric acids, also the subsequent saturation with -lime, and driving over of the aniline, &c., with steam, and collection -of the distillate, must take place in completely closed apparatus. -Nevertheless, escape of small quantities of aniline is very difficult to -prevent unless ample ventilation is provided. - -In the production of _fuchsin_ by heating aniline hydrochloride -(toluidine, red oil) with nitrobenzene (formerly arsenic acid) in closed -vessels, furnished with mechanical stirring apparatus the aniline -remaining unconverted after the melting escapes in the form of steam -carrying aniline fumes, even with careful condensation, so that thorough -ventilation and the other general measures for the protection of workers -set forth on pp. 242 _et seq._ are required. - -Marked injury to health and distress to workers through acid fumes are -sometimes caused by the denitration of the waste mixture of sulphuric -and nitric acids in the nitrating process, that is, by the separation of -nitric acid from the acid mixture. This denitration takes place usually -in the Glover towers of the lead chamber system which is often associated -with the manufacture of aniline. The mixed nitro-compounds of the waste -acids, however, are often not completely condensed, but pass through the -chambers and Gay-Lussac towers and escape into the air, whence arises -the constant smell of nitrobenzene in aniline factories (Leymann). In -the production of _naphthylamine_ and recovery of chlorinated products, -escaping chlorine should be led into chloride of lime chambers, -hydrochloric acid fumes into towers to be absorbed by water and milk of -lime or a solution of soda. - -In aniline factories danger can scarcely be wholly avoided, as the -workers, on the one hand, come into contact with poisonous substances, -nitrobenzene, aniline, &c., and on the other hand, in spite of all -technical hygienic measures, can hardly help breathing in some of the -aniline. Apart from the technical regulations, therefore, there must -be insistence on cleanliness of the workrooms, personal cleanliness on -the part of the workers (washing, baths, working suits, cloak-rooms, -&c.). Besides this, contact with aniline, nitrobenzene, &c., wetting of -the body and clothes with these substances, and, especially spilling, -splashing, and scattering these fluids must be carefully avoided. -The workers require to be suitably instructed as to the symptoms of -nitrobenzene and aniline poisoning, and the right steps to take, if -poisoned. The oxygen apparatus must always be at hand, ready for use; the -workers must be instructed how to use it. Further, workers, especially -those newly employed, must be under supervision in order that assistance -may be rendered them on the first signs of poisoning; medical assistance -ought to be within easy reach. Workers also should know of the tendency -of aniline to cause cancer of the bladder. - -Precautions against the poisonous nitro-derivatives of benzene -(nitrophenol, picric acid, &c.), which are in the form of poisonous dust, -must take the form of entirely closed-in grinding and packing apparatus, -or, at all events, removal of the dust at its source. - -Among official regulations may be mentioned the Prussian Ministerial -Edict, dated December 18, 1908, as to purification and storage of -benzene, and further the Regulations dated December 13, 1907, and -December 30, 1908, in force in Great Britain for the manufacture -of nitro- and amido-derivatives of benzene, and the manufacture of -explosives with use of dinitrobenzene or dinitrotoluene. - - - - -VI - -_PREVENTIVE REGULATIONS—THE EXTRACTION OF METALS (SMELTING WORK IN -GENERAL)_ - - -Danger is incurred when the furnace leaks, a condition which generally -occurs in the course of time, or if gases escape during the necessary -manipulations through the working doors. This can be avoided by -maintaining the walls in as air-tight a state as possible; but as very -small leakages are almost unavoidable the best course is to so regulate -the draught in the furnace (by means of fans) that a slight negative -pressure always exists in it. Naturally, poisonous gases escaping from -the furnace such as sulphur dioxide, carbonic oxide, carbon dioxide, -and hydrocarbons require to be drawn away and rendered harmless. This -can often be done by merely conducting them into the main flue. Gases -containing carbonic oxide possess high heating capacity, and their -escape can usually be prevented by suitable cupola bells. They can be -led away in impervious conduits and utilised for heating purposes or -for driving gas engines. Entering the flues for cleaning or repairing -purposes is especially dangerous; and as it is difficult to isolate one -portion entirely from another, such operations might well be carried on -by persons equipped with breathing apparatus (smoke helmets or oxygen -apparatus). - -In roasting operations handwork can be largely replaced by furnaces -worked mechanically. If the gases generated are rich in sulphur dioxide -they can be utilised for the manufacture of sulphuric acid or for -the production of liquid sulphur dioxide either directly or after -concentration; if not, they must be rendered harmless by treatment with -milk of lime in absorption towers. Other methods of rendering the sulphur -dioxide (unsuited for manufacture of sulphuric acid) harmless depend on -treatment with minerals containing calcium carbonate, or magnesium or -aluminium hydrate, sodium sulphide, &c. Sometimes the sulphurous gases -are led into blast furnaces containing oxide of iron and coal (so as to -form sulphide of iron) or are absorbed by means of moist scraps of sheet -iron or brown coal or peat briquettes. - -Use of chlorine compounds in the extraction of metals from ores (silver, -copper) causes evolution of chlorine and hydrochloric acid vapour. These -should be dealt with in absorption towers. Metallic fumes are collected -by suitable condensing arrangements. Flue dust is retained in flue dust -chambers, but in the cleaning of such condensing flues and chambers -danger to the workers is considerable and they should be equipped with -respirators, working suits, &c. Personal hygiene must be insisted on. - - -Iron - -(See also pp. 146-51) - -In blast furnace work, industrial poisoning occurs mainly from escaping -gases rich in carbonic oxide. They may also contain sulphur dioxide and -cyanogen compounds. The high proportion of carbonic oxide, however, makes -these gases valuable and serviceable, because of their great heating -value. They are, therefore, now led away and utilised, the furnace being -closed by a cupola bell only opened by means of a mechanical contrivance -when charging is necessary; while this is being done the ignited blast -furnace gases pour out, and the workers retire from the opening, so -that danger to them is avoided. The construction of a blast furnace -with a cupola bell can be seen in fig. 29. The blast furnace gases are -conducted away by an opening in the side, and pass along special pipes -to be utilised, after having gone through a purifying process mainly for -the removal of flue dust, &c. The gases serve partly for the heating of -the blast for the furnace itself, and partly for driving the gas engines -which serve the electrical power apparatus, electric lighting, &c., in -the works. Through the rational utilisation of the blast furnace gases, -the workers are protected from their injurious action during the working -of the furnace. Serious gas poisoning, however, occurs not infrequently -to workers who have to enter the gas mains for cleaning purposes. -Workers, therefore, should only be permitted to enter the flues, &c., -a considerable time after the process has been stopped and after as -complete and thorough a ventilation of the system as is possible. - -Any portion of the gas system which is to undergo cleaning must be -completely isolated. Ventilation is best effected by the introduction of -compressed air. Thus a foundry (in the Duisburg district) has provided -all its cellars and passages, through which gas pipes pass, and which -must be entered during repairs, with compressed air pipes. It is, -however, advisable that gas conduits should only be entered by workers -equipped with breathing apparatus and oxygen supply. Naturally adequate -instruction of workers and training in first aid are necessary, as well -as a sufficient supply of oxygen in constant readiness. - -Injurious gases can escape from the furnace during tapping and slag -running; poisonous gases with a disagreeable odour, from presence of -sulphuretted hydrogen, also arise in granulating the slag, that is, when -the fluid slag is led into water for subsequent use in preparation of -cement. These gases should be collected by hoods, and be carried away as -far as possible. - -In the manufacture of _steel_ by the _Bessemer_ or _Thomas-Gilchrist_ -process, the dark smoke arising out of the converter during the blowing -operation should be drawn off (led into flues), as it is injurious to -health. In the _Martin_ furnaces poisoning may occur, especially when -the gas flues are entered after cessation of work. In letting out the -gas in order to stop the furnaces, the gas and air valves must first be -closed and the outlet valves for gas be opened only after the pipes have -been filled with steam. Steam is to be driven through until the pipes -are quite free from gas, and the system only entered after it has become -thoroughly cooled. If need arises for entering portions of the system -while neighbouring parts are still filled with gas, the workers employed -require to be provided with breathing apparatus and smoke helmets. - -In the transport of _ferro-silicon_ several cases of poisoning have -occurred. Cautionary regulations, therefore, relating to this work have -been found necessary. - -Such directions are contained in the police regulations of the Prussian -Minister of Trade and Industry respecting the transport on the Rhine of -corrosive and poisonous substances (dated September 29, 1910). - -It is prescribed: (1) that ferro-silicon be packed in strong watertight -cases of wood or metal; (2) that on the cases be inscribed, legibly and -indelibly, the notice ‘Ferro-silicon. To be kept dry! With care!’ (3) -that the substance be delivered dry and in dry cases; (4) that the cases -be stored in airy places on the deck of the ship in such a manner that -they are protected from wet. - -Further, care is to be taken that the storage on ships is done in such a -way that possible damage to the material in which it is packed entails no -risk. The harbour authorities where loading or landing takes place can -deal with special cases as they think fit. - -International regulation as to transport of ferro-silicon in the spirit -of the above regulations would be most desirable in view of the oversea -trade in this substance.[K] - - -Lead - -(See also pp. 120-40 and 177-82) - -For protection against lead poisoning, the most widely spread of the slow -industrial poisonings, all those measures are of moment which we have -described in our general discussion on protection against danger from -poison in industries, both personal and general. - -Personal hygiene, especially careful washing after work, prohibition of -eating in workrooms, suitable working clothes, provision of cloak rooms, -meal rooms, baths, &c., are important and effective measures for the -protection of workers against industrial lead poisoning. - -The worker should naturally be adequately instructed as to the risk. -Appropriate printed notices are especially adapted for this purpose. - -Further, selection of workers should be made under medical supervision. -Workers who suffer from specific disease which, if associated with lead -poisoning, may prove dangerous, should be excluded from all contact -with lead. Among such illnesses must be reckoned tuberculosis in all -its forms, alcoholism, epilepsy, tendency to mental disease (nervous -disposition, hysteria, neurasthenia, &c.), rheumatism, and disease of the -kidneys. - -Overtime work undoubtedly increases risk; therefore working hours should -be shortened as much as possible, and handwork replaced by machine work -where possible. Young persons and women especially should be excluded -from work in lead. Alternation of employment also is beneficial and -essential in very dangerous lead work, because the poison accumulates in -the body and only during intervals wherein absolutely no poison can be -absorbed has it time to be eliminated. - -Periodical medical examination by a surgeon is of great value with -systematic entry of the results of examination in a health register. As -bearing on this, early diagnosis is of the greatest importance, so that -workers in whom the first signs of lead poisoning appear may at once be -suspended or transferred to other work. - -Lead workers should take suitable nourishing food and avoid particularly -alcoholic excess. - -When the danger is due to fumes or dust in the air the measures -prescribed on pages 242-55 apply, particularly those which aim at keeping -the workrooms and the air in the factories free of them by locally -applied exhaust ventilation. - -In order to replace or reduce the use of lead we strongly advocate the -use of non-poisonous, or at any rate less poisonous, substances, where -this can be done without technical difficulties, as, for instance, -carborundum discs instead of lead in polishing of precious stones, -leadless glaze in pottery for lead glaze (so far as this is possible, -as to which see page 319), beds free of lead (in different industries) -for lead beds. In a number of cases, however, such substitution is -impracticable on technical grounds or can only partially be carried out, -as, for example, in letterpress printing and in the paint and colour -industry, in which the prohibition of lead has often been repeatedly -urged. So far, unfortunately, it must be admitted that repeated attempts -to find a non-poisonous substitute for lead colours, especially for -white lead, of equal value technically, have not succeeded. Endeavours -have been made to substitute for lead, zinc preparations (zinc white, -lithopone, &c.), but hitherto (in regard to durability, opacity, &c.) -with incomplete success. - -Mention must be made of the measures based upon the relatively -non-poisonous nature of lead sulphide. Lead sulphide is, in spite of -various assertions to the contrary, practically non-poisonous; a fact -attributable to its insolubility in water and weak acids. As lead -sulphide is the only non-poisonous lead compound it is a duty to take -advantage of this fact for purposes of lead prophylaxis. - -Attempts with this end in view were made by the introduction of sulphur -soaps in lead factories. Soaps containing in large quantity soluble -alkaline sulphides convert lead compounds adhering to the skin into -black lead sulphide. The lead compounds are in this way made harmless, -and besides this the worker is impelled to remove the staining by -washing. Such a sulphur soap has been brought into the market under the -name of akremnin soap, but does not enjoy special popularity with the -workmen on account of its unpleasant smell. - -The struggle against the risks of lead employment has been going on ever -since efforts for the protection of workers were commenced. - -The International Association for Labour Legislation has made valuable -inquiries in this direction. The question of lead poisoning had been -repeatedly discussed by this Association and its branches in various -countries. The International Labour Bureau also took up the issue and -in 1906—supported by the Institute for General Welfare in Frankfurt -a-M.—offered a prize for the best treatise on the prevention of -industrial lead poisoning. The outcome of this competition was the volume -compiled by Leymann, ‘Die Bekämpfung der Bleigefahr in der Industrie’ -(published by Fischer, Jena, 1908). - -In connection with the resolution adopted at the third Congress of the -International Association for Labour Legislation the Union of Social -Reform (as the German branch is called) addressed the Federal Council on -the white lead question, the chief points insisted upon being the need -for: (1) regulations for the house painting industry in pursuance of -Section 120 of the Factory Code; (2) report by the Imperial Health Office -on the practicability of substitutes for lead; (3) exclusion of lead -colours from use in the painting of public buildings; and (4) treatment -of lead poisoning by the State Insurance Office as an accident entitling -to compensation. - -These demands were supported by the central office of the Society for -Promoting the Welfare of Workers, which had as far back as its seventh -conference in 1898 occupied itself with the question of dangerous trades -and especially, at its conference in 1905, taken up the subject of the -protection of workers against industrial poisoning. - -In Germany these efforts resulted in the passage of a number of Imperial -Regulations for separate lead industries. - -In other countries similar action was set on foot. In Austria, where the -subject is of special importance in view of the part played by lead in -the home industries, the Government undertook to improve the conditions -in industries attended with risk of lead poisoning. For this purpose -the Statistical Office of the Ministry of Commerce and Labour has, -since 1904, carried out extensive inquiries into lead and zinc smelting -works, paint and colour factories, the painting and varnishing trades, -letterpress printing, and the ceramic industry. The results are contained -in the volume ‘Lead Poisoning in Smelting Works and Industries Generally’ -(published by Hölder, Vienna). - -As in Germany and Austria, so also in Great Britain, France, Switzerland, -Belgium, and the Netherlands, regulations in various lead industries were -enforced after previous official inquiry and report. - -A general code, however, affecting all lead industries has only been -published in one or two states. And yet this would, in my opinion, be -of very great practical value as it is hardly possible to regulate each -single branch of industry. - -In Germany the Regulations dated May 26, 1903, dealing with lead colours -are certainly comprehensive, but relate primarily to paint factories, and -are not, therefore, a general Order in the sense indicated. In Saxony the -decree of June 27, 1901, made notification of lead poisoning compulsory, -and in the subsequent decree of April 16, 1909, prescribed general -measures against lead poisoning. In Switzerland single cantons have made -general regulations. In France, by a decree dated April 23, 1908 (in -pursuance of the general law of June 12, 1893), all industries attended -with risk of lead poisoning were brought under Regulation. - -We give the provisions of this interesting decree, as it is a good -example of the kind of Regulations we have in mind. - - DECREE OF THE PRESIDENT OF THE FRENCH REPUBLIC (APRIL 23, 1908) - RELATING TO CERTAIN INDUSTRIES IN WHICH LEAD IS USED - - 1. In the lead industries hereinafter mentioned, viz.: - smelting, cupellation of argentiferous lead, manufacture - of accumulators, glass-making, manufacture and use of lead - enamels, manufacture of pottery, decoration of porcelain - or faience, ceramic chromo-lithography, manufacture of - lead alloys, oxides, salts and colours—employers, directors - or managers are required, apart from the general measures - prescribed by the Decree of 29 November, 1904, to take special - measures for protection and health as set forth in the - following sections. - - 2. Lead melting pots shall be erected in an airy place - separated from the other workrooms. - - Hoods or other means for the effectual removal of fumes shall - be provided:— - - (_a_) Over the openings for the run of lead and slag in lead - smelting. - - (_b_) Before the furnace doors in the manufacture of lead - oxides. - - (_c_) Above the pots for melting lead or its alloys, in the - other industries enumerated in Section 1. - - 3. All work with oxides and other compounds of lead capable of - producing dust shall be done as far as possible when in a damp - condition. - - When this work cannot be done in the presence of water or other - liquid, it shall be carried out by mechanical means, in covered - air-tight apparatus. - - If it is impossible to conform to the requirements of either - of the first two paragraphs of this section, the work shall - be done under a strong draught so arranged that the harmful - products may be intercepted by apparatus suitably placed. - - Finally, if none of these systems is possible the workmen shall - be supplied with respirators. - - 4. Oxides and other compounds of lead, whether dry or damp, - in suspension or solution, shall not be handled with the bare - hand. The employer shall at his own expense provide the workers - in these operations with either gloves made of impervious - material such as indiarubber, or suitable appliances, and shall - cause them to be kept in good repair and frequently cleaned. - - 5. Tables on which these products are handled shall be covered - with some impervious material, kept in a perfectly water-tight - condition. - - The same requirement applies to the floors of the workrooms, - which shall also be kept damp. - - The floor shall be slightly sloped towards a water-tight - receptacle for collecting the lead substances which are washed - down. - - The work shall be so arranged that there shall be no - splashing. The tables, floors and walls shall be washed at - least once a week. - - 6. Without prejudice to the requirements of section 3, the - grinding and mixing of lead products, and the use of them - in dusting shall be effected in special places with active - ventilation. - - If the materials cannot be damped, the workers shall be - provided with respirators. - - 7. Pottery shall not be dipped with bare hands in solutions - containing litharge, red lead, galena or white lead in - suspension. - - 8. No food or drink shall be brought into the works. - - 9. Employers shall, at their own expense, provide and maintain - for the use of the workers, overalls or clothing for use during - work only, in addition to gloves and respirators. - - 10. In a part of the building separated from the workrooms, - there shall be provided for the use of the workers exposed to - lead dust or fumes, a cloak room and lavatory kept in good - order, provided with basins or taps in sufficient number, a - plentiful supply of water, soap and a towel for each worker - replaced at least once a week. - - The cloak rooms shall be provided with cupboards or drawers - with locks or padlocks, the ordinary clothing being kept apart - from the working clothes. - - 11. A warm bath or shower bath shall be provided each week for - the workers exposed to lead dust or fumes. - - A warm bath or shower bath shall be provided every day after - work, for each worker employed, either in emptying or cleaning - the condensing chambers and flues, in repairing furnaces in - lead works, in carrying lead corrosions from the beds in white - lead factories, in packing red lead, in grinding lead enamels - and in dry dusting. - - 12. Employers are required to exhibit, in a conspicuous - position in the works, regulations imposing on the workers the - following obligations:— - - To use the appliances, gloves, respirators, and working clothes - placed at their disposal. - - Not to bring into the works either food or drink. - - To pay great care, before each meal, to the cleanliness of the - mouth, nose, and hands. - - To take the baths weekly or daily as provided in section 11. - - 13. The Minister of Labour may, by Order made with the advice - of the Consultative Committee for Arts and Manufactures, exempt - an establishment for a specified period, from all or part of - the requirements of Regs. 2ᵃ, 2ᵇ, 2ᶜ, 5² and 6¹ in any case - where it is found that observance of these requirements is - practically impossible, and that the health and safety of the - workers are assured by conditions at least equivalent to those - prescribed in the present Order. - - 14. Subject to additional postponements which may be granted - by the Minister in pursuance of Section 6 of the Act of 12th - June, 1893 (as amended by that of 11th July, 1903), the delay - required for the carrying out of the alterations necessitated - by the present Decree is limited to one year from the date of - its publication. - - 15. The Ministry of Labour is charged with the administration - of this Decree. - -This decree was supplemented by further noteworthy additions requiring -medical supervision in lead industries as follows: - - DECREE OF DECEMBER 28, 1909, ORGANISING MEDICAL SERVICE IN - INDUSTRIES EXPOSING THE WORKERS TO RISK OF LEAD POISONING - - 1. In premises in which the processes enumerated in Regulation - 1 of the Decree of April 23, 1908, are carried on medical - attendance as prescribed below shall be provided. - - 2. A surgeon appointed by the occupier shall examine the - workers and enter the results of examination required in - Regulations 3 and 4. The examinations shall be paid for by the - occupier. - - 3. No person shall be employed in work mentioned in Regulation - 1 of the Decree of April 23, 1908, without a certificate from - the surgeon stating that he is free from symptoms of lead - poisoning and of illness which might render him specially - susceptible. - - 4. No worker shall remain at the same employment unless - the certificate is renewed one month after commencement of - employment and subsequently at quarterly intervals. - - In addition to the periodical examination the occupier shall - give an order on the surgeon to every workman declaring himself - to be ill from his employment or who desires to undergo medical - examination. - - 5. A special Register open to the Factory Inspector shall be - kept containing the following particulars of each worker: - - (1) Dates and duration of absence on account of illness of any - kind; - - (2) Dates of medical certificates for such illness, the notes - made by the surgeon and the name of the surgeon furnishing them; - - (3) Instructions given by the appointed surgeon in pursuance of - Regulations 3 and 4 above. - - -Lead Smelting Works - -(See also pp. 122-31) - -As the fumes in lead smelting works contain a high proportion of lead, -all apparatus, especially furnaces and working doors, should be provided -with efficient exhaust ventilation and all flues, furnaces, and other -apparatus be as airtight as possible. Where lead dust is created exhaust -ventilation locally applied is necessary. Two of the most important -preventive measures are personal cleanliness and alternation of -employment. Dust arising in the furnaces and borne along by the furnace -gases together with arsenical fumes and dust must be deposited in flues -or chambers. - -In view of the importance of proper instruction of smelters as regards -the danger we quote the warning note prepared by the Institute for -Industrial Hygiene, Frankfurt a.-M., which deserves wide circulation. - - LEAD LEAFLET FOR SMELTERS - - _How does Lead Poisoning arise?_ - - The danger of lead poisoning in lead, spelter and other - smelting premises can be avoided if due care is observed. - - Lead poisoning occurs when lead enters the system. This takes - place by breathing dust and fume containing lead, or by eating - and drinking, smoking, snuff taking and tobacco chewing if food - or tobacco is taken into the mouth with dirty hands and dirty - face and beard. - - No one is immune from lead. Lead accumulates in the body of - careless persons and he who is not sick to-day can be so - to-morrow or after weeks or months. - - _How can Plumbism be avoided?_ - - All smelters must observe cleanliness. In this respect they - should see to the following points: - - 1. It is to their interest to see that the exhaust ventilation - is kept in order and that the Special Rules or Regulations are - exactly followed. Further, special clothing should be worn, the - mouth and nose should be covered, and the floors sprinkled. - - 2. It is especially important that in intervals and at the - close of work the mouth, face, beard, and hands should be - carefully cleaned. Food should not be eaten or the premises - left without putting on fresh clothes and thoroughly washing - or, still better, bathing. When drinking, the edge of the - drinking glass should not be fingered with dirty hands. - Especially important is it that the teeth should be cleaned and - the mouth washed out. - - 3. During work smoking, snuff taking, and tobacco chewing, - which invariably convey lead into the mouth, should be - given up, as it is impossible to prevent the hands getting - contaminated with lead. Lighting the pipe with glowing lead - ashes is in the highest degree dangerous from the risk of - inhaling lead fume. The body must be strengthened to withstand - the action of lead. Moderation in drinking, especially - avoidance of spirits, should be observed. Alcoholic subjects - succumb to lead poisoning much more readily than the temperate. - - Food should be abundant and rich in fat, for example milk and - bacon. Thick soups are excellent before work. Work should never - be begun on an empty stomach. And lastly as much fresh air as - possible. Walking, athletics, work in the garden and field will - help to keep off many an attack. If anyone thinks that he is - suffering from lead poisoning he should at once in his own and - his family’s interest see the doctor of his sick club. - -The following are the - - GERMAN IMPERIAL REGULATIONS FOR LEAD SMELTING WORKS, DATED JUNE - 16, 1905 - - _General Regulations_ - - 1. Workrooms in which lead ores are roasted, sintered, or - smelted, pig lead produced and submitted to further treatment, - distillation of rich lead (bullion cupellation) litharge, red - lead, or other oxides of lead prepared, ground or sieved, - stored or packed, or zinc skimmings distilled, shall be roomy, - high, and so arranged that a sufficient constant exchange of - air takes place. They shall be provided with a level and solid - floor to allow of easy removal of dust by a moist method. - - The walls shall be smooth so as to prevent collection of dust; - they shall be either washed down or lime washed at least once a - year. - - Provided that this shall not apply in the case of calcining - sheds with wooden walls. - - 2. An abundant supply of good drinking water, protected against - contamination from dust, shall be provided for the workers on - the furnaces and smelting pots, and in such close proximity to - them, that they can obtain it at any time without having to go - into the open air. - - Arrangements for sprinkling the floors shall be provided near - the furnaces. The floors of the rooms mentioned in paragraph 1 - shall be wet cleansed at least once daily. - - 3. Prepared (i.e. concentrated) lead ores and leady smelting - products, unless moist, shall not be crushed except in an - apparatus so arranged as to prevent as far as possible - penetration of dust into the workrooms. - - Provided that this shall not apply to calcined material from - converters. - - Sacks in which lead ores and materials containing lead have - been packed shall not be freed from dust and cleaned except in - a dust-proof apparatus or by washing. - - 4. Materials containing lead for charging the blast-furnaces, - if they are oxides and form dust, shall be damped before they - are mixed with other materials, stocked on the feeding floor, - or charged into the blast-furnaces. - - Provided that this shall not apply in the case of calcined - material from converters. - - 5. Dust, gases, and lead fumes, escaping from furnaces, and - converters, tapping spouts, tapping pots, drain sump, slag - pots, slag cars, or slag channels, and from glowing residues - taken from the furnaces, shall be caught as near as possible to - the point of origin and removed harmlessly. - - Dust collecting chambers, flues, as well as furnaces which - have been ‘blown down,’ shall not be entered by workmen unless - sufficiently cooled and ventilated. - - _Special Regulations for such parts of a factory where lead - colours are prepared_ - - 6. In grinding, sieving and packing dry leady materials, in - charging, and emptying litharge and red lead furnaces, in - collecting the red lead and similar operations in which leady - dust is developed, exhaust arrangements shall be provided for - preventing the entrance of dust into the workrooms. - - 7. Apparatus producing leady dust, if their construction and - manner of use does not effectually prevent evolution of dust, - shall have all cracks protected by thick layers of felt or - woollen material, or by similar means, so as to prevent the - entrance of dust into the workrooms. - - Apparatus of this character shall be provided with arrangements - for preventing compression of air in them. They shall only be - opened when the dust in them shall have completely settled, and - they are absolutely cool. - - _Special arrangements in force for the distillation of zinc - skimmings_ - - 8. Proposed new furnaces for the distillation of zinc skimmings - (for which according to pars. 16 and 25 of the Industrial Code - a special permission is required) shall be so arranged that (1) - there shall be at least a clear space of 10 feet in front of - the charging opening; (2) any passages under the distillation - rooms shall be roomy, at least 11½ feet high in the centre, - light and airy. - - 9. Dust, gases, and fumes arising from the zinc skimmings - distillation furnaces shall be collected as near as possible to - the point of origin, and carried outside the smelting room. - - The entrance of gases from the fires into the smelting room - shall be prevented as far as possible by suitable arrangements - for drawing them off. - - 10. Sieving and packing of by-products obtained in the - distillation of zinc skimmings (poussière, flue dust) shall - not be done except in a special room separated from the other - workrooms, and complying with the requirements of Reg. 1. - - Sieving shall only be done in an apparatus so constructed that - dust shall not escape. - - _Employment of workers._ - - 11. Women and young persons shall not be employed or permitted - in rooms mentioned in Reg. 1, in flue dust chambers, or dust - flues, or in the removal of flue dust. - - 12. No person shall be newly employed in rooms mentioned - in Reg. 1, in flue dust chambers, or dust flues, or in the - transport of flue dust, without a certificate of fitness from - the surgeon appointed by the higher authorities. - - These certificates shall be collected and shown to the Factory - Inspector and Appointed Surgeon on request. - - 13. No person shall be employed in charging blast furnaces, - apart from mere labouring work on the floors, for more than - eight hours daily. The same shall apply in the case of workmen - employed in the inside of furnaces when cool, or in emptying - flue dust chambers, or dust flues which contain wet flue dust. - - No person shall be employed in cleaning out, from inside, flue - dust chambers, or dust flues containing dry flue dust for more - than four hours daily; and including emptying and work of - transport of this kind altogether no longer than eight hours - daily. - - Other workers in rooms specified in Reg. 1 shall not work more - than 10 hours in 24, exclusive of mealtimes. - - Exception to this is allowed in the case of those workers who - are employed for the purpose of a weekly change of shift, and - for whom exception as to Sunday employment is permitted by - Imperial Decree. - - _Clothing, overalls, lavatory accommodation, &c._ - - 14. The occupier shall provide for all persons employed in - cleaning out flue dust chambers, dust flues, repairing of - cooled furnaces, grinding, sieving and packing of litharge, red - lead, or other lead colours, complete suits of working clothes, - including caps and respirators. - - 15. Work with lead salts in solution shall not be done except - by workers who either grease their hands or are provided with - impermeable gloves. - - 16. The suit of clothes, or overalls, provided in Regs. 14 and - 15, respirators and gloves, shall be provided in sufficient - amount and in proper condition. The occupier shall see that - they are always suitable for their purpose, and are not worn - except by those workers for whom they are intended; and that - they, at stated intervals (the overalls at least once a week, - the respirators and gloves prior to use), are cleaned, and - during the time that they are not in use are kept in a place - specially reserved for each article. - - 17. A lavatory and cloak room shall be provided for the use of - the workmen in a part of the building free from dust. Separate - from it there shall be a dining-room. These rooms must be kept - free from dust and be warmed during the winter. - - In a suitable place provision shall be made for warming the - workers’ food. - - Water, soap, and towels, and arrangements for keeping separate - the overalls from other clothing taken off before the - commencement of work shall be provided in sufficient amount in - the lavatory and cloak room. - - The occupier shall afford opportunity for persons engaged in - cleaning out flue dust chambers, dust flues, and the cooled - furnaces, to take a bath daily after the end of the work, and - for those handling oxides of lead, at least once a week, during - working hours inside the works. The bathroom shall be warmed - during the winter. - - 18. The occupier shall place the supervision of the health of - the workers in the hands of a surgeon, appointed by the higher - authorities for this purpose, whose name shall be sent to the - Inspector of Factories. The surgeon shall examine the workers - at least once a month in the factory, with a view to the - detection of symptoms of lead poisoning. - - The occupier shall not employ persons suspected by the surgeon - of having contracted lead poisoning in the processes mentioned - in Reg. 1 or in cleaning out flue dust chambers, dust flues, or - furnaces when cold, or transport of the flue dust, until they - are quite well. Those who appear peculiarly susceptible shall - be permanently suspended from working in these processes. - - 19. The Health Register shall be shown to the Factory Inspector - and Appointed Surgeon on demand. (Similar to Reg. 15 of Spelter - Regulations.) - - 20. The occupier shall require the workers to subscribe to the - following conditions:— - - (1) Food must not be taken into the workrooms. Meals may only - be taken outside the workrooms. - - (2) Workmen must only enter the meal room to take their meals - or leave the factory, after they have taken off their overalls - and carefully washed their face and hands. - - (3) Workmen must use the overalls, respirators and gloves in - those workrooms and for the particular processes for which they - are given them. - - (4) Cigar and cigarette smoking during work is forbidden. - - (5) A bath in the factory must be taken every day at the close - of their work by those engaged in the emptying and cleaning of - flue dust chambers, flues, and furnaces when cold, and by those - employed on oxides of lead once a week. - - Provided that this shall not apply in the case of workmen - exempted by the appointed surgeon. - - Workers contravening these orders will be liable to dismissal - without further notice. - - 21. In every workroom, as well as in the cloak room and - meal room, there shall be posted up by the occupier, in a - conspicuous place and in clear characters, a notice of these - regulations. - - The occupier is responsible for seeing that the requirement - of Reg. 20 (1) is obeyed. He shall make a manager or foreman - responsible for the precise carrying out of Reg. 20 (1) (2) and - (5). The person thus made responsible shall see to the carrying - out of the regulations and for the exercise of necessary care - as prescribed in par. 151 of the Factory Act. - - 22. No work in a lead smelting works shall be commenced until - notice of its erection has been sent to the Factory Inspector. - After receipt of the notice he shall personally visit to - see whether the arrangements are in accordance with these - regulations. - - 23. These regulations come into force on 1st January, 1906. - Where structural alterations are necessary for the carrying out - of Regs. 1, 5 (1), 6, 9, 10 and 17, the higher authorities may - allow an extension of time to a date not later than January - 1st, 1908. - - If it seems necessary on strong grounds of public interest, the - Council (Bundesrath) may extend the time in particular works - until 1st January, 1913, and until then allow exceptions from - the regulations as regards Reg. 13 (1) and (2). - - -Accumulator Factories - -[Dr. Rambousek gives a very brief synopsis of the German Imperial -Regulations in force for this industry and mentions that in Great Britain -the Regulations of the Secretary of State dated 1903 are similar. We -have printed these, as the code is fairly representative of the English -Regulations for (1) smelting of metals; (2) paints and colours; (3) -tinning of hollow ware; (4) yarn dyed with chromate of lead; (5) vitreous -enamelling; and the special rules for (6) white lead and (7) earthenware: - - REGULATIONS DATED NOVEMBER 21, 1903, MADE BY THE SECRETARY OF - STATE FOR THE MANUFACTURE OF ELECTRIC ACCUMULATORS - - Whereas the manufacture of electric accumulators has been - certified in pursuance of Section 79 of the Factory and - Workshop Act, 1901, to be dangerous; - - I hereby, in pursuance of the powers conferred on me by that - Act, make the following regulations, and direct that they shall - apply to all factories and workshops or parts thereof in which - electric accumulators are manufactured. - - _Definitions._—In these Regulations ‘lead process’ means - pasting, casting, lead burning, or any work involving contact - with dry compounds of lead. - - Any approval given by the Chief Inspector of Factories in - pursuance of these Regulations shall be given in writing, and - may at any time be revoked by notice in writing signed by him. - - _Duties of Occupier_ - - 1. _Ventilation._—Every room in which casting, pasting or lead - burning is carried on shall contain at least 500 cubic feet of - air space for each person employed therein, and in computing - this air space, no height above 14 feet shall be taken into - account. - - These rooms and that in which the plates are formed shall be - capable of through ventilation. They shall be provided with - windows made to open. - - 2. _Separation of processes._—Each of the following processes - shall be carried on in such manner and under such conditions as - to secure effectual separation from one another and from any - other process: - - (_a_) Manipulation of dry compounds of lead; - - (_b_) Pasting; - - (_c_) Formation, and lead burning necessarily carried on - therewith; - - (_d._) Melting down of old plates. - - Provided that manipulation of dry compounds of lead carried on - as in Regulation 5 (b) need not be separated from pasting. - - 3. _Floors._—The floors of the rooms in which manipulation - of dry compounds of lead or pasting is carried on shall be - of cement or similar impervious material, and shall be kept - constantly moist while work is being done. - - The floors of these rooms shall be washed with a hose pipe - daily. - - 4. _Melting pots._—Every melting pot shall be covered with a - hood and shaft so arranged as to remove the fumes and hot air - from the workrooms. - - Lead ashes and old plates shall be kept in receptacles - especially provided for the purpose. - - 5. _Manipulation of dry compounds of lead._—Manipulation of - dry compounds of lead in the mixing of the paste or other - processes, shall not be done except (_a_) in an apparatus so - closed, or so arranged with an exhaust draught, as to prevent - the escape of dust into the work room: or (_b_) at a bench - provided with (1) efficient exhaust draught and air guide so - arranged as to draw the dust away from the worker, and (2) a - grating on which each receptacle of the compound of lead in use - at the time shall stand. - - 6. _Covering of benches._—The benches at which pasting is done - shall be covered with sheet lead or other impervious material, - and shall have raised edges. - - 7. _Prohibition of employment._—No woman, young person, or - child shall be employed in the manipulation of dry compounds of - lead or in pasting. - - 8. (_a_) _Appointed Surgeon._—A duly qualified medical - practitioner (in these Regulations referred to as the - ‘Appointed Surgeon’) who may be the Certifying Surgeon, shall - be appointed by the occupier, such appointment unless held by - the Certifying Surgeon to be subject to the approval of the - Chief Inspector of Factories. - - (_b_) _Medical examination._—Every person employed in a lead - process shall be examined once a month by the Appointed - Surgeon, who shall have power to suspend from employment in any - lead process. - - (_c_) No person after such suspension shall be employed in a - lead process without written sanction entered in the Health - Register by the Appointed Surgeon. It shall be sufficient - compliance with this regulation for a written certificate to - be given by the Appointed Surgeon and attached to the Health - Register, such certificate to be replaced by a proper entry in - the Health Register at the Appointed Surgeon’s next visit. - - (_d_) _Health Register._—A Health Register in a form approved - by the Chief Inspector of Factories shall be kept, and shall - contain a list of all persons employed in lead processes. The - Appointed Surgeon will enter in the Health Register the dates - and results of his examinations of the persons employed and - particulars of any directions given by him. He shall on a - prescribed form furnish to the Chief Inspector of Factories - on the 1st day of January in each year a list of the persons - suspended by him during the previous year, the cause and - duration of such suspension, and the number of examinations - made. - - The Health Register shall be produced at any time when required - by H.M. Inspectors of Factories or by the Certifying Surgeon or - by the Appointed Surgeon. - - 9. _Overalls._—Overalls shall be provided for all persons - employed in manipulating dry compounds of lead or in pasting. - - The overalls shall be washed or renewed once every week. - - 10. _Cloak and dining rooms._—The occupier shall provide and - maintain: - - (_a_) a cloak room in which workers can deposit clothing put - off during working hours. Separate and suitable arrangements - shall be made for the storage of the overalls required in - Regulation 9. - - (_b_) a dining room unless the factory is closed during meal - hours. - - 11. _Food, &c._—No person shall be allowed to introduce, keep, - prepare or partake of any food, drink, or tobacco, in any room - in which a lead process is carried on. Suitable provision shall - be made for the deposit of food brought by the workers. - - This regulation shall not apply to any sanitary drink provided - by the occupier and approved by the Appointed Surgeon. - - 12. _Washing._—The occupier shall provide and maintain for the - use of the persons employed in lead processes a lavatory, with - soap, nail brushes, towels, and at least one lavatory basin for - every five such persons. Each such basin shall be provided with - a waste pipe, or the basins shall be placed on a trough fitted - with a waste pipe. There shall be a constant supply of hot and - cold water laid on to each basin. - - Or, in the place of basins the occupier shall provide and - maintain troughs of enamel or similar smooth impervious - material, in good repair, of a total length of two feet - for every five persons employed, fitted with waste pipes, - and without plugs, with a sufficient supply of warm water - constantly available. - - The lavatory shall be kept thoroughly cleansed and shall be - supplied with a sufficient quantity of clean towels once every - day. - - 13. Before each meal and before the end of the day’s work, at - least ten minutes, in addition to the regular meal times, shall - be allowed for washing to each person who has been employed in - the manipulation of dry compounds of lead or in pasting. - - Provided that if the lavatory accommodation specially reserved - for such persons exceeds that required by Regulation 12, the - time allowance may be proportionately reduced, and that if - there be one basin or two feet of trough for each such person - this Regulation shall not apply. - - 14. _Baths._—Sufficient bath accommodation shall be provided - for all persons engaged in the manipulation of dry compounds - of lead or in pasting, with hot and cold water laid on, and a - sufficient supply of soap and towels. - - This rule shall not apply if in consideration of the special - circumstances of any particular case, the Chief Inspector - of Factories approves the use of local public baths when - conveniently near, under the conditions (if any) named in such - approval. - - 15. _Cleaning._—The floors and benches of each workroom shall - be thoroughly cleansed daily, at a time when no other work is - being carried on in the room. - - _Duties of Persons Employed_ - - 16. _Medical examination._—All persons employed in lead - processes shall present themselves at the appointed times for - examination by the Appointed Surgeon as provided in Regulation - 8. - - No person after suspension shall work in a lead process, in - any factory or workshop in which electric accumulators are - manufactured, without written sanction entered in the Health - Register by the Appointed Surgeon. - - 17. _Overalls._—Every person employed in the manipulation of - dry compounds of lead or in pasting shall wear the overalls - provided under Regulation 9. The overalls, when not being worn, - and clothing put off during working hours, shall be deposited - in the places provided under Regulation 10. - - 18. _Food, &c._—No person shall introduce, keep, prepare, or - partake of any food, drink (other than any sanitary drink - provided by the occupier and approved by the Appointed - Surgeon), or tobacco in any room in which a lead process is - carried on. - - 19. _Washing._—No person employed in a lead process shall - leave the premises or partake of meals without previously and - carefully cleaning and washing the hands. - - 20. _Baths._—Every person employed in the manipulation of dry - compounds of lead or in pasting shall take a bath at least once - a week. - - 21. _Interference with safety appliances._—No person shall in - any way interfere, without the concurrence of the occupier - or manager, with the means and appliances provided for the - removal of the dust or fumes, and for the carrying out of these - Regulations. - - These Regulations shall come into force on the 1st day of - January, 1904. - - -White Lead - -(See also pp. 131 and 132) - -In the manufacture of white lead processes which create dust are -specially dangerous, namely, emptying the corrosion chambers, drying and -grinding, transport of the material in the form of powder, and packing. -The following measures are called for: emptying the chambers should only -be done by men wearing respirators or equipped with breathing helmets -after preliminary damping of the corrosions by means of a spray. Use -of a vacuum cleaning apparatus suggests itself. Drying should be done -as far as possible in stoves charged mechanically, the temperature in -which can be watched from the outside; grinding must be done in closed -and ventilated mills; transport of the dried material should be effected -by mechanical means or vacuum apparatus, and packing should be done in -mechanical packing machines. Further, cleanliness and strict discipline -are essential. Alternation of employment is advisable. The question of -substitutes for white lead is referred to on p. 293. - -Manufacture of red lead calls for precisely similar preventive measures. -Charging and emptying the oxidising furnaces should be done under -efficient exhaust ventilation. Conveyance, sifting, and grinding of the -cooled material requires to be done in the same way as has been described -for white lead. - -In the production of chrome colours (lead chromates) besides the danger -from lead the injurious action of chrome has to be borne in mind. - -Regulations for white lead factories have been made in Germany, Belgium, -and Great Britain. We give below the German Imperial Regulations dated -May 26, 1903. - - REGULATIONS FOR MANUFACTURE OF LEAD COLOURS AND LEAD PRODUCTS - - (1) The following regulations apply to all premises in which - lead colours or other chemical lead products (white lead, - chromate of lead, masicot, litharge, minium, peroxide of lead, - Cassel yellow, English yellow, Naples yellow, lead iodide, lead - acetate, &c., are manufactured), or in which mixtures of lead - are prepared as the principal or as a subsidiary business. - They shall not apply to lead smelting works, even though - processes named in paragraph (1) are carried on. - - Neither shall they apply to workplaces in which manufactured - colours are intimately mixed or ground in oil or varnish in - connection with another industry. - - (2) The workrooms in which the materials mentioned in paragraph - 1 are prepared or packed shall be roomy, lofty, and so arranged - that sufficient and constant exchange of air can take place. - - They shall be provided with a solid and smooth floor permitting - of easy removal of dust by a moist method. The floor, unless - for purposes of manufacture, shall be kept constantly wet, and - shall be wet cleansed at least once daily. - - The walls, when not of a smooth washable surface or painted - with oil, shall be whitewashed at least once a year. - - (3) The entrance of lead dust, or fumes, into the workrooms - shall be prevented by suitable means as far as possible. Rooms - which cannot be thus protected must be so separated from other - rooms that neither dust nor fumes can enter them. - - (4) Lead melting pots shall be covered with a hood and shaft - communicating directly or by a chimney with the open air. - - (8)[L] Grinding, sieving, and packing dry lead compounds, - emptying litharge and minium furnaces, and other operations in - which lead dust is generated, shall not be done except under an - exhaust draught, or other efficient means for preventing the - entrance of dust into the workrooms. - - In the packing of colours containing only a little lead, in - small amounts, or in small packages for retail purposes, - exception to these regulations can be allowed by the higher - authorities. - - (9) Machines generating lead dust and not efficiently protected - by their construction or method of use against the escape of - dust, shall have all cracks occluded by means of thick layers - of felt or similar material, so as to prevent the entrance of - dust into the workrooms. - - Machines of this kind shall be provided with arrangements - preventing pressure of the air inside. They shall not be opened - until they are cool, and until the dust generated has settled. - - (10) Women shall not be employed in factories in which the - colours specified in paragraph (1) are prepared except in work - which does not expose them to the action of lead dust or fumes. - Young persons shall not be employed nor be allowed on the - premises in factories concerned exclusively or in great part - with the preparation of lead colours or other lead compounds. - - (11) No person shall be employed in rooms where the processes - specified in paragraph (1) are carried on who is not provided - with a certificate from a qualified surgeon stating that he is - physically fit and free from disease of the lungs, kidneys, - and stomach, and that he is not addicted to alcohol. This - certificate shall be kept and produced on demand to the Factory - Inspector or Appointed Surgeon. - - (12) No person shall be employed in packing lead colours or - mixtures containing lead or other lead compounds in a dry - state, or with the coopering of the filled casks for more - than eight hours daily. This regulation shall not apply where - the packing machines are provided with effectual exhaust - arrangements, or so constructed and used as effectually to - prevent the escape of dust. - - No person under 18 years of age shall be employed in the - process mentioned in the above paragraph, but exception can - be allowed in the packing of colours containing lead in - small amount, or in small packages for retail purposes, on - application to the higher authorities. - - For the rest, no person coming into contact with lead or lead - compounds shall be employed for more than 10 hours within the - space of 24 hours. - - (13) The occupier shall provide overalls and head-coverings for - all persons coming into contact with lead or lead compounds, - and suitable footwear for those emptying the oxidising chambers. - - (14) The occupier shall not allow work involving exposure - to dust to be performed except by workers provided with - respirators or moist sponges covering the nose and mouth. - - (15) The occupier shall not allow work involving contact with - soluble salts of lead to be done except by workers provided - with waterproof gloves or by those whose hands have previously - been smeared with vaseline. - - (16) The occupier shall provide the overalls, respirators, &c., - mentioned in paragraphs (13) (14) and (15) for each one of the - workers in sufficient number and in good condition. He shall - take care that they are used only by the workers to whom they - are severally assigned, and that in the intervals of work and - during the time when they are not in use they shall be kept in - their appointed place. Overalls shall be washed every week, and - the respirators, sponges, and gloves before each time that they - are used. - - (17) Lavatories and cloak rooms, and, separate from these, - a mess room, shall be provided for the workers coming into - contact with lead or lead compounds in a part of the works free - from dust. These rooms shall be kept in a cleanly condition, - free from dust, and shall be heated during the cold seasons. In - the meal room or in some other suitable place there shall be - means for warming food. The lavatories and cloak rooms shall - be provided with water, vessels for rinsing the mouth, nail - brushes for cleaning the hands and nails, soap, and towels. - Arrangements shall also be made for keeping separate clothes - worn during work from these taken off before the commencement - of work. The occupier shall give facilities for all persons - employed in emptying the oxidizing chambers to have a warm - bath daily after the end of the work, and for those persons - coming into contact with lead or lead compounds, twice weekly. - The time for this shall be during the hours of work, and in - the cold season the bath room, which must be on the factory - premises, shall be heated. - - (18) The occupier shall appoint a duly qualified medical - practitioner, whose name shall be sent to the Inspector of - Factories and to the Health Authority. He shall examine the - workers at least twice every month with a view to the detection - of symptoms of lead poisoning. The occupier shall not employ - workers suspected of symptoms of lead poisoning in occupations - exposing them to lead or lead compounds until they have - completely recovered. Those who appear peculiarly susceptible - shall be suspended permanently from work. - - (19) The occupier shall keep a book, or make some official - responsible for its keeping, recording any change in the - personnel employed in lead or lead compounds and as to their - state of health. He shall be responsible for the completeness - and correctness of the entries except those made by the surgeon. - -The remaining regulations as to entries in the Health Register, &c., are -similar to those already given in the Regulations for lead smelting works -on p. 300. - - -Use of Lead Colours - -(See also pp. 132-4) - -As explained on pp. 132-134 use of lead in the painting and varnishing -trades frequently causes lead poisoning. This has led to regulations in -various countries having for their object partly hygienic measures and -partly also limitation of colours containing lead, such as prohibition of -the use of lead paints in the interior of buildings or in the painting of -public buildings and of ships, &c. - -The details of such regulations are seen in the German Imperial -Regulations dated June 27, 1905: - - ORDER OF THE IMPERIAL CHANCELLOR RELATING TO THE PROCESSES - OF PAINTING, DISTEMPERING, WHITEWASHING, PLASTERING, OR - VARNISHING. JUNE 27, 1906 - - I.—_Regulations for carrying on the Industries of Painting, - Distempering, Whitewashing, Plastering, or Varnishing._ - - _Regulation 1._—In the processes of crushing, blending, mixing, - and otherwise preparing white lead, other lead colours, or - mixtures thereof with other substances in a dry state, the - workers shall not directly handle pigment containing lead, - and shall be adequately protected against the dust arising - therefrom. - - _Regulation 2._—The process of grinding white lead with oil or - varnish shall not be done by hand, but entirely by mechanical - means, and in vessels so constructed that even in the process - of charging them with white lead no dust shall escape into - places where work is carried on. - - This provision shall apply to other lead colours. Provided that - such lead colours may be ground by hand by male workers over 18 - years of age, if not more than one kilogram of red lead and 100 - grains of other lead colours are ground by any one worker on - one day. - - _Regulation 3._—The processes of rubbing-down and - pumice-stoning dry coats of oil-colour or stopping not clearly - free from lead shall not be done except after damping. - - All _débris_ produced by rubbing down and pumice-stoning shall - be removed before it becomes dry. - - _Regulation 4._—The employer shall see that every worker who - handles lead colours or mixtures thereof is provided with, - and wears, during working hours, a painter’s overall or other - complete suit of working clothes. - - _Regulation 5._—There shall be provided for all workers - engaged in processes of painting, distempering, whitewashing, - plastering, or varnishing, in which lead colours are used, - washing utensils, nail brushes, soap and towels. If such - processes are carried on in a new building or in a workshop, - provision shall be made for the workers to wash in a place - protected from frost, and to store their clothing in a clean - place. - - _Regulation 6._—The employer shall inform workers, who handle - lead colours or mixtures thereof, of the danger to health - to which they are exposed, and shall hand them, at the - commencement of employment, a copy of the accompanying leaflet - (not printed with this edition), if they are not already - provided with it, and also a copy of these Regulations. - - II.—_Regulations for the Processes of Painting, Distempering, - Whitewashing, Plastering, or Varnishing when carried on in - connection with another Industry._ - - _Regulation 7._—The provisions of paragraph 6 shall apply to - the employment of workers connected with another industry - who are constantly or principally employed in the processes - of painting, distempering, whitewashing, plastering, or - varnishing, and who use, otherwise than occasionally, lead - colours or mixtures thereof. The provisions of paragraphs 8-11 - shall also apply if such employment is carried on in a factory - or shipbuilding yard. - - _Regulation 8._—Special accommodation for washing and for - dressing shall be provided for the workers, which accommodation - shall be kept clean, heated in cold weather, and furnished with - conveniences for the storage of clothing. - - _Regulation 9._—The employer shall issue regulations which - shall be binding on the workers, and shall contain the - following provisions for such workers as handle lead colour and - mixtures thereof: - - 1. Workers shall not consume spirits in any place where work is - carried on. - - 2. Workers shall not partake of food or drink, or leave the - place of employment until they have put off their working - clothes and carefully washed their hands. - - 3. Workers, when engaged in processes specified by the - employer, shall wear working clothes. - - 4. Smoking cigars and cigarettes is prohibited during work. - - Furthermore, it shall be set forth in the regulations that - workers who, in spite of reiterated warning, contravene the - foregoing provisions may be dismissed before the expiration of - their contract without notice. If a code of regulations has - been issued for the industry (par. 134a of the G.O.) the above - indicated provisions shall be incorporated in the said code. - - _Regulation 10._—The employer shall entrust the supervision of - the workers’ health to a duly qualified medical man approved of - by the public authority, and notified to the factory inspector - (par. 139b of the G.O.), and the said medical man shall examine - the workers once at least in every six months for symptoms - indicative of plumbism. - - The employer shall not permit any worker who is suffering from - plumbism or who, in the opinion of the doctor, is suspected of - plumbism, to be employed in any work in which he has to handle - lead colours or mixtures thereof, until he has completely - recovered. - - _Regulation 11._—The employer shall keep or shall cause to be - kept a register in which shall be recorded the state of health - of the workers, and also the constitution of and changes in - the staff; and he shall be responsible for the entries being - complete and accurate, except in so far as they are affected by - the medical man. - -Then follow the regulations as to entries in the Register, as to which -see the Regulations as to lead smelting works, p. 300. - - -Type Founding and Compositors’ Work - -(See also pp. 138 and 139) - -Fumes which may carry up lead dust are generated in the casting of -letters. Dust arises also in setting the type. General hygienic measures -are especially called for such as healthy conditions in the workrooms. -Much can be done by exhaust ventilation locally applied to the type cases -and to letter (mono- and linotype) casting machines. Vacuum cleaning of -printing workshops and type cases is strongly advised. - -As some lead poisoning in printing works is attributable to lead colours -or bronze powder containing lead their use should be limited as much as -possible. - -The German Imperial Regulations for printing works and type foundries are -as follows: - - ORDER OF THE FEDERAL COUNCIL OF JULY 31ST, 1897, REGULATING - LETTERPRESS PRINTING WORKS AND TYPE FOUNDRIES, IN PURSUANCE OF - SECTION 120_E_ OF THE INDUSTRIAL CODE - - I. In rooms in which persons are employed in setting up type - or manufacture of type or stereotype plates the following - provisions apply: - - 1. The floor of workrooms shall not be more than a half a meter - (1·64 feet) below the ground. Exceptions may only be granted by - the higher administrative authority where hygienic conditions - are secured by a dry area, and ample means of lighting and - ventilating the rooms. - - Attics may only be used as workrooms if the roof is provided - with a lathe and plaster ceiling. - - 2. In workrooms in which the manufacture of type or stereotype - plates is carried on, the number of persons shall not exceed - such as would allow at least fifteen cubic meters of air space - (529·5 cubic feet) to each. In the rooms in which persons are - employed only in other processes, there shall be at least - twelve cubic meters of air space (423·5 cubic feet) to each - person. - - In cases of exceptional temporary pressure the higher - administrative authority may, on the application of the - employer, permit a larger number in the workrooms, for at the - most 30 days in the year, but not more than will allow ten - cubic meters of air space (353 cubic feet) for each person. - - 3. The rooms shall be at least 2·60 meters (8· feet) in height - where a minimum of fifteen cubic meters are allowed for each - person, in other cases at least 3 meters (9·84 feet) in height. - - The rooms shall be provided with windows which are sufficient - in number and size to let in ample light for every part of the - work. The windows shall be so constructed that they will open - and admit of complete renewal of air in workrooms. Workrooms - with sloping roof shall have an average height equal to the - measurements given in the first paragraph of this section. - - 4. The rooms shall be laid with close fitting impervious - floor, which can be cleared of dust by moist methods. Wooden - floors shall be smoothly planed, and boards fitted to prevent - penetration of moisture. All walls and ceilings shall, if - they are not of a smooth washable surface or painted in oil, - be limewashed once at least a year. If the walls and ceilings - are of a smooth washable surface or painted in oil, they shall - be washed at least once a year, and the oil paint must, if - varnished, be renewed once in ten years, and if not varnished - once in five years. - - The compositors’ shelves and stands for type boxes shall be - either closely ranged round the room on the floor, so that no - dust can collect underneath, or be fitted with legs, so that - the floor can be easily cleaned of dust underneath. - - 5. The workrooms shall be cleared and thoroughly aired once at - least a day, and during the working hours means shall be taken - to secure constant ventilation. - - 6. The melting vessel for type or stereotype metal shall be - covered with a hood connected to an exhaust ventilator or - chimney with sufficient draught to draw the fumes to the outer - air. - - Type founding and melting may only be carried on in rooms - separate from other processes. - - 7. The rooms and fittings, particularly the walls, cornices, - and stands for type, shall be thoroughly cleansed twice a year - at least. The floors shall be washed or rubbed over with a damp - cloth, so as to remove dust once a day at least. - - 8. The type boxes shall be cleansed before they are put in use, - and again as often as necessary, but not less than twice at - least in the year. - - The boxes may only be dusted out with a bellows in the open - air, and this work may not be done by young persons. - - 9. In every workroom spittoons filled with water and one at - least for every five persons shall be provided. Workers are - forbidden to spit upon the floor. - - 10. Sufficient washing appliances, with soap and at least one - towel a week for each worker, shall be provided as near as - possible to the work for compositors, cutters, and polishers. - - One wash-hand basin shall be provided for every five workers, - fitted with an ample supply of water. - - The employer shall make strict provision for the use of the - washing appliances by workers before every meal and before - leaving the works. - - 11. Clothes put off during working hours shall either be kept - outside the workroom or hung up in cupboards with closely - fitting doors or curtains, which are so shut or drawn as to - prevent penetration of dust. - - 12. Artificial means of lighting which tend to raise the - temperature of the rooms shall be so arranged or such - counteracting measures taken that the heat of the workrooms - shall not be unduly raised. - - 13. The employer shall draw up rules binding on the workers - which will ensure the full observance of the provisions in - sections 8, 9, 10, and 11. - - II. A notice shall be affixed and a copy sent to the local - police authority shewing: - - (_a_) The length, height, and breadth of the rooms. - - (_b_) The air space in cubic measure. - - (_c_) The number of workers permitted in each room. - - A copy of Rules 1 to 13 must be affixed where it can be easily - read by all persons affected. - - III. Provides for the method of permitting the exceptions - named above in sections 2 and 3, and makes it a condition of - reduction in cubic air space for each person employed as type - founder or compositor that there shall be adequate mechanical - ventilation for regulating temperature and carrying off - products of combustion from workrooms. - - -Ceramic Industry - -(See also pp. 135-8.) - -A complete substitute for lead in glazes seems as yet impossible on -technical grounds, as glaze containing lead has qualities which cannot -be obtained without its use. In small works the technique necessary -for the production of leadless glazes (special kinds of stoves) cannot -be expected, especially as those carrying on a small industry lack the -necessary knowledge of how to be able to dispense with the use of lead -glazes and substitute leadless materials without complete alteration -in their methods of manufacture. And yet discontinuance or the utmost -possible limitation of the use of lead glazes and colours is most -urgently needed in all small ceramic workshops, as they are not in a -position to put in localised exhaust ventilation, &c., which is possible -in large factories. Observance of even the simplest hygienic measures can -scarcely be obtained. Consequently very severe cases of lead poisoning -are met with in small works. An effort in the direction of discontinuance -of lead glazes was made in Bohemia, where (at the cost of the State) -technical instruction was given by an expert on the preparation of -leadless glazes especially in districts where the industry was carried -on in the homes of the workers. This procedure, extension of which is -expected, had good results. - -Many have demanded, in view of the possibility of substituting leadless -for lead glazes, the total prohibition of lead. Such is the view of the -Dutch inspector De Vooys; Teleky and Chyzer share the view expressed so -far as the small industry is concerned, since the practicability of the -change has been demonstrated. - -English authorities (Thorpe, Oliver) propose diminution of the lead in -the glaze in such a way that on shaking with weak acid not more than a -specified small quantity shall be dissolved (Thorpe test). In my opinion -such a measure is hardly enough for the small industry. I do not expect -much good from obligatory use of fritted glazes. - -In addition to earthenware, manufacture of tiles and bricks leads not -infrequently to cases of lead poisoning from use of lead glaze. - -The following measures apply to the larger ceramic works. Since risk -is considerable, not only in glost placing but also in grinding, -ware-cleaning, &c., closed ball mills in grinding and locally applied -exhaust ventilation in ware-cleaning operations, &c., must be arranged. -Personal cleanliness and proper equipment of a factory in all the -essentials insisted on on pp. 226-9 are important, but nothing can take -the place of efficient locally applied ventilation. - -Vitreous enamelling of household utensils, baths, gas stoves, signs, -&c., is an analogous process as enamels containing lead may be used. -Sieving on the dry powder and brushing off superfluous glaze often cause -poisoning. Here generally the same preventive measures apply. - -[In Great Britain the china and earthenware industry is placed under -Regulations dated January 2, 1913, which supersede the previous Special -Rules. These Regulations—thirty-six in number—provide, among other -usual provisions, (1) for efficient exhaust ventilation in (_a_) -processes giving rise to injurious mineral dust (fettling and pressing -of tiles, bedding, and flinting, brushing and scouring of biscuit) -and (_b_) dusty lead processes (ware cleaning, aerographing, colour -dusting, litho-transfer making, &c.); and (2) monthly periodical medical -examination of workers in scheduled lead processes.] - -In the Netherlands, in consequence of lead poisoning in porcelain works, -committees were appointed to inquire into the subject in 1901, 1902, and -1903. - - -File Cutting - -(See also p. 140) - -In file cutting the file is cut on a lead bed or a bed of an alloy of -zinc and lead. The same source of poisoning occurs in other industries -such as amber working. Lead poisoning among file cutters is pronounced. -The best preventive measure is substitution of a bed of pure zinc for -lead. The German Imperial Health Office have issued a ‘Warning notice’ -for file-cutters. - - LEAFLET FOR FILE-CUTTERS - - The use of lead beds or of alloys of lead with other metals - has repeatedly brought about lead poisoning in file-cutters. - The beds also supposed to be made of zinc usually contain a - considerable proportion of lead, and are thus dangerous to - health. - - Among file-cutters lead poisoning arises from absorption of - the metal in small quantities by means of dirty hands, eating, - drinking, smoking or chewing of tobacco. The consequences of - this absorption are not at once noticeable. They appear only - after weeks, months, or even years, according to the extent to - which the lead has accumulated in the system. - - _How does lead poisoning show itself?_—The first sign is - usually a bluish-grey line on the gums called the blue line, - associated with anæmia or pallor. Later symptoms are very - varied. Most frequently lead colic comes on, the affected - person suffering from violent cramplike pains starting from the - navel; the stomach is hard and contracted; very often vomiting - and constipation ensue, or, very occasionally, diarrhœa. In - some cases paralysis shows itself—generally in those muscles - which extend the fingers, usually affecting both arms. In - exceptional cases other muscles of the arms and legs are - affected. Sometimes lead poisoning manifests itself in violent - pains in the joints—generally the knee, more rarely in the - shoulder and elbow. In specially severe cases brain trouble - supervenes—violent headache, convulsions, unconsciousness or - blindness. Finally lead poisoning may set up disease of the - kidneys—Bright’s disease and gout. - - Women suffering from lead poisoning frequently miscarry. - Children born alive may, in consequence of lead poisoning, die - in their first year. Children fed at the breast are poisoned - through the milk. - - Apart from severe cases complicated with brain trouble, - which are often fatal, persons suffering from lead poisoning - generally recover if they withdraw from further contact. - Recovery takes place after a few weeks, but in severe cases - only after months. - - The most effective preventive measures are cleanliness - and temperance. Persons who, without being drunkards, are - accustomed to take spirits in quantity are more likely to - succumb than the abstemious. Spirits should not be taken - during working hours. In regard to cleanliness, file-cutters - using lead beds should be especially careful and observe the - following rules: - - 1. Since soiling the hands with lead cannot be entirely - avoided, smoking and chewing tobacco during work should be - given up. - - 2. Workers should only take food and drink or leave the works - after thoroughly washing the hands with soap—if possible with - pumice stone; if drinking during work cannot be wholly given up - the edges of the drinking vessels ought not to be touched by - the hands. - - If a file-cutter falls ill in spite of precautions with - symptoms pointing to lead poisoning he should, in his own and - his family’s interest, at once consult a doctor, telling him - that he has been working with a lead bed. - - -Other Industries in which Lead is used - -In cutting _precious stones_ with use of lead discs lead poisoning -frequently occurs, especially where this trade, as in some parts of -Bohemia, is carried on as a home industry. The authorities have required -substitution of carborundum (silicon carbide) for lead discs. As, -therefore, an efficient substitute is possible, use of lead should be -prohibited. Similarly, use of lead in the making of musical instruments -should, if possible, be discontinued. Brass pipes in _musical instrument_ -making are filled with lead to facilitate hammering and bending, and in -this way poisoning has occurred. In numerous other industries where the -use of lead cannot be avoided, and where consequently the danger must -be present, as, for instance, in _lead melting_, _soldering_, _lead -rolling_, _stamping_, _pressing_, &c., in the manufacture of _lead -piping_, _shot_, _wire_, _bottle capsules_, _foil_, _toys_, and many -other articles, general preventive measures should be carefully carried -out. _Melting of lead_ and _lead alloys_ should be carried out only under -efficient exhaust ventilation. In larger works where dust is generated -this should be drawn away at the point where it is produced. This applies -also to processes in the chemical industries where lead or lead compounds -are used, seeing that no substitute is possible. - - -Zinc, Brass-casting, Metal Pickling, Galvanising - -(See also pp. 151 and 182) - -In zinc smelting account has to be taken of fumes which may contain -lead, zinc, arsenic, sulphur dioxide, and carbonic oxide. Metallic fumes -require to be condensed—a procedure in harmony with economic interests. -This is effected in a technically arranged condensing system, consisting -of a condenser and prolong, in which the fumes are given as large a -space as possible in which to condense and cool. In order to prevent -the entry of fumes into the shed when removing distillation residues, -hoods should be arranged over the front of the furnace through which -the gases can be conducted into the main chimney stack or be drawn away -by a fan; in addition the residue should fall into trolleys which must -either be covered at once or placed under a closely fitting hood until -the fuming contents are cool. As the mixing of the materials for charging -and the sifting and packing of the zinc dust (poussière) may cause risk, -these processes require to be carried out mechanically with application -of local exhaust. Such an arrangement is shown in fig. 59 below. The -material which is fed in is carried by the elevator to the sifting -machine, falls into the collecting bin, and is then packed. The points at -which dust can come off are connected with the exhaust and carried to the -dust collector; fans carry the filtered air to the outside atmosphere. - -[Illustration: FIG. 59.—Arrangement for Sieving and Packing Zinc Dust -(poussière). - -_a_ Charging hopper; _b_ Distributor; _c_ Elevator; _d_ Sieve; _e_ -Collector; _f_ Packing machine; _g_ Exhaust pipe; _h_ Worm; _i_ Dust -Collector; _k_ Motor] - -Only paragraphs 3-8 of the German Imperial Regulations dated February 6, -1900, for Spelter Works are quoted, as the remainder are on precisely -similar lines to those for lead smelting works given in full on p. 300. - - 3. Crushing zinc ore shall not be done except in an apparatus - so arranged as to prevent penetration of dust into the workroom. - - 4. The roasting furnaces as well as the calcining furnaces - shall be provided with effective exhaust arrangements for the - escaping gases. The occupier shall be responsible for their - efficiency during the time the furnace is at work. - - 5. To avoid dust, ores intended for charging distillation - furnaces shall not be stacked in front of or charged into - the furnace, or mixed with other material, except in a damp - condition. - - This regulation shall not apply to large so-called Silesian - - Retorts when in use in the zinc smelter; yet in the case of - them also the Higher Authorities may require damping of the - charging material if specially injurious to health. - - 6. Dust, gases and vapours escaping from distillation furnaces - shall be caught as near as possible to the point of origin by - efficient arrangements and carried out of the smelting rooms. - The entrance of the gases from the fires into the smelting room - shall be prevented as far as possible by suitable arrangements - for drawing them off. - - 7. Residues shall not be drawn into the smelting room; they - shall be caught in closed channels under the furnaces and - emptied from these channels at once into waggons placed in - passages beneath the distillation rooms. - - This regulation (where the Higher Authorities approve) shall - not apply to existing plants, should it be impossible to make - the arrangements mentioned in Reg. 1, or where such additions - could only be added by rebuilding at a prohibitive cost. - - 8. Sieving and packing of by-products obtained by the - distillation of zinc (poussière, flue dust) shall not be done - except in a special room separate from other workrooms, in - accordance with Reg. 1. - - Sieving shall only be done in an apparatus so arranged as to - prevent escape of dust. - -In _brass casting_, in order to prevent occurrence of brass-founders’ -ague, it is necessary that the zinc oxide fumes evolved should be -effectively drawn away from the crucible by locally applied exhaust -ventilation. General ventilation merely of the room is almost useless, as -in casting the fumes rise up into the face of the pourer. Seeing that -casting is carried on in different parts of the foundry, it is advisable -to connect up the hoods over the moulds by means of metal piping with the -exhaust system, or to arrange a flexible duct which can be moved about as -occasion requires. - -Dangerous acid fumes (notably nitrous fumes) are evolved in metal -pickling, especially of brass articles (such as harness furniture, -lamp fittings, church utensils, &c.), for the purpose of giving them a -shiny or dull surface by immersion in baths of nitric, hydrochloric, or -sulphuric acid. As severe and even fatal poisoning has occurred in these -operations they should be conducted in isolated compartments or channels -under exhaust ventilation. If the ventilation provided is mechanical an -acid proof earthenware fan or an injector is necessary. The following -description applies to one large works: The pickling troughs are placed -in a wooden compartment closed in except for a small opening in front. -To this compartment a stoneware pipe leading to a stoneware fan is -connected. The nitrous fumes are drawn through the pipe and led into -the lower part of an absorption tower filled with cone-shaped packing -material through which water trickles from a vessel placed at the top. -The greater part of the acid fumes are absorbed as they pass upwards -and the water collects in a receiver below, from which it is blown by -compressed air into the vessel above for utilisation again until it -becomes so charged with acid that it can be used for pickling purposes. - -In _galvanising_ and _tinning_ acid fumes, injurious acroleic vapour, and -metallic fumes can arise as the metal articles (iron, copper, &c.) first -require to be cleaned in an acid bath and then dipped into molten fat -or molten zinc or tin. Here also the fumes should be drawn away in the -manner described. - - -Recovery and Use of Mercury - -Escape of mercury vapour and development of sulphur dioxide seriously -endanger workers engaged in smelting cinnabar. The danger can be -minimised by proper construction of furnaces preventing escape as far -as possible of fumes and most careful condensation of the mercury in -impervious and sufficiently capacious chambers and flues. - -Continuous furnaces are to be preferred to those working intermittently. -The system of condensing chambers and flues must offer as long a passage -as possible to the fumes, and care must be taken to keep them thoroughly -cool. Removal of the deposit rich in mercury from the flues is especially -fraught with danger. This work should only be carried on after efficient -watering by workers equipped with respirators, working suits, &c. - -_Use of mercury._—Mirror making by coating the glass with mercury used -to be one of the most dangerous occupations. Now that a fully adequate -substitute for mercury has been found in the nitrate of silver and -ammonia process, use of mercury should be prohibited. As a home industry -especially mirror coating with mercury should be suppressed. Fortunately -the dangerous mode of production is rapidly being ousted. - -The following requirements are contained in a decree of the Prussian -Government dated May 18, 1889: - -(1) Medical certificate on admission to employment in mirror making with -use of mercury; - -(2) restriction of hours to six in summer and in winter to eight daily, -with a two hours’ mid-day interval; - -(3) fortnightly examination of the workers; - -(4) air space per person of 40 cubic meters in the coating room and 30 in -the drying room, and, in both, introduction of 60 cubic meters of air per -head per hour; - -(5) Work to cease if the temperature of the room in summer reaches 25° C. - -Measures are necessary to prevent occurrence of mercury poisoning in -hatters’ furriers’ processes (preparation of rabbit fur for felt hats) -in consequence of the use of nitrate of mercury. Danger arises chiefly -in cutting the hair, in dressing and drying, in sorting, and also in -the subsequent stages of hard felt hat manufacture. Aspiration of the -dust and fluff at its point of generation, isolation of the drying -rooms and prohibition of entry into them while drying is going on, are -necessary. In dressing (commonly known as ‘carotting’), the nitric acid -vapour requires to be drawn away. In addition strict personal hygiene, -especially of the teeth, is very important. Processes involving _water -gilding_ (nowadays practised on a very small scale) should only be -carried on in stoves provided with exhaust ventilation. Electroplating, -fortunately, has almost entirely taken its place. - -As cases of mercury poisoning have been reported from use of mercurial -pumps in producing the vacuum inside _electric incandescent bulbs_, air -pumps should be substituted for them whenever possible. - -_Barometer_ and _thermometer_ makers may and do suffer severely if care -is not taken to draw away the fumes and ensure good ventilation of the -workrooms. Careless handling and the dropping of mercury on the benches -make it difficult to prevent some volatilisation. Personal hygiene and -especially a proper hygiene of the mouth are of the greatest importance -in this class of work. - -Preparation of mercury compounds in chemical factories, especially the -dry processes (sublimation), as in production of cinnabar, corrosive -sublimate and calomel mixing, grinding, and sublimation, require to be -carried on in closed apparatus. Preparation of the substances named above -in solution involves much less risk than subliming. From our point of -view, therefore, the former is to preferred. - - -Arsenic, Arsenic Compounds, Arseniuretted Hydrogen - -For arsenic works imperviousness of the system and as complete -condensation as possible are necessary to prevent escape of fumes. - -Respirators should be worn in manipulations with white arsenic, and -such work as packing done under conditions of locally applied exhaust -ventilation. - -Industrial use of arsenic compounds, in view of the risk attaching to -them, should be reduced as much as possible. This has sometimes been -achieved by technical improvement in processes of manufacture. Thus in -the colour industry, where formerly colours containing arsenic played -an important rôle, coal-tar colours have taken their place, and use -of arsenic even in these (as in the manufacture of fuchsin) has been -replaced by nitrobenzene. - -As the danger from arseniuretted hydrogen gas is especially great in -processes in which acid acts on metal and either one or both of them -contain arsenic, the materials, should be as free from arsenic as -possible, in the production, for example, of hydrogen for soldering, in -extracting metals by means of acids, in galvanic elements, in accumulator -works, in the storage and transport of acids in metal vessels, and in -galvanising. - -In any case the workers in these industries should be warned of the -danger and instructed in case of emergencies. For soldering exclusive use -of hydrogen produced electrolytically and procurable in steel cylinders -is advisable. - - -Extraction and Use of Gold and Silver - -In the extraction of gold and silver by amalgamation and subsequent -volatilisation of mercury there is risk of mercurial poisoning. The -preventive measures necessary are similar to those for poisoning in the -recovery of mercury (see p. 327). - -_Argyria_ in pearl bead blowers can be avoided by using pumps to blow the -silver solution into the beads instead of the mouth. - -In electroplating the possibility of poisonous fumes arising from the -baths must be guarded against because hydrocyanic (prussic) acid, though -only in minute quantities, may be evolved; care must be taken that the -workrooms are well ventilated or the baths hooded. Careful personal -hygiene is essential, for the prevention of skin diseases from which -workers in electroplating often suffer. - - - - -VII - -_PREVENTIVE MEASURES IN OTHER TRADES_ - - -Ceramic Industry - -In the glass industry use of lead, chrome, and arsenic compounds should -be restricted as much as possible or allowed only under suitable -precautions (exhaust ventilation, personal hygiene, &c.). - -_Etching on glass_ by means of hydrofluoric causes almost inevitably -injury to the workers. Rendering the surface of glass opaque should -preferably be done by sand blast. When a bath of hydrofluoric acid for -etching on glass is used the fumes require to be drawn away by hoods over -the baths and the work-rooms well ventilated. - -Further precautionary measures are called for in view of industrial -poisoning by furnace gases in various ceramic industries, as, for -example, cement works, glass works, and tile works. - -The following suggestions are made in the technical introduction to the -Germany Factory Act for prevention of poisoning from carbonic oxide, -carbon dioxide, and sulphur dioxide: - -(1) Even the fixing of benches which might be used for sleeping on near -the furnaces should be strictly forbidden; - -(2) All furnaces which are roofed over should be provided with adequate -side and roof ventilation; - -(3) All gas pipes and cocks must be maintained in an impervious condition. - - -Manufacture and Use of Varnishes and Drying Oils - -Unpleasant fumes are given off on boiling linseed oil with oxidising -substances, which should be prevented by closely fitting covers and -condensation of the fumes in cooling apparatus. In heating and dissolving -resin for the production of varnishes the fumes evolved require to be -dealt with in a similar way. - -Preventive measures must be taken also in the use of quick-drying paints -on ships and inside steam boilers as, owing to the rapid evaporation of -the poisonous solvents—benzene, benzine and turpentine—fatalities have -occurred. As a result of elaborate investigation by the inspectors of -factories in Hamburg the following instructions were issued: - - Quick-drying paint for ships and for preventing rust should - only be used under the supervision of a person conversant with - the danger to health and risk from fire. - - They should only be allowed for the painting of interior - surfaces after adoption of adequate precautions—free - ventilation, use of smoke helmets with air conducting - apparatus, and no naked lights, &c. Since use of quick-drying - paints cannot easily be prohibited and the fumes from the - substitutes for turpentine—benzene and other light tarry - oils—exert injurious effect on man, precautionary measures are - called for. Regulation of working hours is as important as - provision of adequate ventilation. Workers, therefore, should - be allowed proper intervals from work. - - Confined spaces in the interior of ships should be adequately - ventilated before, after, and during work; all persons who use - the paints should have opportunity for washing given them at - their work places, and should be compelled to avail themselves - of these facilities; indulgence in alcohol and smoking should - be prohibited; receptacles in which quick-drying paints are - sold should be provided with an air-tight cover and with a - warning notice as to the danger of the contents. - - Paints made from petroleum fractions of low boiling-point, - light coal-tar oils, turpentine oil, carbon bisulphide, and - similar substances, are to be regarded as injurious to health. - - Persons under eighteen, and women, should not be allowed to - work with quick-drying paints. - - Obligatory notification of cases of poisoning by hydrocarbons - and other similar poisonings would have a good effect. - -Schaefer (Inspector of Factories in Hamburg) has drawn up the following -leaflet for painters, varnishers, workers in dry docks, and others -engaged in painting with quick drying paints and oils: - - All quick-drying paints and oils are more or less injurious - to health and very inflammable, as they contain volatile - substances such as benzine (naphtha, petrol ether), benzene, - turpentine oil, carbon bisulphide, &c. These paints are mostly - used in painting interiors of ships, boilers, machinery, - apparatus, &c., and come on the market under various - names, such as Black Varnish Oil, Solution, Patent Colour, - Anti-corrosive, Dermatin, Acid-proof Paint, Apexior, Saxol, &c. - - Even at ordinary temperatures the volatile fluids used - as mediums for dry paint powders, or as a first coating, - evaporate. Air filled with the fumes is not only harmful to - health, but liable to explosion. Working with these paints and - oils in the interior of ships, or steam boilers and the like, - has repeatedly led to explosions and fatal poisoning. - - _Danger of Poisoning._—All persons are exposed to the danger of - poisoning who use quick-drying paints in the interior of rooms - or receptacles, or otherwise manipulate the paints. The warmer - the room and the less ventilation there is before and during - the painting, the greater the danger of poisoning. On the other - hand, use of these paints in the open air is generally without - effect. - - Poisoning arises from inhaling the fumes of hydrocarbons. - The symptoms are oppression, headache, inclination to vomit, - cough, hiccough, giddiness, noises in the ears, drunken-like - excitement, trembling and twitching. Inhalation of larger - quantities brings on, quite suddenly and without previous - warning, unconsciousness, which may last many hours and is - often fatal. Except in severe cases the symptoms generally - soon disappear, if the affected person withdraws from further - contact with the fumes. The most effective protection therefore - against poisoning is fresh air and temperance. In so far as - painting with quick-drying materials is necessary in workrooms, - interiors of ships, water and ballast tanks, double bottoms, - bunkers, bilges, cabins, boilers and receptacles, care must - be taken to ensure thorough ventilation before, after, and - while the work is going on. Where no sufficient ventilation - is possible these paints ought not to be used. Frequent - intermission of work by a short stay in the open air is useful. - When working in spaces not easily accessible, the worker should - be roped. - - Speaking, singing, or whistling during work favours inhalation - of the fumes and is, therefore, to be avoided. Indulgence in - spirits, especially during working hours, increases the danger - of poisoning. Habitual drinkers should not be allowed to work - at all with quick-drying paints and oils. - - At the first signs of discomfort work should be stopped. An - immediate stay in the open air will then usually dispel the - poisonous symptoms. - - If, notwithstanding this, severe symptoms develop, oxygen - inhalation should be commenced forthwith and medical aid called - in. - - -Production of Vegetable Foods and Luxuries - -(See also p. 154) - -Measures for the prevention of industrial poisoning have to be thought of -in connection with drying processes (by smoke gases, carbon dioxide, and -carbonic oxide), many processes of preserving (use of sulphur dioxide, -&c.), and fermentation (accumulation of carbonic acid). - -In breweries the use of kilns allowing fire gases to enter the -drying-rooms formerly caused carbonic oxide and carbonic acid poisoning. -The general introduction of hot air kilns provided with mechanical -malt-turning apparatus should be insisted on, and is in keeping with -progress in technical methods. - -The accumulation of carbonic acid in the malting cellars can be prevented -in the same way as in a distillery. - -If ammonia is used for _refrigeration_, precautions are necessary so -that, in the event of leakage or bursting of pipes, the workers may -escape. Naturally the imperviousness of the freezing system must be -guaranteed. - -Oppression and danger to the health of the workers is occasionally caused -by the development of gases in the coating of barrels with pitch, partly -preventable by the use of pitching machines. - -In the production of _spirits_ carbonic acid poisoning can occur from -accumulation of carbonic acid in the fermentation cellars. These should -be thoroughly ventilated and in view of the heaviness of the gas, -openings for ventilation should always be located at the floor level. - -In the _sulphuring of malt_ the following recommendations were made by -the Austrian inspectors: - -During the sulphuring process the room ought not to be entered (for -the turning over of the malt). When the sulphur has been burnt, the -drying-room must be ventilated from the outside, by opening the windows -and letting in cold currents of air, until the sulphur dioxide has -completely dispersed, which can be tested by holding a strip of moistened -blue litmus paper at the half-opened door. If it does not turn red, -turning over of the malt may be proceeded with. - -As the _sulphuring of hops_ in hop districts is done in primitive little -kilns, in which the hops are spread out on a kind of gridiron and sulphur -burnt below in iron pans, development of sulphur dioxide may affect the -workers. The following regulations are therefore suggested for work in -these kilns: - - The rooms in which sulphuring takes place must be airtight, - capable of being locked, and provided with arrangements which - make it possible to remove the sulphur dioxide fumes before - the room is entered. This can usually be done by a strong - coke fire, maintained in the chimney place, which creates the - necessary draught. If fans are used, it must be remembered that - iron is affected and destroyed by acid gases; stoneware fans - are therefore advisable. - -In the production of _vinegar_, air escapes laden with acetic acid -vapour, alcohol, lower oxidation products of alcohol, aldehyde, acetic -ether, &c. Their escape can be avoided if the whole process is carried on -in a closed self-acting apparatus with the advantage also that no loss -occurs. - -In premises for _drying agricultural products_ (fruit, chicory, turnips) -the persons employed in the drying-room are exposed to the danger of -carbonic oxide poisoning from direct firing. - -The following recommendations for work in drying-rooms with direct firing -are taken from an Austrian decree of 1901: - - The lower drying chambers, in which the real drying process - is effected, should be so arranged that the objects dried in - them can be removed by means of long-handled implements through - a passage shut off from the drying-room. The separation of - this passage can be effected by loose tin plates which can be - removed as required for the work of turning or removal of the - dried products, so that the worker need not come into contact - with the gases. - - Open fires should be so arranged that if required they can - be shut off, by simple arrangements, from the drying-rooms - in which the workers are temporarily occupied in carrying - in, and turning, the objects to be dried, transferring the - partly dried products to hotter hurdles, and emptying them - when finished, in such a way that the entrance of combustion - gases into the drying chambers can be completely prevented. In - order, however, to prevent a back draught, arrangements must be - made for simultaneous removal of the gases by pipes connected - with a chimney or smoke flue. The places from which the fires - are charged should, in addition, be furnished with suitably - arranged openings for ventilation leading into the outer air, - in order to neutralise, in case of need, any back draught from - the furnaces into the rooms. - - The windows of the drying chambers should be so arranged as to - open both from within and without. - - The floor of the roof space, or attic, which forms at the same - time the ceiling of the upper drying-room, should be kept - perfectly airtight, as also the openings into it through which - the steam pipes pass. For this purpose the floor should be a - double one and the openings or boxes into which material is - thrown should have a double cover above and below. Further, - situated in the highest point of the ceiling of the roof space, - there should be a suitable number of openings topped by louvred - turrets. In the roof space no work should be done except - manipulations necessary for the charging of the hurdles with - the goods to be dried. Use of the roof floor as a sleeping or - living room is not permissible. - - Before the workers enter the drying chambers for the purpose of - turning the materials, the stove should be shut off, the gases - drawn from the furnace into the chimney or flue, and at the - same time the doors and windows of the drying rooms opened. - - Entering of drying chambers for working purposes should only be - done after a sufficient time has elapsed for removal of the air - by ventilation. - - Charging of the furnaces should be so arranged that they burn - as low as possible before the removal of the dried materials - and before subsequent work in the drying chambers. Seeing that - chicory and turnip drying is done intermittently by night, a - special sleeping or waiting room with free ventilation should - be provided. The regulations concerning the ventilation of the - workrooms are to be made known to the workers. - - -Cigar Industry - -In order to prevent injury to health to tobacco workers the dust and -fumes, especially at cutting and sifting machines, require to be drawn -away by locally applied exhaust ventilation. The workrooms, moreover, -must conform to hygienic requirements, especially as to cleanliness. -Washing accommodation and baths are desirable, but are only likely to be -provided in large works. - - -Wood Working - -(See also p. 154) - -Risk from poisonous woods can be avoided by exhaust ventilation applied -to the wood-working machinery. - -To lessen the danger to health in the use of methylated spirits in the -polishing of wood adequate ventilation of the workrooms is necessary; -drawing off the fumes by local ventilation is often impossible. - - -Production of Wood-pulp (Cellulose) and Paper. - -In the _sulphite cellulose_ process, sulphur dioxide may escape from -the sulphur stoves or from the boilers; escape of sulphur dioxide is -also possible through defective gas pipes and condensers. Gas pipes and -condensers require to be quite impervious and condensation or absorption -as complete as possible. The fumes escaping from the boilers should be -led through pipes into closed boilers for condensation purposes; the -gases not condensed here are to be led into absorption towers. - -In the manufacture of _paper_ with use of chloride of lime for bleaching -chlorine can be given off in considerable quantity, requiring removal of -the gases from the apparatus. - -The use of poisonous colours containing lead or arsenic, and addition of -lead-containing substances to the paper pulp, is now very rare. - - -Textile Industries. - -(See also p. 156) - -In the textile industry only a few manipulations are associated with -serious risk of poisoning. Those engaged in carbonising are exposed -to acid fumes; closed and ventilated apparatus, therefore, as far as -possible, require to be used and the acid gases escaping from them should -be absorbed. These requirements are fulfilled by carbonising stoves which -are ventilated and connected with coke condensers. It is especially urged -that only arsenic free acid be employed, as otherwise danger of poisoning -by arseniuretted hydrogen may be incurred. - -In the making of _artificial silk_, according to the Chardonnet-Cadoret -process, the precautionary measures recommended in nitrating together -with careful exhaustion of the ether and camphor fumes apply. - -The combustion gases (containing carbonic oxide) developed in the -process of singeing are harmful and require to be led away at their -source. - -Poisonous metallic salts, especially lead and lead-containing zinc, are -used as weighting materials, in dressing or finishing, and sometimes -cause symptoms among the workers. Apart from the danger to those occupied -in spinning and weaving, the workers who handle these products (in the -clothing trade) also run a risk from lead. - -Precautionary measures are necessary in the _varnishing of woven -materials_, as the substances employed may contain volatile poisonous -solvents. If these poisonous solvents cannot be replaced by others less -poisonous, carefully applied exhaust ventilation must be provided. -The same holds good when carbon bisulphide, benzene, and benzine are -used as solvents in the production of woven materials impregnated with -indiarubber. - -Employment of lead salts and other poisonous metallic salts in the -glossing of woven materials, or in order to render them non-inflammable, -is to be deprecated. - -Cases of lead poisoning have occurred in the working-up of asbestos, as -lead wire is sometimes used in the process of weaving. - -To protect workers in _chlorine_ and _sulphur bleaching_ from poisoning -by chlorine or sulphur dioxide the gases arising from the bleaching -liquids should be drawn away. Use of closed bleaching apparatus, as is -the case in large works, reduces the danger to a minimum. Bleaching-rooms -should be connected with a powerful stoneware fan, so that they may be -thoroughly aired before they are entered. - - -Dye Works - -Industrial poisoning by dyes is, in general, rare, as the natural dyes -(wood and tar dyes) are almost without exception non-poisonous. Further, -the dyes are generally only used in diluted solution. Formerly the -arsenic in many tar dyes caused poisoning, but now it is usually the -mordants which have harmful effect. To this class belong chromic acid -salts and mordants containing arsenic, antimony (tartar-emetic), and -also chloride of tin. In the scraping off of layers of paint containing -arsenic, arsenic dust may arise. In Turkey red dyeworks, especially -sodium arsenite is used for fixing the tar dyes. - -Orpiment dyes which may give off poisonous arseniuretted hydrogen gas -are becoming less and less used; from the point of view of industrial -hygiene, the utmost possible avoidance of the use of arsenic-containing -preparations in dye works is to be recommended. Where this is not -possible, strict personal hygiene must be enforced (as, for instance, -application of vaseline to the skin). - - - - -FOOTNOTES - - -[A] Leymann has dealt with the conditions of health in a large aniline -factory in a later work which is referred to in detail in the section on -the aniline industry. - -[B] Poisoning by lead, phosphorus, and arsenic contracted in a factory or -Workshop has been notifiable in Great Britain and Ireland since 1895. - -[C] ‘On the Nature, Uses, and Manufacture of Ferro-silicon,’ 1909, Cd. -4958. - -[D] In Great Britain section 73 of the Factory and Workshop Act, 1901, -requires every medical practitioner attending on or called in to visit -a patient whom he believes to be suffering from lead, phosphorus, -arsenical or mercurial poisoning, or anthrax, contracted in any factory -or workshop, to notify the Chief Inspector of Factories, and a similar -obligation is placed on the occupier to send written notice of every case -to the inspector and certifying surgeon of the district. - -The table on p. 222 shows the number of reports included in returns for -the years 1900-12. - -Cases of acute poisoning in factories and workshops are reportable to -the Inspector and certifying surgeon, under the Notice of Accidents Act, -1906, when (_a_) causing loss of life or (_b_) due to molten metal, hot -liquid, explosion, _escape of gas_ or steam, and so disabling any person -as to cause absence throughout at least one whole day from his ordinary -work. - -The following table gives indication of the relative frequency of cases -of poisoning from gases and fumes, although some were reported as -accidents the result of the unconsciousness induced: - - +-------------------------------+-------+------+------+------+------+ - | Nature of Gas or Fumes. | 1912. | 1911.| 1910.| 1909.| 1908.| - | (1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | (5) | (6) | - +-------------------------------+-------+------+------+------+------+ - |Carbon monoxide |91 (14 |64 (6 |53 (9 |53 (6 |55 (5 | - | (_a_) Blast furnace |33 (5 |16 (2 |19 (7 |16 |26 (3 | - | (_b_) Power (suction, | | | | | | - | producer, Mond, Dowson). |19 (4 |31 (1 |25 |25 (4 |19 (2 | - | (_c_) Coal |29 (2 | 6 (2 | 4 |11 (1 | 9 | - | (_d_) Other |10 (3 |11 (1 | 5 (2 | 1 (1 | 1 | - |Sulphuretted hydrogen | 6 | 8 (2 | 2 | 5 (2 | 8 (1 | - |Carbon dioxide | 3 (2 | 1 (1 | 2 (1 | 2 (2 | 4 (3 | - |Ammonia | 1 | 1 (1 | 2 | 1 | 1 | - |Chlorine and hydrochloric | | | | | | - | acid fumes | 3 | 5 (1 | 3 | 1 | 1 | - |Nitrous fumes |12 (1 |18 (2 |11 |12 (2 | 3 (1 | - |Nitro and amido derivatives of | | | | | | - | benzene | 9 (1 |21 |18 | 4 | 2 | - |Naphtha and benzene | 3 (1 | 1 (1 | — | 1 (1 | 2 | - |Other (Sulphur dioxide, &c.) | 7 (2 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 3 | - +-------------------------------+-------+------+------+------+------+ - -The principal figures are those of all cases, fatal and non-fatal; the -small figures relate to fatal cases. - -Transcriber’s Note: The ‘small figures’ are given here in brackets e.g. -(1. - -[E] The principal numbers relate to cases, the small figures to deaths. -Fatal cases not reported in previous years are included as both cases and -deaths. - -Transcriber’s Note: The ‘small figures’ are given here in brackets e.g. -(1. - -[F] Fischer adopts a chemical basis in his classification. His two -main subdivisions are (1) inorganic and (2) organic poisons. The -sub-divisions of the inorganic poisons are (_a_) non-metallic—chlorine, -calcium chloride, hydrochloric acid, potassium chlorate, hydrofluoric -acid, carbonic oxide, phosgene, carbon dioxide, cyanogen compounds, -ammonia, nitrous fumes, phosphorus, phosphoretted hydrogen, arsenic -compounds, antimony compounds, sulphur dioxide, sulphuric acid, -sulphuretted hydrogen, carbon bisulphide, chloride of sulphur; and -(_b_) metallic—chromic acid and chromates, manganese dioxide, sulphate -of nickel, mercury and lead. The sub-divisions of (2) the organic -substances are into (_a_) the unsaturated carbon compounds—benzene, -petroleum, methyl-, ethyl-, amyl-, and allyl-alcohol, oxalic acid, -formal- and acetaldehyde, acrolein, acetone, methyl-bromide and -iodide, nitro-glycerin, dimethyl-sulphate and amyl acetate, and -(_b_) the aromatic series benzene, nitro-, chloro-nitro-, dinitro-, -chloro-dinitro-benzene, phenol, picric acid, phenyl-hydrazine, aniline, -and certain aniline colours, para-nitraniline, pyridine, naphthalene, -nitro-naphthalene, naphthlyamine, naphthol, benzidine, acridine, -turpentine, and nicotine. - -[G] A Prussian Ministerial Decree, dated March 31, 1892, deals with the -preparation of nitrate of mercury. - -[H] In Great Britain and Ireland the White Phosphorus Matches Prohibition -Act became operative from January 1, 1910. In the United States of -America a Prohibition Act became operative on July 1, 1913. - -[I] Reprinted by permission of the Controller of H.M. Stationery Office. - -[J] _Use of Oxygen Cylinder._—Open the valve gradually by tapping the -lever key (which must first be extended to its full length) with the -wrist, until the oxygen flows in a gentle stream from the mouthpiece into -the patient’s mouth. The lips should not be closed round the mouthpiece. -The nostrils should be closed during breathing in, and opened during -breathing out. - -If the teeth are set, close the lips and one nostril. Let the conical end -of the mouthpiece slightly enter the other nostril during breathing in, -and remove it for breathing out. - -[K] The suggested regulations made after his inquiry (see p. 149) by Dr. -Copeman are: - -1. Ferro-silicon should not be sent out from the works immediately after -manufacture, but after being broken up into pieces of the size in which -it is usually sold, should be stored under cover, but exposed to the air -as completely as possible, for at least a month before being despatched -from the works. - -2. Manufacturers should be required to mark in bold letters each barrel -or other parcel of ferro-silicon with the name and percentage grade -(certified by chemical analysis) of the material; the name of the works -where it is produced; the date of manufacture; and date of despatch. - -3. The carriage of ferro-silicon on vessels carrying passengers should -be prohibited. When carried on cargo boats it should, if circumstances -permit, be stored on deck. If it be considered necessary to store it -elsewhere, the place of storage should be capable of being adequately -ventilated, and such place of storage should be cut off by airtight -bulkheads from the quarters occupied by the crew of the vessel. - -4. This regulation should apply to the transport of ferro-silicon on -river or canal barges as well as on sea-going vessels. - -5. Storage places at docks or at works where ferro-silicon is used should -have provision for free access of air, and should be situated at a -distance from work-rooms, mess-rooms, offices, &c. - -[L] Regulations 5-7 contain precautions to be observed in the corroding -chambers. - - - - -APPENDIX - -REFERENCES - - - - -PART I - -PROCESSES OF MANUFACTURE AND INSTANCES OF POISONING - - -GENERAL SURVEY OF POISONING IN CHEMICAL INDUSTRIES - -[1] Leymann, _Concordia_, 1906, Nos. 7, 8 and 9; [2] Grandhomme, _Die -Fabriken der Farbwerke zu Höchst a. M._, Verlag Mahlau, 4th edition. - - -SULPHURIC ACID INDUSTRY - -[1] _Zeitschr. für. Gewerbe-Hygiene_, 1907, p. 230; [2] Bath, _Zeitschr. -f. Angew. Chemie_, 1896, p. 477. - - -HYDROCHLORIC ACID AND SALTCAKE MANUFACTURE - -[1] _Zeitschr. f. Gewerbe-Hygiene_, 1906, p. 562; [2] _Zeitschr. f. -Gew.-Hyg._ 1902, p. 62; [3] Walther in Weyl’s _Arbeiterkrank-keiten_, p. -666. - - -CHLORINE AND BLEACHING POWDER - -[1] _Zeitschr. für. Gew.-Hyg._, 1906, p. 280; [2] _Concordia_, 1906, -No. 8; [3] _Arch. f. Hyg._, vol. 46, p. 322; [4] Egli, _Unf. b. Chem. -Arb._, Zurich, 1902, p. 40; [5] Vaubel, _Chemiker Zeitung_, 1903; [6] -_Concordia_, 1907, No. 7; [7] Rumpf, _D. Med. Wochenschr._, 1908, vol. -34, p. 1331; [8] Müller, _Vierteljahrsschr. f. Ger. Med. ü öffentl. -Sanitätsw._, vol. ix., p. 381; and Roth, _Komp. d. Gewerbekrankh_, p. -205; [9] Klocke-Bochum, _Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg._, 1906, p. 563; [10] -Sury Bienz, _Vierteljahrsschr. f. Ger. Med._, 1907, vol. 34, p. 251; -[11] Erben, _Handb. d. ärztl. Sachverst_, 1910, vol. ii. p. 266; [12] -_Concordia_, 1902, No. 5., and _Vierteljahrsschr. f. öff. Ges. Pfl._, -1902, Suppl. p. 371; [13] Mohr, _D. Med. Wochenschr_., 1902, vol. 28, p. -73; [14] ‘Über Chlorakne,’ _Archiv. f. Dermatol._, 1905, vol. 77, p. 323; -[15] Dammer, _Handb. d. Arb. Wohlf._, vol. i. p. 433; [16] _D. Arch. f. -Klin. Med._, 1901, vol. 71, p. 370; [17] Schuler, _D. Vierteljahrsschr. -f. öffentl. Ges. Pfl._, vol. 31, p. 696; [18] Egli, _Unf. b. Chem. Arb._, -Zurich, 1902, pp. 22, 45; [19] Rambousek, _Concordia_, 1910, No. 6. - - -MANUFACTURE AND USE OF NITRIC ACID AND ITS COMPOUNDS - -[1] Schmitz, _Berl. Klin. Wochenschr._, 1884, vol. 21, p. 428, and -Becker, _Aerztl. Sachv. Ztg._, 1899, vol. v. p. 277; [2] _Concordia_, -1908, No. 23, p. 498; [3] Schmieden, _Zentralbl. f. Klin. Med._, 1892, -No. 11; Kockel, _Vierteljahrsschr. f. Ger. Med._, 1898, vol. 15; [4] -Egli, _Unf. b. chem. arb._, 1903, p. 52; [5] _Chem. Industrie_, 1905, p. -444; [6] _Chem. Industrie_, 1905, p. 445; [7] _Berl. Klin. Wochenschr._, -1886, vol. 23, p. 417; [8] _Komp. d. Gewerbekrankheiten_, p. 62; [9] -_Intern. Uebers. über Gew.-Hyg._, 1907, p. 76. - - -PHOSPHORUS AND LUCIFER MATCH MANUFACTURE - -[1] _Die Phosphornekrose, ihre Verbreitung in Oesterreich_, Wien, 1907; -[2] Friedrichs, in _Arb. d. Ung. Ver. f. ges. Arbeiterschutz_ 1908, -vol. 4, pp. 1-176; [3] v. Jaksch, _Handb. d. ärztl. Sachv.-Tät._, 1909, -vol. 7, p. 239; and Lévai, _W. Klin. Rundsch._, 1900, vol. 14, p. 33, -and Dearden, _Brit. Med. Journ._, 1899, vol. 1, p. 92; [4] Wodtke, -_Vierteljahrsschr. f. ger. Med. und öffentl. Sanitätsw._, vol. 18, p. 325. - - -CHROMIUM COMPOUNDS - -[1] Hermanni, _Münch med. Wochenschr._, 1901, No. 14, and Wodtke, _loc. -cit._, p. 325; [2] _Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg._, 1908, p. 161; [3] Wutzdorff -und Heise, _Arb. a. d. Kais. Ges. Amt._, vol. xiii.; [4] _Zeitschr. f. -öffentl. Ges. Pfl._, 1894; [5] Burns, _Ann. Rept. of C. I. of F._, 1903; -[6] Neisser, _Intern. Uebers. über Gew.-Hyg._, 1907, p. 92. - - -MANGANESE COMPOUNDS - -[1] Couper, _Journ. de Chimie_, vol. 3, series ii.; [2] _Münch. med. -Wochenschr._, 1901, p. 412; [3] Embden, _D. med. Wochenschr._, vol. 27, -p. 795. - - -PETROLEUM AND BENZINE INDUSTRY - -[1] Berthenson, _D. Vierteljahrsschr. f. öffentl. ges.-Pfl._, 1898, vol. -30, p. 315; [2] _Virchow’s Archiv_, vol. 112, p. 35; [3] Felix, _D. -Vierteljahrsschr. f. öffentl. ges.-Pfl._, 1872; [4] _Lancet_, 1886, p. -149; [5] _Ramazzini_, 1908, vol. 2, p. 226; [6] Dorendorf, _Zeitschr. -f. Klin. Med._, 1901, p. 42; [7] _Brit. Med. Journ._, 1903, p. 546, and -_ibid._, 1908, p. 807; [8] _Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg._, 1907, p. 157; [9] -Wichern, _Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg._, 1909, Nos. 3 and 4; [10] Mitchell, -_Med. News_, iii., p. 152; _Ann. d’Hyg. publ._, vol. 24, p. 500; Arlidge, -_Dis. of Occupation_; _Revue d’Hygiène_, 1895, p. 166; Neisser, _Intern. -Uebers. f. Gew.-Hyg._, 1907, p. 96. - - -SULPHURETTED HYDROGEN GAS - -[1] _Chem. Ind._, 1908, p. 323; [2] Pfeiler, _D. Vierteljahrsschr. f. -öffentl. Ges.-Pfl._, 1904; [3] _Lehre v. d. schädl. u. gift. Gasen_, p. 274. - - -CARBON BISULPHIDE - -[1] _Archiv f. Hyg._, vol. 15, pp. 125-141; [2] Santesson, _Archiv f. -Hyg._, vol. 31, p. 336; [3] _Chem. Ind._, 1905, p. 442; [4] _Zeitschr. -f. Gew.-Hyg._, 1908 and 1909; [5] _Arch. f. Hyg._, xx., p. 74; [6] _Die -Schwefelkohlenstoffvergiftung der Gumniarbeiter_, Leipzig, Veit & Comp., -1899; [7] _Ann. d’Hyg. publ._, 1863. - - -ILLUMINATING GAS - -[1] _Krankheiten des Arbeiter_, 1871; [2] _Gewerbepathologie_, 1877; -[3] _Weyl’s Handb. d’Hyg._, 1894, vol. 8; [4] Sprenger and Albrecht: -Albrecht’s _Gewerbehygiene_, 1896; [5] Jehle, ‘Hygiene der Gasarbeiter,’ -_Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg._, 1901, pp. 245 and 261; [6] Schütte: -‘Krankheiten der Gasarbeiter,’ Weyl’s _Arbeiterkrankheiten_, 1908, p. -239; [7] Heymann’s Verlag, 1910; [8] _Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg._, 1909, No. -12; [9] _Chem. Ind._, 1905, p. 442; [10] Egli, _Über d. Unf. b. Chem. -Arb._, Zurich, 1903; [11] _Gewerb. techn. Ratgeber_, 1906, p. 96. - - -COKE OVENS - -[1] Hesse, _Concordia_, 1909. - - -POWER GAS, SUCTION GAS, &C. - -[1] _Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg._, 1906, p. 250; 1909, p. 297; 1906, p. -19; [2] _Gewerbl. techn. Ratgeber_, 1906, p. 297; [3] Nottebohm, -_Socialtechnik_, 1907, vol. 7, p. 80; [4] Finkelstein, _Jahr. d. Peych._, -1897, vol. 15, p. 116; [5] Jokote, _Arch. f. Hyg._, 1904, vol. 49, p. 275. - - -AMMONIA - -[1] _Ber. pr. Gew. Insp._, 1904; [2] Egli, _loc. cit._, No. 2, p. 48; -[3] _Lehre v. d. schädl. u. gift. Gasen_, p. 274; [4] _Zeitschr. f. -gew.-Hyg._, 1909, p. 242; [5] _Berl. Klin. Wochenschr._, 1908. - - -CYANOGEN COMPOUNDS - -[1] _Handb. d. Hyg._, vol. 8, p. 897; [2] Merzbach, _Hyg. Rundsch._, -1899, No. 1; [3] _Zeitschr. f. Med. Beamte_, 1907, vol. 20, p. 825; [4] -Kockel, _Vierteljahrsschr. f. ger. Med._, 1903, vol. 26; [5] Erben, -_Vergiftungen_, ii. p. 204. - - -TAR AND ITS DERIVATIVES - -[1] Lewin, _Münchn. med. Wochenschr._, 1907; [2] Santesson, _Skand. Arch. -f. Physiol._, 1900, vol. 10, pp. 1-36; [3] _Concordia_, 1901, p. 287 -Jahresber. d. Staatl. Aufsichtsbeamten über Unfallverbütung, 1909; [4] -Arb. d. Hamb. Gewerbeinspektoren, 1909; [5] Greiff, _Vierteljahrsschr. f. -ger. Med._, 1890. - - -COAL TAR COLOURS - -[1] _Die Fabriken der Farbwerke vorm. Meister Lucius & Brüning zu Höchst -a. M._, 1896; [2] _Concordia_, 1910, p. 355; [3] _Vierteljahrsschr. -f. öffentl. Ges.-Pfl._, Supplem. pro 1902, p. 371; [4] Schröder, -_Vierteljahrsschr. f. ger. Med._, 1903, p. 138; Rump, _Zeitschr. f. -Med. Beamte_, 1903, p. 57; [5] Brat, _D. med. Wochenschr._, 1901, Nos. -19 and 20; [6] Mohr, _D. med. Wochenschr._, 1902; [7] _Zeitschr. f. -Gew.-Hyg._, 1908, p. 383; [8] Hanke, _W. Klin. Wochenschr._, 1899, vol. -12, p. 725; Frank, _Beiträge zur Angenheilk._, 1898, vol. 31, p. 93; -Silex, _Zeitschr. f. Angenheilk._, 1902, p. 178; [9] Dearden, _Brit. Med. -Journ._, 1902, vol. 2, p. 750; [10] _Ann. Rept. of C. I. of F._, 1905, p. -165; [11] _Münch, med. Wochenschr._, 1907; [12] Erdmann, _Arch. f. exp. -Path._, 1905, vol. 53, p. 401. - - -FERRO-SILICON - -_Nature, Uses and Manufacture of Ferro-silicon_, by S. M. Copeman, S. R. -Bennett, and H. W. Hake. London. 1909. Cd. 4958. - - -LEAD AND ITS COMPOUNDS - -Legge and Goadby, _Lead Poisoning and Lead Absorption._ Edward Arnold. -1912. - -[1] Wächter, _Die gewerbliche Bleivergiftung im Deutschen Reich_, 1908, -p. 36; [2] _XIV. Intern. Kongr. f. Hyg. und Dem._, 1907, vol. 2, p. -746; [3] Rambousek, _Concordia_, 1910; [4] Müller, _Die Bekämpfung -der Bleigefahr in Bleihütten_, Fischer, 1908, 156; [5] Frey, _Die -Zinkgewinning und ihre Hygiene_, Hirschwald, Berlin, 1907; [6] Wächter, -_Die gew. Bleivergiftung_, 1908, Braun, Karlsruhe; [7] Clayton, _Brit. -Med. Journ._, 1906, vol. 1, p. 310; [8] _Bericht an die Intern. -Vereinigung für Arbeiterschutz_, 1908. - - -MERCURY AND ITS COMPOUNDS - -[1] Laureck, _Weyl’s Arbeiterkr._, p. 62; [2] Giglioli, Ramazzini, 1909, -vol. 3, p. 230. - - -ARSENIC AND ITS COMPOUNDS - -[1] _Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg._, 1902, p. 441; [2] Prölss, _Friedreich’s Bl. -f. ger. Med._, 1901, p. 176. - - -ANTIMONY - -[1] _Vergiftungen_, vol. ii. p. 285. - - -BRASS - -[1] _Vierteljahrsschr. f. ger. Med._, 1906, p. 185; [2] _Arch. f. Hyg._, -1910, vol. 72, p. 358. - - - - -PART II - -PATHOLOGY AND TREATMENT - - -OXYGEN INHALATION IN INDUSTRIAL POISONING - -Brat, ‘Bedeutung der Sauerstofftherapie in der Gewerbehygiene, _XIV. -Intern. Kongr. f. Hyg. u. Dem._ und _Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg._ 1908, Heft -13, S. 305; Dräger, ‘Zur Physiologie des Rettungsapparates mit komprim. -Sauerstoff, _I. Intern. Kongr. f. Rett.-Wes., Frankfurt a. M._ 1908, -und _Fabrikfeuerwehr_ 1908, Heft 19, S. 74; Klocke, ‘Die Bedeutung -der Sauerstoffinhalationen in der Gewerbehygiene,’ _Zeitschr. f. -Gew.-Hyg._ 1906, Heft 20, S. 559; Dräger, ‘Neue Untersuchungen über die -Erfordernisse eines zur Arbeit brauchbaren Rettungsapparates,’ _Zeitschr. -f. Gew.-Hyg._ 1905, S. 49; Klocke, ‘Sauerstoffrettungsapparate,’ _Soz. -Techn._ 1908, Nr. 14, S. 272. - - -HYDROFLUORIC ACID POISONING - -Egli, _Unf. b. chem. Arb._, I, S. 23, und II, S. 45; Rambousek, -‘Gewerbekrankh. in Böhmen,’ _Concordia_ 1910, Heft 6, und _Amtsarzt_ -1910, Heft 7. - - -SULPHURIC ACID AND SULPHUR DIOXIDE - -Ogata, _Arch. f. Hyg._, Bd. 2; Lehmann, _Arch. f. Hyg._, Bd. 18, S. 180 -ff; Klocke ‘(SO₂-Vergiftung und O-Inhal.),’ _Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg._ -1906, S. 562 und 617; ‘SO₂-Absorption beim Atemprozess,’ Chem. Ztg. -1909, S. 246; ‘Tod durch Einatmung von Schwefelsäuredampf,’ _Zeitschr. -f. Gew.-Hyg._ 1907, S. 430; ‘Schwefel-dioxydvergiftung in England,’ -_Concordia_ 1909, Heft 5, S. 105; ‘Schwefels.-Vergiftung, _Chem. Ind._ -1909 _(Ber. d. Berufsgen. f. chem. Ind. pro_ 1908, S. 26); Egli, _Unf. b. -chem. Arb._, ii, S. 52. - - -NITRIC ACID AND NITROUS FUMES - -‘Verg. durch nitrose Gase in einer Zellulosefabrik,’ _Zeitschr. f. -Gew.-Hyg._ 1908 Heft 24, S. 565; ‘Behandlung von Nitrosevergiftungen -durch Sauerstoffinhalationen,’ _Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg._ 1908, Heft 20, S. -560; ‘Behandlung durch Chloroform,’ _Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg._ 1904, Heft -10, S. 226, und 1907, Heft 8, S. 183; ‘Vergiftungen durch nitrose Gase -(Zusammenfassung),’ Holtzmann, _Concordia_, 1908, Nr. 23, S. 498. - - -CHLORINE, BROMINE, AND IODINE - -Leymann, _Arch. f. Hyg._, Bd. 7, S. 231; Binz, _Arch. f. exp. Path._, -Bd. 13; _Vierteljahrsschr. f. ger. Med._ 1888, S. 345; Lehmann, _Arch. -f. Hyg._, Bd. 34, S. 302, und _Arch. f. Hyg._, Bd. 17, S. 336; _Arch. f. -exp. Path. u. Ph._ 1887, S. 231; Egli, _Unf. b. chem. Arb._, II, S. 51; -Chlorverg., _Chem. Ind._ 1907, S. 347, 1908, S. 325; Neisser, _Intern. -Uebers. über Gew.-Hyg._, I, S. 94; ‘Chlorverg. in England,’ _Concordia_ -1909, S. 105. - -_Literatur Über Chlorakne._—Herxheimer, _Münchn. med. Wochenschr._ 1899 -S. 278; Bettmann, _D. med. Wochenschr._ 1901, S. 437; Lehmann, _Arch. -f. Dermatol._ 1905, S. 323; Leymann, ‘Erk.-Verh. der chem. Grossind.,’ -_Concordia_ 1906, Nr. 7-9; Holtzmann, _D. Vierteljahrsschr. f. öffentl. -Ges.-Pfl._ 1907, Bd. 39, S. 258. - - -CHLORIDES OF PHOSPHORUS - -Vaubel, _Chem. Ztg._ 1903; Leymann, _Concordia_ 1906, Nr. 7; Egli, _Unf. -b. chem.-Arb._ 1902, S. 49; Rumpf, _D. med. Wochenschr._ 1908, Bd. 34, S. -1331. - - -CHLORIDE OF SULPHUR - -Lehmann, _Arch. f. Hyg._ 1894, Bd. 20, S. 26; Leymann, _Concordia_ 1906, -Heft 7. - - -AMMONIA - -Lehmann, ‘Verauche über die Wirkung,’ _Arch. f. Hyg._, Bd. 5; ‘Vers. -über die Resorption,’ _Arch. f. Hyg._, Bd. 17 u. 67; ‘Versuche über die -Gewöhnung,’ _Arch. f. Hyg._, Bd. 34; Lewin, ‘Tödl. Ammoniakverg. in -einer chem. Fabrik, Berl. klin. Wochenschr. 1908; ‘Tödl. Ammoniakverg.,’ -_Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg._ 1909, Wr. 9, S. 242; ‘Ammoniakverg. in der -Kälte-Ind.’ - - -LEAD POISONING - -‘Vorkommen der Bleivergiftung. Bleierkrankungen in der Bleihütte -Braubach,’ _Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg._ 1909, S. 291; _Bleivergiftungen -in gewerbl. u hüttenmänn. Betrieben_ (_Oesterreichs_), herausgegeben -vom k. k. Arbeitsstat. Amt: I. Erhebungen in Blei- und Zinkhütten; -II. Erhebungen in Bleiweiss- und Bleioxydfabriken; III. Expertise, -betreffend die Blei- und Zinkhütten; IV. Expertise, betreffend die -Bleiweiss- und Bleioxydfabriken; V. Erhebungen in Farbenfabriken und -Betrieben mit Anstreicher-, Lackierer- und Malerarbeiten; VI. Expertise -hierzu; VII. Erhebungen und Expertise in Buch- und Steindruckereien -und Schriftgisseereien (alle Teile erschienen bei Alfr. Hölder, Wien -1905-1909). Frey, _Zinkgewinnung im oberschles. Industriebezirk_, -Berlin 1907, Verlag Hirschwald; Leymann, _Die Bekämpfung der Bleigefahr -in der Industrie_, Verlag Fischer, Jena 1908; Müller, _Die Bekämpfung -der Bleigefahr in Bleihütten_, Verlag Fischer, Jena 1908; Wächter, -_Die gewerbl. Bleiverg. im Deutschen Reich_, Verlag Braun, Karlsruhe -1908; Chyzer, _Les intoxications par le plomb se présentant dans la -céramiquen en Hongrie_, Schmidl, Budapest 1908; Kaup, _Bleiverg. in der -keramischen Ind._, als Manuskript gedruckt, D. Sekt. Ges. f. Soziale -Reform; Teleky, ‘Beitrag z. H. d. Erzeug. v. ord. Töpferware usw. in -Oesterr.,’ _Arbeiterschutz_, 1908, Nr. 19, 20; De Vooys, _Bleiverg. in -der niederl. keram. Ind._ (Nederl. Vereen. voor wettelijke Beseherming -van arbeiders 1908); Kaup, _Bleiverg. in österr. Gew.-Betrieben_, -Schriften des österr. Vereines für Arbeiterschutz 1902, Heft 3; -Sommerfeld, ‘Zur Bleiweissfrage,’ _Soz. Praxis_ 1902, Nr. 8; Friedinger, -‘Sanit. Verh. in d. Buchdr.,’ _Soz. Praxis_ 1902, Nr. 9; Wutzdorff, -_Bleiverg. in Zinkhütten_, Arb. a. d. Kais. Ges.-Amte, Bd. 17, S. 441; -Blum, _Unters. über Bleiverg._, Frankfurt a.M. 1900, _Vierteljahrsschr. -f. öffentl. Ges.-Pfl._, Suppl. 32, S. 630; Panwitz, _Bleiverg. in -Buchdruckereien_, Veröff. d. Kais. Ges.-Amtes 1897, S. 503; Teleky, -‘Bleiverg. bei Fransenknüpferinnen,’ Ref. _Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg._ 1907, -Nr. 1, S. 13; ’ Bleierkrankung und Bekämpfung ders., Literatursammlung,’ -_Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg._ 1904, Nr. 6, S. 131; Teleky, ‘Die gewerbl. -Bleiverg. in Oesterreich,’ _Soz. Techn._ 1909, Nr. 17, S. 333; Bleiverg. -(Legge), Verh. d. II. Intern. Kongr. f. Gewerbekrankh. in Brüssel 1910; -Bleiverg. in Böhmen (Rambousek), Concordia 1910, Nr. 7, Amtsarzt 1910, -Nr. 6; Abelsdorff, Statistik d. Bleiverg., Concordia 1910, Heft 17, S. -359; Wutzdorff, ‘Bleiverg. in Akkumulatoreniabr.,’ _Arb. a. d. Kais. -Ges.-Amte_ 1898, Bd. 15, S. 154; Rasch, ‘Ueber Bleiverg. d. Arb. in -Kachelfabr.,’ _Arb. a. d. kais. Ges.-Amte_ 1898, Bd. 14, S. 81. - - -GENERAL LITERATURE ON PATHOLOGY AND TREATMENT OF LEAD POISONING - -Jores, ‘Die allg. pathol. Anatomie der chron. Bleiverg. des Kaninchens,’ -_Beiträge z. path. Anat. u. allg. Path._ 1902, Bd. 31, S. 183; Glibert, -_Le saturnisme experimental, extrait d. rapp. ann. de l’insp. du travail -en 1906_, Bruxelles, 1907. Rambousek, ‘Die Pathol. d. Bleiverg.’ in -Leymann’s _Bekämpfung d. Bleigef._, S. 15, Velag Fischer, Jena 1908; -_Die Verhütung d. Bleigefahr_, Verlag Hartleben 1908; Blum, ‘Unters. -über Bleiverg., Frankfurt a.M. 1900,’ _Vierteljahrsschr. f. öffentl -Ges.-Pfl._, Suppl. 32, S. 630; Elschnig, ‘Sehstörungen b. Bleiverg.,’ -Ges. d. Aerzte, Wien, Sitzung v. 15. April 1898, und _Wiener med. -Wochenschr._ 1898, S. 1305; ‘Neuere Forschungen über Bleiverg.,’ -_Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg._ 1909, S. 629; Seeligmüller, ‘Einfl. d. Bleies -auf den Frauenorganismus usw.,’ _Berl. klin. Wochenschr._ 1901, S. 842; -Bernhardt, ‘Zur Pathol. d. Bleilähmung,’ _Berl. klin. Wochenschr._ -1900, S. 26; Rambousek, ‘Die Bleierkrankung,’ _Zeitschr. f. ärztl. -Fortbildung_ 1909, Nr. 7; Israel, ‘Obd.-Befund b. Bleiverg.,’ _Berl. -klin. Wochenschr._ 1895, S. 575; Gumpertz, Bernhardt, ‘Anom. d. elektr. -Erregb. b. Bleiverg.,’ _Berl. klin. Wochenschr._ 1894, S. 372 u. S. -284; Jolly, ‘Sekt.-Befund b. Bleilänmung, Entart. d. Gangl.,’ _Berl. -klin. Wochenschr._ 1893; Miura, ‘Ueber die Bedeutung des Bleinachweises -auf der Haut Bleikranker,’ _Berl. klin. Wochenschr._ 1890, S. 1005; -Mattirolo, ‘Behandlung d. Bleikolik mit Erythroltetranitrat,’ _Wiener -med. Presse_ 1901, _Wiener med. Wochenschr._ 1901, S. 2171; Oddo und -Silbert, ‘Ausscheidung des Bleis,’ _Revue med._ 1892, Nr. 4, und _Wiener -med. Presse_ 1892, S. 1182; Mosse, ‘Veränderungen d. Gangl. coeliac. bei -exper. Bleikolik,’ _Wiener klin. Wochenschr._ 1904, S. 935; Escherich, -‘Zwei Fälle v. Bleilähmung b. Kindern (Peroneuslähmung.),’ _Wiener klin. -Wochenschr._ 1903, S. 229; Variot, ‘Ein Fall v. Bleilähmung b. einem -Kinde (Peroneuslähmung),’ _Gaz. des Hôp._ 1902, S. 482, und _Wiener klin. -Wochenschr._ 1902; Sorgo, ‘Progress. Muskelatrophie nach Bleiverg.,’ -_Weiner med. Wochenschr._ 1902, S. 919; Variot, ‘Bleiverg. b. einem -Kinde, Parese d. unt. Extrem.,’ _Wiener med. Wochenschr._ 1902, S. 2056; -Rome, ‘Bleiverg. b. Kindern,’ _La trib. med._ 1902, Nr. 39, und _Wiener -med. Wochenschr._ 1902, S. 2391; Layal, Laurencon, Rousel, ‘Erscheinungen -der Pylorusstenose b. Bleiverg.,’ _Wiener med. Wochenschr._ 1897; -Macfairlain, ‘Chloroformbehandlung bei Bleikolik,’ _Wiener med. -Wochenschr._ 1895; Bechtold, ‘Spast. Spinalparalyse b. Bleiverg.,’ _Med. -chir. Zentralbl._ 1904, Nr. 40; Oliver, ‘Lead-poisoning, &c.,’ _Lancet_, -1891, S. 530; Heymann, ‘Lähmungen d. Kehlkopfmuskeln b. Bleiverg.,’ -_Arch. f. Laringol._ 1896, S. 256; Clayton, ‘Ind. lead-poisoning,’ -_Brit. med. journ._ 1906, S. 310; Taylor, ‘Bleiamblyopie,’ _Lancet_ -1898, S. 742; Seeligmüller, ‘Zur Pathol. d. chron. Bleiverg.,’ _D. -med. Wochenschr._ 1902, S. 317; Lewin, ‘Puls b. Bleiverg.,’ _D. med. -Wochenschr._ 1897, S. 177; Walko, ‘Erkr. d. Magens b. chron. Bleiverg.,’ -_Münchn. med. Wochenschr._ 1907, S. 1728; Tielemanns, _Parotiserkr. -b. Bleiverg._, Monogr., Paris 1895; Borgen, ‘Blutdruckbestimmungen b. -Bleikolik,’ _D. Arch. f. klin. Med._ 1895, S. 248; Klieneberger, ‘Intox. -saturn. und Nephritis sat.,’ _München. med. Wochenschr._ 1904, S. 340; -Bach, ‘Augenerkr. b. Bleiverg.,’ _Arch. f. Augenheilk._ 1893, S. 218; -Redlich, ‘Tabes und chron. Bleiverg.,’ _Wiener med. Wochenschr._ 1897, -S. 801; Seifert, ‘Kehlkopfmuskellähmung b. Bleiverg.,’ _Berl. klin. -Wochenschr._ 1884, S. 555. - - -LITERATURE ON BLOOD CHANGES IN LEAD POISONING - -Schmidt, ‘Die Bleiverg. und ihre Erkennung,’ _Arch. f. Hyg._ 1907, Bd. -63, Heft 1; Galperin-Teytelmann, _Die basophilen Granula der roten Blutk. -b. Bleairbeitern, Ing. Diss._, Bonn 1908; Carozzi, _Reperti ematol. e -loro valore statistico nel saturn. prof. Corr. sanitar._ 1909, Bd. 20, -Nr. 5 u. 6; Gilbert, _Le saturnisme exp._, Bruxelles, 1907; Rambousek, -‘Beitrag z. Pathol. d. Stoffw. und d. Blutes b. Bleiverg., _Zeitschr. f. -exp. Path. und Therap._ 1910, Bd. 7; Moritz, ‘Beziehungen der basophilen -Granula zu den Erythrozyten,’ _Münchn. med. Wochenschr._ 1901, Nr. 5; -_St. Petersburger med. Wochenschr._ 1901, Nr. 26, 1903, Nr. 50; _Verh. d. -I. Intern. Kongr. f. Arb.-Krankh. in Mailand_ 1906, _Atti del congresso_, -S. 601-607; Trautmann, ‘Blutunters. b. Bleiverg.,’ _Münchn. med. -Wochenschr._ 1909, S. 1371; Grawitz,’Ueber die körn. Degenerat. d. roten -Blutkörperchen,’ _D. med. Wochenschr._ 1899, Nr. 44; ‘Die klin. Bedeutung -und exp. Erzeugung körn. Degener. in den roten Blutkörperchen,’ _Berl. -klin. Wochenschr._ 1900, Nr. 9; Hamel, ‘Ueber die Beziehungen der körn. -Degener. der roten Blutkörperchen zu den sonst. morph. Veränd. des Blutes -mit besonderer Berücks. d. Bleiintox.,’ _D. Arch. f. klin. Med._ 1900, -Bd. 67; Frey, ‘Beitrag zur Frühdiagnose v. chron. Bleiverg.,’ _D. med. -Wochenschr._ 1907, Nr. 6; Grawitz, _Klin. Pathol. des Blutes_, Leipzig -1906, S. 120 ff.; Naegeli, ‘Ueber die Entstehung der basoph. gek. roten -Blutk.,’ _München. med. Wochenschr._ 1904, Nr. 5; Schmidt, ‘Zur Frage -d. Entstehung d. basoph. Körner,’ _D. med. Wochenschr._ 1902, Nr. 44; -_Exp. Beiträge z. Pathol. d. Blutes_, Jena 1902; ‘Ein Beitrag. z. Frage -d. Blutregen.,’ _Münchn. med. Wochenschr._ 1903, Nr. 13; Erben, ‘Chem. -Zusammensetzung d. Blutes b. Bleiverg.,’ _Zeitschr. f. Heilkunde_, 1905, -S. 477. - - -LITERATURE ON CHANGES IN METABOLISM IN LEAD POISONING - -Preti, ‘Beitrag z. Kenntn. d. Stickstoffums. b. Bleiverg.,’ 1909, -S. 411; Rambousek, ‘Beitrag z. Pathol. d. Stoffw. und d. Blutes,’ -_Zeitschr. f. exp. Path. und Ther._ 1910, Bd. 7; ‘Pathol. d. Bleiverg.’ -in Leymann’s _Bekämpfung d. Bleigefahr_, Fischer, Jena 1909; Minkowski, -_Die Gicht_, Wien, 1903, Holders Verlag.; Schittenhelm und Brugsch, ‘Zur -Stoffwechselpathol. d. Gicht,’ _Zeitschr. f. exp. Path. und Ther._, Bd. -4, S. 494-495. - - -LITERATURE ON TOXICITY OF VARIOUS LEAD COMPOUNDS - -Blum, ‘Unters. über Bleiverg., Frankfurt a. M. 1900,’ _Vierteljahrsschr. -f. öffentl. Ges.-Pfl._, Suppl. 32, S. 630; Rambousek, _Die Verhütung der -Bleigefahr_, Verlag Hartleben 1908; Biondi und Rambousek, ‘Polemik über -die Ungiftigkeit d. Bleisulfids,’ _I. Intern. Kongr. f. Gew.-Krankh. in -Mailand_ 1906, _Atti del congresso_, S. 617-622; Lehmann, ‘Hyg. Unters. -über Bleichromat,’ _Arch. f. Hyg._ 1893, Bd. 16, S. 315. - - -ZINC - -Schlockow, ‘Ueber ein eigenartiges Rückenmarksleiden bei -Zinkhüttenarbeitern,’ _D. med. Wochenschr._ 1879, S. 208; Tracinsky, ‘Die -oberschlesische Zinkindustrie usw.,’ _D. Vierteljahrsschr. f. öffentl. -Ges.-Pfl._ 1888, Bd. 20, S. 59; Seiffert, ‘Erkr. d. Zinkhüttenarb. usw.,’ -_ibidem_ 1897, Bd. 31, S. 419; Lehmann, ‘Beiträge z. hygien. Bedeutung -d. Zinks,’ _Arch. f. Hyg._ 1897, Bd. 28, S. 300; Neuere Arbeiten: Frey, -_Die Zinkgew. im oberschl. Industriebez.-usw._,’ Verlag Hirschwald-Berlin -1907 und _Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg._ 1907, Nr. 16, S. 376; Sigel, ‘Das -Giesserfieber u. seine Bekämpfung,’ _Vierteljahrsschr. f. ger. Med._ -1906, Bd. 32, S. 173; Lehmann, ‘Giess- oder Zinkfieber,’ _Arch. f. Hyg._ -1910, Bd. 72, S. 358. - - -MERCURY - -Schönlank, _Fürther Spiegelfabriken_ 1888 (Monogr.); Wollner, -‘Quecksilberspiegelfabrik in Fürth,’ _Vierteljahrsschr. f. öffentl. -Ges.-Pfl._, Bd. 19, 3, S. 421, und _Münchn. med. Wochenschr._ 1892, Bd. -39, S. 533; Stickler, ‘Hutfabrikation, 1886,’ _Revue d’Hygiène_, VIII, S. -632; Charpentier, ‘Spiegelfabrik,’ _Annal. d’hyg. publ._, avril 1885, S. -323; Henke, _Quecksilberverg. in Hutfabriken_, Knauer, Frankfurt 1889; -Wittzack, ‘Quecksilberverg. b. d. Spiegelbel. usw.,’ _Vierteljahrsschr. -f. öffentl. Ges.-Pfl._ 1896, S. 216; Donath, ‘Quecksilberverg. in -Gluhlampenfabriken,’ _Wiener med. Wochenschr._ 1894, 8. 888; Renk, -’ Quecksilberverarbeitung,’ Arb. a. d. Kais. Ges.-Amte, Bd. 5, Heft -I; Letulle, ‘Hasenhaarschneiderei,’ _Revue d’Hyg._, XI, S. 40; Ueber -Hasenfellbeize, _Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg._ 1909, S. 821; _Sozialtechn._ -1910, S. 39; ‘Quecksilberverg. in d. Glühlampenind.,’ _Zeitschr. -f. Gew.-Hyg._ 1908, S. 469; ‘Quecksilberverg. in Amiata in Italien -(ausführliche Schilderung der Symptome schwerer Quecksilberverg.),’ -Giglioli, im _Ramazzini_ 1909, Bd. 3, S. 230, und ‘Demonstration am -II. Ital. Kongr. f. Arbeiterkrankh. in Florenz 1909,’ ref. _Zeitschr. -f. Gew.-Hyg._ 1909, S. 289, und _Chem. Ztg._, Repert., 1909, S. 411; -‘Quecksilberverg. in Hutfabriken in Italien,’ _Ramazzini_, 1909, S. 230; -Laureck, in Weyls _Handb. d. Arb.-Krankh._ 1909, S. 62. - - -MANGANESE - -Couper, _Journ. de chim._, 1837, Bd. 3, S. 2; Jaksch, _Münchn. med. -Wochenschr._ 1901, S. 602; Embden, _D. med. Wochenschr._, Bd. 27, -S. 795, u. _Münchn. med. Wochenschr._ 1901, S. 1852; Jaksch, ‘Ueber -Manganintoxikationen u. Manganophobie,’ _Münchn. med. Wochenschr._ 1907, -Bd. 54, S. 969; Hauck, ‘Manganismus.’ Vortrag auf dem XIV. Intern. Kongr. -f. Hyg. u. Dem., Berlin 1907, Bd. 4, S. 337; Friedel, D. med. Wochenschr. -1909, S. 1292. - - -CHROMIUM - -Delpech et Hillaret, _Annal. d’Hyg. publ._ 1876; Viron, _Contrib. à -l’étude phys. et tox. de quelques prép. chromés_, Paris, 1885; Burghardt, -‘Chromverg. in der Zündhölzchenindustrie,’ _Charité Annalen_, XXIII, -1898, S. 189; Wutzdorff, ‘Die in den Chromatfabriken beobachteten -Gesundheits-schädigungen.’ - - -NICKEL - -Nickelkrätze: ‘Jahresberichte d. preuss. Reg.- u. Gewerberäte für das -Jahr 1907,’ _Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg._ 1908, Nr. 8, S. 185, u. 1909, Nr. -14, S. 374; Klocke, _Soz. Med. u. Hyg._ 1910, Bd. 5, Nr. 2. - - -NICKEL CARBONYL - -H. W. Armit: _Journ. of Hygiene_, 1907, p. 524, and 1908, p. 565; Vahlen, -_Arch. exp. Pathol. u. Ph._ 1902, Bd. 48, S. 117; Mittasch, _Arch. f. -exp. Path._ 1903, Bd. 49, S. 367; Langlois, _Compt. rend. de la soc. de -Biol._ 1891, S. 212. - - -SILVER (ARGYRIA) - -Schubert, ‘Argyrie bei Glasperlenversilberern,’ _Zeitschr. f. Heilk._ -1895, Bd. 16, S. 341; Lewin, ‘Lokale Gewerbeargyrie,’ _Berl. klin. -Wochenschr._ 1886, S. 417; Blaschko, _Arch. f. mikr. Anatomie_, Bd. 27, -S. 651. - - -ARSENIC - -‘Arsenverg. in der Delainage,’ _Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg._ 1906, Nr. 3, S. -71; ‘Arsenikverg. in der Ind.,’ _Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg._ 1907, S. 353, -und 1903, S. 476; ‘Arsenikverg. in England, nach den Ber. der engl. -Gew.-Insp.,’ _Concordia_ 1909, Nr. 5, S. 105; Egli, _Unf. b. chem. Arb._, -II, S. 51. - - -PHOSPHORUS - -Lorinser, _Med. Jahrb. d. österr. Staates_, 1845, Bd. 51, S. 257; und -_Zeitschr. d. Gesellsch. d. Aerzte in Wien_, 1851, Bd. 55, S. 22; -Geist u. Bibra, _Die Krankh. d. Arb. in der Phosphorzündholzfabrik_, -Erlangen 1847; Wegner, _Virch.-Arch._ 1872, Bd. 55, S. 11; Magitot, -_Revue d’Hygiène_, 1895, Bd. 17, S. 201; Kollin, ‘Oberkiefernekrose,’ -_Zentralbl. f. inn. Med._ 1889, S. 1279; Dearden, ‘Osseous fragilit. am. -workers in luc. match fet.,’ _Brit. Med. Journ._ 1899, S. 92; Lévai, -‘Ueber Phosphornekrose,’ _Wiener klin. Rundsch._ 1900, S. 33; ‘Ein Fall -von Phosphornekrose 19 Jahre nach der Arbeit in Zündhölzchenfabriken,’ -_Wiener klin. Rundsch._ 1896, Nr. 29, S. 503; Stockman, _Brit. Med. -Journ._ 1899; Stubenrauch, _Arch. f. klin. Chir._ 1899, Heft 1, und -_Samml. klin. Vortr._ 1901, Nr. 303; Röpke, _Zeitschr. d. Zentralst. -f. Arb.-Wohlf.-Einr._ 1901, Nr. 1; ‘Phosphorverg. in England (nach den -Berichten der engl. Gew.-Insp.),’ _Concordia_, 1909, Nr. 5, S. 105; -Teleky, ‘Die Phosphornekrose in Oesterreich,’ _Schriften der Oesterr. -Gesellsch. f. Arbeiterschutz_, Heft 12, Verlag Deuticke 1907; Friedrich, -‘Die Phosphorverg. in Ungarn’ (in ungar. Sprache), _Schriften der Ungar. -Gesellsch. f. Arbeiterschutz_, Heft 4, Budapest 1908. - - -PHOSPHORETTED HYDROGEN - -Schulz, _Arch. f. exp. Path. u. Phys._ 1890, Bd. 27, S. 314; Dietz, -‘Phosphorwasserstoffverg. bei einem Phosphorfabrikarb.,’ _Arch. f. Hyg._ -1904, Bd. 49. - -Spezielle Literatur über Phosphorwasserstoffvergiftung durch -Ferrosilizium: Bahr, Lehnkering, ‘Phosphorverg. durch Ferrosiliz.,’ -_Vierteljahrsschr. f. ger. Med._ 1906, S. 123; _Jahresber. d. engl. -Gew.-Insp. f. d. J._ 1907 (vgl. _Soz. Techn._ 1908, Bd. 7, S. 689 und -690); Oliver, _Diseases of Occupation_, 1908; H. Le Chatelier, _Ann. -Min._ 1909, Bd. 15, S. 213; vgl. ferner _Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg._ 1908, S. -574, und S. 181. - - -HYDROGEN SULPHIDE - -Lehmann, ‘Exp. Studien über Schwefelw.,’ _Arch f. Hyg._, Bd. 14, -S. 142; ‘Gewöhnung an Schwefelw.,’ _ibidem_, Bd. 34, S. 303; -‘Absorption von Schwefelw.,’ _ibidem_, Bd. 17, S. 332; Blumenstock, -‘Lehre von der Verg. mit Kloakengasen,’ _Vierteljahrsschr. f. ger. -Med._ 1873, Bd. 18, S. 295; Kasper, ‘Massenverg. mit Kloakengas,’ -_Vierteljahrsschr. f. ger. Med._, Bd. 2, S. 593; Römer, ‘Akute tödl. -Schwefelwasserstoffverg.,’ _Münchn. med. Wochenschr._ 1897, S. 851; -Oliver, dieselbe, _Lancet_, 1903, S. 225; ‘Schwefelwasserstoffverg. -bei der Saturation v. Schwefelbarium,’ _Ber. d. Berufsgen. f. Chem. -Ind._ 1907, _Chem. Ind._ 1908, S. 323; ‘Schwefelwasserstoffverg. in -einer Fabrik auf Ammoniaksalze’; Egli, _Unf. b. chem. Arb._, II, S. 46; -‘Schwefelwasserstoffverg. in England, Ber. d. engl. Gew.-Insp.,’ siehe -_Concordia_, 1909, S. 105; ‘Schwefelwasserstoffverg. in d. chem. Ind.,’ -_Techn. gewerbl. Ratgeber_ 1906, S. 108; ‘Schwefelwasserstoffverg. und -Sauerstoffinhalation,’ _Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg._ 1906, S. 587; ‘Erste -Hilfe bei Schwefelwasserstoffverg.,’ _Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg._ 1908, S. -455, auch _Chem Ind._ 1908, S. 327. - - -CARBON BISULPHIDE - -Delpech, ‘Accidents qui développent chez les ouvriers en caoutchouc et -du sulfure de carbone etc.,’ _L’Union méd._ 1876, No. 66; ‘Nouvelles -recherches sur l’intox. du _CS_₂ etc.,’ _Ann. d’Hyg. publ._ Nr. 37; -Sapelier, ‘Étude sur le sulfure de carbone,’ Thèse, Paris 1885; -Rosenblatt, _Ueber die Wirkung v. CS₂-Dämpfen auf den Menschen_, Diss. -Würzburg 1890; Pichler, _Ein Beitrag z. Kenntn. d. akuten CS₂-Verg._, -Berlin 1897 (Fischer); Lehmann, ‘Exp. Stud. über Schwefelk.,’ _Arch. -f. Hyg._ 1894, Bd. 20, S. 56 ff.; _Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg._ 1899, -‘Schutzmassregeln der Kautschukindustrie in England’; Laudenheimer, -_Schwefelk.-Verg. d. Gummiarb._ 899, Leipzig, Veit & Comp.; Harmsen, ‘Die -Schwefelk. im Fabr. Betrieb,’ _Vierteljahrsschr. f. ger. Med._ 1905, -S. 149; Riegler, ‘Die nervösen Störungen bei CS₂-Verg.,’ _Zeitschr. f. -Nervenh._ 1907, Bd. 33; Roth, ‘Gewerbl. CS₂-Verg. usw.,’ _Berl. klin. -Wochenschr._ 1901, S. 570; Reiner, ‘Schwefelk.-Amblyopie,’ _Wiener klin -Wochenschr._ 1895, S. 919; Quensel, ‘Geistesstörungen nach CS₂-Verg.,’ -_Monatsh. f. Psych._ 1905, Bd. 16. - - -CYANOGEN AND CYANOGEN COMPOUNDS (PRUSSIC ACID, &C.) - -Merzbach, ‘Chron. Zyanverg. bei einem Galvaniseur,’ _Hyg. Rundsch._ -1899, Nr. 1; Pfeiffer, ‘Zyanverg. d. Kanalgase (Abgänge v. d. -Zyangewinnung),’ _Vierteljahrsschr. f. öffentl. Ges.-Pfl._ 1904; -Stritt, ‘Verg. d. Zyanverb. im Düngemittel,’ _Zeitschr. f. Hyg._ 1909, -Bd. 62, S. 169; Tatham, ‘Zyanverg. beim Reinigen v. Goldspitzen,’ -_Brit. Med. Journ._ 1884, S. 409; Kockel, ‘Blausäureverg. bei einem -Zelluloidbrand,’ _Vierteljahrsschr. f. ger. Med._ 1903, S. 1; ‘Zyanverg. -u. Sauerstoffinhal.’ (Brat), _Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg._ 1906, S. 588; -Lehmann, ‘Ueber die Gift. d. gasförm. Blausäure (Giftigkeitsgrenzen),’ -_Berl. klin. Wochenschr._ 1903, S. 918; Blaschko, ‘Berufsdermatosen d. -Arb. (Hautleiden b. Verwendung v. Zyaniden),’ _D. med. Wochenschr_, 1889, -S. 915; MacKelway s. (Hautleiden), _Amer. Journ. of Medic. Science_, -1905, S. 684; Wilkes (ditto), _Lancet_, 1904, S. 1058. - - -ARSENIURETTED HYDROGEN GAS - -‘Arsenwasserstoffverg. (Verfertigen v. Kinderballons),’ _Zeitschr. -f. Gew.-Hyg._ 1902, S. 441; ‘Arsenwasserstoffverg. (Ausleeren eines -Schwefelsäuretanks),’ _Gewerbl. techn. Ratgeber_ 1906, S. 109; -‘Arsenwasserstoffverg. im Hüttenbetriebe (_O_-Inhalation),’ _Zeitschr. f. -Gew.-Hyg._ 1906, S. 589 u. S. 617; ‘Arsenwasserstoffverg.,’ _Zeitschr. -f. Gew.-Hyg._ 1908, S. 263, u. 1910, S. 179; ‘Arsenwasserstoffverg. in -England, nach den Ber. d. engl. Gew.-Insp.,’ _Concordia 1909_, S. 105; -Egli, ‘Arsenwasserstoffverg.,’ _Unf. b. chem. Arb._, II, S. 42; Lunge, -‘Arsenwasserstoffverg. beim Löten,’ _Chem.-Ztg._ 1904, S. 1169; Barié, -‘Arsenwasserstoffverg. durch Ballongas,’ _Arch. f. krim. Anthrop._ 1906, -S. 147. - - -CARBONIC OXIDE - -_General Literature on CO-Poisoning._—Becker, ‘Die _CO_-Verg. u. ihre -Verhütung,’ _Vierteljahrsschr. f. ger. Med._ 1893, S. 349; Greiff, -‘_CO_-Verg. bei d. Teerdestill., _Vierteljahrsschr. f. ger._ Med. 1890, -S. 359; Brouardel, ‘_CO_-Verg. d. Kalkofengase,’ _Ann. d’Hyg. publ._ -1840; Becker, ‘Nachkrankheiten d. _CO_-Verg.,’ _D. med. Wochenschr._ -1893, S. 571; Reinhold, ‘Chron. _CO_-Verg.,’ _Münchn. med. Wochenschr._ -1904, S. 793; ‘_CO_-Verg. beim Sengen des Garnes,’ _Zeitschr. f. -Gew.-Hyg._ 1909, S. 267. - -_Literature on CO-Poisoning in Gas Works._—Jehle, ‘Hyg. d. Gasarbeiter,’ -_Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg._ 1901, Heft 14 u. 15, S. 245 ff.; Schütte, -‘Krankh. d. Gasarb.,’ Weyls _Arbeiterkrankh._ 1908, S. 239 ff.; -Rambousek, _Concordia 1910_, Nr. 6. - - -CARBON OXYCHLORIDE (PHOSGENE GAS) - -‘Tödl. Verg. d. Phosgen in einer Farbenfabrik,’ _Jahresber. d. Berufsgen. -f. d. Chem. Ind._ 1905, vgl. _Gewerbl. techn. Ratgeber_, 1906, S. 108; -Klocke, ‘Mehrere gewerbl. Phosgenverg.,’ _Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg._ 1906; -Sury-Bienz, ‘B. z. Kasuistik d. Intox.,’ _Vierteljahrsschr. f. ger. Med._ -1907, S. 251; Müller, _Zeitschr. f. angew Chemie_, Bd. 13 (Heft v. 12. -Aug. 1910). - - -CARBON DIOXIDE - -‘Kohlensäureverg. b. d. Kesselreinigung,’ _Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg._ -1906, S. 129; Kohlensäureverg. und _O_-Inhalation,’ ebenda 1906, -S. 589; Lehmann, ‘Unters. über die langdauernde Wirkung mittlerer -Kohlensäuremengen auf den Menschen,’ _Arch. f. Hyg._ 1900, S. 335. - - -PETROLEUM, BENZINE, &C. - -_Petroleumvergiftung._—Borthenson, ‘Die Naphthaind. in sanit. Beziehung,’ -Vortrag auf dem XII. Intern. Aerztekongr. in Moskau 1897 u. _D. -Vierteljahrsschr. f. öffentl. Ges.-Pfl._ 1898, Bd. 30, S. 315; Burenin, -‘Die Naphtha u. i. Verarb. in sanit. Beziehung, Petersburg 1888; Lewin, -‘Ueber allg. und Hautverg. d. Petrol.,’ _Virchows Arch._ 1888, Bd. 112, -S. 35; Sharp, ‘The Poison Effects of Petrol.,’ _Med. News_, 1888; Samuel, -‘Verg. in Petroleumtanks,’ _Berl. klin. Wochenschr._, 1904, Bd. 41, S. -1047; Foulerton, ditto, _Lancet_ 1886, S. 149; Mabille, ditto, _Revue -d’Hyg._ Bd. 18, 1896, Nr. 3; _Ber. d. engl. Gew.-Insp._; vgl. _Concordia_ -1909, S. 105. - -_Skin diseases in Petroleum und Paraffinarbeiter._—Chevallier, _Ann. -d’Hyg._ 1864; Lewin, _Virchows Arch._ 1888 (siehe oben); Mitchell, _Med. -News_, Bd. 53, S. 152; Derville u. Guermonprez (Papillome), _Annal. -derm._ 1890, S. 369; Brémont, _Revue d’Hyg._ 1895, S. 166; Rambousek, -_Concordia_ 1910, Nr. 6. - -_Benzinvergiftung._—Dorendorf (b. Kautschukarb.), _Zeitschr. f. klin. -Med._ 1901, S. 42; Finlayson, _Brit. Med. Journ._ 1903, S. 546; Bürgi -(Verg. d. Autobenzin), _Korr. f. Schweiz. Aerzte_, 1906, Bd. 36, S. 350; -Box, _Brit. Med. Journ._ 1908, S. 807; _Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg._ 1908, -S. 333, 1907, S. 157, und 1906, S. 515; Schäfer, ‘Verwendung u. schädl. -Wirkung einiger Kohlenwasserstoffe u. anderer Kohlenstoffverbindungen,’ -_Hamb. Gew.-Insp.-Arb. u. Sonderberichte_, 1909, S. 7. - - -BENZENE - -Benzolverg. b. d. Benzoldestill: _Zeitschr. f. angew. Chemie_, 1896, S. -675; _Chem. Ind._ 1906, S. 398; _Chem. Ztg._ 1910, S. 177. Benzolverg. -(Benzolextrakt.-Appar.): Egli, _Unf. b. chem. Arb._ 1903, S. 58; _Chem. -Ind._ 1907, S. 347; vgl. Lewin, _Münchn. med. Wochenschr._ 1907 und -_Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg._ 1907, S. 581. Benzolverg. b. Reinigen von -Benzollagerkesseln: _Chem. Ind._ 1905, S. 444; 1907, S. 347; ferner 1909, -Nr. 14, Beil. S. 25. Benzolverg. in einer Gummifabrik: _Chem. Ind._ 1905, -S. 442. Benzolverg. bei d. Fabr. v. Antipyrin: Egli, _Unf. b. chem. -Arb._, I, 1903, S. 58. Benzolverg. d. Asphaltanstrichmasse: _Zeitschr. f. -Gew.-Hyg._ 1904, S. 292. Santesson, ‘Bensolverg. in einer Gummiw.-Fabrik. -(und exper. Untersuchungen),’ _Arch. f. Hyg._ 1897, Bd. 31, S. 336. -Rambousek, _Die gewerbl. Benzolverg. Bericht am II. Int. Kongr. f. -Gewerbekrankh. in Brüssel_ 1910. Wojciechowski, _Ueber die Giftigkeit -versch. Handelssorten des Benzols in Gasform_, Inaug.-Diss. Würzburg, -1910; Lehmann, ‘Aufnahme von Benzol aus der Luft durch Tier und Mensch,’ -_Arch. f. Hyg._ 1910, Heft 4; Sury Bienz, ‘Tödliche Benzolverg.,’ -_Vierteljahrsschr. f. ger. Med._ 1888, S. 138; Schaefer, ‘Verwendung u. -schädl. Wirkung einiger Kohlenw. u. anderer Kohlenstoffverbindungen,’ -_Hamb. Gew.-Insp., Arb. und Sonderberichte_, 1909. - - -HALOGEN SUBSTITUTION PRODUCTS OF THE ALIPHATIC HYDROCARBONS (NARCOTICS) - -Lehmann, ‘Aufnahme chlorierter Kohlenwasserstoffe aus der Luft durch -Mensch und Tier (Chloroform, Tetrachlorkohlenstoff, Tetrachloräthan),’ -_Arch. f. Hyg._ 1910, Bd. 72, Heft 4; Grandhomme, _Die Fabr. d. A.-G. -Farbwerke in Höchst a. M. in sanit. und soz. Beziehung_, 1893, 3 Aufl., -S. 88 (Jodmethylverg. b. d. Antipyrinbereitung); Jacquet, ‘Gewerbl. -Brom- und Jodmethylverg.,’ _D. Arch. f. klin. Med._ 1901, Bd. 71, S. -370; Schuler, ‘Gewerbl. Brommethylverg.,’ _D. Vierteljahrsschr. f. -öffentl. Ges.-Pfl._ 1899, Bd. 31, S. 696; Schaefer, ‘Verwendungsart u. -schädl. Wirkung einiger Kohlenwasserst. u. anderer Kohlenstoffverg.’ -(Tetrachlorkohlenstoff),’ _Ber. d. Hamburger Gewerbe-Inspektion_, 1909, -S. 11. - - -HALOGEN SUBSTITUTION PRODUCTS OF THE BENZENE SERIES (CHLORBENZENE, &C.). - -Leymann, ‘Erkr.-Verh. in einigen chem. Betr.,’ _Concordia_ 1906, Heft 7 -(Chlorbenzol, Benzoylchlorid); ‘Verg. mit Chlorbenzol, Nitrochlorbenzol -usw.,’ _Vierteljahrsschr. f. öffentl. Ges.-Pfl._ 1902, Suppl. S. 371, und -_Concordia_ 1902, Nr. 5; Mohr, ‘Chlorbenzolverg.,’ _D. med. Wochenschr._ -1902, S. 73. - - -HYDROXYL SUBSTITUTION PRODUCTS OF THE ALIPHATIC SERIES (ALCOHOLS) - -Pohl, ‘Wirkungen von Methylalkohol,’ _Arch. f. exp. Path._ 1893, S. 281; -Patillo u. Colbourn, ‘Gewerbl. Methylalkoholverg.,’ _Ophthalm. Rec._ -1899. - - -NITRO AND AMIDO DERIVATIVES OF BENZENE (NITROBENZENE, ANILINE, &C.) - -Leymann, ‘Erkr.-Verh. in einer Anilinfarbenfabrik,’ _Concordia_ 1910, -Heft 17, S. 355; Grandhomme, _Die Fabr. d. A.-G. Farbw. in Höchst. a. -M. in sanit. u. soz. Beziehung_, 1896 (und _Vierteljahrsschr. f. ger. -Med._ 1880); ‘Nitrobenzol- und Anilinverg., Vorschr. f. d. Verhalten,’ -_Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg._ 1906, Nr. 22, S. 619; ‘Nitrobenzol (in -Mineralöl),’ _Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg._ 1910, S. 159; Röhl, ‘Akute u. -chron. Verg. m. Nitrokörpern d. Benzolreihe,’ _Vierteljahrsschr. f. -ger. Med._ 1890, S. 202; Letheby, ditto, _Proceed. of the Roy. Soc. -London_, 1863, S. 550; Thompson, ditto, _British Med. Journ._ 1891, -S. 801; Friedländer, ‘Intox. m. Benzol- u. Toluolderivaten,’ _Neurol. -Zentralbl._ 1900; S. 294; ‘Nitrotoluolverg. in einer Sprengstoffabrik,’ -_Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg._ 1908, S. 383; ‘Nitroxylolverg.,’ _Chem. -Ind._ 1905, S. 444; ‘Intox. m. Nitrokörpern. u. deren Behandl. m. -Sauerstoffinhal.,’ _Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg._ 1906, S. 617; Brat, -‘Gew. Methämoglobinverg. u. deren Behandl. m. Sauerstoff,’ _D. med. -Wochenschr._ 1901, S. 296; Leymann, ‘Verg. m. Nitrobenzol, Nitrophenol, -Dinitrophenol, Nitrochlorbenzol, usw.,’ _Concordia_ 1902, Nr. 5; Schröder -und Strassmann (Verg. in Roburitfabriken), _Vierteljahrsschr. f. ger. -Med._, Suppl. 1891, S. 138; Brat, ‘Erkr. in einer Roburitfabrik,’ _D. -med. Wochenschr._ 1901, Nr. 19 und Nr. 20; ‘Verg. m. Dinitrobenzol -in England,’ _Concordia_ 1909, S. 105; Mohr, ‘Verg. m. Chlorbenzol, -_D. med. Wochenschr._ 1902, S. 73; Silex, ‘Augenschädigungen d. -Nitronaphthalin,’ _Zeitschr. f. Augenheilk._ 1902, S. 178; Häusermann -und Schmidt, ‘Gewerbl. Nitrobenzol- u. Anilinverg.,’ _Vierteljahrsschr. -f. ger. Med._ 1877, S. 307; ‘Gewerbl. Anilinverg.,’ _Zeitschr. f. -Gew.-Hyg._ 1909, S. 350 u. S. 602, 1908, S. 384, 1906, S. 455, S. 599, -S. 617 u. 619 (Behandlung), 1903, S. 133, 1902, S. 63; ‘Anilinverg. -in England,’ _Concordia_ 1909, S. 105; Hildebrandt, ‘Anilinderivate, -Giftwirkung (Intern. med. Kongr. Budapest 1909),’ _Chem. Ztg._ -1909, S. 997; Seyberth, ‘Blasengeschwülste d. Anilinarb.,’ _Münchn. -med. Wochenschr._ 1907, S. 1573; ‘Erhebungen über das Vorkommen von -Blasengeschwülsten bei Anilinarb.,’ _Zeitschr. für Gew.-Hyg._ 1910, S. -156; Rehn, ‘Blasengeschwülste bei Anilinarb.,’ _Arch. f. klin. Chir._ -1895, S. 588; Lewin, ‘Paranitranilinverg., Obergutachten,’ _Zeitschr. f. -Gew.-Hyg._ 1909, S. 597; Criegern, ‘Gewerbl. Paraphenylendiaminverg.,’ -XX. Kongr. f. inn. Medizin, Wiesbaden, 1902; Erdmann, Vahlen, ‘Wirkung -des Paraphenylendiamins,’ _Arch. f. exp. Path._ 1905, S. 401; Georgievics -(Wirkung d. Teerfarbstoffe), _Farbenchemie_, 1907, S. 13; Prosser White, -Researches into the Aromatic Compounds, _Lancet_, 1901, Case of Aniline -Poisoning, Intern. Cong. Brussels, 1910. - - -TURPENTINE - -Lehmann, ‘Beiträge z. Kenntn. d. Terpentinölwirkung,’ _Arch. f. Hyg._ -1899, S. 321; Reinhard, ‘Gewerbl. Terpentinintox.,’ _D. med. Wochenschr._ -1887, S. 256; Drescher, ‘Terpentindampfinh. tödl. Verg. eines Arb. beim -Innenanstrich eines Kessels,’ _Zeitschr. f. med. Beamte_ 1906, S. 131; -Schaefer, ‘Verwendungsart u. schädl. Wirkung einiger Kohlenwasserstoffe -u. and. Kohlenstoffverbind.,’ _Hamburger Gew.-Insp., Arbeiten und -Sonderabdrücke_, 1909, S. 9. - - -PYRIDENE - -Blaschko, ‘Möbelpoliererekzem,’ _D. med. Wochenschr._ 1890, S. 475. - - -TOBACCO, NICOTINE - -Jehle, ‘Gesundh. Verhältn. d. Tabakarb.,’ _Arch. f. Unf.-Heilk._ 1901, -ref. _Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg._ 1901, S. 236; Rochs, ‘Einfluss d. Tabaks -auf die Gesundheitsverhältnisse d. Tabakarb.,’ _Vierteljahrsschr. f. ger. -Med._ 1889, S. 104. - - - - -PART III - -PREVENTIVE MEASURES - - -GENERAL MEASURES (NOTIFICATION, LISTS OF POISONOUS SUBSTANCES, &C.) - -Fischer, _Liste der gewerbl. Gifte_ (_Entwurf_), Frankfurt a. M. (als -Manuskript gedruckt), 1910; Sommerfeld, _Liste der gewerbl. Gifte_ -(_Entwurf_) Verlag Fischer, Jena, 1908; Carozzi, _Avvelenamenti ed -infezioni professionali_ (_gewerbl. Gifte und Infektionen_), Verlag -Fossati, Mailand, 1909; Rambousek, _IIᵉ Congrès int. des maladies prof. -Bruxelles_ 1910, S. 14; ‘Anzeigepflicht bei gewerbl. Erkrankungen,’ -Ber. über die Verh. d. Abt. f. Gewerbekrankh. auf der 36. Jahresvers. -der British med. Assoc. in Sheffield 1908, _Brit. Med. Journ._ 1908, S. -401-408 und 480-496; Rambousek, ‘Arbeiterschutz und Versicherung bei -gewerbl. Erkrankungen,’ _Sozialtechnik_ 1909, Heft 4, S. 65; Lewin, -_Grundlagen für die med. und rechtl. Beurteilung des Zustandekommens und -des Verlaufes von Vergiftungs- u. Infektions-Krankheiten im Betriebe_ -(Monogr.) Berlin, Heymanns Verlag, 1907. - - -SULPHURIC ACID INDUSTRY - -‘Schwefelsäureerzeugung, Schutz gegen Nitroseverg.,’ _Gewerbl. techn. -Ratgeber_, 1906, Heft 6, S. 109; ‘Schwefelsäureerzeugung, Reinigung -von Tankwaggons,’ _Gewerbl. techn. Ratgeber_, 1906, Heft 6, S. 109; -‘Schwefelsäuretransport,’ _Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg._ 1902, Nr. 4, S. 63; -‘Schwefelsäureverg., Verhütung,’ _Chem. Ind._ 1909, Beilage, _Ber. -d. Berufsgen. f. d. chem. Ind. f. d. J._ 1908, S. 26; ‘Ausräumen des -Gay-Lussac, Verhütung von Verg., _Chem. Ind._ 1907, S. 351; ‘Sauerstoff -gegen Schwefelsäureverg., Atemapparate,’ _Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg._ 1906, -Nr. 20, S. 562, und 1906, Nr. 22, S. 617. - - -PETROLEUM, BENZINE - -Berthenson, ‘Die Naphthaindustrie in sanit. Beziehung,’ -_Vierteljahrsschr. f. öffentl. Ges.-Pfl._ 1898, Bd. 30, S. 315; -Korschenewski, _Wratsch_, 1887, Nr. 17; Burenin, ‘Die Naphtha und ihre -Verarbeitung in sanit Beziehung,’ Petersburg 1888; Mabille, ‘Revue -d’Hygiène,’ Bd. 18, Nr. 3; _Bericht der Berufsgen. f. chem. Ind._ 1905; -_Bericht der preuss. Gew.-Insp._ 1904; Klocke, _Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg._ -1908, S. 379; ‘Benzinersatz (in chem. Wäschereien),’ _Zeitschr. f. -Gew.-Hyg._ 1906, S. 248, und 1908, S. 384; ‘Schutz des Arbeiters vor -Benzindämpfen,’ _Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg._ 1906, S. 236. - - -CARBON BISULPHIDE - -‘Nachweisung von Schwefelkohlenstoffdämpfen in Fabrikräumen,’ -_Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg._ 1908, Nr. 5, S. 107; ‘Hygienische -Einrichtung beim Vulkanisieren (Glibert),’ _Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg._ -1902, Nr. 1, S. 1; ‘Absaugung der Dämpfe an Vulkanisiertischen,’ -_Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg._ 1903, Nr. 14, S. 305; Laudenheimer, ‘Die -Schwefelkohlenstoffverg. bei Gummiarbeitern,’ Leipzig, Veit & Comp., -1899; Roeseler,’Schwefelkohlenstofferkrankungen und deren Verhütung,’ -_Vierteljahrsschr. f. Med. u. öffentl. Sanitätswesen_ 1900, 3. Folge, Bd. -20, S. 293 (ref. _Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg._ 1901, S. 164); ‘Einrichtungen -von Gummifabriken,’ _Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg._ 1903, S. 260 u. 484. - - -ILLUMINATING GAS - -‘Leuchtgasverg.-Verhütung,’ _Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg._ 1909, Heft 22, S. -604; ‘Kokslöscheinrichtung,’ _Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg._ 1908, Heft 10, S. -231; ‘Bedeutung der Sauerstoffinhalationen in der Leuchtgasindustrie,’ -_Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg._ 1906, Heft 21, S. 590; ‘Entleerung der -Reinigungskästen in der Leuchtgasfabrik, _Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg._ -1903, Nr. 13, S. 283; Jehle, ‘Hygiene der Gasarbeiter,’ _Zeitschr. f. -Gew.-Hyg._ 1901, Nr. 14, S. 245. - - -COAL TAR COLOURS (ANILINE FACTORIES) - -Grandhomme, _Die Fabriken der A.-G. Farbwerke vorm. Meister, Lucius & -Brüning zu Höchst a. M._, Frankfurt a. M. 1896; Leymann, ‘Ueber die -Erkrankungsverhältnisse in einer Anilinfabrik,’ _Concordia_ 1910, -Heft 17, S. 355 ff.; Leymann, _Die Verunreinigung der Luft durch -gewerbliche Betriebe_ (Fischer, Jena, 1903); ‘Sauerstoffinhalationen in -Anilinfabriken,’ _Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg._ 1906, Nr. 22, S. 617, und 1908, -S. 327. - - -LEAD (GENERAL) - -Legge & Goadby, ‘Lead Poisoning and Lead Absorption,’ 1912; _Bleiverg. -in gewerbl. u. hüttenmänn. Betrieben Oesterreichs_, herausgeg. vom. k. -k. Arbeitsstatist. Amte, I-VI, Verlag Hölder, 1905-1909; Leymann, _Die -Bekämpfung der Bleigefahr in der Ind._, Verlag Fischer, Jena, 1908; -Wächter, _Die gewerbl. Bleiverg. im Deutschen Reiche_, Verlag Braun, -Karlsruhe 1908; Blum, ‘Untersuch, über Bleiverg., Frankfurt a. M. 1900,’ -_Wiener klin. Wochenschr._ 1904, S. 1935; Rambousek, _Ueber die Verhütung -der Bleigefahr, Wien_, Hartleben, 1908; Teleky, ‘Die gewerbl. Bleiverg. -in Oesterr.,’ _Sozialtechnik_ 1909, S. 333, _Wiener klin. Wochenschr._ -1907, S. 1500. - - -LEAD SMELTING - -_Bleiverg. in gewerbl. u. hüttenmänn. Betrieben Oesterr._, I und -III, Verlag Hölder, Wien; Müller, _Die Bekämpfung der Bleigefahr in -Bleihütten_, Verlag Fischer, Jena, 1908; Wutzdorff, _Bleiverg. in -Zinkhütten_, Arb. a. d. Kaiserl. Ges.-Amte, Bd. 17, S. 441; Elsässer, -‘Schädl. in Blei- und Silberhütten,’ _Vierteljahrsschr. f. ger. Med._ -1903, Bd. 25, S. 136. - - -PAINTS AND COLOUR FACTORIES - -Über Hygiene der Erzeugung und Verwendung von Bleifarben: _Bleiverg. -in gewerbl. u. hüttenm. Betrieben Oesterreichs_, IV., V. und VI. Teil, -_Hölder Wien_; Stüler, ‘Bleiverg. bei Malern’; _Vierteljahrsschr. f. -öffentl. Ges.-Pfl._ 1895, S. 661; ‘Bleiweissfabriken (Staubabsaugung),’ -_Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg._ 1909, Nr. 22, S. 601; ‘Kampf gegen die -Bleifarben in Frankreich,’ _Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg._ 1909, Nr. 23, S. 543; -‘Gefahren in Bleiweissfabriken,’ _Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg._ 1907, Nr. 9, -S. 205; ‘Bleiweissersatz (Ausstellung),’ _Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg._ 1907, -Nr. 11, S. 254; ’ Bleifarbenverbot,’ _Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg._ 1904, Nr. -10, S. 221; ‘Bleigefahr im Gewerbe der Anstreicher, Maler usw.,’ _Soz. -Technik._ 1909, Nr. 17, S. 333; ‘Bleiweissfrage,’ _Sozialtechn._ 1908, -Nr. 16, S. 310. - - -ELECTRIC ACCUMULATOR FACTORIES - -Wutzdorff, _Bleiverg. in Akkumul.-Fabr._, Arb. a. d. Kaiserl. Ges.-Amt -1908, Bd. 15, S. 154; ‘Hygiene der Akkumulatorräume,’ _Zeitschr. f. -Gew.-Hyg._ 1909, Heft 3, S. 79, und Heft 21, S. 494; Chyzer, ‘Hygiene -der Akkumulatorräume,’ _Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg._ 1907, Nr. 20, S. 476; -‘Bekämpfung von Verg. in Akkumulatorräumen,’ _Concordia_ 1908, Heft 13, -S. 273. - - -LETTERPRESS PRINTING - -_Bleiverg. in gewerbl. u. hüttenm. Betrieb. Oesterr._, k. k. -Arbeitsstat. Amt, VII. Teil, Wien, Hölder 1909; Panwitz, _Bleiverg. in -Buchdruckereien_, Veröff. d. Kais. Ges.-Amtes, Bd. 17, S. 503; ‘Bleiverg. -in der Buchdruckerei (Enquete),’ _Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg._ 1909, Heft 6, -S. 152 ff.; ‘Bleifreie Druckfarben und Bronzen (Preisausschriebung),’ -_Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg._ 1909, Heft 23, S. 630 ff.; ‘Setzkasten mit -doppeltem Boden,’ _Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg._ 1908, Nr. 10, S. 237; -‘Bleinachweis in den Dämpfen der Typengiesserei,’ _Zeitschr. f. -Gew.-Hyg._ 1906, Nr. 24, S. 677; ‘Schriftsetzerei (Typenbläserei),’ -_Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg._ 1904, Nr. 8, S. 176; ‘Bleigefahr in -Druckereien,’ _Concordia_ 1908, Heft 18, S. 384. - - -FILECUTTING - -‘Bleiverg. bei Feilenhauern in England,’ _Zeitschr. d. Zentralst. f. -Arb.-Wohlf.-Einr._ 1901, S. 232; ‘Bleierkr. b. Feilenhauern,’ _Gewerbl. -techn. Ratgeber_ 1905, Heft 3, S. 50; ‘Hygiene d. Feilenhauerei -(Chyzer),’ _Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg._ 1908, N. 13, S. 303. - - -ZINC SMELTING - -Frey, _Die Zinkgewinnung im oberschles. Industriebezirk und ihre -Hygiene_, Berlin 1907, Verlag Hirschwald; Sigel, ‘Das Giesserfieber und -seine Bekämpfung,’ _Vierteljahrsschr. f. ger. Med._ 1906, Bd. 32, S. -173; ‘Lehmann, Beiträge zur hyg. Bedeutung des Zinks,’ _Arch. f. Hyg._ -1897, Bd. 28, S. 300; ‘Giess- oder Zinkfieber,’ _Arch. f. Hyg._ 1910, -Bd. 72, S. 328; ‘Hyg. der Zinkerei,’ _Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg._ 1907, Nr. -2, S. 39; ‘Zinkhütten, hyg. Einricht.,’ _Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg._ 1901, -Nr. 18, S. 321, und 1910, Heft 11, S. 250; ‘Giesserfieber, Bekämpfung,’ -_Soz. Techn._ 1907, Heft 3, S. 51; ‘Giesserei, Hyg.,’ _Zeitschr. f. -Gew.-Hyg._ 1903, Heft 16, S. 351, Heft 21, S. 479, und 1904, Heft 13, S. -344, ‘Schutz gegen Säuredämpfe bei der Metallbearbeitung,’ _Zeitschr. f. -Gew.-Hyg._ 1904, Heft 1, S. 5 u. 11, ferner Heft 14, S. 317, u. 1905, -Heft 10, S. 287, Heft 22, S. 643. - - -MERCURY - -Quecksilberhütten in Idria: Laureck in Weyls _Handb. d. Arb.-Krankh._ -1909, S. 62; ‘Quecksilberhütten in Amiata’: Giglioli, _Ramazzini_ 1909, -Bd. 3, S. 230. - -Quecksilberbelegerei, Hyg: Schönlanck, _Fürther Spiegelbelegen_ (Monogr.) -1888; Wollner, ‘Fürther Spiegelbelegen,’ _Vierteljahrsschr. f. öffentl. -Ges.-Pfl._ XXIX 3, S. 421, und _München. med. Wochenschr._ 1892, Bd. 39, -S. 533; Charpentier, ‘Fürther Spiegelbelegen,’ _Ann. d’Hyg. publ._ 1885, -S. 323. - -Quecksilber in Hutfabriken, Quecksilberbeize: Stickler, _Revue d’Hygiène_ -1886, S. 632; Henke (Monogr.), Frankfurt a. M. 1899; Hasenfellbeize -(Ersatz), _Jahresber. d. Fabr.-Insp._ 1884, S. 489, _Zeitschr. f. -Gew.-Hyg._ 1902, S. 360, 1909, S. 281, _Soz. Techn._ 1910, S. 39; -Hutfabriken in Italien (Hyg.), _Ramazzini_ 1909, S. 230. - -Sonstige Gewerbe: Glühlampenind. (Hyg.): Donath, _Wiener med. -Wochenschr._ 1894, S. 888, _A. Mitt. a. d. Ber. d. Gew.-Insp._ 1899, -_Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg._ 1902, Heft 20, S. 356, und 1908, Heft 20, S. -469, Thermometererzeug. (Hyg.), _Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg._ 1901, S. 32. - - -ARSENIC - -‘Arsenikbestimmung im Hüttenrauch’ (Harkins & Swein), _Journ. Amer. -Chem. Soz._ 1907, Bd. 29, S. 970; _Chem. Ztg._, Rep. 1907, S. 447; -‘Arsenikverg. in der Ind.’ (Heim, Herbert), _Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg._ -1907, Bd. 14, S. 354; ‘Arsenverg. in der Delainage,’ _Zeitschr. -f. Gew.-Hyg._ 1906, Nr. 3, S. 71; ‘Gewerbl. Arsenverg.’ (Legge), -_Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg._ 1903, Heft 21, S. 476; ‘Arsenwasserstoffverg. -im Gewerbe (Prophyl.),’ _Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg._ 1908, Nr. 10, S. -229; ‘Arsenwasserstoff im Ballongas (Beseitigung),’ _Zeitschr. f. -Gew.-Hyg._ 1908, Nr. 11, S. 263; ‘Arsenwasserstoff beim Ausleeren von -Schwefelsäuretanks (Verhütung),’ _Gewerbl. techn. Ratgeber_ 1906, Heft 6, -S. 109; ‘Arsenfreier Wasserstoff zum Löten,’ _Gewerbl. techn. Ratgeber_ -1906, Heft 10, S. 173; und _Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg._ 1905, Heft 9, S. 252; -‘Befreiung der Salzsäure vom Arsengehalt,’ _Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg._ 1903, -Heft 21, S. 477. - - - - -INDEX - - -Heavy type (Transcriber’s Note: =like this=) refers to the main treatment -of the subject and the Roman figures in brackets following to the Part of -the book: (i) Occurrence of Poisoning; (ii) Pathology; (iii) Preventive -Measures. - - - Absorption towers, 256, 258, 289 - - Accumulator manufacture, =135= (i), 145, 295, =305-9= (iii) - - Acetic acid, 9, 46, 333 - - Acetylene, 52, =85-87= (i), =278= (iii), 279 - - Acrolein vapour, 326 - - Aerograph, 138 - - Akremnin soap, 294 - - Alcohol, 99, 100, 210, 216, 333 - - Alcoholism, 241 - - Aliphatic series. See Hydrocarbons - - Alizarin, 111, 113 - colours, 3, 10, 57, 96, 111, 112, 114 - - Alkaline bromides, 36 - hydroxides, 176 - - Alkaloids, 216 - - Alternation of employment, =227= (iii), 293, 299 - - Amalgam. See Mercury amalgam - - Amido compounds, 110, 112, 201, 211, =212= (ii), 287 - - Amines, 33, 107, 111 - - Ammonia, 44, 68, 71, 72, 76-79, 82, =90-93= (i), 94, =175= (ii), =279= - (iii), 280 - - Ammonia soda process, 14, =20= (i), 92, 258 - - Ammonium carbonate, 44, 91, 92 - compounds, 67, =90= (i), 92, =174= (ii), =279= (iii) - nitrate, 44, 115 - oxalate, 115 - phosphate, 50, 92 - superphosphate, 55 - - Amyl alcohol, 45, 210 - nitrite, 45, 46, 212 - - Aniline, 3, 57, 69, 70, 96, 105, 109, 111, 112, 114, =116-119= (i), 145, - 156, =212-214= (ii), =286-288= (iii) - - Aniline black, 117, 156 - colours, 3, 4, 57, 112, 115, 117, 118, 156, 214, =285-288= (iii) - oil, 117, 214 - poisoning, 3, 69, 113, =116-119= (i), =212-214= (ii), =256-288= (iii) - - Animal products, 154 - - Anthracene, 3, 60, 96-97, 101, 107, 108, 111, 113, 285 - - Anthraquinone, 55, 111 - - Antimony, 122, 124, =146= (i) - chloride and oxide, 37 - - Antipyrin, 3, 4, 36, 102, 104, 114 - - Argyria, =45=, 152, 188, 329. See also Silver - - Aromatic series. See Hydrocarbons - - Arsenic, 12, 65, 119, 122, =143-146= (i), 154, 189, =159= (ii), 257, - 323, =328-329= (iii) - - Arseniuretted hydrogen gas, 12-14, 32, 113, 114, =145-146= (i), 148, - 149, 188, 189, =197= (ii), 257, 279, 286, 316, =328-329= (iii) - - Artificial manure, 38, =53= (i), 54, 55, 92, =176= (ii), =261-265= (iii) - - Artificial respiration, 164, =284= (iii) - - Asphalt, =98= (i), 285 - - Aspirin, 102 - - Azo-colours, 96, 110, 214 - - - Balloon filling, 145, 329 - - Barium chloride, 16, 66 - nitrate, 44 - - Barometers, manufacture of, 141, 142, 328 - - Baryta, 66, 67, 135 - - Basic slag, 49, 53, =54= (i), 148, =261-264= (iii) - - Basophil granules, 178 - - Baths, 237, 292 - - Beer brewing, 65, 154, 333 - - Benzalchloride, 35, 110, 287 - - Benzaldehyde, 35, 109 - - Benzene (Benzene poisoning), 3, 4, 69, 77-79, 85, 96, =99-100= (i), 101, - 102-106, 112-114, =204-208= (ii), =285-286= (iii), 288, 330 - - Benzidine, 118 - - Benzine, 34, 53, 54, =59= (i), =61=, 62, 63, 64, 68, 69, 85, 96, 156, - 203, =204= (ii), =267= (iii), 268, 330 - - Benzol. See Benzene - - Benzo-trichloride, 35, 109, 287 - - Benzoyl chloride, 35, 209 - - Benzyl chloride, 35 - - Bessemer process, 148 - - Beth filter, 254 - - Bichromate, 50, 54, 55. See Chromates - - Bladder, cancer of, 114, 117, 214 - - Blast furnace, =146= (i), =289= (iii) - gas, 65, 82, 88, =89= (i), 146, =289-290= (iii) - - Blasting gelatine, 47 - - Bleaching, 156, 337 - powder, =26= (i), =259= (iii) - - Blood poisons, 158, 164, 199-201, 211-214 - - Bone extraction, 68, 69, 267 - - Boracic acid, 138 - - Bottle capsules, 323 - - Brass (brass-casters’ ague), =152= (i), =182= (ii), 188, =325= (iii) - - Breathing apparatus, =231-237= (iii), 267, 286, 288, 290, 310 - - Briquettes, 96, 101 - - Bromine, =29= (i), 36, 52, =173= (ii) - - Bronze, 45, 139, 316 - - Brunswick green, 144 - - Butyl alcohol, 210 - - Butyric acid, 75 - - - Calamine, 125 - - Calcium carbide, 52, =85= (i), 87, 90, 278 - sulphide (soda waste), 18 - - Calomel, =143= - - Camphor, 49 - - Cancer, 64, 102, 114, 118, 203, 214 - - Carbon bisulphide, poisoning by, 30, 31, 34, 50, 65, =68= (i), 68-71, - 74, 80, 93, 96, 104, 156, 192, =193-195= (ii), =271-275= (iii) - oxychloride, =32= (i), 33, =294= (iii) - tetrachloride, =34= (i), 69, 208, 268, 275 - - Carbonic acid gas (carbon dioxide), =17=, 50, 53, 54, 68, 74, 82, 131, - 149, 153, =201-202= (ii), 330, 332 - oxide, 17, 21, 31, 32, 50, 74-76, 80, 82, =87-90= (i), 102, 107, 119, - 148, 149, 153, 154, 156, 188, =199-200= (ii), 288, 289, 323, 330, - 332 - - Carbonising, 156, 336 - - Carborundum. See Silicon carbide - - Carburetted gas, 61, 83, 87 - - Caustic alkali, 25 - potash, 3, 25, 34, 176 - soda, 18, 19, 25, 36, 157, 176 - - Celluloid, 48, 49 - - Cellulose, 156, 336 - - Chamber acid, 5, 8, 53, 258 - - Chance-Claus process, 19 - - Chemical cleaning. See Benzine industry, =1= (i), 134, 145, =256= (iii) - - Chili saltpetre, 35, 39, 41, 45, 54 - - Chloral, 34 - - Chlorates, =23= (i), 25, 26, 29, 30, 52 - - Chloride of lime. See Bleaching powder - sulphur, 31, 32, 68, 70, 174, 272-274 - - Chlorides, =30= (i), =174= (ii) - - Chlorine, =23= (i), 25, 26, 27, 30-32, 34, 35, 39, 44, 52, 58, 156, - =173= (ii), 209, =259= (iii), 285 - rash, 28, 35, 173, 174, 209, 259 - - Chlorine compounds, organic, 27, 69, 209, 285 - - Chloroform, 26, 33, 34, 208 - - Chrome colours, 55, 56, 265 - poisoning, 52, =56= (i), 57, 58, 114, 153, =185= (ii), =265= (iii) - tanning, =55= (i), 57, 58, =266= (iii) - yellow, 44, 55, 57 - - Chromium (chromates), 3, 52, =55= (i)-58, 114, 134, 153, =185= (ii), - =265= (iii), 271 - - Coal tar. See Tar - - Cobalt, =144= - - Coke ovens, =77= (i), 78, 79, 92, 102, 104, =276= (iii) - - Compositors. See Printing - - Condensation, =255= (iii), 323, 327 - of mercury, 141 - zinc, 125 - - Copper, =151= (i), =188= (ii) - - Cresols, 96, 101, 109 - - Cumene, 207 - - Cyanogen, 77, =93= (i), 152, =195= (ii), 261, 279, =280= (iii) - compounds, 71, 79, 92, =93= (i), 94, 95, 103, 152, 154, =195= (ii), - 196, 262, 279, =280= (iii), 289 - - - Deacon process, 23, 28 - - Denitration, 6, 43, 47, 48, 287 - - Desilverising, 124, 126, 128 - - Diaphragm method (chlorine), 24 - - Diazo-compounds, 110, 286 - - Diethyl sulphate, 23 - - Digestive tract, diseases of, 76, 129, 130, 133, 179, 182, 186 - - Dimethyl aniline, 109 - - Dinitrobenzene, 35, 108, 112, 115, 116, 212 - - Dinitrochlorobenzene, 115, 209, 212 - - Dinitrophenol, 115, 212, 213 - - Dinitrotoluol, 108, 212 - - Distillation, 253, 255 - of alcohol, 333 - petroleum. See Petroleum distillation - tar. See Tar distillation - - Dowson gas, 82, 83, 87, 276 - - Dräger’s oxygen apparatus, 165-167 - - Dry cleaning. See Benzine - - Dust removal, =243-256= (iii). See also Ventilation - - Dye stuffs, =107-119= (i), =214= (ii), =285-288= (iii), 337 - - Dyeing and colouring, 44, 45, 55, 57, 92, 134, 144, 156, 265, 310-316, - 337 - - Dynamite, 43, 47 - - - Earthenware. See Pottery - - Eczema, 64, 186 - - Electric furnace, 85 - - Electroplating, 196, 327, 329 - - Enamel, 135, 322 - - Encephalopathy, 181 - - Etching on glass and metal, 37, 40, 45, 57 - - Ether, 68, 69 - - Ethyl alcohol, 34, 210 - chloride, 34 - - Explosives, =45= (i), 49, 115, =260= (iii) - - Extraction, 54, 61, =68= (i), 68-69, 71, 100, 103, 117, 186, =253= - (iii), 267, 272-274 - - Eye affections, 21, 23, 38, 55, 57, 65, 68, 70, 75, 93, 115, 116, 119, - 171, 174, 175, 210 - - - Fans, =244-247= (iii). See also Ventilation - - Fat extraction, 34, 61, 68, 70, 71, 272-274 - - Fermentation, 154, 333 - - Ferrosilicon, 53, 85, 146, =149-151= (i), 199, =291= (iii) - - File cutting, =140= (i), 294, =322-323= (iii) - - Fluorine. See Hydrofluoric acid - - Fluorine compounds, 37, 54, 153, 171, 265 - - Flux, 135, 149 - - Frit, 135, 136, 137, 138, 320 - - Fuchsin, 111, 113, 119, 144, 287 - - Fulminate of mercury, =46= (i), 143, 261 - - - Galvanising, 94, 95, 152, 326, 329 - - Gas engines, 82, 88, 89, 100, =276-278= (iii) - lighting, =71-89= (i), 92, 93, 175, =275= (iii) - lime, 65, 94, 153, 275 - purifying material, 5, 65, 68, 74, 75, =93= (i), =275= (iii), 276 - - Gay-Lussac tower, 5, 6, 10, 11, 256, 257, 287 - - Generator gas. See Producer gas - - Glass etching, 37, 38, 153, 330 - industry, 19, 37, 39, 55, 58, 82, 88, 138, 143, =153= (i), 322 - pearl silvering, 152 - - Glazing, =135-138= (i), =319-322= (iii) - - Glover acid, 6, 8 - tower, 5, 6, 257, 287 - - Gold, 44, 94, 125, 152 - - Gun-cotton, 47-49 - - Guttapercha, 69 - - - Hæmolysis, 158 - - Halogens, =31= (i), =173-174= (ii) - - Hargreaves process, 19, 28 - - Hatters’ furriers’ processes, 45, 141, 142, 154, 327 - - Hausmannite, 58 - - Health register, 227, 264, 274, 298, 304, 307 - - Hides and skins, preparation of, 142, 143, 144, 184, 327 - - Hops, sulphuring of, 154, 333 - - House painting, 121, 122, =132-133= (i), 294, =314-316= (iii) - - Hydrocarbons, 96, 106, 158, 286, 287, 330, 331 - (aliphatic), 96, 202 - (aromatic), 96, 108, 109, 202, 204, 330 - - Hydrochloric acid, =14= (i), 15, 20, 21, 23, 30-35, 39, 44, 50, 54, 59, - 113, 145, 131, =170= (ii), =257-258= (iii), 286, 326 - - Hydrofluoric acid, =29= (i), 37, 38, 50, 54, 96, 153, =171= (ii), - =265= (iii) - - Hypochlorite, 25, 30 - - - Incandescent lamps, 141, 327 - - Indiarubber, 31, 61, 63, =68-71= (i), 100, 103, 134, 194, 267, - =271-274= (iii) - - Indigo, 34, 92, 111 - - Injectors, 245 - - Insurance, Workmen’s, 224 - - International Labour Bureau, 219 - - Iodine, =30= (i), 36, =173= (ii) - compounds and poisoning, 36 - - Iron, 44, 124, 144, =146-149= (i), =289-291= (iii) - - - Kidney disease, 57, 130, 181, 185, 215 - - - Lampblack, 97 - - Lead, 8, 13, 29, 44, 55, 68, 69, =120-140= (i), 144, 149, 152, 156, - =177-182= (ii), 329 - acetate, 55, 131, 134 - burning, 140, 323 - carbonate. See White lead - chloride, 55, 181 - chromate, 55, 57, 132, 134, 138, 310 - colic, 179. See Lead poisoning - colours, =131-134= (i), 293, 294, 295, =310-316= (iii) - nitrate, 50, 55 - oxide, 44, 45, 122, 131, 134, 135, 136, 137, 181 - piping, 140, 323 - poisoning, 3, 13, 44, 69, 93, 114, =120-122= (i), 146, 149-152, - =177-182= (ii), =292-323= (iii) - silicate, 135 - smelting, =122-131= (i), =299-305= (iii) - sulphate, 55, 122, 181 - sulphide, 122, 131, 136, =293= (iii) - - Leblanc soda process, =14= (i), 18, 19 - - Light oils, 98 - - Ligroine, 61 - - Lime kilns, 55, 153, 330 - - Litharge, 124, 126, 129, 131, 132, 134, 135, 138, 300-305 - - Lithopone. See Zinc white - - Lungs, diseases of, 9, 40, 54, 68, 75, 76, 106, 118, 169-177, 189, 201, - 204, 213-216 - - - Mahogany, 156 - - Malt drying, 333 - - Manganese (manganese poisoning), 23, 29, =58= (i), 59, 153, =179-180= - (ii) - - Meal rooms, 236 - - Mercaptan, 22, 96 - - Mercury and mercury poisoning, 40, 44, =141= (i), 152, 154, =184= (ii), - =326-327= (iii), 329 - amalgam, 141, 142, 327 - - Metals, recovery of, =120= (i), =176= (ii) =288= (iii) - - Metaphenylene diamine, 118 - - Methyl alcohol, 33, 34, 36, 37, 107, 156, 209, =210= (ii), 336 - bromide and iodide, 36, 209 - chloride, 33, 209 - violet, 112, 119 - - Methylamine, 96 - - Methylene chloride, 34, 208 - - Mineral acids, =169-172= (ii) - - Mineral oil, =59= (i), 60-63, 64, 65, 85 - - Mirbane, oil of. See Nitrobenzene - - Mond gas, 82, 87 - - Mordants, 32, 55, 337 - - Muffle furnace, 15, 20, 22, 125, 137, 138, 143, 258, 325 - - - Naphtha. See Petroleum - vapour, 42, 63, 267 - wells, 61, 62, 267 - - Naphthalene, 74, 96, 100, 101, 113, =208= (ii) - - Naphthol, 9, 96, 101, 109, 110 - yellow, 110 - - Naphthylamine, 103, 110, 118, 287 - - Narcotic poisons, 208, 209 - - Nephritis. See Kidney disease - - Nerve poisons, 158, 192, 205 - - Nervous diseases, 70, 107, 163, 181, 184, 189, 190, 193, 194, 196, 197, - 199, 202, 204, 205, 215 - - Nickel, 144, =186= (ii) - carbonyl, =186-188= (ii) - eczema, 186 - - Nicotine, 216 - - Nitrating, 41-43, 47, 49, =108= (i), =261= (iii), 286 - - Nitric acid, 2, 6, 9, 10, =39= (i), 43-49, 107, 116, 182, =172= (ii), - =260= (iii), 261, 285-287, 326 - - Nitrobenzene, 3, 9, 35, 40, 41, 45, =108-115= (i), =212= (ii), - =285-288= (iii) - - Nitro-cellulose, 40, 42, 47, 48, 336 - - Nitrochlorobenzene, 116, 209 - - Nitro-compounds, 40, =108= (i), 109-112, 114, 115, =211-214= (ii), - =286-288= (iii) - - Nitro-glycerin, 9, 40, 41, 43, =46= (i), 47, 48, =212= (ii), =261= (iii) - - Nitronaphthalin, 115, 116, 214 - - Nitrophenol, 3, 46, 115, 212, 288 - - Nitrous fumes, 10, 12, =40-44= (i), 48, 116, 171, =261= (iii), 286, 326 - - Notification of poisoning, =220-225= (iii) - - - Oil, extraction, 61, 68, 69, 267 - - Organ pipe making, 140 - - Oxalic acid, 55, 259 - - Oxygen inhalation, 43, 63, 64, =164-168= (ii), 188, 192, 196, 200-202, - 204, 208, 227, =231-237= (iii) - - - Painting. See House painting - - Paints (quick-drying), =330-332= - - Paper, manufacture of, 336 - - Paraffin, 50, 59, 60, 96, 98, 101, 107, 203 - eczema, 27, 64, 65, 102, 203 - - Paranitraniline, 114, 118, 214 - - Paraphenylene diamine, 118, 214 - - Parkes’ process, 125, 127 - - Pattinson process, 125, 127 - - Petrol ether, 60, 331 - - Petroleum (petroleum poisoning), =59-65= (i), =202-204= (ii), =267= (iii) - - Phenanthrene, 96 - - Phenol, 75, 90, 96-100, 108, 109 - - Phenylhydrazine, 36 - - Phosgene. See Carbon oxychloride - - Phosphor bronze, 52 - - Phosphoretted hydrogen gas, 50, =52= (i), 86, 90, 149, =191-192= (i) - - Phosphorus, 31, 36, =49= (i), 50, 52, 148, 149, =190-191= (ii), - =268-271= (iii) - necrosis, =51= (i) 52, =190-191= (ii), =268-271= (iii) - prohibition of, 51, 220, =268-271= (iii) - - Photography, 36, 45, 58, 94, 152 - - Picric acid, 40, 96, 100, 108, 115, 116, =213= (ii) - - Pitch, 96, 97, 107, 281, 282 - - Plate towers, 7, 16, 39 - - Poisons, classification of, =157-163=, =169= (ii) - - Porcelain, =138= (i), 322 - - Potassium bichromate. See Chromium chlorate, 26, 29, 37, 50, 52 - - Pottery, =135-138= (i), 153, 294, =319-321= - - Power gas, =80-90= (i), =277= (iii) - - Printing, =138-139= (i), 146, =317-319= (iii) - - Producer gas, 80-82, 87-89, 153, 276-278 - - Propyl alcohol, 248, 249 - - Prussic acid. See Hydrocyanic acid - - Pulmotor, 167, 168 - - Pyridine, 59, 90, 96, 101, 152, =216= (ii), 285 - - Pyrites burner, 5, 6, 65, 256 - - Pyroxyline, 48, 261 - - - Quick-drying paints, =330-332= - - Quicklime, 54, 73 - - Quinoline bases, 110 - - - Realgar. See Arsenic - - Refrigeration, 92, 93, 154 - - Regenerator firing, 81, 148, 153 - - Rescue appliances, =164-168= (ii), =230-235= (iii) - - Respirators, =229= (iii) - - Roasting (calcining furnaces, &c.), 5, 11, 65, 119, 120, 125-127, 129, - 130, 131, 141, 143, 253, =288-289= (iii), 299, 323, 327 - - Roburite, 115, 116 - - Roofing felt, 96, 101, 281 - - Rubber. See Indiarubber - - - Salt, 32, 33 - - Saltcake. See Sodium sulphide - - Saltpetre, 35, 42, 50, 257 - - Satinwood, 154, 155 - - Sewer gas, 66, 67, 93, 95 - - Shot, 121, 140, 143 - - Silicon carbide, 85, 140, 323 - - Silicofluoric acid, 38, 50, 54, 171 - - Silk, artificial, 49 - - Silver (argyria), 45, 92, =120= (i), 122-125, 144, 152 - nitrate, 40, 45, 142, 188, 227 - smelting, =122=, =131= (i) - - Skin diseases, 27, 38, 47, 52, 55, 56, 58, 62, 64, 65, 71, 96, 102, 107, - 118, 143, 144, 154-156, 171, 173, 185-189, 203, 208, 209, 265 - - Smelting processes, 89, 94, =119= (i), 143, 144, 182, =288-290= (iii), - 299, 323-325, 326 - - Smokeless powder, 49, 211 - - Soda, 2, =14= (i), 17-20, 55, 65, 92, 95, =258= (iii) - electrolytic, 20 - waste, 18, 65, 258 - - Sodium bichromate. See Chromate sulphate and sulphide, =14= (i), 17, - 19-22, 22, 112, =258= (iii), 286 - - Soldering, 145, 316, 329 - - Solvay method. See Ammonia soda - - Solvent naphtha, 99-102, 106, =207= (ii), 330 - - Spirit, denaturing of, 99, 100, 210, 216 - - Substitutes for poisonous materials, =243= (iii) - - Suction gas, =82= (i), 83, 87-89, =276-278= (iii) - - Sulpho-cyanide compounds, 75, 90, 93 - - Sulphonal, 22, =259= (iii) - - Sulphur, 31, 52, =65= (i), 65, 68, 74, 93, 122, 288 - - Sulphur dioxide, =5= (i), 9, 13, 14, 19, 21, 23, 31, 54, 63, 65, 119, - 120, 122-125, 148, 154, =171= (ii), =257= (iii), 259, 267, 279, - 288, 323, 326, 327, 333 - dyes, 112 - soap, 294 - - Sulphuretted hydrogen, 8, 12, 13, 16, 18, 21, 50, 52-54, =65= (i), 66, - 67, 74, 79, 90-93, 95, 96, 101, 102, 103, 106, 107, 112, 114, 175, - =192= (ii), 193, 258, 271, 279, 280, 285, 286, 290 - - Sulphuric acid, =5= (i), 9, 14, 18-20, 23, 33, 37-41, 46, 47, 49, 50, - 53, 54, 60, 64, 65, 67, 92, 93, 108, 112, 119, 145, 151, 154, 156, - =171= (ii), =256-257= (iii), 261, 279, 286 - arsenic free, 9 - - Superphosphate industry, 38, =53= (i), 54, 55, 92, =176= (ii), - =261-265= (iii) - - Swedish matches, 50, 52, 55, 58, 265 - - - Tanning, 55, 56, 58, 66, 67, 94, 143, 144, 153, 265, 329 - - Tar, 71, 77-80, =96-107= (i), 156, 275, =280-285= (iii) - colours. See Aniline colours - derivatives, 40, 46, =96-107= (i), =204-208= (ii), 210, =213-215= (iii) - - Teak wood, 154 - - Textile industry, 134, =156= (i), =336= (iii) - - Thermometers, manufacture of, 141, 328 - - Tiles, =137-138= (i). See also Pottery - - Tin, 44, 138 - - Tobacco industry, =154= (i), =335= (iii) - - Toluene, 32, 35, 96, 108, 112, 204, =206= (ii), 285 - - Toluidine, 109, 111, 118, 214, 285, 287 - - Treatment of poisoning, =163-127= (ii) - - Turpentine, 69, 104, =215= (ii), 331 - - Type casting, 138, 139 - - - Ultramarine, 19, 22, 259 - - Ursol, 118 - - - Varnish, 58, 61, 101, 215, 330-332, 337 - - Vaseline, 60 - - Vegetable food stuffs, preparation of, =154= (i), =332-336= (iii) - - Ventilation, =243-255= (iii) - artificial, 244-247 - localised, 248-250 - natural, 243 - - Vermilion, 57 - - Vulcanising, 31, =68= (i), 68-70, =272-274= (iii) - - - Washing accommodation, =237= (iii) - - Waste sulphuric acid, 43, 53 - water, 66 - - Water gas, 82, 84, 87, 88 - gilding, 141, 142, 327 - - Weldon process, 23, 29, 58, 59 - - White lead, 55, =131-134= (i), =310-313= (iii) - - Wood (poisonous), =154-156= (i), =216= (ii), =335= (iii) - - Workmen’s baths, 237, 292 - clothing, 229 - insurance, 219 - welfare, 237-242 - - - Xylene, 32, 99, 100, 107, 204, 206 - - - Zinc, =120= (i), 121, =122-131= (i), 139, 144, 151, =182-183= (ii), - =294=, 299-305, =323-325= (iii) - ashes, 125 - oxide, 32, 38, 125, 145, 182 - poisoning, =182-183= (i), =325= (iii) - smelting, 122-125, =125-131= (i), =323-325= (iii) - white, 68, 293 - -THE END - - PRINTED BY - SPOTTISWOODE AND CO. 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You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Industrial Poisoning - From Fumes, Gases and Poisons of Manufacturing Processes - -Author: Joseph Rambousek - -Translator: Thomas M. Legge - -Release Date: November 1, 2019 [EBook #60605] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK INDUSTRIAL POISONING *** - - - - -Produced by Suzanne Lybarger, Brian Janes and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - -</pre> - - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_i" id="Page_i">[i]</a></span></p> - -<p class="titlepage larger">INDUSTRIAL POISONING</p> - -<p class="center">FROM FUMES, GASES AND POISONS<br /> -OF MANUFACTURING PROCESSES</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ii" id="Page_ii">[ii]</a></span></p> - -<div class="bbox"> - -<p class="center">BY THE SAME AUTHOR</p> - -<p class="center larger"><b>LEAD POISONING<br /> -AND LEAD ABSORPTION:</b></p> - -<p class="center">THE SYMPTOMS, PATHOLOGY AND -PREVENTION, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE -TO THEIR INDUSTRIAL -ORIGIN AND AN ACCOUNT OF THE -PRINCIPAL PROCESSES INVOLVING -RISK.</p> - -<p class="hanging">By THOMAS M. LEGGE M.D. (Oxon.), D.P.H. -(Cantab.), H.M. Medical Inspector of Factories; -Lecturer on Factory Hygiene, University of -Manchester; and KENNETH W. GOADBY, -D.P.H. (Cantab.), Pathologist and Lecturer -on Bacteriology, National Dental Hospital. -Illustrated. viii+308 pp. 12s. 6<i>d.</i> net.</p> - -<p class="center"><span class="smcap">London</span>: EDWARD ARNOLD.</p> - -</div> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iii" id="Page_iii">[iii]</a></span></p> - -<p class="titlepage larger">INDUSTRIAL POISONING</p> - -<p class="center">FROM FUMES, GASES AND POISONS<br /> -OF MANUFACTURING PROCESSES</p> - -<p class="titlepage"><span class="smaller">BY</span><br /> -DR. J. RAMBOUSEK<br /> -<span class="smaller">PROFESSOR OF FACTORY HYGIENE,<br /> -AND CHIEF STATE HEALTH OFFICER, PRAGUE</span></p> - -<p class="titlepage"><span class="smaller">TRANSLATED AND EDITED BY</span><br /> -THOMAS M. LEGGE, M.D., D.P.H.<br /> -<span class="smaller">H.M. MEDICAL INSPECTOR OF FACTORIES<br /> -JOINT AUTHOR OF ‘LEAD POISONING AND LEAD ABSORPTION’</span></p> - -<p class="titlepage">WITH ILLUSTRATIONS</p> - -<p class="titlepage"><span class="smaller">LONDON</span><br /> -EDWARD ARNOLD<br /> -<span class="smaller">1913</span></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iv" id="Page_iv">[iv]</a></span></p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[v]</a></span></p> - -<h2>TRANSLATOR’S PREFACE</h2> - -<p>I undertook the translation of Dr. Rambousek’s book because -it seemed to me to treat the subject of industrial poisons in -as novel, comprehensive, and systematic a manner as was -possible within the compass of a single volume. Having -learnt much myself from Continental writings on industrial -diseases and factory hygiene, I was anxious to let others also -see how wide a field they had covered and how thorough -were the regulations for dangerous trades abroad, especially -in Germany. A praiseworthy feature of Dr. Rambousek’s -book was the wealth of references to the work of foreign -writers which is made on almost every page. To have left -these names and references, however, in the text as he has -done would have made the translation tedious reading, and -therefore for the sake of those who desire to pursue inquiry -further I have adopted the course of collecting the great -majority and placing them all together in an appendix at -the end of the volume.</p> - -<p>Dr. Rambousek as a medical man, a chemist, and -a government official having control of industrial matters, -is equipped with the very special knowledge required to -describe the manufacturing processes giving rise to injurious -effects, the pathology of the lesions set up, and the preventive -measures necessary to combat them. In his references to -work done in this country he has relied largely on abstracts -which have appeared in medical and technical journals published -on the Continent. I have only thought it necessary -to amplify his statements when important work carried out -here on industrial poisoning,—such as that on nickel carbonyl<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[vi]</a></span> -and on ferro-silicon—had been insufficiently noted. Such -additions are introduced in square brackets or in footnotes.</p> - -<p>In his preface Dr. Rambousek says ‘the book is intended -for all who are, or are obliged to be, or ought to be, interested -in industrial poisoning.’ No words could better describe the -scope of the book.</p> - -<p>The work of translation would never have been begun -but for the assistance given me in Parts II and III by my -sister, Miss H. Edith Legge. To her, and to Mr. H. E. -Brothers, F.I.C., who has been to the trouble of reading the -proofs and correcting many mistakes which my technical -knowledge was insufficient to enable me to detect, my best -thanks are due.</p> - -<p>I am indebted to Messrs. Davidson & Co., Belfast, for -permission to use figs. 46 and 48; to Messrs. Locke, Lancaster -& Co., Millwall, for fig. 27; to Mr. R. Jacobson, for -figs. 30, 33, 37, 38, and 43; to Messrs. Siebe, Gorman & Co., -for figs. 32, 39, and 40; to Messrs. Blackman & Co. for fig. 47; -to Messrs. Matthews & Yates for fig. 54; to H.M. Controller -of the Stationery Office for permission to reproduce figs. 52, -53, and 54, and the diagrams on p. 284; and lastly to my -publisher, for figs. 41, 42, 43, and 49, which are taken from -the book by Dr. K. W. Goadby and myself on ‘Lead -Poisoning and Lead Absorption.’</p> - -<p class="right">T. M. L.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Hampstead</span>, <i>May 1913</i>.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[vii]</a></span></p> - -<h2>CONTENTS</h2> - -<table summary="Contents" class="contents"> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdpg smaller">PAGE</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">Introduction</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#INTRODUCTION">xiii</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc" colspan="2">Part I.—Description of the industries and processes attended with risk of poisoning: incidence of such poisoning</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">Chemical Industry</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#I_THE_CHEMICAL_INDUSTRY">1</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub1">Sulphuric acid industry (sulphur dioxide): use of sulphuric acid</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_4">4</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Its effects on health</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_9">9</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub1">Hydrochloric acid, saltcake and soda industry</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_14">14</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Their effects on health</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_20">20</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub1">Use of sulphate and sulphide of soda</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_22">22</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Ultramarine</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_22">22</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Sulphonal</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_22">22</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Diethyl sulphate</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_23">23</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub1">Chlorine, chloride of lime and chlorates</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_23">23</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Their effect on health</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_26">26</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub1">Other chlorine compounds and their use as well as bromine, iodine and fluorine</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_29">29</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Chlorides of phosphorus</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_30">30</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Chlorides of sulphur</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_31">31</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Zinc chloride</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_32">32</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Rock salt</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_32">32</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub1">Organic chlorine compounds</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_32">32</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Carbon oxychloride (phosgene)</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_32">32</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Carbon chlorine compounds (aliphatic)</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_33">33</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Methyl chloride</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_33">33</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Methylene chloride</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_34">34</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Carbon tetrachloride</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_34">34</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Ethyl chloride</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_34">34</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Monochloracetic acid</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_34">34</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Chloral</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_34">34</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Chloroform</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_34">34</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Chloride of nitrogen</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_35">35</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Cyanogen chloride</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_35">35</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Chlorobenzene</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_35">35</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub3">Benzo trichloride, benzyl chloride</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_35">35</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub3"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[viii]</a></span>Nitro- and dinitro-chlorobenzene</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_35">35</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Iodine and iodine compounds</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_36">36</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Bromine and bromine compounds</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_36">36</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub3">Methyl iodide and methyl bromide</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_36">36</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Fluorine compounds</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_37">37</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub3">Hydrofluoric and silicofluoric acids</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_38">38</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub1">Manufacture and uses of nitric acid</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_39">39</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Its effect on health</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_40">40</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub1">Nitric and nitrous salts and compounds</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_44">44</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Barium nitrate</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_44">44</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Ammonium nitrate</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_44">44</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Lead nitrate</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_44">44</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Mercurous and mercuric nitrate</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_44">44</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Silver nitrate</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_45">45</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Sodium nitrite</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_45">45</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Amyl nitrite</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_45">45</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub1">Manufacture of explosives and their effects</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_45">45</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Fulminate of mercury</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_46">46</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Nitro-glycerin</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_46">46</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Dynamite</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_47">47</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Gun cotton</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_48">48</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Collodion cotton, smokeless powder</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_48">48</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub1">Manufacture of phosphorus and lucifer matches and their effects</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_49">49</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Other uses of phosphorus and compounds of phosphorus</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_52">52</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub3">Phosphor-bronze</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_52">52</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub3">Sulphide of phosphorus</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_52">52</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub3">Phosphoretted hydrogen</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_52">52</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Superphosphate and artificial manure</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_53">53</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Basic slag</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_54">54</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub1">Chromium compounds and their uses</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_55">55</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Sodium and potassium bichromate</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_55">55</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Lead chromate and chrome colours</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_55">55</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Their effect on health</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_56">56</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub1">Manganese compounds and their effects</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_58">58</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub1">Mineral oil industry and the use of petroleum and benzine</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_59">59</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Chemical cleaning</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_61">61</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Their effect on health</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_61">61</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub1">Recovery and use of sulphur</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_64">64</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Its effect on health</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_65">65</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub1">Sulphuretted hydrogen and its effect</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_65">65</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub1">Preparation and use of carbon bisulphide in vulcanising, &c.</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_68">68</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Its effect on health</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_69">69</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub1">Preparation of illuminating gas</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_71">71</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Its effect on health</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_74">74</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub1">Coke ovens and risk from them</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_77">77</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub1">Other kinds of power and illuminating gas</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_80">80</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Producer gas</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_80">80</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Blast furnace gas</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_82">82</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Water gas</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_82">82</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Dowson and Mond gas</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_82">82</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Suction gas</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_83">83</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Acetylene (calcium carbide)</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_85">85</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[ix]</a></span>Their effect on health</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_87">87</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub1">Ammonia and ammonium compounds</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_90">90</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Use of ammonia and its effects</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_92">92</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub1">Cyanogen compounds</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_93">93</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Use of cyanide, and their effects</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_95">95</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub1">Coal tar and tar products</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_96">96</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Their effects on health</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_101">101</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Artificial organic dye stuffs (coal tar colours)</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_107">107</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub3">Their effects on health</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_112">112</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">Recovery and use of metals</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#II_SMELTING_OF_METALS">120</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub1">Lead poisoning in general</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_120">120</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub1">Lead, silver and zinc smelting</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_122">122</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Spelter works</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_125">125</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub1">Lead poisoning in lead smelting and spelter works</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_126">126</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub1">White lead and other use of lead colours</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_131">131</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Lead poisoning in the manufacture and use of white lead and lead paints</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_132">132</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub1">Manufacture of electric accumulators</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_134">134</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub1">The ceramic industry</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_135">135</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Coarse ware pottery</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_136">136</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Manufacture of stove tiles</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_137">137</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Stoneware and porcelain</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_138">138</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub1">Lead poisoning in letterpress printing</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_138">138</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub1">Lead poisoning in filecutting, polishing precious stones, musical instrument making, &c.</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_140">140</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub1">Mercury (poisoning in its recovery and use)</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_141">141</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Mercurial poisoning in water-gilding, coating mirrors, in felt hat making, &c.</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_142">142</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub1">Arsenic (poisoning in its recovery and in use of arsenic and arsenic compounds)</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_143">143</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Recovery of arsenic and white arsenic</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_143">143</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Poisoning by arseniuretted hydrogen gas</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_145">145</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub1">Antimony</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_146">146</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub1">Extraction of iron</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_146">146</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Ferro-silicon</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_149">149</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Zinc</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_151">151</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Copper, brass (brassfounders’ ague)</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_151">151</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Metal pickling</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_152">152</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">Other Industries</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#III_OCCURRENCE_OF_INDUSTRIAL_POISONING">153</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Treatment of stone and earths; lime burning, glass</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_153">153</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Treatment of animal products</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_154">154</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Preparation of vegetable foodstuffs</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_154">154</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Poisonous woods</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_154">154</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Textile industry</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_156">156</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc" colspan="2">Part II.—Pathology and treatment of industrial poisoning</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">Industrial poisons in general</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#I_INTRODUCTORY">157</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub1">Channels of absorption, classification, susceptibility, immunity</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_158">158</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub1">Fate of poisons in the body—absorption, cumulative action, excretion</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_162">162</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub1">General remarks on treatment</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_163">163</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">Industrial poisons in particular</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#II_INDUSTRIAL_POISONING_IN_PARTICULAR_INDUSTRIES">169</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub1"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x">[x]</a></span>Group: mineral acids, halogens, inorganic halogen compounds, alkalis</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_169">169</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Hydrochloric acid</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_170">170</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Hydrofluoric and silico-fluoric acids</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_171">171</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Sulphur dioxide and sulphuric acid</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_171">171</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Nitrous fumes, nitric acid</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_172">172</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Chlorine, bromine, iodine</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_173">173</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Chlorides of phosphorus, sulphur and zinc</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_174">174</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Ammonia</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_175">175</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Alkalis</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_176">176</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub1">Group: Metals and metal-compounds</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_176">176</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Lead and its compounds</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_177">177</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Zinc and its alloys</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_182">182</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Mercury and its compounds</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_183">183</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Manganese and its compounds</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_184">184</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Chromium and its compounds</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_185">185</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Nickel salts (nickel carbonyl)</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_186">186</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Copper</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_188">188</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Silver and its compounds</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_188">188</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub1">Group: Arsenic, Phosphorus</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_189">189</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Arsenic and its oxides</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_189">189</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Phosphorus</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_190">190</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Phosphoretted hydrogen</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_191">191</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub1">Group: Sulphuretted hydrogen, carbon bisulphide, and cyanogen (nerve poisons)</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_192">192</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Sulphuretted hydrogen</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_192">192</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Carbon bisulphide</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_193">193</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Cyanogen compounds</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_195">195</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub1">Group: Arseniuretted hydrogen and carbonic oxide (blood poisons)</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_197">197</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub1">Group: Hydrocarbons of the aliphatic and aromatic series and their halogen and hydroxyl substitution products</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_202">202</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Sub-group: Hydrocarbons of mineral oils and their distillation products (benzine, paraffin, &c.)</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_202">202</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Sub-group: Hydrocarbons of the aromatic series</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_204">204</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub3">Benzene and its homologues</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_204">204</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub3">Naphthalene</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_208">208</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Sub-group: Halogen substitution products of the aliphatic series (narcotic poisons)</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_208">208</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Sub-group: Halogen substitution products of the benzene series</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_209">209</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Sub-group: Hydroxyl substitution products of the fatty series</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_210">210</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub1">Group: Nitro- and amido-derivatives of the aliphatic and aromatic series</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_211">211</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Sub-group: Nitro-derivatives of the aliphatic series</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_212">212</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Sub-group: Nitro- and amido-derivatives of the aromatic series</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_212">212</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub1">Turpentine, pyridene, alkaloids, nicotine, poisonous woods</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_215">215</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc" colspan="2">Part III.—Preventive measures against industrial poisoning</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">General preventive measures</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#GENERAL_MEASURES">217</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub1">International action, notification of poisoning, schedules of poisons</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_218">218</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub1">Special preventive measures for workers—selection, periodical medical examination, co-operation of workers, &c.</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_226">226</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Rescue appliances</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_230">230</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Washing accommodation and baths</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_237">237</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub1"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi">[xi]</a></span>Removal of dust and fumes by exhaust ventilation</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_242">242</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">Preventive Measures in Particular Industries</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#PARTICULAR_INDUSTRIES">256</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub1">Sulphuric acid industry</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_256">256</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub1">Hydrochloric acid and soda industries</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_257">257</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub1">Chlorine, bleaching powder, chlorine compounds</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_259">259</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub1">Manufacture of nitric acid and explosives</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_260">260</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub1">Artificial manures, basic slag</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_261">261</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub1">Chromium and its compounds</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_265">265</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub1">Petroleum, benzine</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_267">267</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub1">Phosphorus, lucifer matches</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_268">268</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub1">Bisulphide of carbon</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_271">271</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub1">Illuminating gas, tar production</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_275">275</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub1">Gas power plant</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_276">276</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub1">Acetylene gas installations</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_278">278</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub1">Ammonia</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_279">279</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub1">Cyanogen, cyanogen compounds</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_280">280</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub1">Coal tar, tar products</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_280">280</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub1">Organic dye-stuffs, coal tar colours</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_285">285</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub1">Recovery and use of metals</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_288">288</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Iron</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_289">289</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Lead</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_292">292</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub3">Lead smelting</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_299">299</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub3">Electric accumulators</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_305">305</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub3">White lead and lead colours</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_310">310</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub3">Letterpress printing</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_316">316</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub3">Ceramic industry</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_319">319</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub3">File cutting</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_321">321</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub3">Other uses of lead</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_322">322</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Zinc smelting</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_323">323</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub3">Brass casting, metal pickling</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_325">325</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Recovery and use of mercury</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_326">326</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Arsenic and its compounds</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_328">328</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub2">Gold and silver</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_329">329</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">Preventive Measures in other trades</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#OTHER_TRADES">329</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub1">Manufacture and use of varnishes</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_330">330</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub1">Production of vegetable foods</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_332">332</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub1">Wood working</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_335">335</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub1">Paper manufacture</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_336">336</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub1">Textile industries</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_336">336</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">Appendix</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#APPENDIX">339</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">Index</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#INDEX">355</a></td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xii" id="Page_xii">[xii]</a></span></p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xiii" id="Page_xiii">[xiii]</a></span></p> - -<h2 id="INTRODUCTION">INTRODUCTION</h2> - -<p>The attempt to systematise from the scientific standpoint -the mass of material that has been collected about poisons -is a very heavy task, even for the toxicologist who desires to -treat his subject comprehensively. How much greater is the -difficulty of writing a systematic book on industrial poisoning -keeping practical application in the forefront!</p> - -<p>Technical considerations which are decisive in the causation -and prevention of industrial poisoning are here of especial -moment, and must naturally influence classification of the -subject-matter when the object is to assist those concerned in -factory hygiene.</p> - -<p>Bearing this in mind, I have divided the subject into -three parts. The arrangement of the first, which gives as -complete a statement as possible of the occurrence of industrial -poisoning, into industries and processes was determined on -technical grounds. The second, which amplifies the first, -attempts to summarise the pathology or symptoms of the -various forms of poisoning. The references to the literature -of the particular subjects—as exhaustive as I could make -them—will lighten further study. To these two parts, following -on knowledge of causation and symptoms, the third, in -which preventive measures are outlined, is linked.</p> - -<p>The apparent drawback in use of the book is that one -form of poisoning has often to be referred to in three places. -But, I hope, this is more than counterbalanced by the completeness -of the scheme which results from the subdivision of -the subject.</p> - -<p>The pathology of industrial poisoning necessitates frequent -repetition when describing the branches of industry giving<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xiv" id="Page_xiv">[xiv]</a></span> -rise to the intoxication, as one and the same form can occur -in the most varied processes. The numerous instances of -actual cases of poisoning quoted must therefore be regarded -as conforming to the same pathological type. Similarly, -preventive measures require separate systematic treatment in -order to avoid constant repetition which would otherwise -obscure the general survey. Quite a number of means of -prevention apply equally to several industries in which the -same cause is at work. The success attained by thus simplifying -the issues is the greater because such common measures -are the easier to carry through and to supervise.</p> - -<p>The method therefore has been adopted only after serious -reflection and has been directed mainly by practical considerations.</p> - -<p>Recent cases which have either been reported or come to -the knowledge of the author have been given, with particulars -as exact as possible. Cases dating back some time have been -omitted intentionally so as to exclude everything which did -not correspond with the present conditions of industry and -trade. Historical facts only receive consideration in so far -as they are fundamentally important and necessary for the -sake of completeness.</p> - -<p>The details given in Part I of actual instances will supply -material for fresh efforts, renewed investigation, and new points -of attack.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[1]</a></span></p> - -<h1>INDUSTRIAL POISONING</h1> - -<h2 id="PART_I">PART I<br /> -<span class="smaller"><i>DESCRIPTION OF THE INDUSTRIES AND -PROCESSES ATTENDED WITH RISK -OF POISONING; INCIDENCE OF SUCH -POISONING</i></span></h2> - -<h3 id="I_THE_CHEMICAL_INDUSTRY">I. THE CHEMICAL INDUSTRY</h3> - -<h4>GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS AS TO INCIDENCE OF INDUSTRIAL -POISONING</h4> - -<p>The chemical industry offers naturally a wide field for the -occurrence of industrial poisoning. Daily contact with the -actual poisonous substances to be prepared, used, stored, and -despatched in large quantity gives opportunity for either -acute or chronic poisoning—in the former case from sudden -accidental entrance into the system of fairly large doses, -as the result of defective or careless manipulation, and, in the -latter, constant gradual absorption (often unsuspected) of -the poison in small amount.</p> - -<p>The industry, however, can take credit for the way in -which incidence of industrial poisoning has been kept down -in view of the magnitude and variety of the risks which often -threaten. This is attributable to the comprehensive hygienic -measures enforced in large chemical works keeping abreast of -modern advance in technical knowledge. A section of this -book deals with the principles underlying these measures. -Nevertheless, despite all regulations, risk of poisoning cannot<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span> -be wholly banished. Again and again accidents and illness -occur for which industrial poisoning is responsible. Wholly -to prevent this is as impossible as entirely to prevent accidents -by mechanical guarding of machinery.</p> - -<p>Owing to the unknown sources of danger, successful -measures to ward it off are often difficult. The rapid advance -of this branch of industry, the constant development of new -processes and reactions, the frequent discovery of new materials -(with properties at first unknown, and for a long time insufficiently -understood, but nevertheless indispensable), constantly -give rise to new dangers and possibilities of danger, of which -an accident or some disease with hitherto unknown symptoms -is the first indication. Further, even when the dangerous -effects are recognised, there may often be difficulty in devising -appropriate precautions, as circumstances may prevent immediate -recognition of the action of the poison. We cannot -always tell, for instance, with the substances used or produced -in the processes, which is responsible for the poisoning, because, -not infrequently, the substances in question are not chemically -pure, but may be either raw products, bye-products, &c., -producing mixtures of different bodies or liberating different -chemical compounds as impurities.</p> - -<p>Hence difficulty often arises in the strict scientific explanation -of particular cases of poisoning, and, in a text-book such -as this, difficulty also of description. A rather full treatment -of the technical processes may make the task easier and help -to give a connected picture of the risks of poisoning in the -chemical industry. Such a procedure may be especially -useful to readers insufficiently acquainted with chemical -technology.</p> - -<p>We are indebted to Leymann<a href="#endnote1" id="endnote-ref1"><span class="endnote-marker">1</span></a> and Grandhomme<a href="#endnote2" id="endnote-ref2"><span class="endnote-marker">2</span></a> especially -for knowledge of incidence of industrial poisoning in -this industry. The statistical data furnished by them are the -most important proof that poisoning, at any rate in large -factories, is not of very frequent occurrence.</p> - -<p>Leymann’s statistics relate to a large modern works in -which the number employed during the twenty-three years of -observation increased from 640 in the year 1891 to 1562 in -1904, giving an average of about 1000 yearly, one-half of whom -might properly be defined as ‘chemical workers.’ The factory<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span> -is concerned in the manufacture of sulphuric, nitric, and hydrochloric -acids, alkali, bichromates, aniline, trinitro-phenol, -bleaching powder, organic chlorine compounds, and potassium -permanganate.</p> - -<p>These statistics are usefully complemented by those of -Grandhomme drawn from the colour works at Höchst a-M. -This large aniline works employs from 2600 to 2700 workers; -the raw materials are principally benzene and its homologues, -naphthalene and anthracene. The manufacture includes the -production of coal-tar colours, nitro- and dinitro-benzene, -aniline, rosaniline, fuchsine, and other aniline colours, and -finally such pharmaceutical preparations as antipyrin, dermatol, -sanoform, &c. Of the 2700 employed, 1400 are chemical -workers and the remainder labourers.</p> - -<p>These two series of statistics based on exact observations -and covering allied chemical manufacture are taken together. -They seek to give the answer to the question—How many and -what industrial poisonings are found?</p> - -<p>The figures of Leymann (on an average of 1000 workers -employed per annum) show 285 cases of poisoning reported -between the years 1881 and 1904. Of these 275 were caused -by aniline, toluidine, nitro- and dinitro-benzene, nitrophenol, -nitrochloro and dinitrochloro benzene. Three were fatal and -several involved lengthy invalidity (from 30 to 134 days, owing -to secondary pneumonia). Included further are one severe -case of chrome (bichromate) poisoning (with nephritis as a -sequela), five cases of lead poisoning, three of chlorine, and one -of sulphuretted hydrogen gas. In the Höchst a-M. factory -(employing about 2500 workers) there were, in the ten years -1883-92, only 129 cases of poisoning, of which 109 were -due to aniline. Later figures for the years 1893-5 showed -122 cases, of which 43 were due to aniline and 76 to lead -(contracted mostly in the nitrating house). Grandhomme -mentions further hyperidrosis among persons employed on -solutions of calcium chloride, injury to health from inhalation -of methyl iodide vapour in the antipyrin department, a fatal -case of benzene poisoning (entering an empty vessel in which -materials had previously been extracted with benzene), and -finally ulceration and perforation of the septum of the nose -in several chrome workers.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span></p> - -<p>The number of severe cases is not large, but it must be -remembered that the factories to which the figures relate are -in every respect models of their kind, amply provided with -safety appliances and arrangements for the welfare of the -workers. The relatively small amount of poisoning is to be -attributed without doubt to the precautionary measures taken. -Further, in the statistics referred to only those cases are -included in which the symptoms were definite, or so severe as -to necessitate medical treatment. Absorption of the poison -in small amount without producing characteristic symptoms, -as is often the case with irritating or corrosive fumes, and such -as involve only temporary indisposition, are not included. -Leymann himself refers to this when dealing with illness -observed in the mineral acid department (especially sulphuric -acid), and calls attention to the frequency of affections of the -respiratory organs among the persons employed, attributing -them rightly to the irritating and corrosive effect of the acid -vapour. Elsewhere he refers to the frequency of digestive -disturbance among persons coming into contact with sodium -sulphide, and thinks that this may be due to the action of -sulphuretted hydrogen gas.</p> - -<p>Nevertheless, the effect of industrial poisons on the health -of workers in chemical factories ought on no account to be -made light of. The admirable results cited are due to a proper -recognition of the danger, with consequent care to guard -against it. Not only have Grandhomme and Leymann<a name="FNanchor_1" id="FNanchor_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[A]</a> -rendered great services by their work, but the firms in question -also, by allowing such full and careful inquiries to be undertaken -and published.</p> - -<h4>SULPHURIC ACID (SULPHUR DIOXIDE)</h4> - -<p><span class="smcap">Manufacture.</span>—Sulphur dioxide, generally obtained by -roasting pyrites in furnaces of various constructions, or, more -rarely, by burning brimstone or sulphur from the spent oxide -of gas-works, serves as the raw material for the manufacture -of sulphuric acid. Before roasting the pyrites is crushed, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span> -‘lump ore’ then separated from the ‘smalls,’ the former -roasted in ‘lump-burners’ or kilns (generally several roasting -furnace hearths united into one system), and the latter -preferably in Malétra and Malétra-Schaffner shelf-burners -(<a href="#fig1">fig. 1</a>) composed of several superimposed firebrick shelves. -The pyrites is charged on to the uppermost shelf and gradually -worked downwards. Pyrites residues are not suitable for direct -recovery of iron, but copper can be recovered from residues -sufficiently rich in metal by the wet process; the residues -thus freed of copper and sulphur are then smelted for -recovery of iron.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;" id="fig1"> - -<img src="images/fig1.jpg" width="400" height="350" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 1.</span>—Pyrites Burner for Smalls (<i>after Lueger</i>)</p> - -</div> - -<p>Utilisation for sulphuric acid manufacture of the sulphur -dioxide given off in the calcining of zinc blende (see Spelter -works), impracticable in reverberatory furnaces, has been -made possible at the Rhenania factory by introduction of -muffle furnaces (several superimposed), because by this means -the gases led off are sufficiently concentrated, as they are not -diluted with the gases and smoke from the heating fires. -This method, like any other which utilises the gases from -roasting furnaces, has great hygienic, in addition to economical, -advantages, because escape of sulphur dioxide gas is avoided. -Furnace gases, too poor in sulphur dioxide to serve for direct -production of sulphuric acid, can with advantage be made to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span> -produce liquid anhydrous sulphur dioxide. Thus, the sulphur -dioxide gas from the furnaces is first absorbed by water, driven -off again by boiling, cooled, dried, and liquefied by pressure.</p> - -<p>The gaseous sulphur dioxide obtained by any of the -methods described is converted into sulphuric acid either by -(<i>a</i>) the chamber process or (<i>b</i>) the contact process.</p> - -<p>In the <i>lead chamber process</i> the furnace gases pass through -flues in which the flue dust and a portion of the arsenious acid -are deposited into the Glover tower at a temperature of about -300° C., and from there into the lead chambers where oxidation -of the sulphur dioxide into sulphuric acid takes place, in the -presence of sufficient water, by transference of the oxygen of -the air through the intervention of the oxides of nitrogen. -The gases containing oxides of nitrogen, &c., which are drawn -out of the lead chambers, have the nitrous fumes absorbed in -the Gay-Lussac tower (of which there are one or two in series), -by passage through sulphuric acid which is made to trickle -down the tower. The sulphuric acid so obtained, rich in -oxides of nitrogen, and the chamber acid are led to the Glover -tower for the purpose of denitration and concentration, so -that all the sulphuric acid leaves the Glover as Glover acid of -about 136-144° Tw. Losses in nitrous fumes are best made -up by addition of nitric acid at the Glover or introduction -into the first chamber. The deficiency is also frequently made -good from nitre-pots.</p> - -<p>The lead chambers (<a href="#fig2">fig. 2</a>) are usually constructed entirely—sides, -roof, and floor—of lead sheets, which are joined together -by means of a hydrogen blowpipe. The sheets forming the -roof and walls are supported, independent of the bottom, on -a framework of wood. The capacity varies from 35,000 to -80,000 cubic feet. The floor forms a flat collecting surface for -the chamber acid which lutes the chamber from the outer air. -The necessary water is introduced into the chamber as steam -or fine water spray.</p> - -<p>The Glover and Gay-Lussac towers are lead towers. The -Glover is lined with acid-proof bricks and filled with acid-proof -packing to increase the amount of contact. The Gay-Lussac -is filled with coke over which the concentrated sulphuric -acid referred to above flows, forming, after absorption -of the nitrous fumes, nitro-sulphuric acid.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;" id="fig2"> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 2a.</span>—Lead Chamber System—Section through X X (<i>after Ost</i>)</p> - -<img src="images/fig2.jpg" width="500" height="700" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 2b.</span>—Lead Chamber System—Plan</p> - -<ul> -<li>A Pyrites Burner</li> -<li>B Glover Tower</li> -<li>C Draft Regulator</li> -<li>D, D´ Lead Chambers</li> -<li>E Air Shaft</li> -<li>F, F,´ F,´´ F´´´ Acid Reservoirs</li> -<li>G Acid Egg</li> -<li>H Cooler</li> -<li>J Gay-Lussac Tower</li> -</ul> - -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span></p> - -<p>As already stated, two Gay-Lussac towers are usually -connected together, or where there are several lead-chamber -systems there is, apart from the Gay-Lussac attached to each, -a central Gay-Lussac in addition, common to the whole series. -The introduction of several Gay-Lussac towers has the advantage -of preventing loss of the nitrous fumes as much as possible—mainly -on economical grounds, as nitric acid is expensive. -But this arrangement is at the same time advantageous on -hygienic grounds, as escape of poisonous gases containing -nitrous fumes, &c., is effectually avoided. The acids are -driven to the top of the towers by compressed air. The whole -system—chambers and towers—is connected by means of -wide lead conduits. Frequently, for the purpose of quickening -the chamber process (by increasing the number of condensing -surfaces) Lunge-Rohrmann plate towers are inserted in the -system—tall towers lined with lead in which square perforated -plates are hung horizontally, and down which diluted sulphuric -acid trickles.</p> - -<p>To increase the draught in the whole system a chimney is -usual at the end, and, in addition, a fan of hard lead or earthenware -may be introduced in front of the first chamber or -between the two Gay-Lussac towers. Maintenance of a -constant uniform draught is not only necessary for technical -reasons, but has hygienic interest, since escape of injurious -gases is avoided (see also Part III).</p> - -<p>The chamber acid (of 110°-120° Tw. = 63-70 %) and the -stronger Glover acid (of 136°-144° Tw. = 75-82 %) contain -impurities. In order to obtain for certain purposes pure -strong acid the chamber acid is purified and concentrated. -The impurities are notably arsenious and nitrous acids (Glover -acid is N free), lead, copper, and iron. Concentration (apart -from that to Glover acid in the Glover tower) is effected by -evaporation in lead pans to 140° Tw. and finally in glass balloons -or platinum stills to 168° Tw. (= 97 %). The lead pans are -generally heated by utilising the waste heat from the furnaces -or by steam coils in the acid itself, or even by direct firing.</p> - -<p>Production of sulphuric acid by the <i>contact method</i> depends -on the fact that a mixture of sulphur dioxide and excess of -oxygen (air) combines to form sulphur trioxide at a moderate heat -in presence of a contact substance such as platinised asbestos<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span> -or oxide of iron. The sulphur dioxide must be carefully -cleaned and dried, and with the excess of air is passed through -the contact substance. If asbestos carrying a small percentage -of finely divided platinum is the contact substance, it is -generally used in the form of pipes; oxide of iron (the residue -of pyrites), if used, is charged into a furnace. Cooling by a -coil of pipes and condensation in washing towers supplied with -concentrated sulphuric acid always forms a part of the process. -A fan draws the gases from the roasting furnaces and drives -them through the system. The end product is a fuming -sulphuric acid containing 20-30 per cent. SO₃. From this by -distillation a concentrated acid and a pure anhydride are -obtained. From a health point of view it is of importance -to know that all sulphuric acid derived from this anhydride -is pure and free from arsenic.</p> - -<p>The most important <i>uses</i> of sulphuric acid are the following: -as chamber acid (110°-120° Tw.) in the superphosphate, -ammonium sulphate, and alum industries; as Glover acid -(140°-150° Tw.) in the Leblanc process, i.e. saltcake and -manufacture of hydrochloric acid, and to etch metals; as -sulphuric acid of 168° Tw. in colour and explosives manufacture -(nitric acid, nitro-benzene, nitro-glycerine, gun-cotton, -&c.); as concentrated sulphuric acid and anhydride for the -production of organic sulphonic acids (for the alizarin and -naphthol industry) and in the refining of petroleum and -other oils. Completely de-arsenicated sulphuric acid is used -in making starch, sugar, pharmaceutical preparations, and -in electrical accumulator manufacture.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Effects on Health.</span>—The health of sulphuric acid workers -cannot in general be described as unfavourable.</p> - -<p>In comparison with chemical workers they have, it is said, -relatively the lowest morbidity. Although in this industrial -occupation no special factors are at work which injure in -general the health of the workers, there is a characteristic -effect, without doubt due to the occupation—namely, disease -of the respiratory organs. Leymann’s figures are sufficiently -large to show that the number of cases of diseases of the -respiratory organs is decidedly greater in the sulphuric acid -industry than among other chemical workers. He attributes -this to the irritating and corrosive effect of sulphur dioxide<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span> -and sulphuric acid vapour on the mucous membrane of the -respiratory tract, as inhalation of these gases can never be -quite avoided, because the draught in the furnace and chamber -system varies, and the working is not always uniform. -Strongly irritating vapours escape again in making a high -percentage acid in platinum vessels, which in consequence -are difficult to keep air-tight. Of greater importance than -these injurious effects from frequent inhalation of small -quantities of acid vapours, or employment in workrooms -in which the air is slightly charged with acid, is the accidental -sudden inhalation of large quantities of acid gases, which -may arise in the manufacture, especially by careless attendance. -Formerly this was common in charging the roasting furnaces -when the draught in the furnace, on addition of the pyrites, -was not strengthened at the same time. This can be easily -avoided by artificial regulation of the draught.</p> - -<p>Accidents through inhalation of acid gases occur further -when entering the lead chambers or acid tanks, and in emptying -the towers. Heinzerling relates several cases taken from -factory inspectors’ reports. Thus, in a sulphuric acid factory -the deposit (lead oxysulphate) which had collected on the -floor of a chamber was being removed: to effect this the lead -chambers were opened at the side. Two of the workers, who -had probably been exposed too long to the acid vapours -evolved in stirring up the deposit, died a short time after they -had finished the work. A similar fatality occurred in cleaning -out a nitro-sulphuric acid tank, the required neutralisation -of the acid by lime before entering having been omitted. Of -the two workers who entered, one died the next day; the other -remained unaffected. The deceased had, as the post mortem -showed, already suffered previously from pleurisy. A fatality -from breathing nitrous fumes is described fully in the report -of the Union of Chemical Industry for the year 1905. The -worker was engaged with two others in fixing a fan to a lead -chamber; the workers omitted to wait for the arrival of the -foreman who was to have supervised the operation. Although -the men used moist sponges as respirators, one of them inhaled -nitrous fumes escaping from the chamber in such quantity -that he died the following day.</p> - -<p>Similar accidents have occurred in cleaning out the Gay-Lussac<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span> -towers. Such poisonings have repeatedly occurred -in Germany. Fatal poisoning is recorded in the report of -the Union of Chemical Industry, in the emptying and cleaning -of a Gay-Lussac tower despite careful precautions. The -tower, filled with coke, had been previously well washed with -water, and during the operation of emptying, air had been -constantly blown through by means of a Körting’s injector. -The affected worker had been in the tower about an hour; -two hours later symptoms of poisoning set in which proved -fatal in an hour despite immediate medical attention. As -such accidents kept on recurring, the Union of Chemical -Industry drew up special precautions to be adopted in the -emptying of these towers, which are printed in Part III.</p> - -<p>Naturally, in all these cases it is difficult to say exactly -which of the acid gases arising in the production of sulphuric -acid was responsible for the poisoning. In the fatal cases -cited, probably nitrous fumes played the more important part.</p> - -<p>Poisoning has occurred in the transport of sulphuric acid. -In some of the cases, at all events, gaseous impurities, especially -arseniuretted hydrogen, were present.</p> - -<p>Thus, in the reports of the German Union of Chemical -Industry for the year 1901, a worker succumbed through -inhalation of poisonous gases in cleaning out a tank waggon -for the transport of sulphuric acid. The tank was cleaned of -the adhering mud, as had been the custom for years, by a -man who climbed into it. No injurious effects had been -noted previously at the work, and no further precautions were -taken than that one worker relieved another at short intervals, -and the work was carried on under supervision. On the -occasion in question, however, there was an unusually large -quantity of deposit, although the quality of the sulphuric -acid was the same, and work had to be continued longer. -The worker who remained longest in the tank became ill on his -way home and died in hospital the following day; the other -workers were only slightly affected. The sulphuric acid used -by the firm in question immediately before the accident came -from a newly built factory in which anhydrous sulphuric -acid had been prepared by a special process. The acid was -Glover acid, and it is possible that selenium and arsenic -compounds were present in the residues. Arseniuretted<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span> -hydrogen might have been generated in digging up the mud. -Two similar fatalities are described in the report of the same -Union for the year 1905. They happened similarly in cleaning -out a sulphuric acid tank waggon, and in them the arsenic in -the acid was the cause. Preliminary swilling out with water -diluted the remainder of the sulphuric acid, but, nevertheless, -it acted on the iron of the container. Generation of hydrogen -gas is the condition for the reduction of the arsenious acid -present in sulphuric acid with formation of arseniuretted -hydrogen. In portions of the viscera arsenic was found. -Lately in the annual reports of the Union of Chemical Industry -for 1908 several cases of poisoning are described which were -caused by sulphuric acid. A worker took a sample out of a -vessel of sulphuric acid containing sulphuretted hydrogen gas. -Instead of using the prescribed cock, he opened the man-hole -and put his head inside, inhaling concentrated sulphuretted -hydrogen gas. He became immediately unconscious and -died. Through ignorance no use was made of the oxygen -apparatus.</p> - -<p>Another fatality occurred through a foreman directing -some workers, contrary to the regulations against accidents -from nitrous gases, to clean a vessel containing nitric and -sulphuric acids. They wore no air helmets: one died shortly -after from inhalation of nitrous fumes. Under certain circumstances -even the breaking of carboys filled with sulphuric acid -may give rise to severe poisoning through inhalation of acid -gases. Thus a fatality<a href="#endnote3" id="endnote-ref3"><span class="endnote-marker">1</span></a> occurred to the occupier of a workroom -next some premises in which sulphuric acid carboys had been -accidentally broken. Severe symptoms developed the same -night, and he succumbed the next morning in spite of treatment -with oxygen. A worker in the factory became seriously -ill but recovered.</p> - -<p>A similar case is described<a href="#endnote4" id="endnote-ref4"><span class="endnote-marker">2</span></a> in a factory where concentrated -sulphuric acid had been spilt. The workers covered the spot -with shavings, which resulted in strong development of sulphur -dioxide, leading to unconsciousness in one worker.</p> - -<p>The frequent observation of the injurious effect of acid -gases on the teeth of workers requires mention; inflammation -of the eyes of workers also is attributed to the effects of -sulphuric acid.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span></p> - -<p>Leymann’s statistics show <i>corrosions and burns</i> among -sulphuric acid workers to be more than five times that among -other classes. Such burns happen most frequently from -carelessness. Thus, in the reports of the Union of Chemical -Industry for 1901, three severe accidents are mentioned -which occurred from use of compressed air. In two cases the -acid had been introduced before the compressed air had been -turned off; in the third the worker let the compressed air -into the vessel and forgot to turn off the inlet valve. Although -the valves were provided with lead guards, some of the acid -squirted into the worker’s face. In one case complete blindness -followed, in a second blindness in one eye, and in the third -blindness in one eye and impaired vision of the other.</p> - -<p>Besides these dangers from the raw material, bye-products, -and products of the manufacture, <i>lead poisoning</i> has been -reported in the erection and repair of lead chambers. The -lead burners generally use a hydrogen flame; the necessary -hydrogen is usually made from zinc and sulphuric acid and -is led to the iron by a tube. If the zinc and sulphuric acid -contain arsenic, the very dangerous arseniuretted hydrogen is -formed, which escapes through leakages in the piping, or is -burnt in the flame to arsenious acid.</p> - -<p>Further, the lead burners and plumbers are exposed to the -danger of chronic lead poisoning from insufficient observance -of the personal precautionary measures necessary to guard -against it (see Part III). Those who are constantly engaged -in burning the lead sheets and pipes of the chambers suffer -not infrequently from severe symptoms. Unfortunately, the -work requires skill and experience, and hence alternation of -employment is hardly possible.</p> - -<p>Finally, mention should be made of poisoning by <i>arseniuretted -hydrogen gas</i> from vessels filled with sulphuric acid containing -arsenic as an impurity, and by sulphuretted hydrogen -gas in purifying the acid itself. In the manufacture of liquid -<i>sulphur dioxide</i>, injury to health can arise from inhalation of -the acid escaping from the apparatus. The most frequent -cause for such escape of sulphur dioxide is erosion of the walls -of the compressor pumps and of the transport vessels, in -consequence of the gas being insufficiently dried, as, when -moist, it attacks iron.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span></p> - -<p>Sulphur dioxide will come up for further consideration -when describing the industrial processes giving rise to it, or in -which it is used.</p> - -<h4>HYDROCHLORIC ACID, SALTCAKE, AND SODA</h4> - -<p><span class="smcap">Manufacture.</span>—The production of hydrochloric acid -(HCl), sodium sulphate (Na₂SO₄), and sodium sulphide (Na₂S) -forms part of the manufacture of soda (Na₂CO₃) by the Leblanc -process. The products first named increase in importance, -while the Leblanc soda process is being replaced more and more -by the manufacture of soda by the Solvay ammonia process, -so much so that on the Continent the latter method predominates -and only in England does the Leblanc process hold -its ground.</p> - -<p>Health interests have exercised an important bearing on -the development of the industries in question. At first, in the -Leblanc process the hydrochloric acid gas was allowed to -escape into the atmosphere, being regarded as a useless bye-product. -Its destructive action on plant life and the inconvenience -caused to the neighbourhood, in spite of erection of -high chimneys, demanded intervention. In England the evils -led to the enactment of the Alkali Acts—the oldest classical -legislative measures bearing on factory hygiene—by which the -Leblanc factories were required to condense the vapour by -means of its absorption in water, and this solution of the acid -is now a highly valued product. And, again, production of -nuisance—inconvenience to the neighbourhood through the -soda waste—was the main cause of ousting one of the oldest -and most generally used methods of chemical industrial production. -Although every effort was made to overcome the -difficulties, the old classical Leblanc process is gradually but -surely yielding place to the modern Solvay process, which -has no drawback on grounds of health.</p> - -<p>We outline next the main features of the <i>Leblanc soda -process</i>, which includes, as has been mentioned, also the manufacture -of hydrochloric acid, sodium sulphate and sulphide.</p> - -<p>The first part of the process consists in the production of the -sulphate from salt and sulphuric acid, during which hydrochloric -acid is formed; this is carried out in two stages -represented in the following formulæ:</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span></p> - -<ul> -<li>1. NaCl + H₂SO₄ = NaHSO₄ + HCl.</li> -<li>2. NaCl + NaHSO₄ = Na₂SO₄ + HCl.</li> -</ul> - -<p>The first stage in which bisulphate is produced is carried -out at a moderate heat, the second requires a red heat. The -reactions, therefore, are made in a furnace combining a pan and -muffle furnace.</p> - -<p>This saltcake muffle furnace is so arranged that the pan can -be shut off from the muffle by a sliding-door (D). The pan -(A) and muffle (E) have separate flues for carrying off the -hydrochloric acid developed (B, F). First, common salt is -treated with sulphuric (Glover) acid in the cast-iron pan. When -generation of hydrochloric acid vapour has ceased, the sliding-door -is raised and the partly decomposed mixture is pushed -through into the muffle, constructed of fire-resisting bricks and -tiles, and surrounded by the fire gases. While the muffle is -being raised to red heat, the sulphate must be repeatedly -stirred with a rake in order, finally, while still hot and giving off -acid vapour, to be drawn out at the working doors into iron -boxes provided with doors, where the material cools. The acid -vapour given off when cooling is drawn through the top of the -box into the furnace.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;" id="fig3"> - -<img src="images/fig3.jpg" width="400" height="200" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 3.</span>—Saltcake Muffle Furnace—Section <i>(after Ost</i>)</p> - -<p class="caption">A Pan; B, F Pipes for hydrochloric acid vapour; D Shutter; E Muffle, -O Coke fire.</p> - -</div> - -<p>Mechanical stirrers, despite their advantage from a health -point of view, have not answered because of their short life.</p> - -<p>The valuable bye-product of the sulphate process, <i>hydrochloric -acid</i>, is led away separately from the pan and the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span> -muffle, as is seen, into one absorption system. The reason of -the separation is that the gas from the pan is always the more -concentrated. The arrangement of the absorbing apparatus -is illustrated in <a href="#fig4">fig. 4</a>.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;" id="fig4"> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 4a.</span>—Preparation of Hydrochloric Acid—Plan (<i>after Lueger</i>)</p> - -<ul> -<li>A, A´ Earthenware pipes</li> -<li>B, B´ Sandstone cooling towers</li> -<li>C, C Series of Woulff’s bottles</li> -<li>D, E Condenser wash towers</li> -</ul> - -<img src="images/fig4.jpg" width="500" height="650" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 4b.</span>—Elevation</p> - -</div> - -<p>The gases are led each through earthenware pipes or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span> -channels of stone pickled with tar (A´), first into small towers -of Yorkshire flags (B), where they are cooled and freed from flue -dust and impurities (sulphuric acid) by washing. They are -next led through a series (over fifty) of Woulff bottles (bombonnes) -one metre high, made of acid-resisting stoneware. -The series is laid with a slight inclination towards the furnace, -and water trickles through so that the gases coming from the -wash towers are brought into contact with water in the one -case already almost saturated, whilst the gas which is poorest -in hydrochloric acid meets with fresh water. From the bombonne -situated next to the wash tower the prepared acid is -passed as a rule through another series. The last traces of -hydrochloric acid are then removed by leading the gases from -the Woulff bottles up two water towers of stoneware (D and E), -which are filled partly with earthenware trays and partly with -coke; above are tanks from which the water trickles down over -the coke. The residual gases from both sets of absorbing -apparatus now unite in a large Woulff bottle before finally -being led away through a duct to the chimney stack.</p> - -<p>Less frequently absorption of hydrochloric acid is effected -without use of Woulff bottles, principally in wash towers such -as the Lunge-Rohrmann plate tower.</p> - -<p>In the purification of hydrochloric acid, de-arsenicating by -sulphuretted hydrogen or by barium sulphide, &c., and separation -of sulphuric acid by addition of barium chloride, have to be -considered.</p> - -<p>Another method for production of sulphate and hydrochloric -acid, namely, the Hargreaves process, is referred to later.</p> - -<p>We return now to the further working up of the sodium -sulphate into sulphide and soda. The conversion of the -sulphate into soda by the Leblanc method is effected by -heating with coal and calcium carbonate, whereby, through the -action of the coal, sodium sulphide forms first, which next -with the calcium carbonate becomes converted into sodium -carbonate and calcium sulphide.</p> - -<p>The reactions are:</p> - -<ul> -<li>Na₂SO₄ + 2C = Na₂S + 2CO₂</li> -<li>Na₂S + CaCO₃ = Na₂CO₃ + CaS</li> -<li>CaCO₃ + C = CaO + 2CO.</li> -</ul> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span></p> - -<p>The reactions are carried out in small works in open -reverberatory furnaces having two platforms on the hearth, and -with continuous raking from one to the other which, as the -equations show, cause escape of carbonic -acid gas and carbonic oxide.</p> - -<p>Such handworked furnaces, apart -from their drawbacks on health -grounds, have only a small capacity, -and in large works their place is -taken by revolving furnaces—closed, -movable cylindrical furnaces—in which -handwork is replaced by the mechanical -revolution of the furnace and from -which a considerably larger output -and a product throughout good in -quality are obtained.</p> - -<p>The <i>raw soda</i> thus obtained in -the black ash furnace is subjected to -lixiviation by water in iron tanks in -which the impurities or tank waste -(see below) are deposited. The crude -soda liquor so obtained is then further -treated and converted into calcined -soda, crystal soda, or caustic soda. -In the production of calcined soda -the crude soda liquor is first purified -(‘oxidised’ and ‘carbonised’) by -blowing through air and carbonic acid -gas, pressed through a filter press, and -crystallised by evaporation in pans -and calcined, i.e. deprived of water by -heat.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;" id="fig5"> - -<img src="images/fig5.jpg" width="500" height="125" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 5.</span>—Revolving Black Ash Furnace—Elevation (<i>after Lueger</i>)</p> - -<p class="caption">A Firing hearth; B Furnace; C Dust box.</p> - -</div> - -<p><i>Crystal soda</i> is obtained from well-purified -tank liquor by crystallising in -cast-iron vessels.</p> - -<p>Caustic soda is obtained by introducing lime suspended in -iron cages into the soda liquor in iron caustic pots, heating with -steam, and agitating by blowing in air.</p> - -<p>The resulting clear solution is drawn off and evaporated in -cast-iron pans.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span></p> - -<p>As already mentioned, the <i>tank waste</i> in the Leblanc process, -which remains behind—in amount about equal to the soda -produced after lixiviation of the raw soda with water—constitutes -a great nuisance. It forms mountains round the -factories, and as it consists principally of calcium sulphide -and calcium carbonate, it easily weathers under the influence -of air and rain, forming soluble sulphur compounds and -developing sulphuretted hydrogen gas—an intolerable source -of annoyance to the district.</p> - -<p>At the same time all the sulphur introduced into the -industry as sulphuric acid is lost in the tank waste. This loss -of valuable material and the nuisance created led to attempts—partially -successful—to recover the sulphur.</p> - -<p>The best results are obtained by the Chance-Claus method, -in which the firebrick ‘Claus-kiln’ containing ferric oxide -(previously heated to dull redness) is used. In this process -calcium sulphide is acted on by carbonic acid with evolution of -gas so rich in sulphuretted hydrogen that it can be burnt to -sulphur dioxide and used in the lead chambers for making sulphuric -acid. Sulphur also as such is obtained by the method.</p> - -<p>These sulphur-recovery processes which have hardly been -tried on the Continent—only the United Alkali Company in -England employs the Chance-Claus on a large scale—were, as -has been said, not in a position to prevent the downfall of the -Leblanc soda industry. Before describing briefly the Solvay -method a word is needed as to other processes for manufacture -of sulphate and hydrochloric acid.</p> - -<p><i>Hargreaves’ process</i> produces sodium sulphate (without -previous conversion of sulphur dioxide into sulphuric acid) -directly by the passage of gases from the pyrites burners, air -and steam, through salt blocks placed in vertical cast-iron -retorts, a number of which are connected in series. A fan draws -the gases through the system and leads the hydrochloric acid -fumes to the condenser.</p> - -<p>Sodium sulphate is used in the manufacture of glass, -ultramarine, &c. Further, the sulphate is converted into -Glauber’s salts by dissolving the anhydrous sulphate obtained -in the muffle furnace, purifying with lime, and allowing the -clear salt solution to crystallise out in pans.</p> - -<p>A further use of the sulphate is the preparation of sodium<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span> -sulphide, which is effected (as in the first part of the Leblanc -soda process) by melting together sulphate and coal in a -reverberatory furnace. If the acid sulphate (bisulphate) or -sulphate containing bisulphate is used much sulphur dioxide -gas comes off.</p> - -<p>The mass is then lixiviated in the usual soda liquor vats -and the lye either treated so as to obtain crystals or evaporated -to strong sodium sulphide which is poured like caustic soda -into metal drums where it solidifies.</p> - -<p>In <i>Solvay’s ammonia soda process</i> ammonia recovered from -the waste produced in the industry is led into a solution of -salt until saturation is complete. This is effected generally in -column apparatus such as is used in distillation of spirit. The -solution is then driven automatically by compressed air to -the carbonising apparatus in which the solution is saturated -with carbonic acid; this apparatus is a cylindrical tower -somewhat similar to the series of vessels used for saturating -purposes in sugar factories through which carbonic acid gas -passes. In this process crystalline bi-carbonate of soda is -first formed, which is separated from the ammoniacal mother -liquor by filtration, centrifugalisation, and washing. The -carbonate is then obtained by heating (calcining in pans), -during which carbonic acid gas escapes, and this, together -with the carbonic acid produced in the lime kilns, is utilised -for further carbonisation again. The lime formed during -the production of carbonic acid in the lime kilns serves to drive -the ammonia out of the ammoniacal mother liquor, so that the -ammonia necessary for the process is recovered and used over -and over again. The waste which results from the action of -the lime on the ammonium chloride liquor is harmless—calcium -chloride liquor.</p> - -<p>The <i>electrolytic</i> manufacture of soda from salt requires -mention, in which chlorine (at the anode) and caustic soda -(at the cathode) are formed; the latter is treated with carbonic -acid to make soda.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Effects on Health.</span>—Leymann’s observations show that -in the department concerned with the Leblanc soda process -and production of sodium sulphide, relatively more sickness -is noted than, for example, in the manufacture of sulphuric -and nitric acids.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span></p> - -<p>In the preparation of the sulphate, possibility of injury to -health or poisoning arises from the fumes containing hydrochloric -or sulphuric acid in operations at the muffle furnace; -in Hargreaves’ process there may be exposure to the effect -of sulphur dioxide. Hydrochloric and sulphuric acid vapours -can escape from the muffle furnace when charging, from -leakages in it, and especially when withdrawing the still hot -sulphate. Large quantities of acid vapours escape from the -glowing mass, especially if coal is not added freely and if it -is not strongly calcined. Persons employed at the saltcake -furnaces suffer, according to Jurisch, apart from injury to -the lungs, from defective teeth. The teeth of English workers -especially, it is said, from the practice of holding flannel in -their mouths with the idea of protecting themselves from the -effect of the vapours, are almost entirely eroded by the action -of the hydrochloric acid absorbed by the saliva. Hydrochloric -acid vapour, further, can escape from the absorbing apparatus -if this is not kept entirely sealed, and the hydrochloric acid -altogether absorbed—a difficult matter. Nevertheless, definite -acute industrial poisoning from gaseous hydrochloric acid is -rare, no doubt because the workers do not inhale it in concentrated -form.</p> - -<p>Injury to the skin from the acid absorbed in water may -occur in filling, unloading, and transport, especially when in -carboys, but the burns, if immediately washed, are very slight -in comparison with those from sulphuric or nitric acids. -Injury to health or inconvenience from sulphuretted hydrogen -is at all events possible in the de-arsenicating process by means -of sulphuretted hydrogen gas. At the saltcake furnace when -worked by hand the fumes containing carbonic oxide gas may -be troublesome. In the production of caustic soda severe -corrosive action on the skin is frequent. Leymann found that -13·8 per cent. of the persons employed in the caustic soda -department were reported as suffering from burns, and calls -attention to the fact that on introducing the lime into the hot -soda lye the contents of the vessel may easily froth over. -Heinzerling refers to the not infrequent occurrence of eye -injuries in the preparation of caustic soda, due to the spurting -of lye or of solid particles of caustic soda.</p> - -<p>The tank waste gives rise, as already stated, to inconvenience<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span> -from the presence of sulphuretted hydrogen. In the recovery -of the sulphur and treatment of the tank waste, sulphuretted -hydrogen and sulphur dioxide gases are evolved. According -to Leymann, workers employed in removing the waste and -at the lye vats frequently suffer from inflammation of the -eyes. Further, disturbance of digestion has been noted in -persons treating the tank waste, which Leymann attributes -to the unavoidable development of sulphuretted hydrogen -gas.</p> - -<p>In the manufacture of sodium sulphide similar conditions -prevail. Leymann found in this branch relatively more -cases of sickness than in any other; diseases of the digestive -tract especially appeared to be more numerous. Leymann -makes the suggestion that occurrence of disease of the digestive -organs is either favoured by sodium sulphide when swallowed -as dust, or that here again sulphuretted hydrogen gas plays a -part. Further corrosive effect on the skin and burns may -easily arise at work with the hot corrosive liquor.</p> - -<p>In the Solvay ammonia process ammonia and carbonic acid -gas are present, but, so far as I know, neither injury to health -nor poisoning have been described among persons employed -in the process. Indeed, the view is unanimous that this method -of manufacture with its technical advantages has the merit -also of being quite harmless. As may be seen from the preceding -description of the process there is no chance of the -escape of the gases named into the workrooms.</p> - -<h4>USE OF SULPHATE AND SULPHIDE</h4> - -<p><i>Ultramarine</i> is made from a mixture of clay, sulphate -(Glauber’s salts), and carbon—sulphate ultramarine; or clay, -sulphur, and soda—soda ultramarine. These materials are -crushed, ground, and burnt in muffle furnaces. On heating -the mass in the furnace much sulphur dioxide escapes, which -is a source of detriment to the workmen and the neighbourhood.</p> - -<p><i>Sulphonal</i> (CH₃)₂C(SO₂C₂H₅)₂, diethylsulphone dimethylmethane, -used medically as a hypnotic, is obtained from -mercaptan formed by distillation of ethyl sulphuric acid with -sodium or potassium sulphide. The mercaptan is converted -into mercaptol, and this by oxidation with potassium permanganate -into sulphonal. The volatile mercaptan has a most<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span> -disgusting odour, and clings for a long time even to the clothes -of those merely passing through the room.</p> - -<p><i>Diethyl sulphate</i> ((C₂H₅)₂SO₄).—Diethyl sulphate obtained -by the action of sulphuric acid on alcohol has led to poisoning -characterised by corrosive action on the respiratory tract.<a href="#endnote5" id="endnote-ref5"><span class="endnote-marker">1</span></a> As -the substance in the presence of water splits up into sulphuric -acid and alcohol, this corrosive action is probably due to the -acid. It is possible, however, that the molecule of diethyl -sulphate as such has corrosive action.</p> - -<p>Contact with diethyl sulphate is described as having led to -fatal poisoning.<a href="#endnote6" id="endnote-ref6"><span class="endnote-marker">2</span></a> </p> - -<p>A chemist when conducting a laboratory experiment -dropped a glass flask containing about 40 c.c. of diethyl -sulphate, thereby spilling some over his clothes. He went on -working, and noticed burns after some time, quickly followed -by hoarseness and pain in the throat. He died of severe inflammation -of the lungs. A worker in another factory was dropping -diethyl sulphate and stirring it into an at first solid, and later -semi-liquid, mass for the purpose of ethylating a dye stuff. In -doing so he was exposed to fumes, and at the end of the work -complained of hoarseness and smarting of the eyes. He died -of double pneumonia two days later. Post mortem very -severe corrosive action on the respiratory tract was found, -showing that the diethyl sulphuric acid had decomposed -inside the body and that nascent sulphuric acid had given -rise to the severe burns. The principal chemist who had -superintended the process suffered severely from hoarseness -at night, but no serious consequences followed.</p> - -<p>It is stated also that workmen in chemical factories coming -into contact with the fumes of diethyl sulphate ester suffer -from eye affections.<a href="#endnote7" id="endnote-ref7"><span class="endnote-marker">3</span></a> </p> - -<h4>CHLORINE, CHLORIDE OF CALCIUM, AND CHLORATES</h4> - -<p><span class="smcap">Manufacture.</span>—The older processes depend on the preparation -of chlorine and hydrochloric acid by an oxidation -process in which the oxidising agent is either a compound rich -in oxygen—usually common manganese dioxide (pyrolusite)—or -the oxygen of the air in the presence of heated copper -chloride (as catalytic agent). The former (Weldon process)<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span> -is less used now than either the latter (Deacon process) or the -electrolytic manufacture of chlorine.</p> - -<p>In the <i>Weldon process</i> from the still liquors containing -manganous chloride the manganese peroxide is regenerated, -and this so regenerated Weldon mud, when mixed with fresh -manganese dioxide, is used to initiate the process. This is -carried out according to the equations:</p> - -<ul> -<li>MnO₂ + 4HCl = MnCl₄ + 2H₂O</li> -<li>MnCl₄ = MnCl₂ + Cl₂.</li> -</ul> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;" id="fig6"> - -<img src="images/fig6.jpg" width="500" height="250" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 6.</span>—Preparation of Chlorine—Diaphragm Method (<i>after Ost</i>)</p> - -</div> - -<p>Hydrochloric acid is first introduced into the chlorine still -(vessels about 3 m. in height, of Yorkshire flag or fireclay), -next the Weldon mud gradually, and finally steam to bring the -whole to boiling; chlorine comes off in a uniform stream. -The manganous chloride still liquor is run into settling tanks. -The regeneration of the manganous chloride liquor takes -place in an oxidiser which consists of a vertical iron cylinder -in which air is blown into the heated mixture of manganous -chloride and milk of lime. The dark precipitate so formed, -‘Weldon mud,’ as described, is used over again, while the -calcium chloride liquor runs away.</p> - -<p>The <i>Deacon process</i> depends mainly on leading the stream -of hydrochloric acid gas evolved from a saltcake pot mixed -with air and heated into a tower containing broken bricks of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span> -the size of a nut saturated with copper chloride. Chlorine is -evolved according to the equation:</p> - -<ul> -<li>2HCl + O = 2Cl + H₂O.</li> -</ul> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;" id="fig7"> - -<img src="images/fig7.jpg" width="400" height="300" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 7.</span>—Preparation of Chlorine—Bell Method -(<i>after Ost</i>)</p> - -</div> - -<p>The <i>electrolytic production</i> of chlorine with simultaneous -production of <i>caustic alkali</i> is increasing and depends on the -splitting up of alkaline chlorides by a current of electricity. The -chlorine evolved at the anode and the alkaline liquor formed at -the cathode must be kept apart to prevent secondary formation -of hypochlorite and chlorate (see below). This separation is -generally effected in one of three ways: (1) In the diaphragm -process (Griesheim-Elektron -chemical -works) the anode -and cathode are kept -separate by porous -earthenware diaphragms -arranged as -illustrated in <a href="#fig6">fig. 6</a>. -The anode consists -of gas carbon, or is -made by pressing -and firing a mixture -of charcoal and tar; -it lies inside the -diaphragm. The -chlorine developed -in the anodal cell is carried away by a pipe. The metal -vessel serves as the cathode. The alkali, which, since it contains -chloride, is recovered as caustic soda after evaporation -and crystallisation, collects in the cathodal space lying -outside the diaphragm. (2) By the Bell method (chemical -factory at Aussig) the anodal and cathodal fluids, which keep -apart by their different specific weights, are separated by a -stoneware bell; the poles consist of sheet iron and carbon. -The containing vessel is of stoneware. (3) In the mercury -process (England) sodium chloride is electrolysed without -a diaphragm, mercury serving as the cathode. This takes -up the sodium, which is afterwards recovered from the -amalgam formed by means of water.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span></p> - -<p>If <i>chlorate</i> or <i>hypochlorite</i> is to be obtained electrolytically, -electrodes of the very resistant but expensive platinum iridium -are used without a diaphragm. Chlorine is developed—not -free, but combined with the caustic potash. The bleaching -fluid obtained electrolytically in this way is a rival of bleaching -powder.</p> - -<p><i>Bleaching powder</i> is made from chlorine obtained by the -Weldon or Deacon process. Its preparation depends on the -fact that calcium hydrate takes up chlorine in the cold with -formation of calcium hypochlorite after the equation:</p> - -<ul> -<li>2Ca(OH)₂ + 4Cl = Ca(ClO)₂ + CaCl₂ + 2H₂O.</li> -</ul> - -<p>The resulting product contains from 35 to 36 per cent. -chlorine, which is given off again when treated with acids.</p> - -<p>The preparation of chloride of lime takes place in bleaching -powder chambers made of sheets of lead and Yorkshire flagstones. -The lime is spread out on the floors of these and -chlorine introduced. Before the process is complete the lime -must be turned occasionally.</p> - -<p>In the manufacture of bleaching powder from Deacon -chlorine, Hasenclever has constructed a special cylindrical -apparatus (<a href="#fig8">fig. 8</a>), consisting of several superimposed cast-iron -cylinders in which are worm arrangements carrying the lime -along, while chlorine gas passes over in an opposite direction. -This continuous process is, however, only possible for the -Deacon chlorine strongly diluted with nitrogen and oxygen -and not for undiluted Weldon gas.</p> - -<p><i>Liquid chlorine</i> can be obtained by pressure and cooling -from concentrated almost pure Weldon chlorine gas.</p> - -<p><i>Potassium chlorate</i>, which, as has been said, is now mostly -obtained electrolytically, was formerly obtained by passing -Deacon chlorine into milk of lime and decomposing the calcium -chlorate formed by potassium chloride.</p> - -<p>Chlorine and chloride of lime are used for bleaching; -chlorine further is used in the manufacture of colours; chloride -of lime as a mordant in cloth printing and in the preparation of -chloroform; the chlorates are oxidising agents and used in -making safety matches. The manufacture of organic chlorine -products will be dealt with later.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;" id="fig8"> - -<img src="images/fig8.jpg" width="500" height="550" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 8.</span>—Preparation of Bleaching Powder. Apparatus of Hasenclever (<i>after Ost</i>)</p> - -<p class="caption">A Hopper for slaked lime; W Worm conveying lime; Z Toothed wheels; -K Movable covers; C Entrance for chlorine gas; D Pipe for escape of -chlorine-free gas; B Outlet shoot for bleaching powder</p> - -</div> - -<p><span class="smcap">Effects on Health.</span>—In these industries the possibility -of injury to health and poisoning by inhalation of chlorine -gas is prominent. Leymann has shown that persons employed -in the manufacture of chlorine and bleaching powder suffer -from diseases of the respiratory organs 17·8 per cent., as contrasted -with 8·8 per cent. in other workers: and this is without -doubt attributable to the injurious effect of chlorine gas, which -it is hardly possible to avoid despite the fact that Leymann’s<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span> -figures refer to a model factory. But the figures show also -that as the industry became perfected the number of cases of -sickness steadily diminished.</p> - -<p>Most cases occur from unsatisfactory conditions in the -production of chloride of lime, especially if the chloride of -lime chambers leak, if the lime is turned over while the -chlorine is being let in, by too early entrance into chambers -insufficiently ventilated, and by careless and unsuitable -methods of emptying the finished bleaching powder.</p> - -<p>The possibility of injury is naturally greater from the -concentrated gas prepared by the Weldon process than from -the diluted gas of the Deacon process—the more so as in the -latter the bleaching powder is made in the Hasenclever closed-in -cylindrical apparatus in which the chlorine is completely -taken up by the lime. The safest process of all is the electrolytic, -as, if properly arranged, there should be no escape of -chlorine gas. The chlorine developed in the cells (when carried -out on the large scale) is drawn away by fans and conducted in -closed pipes to the place where it is used.</p> - -<p>Many researches have been published as to the character -of the skin affection well known under the name of <i>chlorine -rash</i> (chlorakne). Some maintain that it is not due to chlorine -at all, but is an eczema set up by tar. Others maintain that -it is due to a combined action of chlorine and tar. Support to -this view is given by the observation that cases of chlorine rash, -formerly of constant occurrence in a factory for electrolytic -manufacture of chlorine, disappeared entirely on substitution -of magnetite at the anode for carbon.<a href="#endnote8" id="endnote-ref8"><span class="endnote-marker">1</span></a> The conclusion -seems justified that the constituents of the carbon or of the -surrounding material set up the condition.</p> - -<p>Chlorine rash has been observed in an alkali works where -chlorine was not produced electrolytically, and under conditions -which suggested that compounds of tar and chlorine were the -cause. In this factory for the production of salt cake by the -Hargreaves’ process cakes of rock salt were prepared and, for -the purpose of drying, conveyed on an endless metal band -through a stove. To prevent formation of crusts the band -was tarred. The salt blocks are decomposed in the usual -way by sulphur dioxide, steam, and oxygen of the air, and -the hydrochloric acid vapour led through Deacon towers in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span> -which the decomposition of the hydrochloric acid into chlorine -and water is effected by metal salts in the manner characteristic -of the Deacon process. These salts are introduced in small -earthenware trays which periodically have to be removed and -renewed; the persons engaged in doing this were those affected. -The explanation was probably that the tar sticking to the salt -blocks distilled in the saltcake furnaces and formed a compound -with the chlorine which condensed on the earthenware -trays. When contact with these trays was recognised as the -cause, the danger was met by observance of the greatest cleanliness -in opening and emptying the Deacon towers.</p> - -<p>Leymann<a href="#endnote9" id="endnote-ref9"><span class="endnote-marker">2</span></a> is certain that the rash is due to chlorinated -products which emanate from the tar used in the construction -of the cells. And the affection has been found to be much -more prevalent when the contents of the cells are emptied -while the contents are still hot than when they are first -allowed to get cold.</p> - -<p>Lehmann<a href="#endnote10" id="endnote-ref10"><span class="endnote-marker">3</span></a> has approached the subject on the experimental -side, and is of opinion that probably chlorinated tar derivatives -(chlorinated phenols) are the cause of the trouble. Both he and -Roth think that the affection is due not to external irritation -of the skin, but to absorption of the poisonous substances into -the system and their elimination by way of the glands of the -skin.</p> - -<p>In the section on manganese poisoning detailed reference -is made to the form of illness recently described in persons -employed in drying the regenerated Weldon mud.</p> - -<p>Mercurial poisoning is possible when mercury is used in -the production of chlorine electrolytically.</p> - -<p>In the manufacture of chlorates and hypochlorite, bleaching -fluids, &c., injury to health from chlorine is possible in the -same way as has been described above.</p> - -<h4>OTHER CHLORINE COMPOUNDS. BROMINE, IODINE, AND -FLUORINE</h4> - -<p>Chlorine is used for the production of a number of organic -chlorine compounds, and in the manufacture of bromine and -iodine, processes which give rise to the possibility of injury -to health and poisoning by chlorine; further, several of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span> -substances so prepared are themselves corrosive or irritating -or otherwise poisonous. Nevertheless, severe poisoning and -injurious effects can be almost entirely avoided by adoption -of suitable precautions. In the factory to which Leymann’s -figures refer, where daily several thousand kilos of chlorine -and organic chlorine compounds are prepared, a relatively -very favourable state of health of the persons employed was -noted. At all events the preparation of chlorine by the electrolytic -process takes place in closed vessels admirably adapted -to avoid any escape of chlorine gas except as the result of -breakage of the apparatus or pipes. When this happens, -however, the pipes conducting the gas can be immediately -disconnected and the chlorine led into other apparatus or -into the bleaching powder factory.</p> - -<p>As such complete precautionary arrangements are not -everywhere to be found, we describe briefly the most important -of the industries in question and the poisoning recognised in -them.</p> - -<p><i>Chlorides of phosphorus.</i>—By the action of dry chlorine -on an excess of heated amorphous phosphorus, trichloride is -formed (PCl₃), a liquid having a sharp smell and causing lachrymation, -which fumes in the air, and in presence of water decomposes -into phosphorous acid and hydrochloric acid. On heating -with dry oxidising substances it forms phosphorus oxychloride -(see below), which is used for the production of acid chlorides. -By continuous treatment with chlorine it becomes converted -into phosphorus pentachloride (PCl₅), which also is conveniently -prepared by passing chlorine through a solution of phosphorus -in carbon bisulphide, the solution being kept cold; it is crystalline, -smells strongly, and attacks the eyes and lungs. With -excess of water it decomposes into phosphoric acid and hydrochloric -acid: with slight addition of water it forms phosphorus -oxychloride (POCl₃). On the large scale this is prepared by -reduction of phosphate of lime in the presence of chlorine with -carbon or carbonic oxide. Phosphorus oxychloride, a colourless -liquid, fumes in the air and is decomposed by water into -phosphoric acid and hydrochloric acid.</p> - -<p>In the preparation of chlorides of phosphorus, apart -from the danger of chlorine gas and hydrochloric acid, the -poisonous effect of phosphorus and its compounds (see Phosphorus)<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span> -and even of carbon disulphide (as the solvent of -phosphorus) and of carbonic oxide (in the preparation of -phosphorus oxychloride) have to be taken into account.</p> - -<p>Further, the halogen compounds of phosphorus exert -irritant action on the eyes and lungs similar to chloride of -sulphur as a result of their splitting up on the moist mucous -membranes into hydrochloric acid and an oxyacid of phosphorus.<a href="#endnote11" id="endnote-ref11"><span class="endnote-marker">4</span></a> </p> - -<p>Unless, therefore, special measures are taken, the persons -employed in the manufacture of phosphorus chlorides suffer -markedly from the injurious emanations given off.<a href="#endnote12" id="endnote-ref12"><span class="endnote-marker">5</span></a> </p> - -<p>Leymann<a href="#endnote13" id="endnote-ref13"><span class="endnote-marker">6</span></a> mentions one case of poisoning by phosphorus -chloride as having occurred in the factory described by him. -By a defect in the outlet arrangement phosphorus oxychloride -flowed into a workroom. Symptoms of poisoning -(sensation of suffocation, difficulty of breathing, lachrymation, -&c.) at once attacked the occupants; before much gas had -escaped, the workers rushed out. Nevertheless, they suffered -from severe illness of the respiratory organs (bronchial catarrh -and inflammation of the lungs, with frothy, blood-stained -expectoration, &c.).<a href="#endnote14" id="endnote-ref14"><span class="endnote-marker">7</span></a> </p> - -<p><i>Chlorides of sulphur.</i>—Monochloride of sulphur (S₂Cl₂) is -made by passing dried, washed chlorine gas into molten -heated sulphur. The oily, brown, fuming liquid thus made -is distilled over into a cooled condenser and by redistillation -purified from the sulphur carried over with it. Sulphur monochloride -can take up much sulphur, and when saturated is -used in the vulcanisation of indiarubber, and, further, is used -to convert linseed and beetroot oil into a rubber substitute. -Monochloride of sulphur is decomposed by water into sulphur -dioxide, hydrochloric acid, and sulphur. By further action -of chlorine on the monochloride, sulphur dichloride (SCl₂) and -the tetrachloride (SCl₄) are formed.</p> - -<p>In its preparation and use (see also Indiarubber Manufacture) -the injurious action of chlorine, of hydrochloric acid, -and of sulphur dioxide comes into play.</p> - -<p>The monochloride has very irritating effects. Leymann cites -an industrial case of poisoning by it. In the German factory -inspectors’ reports for 1897 a fatal case is recorded. The -shirt of a worker became saturated with the material owing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span> -to the bursting of a bottle. First aid was rendered by pouring -water over him, thereby increasing the symptoms, which proved -fatal the next day. Thus the decomposition brought about by -water already referred to aggravated the symptoms.</p> - -<p><i>Zinc chloride</i> (ZnCl₂) is formed by heating zinc in presence of -chlorine. It is obtained pure by dissolving pure zinc in hydrochloric -acid and treating this solution with chlorine. Zinc -chloride is obtained on the large scale by dissolving furnace -calamine (zinc oxide) in hydrochloric acid. Zinc chloride is -corrosive. It is used for impregnating wood and in weighting -goods. Besides possible injury to health from chlorine and -hydrogen chloride, risk of arseniuretted hydrogen poisoning -is present in the manufacture if the raw materials contain -arsenic. Eulenburg considers that in soldering oppressive -zinc chloride fumes may come off if the metal to be soldered is -first wiped with hydrochloric acid and then treated with the -soldering iron.</p> - -<p><i>Rock salt.</i>—Mention may be made that even to salt in -combination with other chlorides (calcium chloride, magnesium -chloride, &c.) injurious effects are ascribed. Ulcers -and perforation of the septum of the nose in salt-grinders -and packers who were working in a room charged with salt -dust are described.<a href="#endnote15" id="endnote-ref15"><span class="endnote-marker">8</span></a> These effects are similar to those produced -by the bichromates.</p> - -<h4>Organic Chlorine Compounds</h4> - -<p><i>Carbon oxychloride</i> (COCl₂, carbonyl dichloride, phosgene) -is produced by direct combination of chlorine and carbonic -oxide in presence of animal charcoal. Phosgene is itself a very -poisonous gas which, in addition to the poisonous qualities of -carbonic oxide (which have to be borne in mind in view of -the method of manufacture), acts as an irritant of the mucous -membranes. Commercially it is in solution in toluene and -xylene, from which the gas is readily driven off by heating. -It is used in the production of various colours, such as crystal -violet, Victoria blue, auramine, &c.</p> - -<p>A fatal case of phosgene gas poisoning in the report -of the Union of Chemical Industry for 1905 deserves -mention. The phosgene was kept in a liquefied state in iron<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span> -bottles provided with a valve under 2·3 atm. pressure. The -valve of one of these bottles leaked, allowing large escape into -the workroom. Two workers tried but failed to secure the -valve. The cylinder was therefore removed by a worker, by -order of the manager, and placed in a cooling mixture, as -phosgene boils at 8° C. The man in question wore a helmet -into which air was pumped from the compressed air supply in -the factory. As the helmet became obscured through moisture -after five minutes the worker took it off. A foreman next put -on the cleaned mask, and kept the cylinder surrounded with -ice and salt for three-quarters of an hour, thus stopping the -escape of gas. Meanwhile, the first worker had again entered -the room, wearing a cloth soaked in dilute alcohol before his -mouth, in order to take a sack of salt to the foreman. An -hour and a half later he complained of being very ill, became -worse during the night, and died the following morning. -Although the deceased may have been extremely susceptible, -the case affords sufficient proof of the dangerous nature of -the gas, which in presence of moisture had decomposed into -carbonic acid and hydrochloric acid; the latter had acutely -attacked the mucous membrane of the respiratory passages -and set up fatal bronchitis. Further, it was found that -the leaden plugs of the valves had been eroded by the -phosgene.</p> - -<p>Three further cases of industrial phosgene poisoning have -been reported,<a href="#endnote16" id="endnote-ref16"><span class="endnote-marker">9</span></a> one a severe case in which there was bronchitis -with blood-stained expectoration, great dyspnœa, and weakness -of the heart’s action. The affected person was successfully -treated with ether and oxygen inhalations. Phosgene may -act either as the whole molecule, or is inhaled to such degree -that the carbonic oxide element plays a part.</p> - -<p>In another case of industrial phosgene poisoning the -symptoms were those of severe irritation of the bronchial -mucous membrane and difficulty of breathing.<a href="#endnote17" id="endnote-ref17"><span class="endnote-marker">10</span></a> The case -recovered, although sensitiveness of the air passages lasted a -long time.</p> - -<p><i>Carbon chlorine compounds</i> (<i>aliphatic series</i>).—<i>Methyl -chloride</i> (CH₃Cl) or chlormethane is prepared from methyl -alcohol and hydrochloric acid (with chloride of zinc) or methyl -alcohol, salt, and sulphuric acid. It is prepared in France on a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span> -large scale from beetroot <i>vinasse</i> by dry distillation of the -evaporation residue. The distillate, which contains methyl -alcohol, trimethylamine, and other methylated amines, is -heated with hydrochloric acid; the methyl chloride so obtained -is purified, dried and compressed. It is used in the preparation -of pure chloroform, in the coal-tar dye industry, and in surgery -(as a local anæsthetic). In the preparation of methyl chloride -there is risk from methyl alcohol, trimethylamine, &c. Methyl -chloride itself is injurious to health.</p> - -<p><i>Methylene chloride</i> (CH₂Cl₂, dichlormethane) is prepared in -a similar way. It is very poisonous.</p> - -<p><i>Carbon tetrachloride</i> (CCl₄, tetrachlormethane) is technically -important. It is prepared by passing chlorine gas into carbon -bisulphide with antimony or aluminium chloride. Carbon -tetrachloride is a liquid suitable for the extraction of fat or -grease (as in chemical cleaning), and has the advantage of being -non-inflammable. Carbon tetrachloride, so far as its poisonous -qualities are concerned, is to be preferred to other extractives -(see Carbon Bisulphide, Benzine, &c.); for the rest it causes -unconsciousness similar to chloroform.</p> - -<p>When manufactured industrially, in addition to the poisonous -effect of chlorine, the poisonous carbon bisulphide has also -to be borne in mind.</p> - -<p><i>Ethyl chloride</i> (C₂H₅Cl) is made in a way analogous to -methyl chloride by the action of hydrochloric acid on ethyl -alcohol and chloride of zinc. It is used in medicine as a -narcotic.</p> - -<p><i>Monochloracetic acid.</i>—In the preparation of monochloracetic -acid hydrochloric acid is developed in large quantity. -From it and anthranilic acid artificial indigo is prepared -(according to Heuman) by means of caustic potash.</p> - -<p><i>Chloral</i> (CCl₃CHO, trichloracetaldehyde) is produced by -chlorinating alcohol. Chloral is used in the preparation of -pure chloroform and (by addition of water) of chloral hydrate -(trichloracetaldehyde hydrate), the well-known soporific.</p> - -<p><i>Chloroform</i> (CHCl₃, trichlormethane).—Some methods for -the preparation of chloroform have been already mentioned -(Chloral, Methyl Chloride). Technically it is prepared by -distillation of alcohol or acetone with bleaching powder. The -workers employed are said to be affected by the stupefying<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span> -vapours. Further, there is the risk of chlorine gas from use of -chloride of lime.</p> - -<p><i>Chloride of nitrogen</i> (NCl₃) is an oily, volatile, very explosive, -strongly smelling substance, which irritates the eyes and nose -violently and is in every respect dangerous; it is obtained -from the action of chlorine or hypochlorous acid on sal-ammoniac. -The poisonous nature of these substances may -come into play. Risk of formation of chloride of nitrogen -can arise in the production of gunpowder from nitre containing -chlorine.</p> - -<p><i>Cyanogen chloride</i> (CNCl).—Cyanogen chloride is made -from hydrocyanic acid or cyanide of mercury and chlorine. -Cyanogen chloride itself is an extremely poisonous and irritating -gas, and all the substances from which it is made are -also poisonous. According to Albrecht cyanogen chloride -can arise in the preparation of red prussiate of potash (by -passage of chlorine gas into a solution of the yellow prussiate) -if the solution is treated with chlorine in excess; the workers -may thus be exposed to great danger.</p> - -<p><i>Chlorobenzene.</i>—In his paper referred to Leymann cites -three cases of poisoning by chlorobenzene, one by dinitrochlorobenzene, -and, further, three cases of burning by chlorobenzene -and one by benzoyl chloride (C₆H₅COCl). The last -named is made by treating benzaldehyde with chlorine, and -irritates severely the mucous membranes, while decomposing -into hydrochloric acid and benzoic acid.<a href="#endnote18" id="endnote-ref18"><span class="endnote-marker">11</span></a> Benzal chloride -(C₆H₅CHCl₂), benzo trichloride (C₆H₅CCl₃), and benzyl chloride -(C₆H₅CH₂Cl) are obtained by action of chlorine on boiling -toluene. The vapours of these volatile products irritate the -respiratory passages. In the manufacture there is risk from -the effect of chlorine gas and toluene vapour (see Benzene, -Toluene).</p> - -<p>Leymann<a href="#endnote19" id="endnote-ref19"><span class="endnote-marker">12</span></a> describes in detail six cases of poisoning in -persons employed in a chlorobenzene industry, of which two -were due to nitrochlorobenzene. Symptoms of poisoning—headache, -cyanosis, fainting, &c.—were noted in a person -working for three weeks with chlorobenzene.<a href="#endnote20" id="endnote-ref20"><span class="endnote-marker">13</span></a> </p> - -<p>In Lehmann’s opinion chlorine rash, the well-recognised -skin affection of chlorine workers, may be due to contact with -substances of the chlorbenzol group.<a href="#endnote21" id="endnote-ref21"><span class="endnote-marker">14</span></a> </p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span></p> - -<p><i>Iodine and iodine compounds.</i>—Formerly iodine was obtained -almost exclusively from the liquor formed by lixiviation -of the ash of seaweed (kelp, &c.); now the principal sources are -the mother liquors from Chili saltpetre and other salt industries. -From the concentrated liquor the iodine is set free by means -of chlorine or oxidising substances and purified by distillation -and sublimation. Iodine is used for the preparation of photographic -and pharmaceutical preparations, especially iodoform -(tri-iodomethane, CHI₃), which is made by acting with iodine -and caustic potash on alcohol, aldehyde, acetone, &c.</p> - -<p>Apart from possible injurious action of chlorine when used -in the preparation of iodine, workers are exposed to the possibility -of chronic iodine poisoning. According to Ascher<a href="#endnote22" id="endnote-ref22"><span class="endnote-marker">15</span></a> -irritation effects, nervous symptoms, and gastric ulceration -occur in iodine manufacture and use. He considers that -bromide of iodine used in photography produces these irritating -effects most markedly. Layet and also Chevallier in older -literature have made the same observations.</p> - -<p>The Swiss Factory Inspectors’ Report for 1890-1 describes -two acute cases of iodine poisoning in a factory where organic -iodine compounds were made; one terminated fatally (severe -cerebral symptoms, giddiness, diplopia, and collapse).</p> - -<p><i>Bromine and bromine compounds.</i>—Bromine is obtained -(as in the case of iodine) principally from the mother liquors of -salt works (especially Stassfurt saline deposits) by the action -of chlorine or nascent oxygen on the bromides of the alkalis -and alkaline earths in the liquors. They are chiefly used in -photography (silver bromide), in medicine (potassium bromide, -&c.), and in the coal-tar dye industry.</p> - -<p>The danger of bromine poisoning (especially of the chronic -form) is present in its manufacture and use, but there is no -positive evidence of the appearance of the bromine rash among -the workers. On the other hand, instances are recorded of -poisoning by methyl bromide, and the injurious effect of -bromide of iodine has been referred to.</p> - -<p><i>Methyl iodide and methyl bromide.</i>—Methyl iodide (CH₃I), -a volatile fluid, is obtained by distillation of wood spirit with -amorphous phosphorus and iodine; it is used in the production -of methylated tar colours and for the production of various -methylene compounds. Grandhomme describes, in the paper<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span> -already referred to, six cases, some very severe, of poisoning -by the vapour of methyl iodide among workers engaged in the -preparation of antipyrin, which is obtained by the action of -aceto-acetic ether on phenyl hydrazine, treatment of the pyrazolone -so obtained with methyl iodide, and decomposition of the -product with caustic soda. A case of methyl iodide poisoning -is described in a factory operative, who showed symptoms -similar to those described for methyl bromide except that the -psychical disturbance was more marked.<a href="#endnote23" id="endnote-ref23"><span class="endnote-marker">16</span></a> </p> - -<p>Three cases of methyl bromide (CH₃Br) poisoning are -described in persons preparing the compound.<a href="#endnote24" id="endnote-ref24"><span class="endnote-marker">17</span></a> One of these -terminated fatally. There is some doubt as to whether -these cases were really methyl bromide poisoning. But later -cases of methyl bromide poisoning are known, and hence the -dangerous nature of this chemical compound is undoubted. -Thus the Report of the Union of Chemical Industry for -1904 gives the following instance: Two workers who had to -deal with an ethereal solution of methyl bromide became ill -with symptoms of alcoholic intoxication. One suffered for a -long time from nervous excitability, attacks of giddiness, and -drowsiness. Other cases of poisoning from methyl bromide -vapour are recorded with severe nervous symptoms and even -collapse.</p> - -<p><i>Fluorine compounds.</i>—<i>Hydrogen fluoride</i> (HFl) commercially -is a watery solution, which is prepared by decomposition -of powdered fluorspar by sulphuric acid in cast-iron -vessels with lead hoods. The escaping fumes are collected in -leaden condensers surrounded with water; sometimes to get -a very pure product it is redistilled in platinum vessels.</p> - -<p>Hydrogen fluoride is used in the preparation of the fluorides -of antimony, of which antimony fluoride ammonium sulphate -(SbFl₃(NH₄)₂SO₄) has wide use in dyeing as a substitute for -tartar emetic. It is produced by dissolving oxide of antimony -in hydrofluoric acid with addition of ammonium sulphate and -subsequent concentration and crystallisation. Hydrofluoric -acid is used for etching glass (see also Glass Industry).</p> - -<p>In brewing, an unpurified silico-fluoric acid mixed with -silicic acid, clay, oxide of iron, and oxide of zinc called Salufer -is used as a disinfectant and preservative.</p> - -<p><i>Hydrofluoric acid and silicofluoric acid</i> (H₂SiFl₆) arise<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span> -further in the superphosphate industry by the action of -sulphuric acid on the phosphorites whereby silicofluoric acid -is obtained as a bye-product (see also Manufacture of Artificial -Manure). Hydrofluoric acid and its derivatives both in their -manufacture and use and in the superphosphate industry -affect the health of the workers.</p> - -<p>If hydrogen fluoride or its compounds escape into the -atmosphere they attack the respiratory passages and set up -inflammation of the eyes; further, workers handling the -watery solutions are prone to skin affections (ulceration).</p> - -<p>The following are examples of the effects produced.<a href="#endnote25" id="endnote-ref25"><span class="endnote-marker">18</span></a> A -worker in an art establishment upset a bottle of hydrofluoric -acid and wetted the inner side of a finger of the right hand. -Although he immediately washed his hands, a painful inflammation -with formation of blisters similar to a burn of the second -degree came on within a few hours. The blister became -infected and suppurated.</p> - -<p>A man and his wife wished to obliterate the printing on the -top of porcelain beer bottle stoppers with hydrofluoric acid. -The man took a cloth, moistened a corner of it, and then rubbed -the writing off. After a short time he noticed a slight burning -sensation and stopped. His wife, who wore an old kid glove -in doing the work, suffered from the same symptoms, the pain -from which in the night became unbearable, and in spite of -medical treatment gangrene of the finger-tips ensued. Healing -took place with suppuration and loss of the finger-nails.</p> - -<p>Injury of the respiratory passages by hydrofluoric acid has -often been reported. In one factory for its manufacture the -hydrofluoric acid vapour was so great that all the windows to a -height of 8 metres were etched dull.</p> - -<p>Several cases of poisoning by hydrofluoric acid were noted -by me when examining the certificates of the Sick Insurance -Society of Bohemia. In 1906 there were four due to inhalation -of vapour of hydrofluoric acid in a hydrofluoric acid factory, -with symptoms of corrosive action on the mucous membrane of -the respiratory tract. In 1907 there was a severe case in the -etching of glass.<a href="#endnote26" id="endnote-ref26"><span class="endnote-marker">19</span></a> </p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span></p> - -<h4>NITRIC ACID.</h4> - -<p><span class="smcap">Manufacture and Uses.</span>—<i>Nitric acid</i> (HNO₃) is obtained -by distillation when Chili saltpetre (sodium nitrate) is decomposed -by sulphuric acid in cast-iron retorts according to the -equation:</p> - -<ul> -<li>NaNO₃ + H₂SO₄ = NaHSO₄ + HNO₃.</li> -</ul> - -<p>Condensation takes place in fireclay Woulff bottles connected -to a coke tower in the same way as has been described in -the manufacture of hydrochloric acid.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;" id="fig9"> - -<img src="images/fig9.jpg" width="500" height="325" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 9.</span>—Preparation of Nitric Acid (<i>after Ost</i>)</p> - -</div> - -<p>Lunge-Rohrmann plate towers are also used instead of the -coke tower. Earthenware fans—as is the case with acid gases -generally—serve to aspirate the nitrous fumes.</p> - -<p>To free the nitric acid of the accompanying lower oxides of -nitrogen (as well as chlorine, compounds of chlorine and other -impurities) air is blown into the hot acid. The mixture of -sodium sulphate and sodium bisulphate remaining in the -retorts is either converted into sulphate by addition of salt or -used in the manufacture of glass.</p> - -<p>The nitric acid obtained is used either as such or mixed with -sulphuric acid or with hydrochloric acid.</p> - -<p>Pure nitric acid cannot at ordinary atmospheric pressure<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span> -be distilled unaltered, becomes coloured on distillation, and -turns red when exposed to light. It is extremely dangerous to -handle, as it sets light to straw, for example, if long in contact -with it. It must be packed, therefore, in kieselguhr earth, -and when in glass carboys forwarded only in trains for transport -of inflammable material.</p> - -<p>Red, <i>fuming nitric acid</i>, a crude nitric acid, contains much -nitrous and nitric oxides. It is produced if in the distillation -process less sulphuric acid and a higher temperature are -employed or (by reduction) if starch meal is added.</p> - -<p>The successful production of nitric acid from the air must be -referred to. It is effected by electric discharges in special -furnaces from which the air charged with nitrous gas is led into -towers where the nitric oxide is further oxidised (to tetroxide), -and finally, by contact with water, converted into nitric acid.</p> - -<p>Nitric acid is used in the manufacture of phosphoric acid, -arsenious acid, and sulphuric acid, nitro-glycerin and nitrocellulose, -smokeless powder, &c. (see the section on Explosives), -in the preparation of nitrobenzenes, picric acid, and other -nitro-compounds (see Tar Products, &c.). The diluted acid -serves for the solution and etching of metals, also for the preparation -of nitrates, such as the nitrates of mercury, silver, &c.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Effects on Health.</span>—Leymann considers that the average -number of cases and duration of sickness among persons employed -in the nitric acid industry are generally on the increase; -the increase relates almost entirely to burns which can hardly -be avoided with so strongly corrosive an acid. The number of -burns amounts almost to 12 per cent. according to Leymann’s -figures (i.e. on an average 12 burns per 100 workers), while -among the packers, day labourers, &c., in the same -industry the proportion is only 1 per cent. Affections -of the respiratory tract are fairly frequent (11·8 per cent. -as compared with 8·8 per cent. of other workers), which is no -doubt to be ascribed to the corrosive action of nitrous fumes -on the mucous membranes. Escape of acid fumes can occur -in the manufacture of nitric acid though leaky retorts, pipes, -&c., and injurious acid fumes may be developed in the workrooms -from the bisulphate when withdrawn from the retorts, -which is especially the case when excess of sulphuric acid -is used. The poisonous nature of these fumes is very<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span> -great, as is shown by cases in which severe poisoning has -been reported from merely carrying a vessel containing fuming -nitric acid.<a href="#endnote27" id="endnote-ref27"><span class="endnote-marker">1</span></a> </p> - -<p>Frequent accidents occur through the corrosive action of -the acid or from breathing the acid fumes—apart from the -dangers mentioned in the manufacture—in filling, packing, -and despatching the acid—especially if appropriate vessels -are not used and they break. Of such accidents several are -reported.</p> - -<p>Further, reports of severe poisoning from the use of nitric -acid are numerous. Inhalation of nitrous fumes (nitrous -and nitric oxides, &c.) does not immediately cause severe -symptoms or death; severe symptoms tend to come on some -hours later, as the examples cited below show.</p> - -<p>Occurrence of such poisoning has already been referred to -when describing the sulphuric acid industry. In the superphosphate -industry also poisoning has occurred by accidental -development of nitric oxide fumes on sodium nitrate mixing -with very acid superphosphate.</p> - -<p>Not unfrequently poisoning arises in pickling metals -(belt making, pickling brass; cf. the chapter on Treatment -of Metals). Poisoning by nitrous fumes has frequently -been reported from the action of nitric acid on organic substances -whereby the lower oxides of nitrogen—nitrous -and nitric oxides—are given off. Such action of nitric -acid or of a mixture of nitric and sulphuric acid on organic -substances is used for nitrating purposes (see Nitroglycerin; -Explosives; Nitrobenzol).</p> - -<p>Through want of care, therefore, poisoning can arise in these -industries. Again, this danger is present on accidental contact -of escaping acid with organic substances (wood, paper, leather, -&c.), as shown especially by fires thus created.<a href="#endnote28" id="endnote-ref28"><span class="endnote-marker">2</span></a> </p> - -<p>Thus, in a cellar were five large iron vessels containing a -mixture of sulphuric and nitric acids. One of the vessels was -found one morning to be leaking. The manager directed that -smoke helmets should be fetched, intending to pump out -the acid, and two plumbers went into the cellar to fix -the pump, staying there about twenty-five minutes. They -used cotton waste and handkerchiefs as respirators, but -did not put on the smoke helmets. One plumber suffered<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span> -only from cough, but the other died the same evening with -symptoms of great dyspnœa. At the autopsy severe inflammation -and swelling of the mucous membrane of the palate, -pharynx and air passages, and congestion of the lungs were -found.</p> - -<p>Two further fatal cases in the nitrating room are described -by Holtzmann. One of the two complained only a few hours -after entering the room of pains in the chest and giddiness. -He died two days later. The other died the day after entering -the factory, where he had only worked for three hours. In -both cases intense swelling and inflammation of the mucous -membrane was found.</p> - -<p>Holtzmann mentions cases of poisoning by nitrous fumes in -the heating of an artificial manure consisting of a mixture of -saltpetre, brown coal containing sulphur, and wool waste. -Fatalities have been reported in workers who had tried to -mop up the spilt nitric acid with shavings.<a href="#endnote29" id="endnote-ref29"><span class="endnote-marker">3</span></a> We quote the -following other instances<a href="#endnote30" id="endnote-ref30"><span class="endnote-marker">4</span></a> :</p> - -<p>(1) Fatal poisoning of a fireman who had rescued several -persons from a room filled with nitrous fumes the result of a -fire occasioned by the upsetting of a carboy. The rescued -suffered from bronchial catarrh, the rescuer dying from inflammation -and congestion of the lungs twenty-nine hours after the -inhalation of the gas.</p> - -<p>(2) At a fire in a chemical factory three officers and fifty-seven -firemen became affected from inhalation of nitrous -fumes, of whom one died.</p> - -<p>(3) In Elberfeld on an open piece of ground fifty carboys -were stored. One burst and started a fire. As a strong wind -was blowing the firemen were little affected by the volumes -of reddish fumes. Soon afterwards at the same spot some -fifty to sixty carboys were destroyed. Fifteen men successfully -extinguished the fire in a relatively still atmosphere in less -than half an hour. At first hardly any symptoms of discomfort -were felt. Three hours later all were seized with violent -suffocative attacks, which in one case proved fatal and in the -rest entailed nine to ten days’ illness from affection of the -respiratory organs.</p> - -<p>The Report of the Union for Chemical Industry for 1908 -describes a similar accident in a nitro-cellulose factory.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span></p> - -<p>Of those engaged in extinguishing the fire twenty-two were -affected, and in spite of medical treatment and use of the -oxygen apparatus three died.</p> - -<p>From the same source we quote the following examples:</p> - -<p>In a denitrating installation (see Nitro-glycerin; Explosives) -a man was engaged in blowing, by means of compressed air, -weak nitric acid from a stoneware vessel sunk in the ground -into a washing tower. As the whole system was already under -high pressure the vessel suddenly exploded, and in doing so -smashed a wooden vat containing similar acid, which spilt on -the ground with sudden development of tetroxide vapours. -The man inhaled much gas, but except for pains in the chest -felt no serious symptoms at the time and continued to work -the following day. Death occurred the next evening from -severe dyspnœa.</p> - -<p>A somewhat similar case occurred in the nitrating room of -a dynamite factory in connection with the cleaning of a waste -acid egg; the vessel had for several days been repeatedly -washed out with water made alkaline with unslaked lime. -Two men then in turn got into the egg in order to remove -the lime and lead deposit, compressed air being continuously -blown in through the manhole. The foreman remained -about a quarter of an hour and finished the cleaning -without feeling unwell. Difficulty of breathing came on -in the evening, and death ensued on the following day.</p> - -<p>In another case a worker was engaged in washing nitroxylene -when, through a leak, a portion of the contents collected in -a pit below. He then climbed into the pit and scooped the -nitroxylene which had escaped into jars. This work took -about three-quarters of an hour, and afterwards he complained -of difficulty of breathing and died thirty-six hours later.<a href="#endnote31" id="endnote-ref31"><span class="endnote-marker">5</span></a> </p> - -<p>A worker again had to control a valve regulating the -flow to two large vessels serving to heat or cool the nitrated -liquid. Both vessels were provided with pressure gauges and -open at the top. Through carelessness one of the vessels ran over, -and instead of leaving the room after closing the valve, the -man tried to get rid of the traces of his error, remaining in the -atmosphere charged with the fumes,<a href="#endnote32" id="endnote-ref32"><span class="endnote-marker">6</span></a> and was poisoned.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span></p> - -<h4>Nitric and Nitrous Salts and Compounds</h4> - -<p>When dissolving in nitric acid the substances necessary for -making the various nitrates, nitric and nitrous oxides escape. -In certain cases nitric and hydrochloric acids are used together -to dissolve metals such as platinum and gold and ferric oxides, -when chlorine as well as nitrous oxide escapes. Mention is -necessary of the following:</p> - -<p><i>Barium nitrate</i> (Ba(NO₃)₂) is prepared as a colourless -crystalline substance by acting on barium carbonate or barium -sulphide with nitric acid. Use is made of it in fireworks -(green fire) and explosives. In analogous way strontium -nitrate (Sr(NO₃)₂) is made and used for red fire.</p> - -<p><i>Ammonium nitrate</i> (NH₄NO₃), a colourless crystalline substance, -is obtained by neutralising nitric acid with ammonia -or ammonium carbonate, and is also made by dissolving -iron or tin in nitric acid. It is used in the manufacture of -explosives.</p> - -<p><i>Lead nitrate</i> (Pb(NO₃)₂), a colourless crystalline substance, -is made by dissolving lead oxide or carbonate in nitric acid. -It is used in dyeing and calico printing, in the preparation -of chrome yellow and other lead compounds, and mixed with -lead peroxide (obtained by treatment of red lead with nitric -acid) in the manufacture of lucifer matches. Apart from risk -from nitrous fumes (common to all these salts) there is risk -also of chronic lead poisoning.</p> - -<p><i>Nitrate of iron</i> (Fe(NO₃)₂), forming green crystals, is made -by dissolving sulphide of iron or iron in cold dilute nitric acid. -The so-called nitrate of iron commonly used in dyeing consists -of basic sulphate of iron (used largely in the black dyeing of -silk).</p> - -<p><i>Copper nitrate</i> (Cu(NO₃)₂), prepared in a similar way, is -also used in dyeing.</p> - -<p><i>Mercurous nitrate</i> (Hg₂(NO₃)₂) is of great importance -industrially, and is produced by the action of cold dilute -nitric acid on an excess of mercury. It is used for ‘carotting’ -rabbit skins in felt hat making, for colouring horn, for -etching, and for forming an amalgam with metals, in making -a black bronze on brass (art metal), in painting on porcelain, &c.</p> - -<p><i>Mercuric nitrate</i> (Hg(NO₃)₂) is made by dissolving mercury<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span> -in nitric acid or by treating mercury with excess of warm -nitric acid. Both the mercurous and mercuric salts act as -corrosives and are strongly poisonous (see also Mercury and -Hat Manufacture).</p> - -<p><i>Nitrate of silver</i> (AgNO₃) is obtained by dissolving silver -in nitric acid and is used commercially as a caustic in the well-known -crystalline pencils (lunar caustic). Its absorption into -the system leads to accumulation of silver in the skin—the -so-called argyria (see Silver). Such cases of chronic poisoning -are recorded by Lewin.<a href="#endnote33" id="endnote-ref33"><span class="endnote-marker">7</span></a> Argyria occurs among photographers -and especially in the silvering of glass pearls owing to introduction -of a silver nitrate solution into the string of pearls by -suction. In northern Bohemia, where the glass pearl industry -is carried on in the homes of the workers, I saw a typical case. -The cases are now rare, as air pumps are used instead of the -mouth.</p> - -<p><i>Sodium nitrite</i> (NaNO₂) is obtained by melting Chili saltpetre -with metallic lead in cast-iron vessels. The mass is -lixiviated and the crystals obtained on evaporation. The -lead oxide produced is specially suitable for making red -lead. Cases of lead poisoning are frequent and sometimes -severe. Roth<a href="#endnote34" id="endnote-ref34"><span class="endnote-marker">8</span></a> mentions a factory where among 100 employed -there were 211 attacks in a year.</p> - -<p><i>Amyl nitrite</i> (C₅H₁₁NO₂) is made by leading nitrous fumes -into iso-amyl alcohol and distilling amyl alcohol with potassium -nitrite and sulphuric acid. It is a yellowish fluid, the fumes -of which when inhaled produce throbbing of the bloodvessels -in the head and rapid pulse.</p> - -<p>For other nitric acid compounds see the following -section on Explosives and the section on Manufacture of Tar -Products (Nitro-benzene, &c.).</p> - -<h4>Explosives</h4> - -<p>Numerous explosives are made with aid of nitric acid or a -mixture of nitric and sulphuric acids. Injury to health and -poisoning—especially through development of nitrous fumes—can -be caused. Further, some explosives are themselves -industrial poisons, especially those giving off volatile fumes -or dust.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span></p> - -<p>The most important are:</p> - -<p><i>Fulminate of mercury</i> (HgC₂N₂O₂) is probably to be -regarded as the mercury salt of fulminic acid, an isomer -of cyanic acid. It is used to make caps for detonating -gunpowder and explosives, and is made by dissolving -mercury in nitric acid and adding alcohol. The heavy white -crystals of mercury fulminate are filtered off and dried. -Very injurious fumes are produced in the reaction, containing -ethyl acetate, acetic acid, ethyl nitrate, nitrous acid, volatile -hydrocyanic acid compounds, hydrocyanic acid, ethyl cyanide, -cyanic acid; death consequently can immediately ensue on -inhalation of large quantities. The fulminate is itself poisonous, -and risk is present in filtering, pressing, drying, and granulating -it. Further, in filling the caps in the huts numerous cases of -poisoning occur. Heinzerling thinks here that mercury fumes -are developed by tiny explosions in the pressing and filling. -In a factory in Nuremburg 40 per cent. of the women employed -are said to have suffered from mercurial poisoning. Several -cases in a factory at Marseilles are recorded by Neisser.<a href="#endnote35" id="endnote-ref35"><span class="endnote-marker">9</span></a> -In addition to the risk from the salt there is even more -from nitrous fumes, which are produced in large quantity in the -fulminate department.</p> - -<p><i>Nitro-glycerin</i> (C₃H₅(O—NO₂)₃, dynamite, explosive gelatine).—Nitro-glycerin -is made by action of a mixture of nitric -and sulphuric acids on anhydrous glycerin. The method of -manufacture is as follows (<a href="#fig10">see fig. 10</a>): glycerin is allowed -to flow into the acid mixture in leaden vessels; it is agitated -by compressed air and care taken that the temperature remains -at about 22° C., as above 25° there may be risk. The liquid is -then run off and separates into two layers, the lighter nitro-glycerin -floating on the top of the acid. The process is watched -through glass windows. The nitro-glycerin thus separated is run -off, washed by agitation with compressed air, then neutralised -(with soda solution) and again washed and lastly filtered. The -acid mixture which was run off is carefully separated by standing, -as any explosive oil contained in it will rise up. The waste -acid freed from nitro-glycerin is recovered in special apparatus, -being denitrified by hot air and steam blown through it. -The nitrous fumes are condensed to nitric acid. The sulphuric -acid is evaporated.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span></p> - -<p><i>Dynamite</i> is made by mixing nitro-glycerin with infusorial -earth previously heated to redness and purified.</p> - -<p><i>Blasting gelatine</i> is made by dissolving gun cotton (collodion -wool, nitro-cellulose) in nitro-glycerin. Both are pressed into -cartridge shape.</p> - -<p>Nitro-glycerin itself is a strong poison which can be -absorbed both through the skin -and from the alimentary canal. -Kobert describes a case where -the rubbing of a single drop -into the skin caused symptoms -lasting for ten hours. Workmen -engaged in washing out -nitro-glycerin from the kieselguhr -earth, having in doing so -their bare arms immersed in -the liquid, suffered. Although -it be granted that nitro-glycerin -workers become to a large -extent acclimatised, cases of -poisoning constantly occur in -explosives factories referable to -the effect of nitro-glycerin.</p> - -<p>Persons mixing and sieving -dynamite suffer from ulcers -under the nails and at the -finger-tips which are difficult to -heal. Further, where the apparatus -employed is not completely -enclosed nitrous fumes -escape and become a source of -danger. Formerly this danger -was constantly present in the -nitrating house where nitration -was effected in open vessels. Now that this is usually done -in closed nitrating apparatus with glass covers the danger -is mainly limited to the acid separating house, wash house, -and especially the room in which denitration of the waste -acids is effected.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 275px;" id="fig10"> - -<img src="images/fig10.jpg" width="275" height="500" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 10.</span>—Preparation of Nitro-glycerin. -Nitrating Vessel (<i>after Guttmann</i>)</p> - -<p class="caption">A Glycerine reservoir; C Fume -flue; D Acid supply pipe; E, G Compressed -air supply; H, J Cooling coil.</p> - -</div> - -<p>A fatal case in a nitro-glycerin factory was reported in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span> -1902 where, through carelessness, a separator had overflowed. -The workman who tried to wash away the acid with water -inhaled so much of the nitrous fumes that he succumbed -sixteen hours later.</p> - -<p>Other cases of poisoning by nitrous fumes occurring in the -denitrating department are described in detail in the section -on the use of nitric acid.</p> - -<p>One of these occurred to a man forcing dilute nitric acid -from an earthenware egg by means of compressed air into a -washing tower. The egg burst and broke an acid tank. The -workman died on the following day.</p> - -<p>A fatal case occurred in a dynamite factory in cleaning out a -storage tank for waste acid in spite of previous swilling and -ventilation.</p> - -<p><i>Gun cotton</i> (<i>pyroxyline</i>) and its use.—Pyroxyline is the -collective name for all products of the action of nitric acid on -cellulose (cotton wool and similar material); these products -form nitric acid ester of cellulose (nitro-cellulose).</p> - -<p>Gun cotton is formed by the action of strong nitric acid on -cellulose (cotton wool). A mixture of sulphuric and nitric -acids is allowed to act on cotton wool (previously freed from -grease, purified, and dried), with subsequent pressing and -centrifugalising. In the nitrating centrifugal machine (in the -Selvig-Lange method) both processes are effected at the same -time.</p> - -<p>The interior of this apparatus is filled with nitric -acid, cotton wool is introduced, the acid fumes exhausted -through earthenware pipes, and the remainder of the acid -removed by the centrifugal machine; the nitrated material is -then washed, teazed in teazing machines, again washed, -neutralised with calcium carbonate, again centrifugalised, and -dried. Since drying in drying stoves is a great source of danger -of explosion, dehydration is effected with alcohol, and the gun -cotton intended for the production of smokeless powder carried -directly to the gelatinising vessels (see Smokeless Powder).</p> - -<p>Gun cotton, apart from its use for smokeless powder, is -pressed in prisms and used for charging torpedoes and sea -mines.</p> - -<p><i>Collodion cotton</i> is a partially nitrated cellulose. It is -prepared generally in the same way as gun cotton, except that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span> -it is treated with a more dilute acid. It is soluble (in contradistinction -to gun cotton) in alcohol-ether, and the solution -is known as collodion (as used in surgery, photography, and to -impregnate incandescent gas mantles). Mixed with camphor -and heated collodion forms celluloid.</p> - -<p>In Chardonnet’s method for making artificial silk collodion -is used by forcing it through fine glass tubes and drawing -and spinning it. The alcohol-ether vapours are carried away -by fans and the spun material is de-nitrated by ammonium -sulphide.</p> - -<p><i>Smokeless powder</i> is a gun cotton powder—that is gun -cotton the explosive power of which is utilised by bringing it -into a gelatinous condition. This is effected by gelatinising -the gun cotton with alcohol-ether or acetone (sometimes with -addition of camphor, resin, &c.). A doughy, pasty mass results, -which is then rolled, washed, dried, and pressed into rods. -Nobel’s nitroleum (artillery powder) consists half of nitro-glycerin -and half of collodion cotton. In the production of -gun cotton and collodion cotton the workers are affected and -endangered by nitric and nitrous fumes unless the nitrating -apparatus is completely airtight.</p> - -<p>Erosion of the incisor teeth is general, but use of the new -nitrating apparatus, especially of the nitrating centrifugal -machines already described, has greatly diminished the -evil. In making collodion, celluloid and artificial silk, in addition -to the risks referred to in the production of gun cotton, -the vapour from the solvents, ether, alcohol, acetone, acetic-ether, -and camphor, comes into consideration, but there is no -account of such poisoning in the literature of the subject.</p> - -<p>Other explosives which belong to the aromatic series are -described in the chapter on Tar Derivatives, especially picric -acid.</p> - -<h4>PHOSPHORUS AND PHOSPHORUS MATCHES</h4> - -<p>The total production of <i>phosphorus</i> is not large. Formerly it -was prepared from bone ash. Now it is made from phosphorite, -which, as in the super-phosphate industry, is decomposed -by means of sulphuric acid, soluble phosphate and calcium -sulphate being formed; the latter is removed, the solution<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span> -evaporated, mixed with coal or coke powder, distilled in clay -retorts, and received in water.</p> - -<p>Phosphorus is also obtained electro-chemically from a -mixture of tricalcium phosphate, carbon, and silicic acid, -re-distilled for further purification, and finally poured under -water into stick form.</p> - -<p><i>Red phosphorus</i> (amorphous phosphorus) is obtained by -heating yellow phosphorus in the absence of air and subsequently -extracting with carbon bisulphide.</p> - -<p><i>Phosphorus matches</i> are made by first fixing the wooden -splints in frames and then dipping the ends either into paraffin -or sulphur which serve to carry the flame to the wood. Then -follows dipping in the phosphorus paste proper, for which -suitable dipping machines are now used. The phosphorus -paste consists of yellow phosphorus, an oxidising agent (red -lead, lead nitrate, nitre, or manganese dioxide) and a binding -substance (dextrine, gum); finally the matches are dried and -packed.</p> - -<p><i>Safety matches</i> are made in the same way, except that -there is no phosphorus. The paste consists of potassium -chlorate, sulphur, or antimony sulphide, potassium bichromate, -solution of gum or dextrine, and different admixtures such as -glass powder, &c. These matches are saturated with paraffin -or ammonium phosphate. To strike them a special friction -surface is required containing red phosphorus, antimony -sulphide, and dextrine. In the act of striking the heat -generated converts a trace of the red phosphorus into the -yellow variety which takes fire.</p> - -<p>Danger to health arises from the poisonous gases evolved -in the decomposition of the calcined bones by sulphuric -acid. When phosphorus is made from phosphorite the same -dangers to health are present as in the production of super-phosphate -artificial manure, which is characterised by the -generation of hydrofluoric and fluosilicic acids. In the -distillation of phosphorus phosphoretted hydrogen and phosphorus -fumes may escape and prove dangerous.</p> - -<p>Industrial poisoning from the use of white phosphorus in -the manufacture of matches has greater interest than its -occurrence in the production of phosphorus itself. Already -in 1845 chronic phosphorus poisoning (phosphorus necrosis)<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span> -had been observed by Lorinser, and carefully described by Bibra -and Geist in 1847. In the early years of its use phosphorus -necrosis must have been fairly frequent in lucifer match -factories, and not infrequently have led to death. This -necessitated preventive measures in various States (see Part III); -cases became fewer, but did not disappear altogether.</p> - -<p>Especially dangerous is the preparation of the paste, -dipping, and manipulations connected with drying and filling -the matches into boxes. According to the reports of the -Austrian factory inspectors there are about 4500 lucifer match -workers in that country, among whom seventy-four cases of -necrosis are known to have occurred between the years 1900 -and 1908 inclusive.</p> - -<p>Teleky<a href="#endnote36" id="endnote-ref36"><span class="endnote-marker">1</span></a> considers these figures much too small, and from -inquiries undertaken himself ascertained that 156 cases -occurred in Austria between 1896 and 1906, while factory -inspectors’ reports dealt with only seventy-five. He was of -opinion that his own figures were not complete, and thinks -that in the ten years 1896 to 1905 there must have been from -350 to 400 cases of phosphorus necrosis in the whole of Austria. -Despite strict regulations, modern equipment of the factories, -introduction of improved machinery, and limitation of the white -phosphorus match industry to large factories, it has not been -possible to banish the risk, and the same is true of Bohemia, -where there is always a succession of cases. Valuable statistics -of phosphorus necrosis in Hungary are available.<a href="#endnote37" id="endnote-ref37"><span class="endnote-marker">2</span></a> In 1908 -there were sixteen factories employing 1882 workers of whom -30 per cent. were young—children even were employed. The -industry is carried on in primitive fashion without hygienic -arrangements anywhere. It is strange that, notwithstanding -these bad conditions, among a large number of the workers -examined only fourteen active cases were found, in addition -to two commencing, and fifteen cured—altogether thirty-one -cases (excluding fifty-five cases in which there was some -other pathological change in the mouth). Altogether ninety-three -cases since 1900 were traced in Hungary, and in view -of the unsatisfactory situation preventive measures, short -of prohibition of the use of white phosphorus, would be -useless.</p> - -<p>In England among 4000 lucifer match workers there were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span> -thirteen cases in the years 1900 to 1907 inclusive. Diminution -in the number was due to improved methods of manufacture -and periodical dental examination prescribed under Special -Rules.</p> - -<p>Phosphorus necrosis is not the only sign of industrial -phosphorus poisoning, as the condition of fragilitas ossium is -recognised.<a href="#endnote38" id="endnote-ref38"><span class="endnote-marker">3</span></a> From what has been said it is evident that -preventive measures against phosphorus poisoning, although -they diminish the number, are not able to get rid of phosphorus -necrosis, and so civilised States have gradually been driven to -prohibit the use of white phosphorus (for the history of this -see Part III).</p> - -<p>Use of chrome salts (especially potassium bichromate) in -the preparation of the paste causes risk of poisoning in premises -where ‘Swedish’ matches are made. Attention has been called -to the frequency of chrome ulceration.<a href="#endnote39" id="endnote-ref39"><span class="endnote-marker">4</span></a> The paste used consists -of 3-6 per cent. chrome salt, so that each match head contains -about ½ mg. Wodtke found among eighty-four workers early -perforation of the septum in thirteen. Severe eczema also -has been noted.</p> - -<p>It is even alleged that red phosphorus is not entirely free -from danger. Such cachexia as has been noted may be -referable to the absorption of potassium chlorate.</p> - -<h5>Other Uses of Phosphorus and Compounds of Phosphorus</h5> - -<p>Isolated cases of phosphorus poisoning have been observed -in the manufacture of phosphor-bronze. This consists of -90 parts copper, 9 parts tin, and 0·5 to 0·75 phosphorus.</p> - -<p><i>Sulphides of phosphorus</i> (P₂S₅, P₄S₃, P₂S₃) are made by -melting together red phosphorus and sulphur. They make a -satisfactory substitute for the poisonous yellow phosphorus -and are considered non-poisonous, but the fact remains that -they give off annoying sulphuretted hydrogen gas.</p> - -<p><i>Phosphoretted hydrogen gas</i> (PH₃) rarely gives rise to -industrial poisoning. It may come off in small amounts in -the preparation of acetylene and in the preparation of, and -manipulations with, white phosphorus. It is stated that in -acetylene made of American calcium carbide 0·04 per cent. of -phosphoretted hydrogen is present, and in acetylene from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span> -Swedish calcium carbide 0·02 per cent.; Lunge and Cederkreutz -found an acetylene containing 0·06 per cent. These -amounts might cause poisoning if the gas were diffused in -confined spaces. Poisoning, in part attributable to phosphoretted -hydrogen gas, is brought about through ferro-silicon -(see under Ferro-silicon).</p> - -<h5>Superphosphate and Artificial Manure</h5> - -<p><i>Superphosphate</i>, an artificial manure, is prepared from -various raw materials having a high proportion of insoluble -basic calcium phosphate (tricalcium phosphate), which by -treatment with sulphuric acid are converted into the soluble -acid calcium phosphate (monocalcium phosphate) and calcium -sulphate. Mineral substances such as phosphorites, coprolites, -guano, bone ash, &c., serve as the starting-point. Chamber -acid, or sometimes the waste acid from the preparation of -nitro-benzene or purification of petroleum, are used in the -conversion. The raw materials are ground in closed-in apparatus, -under negative pressure, and mixed with the sulphuric -acid in wooden lead-lined boxes or walled receptacles. The -product is then stored until the completion of the reaction -in ‘dens,’ dried, and pulverised in disintegrators.</p> - -<p>In the manufacture of bone meal extraction of the -fat from the bones with benzine precedes treatment with -acid.</p> - -<p>A further source of artificial manure is <i>basic slag</i>—the slag -left in the manufacture of steel by the Gilchrist-Thomas -method—which contains 10-25 per cent. of readily soluble -phosphoric acid. It requires, therefore, only to be ground into -a very fine powder to serve as a suitable manure.</p> - -<p>Owing to the considerable heat generated by the action -of the sulphuric acid when mixed with the pulverised raw -materials (especially in the conversion of the phosphorites) -hydrofluoric and silicofluoric acid vapours are evolved in -appreciable amount, and also carbonic and hydrochloric -acid vapours, sulphur dioxide, and sulphuretted hydrogen gas. -These gases—notably such as contain fluorine—if not effectually -dealt with by air-tight apparatus and exhaust ventilation—may -lead to serious annoyance and injury to the persons<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span> -employed. Further, there is risk of erosion of the skin from -contact with the acid, &c.</p> - -<p>A case is described of pustular eczema on the scrotum -of a worker engaged in drying sodium silicofluoride, due -probably to conveyance of irritating matter by the hands. -After the precaution of wearing gloves was adopted the -affection disappeared.</p> - -<p>A marked case of poisoning by nitrous fumes even is -recorded in the manufacture of artificial manure from mixing -Chili saltpetre with a very acid superphosphate.</p> - -<p>Injurious fumes can be given off in the rooms where -bones are stored and, in the absence of efficient ventilation, -carbonic acid gas can accumulate to an amount that may be -dangerous.</p> - -<p>The fine dust produced in the grinding of <i>basic slag</i> has, -if inhaled, a markedly corrosive action on the respiratory -mucous membrane attributed by some to the high proportion -(about 50 per cent.) in it of quicklime. As a matter of fact -numerous small ulcers are found on the mucous membranes of -basic slag grinders and ulceration of the lung tissue has been -observed. The opinion is expressed that this is due to corrosive -action of the dust itself, and not merely to the sharp, jagged -edged particles of dust inhaled. And in support of this view is -cited the frequency with which epidemics of pneumonia have -been noted among persons employed in basic slag works. -Thus in Nantes thirteen cases of severe pneumonia followed one -another in quick succession. And similar association has been -noted in Middlesbrough, where the action of the basic slag dust -was believed to injure the lung tissue and therefore to provide -a favourable soil for the development of the pneumonia -bacillus. Statistics collected by the Imperial Health Office -showed that in the three years 1892, 1893, and 1894, 91·1 per -cent., 108·9 per cent., and 91·3 per cent. respectively of the -workers became ill, the proportion of respiratory diseases -being 56·4 per cent., 54·4 per cent., and 54·3 per cent. respectively. -A case of severe inflammation of the lungs is described -in a labourer scattering basic slag in a high wind which drove -some of it back in his face.</p> - -<p>Lewin has described a case in which a worker scattering a -mixture of basic slag and ammonium superphosphate suffered<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span> -from an eczematous ulceration which, on being scratched by -the patient, became infected and led to death from general -blood poisoning. Lewin regarded the fatal issue as the -sequela of the scattering of the manure.</p> - -<p>Inflammation of the conjunctiva and of the eyelids has -been recorded.</p> - -<h4>CHROMIUM COMPOUNDS AND THEIR USES</h4> - -<p>Chrome ironstone, lime, and soda are ground and intimately -mixed. They are next roasted in reverberatory furnaces, -neutral <i>sodium chromate</i> being formed. This is lixiviated and -converted into sodium bichromate (Na₂Cr₂O₇) by treatment -with sulphuric acid. Concentration by evaporation follows; -the concentrated liquor is crystallised in cast-iron tanks. -The crystals are centrifugalised, dried, and packed. <i>Potassium -bichromate</i> may be made in the same way, or, as is -usually the case, out of sodium bichromate and potassium -chloride.</p> - -<p>The bichromates are used in the preparation and oxidation -of chrome colours, but their principal use is in dyeing and -calico printing, bleaching palm oil, purifying wood spirit and -brandy, in the preparation of ‘Swedish’ matches, in the -manufacture of glass, in photography, in dyeing, in tanning, -and in oxidation of anthracene to anthraquinone.</p> - -<h5>Lead Chromate and Chrome Colours</h5> - -<p><i>Chrome yellow</i> is neutral lead chromate (PbCrO₄). It is -obtained by precipitating a solution of potassium bichromate -with lead acetate or lead nitrate, or by digesting the bichromate -solution with lead sulphate, and is used as a paint and in -calico and cloth printing. With Paris or Berlin blue it forms -a <i>chrome green</i>. <i>Chrome orange</i>, i.e. basic lead chromate -(PbCrO₄Pb(OH)₂) is made by adding milk of lime to lead -chromate and boiling.</p> - -<p><i>Chromium</i> and <i>chromic acid salts</i> are widely used in dyeing -and printing, both as mordants and oxidising agents and -as dyes (chrome yellow, chrome orange). In mordanting -wool with potassium chromate the wool is boiled in a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span> -potassium chromate solution to which acids such as sulphuric, -lactic, oxalic, or acetic are added.</p> - -<p>In dyeing with chrome yellow, for instance, the following -is the process. Cotton wool is saturated with nitrate or -acetate of lead and dried, passed through lime water, ammonia, -or sodium sulphate, and soaked in a warm solution of potassium -bichromate. The yellow is converted into the orange colour by -subsequent passage through milk of lime.</p> - -<p><i>Chrome tanning.</i>—This method of producing chrome -leather, first patented in America, is carried out by either the -single or two bath process.</p> - -<p>In the two bath process the material is first soaked in a -saturated solution of bichromate and then treated with an acid -solution of thiosulphate (sodium hyposulphite) so as to reduce -completely the chromic acid. The process is completed even -with the hardest skins in from two to three days.</p> - -<p>In the single bath method basic chrome salts are used in -highly concentrated form. The skins are passed from dilute -into strong solutions. In this process also tanning is quickly -effected.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Effects on Health.</span>—Among the persons employed in -the bichromate factory of which Leymann has furnished -detailed particulars, the number of sick days was greater -than that among other workers.</p> - -<p>Further, <i>erosion of the skin</i> (<i>chrome holes</i>) is characteristic -of the manufacture of bichromates. These are sluggish -ulcers taking a long time to heal. This is the main cause of -the increased general morbidity that has been observed. The -well-known perforation of the septum of the nose without, -however, causing ulterior effects, was observed by Leymann in -all the workers in the factory. This coincides with the opinion -of others who have found the occurrence of chrome holes, and -especially perforation of the septum, as an extraordinarily -frequent occurrence. Many such observations are recorded,<a href="#endnote40" id="endnote-ref40"><span class="endnote-marker">1</span></a> -and also in workers manufacturing ‘Swedish’ matches. Thus -of 237 bichromate workers, ulcers were present in 107 and -perforation in 87. According to Lewin, who has paid special -attention to the poisonous nature of chromium compounds, they -can act in two ways: first, on the skin and mucous membrane, -where the dust alights, on the alimentary tract by swallowing,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span> -and on the pharynx by inhalation. Secondly, by absorption -into the blood, kidney disease may result.</p> - -<p>The opinion that chromium, in addition to local, can have -constitutional effect is supported by other authorities. Leymann -describes a case of severe industrial chrome poisoning -accompanied by nephritis in a worker who had inhaled and -swallowed much chromate dust in cleaning out a vessel. -Regulations for the manufacture of bichromates (see Part III) -have no doubt improved the condition, but reports still show -that perforation of the septum generally takes place.</p> - -<p>It must be borne in mind that practically all chromium -compounds are not alike poisonous. Chrome ironstone is -non-poisonous, and the potassium and sodium salts are by far -the most poisonous, while the neutral chromate salts and -chromic oxide are only slightly so. Pander found that -bichromates were 100 times as poisonous as the soluble -chromium oxide compounds, and Kunkel is of opinion that -poisonous effect shown by the oxides is attributable to traces -of oxidation into chromic acid.</p> - -<p>Lewin, on the other hand, declares in a cautionary notice -for chrome workers generally that all chromium compounds -are poisonous, and therefore all the dyes made from them.<a href="#endnote41" id="endnote-ref41"><span class="endnote-marker">2</span></a> </p> - -<p>In the manufacture of bichromates, chance of injury to -health arises partly from the dust, and partly from the steam, -generated in pouring water over the molten mass. The steam -carries particles of chromium compounds with it into the air. -In evaporating the chromate solutions, preparation of the -bichromate, breaking the crystals, drying and packing, the -workers come into contact with the substance and the liquors. -Chrome ulceration is, therefore, most frequently found among -those employed in the crystal room and less among the furnace -hands.</p> - -<p>From 3·30 to 6·30 mg. of bichromate dust have been found -in 1 c.m. of air at breathing level in the room where chromate -was crushed, and 1·57 mg. where it was packed. Further, -presence of chromium in the steam escaping from the hot -chrome liquors has been proved.<a href="#endnote42" id="endnote-ref42"><span class="endnote-marker">3</span></a> </p> - -<p>Poisoning from use of chrome colours is partly attributable -to lead, as, for example, in making yellow coloured tape -measures, yellow stamps, and from the use of coloured<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span> -thread. Gazaneuve<a href="#endnote43" id="endnote-ref43"><span class="endnote-marker">4</span></a> found 10 per cent. of lead chromate -in such thread, in wool 18 per cent., and in the dust of -rooms where such yarn was worked up 44 per cent.</p> - -<p>Use of chrome colours and mordants is accompanied by -illness which certainly is referable to the poisonous nature of -the chrome. In France use of chromic and phosphoric acid in -etching zinc plates has caused severe ulceration.</p> - -<p>Bichromate poisoning has been described among photographers -in Edinburgh in the process of carbon printing, in -which a bichromate developer is used.<a href="#endnote44" id="endnote-ref44"><span class="endnote-marker">5</span></a> </p> - -<p>There is much evidence as to occurrence of skin eruptions -and development of pustular eczema of the hands and forearms -of workers in chrome tanneries.<a href="#endnote45" id="endnote-ref45"><span class="endnote-marker">6</span></a> In a large leather factory -where 300 workers were constantly employed in chrome -tanning nineteen cases of chrome ulceration were noted within -a year. Injury to health was noted in a chrome tannery in -the district of Treves, where the two bath process was used, -from steam developed in dissolving the chromate in hot -water.</p> - -<p>Finally, I have found several records in 1907 and 1908 of -perforation of the septum in Bohemian glass workers.</p> - -<h4>MANGANESE COMPOUNDS</h4> - -<p>The raw material of the manganese industry is <i>hausmannite</i> -(manganese dioxide, MnO₂). This is subjected to a crushing -process, sorted, sieved, finely ground, washed, and dried. -The pure finely ground manganese dioxide is much used in the -chemical industry, especially in the recovery of chlorine in -the Weldon process and in the production of <i>potassium permanganate</i>, -which is obtained by melting manganese dioxide with -caustic soda and potassium chlorate or nitre, lixiviation and -introduction of carbonic acid, or better by treatment with -ozone.</p> - -<p>Manganese is also used in the production of colours: the -natural and artificial umbers contain it; in glass works it is used -to decolourise glass, and also in the production of coloured -glass and glazes; in the manufacture of stove tiles, and in -the production of driers for the varnish and oil industry.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span> -Manganese and compounds of manganese are dangerous when -absorbed into the system as dust.</p> - -<p>Already in 1837 nervous disorders had been described in -workmen who ground manganese dioxide.<a href="#endnote46" id="endnote-ref46"><span class="endnote-marker">1</span></a> The malady was -forgotten, until Jaksch<a href="#endnote47" id="endnote-ref47"><span class="endnote-marker">2</span></a> in Prague in 1901 demonstrated several -such cases in persons employed in a large chemical factory in -Bohemia, from the drying of Weldon mud. In the same -year three similar cases were also described in Hamburg.<a href="#endnote48" id="endnote-ref48"><span class="endnote-marker">3</span></a> In -1902 Jaksch observed a fresh case of poisoning, and in the -factory in question described a condition of manganophobia -among the workers, obviously hysterical, in which symptoms -of real manganese poisoning were simulated. In all some -twenty cases are known. Jaksch is of opinion that it is -manganese dust rich in manganese protoxide that is alone -dangerous, since, if the mud has been previously treated with -hydrochloric acid, by which the lower oxides are removed, no -illness can be found. The most dangerous compounds are -MnO and Mn₃O₄.</p> - -<h4>PETROLEUM</h4> - -<p><span class="smcap">Occurrence and Uses.</span>—Crude petroleum flows spontaneously -from wells in consequence of high internal pressure of -gas or is pumped up. In America and Russia also it is conveyed -hundreds of miles in conduits to the ports to be led -into tank steamers.</p> - -<p>The crude oil is a dark-coloured liquid which, in the case -of Pennsylvanian mineral oil, consists mainly of a mixture of -hydrocarbons of the paraffin series, or, in Baku oil, of those of -the naphtha series. There are in addition sulphur compounds, -olefines, pyridin, &c. The crude oil is unsuitable for illuminating -purposes and is subjected to a distillation process. It is -split up into three fractions by a single distillation, namely, -(<i>a</i>) benzines (boiling-point 150° C.), (<i>b</i>) lighting oil (boiling-point -150°-300° C.); at a temperature of 300° C. the distillation is -stopped so that (<i>c</i>) the residuum boiling above 300° C. remains. -Distillation is effected (in America) in large stills, in which -periodically benzine and lighting oil up to 300° C. is distilled and -the residuum run off. In Baku continuously working batteries -of so-called cylindrical boilers are used, into which the crude<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span> -oil streams. In the first set of boilers, the temperature in -which rises to 150° C., the benzine is distilled off, and in the -succeeding ones, heated to 300° C., the illuminating petroleum -oils (kerosine), the residuum flowing continually away.</p> - -<p>The <i>mineral oil residues</i> are used as fuel. Heating by -this means, tried first only in Russia, is spreading, especially -for the heating of boilers, in which case the liquid fuel is -blown in generally as a spray. The combustion if rightly -planned is economical and almost smokeless.</p> - -<p>The American oil residuum, rich in paraffin, is distilled, the -distillate is cooled and separated by pressure into solid paraffin -and liquid oil. The latter and the Russian mineral oil residues -which are free from paraffin are widely used as lubricants. -In the production of lubricants the residues are distilled at -low temperature (in vacuo or by aid of superheated steam) and -separated into various qualities by fractional cooling, are then -purified with sulphuric acid, and finally washed with caustic -soda solution.</p> - -<p>In the preparation of vaseline the residum is not distilled, -but purified only with fuming sulphuric acid and decolourised -with animal charcoal.</p> - -<p>The <i>illuminating oil</i> is next subjected to a purifying process -(refining); it is first treated with sulphuric acid and well -agitated by means of compressed air. The acid laden with the -impurities is drawn off below, and the oil freed from acid by -washing first with caustic soda and subsequently with water. -It is then bleached in the sun. For specially fine and high -flash point petroleum the oil undergoes a further distillation -and purification with acid.</p> - -<p>The fractions of crude petroleum with low boiling-point -(under 150° C.) are known commercially as raw <i>benzine</i> or -<i>petrol naphtha</i>. It is used for cleaning, in extraction of fats -and oils, and for benzine motors.</p> - -<p>Frequently raw benzine is subjected to a purifying process -and to fractional distillation. Purification is carried out by -means of sulphuric acid and soda liquor and subsequent -separation into three fractions and a residue which remains in -the retort—(<i>a</i>) <i>petroleum ether</i> (called gasoline, canadol, and -rhigoline), which comes over between 40° and 70° C., and serves -for carburetting water gas and other similar gases, as a solvent<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span> -for resin, oil, rubber, &c.; (<i>b</i>) <i>purified benzine</i> (70°-120° C.) is -used as motor spirit and in chemical cleaning; (<i>c</i>) <i>ligroine</i> -(120°-135° C.), used for illuminating purposes; and (<i>d</i>) the -<i>residual oil</i> (above 135° C.) serves for cleaning machinery and, -especially, as a solvent for lubricating oil, and instead of -turpentine in the production of lacquers, varnishes, and oil -colours.</p> - -<p>In <i>chemical cleaning</i> works benzine is used in closed-in -washing apparatus, after which the clothes are centrifugalised -and dried. In view of the risk of fire in these manipulations, -originating mainly from frictional electricity, various substances -are recommended to be added to the benzine, of which -the best known is that recommended by Richter, consisting of -a watery solution of oleate of sodium or magnesium.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Effects on Health.</span>—Industrial poisoning in the petroleum -industry is attributable to the gases given off from -crude petroleum or its products and to inhalation of naphtha -dust. Poisoning occurs principally in the recovery of petroleum -and naphtha from the wells, in storage and transport (in -badly ventilated tanks on board ship, and in entering petroleum -tanks), in the refinery in cleaning out petroleum stills -and mixing vessels, and in emptying out the residues. Further -cases occur occasionally from use of benzine in chemical -cleaning.</p> - -<p>In addition to poisoning the injurious effect of petroleum -and its constituents on the skin must be borne in mind. -Opinion is unanimous that this injurious action of mineral oil -is limited to the petroleum fractions with high boiling-point -and especially petroleum residues.</p> - -<p>Statistics officially collected in Prussia show the general -health of petroleum workers to be favourable. These statistics -related to 1380 persons, of whom forty-three were suffering -from symptoms attributable to their occupation. Of these -forty-three, nine only were cases of poisoning, the remainder -being all cases of petroleum acne.</p> - -<p>The conditions also in French refineries from statistics -collected in the years 1890-1903 seem satisfactory. Eighteen -cases of petroleum acne were reported, eleven of which occurred -at the paraffin presses, five in cleaning out the still residues, -and two were persons filling vessels.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span></p> - -<p>The conditions are clearly less favourable in the Russian -petroleum industry.<a href="#endnote49" id="endnote-ref49"><span class="endnote-marker">1</span></a> </p> - -<p>The workers at the naphtha wells suffer from acute and -chronic affections of the respiratory organs. Those suffer -most who cover the wells with cast iron plates to enable the -flow of naphtha to be regulated and led into the reservoirs. -In doing this they inhale naphtha spray.</p> - -<p>Lewin<a href="#endnote50" id="endnote-ref50"><span class="endnote-marker">2</span></a> describes cases of severe poisoning with fatal issue -among American workers employed in petroleum tanks. One -man who wished to examine an outlet pipe showed symptoms -after only two minutes. Weinberger describes severe poisoning -of two workers engaged in cleaning out a vessel containing -petroleum residue.</p> - -<p>Interesting particulars are given of the effect of petroleum -emanations on the health of the men employed in the petroleum -mines of Carpathia, among whom respiratory affections were -rarely found, but poisoning symptoms involving unconsciousness -and cerebral symptoms frequently. These experiences -undoubtedly point to differing physiological effects of different -kinds of naphtha.</p> - -<p>This is supported by the view expressed by Sharp in -America that different kinds of American petroleum have -different effects on the health of the workers, which can be -easily credited from the different chemical composition of crude -naphthas. Thus in Western Virginia, where a natural heavy -oil is obtained, asphyxia from the gas is unknown, although -transient attacks of headache and giddiness may occur, whereas in -Ohio, where light oils are obtained, suffocative attacks are not -infrequent. And it is definitely stated that some naphtha -products irritate the respiratory passages, while others affect -the central nervous system.<a href="#endnote51" id="endnote-ref51"><span class="endnote-marker">3</span></a> </p> - -<p>The authors mentioned refer to occurrence of cases of -poisoning in the refining of naphtha from inhalation of the -vapour of the light oils benzine and gasoline. Fatal cases have -been recorded in badly ventilated workrooms in which the -products of distillation are collected. Workers constantly -employed in these rooms develop chronic poisoning, which -is reported also in the case of women employed with -benzine. Intoxication is frequently observed, it is stated, -among the workmen employed in cleaning out the railway<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span> -tank waggons in which the mineral oils and petroleum are -carried.</p> - -<p>Foulerton<a href="#endnote52" id="endnote-ref52"><span class="endnote-marker">4</span></a> describes severe poisoning in a workman who -had climbed into a petroleum reservoir, and two similar cases -from entering naphtha tanks are given in the Report of the -Chief Inspector of Factories for 1908. Two fatal cases are -reported by the Union of Chemical Industry in Germany in -1905 in connection with naphtha stills. Such accidents are -hardly possible, except when, through insufficient disconnection -of the still from the further system of pipes, irrespirable -distillation gases pass backwards into the opened still where -persons are working. Ordinary cocks and valves, therefore, do -not afford sufficient security. Thus, several workers engaged -in repairing a still were rendered unconscious by gases drawn -in from a neighbouring still, and were only brought round after -oxygen inhalation.</p> - -<p>Gowers describes a case of chronic poisoning following on -frequent inhalation of gases given off from a petroleum motor, -the symptoms being slurring speech, difficulty of swallowing, and -weakness of the orbicularis and facial muscles. Gowers believed -this to be petroleum gas poisoning (from incomplete combustion), -especially as the symptoms disappeared on giving up -the work, only to return on resuming it again.<a href="#endnote53" id="endnote-ref53"><span class="endnote-marker">5</span></a> </p> - -<p>Girls employed in glove cleaning and rubber factories are -described as having been poisoned by benzine.<a href="#endnote54" id="endnote-ref54"><span class="endnote-marker">6</span></a> Poisoning -of chauffeurs is described by several writers.<a href="#endnote55" id="endnote-ref55"><span class="endnote-marker">7</span></a> </p> - -<p>Recent literature<a href="#endnote56" id="endnote-ref56"><span class="endnote-marker">8</span></a> tends to show marked increase in the -number of cases of poisoning from greater demand for benzine -as a motive power for vehicles. Such cases have been -observed in automobile factories, and are attributable to the -hydrocarbons of low boiling-point which are present as -impurities in benzine.</p> - -<p>A worker in a paraffin factory had entered an open benzine -still to scrape the walls free of crusts containing benzine. He -was found unconscious and died some hours later. It appeared -that he had been in the still several hours, having probably been -overcome to such an extent by the fumes as to be unable -to effect his escape.</p> - -<p>Attempt to wipe up benzine spilt in the storage cellar of a -large chemical cleaning works resulted in poisoning.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span></p> - -<p>A night worker in a bone extracting works having turned -on the steam, instead of watching the process fell asleep on a -bench. In consequence the apparatus became so hot that the -solder of a stop valve melted, allowing fumes to escape. The -man was found dead in the morning. In a carpet cleaning -establishment three workers lost consciousness and were found -senseless on the floor. They recovered on inhalation of oxygen.</p> - -<p>One further case reported from the instances of benzine -poisoning collected recently<a href="#endnote57" id="endnote-ref57"><span class="endnote-marker">9</span></a> is worth quoting. A worker in a -chemical factory was put to clean a still capable of distilling -2500 litres of benzine. It contained remains of a previous -filling. As soon as he had entered the narrow opening he -became affected and fell into the benzine; he was carried -unconscious to the hospital, his symptoms being vomiting, -spastic contraction of the extremities, cyanosis, weak pulse, -and loss of reflexes, which disappeared an hour and a half later.</p> - -<p>The occurrence of skin affections in the naphtha industry -has been noted by several observers, especially among those -employed on the unpurified mineral oils. Eruptions on the -skin from pressing out the paraffin and papillomata (warty -growths) in workers cleaning out the stills are referred to by -many writers,<a href="#endnote58" id="endnote-ref58"><span class="endnote-marker">10</span></a> Ogston in particular.</p> - -<p>Recent literature refers to the occurrence of petroleum -eczema in a firebrick and cement factory. The workers -affected had to remove the bricks from moulds on to which -petroleum oil dropped. An eczematous condition was produced -on the inner surface of the hands, necessitating abstention -from work. The pustular eczema in those employed only -a short time in pressing paraffin in the refineries of naphtha -factories is referred to as a frequent occurrence. Practically -all the workers in three refineries in the district of -Czernowitz were affected. The view that it is due to -insufficient care in washing is supported by the report of the -factory inspector in Rouen, that with greater attention in this -matter on the part of the workers marked diminution in its -occurrence followed.</p> - -<h4>SULPHUR</h4> - -<p><span class="smcap">Recovery and Use.</span>—Sulphur, which is found principally -in Sicily (also in Spain, America, and Japan), is obtained by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span> -melting. In Sicily this is carried out in primitive fashion by -piling the rock in heaps, covering them with turf, and setting -fire to them. About a third of the sulphur burns and escapes -as sulphur dioxide, while the remainder is melted and collects -in a hole in the ground.</p> - -<p>The crude sulphur thus wastefully produced is purified by -distillation in cast-iron retorts directly fired. It comes on the -market as stick or roll sulphur or as flowers of sulphur.</p> - -<p>Further sources for recovery of sulphur are the Leblanc -soda residues (see Soda Production), from which the sulphur -is recovered by the Chance-Claus process, and the gas purifying -material (containing up to 40 per cent.), from which the sulphur -can be recovered by carbon bisulphide (see Illuminating Gas -Industry).</p> - -<p>The health conditions of the Sicilian sulphur workers are -very unsatisfactory, due, however, less to the injurious effect -of the escaping gases (noxious alike to the surrounding vegetation) -than to the wretched social conditions, over exertion, and -under feeding of these workers.</p> - -<p>Of importance is the risk to health from sulphuretted -hydrogen gas, from sulphur dioxide in the recovery of sulphur -from the soda residues, and from carbon bisulphide in the -extraction of sulphur from the gas purifying material.</p> - -<h4>SULPHURETTED HYDROGEN GAS</h4> - -<p>Sulphuretted hydrogen gas is used in the chemical industry -especially for the precipitation of copper in the nickel and -cobalt industry, in de-arsenicating acid (see Hydrochloric and -Sulphuric Acids), to reduce chrome salts in the leather industry, -&c. In addition it arises as a product of decomposition in -various industries, such as the Leblanc soda process, in the -preparation of chloride of antimony, in the decomposition of -barium sulphide (by exposure to moist air), in the treatment -of gas liquors, and in the preparation of carbon -bisulphide: it is present in blast furnace gas, is generated in -mines (especially in deep seams containing pyrites), arises -in tar distillation, from use of gas lime in tanning, and in -the preparation and use of sodium sulphide: large quantities -of the gas are generated in the putrefactive processes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span> -connected with organic sulphur-containing matter such as glue -making, bone stores, storage of green hides, in the decomposition -of waste water in sugar manufacture and brewing, -in the retting of flax, and especially in sewers and middens.</p> - -<p>Both <i>acute</i> and <i>chronic</i> poisoning are described.</p> - -<p>The following case is reported by the Union of Chemical -Industry in 1907: Three plumbers who were employed on the -night shift in a chemical factory and had gone to sleep in a -workroom were found in a dying condition two hours later. -In the factory barium sulphide solution in a series of large -saturating vessels was being converted into barium carbonate -by forcing in carbonic acid gas; the sulphuretted hydrogen -gas evolved was collected in a gasometer, burnt, and utilised -for manufacture of sulphuric acid. In the saturating vessels -were test cocks, the smell from which enabled the workers to -know whether all the sulphuretted hydrogen gas had been -driven out. If this was so the contents of the retort were -driven by means of carbonic acid gas into a subsidiary vessel, -and the vessel again filled with barium sulphide liquor. From -these intermediate vessels the baryta was pumped into filter -presses, the last remains of sulphuretted hydrogen gas being -carried away by a fan into a ventilating shaft. The subsidiary -vessel and ventilating shaft were situated in front of the -windows of the repairing shop. On the night in question a -worker had thoughtlessly driven the contents out of one -saturating vessel before the sulphuretted hydrogen gas had -been completely removed, and the driving belt of the fan -was broken. Consequently, the sulphuretted hydrogen gas -escaping from the subsidiary vessel entered through the -windows of the workshop and collected over the floor where -the victims of the unusual combination of circumstances slept.</p> - -<p>In another chemical works two workers suffered from -severe poisoning in the barium chloride department. The -plant consisted of a closed vat which, in addition to the -openings for admitting the barium sulphide liquor and sulphuric -acid, had a duct with steam injector connected with -the chimney for taking away the sulphuretted hydrogen gas. -Owing to a breakdown the plant was at a standstill, as a -result of which the ventilating duct became blocked by ice. -When the plant was set in motion again the sulphuretted<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span> -hydrogen gas escaped through the sulphuric acid opening. -One of the workers affected remained for two days unconscious.<a href="#endnote59" id="endnote-ref59"><span class="endnote-marker">1</span></a> </p> - -<p>The report of the Union of Chemical Industry for 1905 -cites a case where an agitating vessel, in which, by action -of acid on caustic liquor, sulphuretted hydrogen gas was given -off and drawn away by a fan, had to be stopped to repair one of -the paddles. The flow of acid and liquor was stopped, and the -cover half removed. The deposit which had been precipitated -had to be got rid of next in order to liberate the agitator. The -upper portion of the vessel was washed out with water, and -since no further evolution of sulphuretted hydrogen was -possible from any manufacturing process, the work of removing -the deposit was proceeded with. After several bucketfuls had -been emptied the man inside became unconscious and died. -The casualty was no doubt due to small nests of free caustic -and acid which the spading brought into contact and subsequent -developement of sulphuretted hydrogen afresh. A case -is reported of sulphuretted hydrogen poisoning in a man -attending to the drains in a factory tanning leather by a quick -process. Here, when sulphurous acid acts on sodium sulphide, -sulphuretted hydrogen is given off. In cleaning out a trap -close to the discharge outlet of a tannery two persons were -rendered unconscious, and the presence of sulphuretted hydrogen -was shown by the blackening of the white lead paint -on a house opposite and by the odour.<a href="#endnote60" id="endnote-ref60"><span class="endnote-marker">2</span></a> </p> - -<p>In the preparation of ammonium salts Eulenberg<a href="#endnote61" id="endnote-ref61"><span class="endnote-marker">3</span></a> cites -several cases where the workers fell as though struck down, -although the processes were carried on in the open air. They -quickly recovered when removed from the spot.</p> - -<p>Oliver cites the case where, in excavating soil for a dock, -four men succumbed in six weeks; the water contained 12 vols. -per cent. of sulphuretted hydrogen.</p> - -<p>Not unfrequently acute poisoning symptoms result to -sewer men. Probably sulphuretted hydrogen gas is not wholly -responsible for them, nor for the chronic symptoms complained -of by such workers (inflammation of the conjunctiva, bronchial -catarrh, pallor, depression).</p> - -<p>In the distillation processes connected with the paraffin -industry fatalities have been reported.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span></p> - -<h4>CARBON BISULPHIDE</h4> - -<p><span class="smcap">Manufacture.</span>—Carbon bisulphide is prepared by passing -sulphur vapour over pure coal brought to a red heat in cast-iron -retorts into which pieces of sulphur are introduced. The -crude carbon bisulphide requires purification from sulphur, -sulphuretted hydrogen, and volatile organic sulphur compounds -by washing with lime water and subsequent distillation.</p> - -<p>Use is made of it principally in the extraction of fat and -oil from bones and oleaginous seeds (cocoanut, olives, &c.), -for vulcanising, and as a solvent of rubber. It is used also -to extract sulphur from gas purifying material and for the -preparation of various chemical substances (ammonium -sulphocyanide, &c.), as well as for the destruction of pests -(phylloxera and rats).</p> - -<p>Fat and oil are extracted from seeds, bones, &c., by carbon -bisulphide, benzine, or ether, and, to avoid evaporation, the -vessels are as airtight as possible and arranged, as a rule, for -continuous working.</p> - -<p><i>Vulcanisation</i> is the rendering of rubber permanently -elastic by its combination with sulphur. It is effected by -means of chloride of sulphur, sulphide of barium, calcium, -or antimony, and other sulphur-containing compounds, heat -and pressure, or by a cold method consisting in the dipping -of the formed objects in a mixture of carbon bisulphide -and chloride of sulphur. The process of manufacture is -briefly as follows: The raw material is first softened and -washed by hot water and kneading in rolls. The washed -and dried rubber is then mixed on callender rolls with various -ingredients, such as zinc white, chalk, white lead, litharge, -cinnabar, graphite, rubber substitutes (prepared by boiling -vegetable oils, to which sulphur has been added, with chloride -of sulphur). In vulcanising by aid of heat the necessary -sulphur or sulphur compound is added. Vulcanisation with -sulphur alone is only possible with aid of steam and mechanical -pressure in various kinds of apparatus according to the -nature of the article produced. In the cold vulcanisation -process the previously shaped articles are dipped for a few -seconds or minutes in the mixture of carbon bisulphide and -chloride of sulphur and subsequently dried in warm air as -quickly as possible.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span></p> - -<p>In view of the poisonous nature of carbon bisulphide, -benzine is much used now. In the cold method use of chloride -of sulphur in benzine can replace it altogether.</p> - -<p>Instead of benzine other solvents are available—chlorine -substitution products of methane (dichlormethane, carbon -tetrachloride). In other processes <i>rubber solvents</i> are largely -used, for instance, acetone, oil of turpentine, petroleum -benzine, ether, and benzene. Rubber solutions are used for -waterproofing cloth and other materials.</p> - -<p>Similar to the preparation and use of rubber is that of -guttapercha. But vulcanisation is easier by the lead and -zinc thiosulphate process than by the methods used in the -case of rubber.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Effects on Health of CS₂ and Other Dangers to -Health in the Rubber Industry.</span>—In the manufacture of -carbon bisulphide little or no danger is run either to health -or from fire.</p> - -<p>In the rubber trade the poisonous nature of <i>benzine</i> and -<i>chloride of sulphur</i> have to be borne in mind, and also the -considerable risk of <i>lead poisoning</i> in mixing. Cases of plumbism, -especially in earlier years, are referred to.<a href="#endnote62" id="endnote-ref62"><span class="endnote-marker">1</span></a> </p> - -<p><i>Benzine</i> poisoning plays only a secondary part in the rubber -industry. No severe cases are recorded, only slight cases -following an inhalation of fumes.</p> - -<p>Cases of poisoning are recorded in a motor tyre factory -in Upsala.<a href="#endnote63" id="endnote-ref63"><span class="endnote-marker">2</span></a> Nine women were affected, of whom four died. -Whether these cases were due to benzene or petroleum -benzine is not stated. It is remarkable that two such very -different substances as benzene and benzine should be so easily -confused.</p> - -<p>But that in the rubber industry cases of benzene poisoning -do actually occur is proved by the following recent cases: -Rubber dissolved in benzol was being laid on a spreading -machine in the usual way. Of three men employed one was -rendered unconscious and died.<a href="#endnote64" id="endnote-ref64"><span class="endnote-marker">3</span></a> </p> - -<p>In a rubber recovery process a worker was rendered unconscious -after entering a benzol still, also two others who sought -to rescue him. Only one was saved.</p> - -<p>Cases of aniline poisoning are reported where aniline is -used for extracting rubber.<a href="#endnote65" id="endnote-ref65"><span class="endnote-marker">4</span></a> </p> - -<p><i>Chloride of sulphur</i>, by reason of its properties and the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span> -readiness with which it decomposes (see Chloride of Sulphur), -causes annoyance to rubber workers, but rarely poisoning.</p> - -<p>Much importance attaches to <i>chronic carbon bisulphide -poisoning</i> in the rubber industry. Many scientists have -experimented as to its poisonous nature (see especially on this -Part II, p. <a href="#Page_194">194</a>).</p> - -<p>Lehmann’s<a href="#endnote66" id="endnote-ref66"><span class="endnote-marker">5</span></a> experiments show that a proportion of 0·50-0·7 -mg. of CS₂ per litre of air causes hardly any symptoms; -1·0-1·2 mg. slight effects which become more marked on -continued exposure; 1·5 mg. produces severe symptoms. -About 1·0 mg. per litre of air is the amount which may set up -chronic effects. In vulcanising rooms this limit may easily be -exceeded unless special preventive measures are adopted.</p> - -<p>Laudenheimer<a href="#endnote67" id="endnote-ref67"><span class="endnote-marker">6</span></a> has made several analyses of the proportion -of CS₂ in workrooms. Thus 0·9-1·8 mg. per litre of air were -found in a room where pouches were vulcanised; 0·5-2·4 mg. -were aspirated one-half metre distant from the dipping vessels; -and 0·18-0·27 mg. in the room for making ‘baby comforters.’</p> - -<p>In analyses made some years ago proportions of 2·9-5·6 mg. -were obtained.</p> - -<p>Although literature contains many references to CS₂ -poisoning, too much importance ought not to be attached to -them now in view of the arrangements in modern well-equipped -vulcanising premises. Laudenheimer has collected particulars -of 31 cases of brain, and 19 of nervous, diseases among 219 -persons coming into contact with CS₂ between 1874 and -1908, all of whom had been medically attended. In the last -ten years, however, the psychical symptoms were seven times -less than in the preceding period. Between 1896 and 1898 the -average proportion of brain disease in the vulcanising department -was 1·95 per cent., and of nervous diseases 0·22 per -cent., as compared with 0·92 per cent. and 0·03 per cent. in -the textile. Moreover, he maintains that practically all -workers who come at all into contact with CS₂ must be to -some extent affected injuriously by it.</p> - -<p>Studies on the injurious nature of CS₂ date from the years -1851-60, when the French writers Pazen, Duchenne, Beaugrand, -Piorry, &c., came across cases from the Parkes’ process -(cold vulcanisation by means of CS₂ and SCl₂). Delpech<a href="#endnote68" id="endnote-ref68"><span class="endnote-marker">7</span></a> -published in 1860 and 1863 details of twenty-four severe cases<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span> -in rubber workers, some of which were fatal, and at the same -time described the pitiable conditions under which the work -was carried on.</p> - -<p>In Germany Hermann, Hirt and Lewin, and Eulenberg -dealt with the subject, but their work is more theoretical in -character; and in Laudenheimer’s work referred to the -histories of several cases are given in detail.</p> - -<p>Mention should be made of the injury caused to the skin -by the fluids used in extraction of fat and in vulcanising—especially -by benzine and carbon bisulphide. Perrin considers -the effect due partly to the withdrawal of heat and -partly to the solvent action on the natural grease, producing -an unpleasant feeling of dryness and contraction of the skin.</p> - -<h4>ILLUMINATING GAS</h4> - -<p>Illuminating gas is obtained by the dry distillation of coal. -The products of distillation are subjected on the gasworks to -several purifying processes, such as condensation in coolers, -moist and dry purifying, from which valuable bye-products -(such as tar, ammonia, cyanogen compounds) are obtained. -The purified gas is stored in gas holders containing on an -average 49 per cent. hydrogen, 34 per cent. methane, 8 per cent. -carbonic oxide, 1 per cent. carbon dioxide, 4 per cent. nitrogen, -and about 4 per cent. of the heavy hydrocarbons (ethylene, -benzene vapour, acetylene, and their homologues) to which the -illuminating properties are almost exclusively due.</p> - -<p>The most important stages in its preparation will be shortly -described. <i>Distillation</i> is effected in cylindrical, usually horizontal, -fireclay retorts placed in a group or setting (<a href="#fig11">fig. 11</a>), -which formerly were heated by coke but in modern works -always by gas. Charging with coal and removal of the coke -takes place about every four hours, often by means of -mechanical contrivances.</p> - -<p>Iron pipes conduct the products of distillation to the -<i>hydraulic main</i>. This is a long covered channel extending the -entire length of the stack and receiving the gas and distillate -from each retort. In it the greater part of the tar and of -the ammoniacal water condense and collect under the water -which is kept in the main to act as a seal to the ends of the dip<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span> -pipes, to prevent the gas from passing back into the retort -when the latter is opened. While the liquid flows from the -hydraulic main into cisterns, the gas passes into <i>coolers</i> or -<i>condensers</i>, tall iron cylinders, in which, as the result of air -and water cooling, further portions of the tar and ammoniacal -liquor are condensed. To free it still more from particles -of tar the gas passes through the <i>tar separator</i>.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;" id="fig11"> - -<img src="images/fig11.jpg" width="500" height="475" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 11.</span>—Manufacture of Illuminating Gas. Horizontal fireclay retorts placed in -a setting and heated by gas(<i>after Ost</i>)</p> - -</div> - -<p>The tar which remains behind flows through a tube to the -cistern. From the tar separator the gas goes through <i>scrubbers</i> -(<a href="#fig12">fig. 12</a>), where the gas is washed free of ammonia and part of -the sulphuretted hydrogen and carbon dioxide with water. -The scrubbers are tower-like vessels filled with coke or charcoal -through which the gas passes from below upwards, encountering -a spray of water. Several scrubbers in series are used, so that -the water constantly becomes richer in ammonia. Mechanical -scrubbers are much used, so-called standard washers; they are -rotating, horizontal cylinders having several chambers filled -with staves of wood half dipping in water. In them the same -principle of making the gas meet an opposing stream of water<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span> -is employed, so that the last traces of ammonia are removed -from the gas.</p> - -<p>The various purifying apparatus through which the gas has -to pass cause considerable resistance to its flow. Escape in -various ways would occur had the gas to overcome it by its own -pressure, and too long contact of the gas with the hot walls -of the retorts would be detrimental. Hence an exhauster is -applied to the system which keeps the pressure to the right -proportion in the retorts and drives on the gas.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;" id="fig12"> - -<img src="images/fig12.jpg" width="500" height="275" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 12.</span>—Washer or Scrubber</p> - -</div> - -<p>After purification in the scrubbers <i>dry purification</i> follows, -having for its object especially removal of compounds of sulphur -and cyanogen and carbon dioxide. To effect this several -shallow receptacles are used, each having a false bottom -upon which the purifying material is spread out. The boxes -are so arranged that the gas first passes through purifying -material which is almost saturated and finally through fresh -material, so that the material becomes richer in sulphur and -cyanogen compounds. The <i>gas purifying material</i> formerly -used was slaked lime, and it is still frequently used, but more -generally bog iron ore or artificially prepared mixtures are used -consisting mostly of oxide of iron. The saturated purifying -material is regenerated by oxidation on spreading it out in the -air and turning it frequently. After having been thus treated<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span> -some ten times the mass contains 50 per cent. sulphur, and -13 to 14 per cent. ferrocyanide.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;" id="fig13"> - -<img src="images/fig13.jpg" width="700" height="200" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 13.</span>—Manufacture of Illuminating Gas. Diagrammatic view (<i>after Lueger</i>) -A Retort setting and hydraulic main; B Condensers and coolers; C Exhauster; D Well; E Water -tank; F Tar extractor; G Scrubber; H Purifier; I Station meter; K Gas holder; L Pressure regulator.</p> - -</div> - -<p>The <i>naphthalene</i> in illuminating gas does not separate in -the condenser, and therefore is generally treated in special -apparatus by washing the gas -with heavy coal tar.</p> - -<p>The gas purified, as has -been described, is measured by -a meter and stored in gasometers. -These are bells made -up of sheet iron which hang -down into walled receptacles -filled with water to act as a -water seal, and are raised by -the pressure of the gas which -streams into them. The gas -passes to the network of -mains by pressure of the -weight of the gasometer, after -having passed through a pressure -regulating apparatus.</p> - -<p>As to recovery of bye-products -in the illuminating gas -industry, see the sections on -Ammonia, Cyanogen Compounds, -Tar, Benzene, &c.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Effect on Health.</span>—Opinions -differ as to the effect -on health which employment -in gas works exerts. This is -true of old as well as of modern -literature.</p> - -<p>Hirt<a href="#endnote69" id="endnote-ref69"><span class="endnote-marker">1</span></a> maintains that gas -workers suffer no increase in -illness because of their employment. -They reach, he says, a -relatively high age and their mortality he puts down at from -0·5 to 1 per cent. (my own observations make me conclude that -the average mortality among persons insured in sick societies -in Bohemia is 1 per cent., so that Hirt’s figure is not high).</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span></p> - -<p>Layet<a href="#endnote70" id="endnote-ref70"><span class="endnote-marker">2</span></a> agreed with Hirt, but was of opinion that gas -workers suffered from anæmia and gastro-intestinal symptoms -attributable to inhalation of injurious gases. The sudden -symptoms of intoxication, ‘exhaustion and sinking suddenly -into a comatose condition,’ which he attributes to the effect of -hydrocarbons and sulphuretted hydrogen gas, may well have -been the symptoms of carbonic oxide poisoning.</p> - -<p>Goldschmidt<a href="#endnote71" id="endnote-ref71"><span class="endnote-marker">3</span></a> in recent literature considers manufacture -of illuminating gas by no means dangerous or unhealthy, and -speaks of no specific maladies as having been observed by him. -Nevertheless, he admits with Layet that the men employed -in the condensing and purifying processes are constantly in an -atmosphere contaminated by gas, and that the cleaning and -regeneration of the purifying mass is associated with inflammation -of the eyes, violent catarrh, and inflammation of the -respiratory passages, since, on contact of the purifying mass -with the air, hydrocyanic acid gas, sulphocyanic acid gas, -and fumes containing carbolic, butyric, and valerianic acids -are generated.</p> - -<p>Other writers<a href="#endnote72" id="endnote-ref72"><span class="endnote-marker">4</span></a> refer to the injurious effects from manipulating -the purifying material. In general, though, they -accept the view, without however producing any figures, -that work in gas works is unattended with serious injury -to health and that poisonings, especially from carbonic oxide, -are rare. Such cases are described,<a href="#endnote73" id="endnote-ref73"><span class="endnote-marker">5</span></a> but the authors are not -quite at one as to the healthiness or otherwise of the industry. -The one opinion is based on study of the sick club reports for -several years of a large gas works employing some 2400 workers -(probably Vienna).<a href="#endnote74" id="endnote-ref74"><span class="endnote-marker">6</span></a> The average frequency of sickness -(sickness percentage), excluding accidents, was 48·7 per cent. -The conclusion is drawn that the health conditions of gas -workers is favourable. It is pointed out, however, that -diseases of the respiratory and digestive organs (12·8 and 10·16 -per cent. of the persons employed) are relatively high, and -that the mortality (1·56 per cent.) of gas-workers is higher -than that of other workers. This is attributed to the constant -inhalation of air charged with injurious gases. Work at the -retorts, coke quenching, and attending to the purifying plant -are considered especially unhealthy.</p> - -<p>The other figures relate to the Magdeburg gas works;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span> -they are higher than those quoted. The morbidity of the gas -workers was found to be 68·5 per cent., of which 18 per cent. -was due to disease of the digestive system, 20·5 per cent. to -disease of the respiratory organs, and 1 per cent. to poisoning. -No details of the cases of poisoning are given. Carbonic oxide -poisoning is said to be not infrequent, the injurious effect -of cleaning the purifiers is referred to, and poisoning by inhalation -of ammonia is reported as possible.</p> - -<p>Still, no very unfavourable opinion is drawn as to the -nature of the work. The sickness frequency in sick clubs is -about 50 per cent., and even in well-managed chemical works -Leymann has shown it to be from 65 to 80 per cent. The -recently published elaborate statistics of sickness and mortality -of the Leipzig local sickness clubs<a href="#endnote75" id="endnote-ref75"><span class="endnote-marker">7</span></a> contain the following -figures for gas workers: Among 3028 gas workers there were -on an average yearly 2046 cases of sickness, twenty deaths, -and four cases of poisoning. The total morbidity, therefore, -was 67·57 per cent., mortality 0·66 per cent., and the morbidity -from poisoning 0·13 per cent. Diseases of the respiratory -tract equalled 10·63 per cent., of the digestive tract 10·87 -per cent., of the muscular system 13·10 per cent., and from -rheumatism 11·10 per cent. These figures, therefore, are not -abnormally high and the poisoning is very low.</p> - -<p>Still, industrial cases of poisoning in gas works are recorded. -Of these the most important will be mentioned. Six persons -were employed in a sub-station in introducing a new sliding -shutter into a gas main, with the object of deviating the gas for -the filling of balloons. A regulating valve broke, and the gas -escaped from a pipe 40 cm. in diameter. Five of the men -were rendered unconscious, and resuscitation by means of -oxygen inhalation failed in one case. In repairing the damage -done two other cases occurred.<a href="#endnote76" id="endnote-ref76"><span class="endnote-marker">8</span></a> In emptying a purifier a -worker was killed from failure to shut off the valve.</p> - -<p>Besides poisoning from illuminating gas, industrial poisoning -in gas works is described attributable, in part at least, to -ammonia. Thus the report of the factory inspectors of -Prussia for 1904 narrates how a worker became unconscious -while superintending the ammonia water well, fell in, and was -drowned.</p> - -<p>A further case is described in the report of the Union<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span> -of Chemical Industry for 1904. In the department for concentrating -the gas liquor the foreman and an assistant on the -night shift were getting rid of the residues from a washer -by means of hot water. The cover had been removed, but, -contrary to instructions, the steam had not been shut off. -Ammonia fumes rushed out and rendered both unconscious, -in which condition there were found by the workmen coming -in the morning.<a href="#endnote77" id="endnote-ref77"><span class="endnote-marker">9</span></a> </p> - -<p>In the preparation of ammonium sulphate, probably in -consequence of too much steam pressure, gas liquor was -driven into the sulphuric acid receiver instead of ammonia gas. -The receiver overflowed, and ammonia gas escaped in such -quantity as to render unconscious the foreman and two men -who went to his assistance.<a href="#endnote78" id="endnote-ref78"><span class="endnote-marker">10</span></a> </p> - -<p>The use of illuminating gas in industrial premises can give -rise to poisoning. Thus the women employed in a scent -factory, where so-called quick gas heaters were used, suffered -from general gas poisoning.<a href="#endnote79" id="endnote-ref79"><span class="endnote-marker">11</span></a> </p> - -<p>In Great Britain in 1907 sixteen cases of carbonic -oxide poisoning from use of gas in industrial premises were -reported.</p> - -<h4>COKE OVENS</h4> - -<p>Coke is obtained partly as a residue in the retorts after -the production of illuminating gas. Such <i>gas coke</i> is unsuitable -for metallurgical purposes, as in the blast furnace. Far -larger quantities of coal are subjected to dry distillation for -metallurgical purposes in coke ovens than in gas works. Hence -their erection close to blast furnaces. In the older form of -coke oven the bye-products were lost. Those generally used -now consist of closed chambers heated from the outside, and -they can be divided into coke ovens which do, and those which -do not, recover the bye-products. These are the same as -those which have been considered under manufacture of -illuminating-gas—tar, ammonia, benzene and its homologues, -cyanogen, &c. In the coke ovens in which the bye-products -are not recovered the gases and tarry vapours escaping -on coking pass into the heating flues, where, brought -into contact with the air blast, they burn and help to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span> -heat the oven, while what is unused goes to the main chimney -stack.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;" id="fig14"> - -<img src="images/fig14.jpg" width="400" height="450" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 14.</span>—Distillation Coke Oven (<i>after Lueger</i>)</p> - -<p class="caption">A, A´ Coal to be coked; B, B´ Standpipes; C Hydraulic main; D Condensing -apparatus; E Purified gas: F, F´ Air inlets; G G,´ G´´ Combustion -chambers.</p> - -</div> - -<p>In the modern <i>distillation ovens</i> with recovery of the bye-products -the gases escaping from the coal are led (air being -cut off as completely as possible) through ascending pipes into -the main collector, where they are cooled, and the tarry ingredients -as well as a part of the ammonia are absorbed by -water; subsequently the gases pass through washing apparatus -with a view to as complete a recovery of the ammonia and -benzene as possible. The purified gases are now again led -to the ovens and burnt with access of air in the combustion -chambers between two ovens. Generally these ovens are so -constructed as to act as non-recovery ovens also (especially in -starting the process).</p> - -<p>The coal is charged into the ovens through charge holes on<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span> -the top and brought to a level in the chambers either by hand -or mechanically. Removal of the coke block after completion -of the coking operation is done by a shield attached to a rack and -pinion jack. Afterwards the coke is quenched with water.</p> - -<p>Recovery of the <i>bye-products</i> of coke distillation ovens is -similar to the method described for illuminating gas, i.e. -first by condensation with aid of air or water cooling, then -direct washing with water (generally in scrubbers), whereby -tar and ammonia water are recovered. <i>Recovery of benzene</i> -and its homologues (see Benzene later) depends on the fact -that the coke oven gases freed from tar and ammonia are -brought into the closest possible contact with the so-called -wash oils, i.e. coal tar oils with high boiling-point (250-300° C.). -For this purpose several washing towers are employed. The -waste oil enriched with benzene is recovered in stills intermittently -or continuously and used again.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Effects on Health.</span>—Injury to health from work at coke -ovens is similar to that in the manufacture of illuminating -gas. There is the possibility of carbonic oxide poisoning from -escape of gas from leakage in the apparatus. As further -possible sources of danger ammonia, cyanogen and sulpho-cyanogen -compounds, and benzene have to be borne in mind.</p> - -<p>In the distillation of the wash oil severe poisoning can -arise, as in a case described, where two men were fatally -poisoned in distilling tar with wash oil.<a href="#endnote80" id="endnote-ref80"><span class="endnote-marker">1</span></a> </p> - -<p>The details of the case are not without interest. The -poisoning occurred in the lavatory. The gases had escaped -from the drain through the ventilating shaft next to the closet. -The gases came from distillation of the mixture of tar and -wash oil, and were driven by means of air pumps in such a -way that normally the uncondensed gases made their way to the -chimney stack. On the day of the accident the pumps were -out of use, and the gases were driven by steam injectors into the -drain. Analysis showed the gases to contain much sulphuretted -hydrogen. When this was absorbed, a gas which could be -condensed was obtained containing carbon bisulphide and -hydrocarbons of unknown composition (? benzene). Only -traces of cyanogen and sulpho-cyanogen compounds were -present. Physiological experiment showed that poisoning -was attributable mainly to sulphuretted hydrogen gas, but<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span> -that after this was removed by absorption a further poisonous -gas remained.</p> - -<h4>Other Kinds of Power and Illuminating Gas</h4> - -<p><i>Producer gas</i> or <i>generator gas</i>.—Manufacture of producer gas -consists in dealing separately with the generation of the gas -and the combustion of the gases which -arise. This is effected by admitting only -so much air (primary air supply) to the -fuel as is necessary to cause the gases to -come off, and then admitting further air -(secondary supply) at the point where -the combustion is to take place; this -secondary supply and the gas formed in -the gas producer are heated in regenerators -before combustion by bringing -the gases to be burnt into contact with -<i>Siemens’s heaters</i>, of which there are -four. Two of these are always heated -and serve to heat the producer gas and -secondary air supply.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;" id="fig15"> - -<img src="images/fig15.jpg" width="200" height="300" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 15.</span>—Horizontal -Regenerative Grate (<i>after -Lueger</i>)</p> - -</div> - -<p>A producer gas furnace, therefore, consists of a gas -producer, a gas main leading to the -furnace hearth, the heater, and the -chimney.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;" id="fig16"> - -<img src="images/fig16.jpg" width="300" height="275" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 16.</span>—Step Regenerative -Grate (<i>after Lueger</i>)</p> - -</div> - -<p>The gas producer is a combustion -chamber filled with coal in -which the coal in the upper layer -is burnt. Generators may have -horizontal or sloping grate (see -figs. <a href="#fig15">15</a> and <a href="#fig16">16</a>). The <i>Siemens’s</i> -heaters or regenerators are chambers -built of, and filled loosely with, fireclay -bricks and arranged in couples. -Should the gas producers become -too hot, instead of the chambers subdivided air heaters are -used, whereby the hot furnace gases are brought into contact -with a system of thin-walled, gastight fireclay pipes, to -which they give up their heat, while the secondary air supply -for the furnace is led beside these pipes and so becomes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span> -heated indirectly. Previous heating of the producer gas is -here not necessary; no valves are needed because the three -streams of gas all pass in the same direction.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;" id="fig17"> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 17a.</span>—Siemens’s Regenerative Furnace</p> - -<p class="caption">L Air; G Gas</p> - -<img src="images/fig17.jpg" width="400" height="700" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 17b.</span>—Siemens’s Regenerative Furnace</p> - -</div> - -<p>Such air heating arrangements are used for heating the -retorts in gas works, for melting the ‘metal’ in glass works, and -very generally in other industries, as they offer many technical -and hygienic advantages. Generator gas from coke contains -34 per cent. carbonic oxide, 0·1 per cent. hydrogen, 1·9 per -cent. carbon dioxide, and 64 per cent. nitrogen.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span></p> - -<p><i>Blast furnace gas.</i>—Blast furnace gas is formed under the -same conditions as have been described for generator gas; -it contains more carbon dioxide (about 10 per cent.). (Further -details are given in the section on Iron—Blast Furnaces.)</p> - -<p><i>Water gas.</i>—Water gas is made by the passage of steam -through incandescent coal, according to the equation:</p> - -<ul> -<li>C + H₂O = CO + 2H.</li> -</ul> - -<p>The iron gas producer, lined with firebrick, is filled with -anthracite or coke and heated by blowing hot air through it. -This causes producer gas to escape, after which steam is blown -through, causing water gas to escape—containing hydrogen and -carbonic oxide to the extent of 45-50 per cent., carbon -dioxide and nitrogen 2-6 per cent., and a little methane.</p> - -<p>The blowing of hot air and steam is done alternately, and -both kinds of gas are led away and collected separately, the -water gas being previously purified in scrubbers, condensers, -and purifiers. It serves for the production of high temperatures -(in smelting of metals). Further, when carburetted and -also when carefully purified in an uncarburetted state, it -serves as an illuminant. The producer gas generated at the -same time is used for heating purposes (generally for heating -boilers).</p> - -<p><i>Dowson gas.</i>—Dowson gas is obtained by collecting and -storing together the gases produced in the manner described -for water gas. Under the grating of the wrought-iron gas -producer (lined with firebrick and similarly filled with coke or -anthracite) a mixture of air and steam, produced in a special -small boiler, is blown through by means of a Körting’s -injector.</p> - -<p>Before storage the gas is subjected to a purifying process -similar to that in the case of water gas. The mixed gas -consists of 1 vol. water gas and 2-3 vols. producer gas, with -about 10-15 vols. per cent. H, 22-27 vols. per cent. CO, -3-6 per cent. CO₂, and 50-55 per cent. N. It is an admirable -power gas for driving gas motors (<a href="#fig18">fig. 18</a>).</p> - -<p><i>Mond gas</i> similarly is a mixed gas obtained by blowing -much superheated steam into coal at low temperature. -Ammonia is produced at the same time.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;" id="fig18"> - -<img src="images/fig18.jpg" width="700" height="350" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 18.</span>—Power Gas Installation (<i>after Lueger</i>)</p> - -<ul> -<li>A Steam boiler</li> -<li>a Steam injector</li> -<li>B Furnace</li> -<li>b Charging hopper</li> -<li>c Cover g</li> -<li>d Valve C</li> -<li>e Cock D</li> -<li>f Vent pipe</li> -<li>g Steam Pipe</li> -<li>C Washer</li> -<li>D Coke tower</li> -<li>E Sawdust purifier</li> -</ul> - -</div> - -<p><i>Suction gas.</i>—In contradistinction to the Dowson system, -in which air mixed with steam is forced into the producer by a -steam injector, in the suction gas plant the air and steam are -drawn into the generator by the apparatus itself. The whole -apparatus while in action is under slight negative pressure. A<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span> -special steam boiler is unnecessary because the necessary steam -is got up in a water container surrounding or connected with -the cover of the generator. The plant is set in motion by -setting the fire in action by a fan.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;" id="fig19"> - -<img src="images/fig19.jpg" width="500" height="500" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 19.</span>—Suction Gas Plant (<i>after Meyer</i>)</p> - -</div> - -<p><a href="#fig19">Fig. 19</a> shows a suction gas plant. B is the fan. Above -the generator A and at the lower part of the feed hopper is an -annular vessel for generating steam, over the surface of which -air is drawn across from the pipe e, passing then through the -pipe f into the ash box g, and then through the incandescent -fuel. The gas produced is purified in the scrubber D, and -passes then through a pipe to the purifier containing sawdust -and to the motor.</p> - -<p><i>Carburetted gas.</i>—Gas intended for illuminating purposes is -carburetted to increase its illuminating power, i.e. enriched -with heavy hydrocarbons. Carburetting is effected either by a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span> -hot method—adding the gases distilled from mineral or other -oils—or by a cold method—allowing the gas to come into contact -with cold benzol or benzine. Coal gas as well as water gas -is subjected to the carburetting process, but it has not the same -importance now in relation to illuminating power, as reliance -is more and more being placed on the use of mantles.</p> - -<h5>ACETYLENE</h5> - -<p><i>Calcium carbide.</i>—Acetylene is prepared from calcium -carbide, which on contact with water gives off acetylene.</p> - -<p><i>Calcium carbide</i> is prepared electro-chemically. A mixture -of burnt lime and coke is ground and melted up together at -very high temperature in an electric furnace, in doing which -there is considerable disengagement of carbonic oxide according -to the equation:</p> - -<ul> -<li>CaO + 3C = CaC₂ + CO.</li> -</ul> - -<p>The furnaces used in the production of calcium carbide are of -different construction. Generally the furnace is of the nature -of an electric arc, and is arranged either as a crucible furnace for -intermittent work or like a blast furnace for continuous work.</p> - -<p>Besides these there are resistance furnaces in which the heat -is created by the resistance offered to the passage of the current -by the molten calcium carbide.</p> - -<p>The carbonic oxide given off in the process causes -difficulty. In many furnaces it is burnt and so utilised for -heating purposes. The calcium carbide produced contains -as impurities silicon carbide, ferro-silicon, calcium sulphide, -and calcium phosphide.</p> - -<p><i>Acetylene</i> (C₂H₂), formed by the decomposition of calcium -carbide by means of water (CaC₂ + 2H₂O = Ca(OH)₂ + C₂H₂), -furnishes when pure an illuminating gas of great brilliancy and -whiteness. Its production is relatively easy. Used for the -purpose are (1) apparatus in which water is made to drop on -the carbide, (2) apparatus in which the carbide dips into water -and is removed automatically on generation of the gas, (3) -apparatus in which the carbide is completely immersed in -water, and (4) apparatus in which the carbide in tiny lumps -is thrown on to water. These are diagrammatically represented -in <a href="#fig20">figs. 20<span class="smcap">a</span> to 20<span class="smcap">d</span></a> .</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;" id="fig20"> - -<table> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">Fig. 20a.</span></td> - <td><span class="smcap">Fig. 20b.</span></td> - </tr> -</table> - -<img src="images/fig20.jpg" width="500" height="650" alt="" /> - -<table> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">Fig. 20c.</span></td> - <td><span class="smcap">Fig. 20d.</span></td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p class="caption">Acetylene Apparatus—diagrammatic (<i>after Lueger</i>) -A Dripping; B Dipping; C Submerging; D Throwing in</p> - -</div> - -<p>The most important impurities of acetylene are ammonia, -sulphuretted hydrogen gas, and phosphoretted hydrogen. -Before use, therefore, it is subjected to purification in various -ways. In Wolf’s method the gas is passed through a washer -(with the object of removing ammonia and sulphuretted -hydrogen gas) and a purifying material consisting of chloride<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span> -of lime and bichromate salts. In Frank’s method the gas -passes though a system of vessels containing an acid solution -of copper chloride, and also through a washer. Chloride of -lime with sawdust is used as a purifying agent. Finally, the -gas is stored and thence sent to the consumer (<a href="#fig21">see fig. 21</a>).</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;" id="fig21"> - -<img src="images/fig21.jpg" width="500" height="450" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 21.</span>—Acetylene Gas Apparatus (<i>after Lueger</i>)</p> - -</div> - -<p><span class="smcap">Effects on Health.</span>—Almost all the poisoning caused in -the industries in question is due to carbonic oxide gas, of which -water gas contains 41 per cent., generator gas 35 per cent., and -suction and Dowson gas 25 per cent.</p> - -<p>That industrial carbonic oxide poisoning is not rare the -reports of the certifying surgeons in Great Britain sufficiently -show. In the year 1906 fifty-five persons are referred to as -having suffered, with fatal issue in four. In 1907 there were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span> -eighty-one, of which ten were fatal. Of the 1906 cases twenty -resulted from inhalation of producer, Mond, or suction gas, -sixteen from coal gas (in several instances containing -carburetted water gas), seventeen from blast furnace gas, -and one each from charcoal fumes from a brazier, and from -the cleaning out of an oil gas holder.</p> - -<p>As causes of the poisoning from suction gas were (1) improper -situation of gas plant in cellar or basement, allowing gas to -collect or pass upward; (2) defective fittings; (3) starting the -suction gas plant by the fan with chimney valve closed; (4) -cleaning out ‘scrubbers’ or repairing valves, &c.; (5) defective -gasometer. In the seventeen cases due to blast furnace gas -six were due to conveyance of the gas by the wind from a -flue left open for cleaning purposes into an engineering shed, -two to charging the cupola furnace, two to entering the -furnace, and four to cleaning the flues.</p> - -<p>The following are instances taken from recent literature -on gas poisoning<a href="#endnote81" id="endnote-ref81"><span class="endnote-marker">1</span></a> : Several cases of poisoning by <i>water gas</i> -occurred in a smelting works. The poisoning originated -when a blowing machine driven by water gas was started. -Owing to premature opening of the gas valve two men -employed in a well underneath the machine were overcome. -The attendant who had opened the valve succeeded in lifting -both from the well; but as he was trying to lift a third man -who had come to his assistance and fallen into the well he -himself fell in and was overcome. The same fate befell the -engineer and his assistant who came to the rescue. All efforts -to recover the four men by others roped together failed, as all -of them to the number of eight were rendered unconscious. -With the aid of rescue appliances (helmets, &c.) the bodies -were recovered, but efforts at artificial respiration failed.</p> - -<p>A workman was killed by <i>suction gas</i> while in the water-closet. -It appeared that some time previously when the plant -was installed the ventilating pipe between the purifier and -motor, instead of being led through the roof, had been led -out sideways on a level with the floor immediately above the -closet.</p> - -<p>In another case the suction gas attendant had taken out -the three-way cock between the generator and motor for repairs -and had not reinserted it properly, so that when effort was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span> -made to start the motor this failed, as gas only and no air was -drawn in. The motor was thought to be at fault, and the fan -was worked so vigorously that the gas forced its way out -through the packing of the flange connections and produced -symptoms of poisoning in the persons employed.</p> - -<p>More dangerous than suction gas plants, in which normally -no escape takes place, are installations depending on gas -<i>under pressure</i>. Such an installation was used for heating gas -irons in a Berlin laundry. The arrangements were considered -excellent. The gas jets were in stoves from which the fumes -were exhausted. The gas was made from charcoal and contained -13 per cent. of hydrogen. No trace of carbonic oxide -was found in the ironing room on examination of the air. -After having been in use for months the mechanical ventilation -got out of order, with the result that twelve women suffered -severely from symptoms of carbonic oxide poisoning, from -which they were brought round by oxygen inhalation. The -laundry reverted to the use of illuminating gas. The conclusion -to be drawn is that installations for gas heating are to be used -with caution.<a href="#endnote82" id="endnote-ref82"><span class="endnote-marker">2</span></a> </p> - -<p>Industrial poisoning from <i>blast furnace gas</i> is frequent. -Two fatal cases were reported<a href="#endnote83" id="endnote-ref83"><span class="endnote-marker">3</span></a> in men employed in the gas -washing apparatus. They met their death at the manhole -leading to the waste-water outlet. In another case a workman -entered the gas main three hours after the gas had been -cut off to clear it of the dust which had collected. He succumbed, -showing that such accumulations can retain gas for a -long time. Steps had been taken three hours previously to -ventilate the portion of gas main in question.</p> - -<p>A fatal case occurred in the cleaning out of a blast furnace -flue which had been ventilated for 1½ hours by opening all -manholes, headplates, &c. The foreman found the deceased -with his face lying in the flue dust; both he and a helper were -temporarily rendered unconscious.</p> - -<p>Cases of poisoning by <i>generator gas</i> are described.<a href="#endnote84" id="endnote-ref84"><span class="endnote-marker">4</span></a> A -workman who had entered a gasometer containing the gas -died in ten minutes, and another remained unconscious for -ten days and for another ten days suffered from mental disturbance, -showing itself in hebetude and weakness of memory.</p> - -<p><i>Acetylene</i> is poisonous to only a slight extent. Impurities<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span> -in it, such as carbon bisulphide, carbonic oxide (present to the -extent of 1-2 per cent.), and especially phosphoretted hydrogen -gas, must be borne in mind.</p> - -<p>American calcium carbide<a href="#endnote85" id="endnote-ref85"><span class="endnote-marker">5</span></a> yields acetylene containing -0·04 per cent. of phosphoretted hydrogen; Lunge and Cederkreutz -have found as much as 0·06 per cent. in acetylene.</p> - -<h4>AMMONIA AND AMMONIUM COMPOUNDS</h4> - -<p><span class="smcap">Preparation.</span>—Ammonia and ammonium salts are now -exclusively obtained as a bye-product in the dry distillation of -coal, from the ammonia water in gas works, and as a bye-product -from coke ovens.</p> - -<p>The ammonia water of gas works contains from 2-3 per -cent. of ammonia, some of which can be recovered on boiling, -but some is in a non-volatile form, and to be recovered the -compound must be decomposed. The volatile compounds -are principally ammonium carbonate and, to a less extent, -ammonium sulphide and cyanide; the non-volatile compounds -are ammonium sulphocyanide, ammonium chloride, sulphate, -thiosulphate, &c. Other noteworthy substances in ammonia -water are pyridine, pyrrol, phenols, hydrocarbons, and tarry -compounds.</p> - -<p>Decomposition of the non-volatile compounds is effected -by lime. Hence the ammonia water is distilled first alone, -and then with lime. The distillate is passed into sulphuric -acid, ammonium sulphate being formed. Distillation apparatus -constructed on the principle usual in rectifying spirit -is used, so that continuous action is secured; the ammonia -water flows into the apparatus continuously and is freed of -the volatile compounds by the steam. At a later stage milk -of lime is added, which liberates the ammonia from the nonvolatile -compounds.</p> - -<p>Of the ammonium salts there require mention:</p> - -<p><i>Ammonium sulphate</i> ((NH₄)₂SO₄), which serves for the production -of other ammonium salts. It is usually centrifugalised -out from the sulphuric acid tank previously described.</p> - -<p><i>Ammonium chloride</i> (sal-ammoniac, NH₄Cl) is formed by -bringing the ammonia fumes given off in the process described<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span> -in contact with hydrochloric acid vapour. The crude salt -so obtained is recrystallised or sublimed.</p> - -<p><i>Ammonium phosphate</i> ((NH₄)₂HPO₄) is made in an analogous -manner by leading ammonia into phosphoric acid. It is -useful as an artificial manure.</p> - -<p><i>Ammonium carbonate</i> is made either by bringing together -ammonia vapour and carbonic acid or by subliming ammonium -sulphate with calcium carbonate. It is very volatile. The -thick vapour is collected and purified in leaden chambers.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;" id="fig22"> - -<img src="images/fig22.jpg" width="500" height="425" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 22.</span>—Preparation of Ammonia. Column Apparatus of Feldman (<i>after Ost</i>)</p> - -<p class="caption">A, B, C Columns; D Saturator; (a) Settling tank and regulator for flow of -ammonia; (b) Economiser; (f) Milk of lime; (g) Pump</p> - -</div> - -<p><i>Caustic ammonia</i> is prepared either from gas liquor or, more -usually, from ammonium sulphate by distillation with caustic -alkali in a continuous apparatus.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Use of Ammonia.</span>—Ammonia is used in laundries and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span> -bleaching works in dyeing and wool washing. It is used -especially in making ammonium salts, in the preparation of -soda by the Solvay process (see Soda Manufacture), and in -making ice artificially.</p> - -<p>It is used also in the preparation of indigo, in lacquers and -colours, and the extraction of chloride of silver, &c.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Effects on Health.</span>—Industrial ammonia poisoning is -rare. It occurs most frequently in gas works and occasionally -in its use, especially the manufacture of ammonium salts. Those -engaged in subliming ammonium carbonate incur special -risk, but often it is not the ammonia vapour so much as the -escaping evil-smelling gases containing carbon bisulphide and -cyanogen compounds which are the source of trouble.</p> - -<p>Occasionally in the production of ice through leakage or -by the breaking of carboys of ammonia accidental poisoning -has occurred.</p> - -<p>Some cases are cited from recent literature:</p> - -<p>A worker was rendered unconscious and drowned in an -ammonia water well.<a href="#endnote86" id="endnote-ref86"><span class="endnote-marker">1</span></a> Two workers were poisoned (one -fatally) in the concentration of gas liquor. Three workers were -gassed (one fatally) in the preparation of ammonium sulphate -in a gas works. Probably as the result of excessive steam -pressure gas water was driven over with the ammonia into -the sulphuric acid vessel.<a href="#endnote87" id="endnote-ref87"><span class="endnote-marker">2</span></a> </p> - -<p>Eulenberg<a href="#endnote88" id="endnote-ref88"><span class="endnote-marker">3</span></a> reports the occurrence of sulphuretted hydrogen -gas poisoning in the production of ammonium salts. The -workers succumbed as though shot, although work was being -carried on in the open air. They recovered when removed -from the poisonous atmosphere.</p> - -<p>In a large room of a chemical factory phosphoric acid was -being saturated with ammonia gas water in an iron lead-lined -vessel. Carbonic acid gas and hydrogen gas were -evolved, but not to such extent as to be noticeable in the large -room. A worker not employed in the room had to do something -close to the vessel, and inhaled some of the fumes given -off. A few yards from the vessel he was found lying unconscious, -and although removed into the open air failed to respond -to the efforts at artificial respiration.<a href="#endnote89" id="endnote-ref89"><span class="endnote-marker">4</span></a> </p> - -<p>Lewin, in an opinion delivered to the Imperial Insurance -Office, describes poisoning in a man who during two days had<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span> -been employed repairing two ammonia retorts in a chemical -factory. On the evening of the second day he suffered from -severe symptoms of catarrh, from which he died five days -later. Lewin considered the case to be one of acute ammonia -poisoning.<a href="#endnote90" id="endnote-ref90"><span class="endnote-marker">5</span></a> </p> - -<p>Ammonia is frequently used in <i>fulling</i> cloth, the fumes -of which collect on the surface after addition of sulphuric acid -to the settling vats. This is especially liable to occur on a -Monday, owing to the standing of the factory over the Sunday, -so that entrance into the vats without suitable precautions -is strictly forbidden. Despite this, a worker did go in to fetch -out something that had fallen in, becoming immediately unconscious. -A rescuer succumbed also and lost his life. The first -worker recovered, but was for long incapacitated by paralytic -symptoms.</p> - -<p>Cases of poisoning in <i>ice factories</i> and refrigerator rooms -from defective apparatus are reported.</p> - -<p>Acute and chronic poisoning among sewer men are due -mainly to sulphuretted hydrogen gas and only partly to -ammonia. The more ammonia and the less sulphuretted -hydrogen sewer gases contain the less poisonous are they.</p> - -<h4>CYANOGEN COMPOUNDS</h4> - -<p><span class="smcap">Treatment of the Materials used in Gas purifying.</span>—Cyanogen -compounds are still sometimes prepared by the -original method of heating to redness nitrogenous animal -refuse (blood, leather, horn, hair, &c.) with potash and iron -filings; potassium cyanide is formed from the nitrogen, carbon, -and alkali, and this with the sulphur and iron present is easily -converted into potassium ferrocyanide (yellow prussiate of -potash, K₄FeC₆N₆) by lixiviation of the molten mass. It -crystallises out on evaporation.</p> - -<p>Cyanogen compounds are obtained in large quantity from -the material used in purifying the gas in gas works. This -saturated spent material contains, in addition to 30-40 per -cent. of sulphur, 8-15 per cent. of cyanogen compounds and -1-4 per cent. of sulphocyanogen compounds.</p> - -<p>By lixiviation with water the soluble ammonium salts are -extracted from the purifying material. This solution furnishes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span> -<i>sulphocyanide of ammonium</i>, from which the remaining unimportant -sulphocyanide compounds are obtained (used in cloth -printing). The further treatment of the purifying material -for potassium ferrocyanide is rendered difficult because of -the sulphur, which is either removed by carbon bisulphide -and the ferrocyanide obtained by treatment with quicklime -and potassium chloride, or the mass is mixed with quicklime, -steamed in closed vessels, lixiviated with water, and decomposed -by potassium chloride; ferrocyanide of potassium and -calcium separates out in crystals, and this, treated with -potash, yields potassium ferrocyanide.</p> - -<p>The well-known non-poisonous pigment Prussian blue is -obtained by decomposing ferrocyanide of potash with chloride -or oxide of iron in solution.</p> - -<p><i>Potassium cyanide</i> (KCN) is prepared from potassium -ferrocyanide by heating in absence of air, but it is difficult to -separate it entirely from the mixture of iron and carbon which -remains. All the cyanogen is more easily obtained in the form -of potassium and sodium cyanide from potassium ferrocyanide -by melting it with potash and adding metallic sodium.</p> - -<p>The very poisonous <i>hydrocyanic acid</i> (prussic acid, HCN) -is formed by the action of acids on potassium or sodium -cyanide; small quantities indeed come off on mere exposure -of these substances to the air. The increasing demand for -potassium cyanide has led to experimental processes for -producing it synthetically.</p> - -<p>One method consists in the production of potassium -cyanide from potash and carbon in a current of ammonia gas. -Small pieces of charcoal are freed from air, saturated with a -solution of potash, dried in the absence of air, and heated in -upright iron cylinders to 100° C., while a stream of ammonia -gas is passed through.</p> - -<p>Again, sodium cyanide is prepared from ammonia, sodium, -and carbon by introducing a definite amount of sodium and -coal dust into melted sodium cyanide and passing ammonia -through. The solution is then concentrated in vacuo and -sodium cyanide crystallises out on cooling.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Use of Cyanides.</span>—Potassium cyanide is principally used -in the recovery of gold, in gold and silver electroplating, in -photography, for soldering (it reduces oxides and makes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span> -metallic surfaces clean), for the production of other cyanogen -compounds, for the removal of silver nitrate stains, &c. Hydrocyanic -acid gas is given off in electroplating, photography, in -smelting fumes, in tanning (removing hair by gas lime), &c.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Effects on Health.</span>—Industrial cyanogen poisoning is -rare. Weyl<a href="#endnote91" id="endnote-ref91"><span class="endnote-marker">1</span></a> states that he could find no case in any of the -German factory inspectors’ reports for the twenty years prior -to 1897, nor in some twenty-five volumes of foreign factory -inspectors’ reports. I have found practically the same in my -search through the modern literature.</p> - -<p>Of the very few references to the subject I quote the most -important.</p> - -<p>A case of (presumably) chronic hydrocyanic acid poisoning -is described in a worker engaged for thirteen years in silver -electroplating of copper plates.<a href="#endnote92" id="endnote-ref92"><span class="endnote-marker">2</span></a> The plates were dipped in a -silver cyanide solution and then brushed. After two years -he began to show signs of vomiting, nausea, palpitation, and -fatigue, which progressed and led to his death.</p> - -<p>A case of sudden death is described<a href="#endnote93" id="endnote-ref93"><span class="endnote-marker">3</span></a> occurring to a worker -in a sodium cyanide factory who inhaled air mixed with hydrocyanic -acid gas from a leaky pipe situated in a cellar. The -factory made sodium cyanide and ammonium sulphate from -the residue after removal of the sugar from molasses. This is -the only definite case of acute cyanogen poisoning in a factory -known to me. I believe that under modern conditions, in -which the whole process is carried on under negative pressure, -chance of escape of cyanogen gases is practically excluded.</p> - -<p>It should be mentioned that hydrocyanic acid vapour is -given off in the burning of celluloid. In this way eight persons -were killed at a fire in a celluloid factory.<a href="#endnote94" id="endnote-ref94"><span class="endnote-marker">4</span></a> </p> - -<p>Skin affections are said to be caused by contact with fluids -containing cyanogen compounds, especially in electroplating. -It is stated that workers coming into contact with solutions -containing cyanides may absorb amounts sufficient to cause -symptoms, especially if the skin has abrasions. Such cases -are described.<a href="#endnote95" id="endnote-ref95"><span class="endnote-marker">5</span></a> In electroplating, further, in consequence of -the strong soda solutions used, deep ulceration and fissures of -the skin of the hand can be caused.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span></p> - -<h4>COAL TAR AND TAR PRODUCTS</h4> - -<p>Of the products of the illuminating gas industry tar has -considerably the most importance. Coal tar as such has -varied use in industry, but far greater use is made of the products -obtained by fractional distillation from it such as benzene, -toluene, naphthalene, anthracene, carbolic acid, pyridine, and -the other constituents of tar, a number of which form the -starting-point in the production of the enormous coal-tar dye -industry. Especially increasing is the consumption of benzene. -In Germany alone this has increased in ten years from 20 to -70 million kilos. This is partly due to the need of finding -some cheap substitute for benzine, the consumption and cost -of which has increased, and it has in many respects been found -in benzene.</p> - -<p>Besides benzene and its homologues, toluene, anthracene, and -naphthalene are valuable. Anthracene is used in the manufacture -of alizarine and naphthalene in that of artificial indigo -and of the azo-colours. Carbolic acid (phenol) and the homologous -cresols serve not only as disinfectants but also in -the manufacture of numerous colours and in the preparation -of picric acid and salicylic acid. Further, a number of pharmaceutical -preparations and saccharin are made from the -constituents of tar.</p> - -<p>The important <i>constituents of tar</i> are:</p> - -<p>1. Hydrocarbons of the methane series: paraffins, olefines; -hydrocarbons of the aromatic series: benzene and its homologues, -naphthalene, anthracene, phenanthrene, &c.</p> - -<p>2. Phenols (cresols, naphthols).</p> - -<p>3. Sulphides: sulphuretted hydrogen, carbon bisulphide, -mercaptan, thiophene.</p> - -<p>4. Nitrogen compounds: ammonia, methylamine, aniline, -pyridine, &c.</p> - -<p>5. Fifty to sixty per cent. of tar consists of pitch constituting -a mixture of many different substances which -cannot be distilled without decomposition.</p> - -<p><i>Crude tar</i>, i.e. tar which separates in the dry distillation of -coal, is employed as such for preserving all kinds of building -materials, for tarring streets, as plastic cement, as a disinfectant,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span> -in the preparation of roofing paper or felt, lampblack, -briquettes, &c.</p> - -<p><i>Brattice cloth</i> and <i>roofing felt</i> are made by passing the -materials through hot tar and incorporating sand with them; -in doing this heavy fumes are given off.</p> - -<p><i>Lampblack</i> is made by the imperfect combustion of tar or -tar oil by letting them drop on to heated iron plates with as -limited an air supply as possible; the burnt gases laden with -carbon particles are drawn through several chambers or sacks -in which the soot collects.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;" id="fig23"> - -<img src="images/fig23.jpg" width="500" height="425" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 23.</span>—Tar Still (<i>after Krämer</i>)</p> - -</div> - -<p><i>Briquettes</i> (patent fuel) are made by mixing small coal (coal -dust) with tar or pitch and then pressing them in moulds.</p> - -<p>The separation and recovery of the valuable ingredients is -effected by <i>fractional distillation</i>. This is carried out by heating -the tar at gradually increasing temperature in a wrought-iron -still, the bottom of which is arched and having a cast-iron -still head, or in horizontal boilers by direct fire. Before -commencing the distillation the tar is freed as far as possible -of water by storage. On gradual increase of temperature the -volatile constituents, the so-called ‘light oil,’ and later the -heavier volatile constituents come over. The constituents<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span> -are liberated in a gaseous state and are collected in fractions. -The pitch remains behind in the still. Considerable quantities -of coal tar are not distilled for pitch. Often the light oils -and a portion of the heavy oils are collected, when soft pitch -remains, or, if the light oils and only a very small portion of -the heavy oils are collected, <i>asphalt</i> remains behind, this residue -being used as a basis for the manufacture of roofing felt. -The vapours are condensed in iron coils round which cold -water circulates. The receivers in which the distillate is caught -are changed at definite times as the temperature gradually -rises. If five fractions have come over they are called (1) first -runnings, (2) light oil to 170° C., (3) middle oil (carbolic oil to -230° C.), (4) heavy oil to 270° C., and lastly (5) anthracene -oil, which distills at over 270° C.; the pitch remaining behind -is let out of the still by an opening at the bottom.</p> - -<p>We will briefly sketch the further treatment and use of -these fractions, so far as a knowledge of the most important -processes is necessary for our purpose.</p> - -<p>1. The <i>light oils</i> (including first runnings) coming over -up to 170° C. are again distilled and then purified with -sulphuric acid in lead-lined cast-iron or lead-lined wooden -tanks. The dark-coloured acid used for purifying after -dilution with water, which precipitates tarry matters, is treated -for ammonium sulphate; the basic constituents of the light -oils extracted with sulphuric acid and again liberated by lime -yield <i>pyridine</i> (C₅H₅N) and the homologous pyridine bases, a -mixture of which is used for denaturing spirit. After the -light oils have been washed with dilute caustic soda liquor, -whereby the phenols are removed, they are separated by -another fractional distillation into (<i>a</i>) crude benzol (70°-130° C.) -and (<i>b</i>) solvent naphtha (boiling-point 130°-170° C.).</p> - -<p><i>Crude benzol</i> (70°-140° C.) consists chiefly of benzene and -toluene and is separated into its several constituents in -special rectifying apparatus. For this production of pure -benzene (boiling-point 80°-82° C.) and pure toluene (boiling-point -110° C.) fractionating apparatus is used (<a href="#fig24">fig. 24</a>).</p> - -<p>The <i>commercial products</i> in use which are obtained from -the fractional distillation of the light oil are:</p> - -<p>(<i>a</i>) <i>Ninety per cent. benzol</i>, so called because in the -distillation 90 per cent, should come over at a temperature<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span> -of 100° C. It is -made up of 80-85 -per cent. benzene, -13-15 per cent. -toluene, 2-3 per -cent. xylene, and -contains, as impurities, -traces of -olefines, paraffins, -sulphuretted hydrogen, -and other -bodies.</p> - -<p>(<i>b</i>) <i>Fifty per -cent. benzol</i> contains -50 per cent. -of constituents -distilling at 100° -C. and 90 per cent. -at 120° C.; it is -a very mixed product, -with only -40-50 per cent. of -benzene.</p> - -<p>(<i>c</i>) <i>Solvent -naphtha</i>, so called -because it is largely -used for dissolving -rubber, is free -from benzene, but -contains xylene -and its homologues -and other -unknown hydrocarbons.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;" id="fig24"> - -<img src="images/fig24.jpg" width="350" height="700" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 24.</span>—Column Apparatus of Hickman for Distillation -of Benzene (<i>after Ost</i>)</p> - -<p class="caption">A Still body; B Analysing column; C Cooler; D Condenser -for pure distillate.</p> - -</div> - -<p>Benzol is widely -used. Ninety -per cent. benzol -is largely used in -the chemical industry, -serving<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span> -for the preparation of dye stuffs, pharmaceutical preparations, -scents, &c. In other industries it took the place of -benzine and also of turpentine oil, especially in the paint -industry, since it evaporates quickly and readily dissolves -resins. Hence it is used in the preparation of quick drying -ship’s paints, as a protection against rust, and as an isolating -lacquer (acid proof colours) for electrical apparatus, in the -production of deck varnishes, and as a solvent of resins.</p> - -<p>This use of benzol in the paint industry is by no means -unattended with danger, as benzol is poisonous. Far less -harmful, if not altogether without risk, is use of benzol free -solvent naphtha—but this evaporates only slowly and hence -cannot take the place of benzol.</p> - -<p>Benzol serves further for fat extraction from bones in -manure factories and of caffein from coffee beans.</p> - -<p>Again, it is used as a motive power in motor vehicles.</p> - -<p>The solvent naphtha above mentioned with boiling-point -above 140° C. and all the light oils are employed in chemical -cleaning and for dissolving indiarubber (see Indiarubber).</p> - -<p>These are known in the trade erroneously as ‘benzine,’ -which unfortunately often leads to confusion with petroleum -benzine (see Petroleum) and to mistakes in toxicological -accounts of poisoning.</p> - -<p>2. Between 150° and 200° C. the <i>middle oil</i> comes over, from -which on cooling <i>naphthalene</i> (C₁₀H₈) crystallises out, and is -subsequently washed with caustic soda liquor and with acid; -it is re-distilled and hot pressed. The remaining liquor yields, -when extracted with caustic soda, <i>phenol</i> (carbolic acid, C₆H₅OH), -which, on addition of sulphuric acid or carbonic acid, separates -from the solution and then—generally in special factories—is -obtained pure by distillation and special purifying -processes.</p> - -<p>From the sodium salt of carbolic acid (sodium phenolate) -<i>salicylic acid</i> (C₆H₄OH.COOH) is obtained by combination -with compressed CO₂ at a temperature of 150° C. <i>Picric acid</i> -(trinitrophenol, C₆H₂OH.(NO₂)₃) is obtained by treating phenol -with a mixture of sulphuric and nitric acids (nitration). The -yellow crystals of this explosive which separate are carefully -washed, recrystallised, centrifugalised, and dried.</p> - -<p>3. The <i>heavy oils</i> which come over between 200° and 300° C.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span> -containing cresols, naphthols, naphthaline, quinoline bases, -fluid paraffins, &c., are seldom separated further. The disinfectants -lysol, sapocarbolic, &c., are obtained from such -fractions.</p> - -<p>The heavy oils are much in use for <i>impregnating wood</i> -(piles, railway sleepers, &c.), to prevent rotting. This is -done in special creosoting installations. The wood is first -freed from moisture under vacuum and lastly the heavy oil -forced in. This is a better means of preserving timber than -the analogous method by means of chloride of zinc.</p> - -<p>4. <i>Anthracene oil</i> or ‘green oil’ comes over between 300° -and 400° C. and contains the valuable anthracene which -crystallises out, is separated from the oil in filter presses, or -dried in centrifugal machines. <i>Alizarin</i> dyes are made from -it. Raw anthracene oil further is used commercially as a paint -under the name of carbolineum for preserving wood.</p> - -<p>5. The <i>pitch</i> remaining behind in the still serves (like tar) -for making varnishes, patent fuel, &c. For our purpose use of -pitch in the preparation of iron varnishes which adhere to -metals and protect them from oxidation have interest. Pitch -and the heavy oils are melted together or, if for thin varnishes, -dissolved in solvent naphtha. The volatile constituents -evaporate after the coat has been applied.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Effects on Health.</span>—Severe injury to health or poisoning -cases scarcely arise through manipulations with or use of tar. -Inhalation, however, of large quantities of tar vapour is -without doubt unpleasant, as a number of poisonous substances -are contained in the fumes. And the ammonia water -which separates on standing can give off unpleasantly -smelling odours from the sulphur compounds in it, especially -if it comes into contact with waste acids, with consequent -development of sulphuretted hydrogen gas.</p> - -<p>I could not find in the literature of the subject references -to any clearly proved case of poisoning from tar emanations. -But deserving of mention in this connection are the <i>effects -on the skin</i> caused by tar.</p> - -<p>Workers coming into contact with tar suffer from an -inflammatory affection of the skin, so-called tar eczema, which -occasionally takes on a cancerous (epithelioma) nature similar -to chimney-sweep’s cancer, having its seat predominantly on<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span> -the scrotum. In lampblack workers who tread down the -soot in receptacles the malady has been observed to affect the -lower extremities and especially the toes.</p> - -<p>In tar distillation and in the <i>production</i> and <i>use</i> of <i>benzene</i> -industrial poisoning frequently occurs. Many cases are recorded, -but in several the immediate exciting cause is doubtful, and -consequently it is often difficult to classify the cases.</p> - -<p>Most frequently the manufacture and use of benzene come -in question. Besides this, in tar distillation poisoning may be -caused by other substances, such as sulphuretted hydrogen gas, -carbonic oxide gas, &c. In the production of antipyrin, -aspirin, &c., and in the preparation and use of anthracene injury -to health is recognised.</p> - -<p>From the list of recognised cases of these forms of poisoning -the most characteristic are chosen from the recent literature on -the subject.</p> - -<p>The Prussian factory inspectors’ reports for 1904 describe -the following: In cleaning out a tar still two workers were -killed by inhalation of gas. The nature of the gas was not -ascertained. But what probably happened was that the cock -on the foul gas pipe collecting the gases from the stills leaked -and allowed fumes to pass over from one still to another.</p> - -<p>A foreman and worker were rendered unconscious on -entering a receiver for heavy oil for cleaning purposes. On -treatment with oxygen gas they speedily recovered.</p> - -<p><i>Industrial benzene poisoning</i> is especially frequent now in -view of the increasing use to which it is put. Several cases -have proved fatal.</p> - -<p>A worker, for instance, forgot to open the cock for the water -to cool the condenser, so that some of the benzene vapour -remained uncondensed. The case proved fatal.</p> - -<p>The Report of the Union of Chemical Industry for 1905 -stated that a worker on night duty, whose duty it was to -regulate the introduction of steam and the cooling of the benzol -plant, was found lying dead in front of the building. Inquiry -showed that he had not opened the valve for running the -distillate into the appropriate receiver. Eight thousand -litres overflowed.</p> - -<p>In an indiarubber extracting factory a worker was rendered -unconscious while inspecting a benzol still; before entering he<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span> -had omitted to observe the instructions to drive steam through -and have a mate on watch at the manhole. Two other workmen -were similarly affected who went to the rescue without -adoption of precautions. Only one survived.</p> - -<p>In a further accident (already mentioned under ‘Coke -Furnaces’) two workmen were killed. In the factory in question -the thick tar from the coke ovens was being distilled under -slight pressure. The air pumps, however, were out of order, -and temporary use was being made of Körting’s injectors, -whereby the steam and tar constituents were cooled and led -into the drain in front of the closet, near to which was a ventilating -shaft. Probably, in addition to benzene and its homologues, -sulphuretted hydrogen and cyanogen compounds were -present in the poisonous gases.</p> - -<p>In cleaning out a benzene extracting apparatus a workman -was killed by the stagnant fumes in it.</p> - -<p>A similar case of benzene poisoning occurred in a -naphthalamine works through inspecting an extracting vessel -which had contained benzene and naphthalamine and had -to be cleaned. The vessel had been empty for twenty-two -hours and had been washed and ventilated, but through a -leaking pipe benzene had dropped down into it. The workman -engaged was rendered unconscious inside the retort, -but was rescued by an engineer equipped with a breathing -helmet. Others who without such apparatus tried to effect a -rescue were overcome, and one who had entered the retort -succumbed.<a href="#endnote96" id="endnote-ref96"><span class="endnote-marker">1</span></a> </p> - -<p>Benzene poisoning has often occurred in the cleaning of -tanks, &c., for the transport and storage of the substance. -The following examples are taken from the Reports of the -Union of Chemical Industry.</p> - -<p>A worker during the pause for breakfast had, unknown to -his employer, cleaned out an empty truck for crude benzol. -Later he was with difficulty removed unconscious through the -manhole and could not be resuscitated. Only a short time -previously a similar occurrence had taken place in the same -factory.</p> - -<p>Two further fatal cases were reported in 1908 in the cleaning -out of railway tank waggons. The tank had previously been -thoroughly sprayed with water. The partition plates which are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span> -required in such tanks increase the difficulty of cleaning from -the manhole. After the foreman had tested the air by putting -his head inside and considered it free from danger, a man -entered to clean out the deposit; another man on watch -outside had evidently gone in for rescue purposes. Resuscitation -in both cases failed.</p> - -<p>A worker died and several were affected in the cleaning out -of a benzol storage tank in a tar distillery. The tank had -had air blown through it several weeks before, and had been -thoroughly cleaned by steam and water. Also in the inspection -the greatest care was taken in only permitting work for -short spells. This shows that, notwithstanding great care, -the last traces of benzol cannot be entirely removed and that -quite small quantities are sufficient to cause severe and even -fatal poisoning. Workers should only clean out tanks, -therefore, when properly equipped with helmets.</p> - -<p>In the German factory inspectors’ reports for 1902 a case -of intoxication is described in a man who was engaged painting -the inside of an iron reservoir with an asphalt paint dissolved in -benzol.</p> - -<p>Of special interest is a fatal case from inhalation of benzol -fumes in a rubber factory. Rubber dissolved in benzol was -being rubbed into the cloth on a spreading machine in the -usual way. The cloth then passes under the cleaning doctor -along the long heated plate to the end rolls. Of the three men -employed at the process one was found to be unconscious and -could not be brought round again.</p> - -<p>The cases described<a href="#endnote97" id="endnote-ref97"><span class="endnote-marker">2</span></a> of poisoning with impure benzol in -a pneumatic tyre factory in Upsala are, perhaps, analogous. -Here nine young women had severe symptoms, four of whom -died.</p> - -<p>In reference to the cases which occurred in rubber -factories it is conceivable that carbon bisulphide played a -part, since in such factories not only are mixtures of benzol -and carbon bisulphide used, but also frequently the ‘first -runnings’ of benzol, which, on account of the high proportion -(sometimes 50 per cent.) of carbon bisulphide in them, make an -excellent solvent for rubber.</p> - -<p>From some coke ovens crude benzol was collected in two -large iron receivers. They were sunk in a pit projecting very<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span> -little above the ground. To control the valves the workmen -had to mount on the receiver, the manholes of which were kept -open during filling. The pit was roofed over and two wooden -shafts served both for ventilation and as approaches to the -valves. One summer day benzol had been blown in the usual -way into a railway truck and a worker had entered the space -to control the valves. Some time afterwards he was found in a -doubled-up position on the receiver, grasping the valves, from -which later he fell off down to the bottom of the pit. Three -rescuers entered, but had to retire as they became affected. A -fourth worker, in the presence of the manager, was let down -by a rope, but succumbed immediately and was dragged up -a corpse. Finally, equipped with a smoke helmet, a rescuer -brought up the lifeless body of the first man. It was believed -that the benzol had distilled over warm and had evaporated -to such an extent as to fill with fumes the unsuitably arranged -and inadequately ventilated space. Possibly other volatile -compounds were responsible for the poisoning.<a href="#endnote98" id="endnote-ref98"><span class="endnote-marker">3</span></a> </p> - -<p>A similar though less serious accident occurred to a foreman -who forgot to set the cooling apparatus at work at the commencement -of distillation, and became unconscious from the -escaping fumes, as also did a rescuer. The latter was brought -round by oxygen inhalation, but the former, although alive -when recovered, succumbed despite efforts at artificial -respiration.</p> - -<p>A fatal case occurred in an aniline factory where benzol -fumes had escaped owing to faulty arrangement of the valves. -The worker, although ordered at once to leave the room, was -found there ten minutes later dead.</p> - -<p>Interesting are the following cases of accidents due to use -of paints containing benzol.</p> - -<p>In painting a retort with an anti-corrosive paint called -‘Original Anti-corrosive,’ unconsciousness followed on completion -of the painting, but by prompt rescue and medical -assistance life was saved. The accident was attributed to -benzol fumes from the paint insufficiently diluted by the air -coming in at the open manhole. A similar case arose from use -of a rust-preventing paint—‘Preolith’—and only with difficulty -was the man using it pulled out from the inside of the steam -boiler. Although resuscitated by oxygen inhalation, he was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span> -incapacitated for eight days. Crude benzol was a constituent -of ‘Preolith.’ Obviously use of such paints in closely confined -spaces is very risky.</p> - -<p>The frequency of such poisonings caused Schaefer,<a href="#endnote99" id="endnote-ref99"><span class="endnote-marker">4</span></a> Inspector -of Factories in Hamburg, to go fully into the question. He -lays stress on the dangerous nature of paints containing a high -proportion of benzol, but considers use of unpurified constituents -with boiling-point between 130°-170° C., such as solvent naphtha, -as free from risk (cf. in Part II the experiments on benzene and -the commercial kinds of benzol). Schaefer mentions that in -1903 and 1904 cases of unconsciousness from painting the -inside of boilers were numerous. The proportion of benzol -in the paints was 20-30 per cent. In 1905 and 1906 the cases -were attributable rather to inhalation of hydrocarbons in -cleaning of apparatus. Use of ‘Dermatin’ affected two -painters. One case in 1906 happened to a man painting the -double bottom of a ship in Hamburg harbour with ‘Black -Varnish Oil’ through the manhole, in doing which he inhaled -much of the fumes. This paint consisted of coal-tar pitch in -light coal-tar oil, the latter constituent (distilling at 170° C.) -amounting to 31-33 per cent. Investigation showed further -that the bulk of the tar oil volatilised at ordinary temperatures -and so quickly dried. Sulphuretted hydrogen gas was given -off on slight warming. The person after using it for some -time felt poorly, and then became ill with severe inflammation -of the respiratory passages, which proved fatal after twenty-four -days.</p> - -<p>Several similar cases occurred in 1908 and 1909. Painting -the inside of a boiler with ‘Auxulin’ caused unconsciousness -in four persons, of whom three were rescuers. A fatal case -was due to use of a patent colour containing 30-40 per cent. -benzol in an entirely closed-in space (chain-well), although -the worker was allowed out into fresh air at frequent -intervals.</p> - -<p>A case of chronic industrial xylene poisoning is described -in a worker using it for impregnating indiarubber goods. The -symptoms were nervous, resembling neurasthenia.</p> - -<p>Some of the cases of poisoning, especially when severe and -fatal, in the production of distillation constituents of coal tar -are doubtless attributable to <i>sulphuretted hydrogen gas</i>. Thus<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span> -in England, in the years 1901-3, there were eleven fatal and -as many other severe cases reported from tar distilleries, of -which the majority were due to sulphuretted hydrogen gas.</p> - -<p>One case of <i>carbonic oxide</i> poisoning in coal-tar distillation -is described.<a href="#endnote100" id="endnote-ref100"><span class="endnote-marker">5</span></a> In cleaning out pitch from a still fourteen days -after the last distillation a workman succumbed to carbonic -oxide poisoning. This is at all events a rare eventuality, -since no other case is to be found in the literature of the subject, -but it is a proof that in the last stage of coal-tar distillation -carbonic oxide plays a part.</p> - -<p>Mention must be made of the frequent occurrence of -severe skin affections in <i>anthracene workers</i>; they take the -form of an eruption on the hands, arms, feet, knees, &c., and -sometimes develop into cancer.</p> - -<p>Observations in a chemical factory since 1892 showed that -of thirty thus affected in the course of ten years twenty-two -came into contact with paraffin.</p> - -<h5>Artificial Organic Dye Stuffs (Coal-tar Colours)</h5> - -<p><span class="smcap">Manufacture.</span>—The starting-points for the preparation of -artificial coal-tar dyes are mainly those aromatic compounds -(hydrocarbons) described in the preceding section. Besides -these, however, there are the derivatives of the fatty series such -as methyl alcohol (wood spirit), ethyl alcohol, phosgene, and, -latterly, formaldehyde.</p> - -<p>The <i>hydrocarbons of the benzene series</i> from tar distillation -are delivered almost pure to the colour factory. Of these -benzene, toluene, xylene, naphthalene, anthracene, and the -phenols, cresols, &c., have to be considered.</p> - -<p>Further treatment is as follows:</p> - -<p>1. Nitration, i.e. introduction of a nitro-group by means of -nitric acid.</p> - -<p>2. Reduction of the nitrated products to amines.</p> - -<p>3. Sulphonation, i.e. conversion to sulphonic acids by -means of concentrated sulphuric acid.</p> - -<p>4. The sulphonic acids are converted into phenols by -fusing with caustic soda.</p> - -<p>5. Introduction of chlorine and bromine.</p> - -<p><i>Nitro-derivatives</i> are technically obtained by the action of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span> -a mixture of nitric and concentrated sulphuric acids on the -aromatic body in question. The most important example is -<i>nitrobenzene</i>.</p> - -<p>Benzene is treated for several hours in cylindrical cast-iron -pans with nitric and concentrated sulphuric acids. The vessel -is cooled externally and well agitated. A temperature of -25° C. should not be exceeded.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;" id="fig25"> - -<img src="images/fig25.jpg" width="600" height="450" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 25.</span>—Preparation of Intermediate Products in the Aniline Colour Industry -(Closed Apparatus), showing Arrangement for Condensation (<i>after Leymann</i>)</p> - -</div> - -<p>On standing the fluid separates into two layers: the lower -consists of dilute sulphuric acid in which there is still some -nitric acid, and the upper of nitrobenzene. The latter is freed -of remains of acid by washing and of water by distillation. -<i>Toluene</i> and <i>xylene</i> are nitrated in the same way. <i>Dinitro -products</i> (such as metadinitrobenzene) are obtained by further -action of the nitro-sulphuric acid mixture on the mononitro-compound -at higher temperature.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span></p> - -<p>For conversion of phenol into <i>picric acid</i> (trinitrophenol) -the use of a nitro-sulphuric acid mixture is necessary.</p> - -<p>The <i>aromatic bases</i> (aniline, toluidine, xylidine) are obtained -by reduction of the corresponding nitro-compound by means -of iron filings and acid (hydrochloric, sulphuric, or acetic). -Thus in the case of <i>aniline</i> pure nitrobenzene is decomposed -in an iron cylindrical apparatus, provided with agitators and -a condenser, and avoidance of a too violent reaction, by means -of fine iron filings and about 5 per cent. hydrochloric acid. -After completion of the reaction the contents are rendered -alkaline by addition of lime and the aniline distilled over. -Manufacture of <i>toluidine</i> and <i>xylidine</i> is analogous.</p> - -<p><i>Dimethylaniline</i> is obtained by heating aniline, aniline -hydrochloride, and methyl alcohol.</p> - -<p><i>Diethylaniline</i> is prepared in an analogous way with the -use of ethyl alcohol.</p> - -<p>By the action of nitrous acid (sodium nitrite and hydrochloric -acid) on the acid solution of the last-named compound -the <i>nitroso compounds</i> are formed.</p> - -<p><i>Sulphonic acids</i> arise by the action of concentrated or fuming -sulphuric acid on the corresponding bodies of the aromatic -series: benzene disulphonic acid from benzene and fuming -sulphuric acid, &c.</p> - -<p><i>Phenols</i> and <i>cresols</i> are obtained pure from tar distillation. -The remaining hydroxyl derivatives (resorcin, α- and β-naphthol, -&c.), are generally obtained by the action of concentrated -caustic soda on aromatic sulphonic acids.</p> - -<p>The most important aromatic aldehyde, <i>benzaldehyde</i>, -is obtained from toluene; on introducing chlorine at boiling -temperature benzyl chloride is first formed, then benzal-chloride -and finally benzo-trichloride. In heating benzal-chloride -with milk of lime (under pressure) benzaldehyde is -formed (C₆H₅COH).</p> - -<p><i>Picric acid</i> and <i>naphthol yellow</i> belong to the <i>nitro dyestuffs</i>; -the last named is obtained by sulphonating α-naphthol with -fuming sulphuric acid and by the action of nitric acid on -the sulphonated mixture.</p> - -<p>Nitroso derivatives of aromatic phenols yield (with metal -oxides) the material for production of nitroso dyestuffs. To -these belong naphthol green, &c.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span></p> - -<p>The most important <i>azo dyestuffs</i> technically are produced -in principle by the action of nitrous acid on the aromatic -amines. The amido compound is converted into the diazo -salt by treatment with sodium nitrite in acid solution. Thus -diazo-benzene is made from aniline. Diazo compounds are -not usually isolated but immediately coupled with other -suitable compounds—amido derivatives, phenols—i.e. converted -into azo compounds.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;" id="fig26"> - -<img src="images/fig26.jpg" width="500" height="475" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 26.</span>—Nitrating Plant (<i>after Leymann</i>)</p> - -<ul> -<li>I Nitric acid</li> -<li>II Balance</li> -<li>III Storage tank</li> -<li>IV Nitrating pan</li> -<li>V Waste acid tank</li> -<li>VI Acid egg</li> -<li>VII Hydrocarbon</li> -<li>VIII Balance</li> -<li>IX Storage tank</li> -<li>X Washing vessel</li> -<li>XI Centrifugal machine</li> -<li>XII Egg</li> -<li>- - - Exhaust ventilation pipe.</li> -</ul> - -</div> - -<p>The combination of the two constituents takes place at -once and quantitatively. The colour is separated from the -aqueous solution by salting-out, and is then put through a -filter press. The reactions are carried out generally in wooden -vats arranged in stages. Besides a second, a third constituent -can be introduced, and in this way naphthol—and naphthylamine -sulphonic acids yield a large number of colouring matters. -A very large number of azo dyestuffs can thus be produced<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span> -by the variation of the first component (the primary base) -with the second and again with the third component, but it -would carry us too far to deal further with their preparation.</p> - -<p><i>Anthracene colours</i>—yielding so-called direct dyes—are prepared -from anthracene, which is converted into anthraquinone -by the action of bichromate and dilute sulphuric acid when -heated; the crude ‘quinone’ is purified with concentrated -sulphuric acid and converted into anthraquinone monosulphonic -acid to serve in the preparation of <i>alizarin</i>, which is made from -it by heating for several days with concentrated caustic soda -to which sodium chlorate is added. The process is carried on -in cast-iron pans provided with agitators.</p> - -<p><i>Alizarin</i> is the starting-point for the alizarin dyes, but of -their production we will not speak further, as they, and indeed -most of the coal-tar dyes, are non-poisonous.</p> - -<p><i>Indigo</i> to-day is generally obtained by synthesis. It -is prepared from phenylglycine or phenylglycine ortho-carboxylic -acid, which on heating with sodamide becomes -converted into indoxyl or indoxyl carboxylic acid. These in -presence of an alkali in watery solution and exposure to the -oxygen of the air immediately form indigo. The necessary -glycine derivatives are obtained by the action of monochloracetic -acid on aniline or anthranilic acid, which again are derived -from naphthalene (by oxidation to phthalic acid and treatment -of phthalimide with bleaching powder and soda -liquor).</p> - -<p><i>Fuchsin</i> belongs to the group of triphenylmethane dyestuffs, -with the production of which the epoch of coal-tar colour -manufacture began, from the observation that impure aniline -on oxidation gave a red colour. The original method of -manufacture with arsenic acid is practically given up in -consequence of the unpleasant effects which use and recovery -of large quantities of arsenic acid gave rise to. The method -consisted in heating a mixture of aniline and toluidine with -a solution of arsenic acid under agitation in cast-iron cylinders. -The cooled and solidified mass from the retorts was boiled, -and from the hot solution, after filtration, the raw fuchsin was -precipitated with salt and purified by crystallisation.</p> - -<p>Now by the usual nitrobenzene process, aniline, toluidine, -nitrobenzene, and nitrotoluene are heated with admixture of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span> -hydrochloric acid and some iron protochloride or zinc chloride. -Further treatment resembles the arsenic process.</p> - -<p>By alkylation, i.e. substitution of several hydrogen atoms of -the amido-groups by ethyl, &c., through the action of alkyl -halogens and others, it was found possible to convert fuchsin -into other triphenylmethane colours. But it was soon found -simpler to transfer already alkylated amines into the colours in -question. Thus, for example, to prepare <i>methyl violet</i> dimethyl -aniline was heated for a long time with salt, copper chloride, -and phenol containing cresol in iron mixing drums. The -product is freed from salt and phenol by water and calcium -hydrate, subsequently treated with sulphuretted hydrogen -or sodium sulphide, and the colour separated from copper -sulphide by dissolving in dilute acid.</p> - -<p>Mention must be made, finally, of the <i>sulphur dyes</i> obtained -by heating organic compounds with sulphur or sodium -sulphide. For the purpose derivatives of diphenylamine, nitro- and -amido-phenols, &c., serve as the starting-point.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Effects on Health.</span>—From what has been said of the -manufacture of coal-tar dyes it is evident that poisoning -can arise from the initial substances used (benzene, toluene, -&c.), from the elements or compounds employed in carrying -out the reactions (such as chlorine, nitric acid, sulphuric acid, -arsenious acid, sodium sulphide, and sulphuretted hydrogen -gas), from the intermediate bodies formed (nitro and amido -compounds, such as nitrobenzene, dinitrobenzene, aniline, -&c.), and that, finally, the end products (the dyes themselves) -can act as poisons. It has already been said that most of -the dyes are quite harmless unless contaminated with the -poisonous substances used in their manufacture.</p> - -<p>We have seen that many of the raw substances used in the -manufacture of coal-tar dyes are poisonous, and we shall learn -that several of the intermediate products (especially the nitro -and amido compounds) are so also.</p> - -<p>According to Grandhomme,<a href="#endnote101" id="endnote-ref101"><span class="endnote-marker">1</span></a> of the raw materials benzene -is the one responsible for most poisoning. He describes two -fatal cases of benzene poisoning. In one case the worker was -employed for a short time in a room charged with benzene -fumes, dashed suddenly out of it, and died shortly after. In -the other, the workman was employed cleaning out a vessel in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span> -which lixiviation with benzene had taken place. Although -the vessel had been steamed and properly cooled, so much -benzene fume came off in emptying the residue as to overcome -the workman and cause death in a short time.</p> - -<p>Grandhomme describes no injurious effect from naphthalene -nor, indeed, from anthracene, which he considered was without -effect on the workers.</p> - -<p>Similarly, his report as to nitrobenzene was favourable. -No reported case of poisoning occurred among twenty-one men -employed, in some of whom duration of employment was from -ten to twenty years. Aniline poisoning, however, was frequent -among them. In the three years there was a total of forty-two -cases of anilism, involving 193 sick days—an average -of fourteen cases a year and sixty-four sick days. None -was fatal and some were quite transient attacks.</p> - -<p>In the fuchsin department no cases occurred, and any evil -effects in the manufacture were attributable to arsenic in the -now obsolete arsenic process. Nor was poisoning observed in -the preparation of the dyes in the remaining departments—blues, -dahlias, greens, resorcin, or eosin. In the manufacture -of methylene blue Grandhomme points out the possibility of -evolution of arseniuretted hydrogen gas from use of hydrochloric -acid and zinc containing arsenic. Poisoning was -absent also in the departments where alizarine colours and -pharmaceutical preparations were made.</p> - -<p>Among the 2500-2700 workers Grandhomme records -122 cases of industrial sickness in the three years 1893-5, -involving 724 sick days. In addition to forty-two cases of -anilism there were seventy-six cases of lead poisoning with 533 -sick days. Most of these were not lead burners, but workers -newly employed in the nitrating department who neglected -the prescribed precautionary measures. Lastly, he mentions -the occurrence of chrome ulceration.</p> - -<p>The frequency of sickness in the Höchst factory in each of -the years 1893-5 was remarkably high: 126 per cent., 91 per -cent., and 95 per cent. Much less was the morbidity in the -years 1899-1906—about 66 per cent.—recorded by Leymann<a href="#endnote102" id="endnote-ref102"><span class="endnote-marker">2</span></a> —probably -the same Höchst factory with 2000 to 2200 -employed. And the cases of industrial poisoning also -were less. He cites only twenty-one in the whole of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span> -period 1899-1906. Of these twelve were due to aniline, -involving thirty sick days, only five to lead poisoning, with -fifty-four sick days, one to chrome ulceration, one to -arseniuretted hydrogen gas (nine sick days), and one -fatal case each from sulphuretted hydrogen gas and from -dimethyl sulphate. In 1899, of three slight cases of aniline -poisoning one was attributable to paranitraniline (inhalation -of dust), and the two others to spurting of aniline oil on -to the clothing, which was not at once changed. Of the -four cases in 1900, one was a plumber repairing pipes -conveying aniline and the others persons whose clothes had -been splashed.</p> - -<p>In 1903 a worker employed for eleven and a half years in -the aniline department died of cancer of the bladder. Such -cancerous tumours have for some years been not infrequently -observed in aniline workers, and operations for their removal -performed. Leymann thinks it very probable that the -affection is set up, or its origin favoured, by aniline. This -view must be accepted, and the disease regarded as of industrial -origin. Three slight cases in 1904 and 1905 were due partly to -contamination of clothing and partly to inhalation of fumes. -Of the five cases of lead poisoning three were referable to -previous lead employment. Perforation of the septum of the -nose by bichromate dust was reported once only. A fatal -case from sulphuretted hydrogen gas and a case of poisoning -by arseniuretted hydrogen gas occurred in 1906, but their -origin could not be traced.</p> - -<p>In large modern aniline dye factories, therefore, the health -of the workers is, on the whole, good and industrial poisoning -rare. Comparison of the two sets of statistics show that -improvement in health has followed on improved methods of -manufacture. Such cases of aniline poisoning as are reported -are usually slight, and often accounted for by carelessness on -the part of the workers.</p> - -<p>Data as to the health of workers in factories manufacturing -or using nitro compounds are given in the English factory -inspectors’ reports for 1905. Even with fortnightly medical -examination in them, more than half the workers showed -signs of anæmia and slight cyanosis. Two men in a factory<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span> -employing twelve men in the manufacture of nitro compounds -were treated in hospital for cyanosis, distress of breathing, -and general weakness. One had only worked in the factory -for nine days. In another badly ventilated factory, of -twenty persons examined fourteen showed bluish-grey coloration -of the lips and face, ten were distinctly anæmic, and six -showed tremor and weakness of grasp.</p> - -<p>Nitrobenzene poisoning arises from the fumes present in -aniline and roburite factories. Acute and chronic poisoning -by nitro compounds of the benzene series are described, -brought about by accident (fracture of transport vessels) -and by carelessness (splashing on to clothes). Cases of -optic neuritis (inflammation of the optic nerve) as a result -of chronic nitrobenzene poisoning are described.</p> - -<p>Dinitrobenzene and other nitro and dinitro compounds -are present in safety explosives. Thus roburite and bellite -consist of metadinitrobenzene and ammonium nitrate; -ammonite of nitronaphthalene and ammonium nitrate; -securite of the materials in roburite with ammonium oxalate -in addition. In roburite there may be also chlorinated nitro -compounds.</p> - -<p>Leymann,<a href="#endnote103" id="endnote-ref103"><span class="endnote-marker">3</span></a> describing accidents in the preparation of nitrophenol -and nitrochloro compounds, mentions four fatal cases -occurring in the manufacture of black dyes from mono- and -di-nitrophenols as well as mono- and di-nitrochlorobenzene and -toluene. In three of the cases dinitrophenol was the compound -at fault owing to insufficient care in the preparation,—the -result of ignorance until then of risk of poisoning from -mono- and tri-nitrophenol. One of the men had had to empty a -washing trough containing moist dinitrophenol. He suddenly -became collapsed, with pain in the chest, vomiting, fever, and -convulsions, and died within five hours. Another suffered from -great difficulty of breathing, fever, rapid pulse, dilatation of -the pupils, and died within a few hours in convulsions. Two -further cases of nitrochlorobenzene poisoning are referred to, -one of which was fatal. Four chlorobenzene workers after a -bout of drinking were found unconscious in the street, and -only recovered after eight to ten hours in hospital. The -symptoms were grey-blue colour of the skin, pallor of mucous<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span> -membranes, lips, nose, and conjunctivæ, and peculiar chocolate-coloured -blood.</p> - -<p>Many cases of poisoning from roburite are recorded.<a href="#endnote104" id="endnote-ref104"><span class="endnote-marker">4</span></a> In -the Witten roburite factory it is stated that during the years -1890-7 almost all the workers had been ill.<a href="#endnote105" id="endnote-ref105"><span class="endnote-marker">5</span></a> Only three -looked healthy—all the others suffered from more or less -pallor, blue lips, and yellowish conjunctivæ.</p> - -<p>A case of chlorobenzene poisoning was reported with -symptoms of headache, cyanosis, fainting attacks, difficulty -of breathing, &c., in a man who had worked only three weeks -with the substance.<a href="#endnote106" id="endnote-ref106"><span class="endnote-marker">6</span></a> </p> - -<p>In the nitrotoluene department of an explosives factory -a number of the workmen suffered from symptoms of distress -in breathing, headache, &c., of whom two, employed only a -short time, died. The poisoning was attributed, partly to -nitrotoluene and partly to nitrous fumes. As a contributing -cause it was alleged that in view of shortage of hands unsuitable -persons were engaged who neglected precautions.<a href="#endnote107" id="endnote-ref107"><span class="endnote-marker">7</span></a> </p> - -<p>Nitronaphthalene is said to cause inflammation and -opacity of the cornea,<a href="#endnote108" id="endnote-ref108"><span class="endnote-marker">8</span></a> attributable either to long-continued -exposure (four to eight months) to nitronaphthalene vapour -or to spurting of the liquid into the eye.</p> - -<p>I could not find reference in literature to actual cases of -poisoning by picric acid. They are referred to in a general -way only as causing skin affections.</p> - -<p>Aniline poisoning arises generally from inhalation, but -absorption through the skin and less frequently inhalation of -dust of aniline compounds cause it. We have already laid -stress on the frequently severe cases resulting from carelessness -in spilling on to or splashing of, clothes without at once -changing them, breaking of vessels containing it, and entering -vessels filled with the vapour. In literature of old date many -such cases have been described, and it was stated that -workers were especially affected on hot days, when almost -all showed cyanosis. Such observations do not state fairly -the conditions to-day in view of the improvements which -Grandhomme and Leymann’s observations show have taken -place in aniline factories. Still, cases are fairly frequent. -Thus in a factory with 251 persons employed, thirty-three -cases involving 500 days of sickness were reported.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span></p> - -<p>The Report of the Union of Chemical Industry for 1907 -cites the case of a worker who was tightening up the leaky -wooden bung of a vessel containing aniline at a temperature of -200° C. He was splashed on the face and arms, and although -the burns were not in themselves severe he died the next day -from aniline absorption.</p> - -<p>Cases of anilism are not infrequent among dyers. The -reports of the Swiss factory inspectors for 1905 describe a -case where a workman worked for five hours in clothes on to -which aniline had spurted when opening an iron drum. Similar -cases are described in the report of the English factory -inspectors for the same year. Aniline black dyeing frequently -gives rise to poisoning, and to this Dearden<a href="#endnote109" id="endnote-ref109"><span class="endnote-marker">9</span></a> of Manchester -especially has called attention.</p> - -<p>Typical aniline poisoning occurred in Bohemia in 1908 -in a cloth presser working with black dyes. While crushing -aniline hydrochloride with one hand, he ate his food with the -other. That the health of persons employed in aniline black -dyeing must be affected by their work is shown by medical -examination. For instance, the English medical inspector of -factories in the summer months of 1905 found among sixty -persons employed in mixing, preparing, and ageing 47 per cent. -with greyish coloration of lips and 57 per cent. characteristically -anæmic. Further, of eighty-two persons employed in padding, -washing, and drying, 34 per cent. had grey lips, 20 per cent. -were anæmic, and 14 per cent. with signs of acute or old effects -of chrome ulceration. Gastric symptoms were not infrequently -complained of. The symptoms were worse in hot -weather.</p> - -<p>Use of aniline in other industries may lead to poisoning. -Thus in the extraction of foreign resins with aniline seventeen -workers suffered (eleven severely). Interesting cases of -poisoning in a laundry from use of a writing ink containing -aniline have been recorded.<a href="#endnote110" id="endnote-ref110"><span class="endnote-marker">10</span></a> </p> - -<p>Reference is necessary to tumours of the bladder observed -in aniline workers. The first observations on the subject were -made by Rehn of Frankfurt, who operated in three cases. -Bachfeld of Offenbach noticed in sixty-three cases of aniline -poisoning bladder affections in sixteen. Seyberth described -five cases of tumours of the bladder in workers with long<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span> -duration of employment in aniline factories.<a href="#endnote111" id="endnote-ref111"><span class="endnote-marker">11</span></a> In the Höchst -factory (and credit is due to the management for the step) -every suspicious case is examined with the cystoscope. In -1904 this firm collected information from eighteen aniline -factories which brought to light thirty-eight cases, of which -eighteen ended fatally. Seventeen were operated on, and of -these eleven were still alive although in three there had been -recurrence.</p> - -<p>Tumours were found mostly in persons employed with -aniline, naphthylamine, and their homologues, but seven -were in men employed with benzidine.</p> - -<p>Cases of benzene and toluidine poisoning in persons -superintending tanks and stills have been described.</p> - -<p>Industrial paranitraniline poisoning has been described, and -a fatal case in the Höchst dye works was attributed by Lewin -(as medical referee) to inhalation of dust. Before his death -the workman had been engaged for five hours in hydro-extracting -paranitraniline.</p> - -<p>Paraphenylene diamine leads not unfrequently to industrial -poisoning from use of ursol as a dye. It produces skin eruptions -and inflammation of the mucous membrane of the -respiratory passages.<a href="#endnote112" id="endnote-ref112"><span class="endnote-marker">12</span></a> No doubt the intermediate body -produced (diimine) acts as a powerful poison.</p> - -<p>A case of metaphenylene diamine poisoning is quoted -in the Report of the Union of Chemical Industry for 1906. -A worker had brought his coffee and bread, contrary to the -rules, into the workroom and hidden them under a vessel containing -the substance. Immediately after drinking his coffee -he was seized with poisoning symptoms, and died a few days -later. Some of the poison must have dropped into his coffee.</p> - -<p>Few instances of poisoning from pure aniline colours are -recorded.</p> - -<p>At first all tar colours were looked upon as poisonous, but -as they were mostly triphenylmethane colours they would -contain arsenious acid. When the arsenic process was given -up people fell into the other extreme of regarding not only -the triphenylmethane colours but all others as non-poisonous, -until experience showed that production and use of some of -the tar colours might affect the skin.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span></p> - -<p>Finally, mention must be made of inflammation of the -cornea caused by methyl violet dust. The basic aniline -dyes are said to damage the eye. As opposed to this view is -the fact that methyl violet and auramine are used as anti-bactericidal -agents, for treatment of malignant tumours, and -especially in ophthalmic practice.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span></p> - -<h3 id="II_SMELTING_OF_METALS">II. SMELTING OF METALS</h3> - -<h4>LEAD (ZINC, SILVER)</h4> - -<h5>OCCURRENCE OF INDUSTRIAL LEAD POISONING IN GENERAL</h5> - -<p><i>Chronic lead poisoning</i> plays the most important rôle in -industrial metallic poisoning, and indeed in industrial poisoning -generally. The result everywhere where inquiry into industrial -poisoning has been instituted has been to place the number -of cases of lead poisoning at the top of the list; for one case -of other forms of industrial poisoning there are twenty of -lead.</p> - -<p>In the last few years a very extensive literature and one -not easily to be surveyed has grown up on the subject of -chronic industrial lead poisoning. I cannot attempt as I have -done with other forms of poisoning to do justice to all sources -of literature on this subject.</p> - -<p>As there is no obligation to notify industrial lead -poisoning<a name="FNanchor_2" id="FNanchor_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">[B]</a>—or indeed any form of industrial poisoning—in -many countries, the most important source of information -is wanting. Nevertheless more or less comprehensive -inquiries as to the extent of the disease in general have been -made in different countries and large cities which furnish -valuable data.</p> - -<p>An idea of the yearly number of cases of lead poisoning -occurring in Prussia is given in the following statistics of cases -treated in Prussian hospitals for the years 1895-1901:</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span></p> - -<table summary="Yearly number of cases of lead poisoning in Prussia" class="borders"> - <tr> - <th>Year.</th> - <th>Males.</th> - <th>Females.</th> - <th>Total.</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1895</td> - <td class="tdr">1120</td> - <td class="tdr">43</td> - <td class="tdr">1163</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1899</td> - <td class="tdr">1601</td> - <td class="tdr">23</td> - <td class="tdr">1624</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1900</td> - <td class="tdr">1509</td> - <td class="tdr">14</td> - <td class="tdr">1523</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bb">1901</td> - <td class="tdr bb">1359</td> - <td class="tdr bb">24</td> - <td class="tdr bb">1383</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p>The occupation of these cases was as follows:</p> - -<table summary="Occupation of the cases in the previous table" class="borders"> - <tr> - <th>Year.</th> - <th>Metallic Lead.</th> - <th>White Lead.</th> - <th>Painters.</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1895</td> - <td class="tdr">364</td> - <td class="tdr">312</td> - <td class="tdr">347</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1899</td> - <td class="tdr">551</td> - <td class="tdr">310</td> - <td class="tdr">460</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1900</td> - <td class="tdr">516</td> - <td class="tdr">360</td> - <td class="tdr">378</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bb">1901</td> - <td class="tdr bb">498</td> - <td class="tdr bb">282</td> - <td class="tdr bb">339</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p>About half the cases, therefore, are caused by use of white -lead. The report of the sick insurance societies of the Berlin -painters gives information as to the proportion treated in -hospital to those treated at home, which was as 1:4.</p> - -<p>The industries may be classified according to risk as -follows<a href="#endnote113" id="endnote-ref113"><span class="endnote-marker">1</span></a> :</p> - -<p>White lead workers, 33 per cent.; red lead workers, 32 per -cent.; shot and lead pipe workers, 20 per cent.; painters, -7-10 per cent.; lead and zinc smelters, 8-9 per cent.; printers, -0·5 per cent.</p> - -<p>In Austria through the Labour Statistical Bureau comprehensive -information is being collected as to the occurrence of -lead poisoning in the most dangerous trades, but is not yet -published. The reports of the factory inspectors give a very -incomplete picture; for example, in 1905 only fifteen cases are -referred to. In the most recent report (1909) information of -lead poisoning is only given for thirty works. Teleky has -made a general survey of the occurrence of lead poisoning -from the reports of the Austrian sick insurance societies.<a href="#endnote114" id="endnote-ref114"><span class="endnote-marker">2</span></a> -From this we gather that in Vienna, with an average -membership of 200,000, there were, in the five year period -1902-6, 634, 656, 765, 718, 772 cases of illness involving -incapacity from mineral poisons, which Teleky assumes were -practically all cases of lead poisoning. By circularising -Austrian sick insurance societies outside Vienna with a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span> -membership of about 400,000, Teleky obtained information -of 189 cases, which he considers too few.</p> - -<p>In 1906-1908 inquiry was made by the sick insurance -societies in Bohemia as to the extent of lead poisoning. With -an average number employed of from 700,000 to 850,000 information -was obtained of 91, 147, and 132 cases in the three years -in question. The increase in 1907 was probably accounted for -by the greater attention paid to the subject.<a href="#endnote115" id="endnote-ref115"><span class="endnote-marker">3</span></a> The number of -ascertained cases of lead poisoning treated by the societies -of Hungary was 225 in 1901 and 161 in 1902. Teleky again -considers these figures too low, which is proved by Toth’s -publications as to lead poisoning in Hungarian lead smelting -works, and especially Chyzer’s on lead poisoning among -Hungarian potters. Legge has reported fully in the second -International Congress for Industrial Diseases in Brussels -(September 1910) on occurrence of industrial lead poisoning in -Great Britain in the years 1900 to 1909. During that period -6762 cases with 245 deaths occurred. The number of cases in -the course of the ten years had diminished by 50 per cent. -These figures appear remarkably small, but it has to be borne -in mind that the statistics referred to related only to cases -occurring in factories and workshops, and do not include cases -among house painters and plumbers. The number of such -cases which came to the knowledge of the Factory Department -in 1909 was 241 (with 47 deaths) and 239 in 1908 (with -44 deaths).</p> - -<h5>LEAD, SILVER, AND ZINC SMELTING</h5> - -<p><i>Lead</i> is obtained almost entirely from galena by three -different processes. In the <i>roast and reaction process</i> galena -is first roasted at 500°-600° C. and partially converted into -lead oxide and lead sulphate: on shutting off the air supply -and increase of temperature the sulphur of the undecomposed -galena unites with the oxygen of the lead oxide and sulphate to -form sulphur dioxide, while the reduced metallic lead is tapped. -In the <i>roast and reduction</i> process the ore is completely calcined -so as to get rid of sulphur, arsenic, and antimony. The oxides -(and sulphates) formed are reduced by means of coke in a blast -furnace. This process is generally applicable and is, therefore, -that most in use. The <i>precipitation</i> process consists chiefly in -melting galena with coke and iron flux, whereby the lead is -partly freed from the sulphur, and, in addition to lead, iron -sulphide is formed, which acts on the remaining lead sulphide, -producing a lead matte which can be further treated.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;" id="fig27"> - -<img src="images/fig27.jpg" width="500" height="700" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 27.</span>—Smelting Furnace, showing mechanical charging and exhaust ventilation -applied to slag runs, &c. (<i>Locke, Lancaster & W. W. & R. Johnson & -Sons, Ltd. By permission of the Controller of H.M. Stationery Office.</i>)</p> - -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span></p> - -<p>The roast and reaction process is carried out in specially -constructed reverberatory furnaces; small furnaces with small -amounts of ore and at as low a temperature as possible are the -rule in the Kärntner process. In the English process large -amounts of ore are melted in large furnaces at high temperatures -so as to oxidise the material. The so-called Tarnowitz process -combines these two—large amounts of ore are roasted in -large furnaces at a moderate temperature. In the roast and -reduction process it depends on the nature of the ore whether -the roasting is done in reverberatory or blast furnaces. -Generally the ore is in the form of powder—less often in pieces. -Pyritic ore (ore with much sulphur) is almost always roasted in -blast furnaces, and the sulphur dioxide evolved can be used in -the manufacture of sulphuric acid. Open-hearth furnaces are -rarely used now. Reverberatory furnaces are employed most -frequently.</p> - -<p>The lead thus obtained contains several other metals, -especially silver, copper, arsenic, antimony, iron, zinc, bismuth, -and tin. Lead containing silver (work-lead) is next <i>de-silverised</i>, -after which follows refining to get rid of the other impurities. -For de-silverising work-lead rich in silver (containing about -10 per cent.) <i>cupellation</i> is practised, in which the silver lead is -melted and oxidised so that the lead is converted into <i>litharge</i>, -metallic silver remaining behind. In a cupellation furnace -the flame strikes on the top of the lead bath, and at the same -time air under slight pressure is driven in; the litharge which -forms is removed through suitable openings. The litharge -that is first formed contains silver and is treated again; the -remainder is ready for market. After the litharge has run -off silver appears, containing still 5-10 per cent. of lead, -and it is again submitted to an analogous refining process. -Work-lead which does not contain enough silver to be -cupelled at once is generally treated first by either the -Pattinson or the Parkes’ process.</p> - -<p>In the <i>Pattinson</i> crystallising process work-lead is melted in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span> -open semi-circular pots: as the pots cool crystals of lead poor -in silver form on the surface and are transferred by a perforated -ladle into the next pot: the silver collects in the small amount -of molten lead remaining behind. Lead that has become -enriched by repeated crystallisation contains a high percentage -of silver and is cupelled. The <i>Parkes’</i> process or <i>zinc -de-silverisation</i> depends on the formation of a lead-zinc alloy -which is less fusible than lead. Work-lead is melted and -agitated with addition of pure zinc. The crust which first -rises on cooling contains gold, copper, zinc, and lead, and -is removed. Further addition of zinc is then made: the -rich silver crust which separates is subsequently freed from -lead by gradual heating in a reverberatory furnace, and from -zinc, in a zinc distilling retort. Other impurities are got rid -of by oxidising in reverberatory or other furnaces. Small -quantities of antimony and arsenic are removed by stirring with -fresh green sticks.</p> - -<p><i>Zinc</i> is obtained principally from blende (sulphide of zinc) -and from calamine (carbonate of zinc). The process of zinc -recovery depends on the production of zinc oxide and reduction -of this by carbon to metallic zinc.</p> - -<p>Conversion of the ore to zinc oxide is effected by roasting. -Since the temperature at which reduction takes place is higher -than the melting-point of zinc the latter is volatilised (distilled) -and must be condensed in suitable condensers.</p> - -<p>Calamine is calcined in a blast furnace. Blende was -formerly roasted in reverberatory furnaces, but such nuisance -arose to the neighbourhood from sulphur dioxide vapour -that now Hasenclever-Helbig calcining furnaces are used. -These furnaces furnish a gas so rich in sulphur dioxide that -they serve at once for the production of sulphuric acid. The -Hasenclever furnaces consist of muffles placed one above -another: the finely ground ore is charged through hoppers -above and then raked down from muffle to muffle.</p> - -<p>Reduction is carried out in the Belgian or Silesian process -by strongly heating calcined matte with coal in retorts. The -zinc as it distils is caught in special condensing receptacles -(prolongs). After distillation is complete the residue is raked -out of the muffle and the furnace charged afresh. As zinc ores -generally contain much lead, the work-zinc is therefore refined<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span> -by remelting in a reverberatory furnace, during which process -the impurities collect on the zinc as dross and are removed by -agitation with sal-ammoniac or magnesium chloride.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;" id="fig28"> - -<img src="images/fig28.jpg" width="500" height="500" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 28.</span>—Arrangement of Spelter Furnace showing Ventilating Hood.</p> - -</div> - -<p><span class="smcap">Risk of Poisoning in Lead, Silver, and Zinc Smelting.</span>—As -the description of the manipulations in smelting -processes shows, all involve risk of lead poisoning. As a matter -of fact in lead smelting much lead passes into the atmosphere. -In the smelting works at Tarnowitz yearly some 36,000 kilos -of oxidised lead escape.</p> - -<p>Estimations<a href="#endnote116" id="endnote-ref116"><span class="endnote-marker">4</span></a> of the amount of lead in air samples collected -in lead smelting works have been made. Thus in a cubic -metre of air immediately over the slag run from 0·0029 to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span> -0·0056 g. of lead were found, so that a worker in a ten-hour -day would inhale from 0·013 to 0·025 g. of lead. In a -cubic metre of air immediately above the Parkes’ melting-pot -from 0·0056 to 0·0090 g. were found, so that a worker would -inhale daily from 0·0252 to 0·0405 g. if he kept constantly -close to the pot. On the handles of a de-silveriser 0·112 g. -were found. In Hungarian lead-smelting works the water in -which the hands had been washed was found to contain -1·27 g. of lead per litre. The hands of litharge grinders -and sifters showed the highest amounts.</p> - -<p>Work carried on in lead-smelting works may be divided -into five classes according to risk. Those most exposed to risk -are the smelters at lead hearths and reverberatory furnaces, -persons employed at the lead and slag runs, flue cleaners, and -in crushing and packing flake litharge. Next come those -employed at the refining furnaces, those breaking up the -roasted ore, blast furnace workers, and those employed at the -cupellation process. Attended with danger also is the removal -of lead ashes and distillation of the zinc crust. Less dangerous -are transport of material, crushing and mixing the ore, refining -the work-lead and zinc crust, and work at the Pattinson -and Parkes’ processes.</p> - -<p>In zinc smelting risk of lead poisoning is great, no matter -which process is in question, because of the high proportion of -lead in the ore and work-zinc. Swedish blende contains as -much as 9 per cent. of lead, and Upper Silesian 2½ per cent. or -less. There is risk in calcination, but it is much less than in -the distillation process.<a href="#endnote117" id="endnote-ref117"><span class="endnote-marker">5</span></a> </p> - -<p>There are no quite satisfactory statistics as to the number -of cases of lead poisoning in smelting works. Nevertheless, -a number of recent publications give valuable -data for certain smelting works in Germany, Austria, and -Hungary.</p> - -<p>From details<a href="#endnote118" id="endnote-ref118"><span class="endnote-marker">6</span></a> of lead poisoning at Tarnowitz it would -appear that the conditions have materially improved since -1884, the cases having declined from 32·7 per 100 employed in -1884 to 6·2 in 1894 and 1895. The following figures show the -proportion affected in the different processes in the years 1901 -and 1902:</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span></p> - -<table summary="Yearly number of cases of lead poisoning at Tarnowitz" class="borders"> - <tr> - <th colspan="2">Process.</th> - <th>Year.</th> - <th>No. Employed.</th> - <th>Cases.</th> - <th>Per Cent.</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="valign" rowspan="2">Reverberatory Furnace</td> - <td class="nbl">{</td> - <td>1901</td> - <td class="tdr">131</td> - <td class="tdr">11</td> - <td class="tdr">8·3</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nbl">{</td> - <td>1902</td> - <td class="tdr">111</td> - <td class="tdr">4</td> - <td class="tdr">3·6</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="valign" rowspan="2">Blast Furnace</td> - <td class="nbl">{</td> - <td>1901</td> - <td class="tdr">152</td> - <td class="tdr">47</td> - <td class="tdr">30·9</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nbl">{</td> - <td>1902</td> - <td class="tdr">187</td> - <td class="tdr">21</td> - <td class="tdr">11·1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="valign" rowspan="2">Cupelling Furnace</td> - <td class="nbl">{</td> - <td>1901</td> - <td class="tdr">12</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">8·3</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nbl">{</td> - <td>1902</td> - <td class="tdr">12</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">8·3</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="valign" rowspan="2">De-silverising</td> - <td class="nbl">{</td> - <td>1901</td> - <td class="tdr">32</td> - <td class="tdr">10</td> - <td class="tdr">31·2</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nbl">{</td> - <td>1902</td> - <td class="tdr">34</td> - <td class="tdr">7</td> - <td class="tdr">20·6</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="valign" rowspan="2">Other Employment</td> - <td class="nbl">{</td> - <td>1901</td> - <td class="tdr">300</td> - <td class="tdr">7</td> - <td class="tdr">2·3</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bb nbl">{</td> - <td class="bb">1902</td> - <td class="tdr bb">350</td> - <td class="tdr bb">2</td> - <td class="tdr bb">0·6</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p>In one smelting works the percentage attack rate was 17·8 -in 1901, and 27·1 in 1902. Here the number of workers had -increased from 73 in 1901 to 129 in 1902, and the absolute and -relative increase probably has relation to the well-known fact -that newly employed untrained workers become affected. -Similar incidence according to process can be given for the -Friedrich’s smelting works during the years 1903-1905:</p> - -<table summary="Yearly number of cases of lead poisoning at Tarnowitz" class="borders"> - <tr> - <th colspan="2">Process.</th> - <th>Year.</th> - <th>No. Employed.</th> - <th>Cases.</th> - <th>Per Cent.</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="valign" rowspan="3">Reverberatory Furnace</td> - <td class="nbl">{</td> - <td>1903</td> - <td class="tdr">86</td> - <td class="tdr">12</td> - <td class="tdr">13·9</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nbl">{</td> - <td>1904</td> - <td class="tdr">87</td> - <td class="tdr">8</td> - <td class="tdr">9·2</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nbl">{</td> - <td>1905</td> - <td class="tdr">83</td> - <td class="tdr">11</td> - <td class="tdr">13·3</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="valign" rowspan="3">Blast Furnace</td> - <td class="nbl">{</td> - <td>1903</td> - <td class="tdr">267</td> - <td class="tdr">59</td> - <td class="tdr">22·1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nbl">{</td> - <td>1904</td> - <td class="tdr">232</td> - <td class="tdr">24</td> - <td class="tdr">10·3</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nbl">{</td> - <td>1905</td> - <td class="tdr">247</td> - <td class="tdr">27</td> - <td class="tdr">10·9</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="valign" rowspan="3">De-silverising</td> - <td class="nbl">{</td> - <td>1903</td> - <td class="tdr">56</td> - <td class="tdr">12</td> - <td class="tdr">21·4</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nbl">{</td> - <td>1904</td> - <td class="tdr">73</td> - <td class="tdr">4</td> - <td class="tdr">5·5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nbl">{</td> - <td>1905</td> - <td class="tdr">75</td> - <td class="tdr">4</td> - <td class="tdr">5·3</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="valign" rowspan="3">Cupelling</td> - <td class="nbl">{</td> - <td>1903</td> - <td class="tdr">16</td> - <td class="tdr">4</td> - <td class="tdr">25·0</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nbl">{</td> - <td>1904</td> - <td class="tdr">15</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">6·7</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nbl">{</td> - <td>1905</td> - <td class="tdr">14</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">7·1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="valign" rowspan="3">Other Employment</td> - <td class="nbl">{</td> - <td>1903</td> - <td class="tdr">330</td> - <td class="tdr">5</td> - <td class="tdr">1·5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nbl">{</td> - <td>1904</td> - <td class="tdr">309</td> - <td class="tdr">4</td> - <td class="tdr">1·3</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bb nbl">{</td> - <td class="bb">1905</td> - <td class="tdr bb">347</td> - <td class="tdr bb">7</td> - <td class="tdr bb">2·0</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p>Among 3028 cases of lead poisoning treated between 1853 -and 1882 in smelting works near Freiberg (Saxony) gastric -symptoms were present in 1541, rheumatic pains in 215, -cerebral symptoms in 144, paralysis in 58, and lead colic in 426.</p> - -<p>The recent reports of the German factory inspectors -point still to rather high incidence in many lead smelting -works. Thus in the district of Aix la Chapelle in 1909 there -were sixty cases involving 1047 sick days, as compared with -58 and 878 in 1908.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span></p> - -<p>In a well-arranged smelting works near Wiesbaden fifty-two -and forty-two cases were reported in 1908 and 1909 respectively, -among about 400 persons employed. This relatively high -number was believed to be closely connected with frequent -change in the <i>personnel</i>. Introduction of the Huntingdon-Heberlein -method is thought to have exercised an unfavourable -influence.</p> - -<p>Other smelting works in Germany appear to have a relatively -small number of reported cases. Thus in 1909 among -550 workers employed in four smelting works in the Hildesheim -district only four cases were reported, and in the district of -Potsdam among 600 smelters only five were found affected on -medical examination. There is no doubt that many of the -cases described as gastric catarrh are attributable to lead. -Full information as to the conditions in Austria is contained -in the publication of the Imperial Labour Statistical Bureau. -In this comprehensive work the conditions in smelting works -are described. In the lead smelting works at Przibram the -cases had dropped from an average of 38·2 among the 4000-5000 -persons employed to twenty-two in 1894 and to six in -1903, but only the severer cases are included. No single case -has occurred among the 350-450 persons engaged in mining -the ore, as galena (lead sulphide) is practically non-poisonous. -It was found, for example, that 50 per cent. of the furnace men -had (according to their statement) suffered from lead colic. -Of eight employed in the Pattinson process, seven stated they -had suffered from colic. The lead smelting works in Gailitz -showed marked frequency of lead poisoning—here the appointed -surgeon attributed anæmia and gastric and intestinal catarrh -to lead:</p> - -<table summary="Yearly number of cases of lead poisoning in Gailitz" class="borders"> - <tr> - <th rowspan="2">Year.</th> - <th rowspan="2">No. Employed.</th> - <th rowspan="2">Lead Colic.</th> - <th colspan="3">Illness of Saturnine Origin.</th> - <th rowspan="2">Total Lead Sickness.</th> - <th rowspan="2">Total Sickness.</th> - <th rowspan="2">Per Cent. due to Lead.</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th>Anæmia.</th> - <th>Gastric Catarrh.</th> - <th>Intestinal Catarrh.</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1899</td> - <td class="tdr">61</td> - <td class="tdr">14</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td class="tdr">76</td> - <td class="tdr">16</td> - <td class="tdr">108</td> - <td class="tdr">178</td> - <td class="tdr">60·0</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1900</td> - <td class="tdr">57</td> - <td class="tdr">6</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td class="tdr">16</td> - <td class="tdr">5</td> - <td class="tdr">29</td> - <td class="tdr">80</td> - <td class="tdr">36·2</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1901</td> - <td class="tdr">48</td> - <td class="tdr">4</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td class="tdr">17</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">24</td> - <td class="tdr">60</td> - <td class="tdr">40·0</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1902</td> - <td class="tdr">47</td> - <td class="tdr">—</td> - <td class="tdr">—</td> - <td class="tdr">24</td> - <td class="tdr">6</td> - <td class="tdr">30</td> - <td class="tdr">56</td> - <td class="tdr">53·5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bb">1903</td> - <td class="tdr bb">49</td> - <td class="tdr bb">—</td> - <td class="tdr bb">3</td> - <td class="tdr bb">11</td> - <td class="tdr bb">4</td> - <td class="tdr bb">18</td> - <td class="tdr bb">57</td> - <td class="tdr bb">31·6</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span></p> - -<p>The diminution in the number of cases, especially of colic, -is attributable to the efforts of the appointed surgeon.</p> - -<p>At Selmeczbanya a diminution from 196 cases in 1899 -(50·7 per cent.) to six (2·2 per cent.) in 1905 had taken place. -These figures point clearly to the success of the hygienic -measures adopted in the last few years.</p> - -<p>In the large spelter works of Upper Silesia during the years -1896-1901, among 3780 persons employed, there were eighty-three -cases of lead colic and paralysis, that is, about 2·2 per -cent. each year. The following tables show the incidence -among spelter workers in the works in question from 1902 to -1905:</p> - -<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Illness among Zinc Smelters</span></p> - -<table summary="Yearly number of cases of lead poisoning in Upper Silesia" class="borders"> - <tr> - <th>Year.</th> - <th>Lead Colic and Lead Paralysis.</th> - <th>Kidney Disease.</th> - <th>Gastric Catarrh.</th> - <th>Anæmia.</th> - <th>Rheumatism.</th> - <th>No. Employed.</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1902</td> - <td class="tdr">29</td> - <td class="tdr">18</td> - <td class="tdr">137</td> - <td class="tdr">18</td> - <td class="tdr">448</td> - <td class="tdr">4417</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1903</td> - <td class="tdr">28</td> - <td class="tdr">21</td> - <td class="tdr">151</td> - <td class="tdr">24</td> - <td class="tdr">470</td> - <td class="tdr">4578</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1904</td> - <td class="tdr">44</td> - <td class="tdr">23</td> - <td class="tdr">181</td> - <td class="tdr">35</td> - <td class="tdr">596</td> - <td class="tdr">4677</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bb">1905</td> - <td class="tdr bb">50</td> - <td class="tdr bb">18</td> - <td class="tdr bb">223</td> - <td class="tdr bb">40</td> - <td class="tdr bb">612</td> - <td class="tdr bb">4789</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bb">Average</td> - <td class="tdr bb">0·8%</td> - <td class="tdr bb">0·5%</td> - <td class="tdr bb">3·7%</td> - <td class="tdr bb">0·6%</td> - <td class="tdr bb">11·5%</td> - <td class="tdr bb">4615</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Illness among Calciners</span></p> - -<table summary="Yearly number of cases of lead poisoning in Upper Silesia" class="borders"> - <tr> - <th>Year.</th> - <th>Lead Colic and Lead Paralysis.</th> - <th>Kidney Disease.</th> - <th>Gastric Catarrh.</th> - <th>Anæmia.</th> - <th>Rheumatism.</th> - <th>No. Employed.</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1902</td> - <td class="tdr">—</td> - <td class="tdr">—</td> - <td class="tdr">5</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">78</td> - <td class="tdr">1149</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1903</td> - <td class="tdr">—</td> - <td class="tdr">—</td> - <td class="tdr">9</td> - <td class="tdr">—</td> - <td class="tdr">112</td> - <td class="tdr">1087</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1904</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td class="tdr">—</td> - <td class="tdr">68</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">136</td> - <td class="tdr">1140</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bb">1905</td> - <td class="tdr bb">1</td> - <td class="tdr bb">2</td> - <td class="tdr bb">47</td> - <td class="tdr bb">2</td> - <td class="tdr bb">134</td> - <td class="tdr bb">1159</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bb">Average</td> - <td class="tdr bb">0·08%</td> - <td class="tdr bb">0·05%</td> - <td class="tdr bb">2·6%</td> - <td class="tdr bb">0·1%</td> - <td class="tdr bb">10·2%</td> - <td class="tdr bb">1134</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p>In thirty-two spelter works in the district of Oppeln in the -year 1905, among 4789 spelter workers proper, there were -50 cases of colic, 18 of kidney disease, 223 of gastric and -intestinal catarrh, 40 of anæmia, and 612 of rheumatism, and -among 1159 calciners 1 case of colic, 2 of kidney disease, -47 of gastric catarrh, 2 of anæmia, and 134 of rheumatism. -Cases are much more numerous in spelter works where<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span> -Swedish blende containing lead is worked. It is remarkable, -however, that in large spelter works in Upper Silesia, where -for years no cases of lead poisoning were reported, medical -examination showed that 20·5 per cent. had signs of lead -absorption.</p> - -<h5>White Lead and Lead Colours</h5> - -<p><span class="smcap">Manufacture.</span>—The primitive Dutch process consisted in -placing lead grids in earthenware pots containing dilute -acetic acid and covering them with tan bark. Fermentation -ensued with evolution of carbonic acid gas and increase in -temperature. The acetic acid vapour forms, with aid of -atmospheric oxygen, first basic lead acetate, which, by the -action of the carbonic acid gas, becomes converted into white -lead and neutral lead acetate. The product is crushed, sieved, -and dried. In the German or Austrian process thin sheets of -metallic lead are hung saddle-wise in chambers. Acetic acid -vapour and carbonic acid gas (produced by burning coke) -are led in from below. The chamber is then sealed and kept -so for a considerable time. When the chamber is ‘ripe’ the -white lead that has formed is taken out, freed from uncorroded -lead by spraying, dried, finely ground, and packed. White -lead comes on the market either as a powder or incorporated -with oil. Of the remaining lead colours, red lead (Pb₃O₄) is -much used. It is produced by heating lead oxide in reverberatory -furnaces with access of air and stirring.</p> - -<h5>Lead Poisoning in the Manufacture of White Lead and -Lead Colours</h5> - -<p>The manufacture by the German process may be divided -into three categories according to the degree of risk run:</p> - -<p>1. The most dangerous processes are hanging the plates -in the chambers, work at the filter press, drying, pulverising, -and packing by hand.</p> - -<p>2. Less dangerous are transport to the washer, washing, and -grinding.</p> - -<p>3. Relatively the least dangerous are casting the plates,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span> -transport of them to the chambers, drying, mechanical packing, -and mixing with oil.</p> - -<p>The number of cases of lead poisoning in white lead factories -is often relatively great despite regulations. Casual labourers -especially run the greatest risk. This is frequently brought -out in the reports of the German factory inspectors, who -connect the high proportion of cases directly with the large -number of unskilled workers. Regulations are really only -successful in factories with regular employment.</p> - -<p>This has been found also in Great Britain, where the Medical -Inspector of Factories showed that the cases among regular -workers numbered 6 per cent. and among casual workers -39 per cent.</p> - -<p>The following table gives particulars as to the occurrence of -lead poisoning in the white lead factories in the district of -Cologne in 1904, some of which have admirable hygienic -arrangements:</p> - -<table summary="Cases of lead poisoning in Cologne in 1904" class="borders"> - <tr> - <th rowspan="2">Place.</th> - <th rowspan="2" colspan="2">Manufacture.</th> - <th colspan="3">No. Employed.</th> - <th colspan="3">Cases of Lead Poisoning.</th> - <th rowspan="2">No. of Cases of Gastric Catarrh.</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th>Regular</th> - <th>Casual</th> - <th>Average</th> - <th>Regular</th> - <th>Casual</th> - <th>Total</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td rowspan="2" class="valign nw">Cologne I.</td> - <td rowspan="2" class="valign">White lead</td> - <td class="nbl">{</td> - <td class="tdr">46</td> - <td class="tdr">59</td> - <td class="tdr">32</td> - <td class="tdr">9</td> - <td class="tdr">16</td> - <td class="tdr">25</td> - <td class="tdr">16</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nbl">{</td> - <td class="tdr">173</td> - <td class="tdr">95</td> - <td class="tdr">127</td> - <td class="tdr">13</td> - <td class="tdr">17</td> - <td class="tdr">30</td> - <td class="tdr">22</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td rowspan="2" class="valign nw"><span class="ditto">”</span> I.</td> - <td rowspan="2" class="valign">Litharge and red lead</td> - <td class="nbl">{</td> - <td class="tdr">46</td> - <td class="tdr">4</td> - <td class="tdr">38</td> - <td class="tdr">5</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">6</td> - <td class="tdr">7</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nbl">{</td> - <td class="tdr">76</td> - <td class="tdr">62</td> - <td class="tdr">49</td> - <td class="tdr">3</td> - <td class="tdr">4</td> - <td class="tdr">7</td> - <td class="tdr">15</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td rowspan="2" class="valign nw"></td> - <td rowspan="2" class="valign">Chromate</td> - <td class="nbl">{</td> - <td class="tdr">14</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td class="tdr">11</td> - <td class="tdr">—</td> - <td class="tdr">—</td> - <td class="tdr">—</td> - <td class="tdr">5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nbl">{</td> - <td class="tdr">43</td> - <td class="tdr">72</td> - <td class="tdr">33</td> - <td class="tdr">—</td> - <td class="tdr">—</td> - <td class="tdr">—</td> - <td class="tdr">7</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td rowspan="2" class="valign nw">Cologne II.</td> - <td rowspan="2" class="valign">White lead, litharge, and red lead</td> - <td class="nbl">{</td> - <td class="tdr">107</td> - <td class="tdr">332</td> - <td class="tdr">91</td> - <td class="tdr">6</td> - <td class="tdr">34</td> - <td class="tdr">40</td> - <td class="tdr">30</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nbl bb">{</td> - <td class="tdr bb">102</td> - <td class="tdr bb">332</td> - <td class="tdr bb">76</td> - <td class="tdr bb">9</td> - <td class="tdr bb">19</td> - <td class="tdr bb">28</td> - <td class="tdr bb">38</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p>It is worth noting that cases of lead poisoning have been -reported in the manufacture of zinc white, as, for example, in -Bohemia in 1907 and 1908.</p> - -<h5>USE OF LEAD COLOURS AND PAINTS (HOUSE PAINTERS, -DECORATORS, ETC.)</h5> - -<p>Use of lead colours, especially by painters and decorators, -causes relatively much lead poisoning. Apart from ignorance -of danger on the part of the worker, and lack of personal -cleanliness, unsuitable methods of working add to the danger,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span> -especially dry rubbing of painted surfaces, which gives rise to -much dust containing lead. Again, the crushing and mixing -of lumps of white lead and rubbing lead colours with the -hand are very dangerous.</p> - -<p>The following German and Austrian figures enable conclusions -to be drawn as to the frequency of lead poisoning among -painters. In the sick insurance societies of Frankfurt-a-M. -in 1903 of every 100 painters 11·6 suffered from an attack of -lead poisoning. The similar sick insurance society of painters -in Berlin has kept useful statistics which are given in the -following table for the ten years 1900-9:</p> - -<table summary="Cases of lead poisoning in Frankfurt-am-Main" class="borders"> - <tr> - <th>Year.</th> - <th>No. of Members.</th> - <th>No. of<br />Cases of<br />Lead Poisoning.</th> - <th>Cases per<br />100 Members.</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1900</td> - <td class="tdr">3889</td> - <td class="tdr">357 </td> - <td class="tdr">9·18</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1901</td> - <td class="tdr">3616</td> - <td class="tdr">335 </td> - <td class="tdr">9·26</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1902</td> - <td class="tdr">3815</td> - <td class="tdr">308 </td> - <td class="tdr">8·07</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1903</td> - <td class="tdr">4397</td> - <td class="tdr">470 </td> - <td class="tdr">10·69</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1904</td> - <td class="tdr">5029</td> - <td class="tdr">516 </td> - <td class="tdr">10·26</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1905</td> - <td class="tdr">5328</td> - <td class="tdr">471 </td> - <td class="tdr">8·84</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1906</td> - <td class="tdr">5355</td> - <td class="tdr">347 </td> - <td class="tdr">6·48</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1907</td> - <td class="tdr">5173</td> - <td class="tdr">379 </td> - <td class="tdr">7·32</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1908</td> - <td class="tdr">4992</td> - <td class="tdr">298 </td> - <td class="tdr">5·97</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bb">1909</td> - <td class="tdr bb">4781</td> - <td class="tdr bb">285 </td> - <td class="tdr bb">5·96</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bb">Average</td> - <td class="tdr bb">4637</td> - <td class="tdr bb">376·6</td> - <td class="tdr bb"> 8·11</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p>This shows that lead poisoning among the painters of -Berlin is happily diminishing, which may be attributed to -recent regulations. The society, however, complains in its -reports that not all cases of lead appear as such in their statistics, -and believes that all diseases entered as rheumatism, gastric -catarrh, nervous complaints, heart and kidney disease, should -be regarded as associated with lead. The kinds of work in -which painters suffer most are painting iron girders and -machines, sheet metal and iron furniture, railway waggons, -agricultural implements, coach painting, cabinet-making, shipbuilding, -and the use of red and white lead. The use of -lead colours, <i>lead acetate</i>, and <i>lead chromate</i> often give rise to -lead poisoning. Colours containing lead are not infrequently -used in the textile industry in dyeing, printing, and finishing. -White lead has been used for weighting the weft.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span></p> - -<p>Teleky has described cases of lead poisoning in which <i>silk -thread</i> was weighted with acetate of lead. As a consequence -a number of women engaged in sewing on fringes with the -thread suffered. The English factory inspectors’ reports -describe cases from manipulating <i>yarn dyed with chromate of -lead</i>.<a href="#endnote119" id="endnote-ref119"><span class="endnote-marker">7</span></a> </p> - -<p><i>Chromate of lead</i> and <i>white lead</i> are used in colouring oil-cloth, -artificial flowers, paper, rubber goods, pencils, penholders, -socks, sealing-wax, candles, and stamps.</p> - -<h5>USE OF LEAD IN THE CHEMICAL INDUSTRY</h5> - -<p>Lead poisoning has been frequently observed in such -branches of the chemical industry as require large leaden or -lead-lined vessels and pipes: the persons affected are principally -those engaged in lead burning.</p> - -<p>Risk is considerable in manufacture of lead acetate. The -most dangerous processes are drying and packing the crystals.</p> - -<h4>MANUFACTURE OF ELECTRIC ACCUMULATORS</h4> - -<p>The manufacture of accumulators begins with the casting -of lead plates, which are then polished and dressed. Next -follows ‘pasting,’ that is, smearing the negative plate with a -paste of litharge, the positive plate being ‘formed’ by having an -electric current passed through so that the lead is converted -into spongy peroxide. The wooden boxes in which the plates -are assembled are lead-lined.</p> - -<p>The most dangerous processes are casting, wire-brushing, -and pasting—the latter especially when done by hand.</p> - -<p>In the years 1908 and 1909 among about 761 workers -employed in the accumulator factories of Cologne there were -fifty-six cases of lead colic and seventy-nine of gastric and -intestinal catarrh. Further figures for German accumulator -works show that in the two largest accumulator factories in -the district of Potsdam employing 142 workers there were -fifteen cases in 1904. In Great Britain, in the ten years 1900-1909, -285 cases were reported—an average of about thirty a -year.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span></p> - -<h4>THE CERAMIC INDUSTRY</h4> - -<p>Risk is present in several branches of the ceramic industry. -It is greatest in glazing earthenware, but not infrequent -also in the porcelain and glass industries. It is impossible -to deal with the extensive literature on this subject exhaustively. -A comprehensive and detailed survey of lead -poisoning in the ceramic industry on the Continent is that by -Kaup. Distinction is made between leadless glazes which melt -at high temperature and lead glazes which have the advantage -of a low melting-point. Galena and litharge are used in the -preparation of glazes for common earthenware and red and -white lead for ware of better quality. Distinction has to be -made between a lead silicious glaze for pottery ware, a lead and -boric acid glaze for stoneware, and a lead and zinc oxide glaze -for ordinary faience and stoneware. Seegar, the celebrated -expert, praises the advantage of lead glaze and the use of lead -in the ceramic industry—it is indeed practically indispensable—and -speaks of the poisonous nature of lead as its only fault. -The components of the glaze must have definite relation to -the hardness or softness of the body. The higher the proportion -of silicic acid in the glaze the harder the firing it will -stand; the more the flux materials are in excess the lower will -the melting point be.</p> - -<p>The most important flux materials are, arranged in order of -decreasing fusibility, lead oxide, baryta, potash, soda, zinc -oxide, chalk, magnesia, and clay.</p> - -<p>The <i>glaze</i> is made by first mixing the ingredients dry, and -then either fritting them by fluxing in a reverberatory furnace -and finally grinding them very finely in water or using the -raw material direct. In the fritting process in the case of the -lead glazes the soluble lead compounds become converted -into less soluble lead silicates and double silicates.</p> - -<p>The glaze is applied in different ways—dipping, pouring, -dusting, blowing, and volatilising. Air-dried and biscuited -objects are dipped; pouring the glaze on is practised in coarse -ware, roofing-tiles, &c.; dusting (with dry finely ground glaze, -litharge, or red lead) also in common ware; glaze-blowing -(aerographing) and glaze dusting on porcelain. In these -processes machines can be used. Bricks are only occasionally<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span> -glazed with glazes of felspar, kaolin, and quartz, to which lead -oxide is often added in very large quantity. Lead poisoning in -<i>brick works</i> in view of the infrequent use of lead is not common, -but when lead is used cases are frequent. Kaup quotes several -cases from the factory inspectors’ reports: thus in three roof-tiling -works examination by the district physician showed -that almost all the workers were affected.</p> - -<p><i>Coarse ware pottery</i> is made of pervious non-transparent -clay with earthy fracture—only a portion of this class of ware -(stoneware) is made of raw materials which fire white. Such -ware generally receives a colourless glaze. The clay is shaped -on the potter’s wheel, and is then fired once or, in the better -qualities, twice.</p> - -<p>Grinding the ingredients of the glaze is still often done in -primitive fashion in mortars. The glaze is usually composed -of lead oxide and sand, often with addition of other lead compounds -as, for example, in quite common ware, of equal parts -of litharge, clay, and coarse sand. Sometimes, instead of -litharge, galena (lead sulphide) or, with better qualities of -ware, red lead or ‘lead ashes’ are used.</p> - -<p>The grinding of the glazes in open mills or even in mortars -constitutes a great danger which can be prevented almost -entirely by grinding in ball mills. The glaze material is next -mixed with water, and the articles are either dipped into -the creamy mass or this is poured over them. In doing -this the hands, clothes, and floors are splashed. The more -dangerous dusting-on of glaze is rarely practised. Occasionally -mechanical appliances take the place of hand dipping. Placing -the ware in the glost oven is done without placing it first in -saggars.</p> - -<p>In the better qualities of pottery cooking utensils, which are -fired twice, a less fusible fritted lead glaze is generally used. -Coloured glaze contains, besides the colouring metallic oxides, -30-40 per cent. of litharge or red lead.</p> - -<p>As Kaup shows, Continental factory inspectors’ reports -make only isolated references to occurrence of lead poisoning -in potteries. Insight into the conditions in small potteries is -obtained only from the Bavarian reports. In Upper Bavaria -ninety-three potteries employ 157 persons who come into -contact with lead glaze. Eleven cases were known to have<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span> -occurred in the last four years. Teleky found thirty-six cases -of lead poisoning (mostly among glostplacers) in the records -of the Potters’ Sick Insurance Society of Vienna.</p> - -<p>Chyzer has described the striking conditions in Hungary. -There there are about 4000 potters, of whom 500 come into -contact with lead glaze. Chronic lead poisoning is rife -among those carrying on the occupation as a home industry. -Members of the family contract the disease from the dust in -the living rooms. This dust was found to contain from -0·5 to 8·7 per cent. of lead.</p> - -<p>In the china and earthenware factories in Great Britain, in -the ten years 1900-9, 1065 cases with fifty-seven deaths were -reported.</p> - -<p><i>Manufacture of stove tiles.</i>—The application of glaze to -stove tiles is done in different ways. The two most important -kinds are (1) fired tiles and (2) slipped tiles. In the production -of fired tiles a lead-tin alloy consisting of 100 parts lead and -30-36 parts tin—so-called ‘calcine’—are melted together in fireclay -reverberatory or muffle furnaces and raked about when at -a dull red heat so as to effect complete oxidation. The material -when cool is mixed with the same quantity of sand and -some salt, melted in the frit kiln, subsequently crushed, -ground, mixed with water, and applied to the previously fired -tiles. In this process risk is considerable. Presence of lead in -the air has been demonstrated even in well-appointed ‘calcine’ -rooms. In unsuitably arranged rooms it was estimated that -in a twelve-hour day a worker would inhale 0·6 gramme of -lead oxide and that 3-8 grammes would collect on the clothes.</p> - -<p><i>Slipped tiles</i> are made in Meissen, Silesia, Bavaria, and -Austria by first applying to them a mixture of clay and china -clay. The glaze applied is very rich in lead, containing 50-60 -parts of red lead or litharge. Generally the glaze is applied -direct to the unfired tiles and fired once. Figures as to occurrence -of poisoning in Germany are quoted by Kaup from the -towns of Velten and Meissen. Among from 1748 to 2500 -persons employed thirty-four cases were reported in the five -years 1901-5. Thirteen cases were reported as occurring in -the three largest factories in Meissen in 1906.</p> - -<p>From other districts similar occurrence of poisoning is -reported. In Bohemia in a single factory in 1906 there were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span> -fourteen cases with one death, in another in 1907 there were -fourteen, and in 1908 twelve cases; eight further cases occurred -among majolica painters in 1908.</p> - -<p><i>Stoneware and porcelain.</i>—Hard stoneware on a base of -clay, limestone, and felspar has usually a transparent lead glaze -of double earth silicates of lead and alkalis, with generally boric -acid to lower the fusing-point; the lead is nearly always added -in the form of red lead or litharge. The portion of the glaze -soluble in water is fritted, and forms, when mixed with the insoluble -portion, the glaze ready for use. The frit according to -Kaup contains from 16 to 18 per cent. of red lead, and the added -material (the mill mixing) 8-26 parts of white lead; the glaze -contains from 13 to 28 parts of lead oxide. The ware is dipped -or the glaze is sometimes aerographed on. Ware-cleaning by -hand (smoothing or levelling the surface with brushes, knives, -&c.) is very dangerous work unless carried out under an -efficient exhaust. Colouring the body itself is done with -coloured metal oxides or by applying clay (slipping) or by the -direct application of colours either under or over the glaze. -Some of the under-glaze colours (by addition of chrome yellow -or nitrate of lead or red lead) contain lead and are applied -with the brush or aerograph or in the form of transfers.</p> - -<p><i>Plain earthenware</i> is either not glazed or salt glazed; only -when decorated does it sometimes receive an acid lead glaze.</p> - -<p><i>Porcelain</i> receives a leadless glaze of difficultly fusible -silicate (quartz sand, china clay, felspar). Risk is here confined -to painting with lead fluxes (enamel colours) containing -lead. These fluxes are readily fusible glasses made of -silicic acid, boric acid, lead oxide, and alkalis, and contain -much lead (60-80 per cent. of red lead).</p> - -<p>In the <i>glass industry</i> lead poisoning may occur from use of -red lead as one of the essential ingredients. In Great Britain, -in the years 1900-9, forty-eight cases were reported in glass -polishing from use of putty powder.</p> - -<h4>LETTERPRESS PRINTING, ETC.</h4> - -<p>Type metal consists of about 67 per cent. lead, 27 per cent. -antimony, and 6 per cent. tin, but sometimes of 75 per cent. -lead, 23 per cent. antimony, and 2 per cent. tin.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span></p> - -<p>The actual printer comes least of all in contact with lead. -Use of lead colours (white lead, chromate of lead, &c.) may -be a source of danger, especially in the preparation of printing -inks from them and in cleaning the printing rolls. A further, -if slight, danger arises from the use of bronze powder consisting -of copper, zinc, and tin. The two last-named metals contain -from 0·1 to 0·5 per cent. of lead, and in the application and -brushing off of the bronze there is a slight risk.</p> - -<p>The compositor is exposed to constant danger from handling -the type and disturbing the dust in the cases. This dust may -contain from 15 to 38 per cent. of lead. Blowing the dust out -of the cases with bellows is especially dangerous, and want of -cleanliness (eating and smoking in the workroom) contributes -to the risk.</p> - -<p>Type founders and persons engaged in rubbing and preparing -the type suffer. Introduction of type-casting machines -(linotype, monotype) has lessened the danger considerably.</p> - -<p>No lead fumes are developed, as a temperature sufficiently -high to produce them is never reached. In all the processes, -therefore, it is lead dust which has to be considered.</p> - -<p>The following figures of the Imperial Statistical Office as -to occurrence of lead poisoning among printers in Vienna -indicate the relative danger:</p> - -<table summary="Cases of lead poisoning in Vienna" class="borders"> - <tr> - <th>Occupation.</th> - <th>Average No. of Members, 1901-1906.</th> - <th>Average No. of Cases, 1901-1906.</th> - <th>Percentage of Cases, 1901-1906.</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Compositors</td> - <td class="tdr">3182</td> - <td class="tdr">90·3</td> - <td class="tdr">2·8</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Printers</td> - <td class="tdr">809</td> - <td class="tdr">20·3</td> - <td class="tdr">2·4</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Casters and Stereotypers</td> - <td class="tdr">241</td> - <td class="tdr">15·8</td> - <td class="tdr">6·6</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bb nw">Females employed in casting</td> - <td class="tdr bb">74</td> - <td class="tdr bb">8·17</td> - <td class="tdr bb">10·8</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p>In Bohemia there is reference to thirty-eight cases in letterpress -printing in 1907 and twenty-seven in 1908.</p> - -<p>Among 5693 persons treated for lead poisoning between -the years 1898 and 1901 in hospitals in Prussia, 222 were letterpress -printers.</p> - -<p>Between 1900 and 1909 in Great Britain 200 cases of lead -poisoning were reported.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span></p> - -<h4>VARIOUS BRANCHES OF INDUSTRY</h4> - -<p>The number of industries using lead is very large. Layet -as long ago as 1876 enumerated 111. We, however, limit ourselves -to those in which the risk is considerable.</p> - -<p>Use of <i>lead beds</i> in <i>file-cutting</i> has given rise to many cases. -Further, to harden the file it is dipped into a bath of molten -lead. From 3 to 6 per cent. of lead has been found in the dust -in rooms where hardening is done.</p> - -<p>Of 7000 persons employed in file-cutting in the German -Empire in the years 1901-5 on an average 30·5 or 0·43 per -cent. were affected yearly. In Great Britain 211 cases were -reported in the years 1900-9.</p> - -<p>In <i>polishing precious stones</i> formerly many cases of lead -poisoning occurred, the reason being that the polishers come -into contact with particles of lead and fix the diamonds to be -polished in a vice composed of an alloy of lead and tin. Danger -is increased when the stones are actually polished on revolving -leaden discs. In Bohemia granite polishing used to be done in -this way, but is now replaced in many factories by carborundum -(silicon carbide).</p> - -<p>Musical instrument making in Bohemia in the years -1906-8 was found regularly to give rise to cases of lead -poisoning from use of molten lead in filling them with a view to -shaping and bending. In lead pipe and organ pipe works, -lead burning, plumbing, &c., considerable risk is run.</p> - -<p>Often the causes of lead poisoning are difficult to discover, -and, when found, surprising. Thus shoemakers have suffered -from holding leaden nails in the mouth. Again, cases in women -have been reported from cutting out artificial flowers or paper -articles with aid of lead patterns, or counting stamps printed -in lead colours.<a href="#endnote120" id="endnote-ref120"><span class="endnote-marker">8</span></a> </p> - -<h4>MERCURY</h4> - -<p>As metallic mercury gives off vapour even at ordinary -temperatures, poisoning can occur not only in the recovery of -the metal from the ore, but also in all processes in which it is -used.</p> - -<p>Chronic industrial poisoning occurs principally in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span> -preparation and use of mercury salts, in recovery of the metal -itself and of other metals with use of an amalgam, in water -gilding, from use of nitrate of mercury in the preparation of -rabbit fur for felt hat making, from use of mercury pumps -in producing the vacuum in electric filament lamps, and in -making barometers and thermometers.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Preparation.</span>—Mercury is obtained by roasting cinnabar -(sulphide of mercury). When cinnabar is heated with access -of air the sulphide burns to sulphur dioxide and the mercury -volatilises and is subsequently condensed. Formerly the -process was carried on in open hearths; now it is done usually -in blast furnaces. The mercury is condensed in Idria in large -chambers cooled with water, while at Almaden in Spain it is -collected in a series of small earthenware receptacles (aludels), -from small openings in which the mercury flows in gutters and -collects. The mercury so recovered is usually redistilled.</p> - -<p>On the walls of the condensers a deposit of sulphide and -oxide of mercury collects, removal of which is one of the -operations most attended with risk.</p> - -<p>Recovery of silver or gold by amalgamation with mercury -is carried on only in America. The metallic silver or gold -is taken up by the mercury, from which it is recovered by -distillation.</p> - -<p>The conditions in the quicksilver mines of Idria in Austria -have improved of late years. Thus in the five years prior to -1886 of 500 cases of illness more than 11 per cent. were due -to chronic mercurial poisoning. In 1906, 209 persons were -employed, of whom only one-third were permanent hands. -Among these the sickness rate was very high (95-104 per -cent.). Of 741 cases of illness among the miners there were -six of mercury poisoning, and of 179 among persons employed -in recovery of the metal, twelve cases.<a href="#endnote121" id="endnote-ref121"><span class="endnote-marker">1</span></a> </p> - -<p>The conditions of employment in the cinnabar mines of -Monte Amiata in Italy have recently been described in detail.<a href="#endnote122" id="endnote-ref122"><span class="endnote-marker">2</span></a> -Here, although the recovery of the metal is carried out in -modern furnaces, thus greatly reducing the danger, nevertheless -nearly all the furnace workers suffer from chronic poisoning.</p> - -<p>In <i>silvering of mirrors</i> the leaf of tinfoil was spread out -on an inclined table; mercury was poured over it and the -sheet of glass laid on the top with weights. The superfluous<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span> -mercury was squeezed out and ran away owing to the sloping -position of the table. Now this process, even in Fürth, is -almost entirely replaced by the nitrate of silver and ammonia -process. Years ago the number of cases of poisoning was -very serious in places where, as in Fürth, the work was -carried on as a home industry.</p> - -<p>In the production of <i>incandescent electric bulbs</i> danger arises -from breaking of the glass pipes of the pumps and scattering -of mercury on the floor of the workrooms. Since there is -a growing tendency to replace mercury pumps by air pumps -such cases ought to become rare.</p> - -<p>In <i>water gilding</i>—a process little employed now—the -metal objects (military buttons, &c.) to be gilded, after treatment -with a flux, are brushed over with the mercury amalgam, -and subsequently fired to drive off the mercury. Unless -careful provision is made to carry away the vapour chronic -poisoning cannot fail to occur. Even sweeps have been affected -after cleaning the chimneys of water gilders’ workshops. In -Great Britain, between 1899 and 1905, six cases were reported -among water gilders.</p> - -<p>In the <i>manufacture of barometers</i> and thermometers mercury -poisoning is not infrequent. Between 1899 and 1905 sixteen -such cases were reported in England; during the same period -there were seventeen cases among those putting together -electrical meters.</p> - -<p>Risk of mercurial poisoning is constantly present in <i>hatters’ -furriers’ processes</i> and in subsequent processes in felt hat -factories. The risk from use of nitrate of mercury is considerable -to those brushing the rabbit skins with the solution -(carotting), and subsequently drying, brushing, cutting, -locking, and packing them. According to Hencke in 100 -kilos of the carotting liquid there are 20 kilos of mercury. -In England, in the years 1899-1905, thirteen cases of -mercurial poisoning were reported in hatters’ furriers’ processes. -Among eighty-one persons so employed the medical -inspector found twenty-seven with very defective teeth as -the result of the employment, and seventeen with marked -tremor.</p> - -<p>In the <i>manufacture of mercurial salts</i> poisoning occurs<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span> -chiefly when they are made by sublimation, as in the -manufacture of vermilion, of corrosive sublimate (when -mercurous sulphate is sublimed with salt), and in the preparation -of calomel (when sublimate ground with mercury or -mercurous sulphate mixed with mercury and salt is sublimed). -Between 1899 and 1905 in England seven cases were -reported from chemical works. As to occurrence of mercury -poisoning from <i>fulminate of mercury</i>, see the chapter on -Explosives.</p> - -<h4>ARSENIC</h4> - -<p>Chronic industrial <i>arsenical poisoning</i>, both as to origin and -course, is markedly different from the acute form.</p> - -<p>The chronic form arises mainly from inhalation of minute -quantities of metallic arsenic or its compounds in recovery from -the ore, or from the use of arsenic compounds in the manufacture -of colours, in tanyards, and in glass making. Acute -industrial <i>arseniuretted hydrogen poisoning</i> is especially likely -to occur where metals and acids react on one another and -either the metal or the acid contains arsenic in appreciable -amount. Further, arseniuretted hydrogen may be contained -in gases given off in smelting operations and in chemical -processes.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Recovery of Arsenic and White Arsenic.</span>—Pure -arsenic is obtained from native cobalt and arsenical pyrites -by volatilisation on roasting the ore in the absence of air. -After the furnace has been charged sheet iron condensing tubes -are affixed to the mouths of the retorts, which project out of -the furnace, and to these again iron or earthenware prolongs. -Arsenic condenses on the sides of the sheet metal tubes and -amorphous arsenic, oxides, and sulphides in the prolongs. -After sublimation has been completed the contents of the -prolongs are removed and used for production of other arsenic -compounds; the (generally) argentiferous residues in the retorts -are removed and further treated in silver smelting works; -finally, the crusts of crystalline arsenic (artificial fly powder) -are knocked out from the carefully unrolled sheet iron tubes.</p> - -<p>As can be readily understood from the description opportunity<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span> -of poisoning from volatilisation of arsenic and of -arsenic compounds is considerable. Metallic arsenic is used -for making hard shot, and for increasing the brilliancy and -hardness of metal alloys (type metal, &c.).</p> - -<p><i>White arsenic</i> (arsenic trioxide) is obtained by roasting -with access of air in reverberatory furnaces arsenical ores and -smelting residues. The vapours of white arsenic sublime -and are condensed as a powder in long walled channels or -in chambers, and are resublimed in iron cylinders. White -arsenic is used in making colours, in glass (for decolourising -purposes), as an insecticide in the stuffing of animals, &c.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Industrial Arsenic Poisoning.</span>—In the <i>extraction of -arsenic</i> and preparation of arsenious acid danger is present. -But reliable accounts in literature of poisoning among those -engaged in arsenic works are wanting.</p> - -<p>Those engaged in roasting operations and packing suffer -much from skin affections. Similar poisoning is reported in -the smelting of other arsenical ores—nickel, cobalt, lead, -copper, iron, and silver, from arsenic compounds present in -the fumes. This is especially the case in the smelting of -tin, which generally contains arsenical pyrites.</p> - -<p>Danger is present also in <i>unhairing</i> (i.e. removing the -wool from sheep skins), since the skins imported from Buenos -Aires and Monte Video are treated with a preservative which, -in addition to sodium nitrate, soda, and potash, contains -generally arsenious acid.</p> - -<p>In <i>tanneries</i> a mixture of arsenic sulphide (realgar) and lime -is used for unhairing. Arsenic is used also for preserving -and stuffing animal furs; but although affections of the skin are -described I cannot find reference to arsenical poisoning.</p> - -<p>The inspector for East London in 1905 refers to severe -eczematous eruptions on face, neck, and hands, affecting -workers in a <i>sheep dip</i> works—mainly in the packing of the -light powder in packets.</p> - -<p>Formerly the use of arsenic in the manufacture of colours -was great, especially of <i>emerald (Schweinfurter) green</i>. This -is made by dissolving arsenious acid in potash with addition of -acetate of copper. Drying and grinding the material constitute -the main danger. Scheele’s green is another arsenical colour.</p> - -<p>Use of <i>arsenic colours</i> is becoming less and less. But in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span> -colour printing of paper and colouring of chalk they are still -employed. They are used, too, as mordants in dyeing, but -cases of poisoning from these sources in recent years are not -to be found.</p> - -<p>The dust in many glass works contains, it is stated, as much -as 1·5 per cent of white arsenic.</p> - -<p>Despite the numerous opportunities for arsenical poisoning -in industries it is rare or, at any rate, is only rarely reported.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Arseniuretted Hydrogen Poisoning.</span>—Industrial poisoning -from arseniuretted hydrogen is caused mostly by inhalation -of the gases developed by the action on one another of acids -and metals which contain arsenic. Hydrogen gas as usually -prepared for filling balloons gives occasion for poisoning.</p> - -<p>In Breslau in 1902 five workmen became affected, of whom -three died from inhalation of arseniuretted hydrogen gas in -filling toy balloons.<a href="#endnote123" id="endnote-ref123"><span class="endnote-marker">1</span></a> </p> - -<p>Further, use of hydrogen in lead burning may expose to -risk, and also preparation of zinc chloride flux.</p> - -<p>Of thirty-nine recorded cases of arseniuretted hydrogen -poisoning twelve were chemists, eleven workers filling toy -balloons, seven aniline workers, five lead smelters, three balloonists, -and in one the origin could not be traced. Nineteen of -these proved fatal within from three to twenty-four days.<a href="#endnote124" id="endnote-ref124"><span class="endnote-marker">2</span></a> </p> - -<p>Cases are recorded (1) in the reduction of nitroso-methylaniline -with zinc and hydrochloric acid; (2) in the preparation -of zinc chloride from zinc ashes and hydrochloric acid; -(3) from manufacture of zinc sulphate from crude sulphuric -acid and zinc dust; (4) in spelter works in the refining of -silver from the zinc crust with impure hydrochloric acid; and -(5) in the formation room of accumulator factories.</p> - -<p>The English factory inspectors’ report describes in 1906 -occurrence of three cases in an electrolytic process for the -recovery of copper in which the copper dissolved in sulphuric -acid was deposited at the cathode, and hydrogen at the lead -anode. In the 1907 report mention is made of two cases, one -affecting a chemist separating bismuth from a solution of -bismuth chloride in hydrochloric acid, and the other (which -proved fatal) a man who had cleaned a vitriol tank.</p> - -<p>The poisoning resulting from ferro-silicon is in part referable -to development of arseniuretted hydrogen gas.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span></p> - -<h4>ANTIMONY</h4> - -<p>It seems doubtful if industrial poisoning can really be -traced to antimony or its compounds; generally the arsenic -present with the antimony is at fault. Erben<a href="#endnote125" id="endnote-ref125"><span class="endnote-marker">1</span></a> considers that -industrial antimony poisoning occurs among workmen employed -in smelting antimony alloys in making tartar emetic through -inhalation of fumes of oxide of antimony.</p> - -<p>A case is cited of a workman in Hamburg engaged in pulverising -pure antimony who was attacked with vomiting -which lasted for several days, and the inspector of factories -noted epistaxis (nose bleeding) and vomiting as following on -the crushing of antimony ore.</p> - -<p>Compositors in addition to chronic lead poisoning may -suffer, it is alleged, from chronic antimony poisoning, showing -itself in diminution in the number of white blood corpuscles -and marked eosinophilia. These changes in the blood could -be brought about experimentally in rabbits. Antimony was -found by the Marsh test in the stools of those affected.</p> - -<h4>IRON</h4> - -<p><i>Pig iron</i> is obtained by smelting iron ores in blast furnaces -(<a href="#fig29">fig. 29</a>), through the upper opening of which charges of ore, -limestone or similar material to act as a flux, and coke are -fed in succession. The furnaces are worked continuously, -using a blast of heated air; carbon monoxide is produced -and effects the reduction of the ore to molten iron. The -latter accumulates in the hearth and is covered with molten -slag; this flows constantly away through an opening and is -collected in slag bogies for removal, or is sometimes cooled in -water.</p> - -<p>The crude iron is tapped from time to time, and is led in -a fluid condition into moulds called ‘pigs,’ in which it -solidifies. Cast iron is occasionally used direct from the blast -furnace for the purpose of making rough castings, but -generally it is further refined before being used in a foundry -by remelting with cast iron scrap in a cupola furnace.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 250px;" id="fig29"> - -<img src="images/fig29.jpg" width="250" height="500" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 29.</span></p> - -<p class="caption"><i>a</i> Hearth; <i>b</i> Bosh; <i>c</i> Shaft; <i>d</i> Gas uptake; <i>e</i> Down-comer; <i>f</i> Tuyères with -water cooling arrangement; <i>g</i> Blast pipes; <i>h</i> Tapping hole; <i>k</i> Supporting -columns; <i>l</i> Furnace bottom; <i>m</i> Charging hopper; <i>n</i> Bell with raising and -lowering arrangement.</p> - -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[148]</a></span></p> - -<p><i>Wrought iron</i> is made by treating pig iron in refinery and -puddling furnaces; in these much of the carbon is removed -as carbon monoxide, and from the puddling furnace the iron -is obtained as a pasty mass which can be worked into bars, -rods, or plates.</p> - -<p><i>Steel</i> is made in various ways. The Acid Bessemer process -consists in forcing compressed air in numerous small streams -through molten cast iron, in iron vessels (converters) which -are lined with ganister, a silicious sandstone. These can -be rotated on trunnions. Basic Bessemer steel is made in -similar converters by the Thomas-Gilchrist or basic process, -which can be applied to pig irons containing phosphorus. -The latter is removed by giving the converter a basic lining -of calcined magnesium limestone mixed with tar.</p> - -<p>In the <i>Martin</i> process steel is obtained by melting together -pig iron with steel scrap, wrought iron scrap, &c., on the -hearth of a Siemens regenerative furnace with a silicious -lining.</p> - -<p>In iron smelting the most important danger is from <i>blast -furnace gas</i> rich in carbonic oxide. Sulphur dioxide, hydrocyanic -acid, and arseniuretted hydrogen gas may possibly be -present.</p> - -<p>When work was carried out in blast furnaces with open tops -the workers engaged in charging ran considerable risk. But -as the blast furnace gas is rich in carbonic oxide and has high -heating capacity these gases are now always led off and utilised; -the charging point is closed by a cup (Parry’s cup and cone -charger) and only opened from time to time mechanically, -when the workers retire so far from the opening as to be -unaffected by the escaping gas. The gas is led away (<a href="#fig29">fig. 29</a>) -through a side opening into special gas mains, is subjected to -a purifying process in order to rid it of flue dust, and then used -to heat the blast, fire the boilers, or drive gas engines.</p> - -<p>Severe blast furnace gas poisoning, however, does occur in -entering the mains for cleaning purposes. Numerous cases of -the kind are quoted in the section on Carbonic oxide poisoning.</p> - -<p>The gases evolved on tapping and slag running can also -act injuriously, and unpleasant emanations be given off in -granulating the slag (by receiving the fluid slag in water).</p> - -<p>In the puddling process much carbonic oxide is present. -Other processes, however, can scarcely give rise to poisoning.</p> - -<p>The <i>basic slag</i> produced in the Thomas-Gilchrist process is a -valuable manure on account of the phosphorus it contains;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span> -it is ground in edge runners, and then reduced to a very fine -dust in mills and disintegrators. This dust has a corrosive -action already referred to in the chapter on Phosphorus and -Artificial Manures.</p> - -<p>The poisoning caused by <i>ferro-silicon</i> is of interest. Iron -with high proportion of silicon has been made in recent years -on a large scale for production of steel. Some 4000 tons of -ferro-silicon are annually exported to Great Britain from -France and Germany. It is made by melting together iron ore, -quartz, coke, and lime (as flux) at very high temperature in -electrical furnaces. The coke reduces the quartz and ore to -silicon and metal with the production of ferro-silicon. Certain -grades, namely those with about 50 per cent. silicon, have -the property of decomposing or disintegrating into powder -on exposure for any length of time to the air, with production -of very poisonous gases containing phosphoretted and -arseniuretted hydrogen. The iron and quartz often contain -phosphates, which in presence of carbon and at the high -temperature of the electrical furnace would no doubt be -converted into phosphides combining with the lime to form -calcium phosphide; similarly any arsenic present would yield -calcium arsenide. These would be decomposed in presence of -water and evolve phosphoretted and arseniuretted hydrogen -gas. In addition to its poisonous properties it has also given -rise to explosions.</p> - -<p>[In January 1905 fifty steerage passengers were made -seriously ill and eleven of them died. In 1907 five passengers -died on a Swedish steamer as the result of poisonous gases given -off from ferro-silicon, and more recently five lives were lost -on the steamer <i>Aston</i> carrying the material from Antwerp to -Grimsby.<a name="FNanchor_3" id="FNanchor_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">[C]</a> This accident led to full investigation of the -subject by Dr. Copeman, F.R.S., one of the Medical Inspectors -of the Local Government Board, Mr. S. R. Bennett, one of -H.M. Inspectors of Factories, and Dr. Wilson Hake, Ph.D., -F.I.C., in which the conclusions arrived at are summarised as -follows:</p> - -<div class="blockquote"> - -<p>1. Numerous accidents, fatal and otherwise, have been caused -within the last few years by the escape of poisonous and explosive<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[150]</a></span> -gases from consignments of ferro-silicon, which, in every -instance, have been found to consist of so-called high-grade -ferro-silicon, produced in the electric furnace.</p> - -<p>2. These accidents, for the most part, have occurred during -transport of the ferro-silicon by water, whether in sea-going -vessels or in barges and canal-boats plying on inland waters.</p> - -<p>3. These accidents have occurred in various countries and -on vessels of different nationalities, while the ferro-silicon -carried has, in almost every instance, been the product of a -different manufactory.</p> - -<p>4. Ferro-silicon, especially of grades containing from 40 per -cent. to 60 per cent. of silicon, is invariably found to evolve -considerable quantities of phosphoretted hydrogen gas, and, -in less amount, of arseniuretted hydrogen, both of which are -of a highly poisonous nature. A certain amount of the gas -evolved is present, as such, in the alloy, being ‘occluded’ in -minute spaces with which its substance is often permeated.</p> - -<p>5. As the result of careful investigation, it has been shown -that certain grades of ferro-silicon—notably such as contain -about 33 per cent., 50 per cent., and 60 per cent. of silicon—even -when manufactured from fairly pure constituents, are -both brittle and liable to disintegrate spontaneously, this latter -characteristic being apt to be specially marked in the case of the -50 per cent. grade.</p> - -<p>All these grades are commonly employed at the present time.</p> - -<p>6. In the event of disintegration occurring, the amount of -surface exposed will, obviously, be greater than if the mass were -solid.</p> - -<p>7. Evolution of poisonous gases is greatly increased by the -action of moisture, or of moist air, under the influence of which -phosphoretted hydrogen is generated from calcium phosphide, -which, in turn, is formed, in large part, at any rate, from the -calcium phosphate present in anthracite and quartz, at the high -temperature of the electric furnace. If spontaneous disintegration -of the alloy also occurs, much larger quantities of gas -would be given off from such friable and unstable material, -other conditions being equal. The greater or less tendency of -a given sample to evolve poisonous gases, and even a rough -estimate of their probable amount may be arrived at by the use -of test-papers prepared with silver nitrate.</p> - -<p>8. There is no evidence that low-grade ferro-silicon (10 to -15 per cent.), produced in the blast-furnace, has ever given rise -to accidents of similar character to those known to have been -caused by the high-grade electrically produced alloy. Blast-furnace<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span> -ferro-silicon does not evolve poisonous gases even in -presence of moisture.</p> - -<p>9. As regards ferro-silicon produced in the electric furnace, -the evidence available goes to show that certain percentage -grades are practically quite innocuous. This statement applies -to grades of alloy of a silicon content up to and including 30 per -cent., and probably also, though in considerably less degree, to -those of 70 per cent. and over.</p> - -<p>10. In view of the fact that the use of ferro-silicon of grades -ranging between 30 per cent. and 70 per cent. apparently is not -essential in metallurgical operations, with the possible exception -of basic steel manufacture, it will be advisable that the production -of this alloy of grades ranging between these percentages -should be discontinued in the future.</p> - -<p>11. The proprietors of iron and steel works making use of -ferro-silicon will assist in the protection of their workpeople, -and at the same time act for the public benefit by restricting -their orders to grades of this material, either not exceeding -30 per cent., or of 70 per cent. and upwards, according to the -special nature of their requirements.</p> - -<p>12. But as, pending international agreement on the question, -intermediate percentages of ferro-silicon will doubtless continue -to be manufactured and sold, the issue, by the Board of Trade, of -special regulations will be necessary in order to obviate, so far as -may be possible, chance of further accidents during the transport -of this substance.</p> - -<p><i>Inter alia</i>, these regulations should require a declaration of -the nature, percentage, date of manufacture, and place of origin -of any such consignment.</p> - -</div> - -<p>The suggested regulations are printed on p. <a href="#Page_291">291</a>.]</p> - -<h4>ZINC</h4> - -<p>Industrial poisoning from zinc is unknown. The chronic -zinc poisoning among spelter workers described by Schlockow -with nervous symptoms is undoubtedly to be attributed to -lead.</p> - -<h4>COPPER: BRASS</h4> - -<p><i>Occurrence of brass-founder’s ague.</i>—Opinion is divided as -to whether pure copper is poisonous or not. Lehmann has -at any rate shown experimentally that as an industrial poison -it is without importance.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[152]</a></span></p> - -<p>Occurrence, however, of brass-founder’s ague is undoubtedly -frequent. Although neither pure zinc nor pure copper give rise -to poisoning, yet the pouring of brass (an alloy of zinc and -copper) sets up a peculiar train of symptoms. As the symptoms -are transient, and medical attendance is only very rarely -sought after, knowledge of its frequency is difficult to obtain.</p> - -<p>Sigel,<a href="#endnote126" id="endnote-ref126"><span class="endnote-marker">1</span></a> who has experimented on himself, believes that the -symptoms result from inhalation of superheated zinc fumes. -In large well-appointed brass casting shops (as in those of -Zeiss in Jena) incidence is rare.</p> - -<p>Lehmann<a href="#endnote127" id="endnote-ref127"><span class="endnote-marker">2</span></a> very recently has expressed his decided opinion -that brass-founder’s ague is a zinc poisoning due to inhalation -of zinc oxide and not zinc fumes. This conclusion he came to -as the result of experiments on a workman predisposed to -attacks of brass-founder’s ague. Lehmann’s surmise is that the -symptoms are due to an auto-intoxication from absorption -of dead epithelial cells lining the respiratory tract, the cells -having been destroyed by inhalation of the zinc oxide. He -found that he could produce typical symptoms in a worker -by inhalation of the fumes given off in burning pure zinc.</p> - -<p><i>Metal pickling.</i>—The object of metal dipping is to give -metal objects, especially of brass (buckles, lamps, electric -fittings, candlesticks, &c.), a clean or mat surface and is -effected by dipping in baths of nitric, hydrochloric, or sulphuric -acid. Generally after dipping in the dilute bath the articles go -for one or two minutes into strong acid, from which injurious -fumes, especially nitrous fumes, develop with occasionally -fatal effect (see the chapter on Nitric Acid). Unfortunately, -there are no references in the literature of the subject as to -the frequency of such attacks.</p> - -<p>Recovery of gold and silver has been already referred to -in the chapters on Mercury, Lead, and Cyanogen.</p> - -<p>Mention must be made of <i>argyria</i>. This is not poisoning in -the proper sense of the word, as injury to health is hardly -caused. Argyria results from absorption of small doses of silver -salts which, excreted in the form of reduced metallic silver, give -the skin a shiny black colour. Cases are most frequently seen -in silverers of glass pearls who do the work by suction. -Local argyria has been described by Lewin in silvering of -mirrors and in photographers.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></span></p> - -<h3 id="III_OCCURRENCE_OF_INDUSTRIAL_POISONING">III. OCCURRENCE OF INDUSTRIAL POISONING -IN VARIOUS INDUSTRIES</h3> - -<p>The most important facts have now been stated as to the -occurrence of poisoning in industry, and there remain only a -few gaps to fill in and to survey briefly the risks in certain -important groups of industry.</p> - -<h4>TREATMENT OF STONE AND EARTHS</h4> - -<h5>Lime Burning: Glass Industry</h5> - -<p>Lead poisoning in the ceramic industry (earthenware, -porcelain, glass, polishing of precious stones, &c.) has been -dealt with in detail in the chapter on Lead. There is further -the possibility of chrome-ulceration, of arsenic poisoning, and -conceivably also of manganese. Further, poisoning by <i>carbonic -oxide</i> and carbon dioxide may occur from the escape of furnace -gases where hygienic conditions are bad. In charging lime -kilns poisoning by carbonic oxide has occurred. The report -of the Union of Chemical Industry in 1906 describes the case -of a workman who was assisting in filling the kiln with limestone. -As the furnace door was opened for the purpose gas -escaped in such amount as to render him unconscious. He -was picked up thirty minutes later, but efforts at resuscitation -failed.</p> - -<p>Carbonic oxide poisoning, again, may arise from the use -of Siemens regenerative furnaces, especially glass furnaces: -details are given in the chapter on Illuminating Gas.</p> - -<p><i>Hydrofluoric acid</i> is present as an industrial poison in -<i>glass etching</i> (see Fluorine Compounds). Persons employed in -this process suffer from inflammation of the respiratory tract -and ulceration of the skin of the hands. I could not find any -precise statement as to the frequency of the occurrence of -such injuries. Use of sand-blasting to roughen the surface of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a></span> -glass has to some extent taken the place of etching by hydrofluoric -acid.</p> - -<h4>TREATMENT OF ANIMAL PRODUCTS</h4> - -<p>In <i>tanning</i> use of arsenic compounds for detaching the -wool from skins and of gas lime for getting rid of hair may -cause injury to health. With the latter there is possibility -of the action of cyanogen compounds (see the chapters on -Arsenic and Cyanogen).</p> - -<h4>PREPARATION OF VEGETABLE FOOD STUFFS AND THE LIKE</h4> - -<p>In <i>fermentation</i> processes as in breweries and the sugar -industry accumulations of carbonic acid gas occur, and suffocation -from this source has been repeatedly described. Mention in -this connection should be made of the use of salufer containing -some 2 per cent. of silicofluoric acid as a preservative and antiseptic -in beer brewing. In the <i>sulphuring</i> of hops, wine, &c., -the workers may run risk from the injurious action of sulphur -dioxide. <i>Arsenic</i> in the sulphuric acid used for the production -of <i>dextrine</i> may set up industrial poisoning. Poisoning from -<i>ammonia</i> gas can occur in <i>cold storage</i> premises. Industrial -poisoning from tobacco is not proved, but the injurious effect -of the aroma and dust of tobacco—especially in women—in -badly arranged tobacco factories is probable.</p> - -<h4>WOOD WORKING</h4> - -<p><i>Injurious woods.</i>—In recent literature there are several -interesting references to injury to health from certain poisonous -kinds of wood—skin affections in workers manipulating satinwood, -and affections of the heart and general health in workers -making shuttles of African boxwood. Details of these forms -of poisoning are reported from England and Bavaria. The -wood used for making the shuttles was West African boxwood -(Gonioma Kamassi). It appears that the wood contains an -alkaloidal poison which affects the heart’s action. The -workers suffered from headache, feeling of sleepiness, lachrymation, -coryza, difficulty of breathing, nausea, and weakness. -Four workers had to give up the work because of the difficulty -in breathing. Inquiry was made by Dr. John Hay of -Liverpool in 1908 and by the medical inspector of factories -in 1905. The following table shows the symptoms found:</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[155]</a></span></p> - -<table summary="Symptoms experienced by workers poisoned by wood" class="borders"> - <tr> - <th rowspan="3">Symptoms.<br />(1)</th> - <th colspan="4">Persons Examined.</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th colspan="2">1905.</th> - <th colspan="2">1907-1908.</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th>Number.<br />(2)</th> - <th>Per cent.<br />(3)</th> - <th>Number.<br />(4)</th> - <th>Per Cent.<br />(5)</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Headache</td> - <td class="tdr">27</td> - <td class="tdr">24·1</td> - <td class="tdr">18</td> - <td class="tdr">22·8</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Feeling of somnolence</td> - <td class="tdr">10</td> - <td class="tdr">9·0</td> - <td class="tdr">17</td> - <td class="tdr">21·5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Running of eyes</td> - <td class="tdr">13</td> - <td class="tdr">11·6</td> - <td class="tdr">9</td> - <td class="tdr">11·3</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Running of nose</td> - <td class="tdr">28</td> - <td class="tdr">25·0</td> - <td class="tdr">20</td> - <td class="tdr">28·0</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Breathing affected</td> - <td class="tdr">34</td> - <td class="tdr">30·4</td> - <td class="tdr">13</td> - <td class="tdr">16·4</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Nausea or sickness</td> - <td class="tdr">13</td> - <td class="tdr">11·6</td> - <td class="tdr">3</td> - <td class="tdr">3·8</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bb">Faintness or weakness</td> - <td class="tdr bb">11</td> - <td class="tdr bb">9·6</td> - <td class="tdr bb">1</td> - <td class="tdr bb">1·2</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p>The later inquiry shows considerable diminution in the -amount of complaint as to respiratory trouble. This may have -been due to the improved conditions of working, freely acknowledged -by the men. Men were examined who had complained -of the effects of the wood in 1905, and had continued uninterruptedly -at the same kind of work during the interval -without any obvious further injury to their health, although -they preferred working on other woods.</p> - -<p>East Indian boxwood had to be discarded in the shuttle -trade owing to its irritant action on the eyes. Sabicu wood -from Cuba was stated to give off ‘a snuffy dust under the -machine and hand planes, the effect of which upon the worker -is to cause a running at the eyes and nose, and a general feeling -of cold in the head. The symptoms pass off in an hour or so -after discontinuance of work.’ Reference was made in the -report for 1906 to eczematous eruptions produced by so-called -Borneo rosewood, a wood used owing to its brilliant -colour and exquisite grain in fret-saw work. The Director -of the Imperial Institute experimented with this wood, but -failed to discover injurious properties in it. At the same time -experiments with the wood and sawdust of East and West -Indian satinwood were undertaken, but also without result.</p> - -<p>From inquiries subsequently made it appeared that much -confusion existed as to the designation ‘satinwood,’ as under -this name were classed both East and West Indian satinwood -and also satin walnut. The evidence was clear that East -Indian satinwood was more irritating than West Indian. -Satin walnut wood is apparently harmless. In the shipbuilding -yards of East London, Glasgow, and Bristol affections -of the skin were recognised, but susceptibility to the wood<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[156]</a></span> -varied. One man asserted that merely laying a shaving on -the back of his hand would produce a sore place. The injurious -effects here seem to disappear quickly. Exhaust ventilation is -applied, but there is a tendency to give up the use of the wood.</p> - -<p>Isolated cases of illness have been ascribed to working teak -and olive wood. In Sheffield the following are held to be -irritating: ebony, magenta rosewood, West Indian boxwood, -cocos wood. Some kinds of mahogany are said to affect the -eyes and nose.</p> - -<p>Use of methylated spirit in polishing furniture is said to -lead to injury to health although not to set up actual poisoning. -Lead poisoning can occur from the sand-papering of coats of -paint applied to wood.</p> - -<p>In impregnating wood with creosote and tar the effects on -the skin noted in the chapter on Tar are observed.</p> - -<h4>TEXTILE INDUSTRY</h4> - -<p>In getting rid of the grease from animal wool carbon -bisulphide or <i>benzine</i> may be used.</p> - -<p>The process of <i>carbonising</i> in the production of shoddy may -give rise to injury to health from acid fumes. Lead poisoning -used to be caused by the knocking together of the leaden -weights attached to the Jacquard looms. This is a thing of -the past, as now iron weights are universal.</p> - -<p>Opportunity for lead poisoning is given in the weighting of -yarn—especially of silk with lead compounds.</p> - -<p>In <i>bleaching</i> use of chlorine and sulphur dioxide has to be -borne in mind.</p> - -<p>In <i>chemical cleaning</i> poisoning by benzine may occur.</p> - -<p>In <i>dyeing</i> and <i>printing</i> use of poisonous colours is lessening, -as they have been supplanted by aniline colours. On occurrence -of aniline poisoning in aniline black dyeing see the section on -Aniline. Use of lead colours and of chromate of lead are dealt -with in special sections.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[157]</a></span></p> - -<h2 id="PART_II">PART II<br /> -<span class="smaller"><i>THE SYMPTOMS AND TREATMENT OF -INDUSTRIAL POISONING</i></span></h2> - -<p>In this section the most important diseases and symptoms -of industrial poisoning will be described. In doing this—considering -the mainly practical purpose of this book—theoretical -toxicological details and any full discussion of -disputed scientific points will be omitted.</p> - -<h3 id="I_INTRODUCTORY">I. INTRODUCTORY</h3> - -<p>Hitherto in this book we have intentionally followed the -inductive method, from the particular to the general: we -began by citing a number of important instances of industrial -poisoning, but only now will endeavour be made to give a -definition of the terms ‘poison’ and ‘poisoning.’</p> - -<p>Attempts at such definitions are numerous; every old and -new text-book of toxicology contains them. A few only hold -good for our purpose. It is characteristic that Lewin, after -attempting a definition of the conception ‘poisoning,’ himself -rejects it and declares that he can see no practical disadvantage -in the impossibility of defining this notion, because deductions -based upon the knowledge of undoubted cases can never be -dispensed with, even if a definition were possible: one justification -the more for our inductive method.</p> - -<p>But we will not quite dispense with a definition.</p> - -<p><i>Poisons are certain substances which are able chemically to -act on an organism in such a way as to effect a permanent -or transient injury to its organs and functions; an injury<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[158]</a></span> -consequently to the health and well-being of the person affected; -this injury we call poisoning.</i></p> - -<p>In the present book we have refrained from including -industrial infections among industrial poisonings, and the -subject has been limited to poisoning in the restricted and -current sense of the word.</p> - -<p>An industrial poison is a poison employed, produced, or -somehow occasioned in industrial occupation, which is brought -about inadvertently, and consequently against the will of the -person poisoned.</p> - -<p>From a simple survey of the action of industrial poisons in -general we may group them as follows:</p> - -<div class="blockquote"> - -<p>1. Poisons which act <i>superficially</i>, i.e. which cause in the -organs which they touch gross anatomical lesions -(irritation, corrosion, &c.)—so-called contact-effect. To -this class belong especially irritant and corrosive -poisons.</p> - -<p>2. <i>Blood</i> poisons, i.e. poisons which are absorbed by the -blood and change it; this change can affect either -the blood colouring-matter, with which certain poisons -form chemical compounds, or the blood corpuscles -themselves can be altered or destroyed (for instance, -poisons having a hæmolytic action).</p> - -<p>3. Poisons with definite <i>internal</i> action, so-called remote -or specific effect. To this class belong the poisons -which, after being absorbed into the system, act upon -definite organs or tissues in a specific manner (nerve -poisons, heart poisons, &c.).</p> - -</div> - -<p>It is indeed possible for one and the same poison to display -two or all three of these modes of action.</p> - -<p>The effect of poison depends upon an interaction of the -poison and the organism, or its single organs. Selection as -regards quality and quantity is a property of the organism as -well as of the poison: the nature and amount of the poison -taken in are determining factors on the one side, and on the -other the constitution, size, and weight of the affected -organism. The chemical constitution of the poisonous substance -determines the qualitative property of the poison.</p> - -<p>Further, certain physical properties of the poison determine<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[159]</a></span> -its action, especially its form, solubility in water, and its power -of dissolving fat. These affect its susceptibility to absorption, -to which point we shall return shortly; the hygroscopic -capacity of a poison produces a highly irritant and corrosive -action.</p> - -<p>Industrial poisons can be absorbed (1) as solid substances, -(2) as liquids, and (3) as gases. Since industrial poisoning, as -defined above, is of course neither desired nor intended by the -sufferer, who unsuspectingly takes into his system poison used -or developed in the factory, solid substances in finely divided -condition—in the form of dust—can be considered as industrial -poisons. Accordingly, industrial poisons can be classed as due -to dust, gases, and liquids.</p> - -<p>The poison may be introduced into the body through the -functional activity of the organism by the lungs or alimentary -tract, or it may penetrate the uninjured or injured surface of -the skin.</p> - -<p>Industrial poisons which contaminate the air of the factory -are inhaled—these are consequently either poisonous dusts -or gases and vapours.</p> - -<p>As a rule, only industrial poisons in a liquid form enter -through the skin, which may be either intact or wounded; -gaseous poisons seldom do; poisons in the form of fat or dust -can only pass through the skin after they have been first -dissolved by the secretions of the skin or of a wound, so that -they come to be absorbed in solution. Most frequently -those liquid poisons which are capable of dissolving the -fat of the skin are thus absorbed, and next, such liquids -as have a corrosive effect, breaking down the resistance -of the skin covering and producing an inflamed raw surface. -But such poisons much more easily enter through the mucous -membrane, as this naturally offers a much weaker resistance -than the skin.</p> - -<p>From a quantitative point of view it is especially the -amount of poison actively assimilated which determines the -effect. Every poison is without effect if assimilated in correspondingly -small quantities. There is consequently a minimum -poisonous dose, after which the poison begins to act; but this -minimum dose can only be ascertained and specified when -the qualitative properties and the weight of the organism are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[160]</a></span> -also taken into consideration; it has therefore a relative value. -The strongest effect which a poison is able to produce is the -destruction of the life functions of the organism, the fatal -effect. This fatal dose, however, can only be determined -relatively to the qualities of the organism in question.</p> - -<p>Not only is the absolute quality of the poison of decisive -significance, but the degree of concentration often influences -its action, that is to say, the greater or less amount of effective -poison contained in the substance conveying it into the -organism; concentration plays an important part in many -industrial poisons, especially, as is obvious, in corrosive -poisons.</p> - -<p>A further important point is the time which it takes to -absorb the poison. The action of the poison—the whole expression -of the symptoms of poisoning—is essentially influenced -by this fact.</p> - -<p>Usually gradual and repeated absorption of small quantities -produces slow onset of symptoms, while sudden absorption -of larger quantities of poison brings about rapid onset of -illness. In the former case the poisoning is called <i>chronic</i>, -in the latter, <i>acute</i>. Acute industrial poisoning is sometimes -so sudden that the affected person cannot withdraw himself -in time from the influence of the poison, nor prevent its entrance -in considerable quantities into his system; this is often caused -by the fact that the effect of the poison is so rapid that he is -often suddenly deprived of power to move or of consciousness, -and remains then exposed to the action of the poison until help -comes. Such accidents are mostly caused by poisonous gases. -Occasionally also considerable quantities of poison enter quite -unnoticed into the body, such as odourless poisonous gases in -breathing, or poisonous liquids through the skin. In chronic -industrial poisoning unsuspected accumulation of poison -takes place, until symptoms of illness ultimately reveal -themselves; as the first stages of poisoning are not recognised -in time by the person affected, he continues exposed to the -influence of the poison for weeks, months, even years, until the -chronic effect has reached its full development and becomes -obvious. Such insidious industrial poisoning arises through -the continual absorption into the lungs or stomach of small -quantities of poisonous dust, gases, and vapours, during<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[161]</a></span> -constant or frequent work in an atmosphere containing -such gases; poisonous liquids also, by soiling hands and -food, or by penetrating the skin, can produce slow industrial -poisoning.</p> - -<p>Industrial poisoning which in respect of its duration -stands midway between acute and chronic is called sub-acute -poisoning. This usually means that more frequent absorption -of greater quantities of poison has taken place, though not in -doses large enough to produce an immediately acute effect. -This is important legally because industrial poisonings caused -through the sudden absorption of poison in sufficient quantity -to act immediately or to bring about subsequent symptoms -of poisoning, are reckoned as accidents. Thus acute and -many sub-acute industrial poisonings are accounted accidents. -Chronic industrial poisonings, acquired gradually, count as -illnesses. But as in certain cases it cannot be decided whether -sudden or gradual absorption of the industrial poison is in -question, this distinction is an unnatural one. It is also unnatural -in the legal sense, for there is often no material reason -for regarding as legally distinct cases of chronic and acute -industrial poisoning. To this we shall refer later in discussing -the question of insurance against industrial poisoning.</p> - -<p>We have from the outset assumed that the effect of the -poison depends not only on the nature of the poison itself, -but also on that of the organism, considered both quantitatively -and qualitatively.</p> - -<p>Significant in a quantitative respect is the body weight of -the organism, and the fatal dose of the poison must be ascertained -and stated in connection with the body weight, calculated -as a rule per kilo of the live weight.</p> - -<p>The qualitative point of view must reckon with the differing -susceptibility of organisms for poison. This varying susceptibility -to the action of poison, the causes of which are very -obscure, is called disposition.</p> - -<p>Different species (of animals and men) exhibit often very -different degrees of susceptibility towards one and the same -poison; the differences in this respect are often very considerable, -and one cannot simply transfer the experience experimentally -gained from one species of animal to man or another -species of animal, without further experiment. Besides disposition,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[162]</a></span> -sex, and still more age, often determine within the -same species marked difference of susceptibility to a poison. -Further, there is an individual disposition due to qualities -peculiar to the individual, which makes some persons more -than usually immune and others specially susceptible. Individuals -weakened by illness are particularly susceptible to -poisoning. Two diseases, in especial, favour the operation -of poison, influencing disastrously the capacity for assimilating -food, and reducing the general resisting power of the body; -of these tuberculosis stands first.</p> - -<p>Individual disposition plays in industrial poisoning a part -which must not be under-estimated; it determines the possibility -of acclimatisation to a poison; some individuals capable -of resistance habituate themselves—often comparatively easily—to -a poison, and become, up to a certain limit, immune -against it, that is, they can tolerate a quantity which would -be injurious to others not so accustomed. With other individuals, -however, the opposite effect is apparent. Repeated -exposure to the action of the poison leads to an increased -susceptibility, so that acclimatisation is not possible. Innate -hyper-sensitiveness of the individual towards a poison is -called idiosyncrasy. Frequently, for example, this quality -shows itself as hyper-sensitiveness of the skin towards the -harmful action of certain poisons. A marked lowering in the -sensitiveness, innate or acquired, of the organism towards a -poison is called immunity.</p> - -<p>The possibility of the absorption and action of a poison -presupposes—speaking generally—its solubility, and indeed -its solubility in the body juices.</p> - -<p>In general, poison can be absorbed at very different points -of the body; so far as industrial poisons are concerned, these -are the mucous membrane of the respiratory passages, the -mucous membrane of the digestive tract, and the skin, intact -or broken. The rapidity of absorption depends on the nature -of the poison, of the individual, and the channel of absorption. -Of industrial poisons gases are relatively the most quickly -absorbed; sometimes indeed so swiftly that the effect follows -almost immediately.</p> - -<p>Elimination of industrial poisons is effected principally<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[163]</a></span> -by the kidneys, the intestinal canal, the respiratory organs, -and, more rarely, the skin. Rapidity of elimination also -depends on the nature of the poison and of the person -poisoned.</p> - -<p>If elimination is insufficient, or absorption takes place more -quickly than excretion, the poison accumulates in the body, -and has a cumulative effect which in chronic industrial poisonings -plays a very important rôle. Under certain circumstances -poisons are not thrown off, but stored up—fixed—in -the body.</p> - -<p>The poison absorbed in the body can act unchanged from -the place where it is stored. A number of poisons, however, -undergo in the organism chemical change through which the -action of the poison is partly lessened, rarely increased. Among -such changes and weakening of the poison are: oxidation, as, -for example, of organic poisons into their final products -(carbonic acid, water, &c.), oxidation of benzene into phenol, -oxidation of sulphur dioxide into sulphuric acid, &c.; reduction -in the case of metals, peroxides, &c.; neutralisation of -acids by alkaline juices; chemical union (for instance, of aromatic -compounds with sulphuric acid). The splitting up of -albuminous bodies is not of importance in regard to industrial -poisons.</p> - -<h4>GENERAL REMARKS ON THE TREATMENT OF INDUSTRIAL -POISONINGS</h4> - -<p>Although in industrial poisoning the importance of treatment -is small in comparison with that of preventive measures, -in discussing particular forms of poisoning, full weight must -be given to it; and in order to avoid repetition, certain points -will be brought forward here.</p> - -<p>Of the treatment of chronic industrial poisonings not -much in general can be said; unfortunately, special treatment -has often little chance. It will usually be of advantage -to maintain the activity of the excretory organs. So far as -there is question of poisons affecting metabolism and injuriously -influencing the general state of nutrition, treatment aiming at -improving the general health and strength offers hope of -success. For nervous symptoms, especially paralysis, disturbance<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[164]</a></span> -in sensation, &c., treatment generally suitable to nervous -diseases can be tried (electro-therapeutics, baths, &c.). In -treatment of acute industrial poisonings, which often demand -the prompt intervention of laymen, ‘first aid’ is more -hopeful.</p> - -<p>The most important general rules of treatment arise in -reference to irritant poisons which produce ulceration of the -skin, and further in regard to those poisons which cause -unconsciousness, especially blood poisons.</p> - -<p>When an irritant poison is acting on the skin, the first -object to be aimed at is naturally the immediate removal -of the cause of corrosion by water, or, better still, neutralisation -by an alkaline solution (for example, soda solution) in -the case of corrosive acids, and weak acids (organic acids, acetic -acid, citric acid) in the case of caustic action by alkalis. Such -remedies must be at hand in factories as part of the equipment -for first aid, where irritant poisonings can occur.</p> - -<p>In those industrial poisonings which result in loss of consciousness, -arrest of respiration and suffocation, attempts at -resuscitation should at once be made. In these attempts -at resuscitation, <i>artificial respiration</i> is of the greatest importance; -of course the sufferer must first be withdrawn from the -influence of the poison, i.e. be brought into fresh air. Great -care must be taken, especially where it is necessary to enter -places filled with a poisonous atmosphere, to prevent the -rescuers, as is often the case, themselves falling victims to the -influence of the poison. They should be provided with suitable -smoke helmets or breathing apparatus.</p> - -<p>We will not describe the methods of resuscitation and -artificial respiration universally enjoined; they can be found -in every first-aid handbook.</p> - -<p>Emphasis is laid on the great importance of <i>treatment by -oxygen</i> in cases of industrial poisoning through gaseous blood -poisons, as this treatment is attended with good results. -Apparatus for the administration of oxygen should be kept -wherever there exists the possibility of such poisoning, -especially in mines, smelting works, chemical factories, and -chemical laboratories.</p> - -<p>Oxygen treatment rests on the fact that by raising the -pressure of the oxygen from 113 mm., as it is generally in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[165]</a></span> -ordinary air, to 675 mm., which is reached in presence of pure -oxygen, the quantity of oxygen absorbed in the blood rises -from 0·3 to 1·8 per 100 c.c. Further, the saturation of the -hæmoglobin, the colouring matter of the blood, undergoes an -increase of 2·4 per cent. This increase of oxygen in the blood -can save life in cases where through poisoning a deficiency of -oxygen has resulted.</p> - -<p>The introduction of oxygen is done by special apparatus -which acts essentially on -the principle that during -inhalation oxygen is pressed -into the lungs which are -below normal physiological -pressure, while exhalation is -effected by a deflating -arrangement when the -poisoned individual no longer -breathes of his own accord. -When natural breathing -begins, the introduction of -oxygen without special apparatus -generally suffices.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 250px;" id="fig30"> - -<img src="images/fig30.jpg" width="250" height="300" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 30.</span>—Dräger’s Oxygen Box</p> - -<p class="caption">I Oxygen cylinder; A Valve on cylinder; -B Manometer; C Key for opening -and closing the flow of oxygen; F Economiser; -H Facepiece.</p> - -</div> - -<p>Dräger’s <i>oxygen apparatus</i> -(<a href="#fig30">fig. 30</a>) consists of a small -oxygen cylinder provided -with a closing valve, a small -manometer, a so-called -‘automatic’ reducing valve -with an arrangement for -opening and closing the -oxygen supply, a bag to act as a receiver or economiser, a -breathing mask, and a metal tube connecting the breathing -mask with the other parts of the apparatus. The oxygen -cylinder, when filled, contains about 180 litres of oxygen, and -the manometer allows the manipulator to control at any time -whatever oxygen it still contains. The automatic arrangement -not only reduces the pressure but at the same time -controls the supply of oxygen. This dose is fixed at three -litres of oxygen per minute, so that the apparatus with the -same oxygen cylinder will last for sixty minutes. The oxygen -is not inhaled pure, but is mixed with atmospheric air -according to need, and in order to make this possible the -breathing mask is provided with a small hole through which -atmospheric air finds entrance.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[166]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;" id="fig31"> - -<img src="images/fig31.jpg" width="400" height="325" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 31.</span>—Oxygen Inhaling Apparatus</p> - -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;" id="fig32"> - -<img src="images/fig32.jpg" width="500" height="450" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 32.</span>—Showing apparatus in use (<i>Siebe, Gorman & Co.</i>)</p> - -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[167]</a></span></p> - -<p>As the oxygen flows continuously from the cylinder waste -during exhalation is prevented by the economiser, in which, -during exhalation, the inflowing oxygen accumulates, to be -absorbed again in inhalation. A small relief valve in the -screw head of the bag prevents the entrance into it of -exhaled air.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;" id="fig33"> - -<img src="images/fig33.jpg" width="600" height="500" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 33.</span>—Dräger’s Pulmotor (<i>R. Jacobson</i>)</p> - -</div> - -<p>Another oxygen inhaling apparatus for resuscitating purposes, -that of Siebe, Gorman & Co., is illustrated in figs. <a href="#fig31">31</a> -and <a href="#fig32">32</a>.</p> - -<p>Dräger also constructs an apparatus called the ‘Pulmotor’ -which simultaneously accomplishes the introduction of oxygen -and artificial respiration.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[168]</a></span></p> - -<p>Inflation and deflation are effected by an injector driven by -compressed oxygen; this alternately drives fresh air enriched -with oxygen into the lungs and then by suction empties them -again. While with the mechanical appliances of resuscitation -belonging to older systems the hand of the helper regulated the -rate of breathing, in the case of the Pulmotor the lungs, -according to their size, automatically fix the rate of breathing; -as soon as the lungs are filled the apparatus of its own accord -marks the moment for ‘deflation,’ and as soon as they are -emptied of ‘inflation.’ This automatic reversal is effected by -a little bellows which is connected with the air tubes. During -inflation the same pressure is exerted in the bellows as in the -lungs. As soon as the lungs are filled, the pressure in the -bellows increases and it expands, its forward movement causing -the reversal to deflation. When the lungs are emptied the -bellows contracts, and through this contraction results the -reversal to inflation.</p> - -<p>If, in an exceptional case, the breathing for some reason -does not act automatically, the hand of the helper can -manipulate it by means of a backward and forward movement -of a lever. According to choice, either a nose-mask or a mask -covering both mouth and nose can be worn.</p> - -<p>Combined with the regular apparatus for resuscitation is an -ordinary apparatus for the inhalation of oxygen; by the simple -altering of a lever, either the one or the other can be employed.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[169]</a></span></p> - -<h3 id="II_INDUSTRIAL_POISONING_IN_PARTICULAR_INDUSTRIES">II. INDUSTRIAL POISONING IN PARTICULAR INDUSTRIES</h3> - -<p>After the foregoing general remarks we may now consider -various points of view in regard to classification of industrial -poisonings into groups:</p> - -<div class="blockquote"> - -<p>(1) Toxicological, based on the action of the poisons.</p> - -<p>(2) Chemical, based on the chemical composition of the -poisons.</p> - -<p>(3) Physical, based on the varying density of the poisons. -(Division into solid (in form of dust), gaseous, and -liquid poisons.)</p> - -</div> - -<p>To which may be added:</p> - -<div class="blockquote"> - -<p>(4) Classification according to the source of the poisoning -and therefore according to industry, upon which -Part I is mainly based.</p> - -</div> - -<p>In this section (Part II) a system is adopted which takes -into consideration as far as possible all the principles of -division mentioned above, in order to classify industrial -poisonous substances in such a manner that general practical -conclusions can be clearly drawn, and supervision rendered -easy.</p> - -<h4><i>GROUP: MINERAL ACIDS, HALOGENS, INORGANIC -HALOGEN COMPOUNDS, ALKALIS</i></h4> - -<p>Common to this group is a strong corrosive and irritant -effect, varying however in degree; as gases this group corrode -or inflame the mucous membrane of the respiratory passages, -and in liquid form or in solution, the skin.</p> - -<p>Besides this superficial effect single members of this group,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[170]</a></span> -especially those containing nitrogen, produce a remote effect -upon the blood.</p> - -<p>After absorption of the acids a decrease in the alkalinity -of the blood can take place and in its power to take up -carbonic acid, thus vitally affecting the interchange of -gases in the body, and producing symptoms of tissue -suffocation.</p> - -<p>As regards treatment in the case of acids and alkalis, -neutralisation has been already mentioned; further, oxygen -treatment may be recommended in cases where the blood has -been injuriously affected. In cases of poisoning through -breathing in acid vapours, inhalation of extremely rarefied -vapour of ammonia or of a spray of soda solution (about -1 per cent.) is advisable.</p> - -<h5>MINERAL ACIDS</h5> - -<p><b>Hydrochloric Acid</b> (HCl) is a colourless, pungently smelling -gas which gives off strong white fumes. Experiments on -animals, carefully carried out by Leymann, produced the -following symptoms.</p> - -<p>Even in a concentration of 2-5 per thousand clouding of -the cornea ensues, and after about an hour inflammation of -the conjunctiva, violent running from every exposed mucous -membrane with marked reddening, and frequently inflammation -(necrosis) of the septum of the nose; the lungs are distended -with blood, here and there hæmorrhages occur in the -respiratory and also in the digestive tracts. The animal dies -of œdema (swelling) of the lungs and hæmorrhage into the -lungs if exposed long enough to the action of HCl, even -though (according to Lehmann) there may not be accumulation -of HCl in the blood; the chief effect is the irritant -one; 1·5-5 per thousand parts HCl in the air suffices, after -three or four hours’ exposure, to affect smaller animals -(rabbits) so much that they die during the experiment or -shortly after it. Man can tolerate an atmosphere containing -0·1 to 0·2 per thousand HCl; a somewhat greater proportion -of HCl produces bronchial catarrh, cough, &c.</p> - -<p>The solution of hydrochloric acid in water is about 40 per<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[171]</a></span> -cent. Simply wetting the skin with concentrated solution of -hydrochloric acid does not generally have an irritant effect -unless persisted in for some time; the action of the acid, when -continued, has a marked effect upon the mucous membranes -and upon the eyes.</p> - -<p>The same treatment already recommended in the introductory -remarks on poisoning by inhalation of acid fumes in -general applies.</p> - -<p><b>Hydrofluoric Acid</b> (HFl), a pungently smelling, colourless -gas, causes even in weak solutions (0·02 per cent.) irritant -symptoms (catarrh of the mucous membrane of the respiratory -organs, lachrymation, &c.). Stronger solutions set up -obstinate ulcers, difficult to heal, in the mucous membrane -and the skin.</p> - -<p><b>Silico-fluoric Acid</b> (H₂SiFl₆) produces an analogous though -somewhat less marked corrosive action.</p> - -<p>As regards treatment the reader is again referred to the -introductory sentences on this group.</p> - -<p><b>Sulphur Dioxide</b> (SO₂) is a colourless, pungently smelling -gas which, acting in low concentration or for a short period, -causes cough and irritation of the mucous membrane of the -respiratory passages and of the eyes; acting for a longer -period, it sets up inflammation of the mucous membrane, -bronchial catarrh, expectoration of blood, and inflammation -of the lungs.</p> - -<p>As Ogata and Lehmann have proved by experiments—some -of them made on man—a proportion of 0·03-0·04 per thousand -of sulphur dioxide in the air has a serious effect on a person -unaccustomed to it, while workmen used to this gas can -tolerate it easily.</p> - -<p>As sulphur dioxide probably does not affect the blood, -treatment by oxygen inhalation is useless. Otherwise the -treatment spoken of as applying to acid poisonings in general -holds good.</p> - -<p><b>Sulphuric Acid</b> (H₂SO₄). Concentrated sulphuric acid occasionally -splashes into the eye or wets the skin, causing severe -irritation and corrosion, unless the liquid is quickly washed -off or neutralised. If the action of the acid persists, the corrosive -effect becomes deepseated and leads to disfiguring scars.</p> - -<p><b>Nitrous Fumes, Nitric Acid.</b>—Nitric oxide (NO) oxidises in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[172]</a></span> -air with formation of red fumes composed of nitrogen trioxide -(N₂O₃) and nitrogen peroxide (NO₂). These oxides are contained -in the gases evolved from fuming nitric acid and where nitric -acid acts upon metals, organic substances, &c.</p> - -<p>Industrial poisoning by nitrous fumes is dangerous; unfortunately -it frequently occurs and often runs a severe, even -fatal, course; sometimes numerous workers are poisoned -simultaneously. The main reason why nitrous fumes are so -dangerous is because their effect, like that of most other -irritant gases, is not shown at once in symptoms of irritation, -such as cough, cramp of the glottis, &c., which would at -least serve as a warning to the affected person; on the contrary, -generally no effect at all is felt at first, especially if the -fumes are not very concentrated. Symptoms of irritation -usually appear only after some hours’ stay in the poisonous -atmosphere. By this time a relatively large quantity of the -poisonous gas has been absorbed, and the remote effect on the -blood induced.</p> - -<p>The first symptoms of irritation (cough, difficulty of -breathing, nausea, &c.) generally disappear when the affected -person leaves the charged atmosphere, and he then often -passes several hours without symptoms, relatively well. Later -severe symptoms supervene—often rather suddenly—difficulty -of breathing, fits of suffocation, cyanosis, and copious frothy -blood-stained expectoration with symptoms of inflammation -of the bronchial tubes and lungs. These attacks may last a -longer or shorter time, and in severe cases can lead to death; -slight cases end in recovery, without any sequelæ.</p> - -<p>In poisoning by nitrous acid fumes, oxygen inhalation, -if applied in time, undoubtedly holds out hope of success, -and should always be tried. Chloroform has been repeatedly -recommended as a remedy. Probably its inhalation produces -no actual curative effect, but only an abatement of the -symptoms through the narcosis induced.</p> - -<p>Nitric acid (HNO₃) in solution has an irritant corroding -action if, when concentrated, it comes into contact with the -skin or mucous membrane.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[173]</a></span></p> - -<h5>THE HALOGENS (CHLORINE, BROMINE, IODINE)</h5> - -<p>Chlorine (Cl) is a yellow-green, pungently smelling gas, -Bromine (Br) a fuming liquid, and Iodine (I) forms crystals -which volatilise slightly at ordinary temperatures.</p> - -<p>According to Lehmann’s experiments on animals the effect -of chlorine gas and bromine fumes is completely similar. Lehmann -and Binz assume that chlorine has a twofold effect: -(1) narcotic, paralysing the outer membrane of the brain, and -(2) the well-known irritant action upon the mucous membrane, -producing a general catarrh of the air passages, and inflammation -of the lungs; it is, however, only the latter which causes -menace to life. Other writers do not mention the narcotic -effect upon the brain and assume that the halogens when -brought into contact with the mucous membrane are quickly -converted into halogen hydrides, and, as such, produce a corrosive -effect. According to Lehmann, even 0·01 per thousand Cl -or Br in the air is injurious, even 0·1 per thousand produces -ulceration of the mucous membrane, and one or two hours’ exposure -to the poison endangers life. Lehmann has further tested -(on dogs) acclimatisation to chlorine, and finds that after a -month the power of resistance to chlorine appears to be increased -about ten times. In a further series of experiments the same -author has proved that even the smallest quantities of chlorine -present in the atmosphere are completely absorbed in breathing.</p> - -<p>Continued or frequent action of chlorine upon the organism -produces symptoms which have been described as chronic -chlorine poisoning—such as anæmia and indigestion, in -addition to catarrhal and nervous symptoms. Further, in -factories where chlorine is produced by the electrolytic process, -workers were found to be suffering from the so-called chlorine -rash (first observed by Herxheimer). This skin disease consists -in an inflammation of the glands of the skin, with occasional -development of ulcers and scars. Severe cases are accompanied -by digestive disturbance. Bettmann, Lehmann, and -others maintain that it is not caused by chlorine alone, -but by chlorinated tar products, which are formed in the -production of chlorine and hydrochloric acid.</p> - -<p>In acute cases of chlorine poisoning oxygen treatment should -be tried, but in any case the patient should have free access to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[174]</a></span> -pure air. Approved remedies are inhalation of soda spray or -very dilute ammonia, or of a vapourised solution of sodium -hypochlorite. If the patient is in great pain, he may be -allowed to inhale cocaine solution (0·2 per cent.).</p> - -<p>The administration of arsenic (solutio arsenicalis) is recommended, -especially in cases of acne. In general the usual -treatment for diseases of the skin is followed; salicylic -acid lotions, sulphur baths, and sulphur ointments may be -made use of.</p> - -<p><b>Chlorides.</b>—<i>Chlorides of Phosphorus</i>, <i>Phosphorus-trichloride</i> -(PCl₃), and <i>Phosphorus oxychloride</i> (POCl₃), are strong-smelling -liquids, fuming in the air, and when brought -into contact with water decomposing into phosphorous -acid and hydrochloric acid. These halogen compounds of -phosphorus have a violently irritant action upon the respiratory -organs and the eyes, in that they decompose on the mucous -membrane into hydrochloric acid and an oxyacid of phosphorus. -Inhalation of the fumes of these compounds causes -cough, difficulty of breathing, inflammation of the respiratory -passages, and blood-stained expectoration.</p> - -<p>Treatment is similar to that for acid poisoning in general -and hydrochloric acid in particular.</p> - -<p>Similar to that of the chlorides of phosphorus is the action -of <i>chlorides of sulphur</i>, of which <i>sulphur monochloride</i> (S₂Cl)₂ -is of industrial hygienic importance as it is employed in the -vulcanising of indiarubber. It is a brown, oily, fuming liquid, -which, mixed with water or even in damp air, decomposes into -sulphur dioxide and hydrochloric acid. The fumes of sulphur -monochloride have therefore a marked irritant effect, like -that of hydrochloric acid and sulphur dioxide. The action of -sulphur chloride was thoroughly studied by Lehmann. Industrial -poisoning by sulphur chloride is mentioned by Leymann -and also in the reports of the Prussian factory inspectors for -1897. The latter case ended fatally owing to the ignorance of -the would-be rescuers: a workman had spilt trichloride of -phosphorus upon his clothes, and the by-standers, not knowing -its dangerous action when combined with water, poured water -on him.</p> - -<p>Treatment is similar to that of poisoning from hydrochloric -acid or sulphur dioxide.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[175]</a></span></p> - -<p><i>Chloride of zinc</i> (zinc chloride, ZnCl₂) likewise has corroding -and irritant action upon the mucous membrane of the -respiratory organs.</p> - -<h5>AMMONIA</h5> - -<p>Ammonia (NH₃) is a colourless, pungent-smelling gas which -dissolves to the extent of about 33 per cent. in water. Inhaled, -it first produces violent reflex coughing, then irritation -and corrosion of the mucous membrane of the respiratory -organs, and finally death through suffocation (spasm of the -glottis) if exposure to its action has lasted a sufficiently long -time. Microscopic sections exhibit a diphtheritic appearance -of the mucous membrane, and inflammation of the lungs. The -effects upon the central nervous system (irritation of the -medulla and spinal cord) which are peculiar to ammonia -compounds need not be considered, as the corrosion of the -respiratory passage is sufficient alone to cause death. When -the action of the gas is less intense, the patient rallies from the -first stage, but often severe symptoms come on later affecting -the lungs.</p> - -<p>Lehmann in experiments upon himself could tolerate as -much as 0·33 per thousand NH₃ for thirty minutes; he found -in gas works (with fairly marked odour) hardly more than -0·1 per thousand NH₃ in the atmosphere, and considers 0·5 -per thousand distinct evidence of excess. He found that he -could produce in dogs acclimatisation up to 1·0 per thousand -NH₃ (five times as much as could at first be borne). About 88 -per cent. of the ammonia contained in the air is absorbed -in breathing; ammonia is said to exercise also a reducing -action upon the oxygen of the blood (oxyhæmoglobin).</p> - -<p>Chronic poisoning by ammonia can hardly be said to occur. -In those who clean out sewers and drains, the inflammation -of the eyes and digestive disturbance attributed partly to -ammonia are probably due more to the action of sulphur -compounds—ammonium sulphide and sulphuretted hydrogen. -Irritation due to solution of ammonia does not come into -account in industrial employment.</p> - -<p>As regards treatment, fresh air or administration of oxygen -is most likely to be successful. Inhalation also of very dilute<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[176]</a></span> -acetic acid vapour, steam, or spray of sodium carbonate is -advocated.</p> - -<h5>ALKALIS</h5> - -<p>The alkaline hydroxides (potassium and sodium hydroxide, -KOH, NaOH) have an albumen-dissolving and therefore -caustic effect. Industrially it occurs in the caustic action of -concentrated (often hot) lyes upon the skin or upon the eye—through -splashing. Quicklime (CaO) has also a caustic -action, producing inflammation of the skin or eyes (especially -in those engaged in the preparation of mortar).</p> - -<p>Under this head comes also the effect upon the respiratory -passages—described by several authors—caused in the production -of artificial manure discussed at length in Part I.</p> - -<p>As regards treatment of the irritant effect of alkalis, what -has been said as to corrosives in general applies here (rinsing -with water or weak organic acids), and in inflammation of the -eye caused by lime a drop of castor oil is recommended.</p> - -<h4><i>GROUP: METALS AND METAL-COMPOUNDS</i></h4> - -<p>The various substances of this group differ markedly -in their action. Under this heading come principally -chronic metal poisonings, characterised by a general, often -very intense, disturbance of nutrition, which justifies their -delineation as ‘metabolic poisons’; among these poisons also -are included certain others which produce chronic poisoning -accompanied by severe disturbance of the peripheral and -central nervous system.</p> - -<p>The corrosive action common to the metal oxides (when -acting in a concentrated condition), attributable to the -formation of insoluble albuminates, need not, in industrial -poisoning, be taken so much into account. The corrosive -effect is characteristic only of the compounds, especially of -the acid salts of chromium, which, as an acid-forming element, -may be classed in the preceding group. Disturbance of health -in workmen handling nickel compounds are also ascribed to -the corrosive action of these substances.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[177]</a></span></p> - -<h5>LEAD, LEAD COMPOUNDS</h5> - -<p>Lead poisoning is the most frequent and important chronic -industrial poisoning; the symptoms are very varied and -associated with the most different groups of organs. We shall -describe the typical course of a case of industrial lead poisoning, -laying stress, however, on the fact that numerous cases -follow an irregular course, in that special symptoms or complications -of symptoms are in some especially accentuated, while -in others they become less marked or are absent altogether.</p> - -<p>A premonitory indication of chronic lead poisoning is a -blue line on the gum, indicated by a slate gray or bluish black -edging to the teeth, the appearance of which is usually accompanied -by an unpleasant sweetish taste in the mouth. The -cause of this blue line was for some time disputed. It is -obviously due to the formation and deposit of sulphide of lead -through the action of sulphuretted hydrogen arising from -decomposition in the mouth cavity. At the same time a -general feeling of malaise and weakness often comes on, -occasionally accompanied by tremor of the muscles and -disinclination for food, at which stage the sufferer consults the -doctor. Frequently he complains also of pains in the stomach, -not difficult to distinguish from the lead colic to be described -later. Usually the patient already exhibits at this stage -general emaciation and marked pallor.</p> - -<p>The blue line was formerly considered a characteristic early -indication of lead poisoning; but it has now been proved that -occasionally it is absent even in severe attacks. But although -the blue line may fail as an ‘initial symptom,’ it will nevertheless -be a valuable aid to the practitioner in the recognition -of lead poisoning. It is worth while to mention the fact that -other metallic poisons produce a very similar ‘line,’ especially -mercury, also iron and silver (as in the case of argyria); it has -been stated that the blue line can be simulated by particles -of charcoal on the gum. The pallor of the patient at the commencement -of lead poisoning drew attention to the condition -of the blood. The diminution in the amount of hæmoglobin -often met with, which under certain circumstances is accompanied<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[178]</a></span> -by diminution of the red blood cells, offers nothing -characteristic. On the other hand, structural changes in the -red blood cells—presence of basophil granules in them—are -asserted by a number of writers to be characteristic of the first -stages of lead poisoning. The basophil granules are believed -to be due to regenerative changes in the nucleus. But these -changes are also found in pernicious anæmia, cancer, leucæmia, -anæmia, tuberculosis, &c.; also in a number of poisonings such -as phenylhydrazine, dinitrobenzene, corrosive sublimate, and -others; they are therefore the less characteristic of chronic -lead poisoning, as occasionally they cannot be found in actual -lead poisoning, a point upon which I have convinced myself -in the case both of men and animals. Still, the appearance of -much basophilia in the red blood cells is a valuable aid to -diagnosis, especially as the method of staining to demonstrate -them is simple.</p> - -<p>Other anomalies of the blood observed in lead poisoning -may here be mentioned. Glibert found a striking diminution -in the elasticity of the red blood corpuscles, and experiments -I have made point to the fact that the power of resistance -of the red blood corpuscles to chemically acting hæmolytic -agents, such as decinormal soda solution, is considerably -reduced.</p> - -<p>The pulse is generally hard and of high tension, especially -during the attacks of colic. Further, cramp of the bloodvessels -(also in the retinal arteries) has been observed. To -these functional disturbances in the circulation are added -sometimes definite changes in the vessel wall. Later, -obliterative arteritis comes on (in the brain arteries), and -arteriosclerosis.</p> - -<p>The most important symptom of fully developed lead -poisoning is colic, which is usually preceded by the initial -symptoms described (especially the gastric symptoms), but not -always so, as occasionally colic sets in without any warning. -The colic pains often set in with marked vehemence. They -radiate from the navel on all sides, even through the whole -body; the abdomen is contracted and as hard as a board. -Pressure on the lower part diminishes the pain somewhat, -so that the sufferer often involuntarily lies flat on his<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[179]</a></span> -stomach. During the attack the pulse is often remarkably -slow. Constipation occurs, and often does not yield to purgatives. -The attacks last sometimes for hours, occasionally for -days, or the pains can (with remissions) even distress the -patient for weeks. The frequency of attacks is also very -variable. Occasionally one attack follows another, often -there are intervals of weeks, even years, according to the -severity of the poisoning and duration of exposure. If the -patient is removed from the injurious action of lead, as a rule -recovery soon ensues.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;" id="fig34"> - -<img src="images/fig34.jpg" width="400" height="375" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 34.</span>—Paralysis of the Ulnar Nerve in Lead Poisoning</p> - -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;" id="fig34a"> - -<img src="images/fig34a.jpg" width="500" height="400" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 34a.</span>—Different Types of Paralysis of the Radial Nerve in Hungarian Potters -poisoned by Lead (<i>after Chyzer</i>)</p> - -</div> - -<p>Often with the colic, or at any rate shortly after it, appear -lead tremor and arthralgia, paroxysmal pain mostly affecting -the joints, but occasionally also the muscles and bones. They -are often the precursor of severe nervous symptoms which -affect the peripheral and central nervous system. In a lead -poisoning case running a typical course the predominant -feature is the peripheral motor paralysis of the extensors of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[180]</a></span> -the forearms. Next the muscles supplied by the radial and -ulnar nerves are affected. Often the progress of the paralysis -is typical; it begins with paralysis of the extensor digitorum -communis, passes on to the remaining extensors, then to the -abductor muscles of the hand; the supinator longus and triceps -escape. Sometimes the shoulder muscles are attacked; -also paralysis in the region supplied by the facial nerve and -of the lower extremities is observed. It appears plausible -that overstrain of single groups of muscles plays a decisive -part; this seems proved by the fact that paralysis first affects, -among right-handed people, the right hand (especially of -painters), but in the case of left-handed, the left hand; -and among children the lower extremities are often attacked -first. Disturbance of sight increasing to amaurosis is often -an indication of severe brain symptoms. The view of some -writers that the cause of the sight disturbance lies in vasomotor<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[181]</a></span> -influences (cramp of the bloodvessels) is very probable, -and supports the view that the brain symptoms are entirely -due to diseases of the arteries (arteritis). These symptoms -are distinguished by the collective name of saturnine -encephalopathy; they include apoplexy, hemiplegia, epilepsy, -delirium, and mania. The brain symptoms may cause death.</p> - -<p>As later symptoms of lead poisoning may be mentioned -lead gout and kidney disease (lead nephritis). The genesis of -both these diseases is much disputed. It seems to be proved -that the gout is true gout (with presence of tophi) and that the -contracted kidney is indistinguishable from ordinary chronic -Bright’s disease.</p> - -<p>The kidney symptoms suggest that a regular excretion of -lead through the urine takes place which, if it were a fact, -would have been an important aid to diagnosis. But often -analysis of urine for presence of lead is negative. Excretion of -lead by the skin is scarcely to be credited, although occasionally -affirmed. Elimination of lead is effected mainly through -the intestines (probably for the most part as sulphide of -lead).</p> - -<p>All lead compounds more or less are to be regarded as poisonous, -although the intensity of the action depends on the amount -absorbed. For this its solubility in water or in weak acids -(hydrochloric acid of the gastric juice) is the simplest test. -According to this acetate of lead, lead chloride, carbonate -of lead (white lead), oxide of lead (lead dross), minium -(red oxide of lead) are relatively the most poisonous. Lead -sulphate and lead iodide are to be regarded as relatively less -poisonous, although by no means innocuous. The least -poisonous, if not altogether innocuous, is sulphide of lead, -because it is an insoluble lead compound.</p> - -<p>Treatment of lead poisoning ought to aim first and foremost -at the elimination of lead from the body. But unfortunately -such attempts have had little success. Treatment of symptoms -is all that for the most part is possible. Administration of -iodide of potassium to assist the excretion of lead has not been -found the success which many anticipated. This remedy -however, can be tried; better results are to be expected -from careful regulation of the bowels by means of purgatives.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[182]</a></span> -During colic administration of opium or morphia may be -advisable to relieve pain and overcome the probable cramp -of the intestinal muscles. The cautious administration of -atropine (occasionally with cocaine) also serves the same -purpose. Hot compresses and mustard plasters may be -applied, and liquid diet should be given. Lead cachexia -must be treated by strengthening diet. Electrical treatment -for lead paralysis is advocated. From baths (sulphur baths) -nothing more is to be expected than a bracing effect—elimination -of lead through increased diaphoresis is hardly to be -hoped for.</p> - -<h5>ZINC (ZINC ALLOYS)</h5> - -<p>Zinc (Zn) melts at 412° C. and distills at about 900° C.; -exposed to the air it burns, when heated, into zinc oxide. -Older writers, when investigating gastric and intestinal diseases -and affections of the nervous system observed in zinc smelters, -regarded them as the result of chronic zinc poisoning; but it -may now be accepted as certain that these symptoms are due -to the lead always present in the zinc.</p> - -<p>On the other hand so-called <i>brass-founders’ ague</i> may be -regarded as a form of acute industrial zinc poisoning. Brass-founders’ -ague occurs exclusively in brass casters, and not in -zinc workers. Sigel and Lehmann have shown that founders’ -ague is also caused by pure zinc if this is heated so strongly -that it burns.</p> - -<p>Premonitory symptoms often occur before the onset of -the disease; usually they appear early, soon after casting -has begun. The workman has general malaise accompanied -by slight cough, nausea, throat irritation, &c., but these -symptoms mostly disappear, returning again after a few hours -with renewed violence, often in the evening before going to -bed. Frequently, trembling sets in rather suddenly, often -accompanied by headache, nausea, and muscular pains, and -soon develops into a pronounced shivering fit, lasting -generally about a quarter of an hour, but in severe cases -for several hours (with intervals). At the same time -the breathing is hurried and the heart’s action quickened<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[183]</a></span> -(asthma and palpitation). Often the temperature rises as -high as 104° F. The attack ends with profuse perspiration, -and the patient sinks exhausted to sleep, awaking in the -morning generally quite restored or with but slight signs of -fatigue; only rarely is he unable to resume work.</p> - -<p>It is noteworthy that some workmen are extraordinarily -susceptible to brass-founders’ ague, and are attacked again -and again, while others remain completely immune, so that -idiosyncrasy and immunity both play a part. Workmen -who are susceptible to the disease, yet without marked disposition -(idiosyncrasy) towards it, can become acclimatised -to the poison. Lehmann has succeeded in artificially producing -an attack in a brass-caster who was highly susceptible. -The symptoms in him were the result of work with pure zinc -in a burning condition. The proof, therefore, is clear that -brass-founders’ ague is due to zinc, and not, as some authors -have supposed, to copper or the simultaneous action of both -metals. The symptoms are produced through inhalation of -zinc oxide, not zinc fumes.</p> - -<p>Lehmann conjectures that brass-founders’ ague may be a -secondary fever due to absorption into the system of the remains -of cells in the respiratory tract that have been killed by the -action of the zinc.</p> - -<p>The treatment can only be symptomatic; as the attack -is so transient, medical attendance is hardly necessary.</p> - -<h5>MERCURY, MERCURY COMPOUNDS</h5> - -<p>Mercury (Hg), on account of its volatility, is classed -among industrial poisons. Although boiling at 360° C. it is -volatile even at ordinary temperature. Industrial mercurial -poisoning is caused by the frequent inhalation of small quantities -of vapour, sometimes, but more rarely, of dust containing -mercury, and assumes usually a chronic form.</p> - -<p>Industrial mercurial poisoning often begins with inflammation -of the mucous membrane of the mouth and gums. -There is increased flow of saliva, a disagreeable metallic -taste in the mouth, and foul breath. This may be limited -to a simple inflammation of the gum, or go on to ulceration<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[184]</a></span> -with falling out of teeth, or even to gangrene of the gum -and mucous membrane inside the mouth. Gastric attacks -also occur in the early stages; occasionally, however, they -are absent.</p> - -<p>The main symptoms of chronic mercurial poisoning are -nervous and psychical derangement, to which in severe cases -are added general disturbance of digestion and loss of strength.</p> - -<p>Sometimes, after repeated attacks, more or less severe, -a cachectic condition is induced, showing itself in general -emaciation, decrease of strength, atrophy of the muscles, -anæmia, and disturbed digestion, which—often intensified -by some intercurrent disease, such as tuberculosis—lead to -death. Slight cases of mercurialism recover, leaving no evil -results, if the patient is removed in time from the influence -of the poison.</p> - -<p>The treatment of chronic mercury poisoning is symptomatic. -To allay the inflammation of the mucous membrane of the -mouth the patient should use a mouth wash of potassium -chlorate and peroxide of hydrogen; the general condition -should be raised by strengthening, unstimulating food; for -the nervous symptoms baths and electricity should be tried; -and for very marked erythism and tremor recourse to narcotics -may be necessary.</p> - -<p>Industrial mercurial poisoning is produced not only by -metallic mercury but also by many compounds, of which -industrially the oxides are the most important. Nitrate of -mercury (Hg₂(NO₃)₂) comes into account in the treatment of -fur. Mercury cyanide (HgCy₂) deserves mention, as small -quantities cause mercurial and large quantities cyanogen -poisoning.</p> - -<h5>MANGANESE, MANGANESE COMPOUNDS</h5> - -<p>Manganese (Mn) or manganese compounds are used -industrially in fine powder; continuous absorption of dust -containing manganese produces chronic manganese poisoning. -Instances of such poisoning are not very numerous; altogether -about twenty cases have been described. Recent publications -agree in asserting that only the dust rich in manganese -protoxide is dangerous.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[185]</a></span></p> - -<p>Industrial manganese poisoning runs its course extraordinarily -slowly, and resembles chronic poisoning by other -heavy metals, such as lead and mercury, in that nervous and -psychical symptoms, rather than digestive, are prominent. -Sometimes—but not always—the disease is introduced or -accompanied by psychical symptoms, both of excitement and -depression (hilarity, laughing, or depression and weeping). -In the course of the disease nervous disturbances arise, deafness, -tingling, paralysis and paræsthesia, in the arms and legs, -giddiness, difficulty of walking, tremor, increased knee-jerks -and difficulty in speech. Often at the same time swelling of -the lower extremities (œdema) and loss of strength (cachexia, -marasmus) come on. Slight cases make a good recovery. -An interesting case of illness is described by Jaksch as manganophobia, -in which the symptoms were simulated, and -were brought on solely by the fear of manganese poisoning.</p> - -<p>As regards treatment, electricity, massage, and baths are -advocated to allay the nervous symptoms, as in the case of -chronic metal poisoning and suitable strengthening food.</p> - -<h5>CHROMIUM, CHROME COMPOUNDS</h5> - -<p>Chromium trioxide (CrO₃) dissolves in water, forming -chromic acid (H₂CrO₄); of the salts of chromic acid the -neutral and acid alkaline salts concern our inquiry. These -are normal and acid sodium or potassium chromate (K₂CrO₄ -and K₂Cr₂O₇). Chromate of lead (PbCrO₄) can cause lead -poisoning.</p> - -<p>Poisoning can be produced by dust and by alkaline -chromates, the latter, when hot, giving off steam which, as -has been proved, contains excessively fine chrome particles. -Chrome compounds attack especially the surface of the body, -the skin and the mucous membrane.</p> - -<p>The bichromate and chromate dust produce ulcers where -slight injuries to the skin already exist. The ulcers develop -slowly, and have a smooth, heaped-up, undermined edge; -deep-seated, they can even pierce to the bone; they heal with -great difficulty. Naturally they occur most frequently on the -uncovered parts of the body, especially on the arms and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[186]</a></span> -hands. Characteristic also is an analogous ulceration attacking -the mucous membrane of the nose, from which hardly any -chrome worker (especially if brought into contact with -chromate dust) is free. Perforation and destruction of the -cartilaginous septum of the nose is very common. Ulcers -on the mucous membrane at the entrance of the throat (on -tonsils and palate or in the larynx) have been occasionally -observed.</p> - -<p>Absorption of small quantities of chrome compounds into -the body are said to cause disturbances of digestion of an -inflammatory character, and especially inflammation of the -kidneys.</p> - -<p>The treatment of chrome ulcers is similar to that of other -chronic ulcers. An antidote for industrial chrome poisoning is -not known.</p> - -<h5>OTHER METALS AND METAL COMPOUNDS</h5> - -<p><b>Nickel Salts.</b>—Of late years in nickel-plating establishments -an eczematous inflammation of the skin has been described -affecting first of all the hands, and occasionally spreading over -the arms and even the whole body. The skin becomes inflamed, -and vesicles appear on the affected part. Some persons are -extraordinarily susceptible to this disease, others only become -so after having worked for years quite unaffected, and are then -obliged to give up their occupation. Probably the action of -nickel salts (especially nickel sulphate) used in electrolytic baths -causes the disease. But it was in fact traced by several writers -to contact with benzene, petroleum, and lime by the workmen. -The simultaneous action of these substances upon the skin -would no doubt encourage its appearance. The application -to the skin of vaseline or cream is recommended. Careful -cleanliness and attention to the skin is on the whole by far -the most reliable protection.</p> - -<p>[<b>Nickel carbonyl</b> (Ni(CO)₄).—Mond, Langer, and Quincke -in 1890 discovered that, on passing a current of carbon -monoxide over finely divided (pyrophoric) metallic nickel, a -gaseous compound of nickel and carbon monoxide was formed. -When heated to 150° C. the gas decomposes into its constituents -and metallic nickel is deposited.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[187]</a></span></p> - -<p>Nickel carbonyl is a clear, pale straw-coloured liquid, -volatilising at room temperature. It has a peculiar soot-like -smell detectable when present to the extent of about 1 vol. in -2,000,000, while the Bunsen flame becomes luminous when -nickel carbonyl is present in the air to the extent of 1 vol. in -400,000—two facts of great importance in detecting escape -of the gas in the manufacture of pure nickel by the Mond -process.</p> - -<p><i>Occurrence of poisoning by nickel carbonyl.</i>—At the first -introduction of the process about 1902, before the dangerous -properties of the gas had been sufficiently recognised, some -twenty-five men were poisoned, of whom three died. Poisoning -only occurred when, as a result of the breakdown of the automatic -working of the plant, hand labour took the place of -machinery.</p> - -<p>This very rare form of poisoning has been very fully investigated -by H. W. Armit (<i>Journ. of Hygiene</i>, 1907, p. 526, and -1908, p. 565). The symptoms in man, he says, were transient -headache and giddiness and at times dyspnœa, quickly passing -off on removal to fresh air. After from twelve to thirty-six -hours the dyspnœa returned, cyanosis appeared, and the -temperature began to be raised. Cough with more or less -blood-stained sputum appeared on the second day. The -pulse rate became increased, but not in proportion to the -respiratory rate. The heart remained normal. Delirium of -varying types frequently occurred. Death took place in the -fatal cases between the fourth and eleventh days. The chief -changes found post mortem were hæmorrhages in the lungs, -œdema of the lungs, and hæmorrhages in the white matter of the -brain, while some doubt exists as to whether any blood changes -were present.</p> - -<p>Precisely analogous results were found in experiments on -animals (rabbits, cats, and dogs).</p> - -<p>The points Armit investigated experimentally were (1) Is the -carbon monoxide of the compound wholly or partly responsible -for the symptoms, or (2), is nickel carbonyl absorbed as such, -or (3), is it the nickel of the compound which produces the -symptoms? His conclusions are that the poisonous effects -of nickel carbonyl are entirely due to the nickel of the -compound. The peculiar toxicity is due to the fact that,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[188]</a></span> -being introduced in a gaseous form, the nickel is deposited -as a slightly soluble compound in a very fine state of subdivision -over the immense area of the respiratory surface. -Nickel carbonyl when mixed with air cannot be absorbed as -such by an animal as it becomes split up into the nickel containing -substance (possibly hydrated basic carbonate of nickel) -and carbon monoxide before or soon after reaching the alveoli -of the lungs. The nickel is dissolved from the respiratory -surface by the tissue fluids and is then taken up by the blood. -The hæmorrhages found after death follow as the result of fatty -degeneration of the vessel walls which is the specific pathological -change set up by nickel.]</p> - -<p><b>Copper.</b>—Symptoms which have been described by some -writers as chronic industrial copper poisoning are probably -due to admixtures of other poisonous metals, especially lead -and arsenic. Although some copper workers, especially those -careless of cleanliness, exhibit hair and teeth coloured by the -action of copper compounds (green tinge on hair and edge -of teeth), symptoms of illness traceable to copper are not -demonstrable.</p> - -<p><i>Brass-founders’ fever</i>, which by some earlier writers was -ascribed to copper or combined copper and zinc action, is -traceable to zinc (see Zinc).</p> - -<p><b>Ferro-silicon.</b>—The illnesses due to this are phosphoretted -or arseniuretted hydrogen poisoning (see pp. <a href="#Page_191">191</a> and <a href="#Page_197">197</a>).</p> - -<p><b>Silver and Silver Compounds.</b>—Gradual absorption of small -quantities of a solution of silver may produce industrial -argyria, often beginning with the appearance of a black -edge to the gums and darkening of the hair and nails, -followed by black spots on the skin which in severe cases -coalesce, so that the whole or almost the whole surface of the -body becomes black and glossy.</p> - -<p>Argyria is due to the absorption of silver compounds -into the circulation, and subsequent deposition of the reduced -silver in the body (liver, kidneys, spinal cord, &c.). The -black colouring of the skin is caused by the action of light.</p> - -<p>No interference with health worth mentioning is observed.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[189]</a></span></p> - -<h4><i>GROUP: ARSENIC, PHOSPHORUS</i></h4> - -<p>The poisons (gradually absorbed) belonging to this group -are mainly such as affect metabolism; they impair the -processes essential to metabolism (in especial the oxidation -processes) and cause severe damage to the cells, through -destruction of albumen. The poisons of this group also have -a paralysing effect upon the central nervous system.</p> - -<p>Generally speaking the effects produced by the poisons of -this group vary considerably. Among the arsenic compounds -arseniuretted hydrogen, which is supremely a blood poison, -must be excluded from the group and included among the -blood poisons.</p> - -<h5>ARSENIC, OXIDES OF ARSENIC</h5> - -<p>Pure <i>metallic arsenic</i> (As) is considered innocuous. <i>Oxides -of arsenic</i> especially are held to be industrial poisons such as -arsenic trioxide (As₂O₃), the anhydride of arsenious acid -(H₃AsO₃), a white powder, which is known under the name of -white arsenic; <i>arsenic acid</i> (H₃AsO₄), which forms crystals easily -soluble in water, and the salts of these acids, especially copper -arsenite, formerly employed in the production of dyes, and -also <i>arsenic chloride</i> (arsenic trichloride, AsCl₃). <i>Arseniuretted -hydrogen</i> will be treated separately as it has a completely -different poisonous effect from that of the oxidic compounds of -arsenic. <i>Arsenic sulphides</i> (realgar, AsS₂, and orpiment, AsS₃) -are regarded as innocuous in consequence of their insolubility -in a pure state. But it may be remarked that arsenic sulphides -(sulphur arsenic ores) which are used industrially, and even -metallic arsenic, are to be considered poisonous, as they contain -oxidic arsenic compounds in great quantity.</p> - -<p>Chronic arsenical poisoning is caused by gradual absorption -through the respiratory or digestive tracts of small quantities -of the oxidic arsenic compounds either in solution or as dust -or fumes.</p> - -<p>The disease usually begins with digestive derangement which -shows itself in more or less severe gastric and intestinal catarrh -(loss of appetite, vomiting and diarrhœa); sometimes there<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[190]</a></span> -are severe affections of the respiratory tract,—pharyngeal -and bronchial catarrhs; often the illness is accompanied by -skin affections of various kinds, rashes, pustular eczema, -loosening of the nails, abscesses, dark pigmentation of particular -parts of the skin, and other symptoms. The nervous symptoms -vary much according to the severity of the disease; first of -all, deafness and feeling of pins and needles, or loss of sensation -(paræsthesia and anæsthesia) of the extremities. Further, -rheumatic joint pains, weakness of the extremities and -characteristic symptoms of paralysis occur, with accompanying -atrophy of the muscles, and gradual loss of energy -leading to total incapacity for work. Severe cases end in -general exhaustion and loss of strength, with signs of severe -injury to the central nervous system, such as epileptic fits, -mental hebetude, &c.</p> - -<h5>PHOSPHORUS</h5> - -<p><i>Phosphorus</i> (P) is polymorphic; red (amorphous) phosphorus -is innocuous, while white or yellow is poisonous. -Phosphorus at various stages of oxidation is little if at all -poisonous. White phosphorus is volatile and fumes in the -air—the fumes consisting of phosphorus, phosphoric and -phosphorous acids.</p> - -<p>Chronic industrial phosphorus poisoning is produced by -continued inhalation of the fumes of white phosphorus -resulting in inflammation of the periosteum of the bone, -with which necrosis and formation of new bone are associated. -It attacks especially the lower jawbone (ossifying periostitis). -The inflammation begins with increased flow of saliva, painful -swelling of the gums, which, as it increases, brings about the -death of the jawbone (necrosis, phosphorus necrosis). This -becomes covered again with newly formed bone substance -from the periosteum. The process ends with the formation -of a fistula (a passage filled with pus), which discharges -outwards, and through which the dead bone (sequestrum) is -eventually cast off. Occasionally the process attacks the -upper jaw, rarely other bones.</p> - -<p>With these characteristic symptoms of phosphorus -necrosis, derangement of nutrition together with anæmia,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[191]</a></span> -indigestion and bronchial catarrh, may be associated. Further, -a general brittleness of the bones (fragilitas ossium) is -observed with the result that the long bones of the leg or -arm sometimes break at relatively small exertion of force; -such cases from Bohemia came lately under my notice.</p> - -<p>Some authorities regard caries of the teeth as the pre-disposing -cause of phosphorus necrosis; according to this -view the carious teeth constitute the means of entrance for -the poison. Opposed to this so-called ‘local’ theory is the -view that chronic phosphorus poisoning is a ‘general’ one. -The truth may lie midway. On the one hand phosphorus -necrosis probably arises partly from the general poisonous -action of the phosphorus, and on the other from local -inflammation which leads to the occurrence of local symptoms. -The general symptoms of chronic phosphorus poisoning -described above support this view, especially the effect -observed on the bones of the skeleton. This view is also -strengthened by the fact that workmen with perfectly -sound teeth, who had been exposed to phosphorus fumes -for many years, were attacked by necrosis only when -traumatic inflammation produced by chance injury was set -up.</p> - -<p>The treatment of phosphorus necrosis is surgical. Formerly -the treatment recommended was to wait for formation of new -bone and exfoliation of the dead bone (expectant treatment); -the necrosed portions of bone were then extracted through -the fistula. Recently early operative interference has succeeded -in preserving the periosteum which enabled the new -bone to form.</p> - -<h5>Phosphoretted Hydrogen</h5> - -<p>Industrial poisoning by gaseous phosphoretted hydrogen -(PH₃) calls for attention in connection with the preparation -and employment of calcium carbide (acetylene) and also of -ferro-silicon.</p> - -<p>Phosphoretted hydrogen is a dangerous poison. Even -0·025 per cent. in the air is harmful to animals after a time; -0·2 per cent. PH₃ in the air quickly causes death.</p> - -<p>The poison produces changes in the lungs, though without<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[192]</a></span> -injuring the respiratory passages by corrosion, and finally has -a paralysing effect upon the central nervous system. It has -no effect upon the blood. An autopsy on a person who has -died of phosphoretted hydrogen poisoning reveals as a rule no -characteristic sign, except centres of inflammation in the lungs.</p> - -<p>The symptoms of phosphoretted hydrogen poisoning are—difficulty -of breathing, cough, fainting fits, noises in the ears, -and nausea; in severe cases coma and death. Slight cases -soon recover without after-effects.</p> - -<h4><i>GROUP: SULPHURETTED HYDROGEN, CARBON BISULPHIDE, -AND CYANOGEN (NERVE POISONS)</i></h4> - -<p>In this group are comprised industrial poisons the principal -effect of which is upon the nervous system, especially the central -nervous system. The chemical composition of the separate -members of the group differs much.</p> - -<h5>SULPHURETTED HYDROGEN</h5> - -<p>Industrial poisoning by pure sulphuretted hydrogen (SH₂), -the well-known colourless, nauseous-smelling gas, occurs comparatively -rarely. Poisoning is generally acute, but chronic -illness in workers has been traced back to inhalation of -the gas.</p> - -<p>This poison exerts a paralysing action upon the central -nervous system and is slightly irritating to the mucous membranes -and respiratory organs.</p> - -<p>Its action can be described as follows: When absorbed -into the blood union of the poison with the alkaline constituents -takes place with formation of an alkaline sulphide. Presence -of only slight quantities of sulphuretted hydrogen in the air acts -injuriously. Lehmann has shown that about 0·15 to 0·2 per -thousand sulphuretted hydrogen is not without effect, and that -prolonged inhalation of 0·5 per thousand becomes dangerous. -Continued exposure to the poison seems only to increase -susceptibility to its action. An almost complete absorption -of the whole of the sulphuretted hydrogen present in the air -breathed takes place.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[193]</a></span></p> - -<p>Continued inhalation of small quantities of sulphuretted -hydrogen produces irritation of the mucous membrane, cough, -and lacrymation; headache, giddiness, nausea, and mental -dulness soon ensue; occasionally also symptoms of intestinal -catarrh follow; if at this stage—or after a longer exposure -to the action of a smaller amount—the patient is -withdrawn from its further influence, there still continue -for some time symptoms of irritation of the mucous membrane -(such as inflammation of the conjunctiva and of the -respiratory passages).</p> - -<p>Further exposure or absorption of greater amounts induces -general discomfort and passes on to a second stage of convulsions -and delirium.</p> - -<p>Inhalation of a large dose of sulphuretted hydrogen causes -almost instantaneous death; the affected person falls dead—often -without a sound—as if struck by a blow; occasionally -a short stage of unconsciousness, with symptoms of suffocation, -precede death.</p> - -<p>This acute form often occurs, especially in acute sewer -gas poisoning. Besides this, a sub-acute form of sewer gas -poisoning is recognised which is attributable, in part at least, -to the action of sulphuretted hydrogen, the prominent symptoms -being irritation of the mucous membranes and of the -intestinal canal. In other severe cases symptoms of the central -nervous system preponderate (headache, giddiness, and -delirium). These forms of poisoning can be caused not only -by sulphuretted hydrogen, but also by other poisonous gases -which are found in drains or sewers.</p> - -<p>As regards treatment, continued inhalation of oxygen, -supported by artificial respiration, is often, in serious cases, -effective. In severe poisonings also saline injections and -bleeding may be advocated. Other symptoms (catarrh, &c.) -must be treated symptomatically.</p> - -<h5>CARBON BISULPHIDE</h5> - -<p>Pure carbon bisulphide (CS₂) is a colourless, peculiar-smelling -liquid which boils at 46° C.</p> - -<p>As Lehmann has shown, even 1·5 to 3·0 mg. CS₂ per litre of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[194]</a></span> -air produces distress—with acute symptoms of poisoning -(congestion, giddiness, sickness, &c.).</p> - -<p>Industrial carbon bisulphide poisoning is, however, -chronic in nature and induced by continuous inhalation of -small quantities of the fumes. To understand the action of -carbon bisulphide, its capacity for dissolving fats and fatty -substances must be taken into account. Its injurious effect -extends to the nerve tissues (central and peripheral nervous -system) and the glandular tissues.</p> - -<p>Throughout chronic industrial carbon bisulphide poisoning, -which has been described fully by Delpech, Laudenheimer, and -others, nervous and psychical symptoms predominate, together -with severe chronic digestive derangement.</p> - -<p>The patient after exposure for some time suffers from -violent headache, giddiness, and sickness; he has sensations -of cold, pains in the limbs, a feeling of ‘needles and pins,’ and -itching in different parts of the body. Gradually a condition of -general excitement develops. Sleeplessness, cramps, and palpitation -set in. At the same time the nervous system becomes -involved—hypersensitiveness, loss of sensation or complete -numbness of some parts of the skin, diminution of muscular -power, disturbances of movement, twitching, violent trembling, -wasting of the muscles, and paralysis; the sight also is sometimes -affected. The stage of excitement, in which the patient -often becomes strikingly loquacious without cause, passes -gradually, as the nervous symptoms develop, into the stage -of depression; sometimes this takes weeks and months; -excitement and gaiety give place to deep depression; other -symptoms appear—weakness of memory, mental dulness, -and difficulty in speaking. The powers of sensation become -affected, paralysis increases, and digestive disturbances, -anæmia, and general loss of strength are manifest. Occasionally -definite mental disease (psychosis, mania, melancholia, -dementia, &c.) develops.</p> - -<p>Certain cases of chronic carbon bisulphide poisoning in -indiarubber workers have come under my notice, and some -remarks concerning them may be of interest. The characteristic -symptoms are essentially as follows: the invalid -appears in the consulting-room in a bent position, leaning upon -a stick with head and hands shaking. The gait is clumsy<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[195]</a></span> -(spastic-paralysis) so that the patient ‘steps’ rather than walks. -When seated, the tremor ceases to some extent, but in purposive -movements increases rapidly, involving the whole body, -so that an exact systematic examination becomes impossible, -and the invalid sinks back into the chair exhausted and bathed -in perspiration. He complains of cold in the extremities. He -looks pale; the skin of the upper extremities is totally without -feeling, as also is the upper part of the feet; the skin of the -head is hypersensitive; the muscular strength of the arms -is almost lost; testing the strength brings on marked shaking, -followed by a fainting-fit caused by exhaustion. The -extremities of the patient are cyanotic (livid); the knee -jerks are exaggerated. The patient suffers from indigestion, -constipation, headache, and giddiness; he is irritable, and -depressed; his memory is weak; mental derangement cannot -be proved.</p> - -<p>Chronic carbon bisulphide poisoning is rarely fatal. Slight -cases end in recovery after more or less long continuance; in -severe cases improvement occasionally takes place, but serious -nervous disturbance (paralysis, weakness of the muscles, -deterioration of intellect) usually persists.</p> - -<p>Treatment is symptomatic, aiming especially at relieving -the nervous symptoms and improving the state of nutrition. -If psychical disturbances are prominent, treatment in an -institution is necessary.</p> - -<h5>CYANOGEN AND CYANOGEN COMPOUNDS (CYANOGEN GAS, -PRUSSIC ACID, CYANIDES)</h5> - -<p>Industrial cyanogen poisoning is not frequent. <i>Cyanogen -gas</i> (C₂N₂, existing in small quantities in furnace gas, illuminating -gas, and other kinds of gas) and especially <i>hydrocyanic acid</i> -(CNH, prussic acid) are considered industrial poisons; the -latter is a very unstable, colourless, pungent-smelling liquid, -boiling at 27° C. Among the cyanides employed industrially -and having an effect similar to that of prussic acid must be -mentioned <i>cyanide of potassium</i> and <i>cyanide of sodium</i> (KCN -and NaCN), <i>cyanide of silver</i> (AgCN) and <i>cyanide of mercury</i> -(Hg[CN]₂).</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[196]</a></span></p> - -<p>Cyanogen and cyanogen compounds are extraordinarily -powerful poisons. The minimum dose lies, as Lehmann has -proved by experiments on animals, at about 0·05 per thousand -of hydrocyanic acid in the atmosphere breathed; 1-5 mg. per -kg. weight is fatal to animals; to man about 60 mg. would be -fatal.</p> - -<p>The poisonous action of cyanogen and cyanogen compounds -depends upon their power of preventing absorption of oxygen -from the blood by the tissues with the result that the venous -blood flowing to the heart retains the bright red colour which -otherwise only arterial blood exhibits. This effect is due to -cessation of the gaseous exchange in the body, and results -in tissue suffocation. At the same time these poisons have at -first an exciting and then a paralysing effect upon the central -nervous system. In severe poisoning the nerve effect is -masked by the effect upon the exchange of gases in the blood, -since this quickly leads to death.</p> - -<p>Most of the cases of industrial poisoning under this heading -result from inhalation; absorption of liquid cyanogen -compounds through the skin can rarely come into consideration.</p> - -<p>If large quantities of hydrocyanic acid have been inhaled, -death ensues very quickly. The person affected falls down -suddenly, breathes with difficulty, the pulse soon becomes -imperceptible, and after a more or less long stage of deep -unconsciousness (coma) life becomes extinct.</p> - -<p>In slight cases of poisoning the patient feels a sensation -of irritation in the throat, giddiness, sickness, and difficulty -in breathing; occasionally such disturbances persist for some -time.</p> - -<p>Some writers have described symptoms in workers -manipulating prussic acid and cyanides, which they believe -to be due to chronic prussic acid poisoning. Complaint -is made of oppression of the chest, throat irritation, giddiness, -difficulty in breathing, palpitation, hebetude, exhaustion, -and nausea and vomiting; in certain instances the attack, -aggravated by exhaustion and weakness, culminates in death. -It is a question whether such poisonings are chronic in the -true sense of the word. In view of the mode of action of -hydrocyanic acid, such cases of sickness should rather be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[197]</a></span> -accounted acute or sub-acute poisonings through repeated -action of small quantities of the poison.</p> - -<p>It may be mentioned that in persons working with alkaline -cyanides (especially in electro-plating) skin affections occasionally -occur; these are traceable to the caustic effect of -alkaline cyanides.</p> - -<p>Treatment by oxygen inhalation with simultaneous artificial -respiration holds out most prospect of success. This holds -good for acute poisoning by the other poisons belonging to -this group. Besides this, saline injections and bleeding are -recommended, and also the administration of an infusion of -sodium thiosulphate solution.</p> - -<h4><i>GROUP: ARSENIURETTED HYDROGEN AND -CARBONIC OXIDE (BLOOD POISONS)</i></h4> - -<p>Included in this group, as in the former one, are substances -chemically very different from each other, but of which the -action is especially on the blood. Besides this common -effect, these substances also produce various other effects, such -as local irritation, effect on the nervous system, &c. The -industrial blood poisons, which according to their chemical -constitution are classed among the aliphatic and the aromatic -series of organic compounds, will, for the sake of clearness, -be discussed in the following chapters.</p> - -<h5>ARSENIURETTED HYDROGEN</h5> - -<p>Acute arseniuretted hydrogen poisoning, produced by -inhalation of relatively very small quantities of arseniuretted -hydrogen gas (AsH₃) is in most cases industrial in origin. -The absorption of an amount corresponding to about 0·01 -mg. arsenic suffices to produce severe poisoning symptoms. -The poisonous effect results chiefly from action upon the -red blood corpuscles, which are dissolved (hæmolysis). -Arseniuretted hydrogen is therefore a genuine blood poison. -The effect upon the blood, if not immediately fatal to life, -is to cause the dissolved blood-colouring matter to pass into -the tissues where, though some is deposited, most goes to,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[198]</a></span> -and acts injuriously on, the organs, especially the liver, spleen, -and kidneys. In cases running at once a fatal course, the -impoverishment of the blood caused by the lack of colouring -matter necessary to internal respiration produces tissue -suffocation, which is therefore the primary cause of death. -In cases not immediately fatal, the injury to the functions of -the organs alluded to (for instance, cessation of the functions -of the kidneys, &c.) may lead to death secondarily.</p> - -<p>Symptoms of the disease appear often only some time after -the poisoning has set in, and begin with general malaise, -sickness, collapse, fainting fits, and difficulty of breathing; -after some hours the characteristic signs follow—the urine -becomes dark red to black, containing quantities of blood -colouring matter and dissolved constituents of the blood, -and later also bile colouring matter, so that a coppery -jaundice comes on if the illness is prolonged. The region of -the liver, spleen, and kidneys is painful. Severe cases often -end fatally during the first stage of the illness, more rarely -later, with increased difficulty of breathing; sometimes -death occurs after a preceding comatose stage marked by -convulsions and delirium. In slighter poisoning cases the -symptoms abate in a few days and recovery follows.</p> - -<p>The treatment of arseniuretted hydrogen poisoning is -similar to that adopted in the case of all other blood poisonings: -in addition, if possible, direct transfusion of blood from the -artery of the giver into the vein of the receiver, liquid -nourishment, saline injections, and, above all, prolonged -oxygen inhalation.</p> - -<h5>CARBONIC OXIDE (CO)</h5> - -<p>Carbonic oxide (CO) is a colourless, odourless gas which -frequently causes both acute and, it is said, chronic industrial -poisoning.</p> - -<p>Carbonic oxide is a very poisonous gas; even as little as -0·5 per thousand in the atmosphere breathed has a poisonous -effect; about 2-3 per thousand can be dangerous to life.</p> - -<p>Its poisonous effect results from its power of combining<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[199]</a></span> -with the blood-colouring matter or hæmoglobin to form -carboxy-hæmoglobin; the affinity of carbonic oxide for the -hæmoglobin of the blood is more than 200 times greater than -that of oxygen, so that, however small the amount of -carbonic oxide in the air, it is inevitably absorbed by the -blood and retained. The blood so altered, assumes a cherry-red -colour, is unable to effect the necessary exchange of gases -for internal respiration, and in consequence of the lack of -oxygen suffocation ensues.</p> - -<p>Without doubt, however, carbonic oxide has also an -immediate effect upon the central nervous system (first excitation, -followed quickly by paralysis). It is maintained also -that besides the action upon the hæmoglobin it favours coagulation -of the blood through the disintegration of the blood -corpuscles. The last-mentioned action is thought to account -for the sequelæ of carbonic oxide poisoning, but they can -also naturally be accounted for by the direct effect of the -poison.</p> - -<p>Onset of symptoms is very sudden if a large quantity of -pure carbonic oxide is inhaled. The affected person immediately -falls down unconscious and succumbs after drawing a -few breaths with difficulty.</p> - -<p>In less acute cases the illness begins with premonitory -symptoms, generally headache, sickness, giddiness, sleepiness, -though in cases of fairly rapid absorption these are absent, -and are naturally absent also when the poisoning creeps upon -the affected persons while asleep, as occasionally happens -in cabins, &c., in factories. If the poisoning continues, increasing -mental dulness, accompanied by nausea and vomiting, -leads sometimes to a short stage of seemingly drunken excitement, -which preludes deep unconsciousness during which there -is often a convulsive stage, followed by complete loss both of -sensation and of reflex action; the breathing becomes shallow -and intermittent, the pulse small and irregular, and finally -death ensues. Occasionally in the stage of unconsciousness, -death is hastened by entrance of vomited matter into the -respiratory passages. Bright red patches are seen on the body -after death.</p> - -<p>If persons affected by severe carbonic oxide poisoning<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[200]</a></span> -are withdrawn from the poisonous atmosphere after having -reached the stage of unconsciousness, they may recover, -but often with difficulty; not infrequently—in spite of suitable -treatment—death occurs some considerable time later -from the symptoms described above. Still, in many cases, -under the influence of right treatment, gradual recovery -has been brought about, even after long unconsciousness -accompanied by repeated convulsions. In the rescued the -symptoms described as characteristic of the first stage often -continue for at least a day. Further, they are liable to a -number of serious after effects, such as severe inflammation -of the lungs due to infection by the entrance of vomited -matter into the air passages, skin affections (rashes), -and especially severe nervous and mental affections. Frequently -these develop from centres of softening in the brain -or from inflammation of the peripheral nerves (neuritis); -occasionally the poisoning may really only be the predisposing -cause for the outbreak of an existing psychical disease. It is -not our task to enumerate all the extremely varied disturbances -which are observed after carbonic acid gas poisoning. -Neuralgias and paralyses have been described as associated -with the peripheral nerve symptoms over areas supplied by -different nerves; various forms of diseases of the brain and -spinal cord (poliomyelitis, paralysis, sclerosis, &c.); and finally -a series of psychoses (neurasthenia, melancholia, mania, &c.), -occasionally passing into dementia and imbecility. Glycosuria -(sugar in the urine) has also been noted as a sequela.</p> - -<p>Chronic carbonic oxide poisoning, arising from continued -inhalation of small quantities of the gas, sets in usually -with symptoms similar to those of acute carbonic oxide -poisoning; if the worker continues exposed to danger, severe -symptoms may arise which point to marked alteration of -the blood and later also of the digestion and bodily functions. -Under certain circumstances severe nervous and mental -affections are said to occur similar to those which we have -mentioned as sequelæ of acute carbonic oxide poisoning (convulsions, -disturbances of mental activity, symptoms which -resemble progressive muscular atrophy, &c.).</p> - -<p>In acute carbonic oxide poisoning oxygen inhalation indefatigably -continued and supported by artificial respiration<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[201]</a></span> -is often successful. The serious danger from this form of -poisoning renders it very necessary that in all premises where -there is risk provision should be made for the administration -of oxygen. The sequelæ can of course only be treated -symptomatically.</p> - -<h5>OXYCHLORIDE OF CARBON (PHOSGENE)</h5> - -<p>Oxychloride of carbon (COCl₂), also called phosgene, is, at -the ordinary temperature, a colourless gas with a disagreeable -smell. This decomposes in moist air into carbonic oxide, -hydrochloric acid, or chlorine, and produces a strongly irritant -local effect upon the mucous membranes. Industrial poisoning -by phosgene is characterised by great difficulty in breathing -and inflammation of the respiratory tract (bronchitis and -bloodstained expectoration).</p> - -<p>Several cases have been treated successfully by oxygen -inhalation.</p> - -<h5>NICKEL CARBONYL</h5> - -<p>The effects of nickel carbonyl are described on pp. -<a href="#Page_186">186-8</a>.</p> - -<h5>CARBONIC ACID</h5> - -<p>Carbonic acid (CO₂), a colourless gas, is heavier than air -(specific weight, 1·526), and therefore, wherever it collects, -sinks to the ground. Carbonic acid is only very slightly -poisonous; about 10 per cent. carbonic acid in the air -causes asphyxia. The extinguishing of a candle flame will -serve as an indication that the amount of carbonic acid in -the atmosphere has reached this point. Cases of industrial -carbonic acid asphyxia are sudden; they do not occur -frequently.</p> - -<p>The gradual action of the gas when mixed with air produces -first a tingling sensation on the surface of the body, -reddening of the face, irritation of the mucous membrane -and the respiratory organs, after which succeed difficulty in -breathing, palpitation, fainting, and unconsciousness.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[202]</a></span></p> - -<p>Sudden and fatal poisoning occurs industrially. Upon -entering places filled with carbonic acid gas the affected person -falls down dead almost immediately. These are cases of -asphyxia, in which the lack of oxygen certainly plays the -greatest part. If those affected by acute carbonic acid -poisoning are removed in time out of the dangerous atmosphere -they usually recover quickly.</p> - -<p>Oxygen inhalations and artificial respiration are to be -applied in severer cases. There are no sequelæ.</p> - -<h4><i>GROUP: HYDROCARBONS OF THE ALIPHATIC AND -AROMATIC SERIES AND THEIR HALOGEN AND -HYDROXYL SUBSTITUTION PRODUCTS</i></h4> - -<p>The industrial poisons comprised in this group have as their -principal general effect injurious action upon the functions -of the central nervous system (paralysis or causing excitation) -which is prominent in most of the cases of industrial -poisoning caused by these substances. This effect is most -marked in the case of the readily volatile (low boiling) hydrocarbons, -while those less volatile and boiling at a higher -temperature often have collateral effects (such as local irritation). -The characteristic poisonous effect caused by the -chlorine and hydroxyl-substitution products (chloroform and -alcohol group) is also mainly on the central nervous system -(narcosis).</p> - -<h5>HYDROCARBONS OF MINERAL OIL<br /> -BENZINE, LIGROINE, PETROLEUM, PARAFFIN, VASELINE</h5> - -<p><i>Mineral oil</i> (crude petroleum) has, according to its origin, -differing composition. Thus in American mineral oil hydrocarbons -of the methane series preponderate; in the Russian, -hydrocarbons of the aromatic series. Reference has been -made in Part I. to this point, as well as to the separation of -crude petroleum into its different fractions.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[203]</a></span></p> - -<p>The injury to health produced by crude petroleum and its -derivatives is of two kinds. Direct contact with liquid petroleum -and the semi-liquid and solid deposit after distillation -(paraffin) cause local injury to the skin. Inhalation of the -volatile constituents of raw petroleum causes symptoms -affecting mainly the central nervous system. They have -moreover a markedly irritating effect upon the mucous membrane -of the respiratory organs. These substances clearly -exhibit the characteristic we have referred to, namely, that -the hydrocarbons boiling at low temperature act as nerve -poisons, whereas those boiling at a higher temperature produce -a local irritant effect.</p> - -<p>The skin affections take the form of inflammation of the -hair follicles (acne), eruptions with characteristic formation -of vesicles, and pimples and pustules which precede the deep-seated -formation of ulcers, abscesses, &c.</p> - -<p>In paraffin workers the acne-like skin inflammations are -known as ‘paraffin eczema.’ They develop sometimes into -cancer of the skin (warty and epitheliomatous growths).</p> - -<p>In the general poisoning produced by inhalation of petroleum -fumes the effect upon the central nervous system is all -the more plainly and clearly marked when the irritant effect of -the hydrocarbons boiling at higher temperature is slight or -absent; that is, in the case of poisoning which arises solely -from industrial products of low boiling hydrocarbons; among -these benzine is included.</p> - -<p>Acute poisoning from inhalation of benzine fumes begins -with headache, sickness, and attacks of giddiness resembling -alcoholic intoxication. If very much has been inhaled, the -patient quickly becomes unconscious, with occasionally -muscular tremors, convulsions, difficulty in breathing, and -cyanosis.</p> - -<p>In cases of poisoning by inhalation of fumes of crude petroleum, -these symptoms may be complicated by coughing, -intense inflammation of the mucous membrane of the respiratory -organs—congestion, bronchitis, bloodstained expectoration, -and inflammation of the lungs. In workers who -frequently remain long in an atmosphere filled with benzine -fumes, further symptoms of chronic benzine poisoning show -themselves—mental hebetude, pains in the limbs, trembling,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[204]</a></span> -weakness of the muscles, and other disturbances of the nervous -system; in such cases these may really be signs of continued -attacks of acute or sub-acute poisoning; many benzine -workers are anæmic.</p> - -<p>The treatment of acute benzine poisoning consists in -oxygen inhalation, with simultaneous artificial respiration. -Treatment of chronic derangement of health is symptomatic.</p> - -<h5>HYDROCARBONS OF THE AROMATIC SERIES<br /> -BENZENE AND ITS HOMOLOGUES</h5> - -<p><i>Benzene</i> (C₆H₆) is a characteristically smelling (aromatic) -liquid which boils at 80·5° C. Acute benzene poisoning, -which plays an important part as an industrial poisoning, is -caused by inhalation of benzene fumes. The various kinds -of benzol used commercially contain, besides benzene, -alkyl benzenes, especially <i>toluene</i> (methylbenzene, C₆H₅.CH₃, -boiling-point 111° C.); <i>xylene</i> (dimethylbenzene, C₆H₄[CH₃]₂, -boiling-point 140° C.); <i>pseudocumene</i> and <i>mesitylene</i> (tri-methylbenzene, -C₆H₃[CH₃]₃, boiling-point 169° or 163° C.); the -regular presence of <i>thiophene</i> (C₄H₄S, boiling-point 84° C.) in -commercial benzol must also be taken into account. Industrial -benzol poisoning arises, therefore, as a rule, not from the -action of pure benzene vapour, but from fumes which contain -a mixture of the compounds mentioned.</p> - -<p>The course run by industrial benzol poisoning is often very -acute, if large quantities are inhaled—death occurring suddenly, -after a short illness with symptoms of vertigo. Gradual -inhalation of lesser quantities gives rise to headache, giddiness, -malaise, then twitchings appear which develop into convulsions, -and lastly unconsciousness. In order to ascertain in -what manner the various substances contained in commercial -benzol share in the poisonous effect, experimental research -seemed to me to be indispensable, especially as published statements -so far gave no accurate data.</p> - -<p>Two cases of industrial benzol poisoning have given rise -to close experimental research upon the poisonous nature of -benzene.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[205]</a></span></p> - -<p>Lewin undertook experiments on animals; which he confined -under bells and caused to inhale fumes of chemically pure and -impure benzene. He mentions that even at comparatively low -concentration poisoning results, and indeed more readily and -certainly from the action of impure than pure benzene. Lewin -found that when air was made to flow slowly first through -benzene and then into the bell, symptoms of paralysis, convulsions, -and unconsciousness showed themselves in from four to -six minutes. After-effects by this means could not be observed. -Lewin maintains, however, that in man even slight acute -action of benzene can be followed by after-effects (giddiness, -sickness, headache, distress in breathing, and oppression of -the heart).</p> - -<p>Santesson made researches upon the poisonous action of -benzene in connection with occurrence of certain cases of poisoning -through ‘impure benzol’ (coal-tar benzene) in a rubber tyre -factory. In the factory mentioned nine young women were -poisoned, of whom four died. The symptoms shown were -lassitude, anæmia, giddiness, headache, vomiting, and fever. -Post mortem, hæmorrhages and fatty degeneration of the -endothelium of the bloodvessels and various organs were -found. Experimental research showed that commercial -benzol and chemically pure benzene had the same effect. -Santesson did not succeed in his experiments on animals in -producing chronic poisoning by inhalation of benzine and of -benzene fumes (which two completely different poisons he does -not distinguish strictly from each other, as is the case, unfortunately, -with many other writers). My experimental researches -upon the poisonous effect of pure benzene, pure toluene, -cumene, thiophene, and the most important kinds of commercial -benzol gave the following results:</p> - -<p>For rabbits the limit of toxicity is a proportion of 0·015 -to 0·016 per thousand pure benzene in the air, that is 0·015 -to 0·016 c.c. benzene vapour per litre of air.</p> - -<p>A concentration of 0·056-0·057 per thousand pure benzene in -the air causes in rabbits at once—after one minute—twitching -of the muscles; after eight minutes, convulsions; after ten -minutes, deep narcosis; and after twenty-five minutes, coma. -If the animal is taken out of the bell in time, even if it has -shown marked symptoms, it recovers very quickly (in two to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[206]</a></span> -ten minutes) without manifesting any after effects. Even in -animals repeatedly exposed to the poison sequelæ were not -observed.</p> - -<p>Dogs are somewhat more susceptible to pure benzene than -rabbits; 0·024 per thousand causes after ten minutes severe -convulsions, which after twenty minutes become continuous; -0·042 per thousand kills after twenty minutes (sudden death -in a state of tetanus).</p> - -<p>Cats are less sensitive than dogs and more sensitive than -rabbits; 0·03-0·04 per thousand causes after ten minutes -attacks of cramp and, after twenty minutes, convulsions; 0·05 -per thousand at once brings on poisoning symptoms. As -regards the character of the symptoms (cramps, convulsions, -quick recovery, no after effects) the above statements apply -to all three kinds of animals (rabbit, dog, and cat).</p> - -<p>Chloral hydrate completely checks the convulsions and -enables animals to tolerate higher concentrations of benzene for -a longer time.</p> - -<p>Benzene is thus to be counted among nerve irritant poisons. -The convulsions are probably provoked by excitement of the -motor centres in the brain.</p> - -<p>In view of the fact that thiophene in a concentration of -0·03-0·05 per thousand in the air was borne by animals for -an hour without producing any symptoms of poisoning, the -proportion of thiophene in commercial benzol must be looked -upon as practically non-injurious.</p> - -<p>The so-called 90 <i>benzol</i>—a commercial benzol of which -90 per cent. distils at 100° C.—has naturally a somewhat -weaker action, although, in respect of the poisoning symptoms -produced, it is similar to that of pure benzene.</p> - -<p><i>Pure toluene</i> (boiling-point 111° C.) and purified toluol -(commercial product, boiling-point 109°-112° C.) produce, when -inhaled, gradually increasing narcosis in the three kinds of -animals referred to; they produce no symptoms of convulsions -or spasms.</p> - -<p>After the animals have been taken out of the bell, recovery -is not so rapid as after benzine inhalation, but takes from -half an hour to one hour. In rabbits and cats 0·046-0·05 per -thousand produces after fifteen minutes staggering and paresis; -after thirty minutes deep narcosis. The dog is again somewhat<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[207]</a></span> -more susceptible, as little as 0·034 per thousand causing these -symptoms in the same time.</p> - -<p>‘Purified toluol’ (commercial product) acts somewhat -less rapidly than pure toluene, but this small difference in -effect need hardly be considered.</p> - -<p>Other poisons were also investigated:—</p> - -<p><i>Solvent naphtha I</i>, a commercial product, of which 90 per -cent. comes over at 160° C.; it contains little toluene, chiefly -xylene, pseudocumene, and cumene.</p> - -<p><i>Solvent naphtha II</i>, of which 90 per cent. comes over at -175° C, it contains besides xylene, chiefly pseudocumene, -mesitylene, cumene, &c.</p> - -<p>The fumes of solvent naphtha I cause, when inhaled by -rabbits, dogs, and cats, gradual narcosis, although not nearly -so quickly as toluene at similar concentrations; recovery usually -takes over an hour after the deeply narcotised animals have -been removed from the bell. Rabbits and cats are affected in -about equal degree. The dog is the more sensitive. Rabbits -and cats can tolerate about 0·012-0·013 per thousand of the -fumes of solvent naphtha I in the atmosphere for a long time -without any symptoms. Only after breathing for fifty minutes -air containing 0·0536 per thousand do they become narcotised. -In the dog 0·036 per thousand causes narcosis only -after thirty minutes.</p> - -<p>With the fumes of solvent naphtha II I could not affect -rabbits at all. The cat also, in spite of long inhalation of the -heavy fumes, showed no marked symptoms of poisoning. In -the dog gradual narcosis came about only after an hour’s -inhalation of 0·048 per thousand.</p> - -<p>The fumes of pure <i>xylene</i> caused narcosis in rabbits after -forty minutes’ inhalation of 0·05 per thousand in the atmosphere; -after being taken out of the bell the animals recovered -slowly (after half an hour to one hour).</p> - -<p><i>Cumene</i> causes no symptoms after one hour’s inhalation in -a concentration of 0·06 to 0·07 per thousand. This explains -the effects of solvent naphtha I (in which xylene preponderates) -and solvent naphtha II (in which pseudocumene, cumene, &c., -preponderate). After effects were not observed.</p> - -<p>Benzol and toluol fumes, and particularly those of solvent -naphtha, exercise a distinctly irritant effect upon the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[208]</a></span> -mucous membrane, which, however, passes off without after -effects.</p> - -<p>Pure benzene, therefore, proved the most poisonous of -the substances under investigation. When inhaled its effect -(convulsions, with quick recovery) differs essentially from that -of toluene, solvent naphtha, xylene, and cumene (gradual -narcosis, slow recovery). The fumes of the various kinds of -commercial benzol (solvent naphtha) boiling at a higher -temperature are practically non-poisonous (solvent naphtha -II). Pure benzene fumes are, however poisonous, even in -very small quantities in the air. The limit for animals lies at -0·015-0·016 per thousand.</p> - -<p>Lehmann has shown in a recent work that man, exposed -to a mixture of benzene and air, absorbs 80 per cent. of the -benzene.</p> - -<p>Treatment of acute industrial benzene poisoning consists -in severe cases of artificial respiration, with simultaneous -administration of oxygen; in slight cases it is sufficient to -bring the patient into fresh air.</p> - -<p><i>Naphthalene.</i>—Naphthalene, which is insoluble in water, -has irritant effect upon the mucous membrane and upon the -skin when brought into contact with it.</p> - -<p>Long continuance in an atmosphere containing naphthalene -as dust or fumes causes headache, nausea, giddiness, &c.</p> - -<h5>HALOGEN SUBSTITUTION PRODUCTS<br /> -ALIPHATIC SERIES (NARCOTIC POISONS)</h5> - -<p>The halogen substitution products of the aliphatic series -are not of much account as industrial poisons. They have -generally a narcotic effect, that is, a paralysing effect upon the -central nervous system, usually preceded by a short stage of -excitement. This effect shows itself typically on inhalation -of chloroform (methanetrichloride, CHCl₃), which however plays -no part as an industrial poison. The narcotic effect of the -other alkyl chlorides is less than that of chloroform. With -carbon tetrachloride (CCl₄) the narcotic effect is only half -that of chloroform; it causes, however, a more violent excitation;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[209]</a></span> -inhaling the fumes brings on nausea, coughing, sickness, -headache, &c.</p> - -<p><i>Methylchloride</i> (CH₃Cl) has a less narcotising effect. On -the other hand it has a stronger local irritant action, which is -indeed present also in chloroform, though not so apparent. -This gas, as is well known, is used as a local anæsthetic in -medicine.</p> - -<p>Pure <i>methylene chloride</i> (CH₂Cl₂) similarly is much less -powerful than chloroform. Severe poisoning, alleged to -have resulted from methylene chloride was caused by a -mixture, called indeed methylene chloride, but composed of -methylalcohol and chloroform.</p> - -<p>Of the remaining halogen substitution products of methane, -<i>methyl bromide</i> (CH₃Br) and <i>methyl iodide</i> (CH₃I) have given -rise to industrial poisoning.</p> - -<p>These poisons also act in the same way as the alkyl chlorides, -but the excitement accompanying the narcosis is more marked—so -far as the scanty observations allow conclusions to be -drawn. The symptoms first show themselves in sickness, -giddiness, hebetude, slowing of respiratory movements and -of the heart’s action; convulsions or delirium ensue.</p> - -<p>Treatment consists in artificial respiration or promotion of -breathing by a plentiful supply of fresh air or oxygen; in -pronounced narcosis stimulating remedies should be applied.</p> - -<h5>BENZENE SERIES</h5> - -<p><i>Chlorobenzene</i>, and <i>nitro-</i> and <i>dinitro-chlorobenzene</i> and -<i>benzoylchloride</i>, have given rise to industrial poisoning.</p> - -<p>To chlorobenzene similar action is attributed as to benzene -(headache, fainting, rapid breathing, cyanosis); changes in the -blood (methæmoglobin formation) have also been observed.</p> - -<p>Nitro- and dinitro-chlorobenzene are active poisons; the -effect corresponds in general to that of nitro- and dinitrobenzene, -but in addition the fumes or dust have markedly -irritant action on the skin (dermatitis).</p> - -<p><i>Benzoylchloride</i> (C₆H₅COCl), a colourless, pungent-smelling -liquid, produces a violently irritant effect upon the mucous -membrane, decomposing into hydrochloric acid and benzoic -acid.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[210]</a></span></p> - -<p>Treatment is analogous to that of benzene poisoning, and -in cases of benzoyl chloride poisoning to that by hydrochloric -acid.</p> - -<p>It may be mentioned that chlorine rash is attributed to the -action of chlorinated tar products (chlorobenzene compounds).</p> - -<h5>HYDROXYL SUBSTITUTION PRODUCTS<br /> -FATTY SERIES (ALCOHOLS)</h5> - -<p>The hydroxyl substitution products of the fatty series -belong mainly to the narcotic poisons; the greater the molecular -weight of the alcohol, the more marked is usually the -narcotic effect. According to this propylalcohol is eighteen -times as poisonous as ethylalcohol; butylalcohol and amylalcohol -have from 36 to 120 times as great a narcotic effect as -methylalcohol.</p> - -<p><i>Methylalcohol</i> (wood spirit, CH₃OH) plays relatively the -greatest part among alcohols as an industrial poison, because -it is employed as a means of denaturing spirit. Its poisonous -nature is relatively great, being very persistent. Industrial -poisoning by methylalcohol is due to inhalation of the -vapour and is rarely of a severe nature. The fumes have -a strongly irritant effect upon the mucous membrane, giving -rise to throat irritation, cough, hoarseness, and in severe -cases bronchitis and inflammation of the conjunctiva of the -eye. In addition inhalation of methylalcohol vapour causes -headache, giddiness, nausea (inclination to vomit), and -occasionally also twitchings and tremor.</p> - -<p>The <i>higher alcohols</i> (propyl-, butyl-, amyl-alcohol, C₃H₇.OH, -C₄H₉.OH, and C₅H₁₁.OH) occur in fusel oil. They cause but -slight (if any) industrial poisoning. Cases of more severe -industrial poisoning through amylalcohol fumes have been -described (in factories for smokeless powder), with symptoms -of sickness, headache, giddiness, with fatal issue in some cases, -preceded by severe nervous symptoms (convulsions or -delirium).</p> - -<p>Beyond speedy removal out of the dangerous atmosphere, -probably no special treatment is needed in these cases of -industrial poisoning from alcoholic vapour.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[211]</a></span></p> - -<h4><i>GROUP: NITRO AND AMIDO COMPOUNDS OF THE -ALIPHATIC AND AROMATIC SERIES (BLOOD -POISONS WHICH FORM METHÆMOGLOBIN)</i></h4> - -<p>Characteristic of the nitro and amido compounds of the -aliphatic and aromatic series of the organic substances is -their action upon the blood. The normal oxyhæmoglobin -(blood-colouring matter) is changed into methæmoglobin, -with which the oxygen is so firmly combined that -the internal exchange of gases necessary to life becomes -impossible. Methæmoglobin has a dark chocolate-brown -colour and a clearly defined characteristic spectrum.</p> - -<p>Of the poisons belonging to this group several are important. -In so far as these substances are volatile—and this is generally -the case with those causing industrial poisoning—effects are -due to inhalation of fumes, but it is proved that the poisons of -this group in liquid form can be absorbed by the intact skin, -and this channel of absorption is characteristic of industrial -poisoning. Severe poisoning results especially from wetting -the skin by spilling on the clothes, &c.</p> - -<p>The grey-blue discoloration of the mucous membrane, -especially of the lips, is characteristic; sometimes also the skin -is altered in colour. This discoloration is often noticed -by others before the patient feels unwell. Soon the -person affected has general nausea, vomiting, headache, -giddiness, severe nervous symptoms, feeling of anxiety, -and difficulty of breathing; in severe cases unconsciousness -comes on, and death occurs with increasing cyanosis -(lividity).</p> - -<p>Treatment is naturally that which has been emphasised in the -introductory words to Part II, which hold for all blood poisonings. -In mild cases oxygen treatment has given good results. -In all factories where such poisoning can occur provision should -be made for immediate oxygen treatment. Besides this, the -workers must be adequately instructed as to the danger and -symptoms of poisoning, especially of the characteristic premonitory -skin discoloration, in order to be able to assist their -fellows.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[212]</a></span></p> - -<h5>NITROCOMPOUNDS<br /> -ALIPHATIC SERIES</h5> - -<p><i>Nitro-glycerin</i> (triple nitric acid ester of glycerin, -C₃H₅.[NO₃]₃), the well-known oily explosive liquid, has also an -irritant local effect. When absorbed into the body, in addition -to methæmoglobin formation, it causes dilatation of the bloodvessels, -slowing of the respiration and heart’s action, and attacks -of suffocation. The general remarks upon this group apply here, -but symptoms referable to central paralysis occur as the -methæmoglobin formation is slow. Industrial poisoning arises -through inhalation of gases containing nitro-glycerin and -also by absorption through the skin. Statements as to its -poisonous nature are very varied. Under certain conditions -moistening the skin with small quantities of nitro-glycerin -suffices to produce symptoms. Probably the susceptibility of -different persons varies greatly.</p> - -<p><i>Amylnitrite</i> (nitric acid amyl ester, C₅H₁₁NO₂), a characteristically -smelling liquid, acts similarly. The fumes of -amylnitrite, even when inhaled in small quantities, cause -marked dilatation of the bloodvessels, through paralysis of the -muscular walls of the bloodvessels, thus causing marked flushing -of the face; the pulse becomes quick, then weak and slow.</p> - -<h5>NITRO AND AMIDO COMPOUNDS<br /> -AROMATIC SERIES</h5> - -<p>The substances of this group are important.</p> - -<p><i>Nitrobenzene</i> (C₆H₅NO₂, named oil of mirbane), a yellowish -liquid of characteristic smell, induces especially the formation -of methæmoglobin in the blood; the effect upon the central -nervous system (first excitation, then depression) is often -absent. The description of the disease in general in the -introductory words of this whole group is characteristic. -Occasionally signs of asphyxia show themselves; sometimes -there are twitchings, disturbance of the power of sensation, -and convulsions; early discoloration of the mucous membrane -and the skin, which assume a blue to grey-black colour, is -characteristic.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[213]</a></span></p> - -<p>Chronic poisoning is also attributed to nitrobenzene, showing -itself in lassitude, headache, malaise, giddiness, and other -disturbances of the nervous system.</p> - -<p><i>Nitrotoluene</i> (C₆H₄CH₃NO₂), of which the ortho-compound -acts most powerfully, and also <i>nitroxylene</i> (C₆H₃[CH₃]₂NO₂) -have similar but less marked effect.</p> - -<p>The <i>dinitrobenzenes</i> (C₆H₄[NO₂]₂) are stable bodies. Meta-dinitrobenzene -inhaled as dust or otherwise, can produce -marked poisoning symptoms essentially the same as those -described. Especially characteristic is the early dark -discoloration of the skin.</p> - -<p>Symptoms resembling nitrobenzene poisoning in general -are caused by <i>nitrophenols</i> (C₆H₄.OH.NO₂), of which -paranitrophenol is the most toxic; also by <i>dinitrophenols</i> -(C₆H₃[NO₂]₂OH), solid crystalline substances which melt at -different temperatures, and the <i>mono-</i> and <i>di-nitrochlorobenzenes</i> -(C₆H₄.Cl.NO₂ and C₆H₃.Cl[NO₂]₂). In cases of industrial -poisoning by dinitrophenol, observed by Leymann, the -workers were taken suddenly ill, with symptoms of collapse, -pains in the chest, vomiting, distress of breathing, rapid pulse, -and convulsions, and died within a few hours. At the autopsy -a yellow substance was found with picric acid reaction which -appeared to be di- or tri-nitrophenol. In other cases, some -fatal, of industrial nitrochlorobenzene poisoning, also observed -by Leymann, the typical grey-blue discoloration of the skin -was obvious, and the chocolate-brown colour of the blood -produced by methæmoglobin.</p> - -<p><i>Trinitrophenol</i> (picric acid, C₆H₂[NO₂]₃OH) is a yellow -crystalline compound with bitter taste; poisoning by this -substance exhibits clearly strong local irritant action (upon -skin, mucous membrane, and intestinal canal, and especially -upon the kidneys), besides effect on the blood and central -nervous system. Prolonged action of picric acid upon the skin -causes inflammation. Absorption of picric acid dust causes -inflammation of the mucous membrane of the respiratory -passages and symptoms of gastric and intestinal catarrh as well -as inflammation of the kidneys.</p> - -<p>A jaundice-like discoloration of the skin and darkening -of the urine are also characteristic; sometimes picric acid<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[214]</a></span> -poisoning produces a rash resembling that of measles and -scarlet fever.</p> - -<p><i>Nitronaphthalene</i> (C₁₀H₇[NO₂]) and <i>nitronaphthol</i> -(C₁₀H₆.NO₂.OH) in addition to methæmoglobin formation -have an irritant action. It is stated also that dulness of -the cornea is produced.</p> - -<p><i>Azobenzenes</i> also, which are to be considered as intermediate -between nitrobenzene and aniline, form methæmoglobin (azobenzene, -C₆H₅N = NH₅C₆).</p> - -<p><i>Aniline</i> (amidobenzene, C₆H₅.NH₂), a colourless, oily liquid -of aromatic smell, has only slight local irritant effect. In the -frequent cases of industrial poisoning by ‘aniline oil’ or aniline -hydrochloride, in which the aniline enters through the skin or is -inhaled in the form of fume, there appear the typical symptoms -common to this group, of the action upon the blood -through methæmoglobin formation: headache, weakness, -cyanosis, difficulty in breathing, &c., to which are added -nervous symptoms such as convulsions and psychical disturbance, -although these play a subordinate part in industrial -poisoning. In severe cases the typical symptoms of air -hunger are shown. Occasionally recovery only takes place -gradually, and signs of irritation of the kidneys and inflammation -of the urinary organs are seen. These symptoms occur -only rarely in acute industrial poisoning, but are, however, -in so far worthy of notice because of the frequent occurrence -of tumours in the bladder among aniline workers. It is -possible that here the irritant action of the urine which contains -aniline plays a part. The tumours in the bladder operated -upon, in some cases with success, were many of them non-malignant -(papillomata), but some were carcinomata (cancerous -new growths) running a malignant course, and recurring after -operation. In the urine the aniline combines with sulphuric -acid, and is partly excreted as paramidophenol sulphuric acid.</p> - -<p>The treatment of aniline poisoning is the same as that for -all the poisons of this group. In view of the occurrence -of tumours of the bladder in aniline workers, they should -be instructed to seek medical aid on the first indications of -trouble, so that a careful cystoscopic examination may be -made.</p> - -<p><i>Toluidine</i> (C₆H₄.CH₃.NH₂), which is mixed with aniline for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[215]</a></span> -industrial use, produces the same symptoms with marked -irritation of the renal organs.</p> - -<p>Of the <i>nitroanilines</i> (C₆H₄.NH₂.NO₂) <i>paranitroaniline</i> is -the most poisonous. Characteristic of the action of this compound -is methæmoglobin formation, central paralysis and -paralysis of the heart’s action.</p> - -<p>Of the <i>benzenediamines</i>, <i>paraphenylene diamine</i> (C₆H₄[NH₂]₂) -may be regarded as an industrial poison. The irritant action -of this substance is prominent; it induces skin affections, inflammation -of the mucous membranes, more especially of the -respiratory organs, and sometimes inflammation of the kidneys. -They have been noted in workers using ursol as a dye; here, -doubtless, the action of diimine (C₆H₄.NH.NH.) must be taken -into account, which arises as an intermediate product and -exercises a markedly irritant action. Further, the general -effect of paraphenylene diamine is an irritant one upon the -central nervous system.</p> - -<h4><i>APPENDIX</i><br /> -TURPENTINE, PYRIDINE BASES, ALKALOIDS</h4> - -<p><i>Turpentine oil.</i>.—Turpentine oil is a peculiar-smelling, -colourless liquid of the composition C₁₀H₁₆; different reactions -show that turpentine oil contains the aromatic nucleus -(cymene). It is used in the manufacture of varnish, and thus -can cause industrial poisoning by inhalation of fumes. Even -from 3 to 4 mg. of vapour of turpentine oil per litre of air -brings on severe symptoms. Turpentine oil acts as a local -irritant, and when absorbed into the system has an exciting -effect upon the central nervous system. Inhalation of large -quantities of turpentine vapour cause rapid breathing, -palpitation, giddiness, stupor, convulsions, and other -nervous disturbances, pains in the chest, bronchitis, and -inflammation of the kidneys. The last-mentioned symptom -also arises from the chronic action of turpentine vapours.</p> - -<p><i>Pyridine.</i>—Pyridine (C₅H₅N), a colourless liquid of peculiar -odour, is employed as well as methylalcohol in denaturing -alcohol. The disturbance of health observed in workers<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[216]</a></span> -occupied with the denatured spirit are probably mainly -due to the inhalation of fumes of methylalcohol. Pyridine is -comparatively innocuous. Eczema, from which persons suffer -who come into contact with denatured spirit, is ascribed to the -action of pyridine. Larger doses produce a paralysing effect, -but this need not be considered in its industrial use.</p> - -<p><i>Nicotine, tobacco.</i>—According to various published statements, -effects among tobacco factory workers are attributed -to the nicotine contained in tobacco dust and to the aroma -which fills the air. Nicotine in large doses has at first an -exciting followed by a paralysing effect upon the central -nervous system; it causes moreover contraction of the -unstriped muscles and has a local irritant effect.</p> - -<p>The symptoms of illness ascribed to nicotine are: conjunctivitis, -catarrh of the air passages, palpitation, headache, -want of appetite, and, particularly, tendency to abortion -and excessive menstruation. Severe industrial poisoning due -to nicotine has only been observed in workers who chewed -tobacco leaves.</p> - -<p><i>Poisonous wood.</i>—The symptoms of disease noticed in -workers who manipulate certain kinds of wood are attributed -by some writers to the presence of alkaloids. Such knowledge -as we have of the illness due to them—they are evidently -of the nature of poisoning—is referred to at the end of Part I.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[217]</a></span></p> - -<h2 id="PART_III">PART III<br /> -<span class="smaller"><i>PREVENTIVE MEASURES AGAINST INDUSTRIAL POISONING</i></span></h2> - -<h3 id="GENERAL_MEASURES">I<br /> -<span class="smaller"><i>GENERAL MEASURES</i></span></h3> - -<p>In discussing preventive measures against industrial poisoning -the deductive method from the general to the particular -will be followed. The numerous instances of poisoning -mentioned in Part I afford a practical basis on which to -formulate general rules before passing on to describe special -measures. Technical details will be omitted, as they must be -left to the technical expert whose business it is to draw up the -plans as a whole and to modify them according to the requirements -of individual cases.</p> - -<p>In the effort to control industrial poisoning and disease it -is necessary to insist absolutely on the concerted action of all -concerned. In this co-operation every one is called who -through his knowledge and sphere of activity is in a position to -assist.</p> - -<p>The medical man comes in with his special knowledge of the -action of poisons as toxicologist, as practising physician (especially -as works surgeon and doctor of the sick insurance society), -and also in an official capacity as appointed surgeon or medical -officer of health; the technical expert comes in as engineer, as -manager, as foreman, and as factory inspector. But above -all the interest and active co-operation of employers and -employed are needed as well as the organisations of both. -That the workers should understand and co-operate is essential -for the success of preventive measures, and subsequently it -will be shown in what direction this co-operation is most -necessary.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[218]</a></span></p> - -<p>To make possible such co-operation interest must be -aroused and suitable information and teaching supplied to the -parties concerned. Medical men and practical workers require -to receive instruction in industrial hygiene, and teaching on -this subject should be arranged for in secondary and technical -schools. Medical men and others who, as officials and insurance -doctors, are brought constantly into touch with industrial -workers should have opportunity—by means of special courses -and lectures—to keep pace with advancing knowledge in this -direction. Beside these there are, as educative organisations, -special Institutes of Industrial Hygiene and special hospitals -for treatment of diseases of occupation which bring together -the patients and the teaching staff and so facilitate pursuit of -knowledge and research. A beginning of this kind has -already been made by the Industrial Hygiene Institute, -Frankfurt a.-Main, and the hospital for diseases of occupation -at Milan, showing that the ideas are attainable. International -agencies which unite all circles interested in the -subject irrespective of profession or nationality in common -interchange of thought and discussion are of great significance -for uniform development of needful preventive measures; -international congresses, often in connection with exhibitions, -have given valuable stimulus and have been the starting-point -of permanent international societies, unions, and organisations. -The significance for our inquiry of these international efforts -will be more closely considered in the following pages.</p> - -<h3>II<br /> -<span class="smaller"><i>GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS ON SOCIAL AND LEGISLATIVE MEASURES</i></span></h3> - -<h4>INTERNATIONAL PREVENTIVE MEASURES, NOTIFICATION OF -INDUSTRIAL POISONING, LISTS AND SCHEDULES OF INDUSTRIAL -POISONS</h4> - -<p>Experience and inquiry in the field of industrial poisoning -led to a series of demands which, supported as they were by a -general movement for the protection of workers, were soon -followed by regulations and legislative action. For a long time -efforts have been directed to treat industrial disease and poisoning<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[219]</a></span> -in the same way as has been done in the case of industrial -accidents. The question, however, is attended with much -greater difficulty. On the other hand, uniform international -regulation of questions affecting prevention of disease is called -for both on humanitarian and economic grounds.</p> - -<p>The idea of international legislation for the protection of -workers was first mooted about the year 1870. The possibility -and need of such intervention was much discussed and interest -in it kept constantly alive, especially in Switzerland, until -the organisations of the workers took up the idea. Several -attempts failed. In France in 1883 a proposal of the Socialist -party aiming at international agreement on the subject of -protection of the workers was rejected. In 1885 (in opposition -to Hertling) Prince Bismarck expressed himself strongly against -the possibility of such international protection. But the stone, -once set rolling, could not be stayed. In the years 1886, 1887, -and 1888 the French and English trade unions, as well as the -Swiss Federal Council, took up the question afresh. These -endeavours at last took tangible shape in the first International -Conference for the protection of workers held in Berlin in -March 1890. This date remains a landmark in the history -of the subject, but not until ten years later—1900—did the -Congress held in Paris for the international legal protection of -workers lead to the establishment of what had been repeatedly -urged, namely, creation of an International Bureau. This -was inaugurated at Basle in 1901 and forms the headquarters -of the National Associations for Labour Legislation called into -being in various countries.</p> - -<p>This International Association meets regularly in conference, -as in Cologne (1902), Berne (1905), Lucerne (1908), Lugano -(1910), and Zurich (1912). The questions raised in the International -Labour Bureau, which receives financial aid from a -number of States, are fully and scientifically discussed with the -object of finding a basis on which to bring into agreement the -divergent laws of the different countries. A further task of -this strictly scientific institution is the collection and publication -of literature bearing on the protection of workers in one -and another country, distribution of information, and the -editing of reports and memoranda. The question of prevention -of industrial poisoning has always taken a foremost place in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[220]</a></span> -programme of the International Association and in the agenda -of the International Labour Bureau. At its first meeting a -resolution was adopted advocating the prohibition of the -use of white phosphorus and white lead, and the Labour -Bureau in Basle was instructed to take the necessary -steps. Special, if not prohibitive, economical considerations -foreshadowed difficulties—all the greater because the matter -at issue concerned prohibition of articles playing a part in the -markets of the world. Just on that account international -treatment of such questions is necessary, since a peaceful and -orderly solution can only be arrived at on such lines. International -effort endeavours here to press with equal weight on the -countries competing with one another commercially, so that in -the protection of the workers economic adjustment is sought -in order that efforts based on humanitarian grounds shall not -at the same time cause economic disadvantages, the aim being -to produce general welfare and not merely protection of one -class at the expense of another.</p> - -<p>Through these international agreements between various -countries success in the direction aimed at is hopeful, and -indeed to a certain extent—as in the phosphorus and lead -questions—actually attained. Thus, for example, Germany -and Italy were in a position to enforce prohibition of the use -of white phosphorus early, while their neighbour Austria, on -account of commercial and political considerations and the -conditions of the home lucifer match industry, has only -recently decided on prohibition.</p> - -<p>As international agreement for the protection of workers is -advisable on economic grounds, so also is it reasonable and -just from purely humanitarian reasons that workers, without -reference to civil condition or nationality, should be equally -protected. On this point it is proposed to take a vote and to -press only for those reforms which are thoroughly sound and -recognised as necessary.</p> - -<p>The first step in such a comprehensive attack is precise knowledge -of the extent and source of origin of the particular forms -of industrial poisoning and disease and the collection of reliable -statistics. This suggested the obligation to notify such cases -to the proper authorities in the same way as is now done in -the case of infectious disease. A motion to this effect had<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[221]</a></span> -already been passed at the Conference of the International -Association for Labour Legislation held in Basle, and a -request was made to the Labour Bureau to prepare a list -of the diseases and poisonings in question. To them we -shall refer later, but a schedule is necessary as a basis -to work upon. Yet even when this is done there are -obviously great difficulties to be overcome in carrying out -the requirement of notification when the aim is kept in -mind of collecting complete statistical data for controlling -the conditions giving rise to industrial disease. The proposal -of the International Association seeks to make notification -obligatory on the part both of the medical practitioner in -attendance and the occupier, and in connection with this to -secure the co-operation of the Sick Insurance Society.<a name="FNanchor_4" id="FNanchor_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">[D]</a> The -proposal to require the appointed surgeons and surgeons of the -Insurance Society to notify all cases is hardly feasible in view -of their dependent position. Nor can the obligation on the -occupiers lead to the desired result because of their lack of -medical knowledge and the fact that by notifying they might -be forced to act to their own disadvantage. A successful -effort in this direction is recorded in Saxony, where lead -poisoning was first made a notifiable disease, and later the -general duty of notification of industrial poisoning was prescribed -by Order dated March 4, 1901.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[222]</a></span></p> - -<table summary="Yearly frequency of cases of poisoning" class="big borders"> - <tr> - <th rowspan="2" colspan="2">Disease and Industry.<br />(1)</th> - <th colspan="26">Reported Cases.<a name="FNanchor_5" id="FNanchor_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">[E]</a></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th colspan="2">1912.<br />(2)</th> - <th colspan="2">1911.<br />(3)</th> - <th colspan="2">1910.<br />(4)</th> - <th colspan="2">1909.<br />(5)</th> - <th colspan="2">1908.<br />(6)</th> - <th colspan="2">1907.<br />(7)</th> - <th colspan="2">1906.<br />(8)</th> - <th colspan="2">1905.<br />(9)</th> - <th colspan="2">1904.<br />(10)</th> - <th colspan="2">1903.<br />(11)</th> - <th colspan="2">1902.<br />(12)</th> - <th colspan="2">1901.<br />(13)</th> - <th colspan="2">1900.<br />(14)</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2">Lead Poisoning</td> - <td class="tdr nbr">587</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">44</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">669</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">37</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">505</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">38</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">553</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">30</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">646</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">32</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">578</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">26</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">632</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">33</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">592</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">23</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">597</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">26</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">614</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">19</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">629</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">14</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">863</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">34</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">1058</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">38</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr tdsub1 nbr">1.</td> - <td class="nbl">Smelting of metals</td> - <td class="tdr nbr">56</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">7</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">48</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">3</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">34</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">5</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">66</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">5</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">70</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">2</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">28</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">2</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">38</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">1</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">24</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">1</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">33</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">1</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">37</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">2</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">28</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">54</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">3</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">34</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">1</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr tdsub1 nbr">2.</td> - <td class="nbl">Brass works</td> - <td class="tdr nbr">5</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">9</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">1</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">7</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">5</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">6</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">9</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">1</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">11</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">5</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">1</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">10</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">1</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">15</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">5</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">6</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">1</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">3</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr tdsub1 nbr">3.</td> - <td class="nbl">Sheet lead and lead piping</td> - <td class="tdr nbr">6</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">12</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">4</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">9</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">2</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">14</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">6</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">7</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">9</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">7</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">11</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">12</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">17</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">17</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">1</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr tdsub1 nbr">4.</td> - <td class="nbl">Plumbing and soldering</td> - <td class="tdr nbr">35</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">5</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">37</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">2</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">25</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">1</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">28</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">27</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">20</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">2</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">16</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">4</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">24</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">2</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">21</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">3</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">26</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">23</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">1</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">23</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">9</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr tdsub1 nbr">5.</td> - <td class="nbl">Printing</td> - <td class="tdr nbr">37</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">32</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">2</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">33</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">4</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">21</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">1</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">30</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">2</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">26</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">3</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">16</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">2</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">19</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">4</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">15</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">13</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">2</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">19</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">23</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">1</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">18</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">2</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr tdsub1 nbr">6.</td> - <td class="nbl">File cutting</td> - <td class="tdr nbr">13</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">18</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">2</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">9</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">1</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">8</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">9</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">2</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">10</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">15</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">12</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">20</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">4</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">24</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">2</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">27</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">1</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">46</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">7</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">40</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">3</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr tdsub1 nbr">7.</td> - <td class="nbl">Tinning</td> - <td class="tdr nbr">15</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">11</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">13</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">17</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">22</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">10</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">25</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">18</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">1</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">14</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">1</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">10</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">14</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">11</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">10</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr tdsub1 nbr">8.</td> - <td class="nbl">White lead</td> - <td class="tdr nbr">23</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">41</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">2</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">34</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">1</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">32</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">2</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">79</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">3</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">71</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">108</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">7</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">90</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">116</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">2</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">109</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">2</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">143</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">1</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">189</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">7</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">358</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">6</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr tdsub1 nbr">9.</td> - <td class="nbl">Red lead</td> - <td class="tdr nbr">3</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">13</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">1</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">10</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">10</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">12</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">7</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">6</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">10</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">11</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">6</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">13</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">14</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">19</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr tdsub1 nbr">10.</td> - <td class="nbl">China and earthenware</td> - <td class="tdr nbr">80</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">14</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">92</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">6</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">77</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">11</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">58</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">5</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">117</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">12</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">103</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">9</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">107</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">4</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">84</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">3</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">106</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">4</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">97</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">3</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">87</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">4</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">106</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">5</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">200</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">3</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr tdsub1 nbr">10a.</td> - <td class="nbl">Litho-transfers</td> - <td class="tdr nbr">1</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">1</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">1</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">1</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">1</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">2</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">10</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">5</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">5</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">3</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">3</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">2</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">7</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">10</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr tdsub1 nbr">11.</td> - <td class="nbl">Glass cutting and polishing</td> - <td class="tdr nbr">1</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">1</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">5</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">—</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">4</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">2</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">3</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">1</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">4</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">4</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">1</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">3</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">—</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">4</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">8</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">2</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">11</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">3</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">7</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr tdsub1 nbr">12.</td> - <td class="nbl">Vitreous Enamelling</td> - <td class="tdr nbr">5</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">19</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">1</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">17</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">7</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">7</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">6</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">4</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">2</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">3</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">4</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">3</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">1</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">9</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">11</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr tdsub1 nbr">13.</td> - <td class="nbl">Electric accumulators</td> - <td class="tdr nbr">38</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">1</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">24</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">1</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">31</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">27</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">2</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">25</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">1</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">21</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">26</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">27</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">1</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">33</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">28</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">16</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">1</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">49</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">1</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">33</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr tdsub1 nbr">14.</td> - <td class="nbl">Paints and colours</td> - <td class="tdr nbr">19</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">21</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">17</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">1</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">39</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">2</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">25</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">35</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">1</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">37</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">57</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">1</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">32</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">1</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">39</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">1</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">46</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">56</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">56</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">1</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr tdsub1 nbr">15.</td> - <td class="nbl">Coach building</td> - <td class="tdr nbr">84</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">7</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">104</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">5</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">70</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">6</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">95</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">6</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">70</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">3</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">70</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">3</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">85</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">7</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">56</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">3</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">49</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">4</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">74</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">5</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">63</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">1</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">65</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">4</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">70</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">5</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr tdsub1 nbr">16.</td> - <td class="nbl">Ship building</td> - <td class="tdr nbr">34</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">2</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">36</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">6</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">21</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">2</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">27</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">1</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">15</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">22</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">1</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">26</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">1</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">32</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">2</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">48</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">24</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">1</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">15</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">1</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">28</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">1</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">32</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">2</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr tdsub1 nbr">17.</td> - <td class="nbl">Paint used in other industries</td> - <td class="tdr nbr">48</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">3</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">56</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">1</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">51</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">3</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">42</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">47</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">1</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">49</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">2</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">37</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">3</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">49</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">2</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">27</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">3</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">46</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">1</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">44</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">1</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">61</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">50</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">5</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr tdsub1 nbr">18.</td> - <td class="nbl">Other industries</td> - <td class="tdr nbr">84</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">2</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">88</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">4</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">47</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">3</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">52</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">2</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">78</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">5</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">56</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">2</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">66</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">2</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">70</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">1</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">53</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">3</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">40</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">64</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">89</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">1</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">86</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">4</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2">Phosphorus Poisoning</td> - <td class="tdr nbr">—</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">—</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">—</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">3</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">1</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">1</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">1</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">—</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">3</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">1</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">1</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">1</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">—</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">1</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">2</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">4</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">3</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2">Arsenic Poisoning</td> - <td class="tdr nbr">5</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">10</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">1</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">7</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">4</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">23</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">1</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">9</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">2</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">5</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">1</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">5</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">5</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">5</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">12</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">1</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">22</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">3</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2">Mercurial Poisoning</td> - <td class="tdr nbr">17</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">12</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">10</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">1</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">9</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">10</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">7</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">4</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">8</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">3</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">8</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">8</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">18</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">9</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2">Anthrax</td> - <td class="tdr nbr">47</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">64</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">11</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">51</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">9</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">56</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">12</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">47</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">7</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">58</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">11</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">67</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">22</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">59</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">18</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">50</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">10</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">47</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">12</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">38</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">9</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">39</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">10</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">37</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">7</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub1" colspan="2">Wool</td> - <td class="tdr nbr">31</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">6</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">35</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">10</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">28</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">3</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">28</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">3</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">18</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">3</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">23</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">3</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">24</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">8</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">34</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">12</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">12</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">1</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">20</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">5</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">12</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">2</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">6</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">4</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">9</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">2</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub1" colspan="2">Horsehair</td> - <td class="tdr nbr">7</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">8</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">1</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">6</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">1</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">8</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">2</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">10</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">17</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">4</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">10</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">4</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">7</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">1</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">12</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">4</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">7</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">1</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">10</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">2</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">9</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">1</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">12</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">3</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub1" colspan="2">Handling of hides and skins</td> - <td class="tdr nbr">8</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">20</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">14</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">3</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">18</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">6</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">13</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">1</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">12</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">2</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">19</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">7</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">17</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">4</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">18</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">3</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">12</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">1</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">11</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">5</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">20</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">5</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">9</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">1</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub1 bb" colspan="2">Other industries</td> - <td class="tdr nbr bb">1</td> - <td class="tdr nbl bb"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr bb">1</td> - <td class="tdr nbl bb"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr bb">3</td> - <td class="tdr nbl bb"><span class="smaller">2</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr bb">2</td> - <td class="tdr nbl bb"><span class="smaller">1</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr bb">6</td> - <td class="tdr nbl bb"><span class="smaller">3</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr bb">6</td> - <td class="tdr nbl bb"><span class="smaller">2</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr bb">14</td> - <td class="tdr nbl bb"><span class="smaller">3</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr bb">1</td> - <td class="tdr nbl bb"><span class="smaller">1</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr bb">8</td> - <td class="tdr nbl bb"><span class="smaller">2</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr bb">8</td> - <td class="tdr nbl bb"><span class="smaller">5</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr bb">5</td> - <td class="tdr nbl bb"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr bb">4</td> - <td class="tdr nbl bb"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr bb">7</td> - <td class="tdr nbl bb"><span class="smaller">1</span></td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[223]</a></span></p> - -<p>My own experience does not lead me to expect much in -elucidation of industrial diseases from the Sick Insurance -Societies. In Austria they make a statistical return as to -the causation of illness to the central authorities. I have -myself—in my capacity as an official of the State Central -Board—examined these in order to try and gain knowledge -of the extent of industrial disease in Bohemia. In spite of -the returns drawn up by the district surgeon who visits the -factories in question, it was impossible for me to obtain a complete -picture of the extent of industrial sickness. The reports -only give valuable data on which to base action in particular -cases, and from this standpoint I do not under-estimate their -value. But so far as the expressed wish of the International -Association is concerned they appear to fulfil it, inasmuch as -for specially dangerous trades special reports are issued, the -Austrian law for sick insurance requiring such industries to -institute separate sick insurance funds with separate statistics. -Hence, under present conditions, I do not see how the duty -of notification will be effective. There remains the endeavour -to secure insurance and the right to claim compensation for -industrial disease in the same way as is provided for accidents. -This point was fully discussed at the eighth International -Congress for Workmen’s Insurance held in Rome in 1908. -There is no valid ground for granting compensation only for -<i>sudden</i> disturbance of health arising in the course of employment -by accident or acute poisoning, and withholding it in the -case of <i>gradual</i> disturbance of health caused equally by the -trade, as the effects of such chronic indisposition weigh often no -less heavily on the sufferer. Inclusion of industrial disease in -the same category as accident insurance, as indeed has been<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[224]</a></span> -done in France, Switzerland and Great Britain, has, apart -from the fact that it is dictated by fairness and humanity, the -advantage of removing existing hardship and of solving -doubtful cases. Correct statistics, further, would thus be -obtainable for the first time, and the employer by insurance -would be freed from the legal proceedings now frequently -brought against him for injury due to chronic industrial -poisoning. And it seems the more right and just course to -institute a general scheme of insurance against industrial -disease than to have recourse to an Employer’s Liability Act -in this or that case, particularly as the question often arises -in regard to a disease which develops gradually—In whose -employment was the disease contracted?</p> - -<p>Clearly in such a scheme of insurance against both accident -and industrial disease only specific industrial diseases would be -included, i.e. diseases in which the connection with the industry -can be clearly established as due to causes inherent in the -industry, and traceable to definite materials used. Such diseases -as tuberculosis and the effects of dust inhalation (bronchitis, -&c.), which as industrial diseases occur only too often, cannot -be called specific, because they arise outside the industry and -make decision impossible as to whether or not in a particular -case the disease owed its origin to the occupation. In order to -determine what should be regarded as specific industrial poisons -it was deemed necessary to draw up a schedule. For one such -list Sommerfeld (in collaboration with Oliver and Putzeys) is -responsible, Carozzi of Milan for a second, and Fischer<a name="FNanchor_6" id="FNanchor_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6" class="fnanchor">[F]</a> for a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[225]</a></span> -third, published in 1910. Those by Sommerfeld and Fischer are -constructed in similar fashion—enumeration of (1) the poisonous -substance, (2) the industries in which it is made or used, -(3) the channel of absorption, and (4) the symptoms produced. -Sommerfeld enumerates the poisons in alphabetical order, -noting against each the requisite preventive measures, while -Fischer adopts a chemical classification, confining himself to -general introductory remarks as to prevention.</p> - -<p>Sommerfeld proposes to limit notification to poisoning -sharply defined as to the symptoms set up, such as lead, phosphorus, -mercury, arsenic, chromium, carbonic oxide, aniline, -benzene, nitrobenzene, carbon bisulphide, and nitrous fumes. -This simplifies the obligation to notify, but does not dissipate -the fears expressed above as to the difficulty, because in the -present development of the chemical industries new substances -involving new danger to the persons handling them are constantly -being discovered, and thus there can be no finality as -to which industrial poisonings should entitle to compensation. -And if recourse were had from time to time to additions of new -substances to the schedule, reliance would have to be placed on -experience with regard to each substance added, and thus the -actual individual who had suffered would not benefit. Fischer, -indeed, acknowledges that any schedule must be incomplete, -and emphasises the fact that continual additions would be -necessary; otherwise it would be better to refrain altogether -from publication of a list. Such lists may be valuable guides, -but no sure foundation for insurance legislation. The only -possible way to do this is to give as far as possible a correct -definition of the industrial diseases entitling to compensation -and, in isolated cases, to leave the decision to the expert opinion -of competent judges.</p> - -<p>Extension of workmen’s insurance to cover chronic -industrial poisoning is, however, most desirable in the interest -of employers and employed, and also of science. The German -accident insurance legislation is especially suited to do this, -since the trade organisations direct their attention not only to -the prevention of accidents but of industrial diseases also.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[226]</a></span></p> - -<h3>III<br /> -<span class="smaller"><i>SPECIAL PREVENTIVE MEASURES FOR WORKERS</i></span></h3> - -<h4>SELECTION, CHOICE OF TRADE, ALTERNATION OF EMPLOYMENT, -MEDICAL CONTROL, SAFETY APPLIANCES, INSTRUCTION AND -CO-OPERATION OF WORKERS, CLOTHING, ATTENTION TO -CLEANLINESS, FOOD, GENERAL WELFARE</h4> - -<p>As a practical measure in protection against trade risk -selection of those capable of resisting danger has to be considered. -It is obviously desirable to select for employment -in a dangerous trade persons possessing powers of resistance, -because predisposition and resistance to the action of poisons -differ markedly in individuals. To some extent such a -selection comes of itself, as those who are very susceptible are -obliged by repeated attacks to give up the work. The social -and physical misery, undeserved loss of employment, illness, -and perhaps early death following on this kind of selection -might be checked by timely medical examination so as to weed -out the unfit. But medical examination prior to admission -into a dangerous trade (actually practised in many industries -involving risk of poisoning) inflicts hardship on those seeking -employment, and recruits the ranks of the unwillingly -unemployed. It would be much better were it possible to meet -the need of selection by pertinent direction and guidance in -choice of calling. There should be insistence in technical -schools especially on the dangers inherent in certain industries, -school medical examination as to physical qualifications for -certain industries, and careful note made of individual suitability -in labour bureaus, apprentice agencies, and the like.</p> - -<p>Young female workers, naturally less able to resist, should -be excluded from work involving risk of poisoning—a principle -which has been acted on in the legislation of civilised -countries.</p> - -<p>Further, workers engaged in industries involving risk -should not be exposed to the pernicious influence for too long a -time. Hence the hours of employment should be shortened in -occupations proved to be injurious to health. An important<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[227]</a></span> -aid in this respect is alternation of employment. Change of -occupation is particularly recommended where the nature of -the poisoning of which there is risk is cumulative in action, -because in the intervals from the work the system will rid -itself of the accumulated store. In this way a number of -skilled resistant workers, familiar with the risk and knowing -how to meet it, will be maintained. Casual labour works in a -vicious circle—increase of fresh workers increases the danger -and the number of cases of poisoning, and, <i>vice versa</i>, these -augment again the need of change in the personnel, so that the -number of cases of poisoning rises very high. Thus the industry -itself may be endangered, since its prosperity depends mainly -upon the existence of a skilled staff of workers. In dangerous -trades, therefore, Hermann Weber’s words, ‘Change of work -instead of change of workers,’ have much force.</p> - -<p>Periodical medical examination in these industries cannot -well be omitted in order to weed out the physically unfit, and -to suspend from work those who show early symptoms. -Note should be kept of the state of health of the workers, the -results of the periodical medical examination, the duration -of symptoms, and the treatment of any illness that occurs. -Medical supervision presupposes special training and experience -in the medical man entrusted with the task.</p> - -<p>Further, in some industries in which poisonous materials -are used, especially such as set up acute sudden poisoning, -there should be a trained staff competent to recognise the first -symptoms of poisoning and to render first aid, and having at -its disposal adequate means of rescue.</p> - -<p>Apart from the rescue appliances generally needed in -dangerous trades, stress must be laid on the value of oxygen -apparatus as a means of saving life. In addition to what -is needed for the sufferer there must be defensive apparatus at -hand for the rescuers (breathing helmets, &c.), to facilitate -and make safe their rescue work when in a poisonous atmosphere. -Without such defensive equipment rescuers should -never venture into gas conduits, or into any place where -presumably a poisonous atmosphere is to be met with. It -hardly requires to be said that in dangerous industries medical -aid should be within easy reach; in large works actual medical -attendance may be necessary.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[228]</a></span></p> - -<p>In acute as well as in chronic cases of poisoning early medical -intervention is advisable. Hence medical aid should be sought -on the earliest appearance of symptoms, and the worker, therefore, -should know the nature and action of the poison with -which he comes into contact. This brings us to the subject -of the education of the worker and particularly observance -of all those rules and regulations in which his co-operation is -necessary. This co-operation of the workers is indispensable; -it is the most important condition of effective defence. The -best regulations and preventive measures are worthless if the -worker does not observe them. He must be taught their aim, -the way of using the means of defence; he must be admonished -to use them, and, if necessary, compelled to do so. The -co-operation of workmen’s organisations in this matter can -avail much, since a workman most readily follows the advice -of a fellow-worker.</p> - -<p>Teaching of the kind suggested can be done in different -ways. Apart from lectures and practical courses, concise -instructions, either in the form of notices or as illustrated -placards, should be posted up in the workrooms or handed -in the form of leaflets particularly to the newly employed. -Distribution of such leaflets might well be placed as a duty -on the employer.</p> - -<p>Of preventive measures applying to the individual those are -of prime importance which serve to protect the worker, as far -as is practicable, from coming into contact with the poison. -Protection of this kind is attained by wearing suitable -clothing, use of respirators, and careful cleanliness—especially -before partaking of food. It cannot be too strongly urged that -these precautions are a very potent defence against the danger -of industrial poisoning, especially of the chronic forms, and -in teaching workers their importance must be insisted on. It -is not sufficient merely to put on overalls over the ordinary -clothes. The ordinary clothes must be taken off before the -commencement of work, and working suits put on, to be taken -off again before the principal midday meal and before leaving -work. They should be made of smooth, durable, washable -material, and be properly washed and dried not less often than -once a week. They must be plainly cut without folds or pockets.</p> - -<p>Direct handling of the poisonous substances is to be avoided,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[229]</a></span> -but where this is necessary impervious gloves may have to be -worn, especially in the case of poisons which can be absorbed -through, or act injuriously on, the skin. If there is risk of -splashing or spilling of poisonous liquids on to the clothes, -impermeable or partly impermeable overalls (aprons, &c.) -should be worn. The obligation of providing the overalls or -working suits falls naturally on the employer in industries -where poisonous substances are used, and there is equally -obligation on the employee to use the -articles provided.</p> - -<p>Suitable cloakroom accommodation -is essential, by which is meant room not -only to change clothes with cupboards -or hooks on one side for clothing taken -off on commencement of work and on -the other the working suits, but also -ample washing accommodation. These -cupboards should be double, that is, -be divided by a partition into two -parts, one serving for the ordinary and -the other for the working clothes.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;" id="fig35"> - -<img src="images/fig35.jpg" width="200" height="300" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 35.</span>—Aluminium -Respirator</p> - -</div> - -<p>Protection of the respiratory organs -can to some extent be obtained by so-called -respirators worn over the mouth -and nose. Often they consist simply of a moist sponge or folds -of cloth, or again may be complicated air-proof affairs enclosing -mouth and nose, or the whole face like a mask, or even the head -like a helmet; they fit close, and the aperture for respired air -is provided with filtering material (cotton wool, &c.) placed -between two layers of wire gauze. The outer layer of the -gauze moves on a hinge, so that the filtering material can be -renewed after each time that it has been used. The construction -of respirators is extraordinarily varied. One form is -illustrated. They must be light, and in order not to obstruct -breathing seriously they are often provided with valves—closing -during inspiration and opening during exhalation. -Generally the respirators in common use do not quite satisfactorily -fulfil the conditions required. After a time the -pressure becomes irksome, the face becomes hot, breathing -more difficult, and discomfort from wearing them unbearable.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[230]</a></span></p> - -<p>Respirators are only to be regarded in the light of secondary -aids and for occasional use.</p> - -<p>During temporary exposure to an atmosphere charged -with poisonous dust the wearing of an efficient apparatus—preferably -one protecting the head—is very desirable.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;" id="fig36"> - -<img src="images/fig36.jpg" width="400" height="450" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 36.</span>—Smoke Helmet, Flexible Tubing, and Foot Bellows (<i>Siebe, Gorman & Co.</i>)</p> - -</div> - -<p>Respirators afford no protection, or a very imperfect one, -against dangerous gases or fumes. If soaked with an absorbing -or neutralising fluid they can scarcely be worn for any length -of time.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[231]</a></span></p> - -<p>In an atmosphere charged with poisonous gas recourse -should be had either to a smoke helmet with flexible tubing and -bellows or to an oxygen breathing apparatus so constructed -that the workman carries the necessary supply of oxygen with -him in a knapsack on his back. In the latter case oxygen -from a compressed cylinder of the gas is conveyed to the -breathing mask, so that respiration is independent of the -surrounding atmosphere.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;" id="fig37"> - -<img src="images/fig37.jpg" width="500" height="400" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 37.</span>—Diagram of Draeger 1910-11, Pattern H (<i>R. Jacobson</i>)</p> - -<p class="caption">P Alkali cartridges; K Cooler; C Aspirating pipe; L₁ Purified air; -L₂ Expired air.</p> - -</div> - -<p>The mode of working is represented diagrammatically in -figs. <a href="#fig37">37</a> and <a href="#fig40">40</a>. After putting on the helmet, the bag is first -filled with fresh air, the air valve is then closed, and the valve -of the oxygen cylinder unscrewed so as to permit of the flow of -the oxygen which, mixes with the air in the bag, and begins to -circulate; the expired air passes through the caustic potash -pellets P, which free it of carbonic acid gas, so that, with a fresh -supply of oxygen from the cylinder through the pipe C, it is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[232]</a></span> -regenerated and made fit for breathing again. The pressure -in the cylinder is measured by a manometer, which indicates -also when the supply of oxygen gives out.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;" id="fig38"> - -<img src="images/fig38.jpg" width="500" height="450" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 38.</span>—Showing the Potash Cartridge No. 2 with Change Mechanism X; -No. 2 Oxygen Cylinder with Spanner V; and on the Left a Hexagonal Socket U, -for unscrewing the Locking Nuts of Reserve Cylinders (<i>R. Jacobson</i>)</p> - -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 475px;" id="fig39"> - -<img src="images/fig39.jpg" width="475" height="500" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 39.</span>—‘Proto’ patent self-contained breathing apparatus (<i>Siebe, -Gorman & Co.</i>)</p> - -</div> - -<div class="blockquote"> - -<p>Another apparatus—the ‘Proto’ patent self-contained breathing -apparatus (Fleuss-Davis patents)—is also illustrated in <a href="#fig39">fig. -39</a>. <a href="#fig40">Illustration 40</a> gives a diagrammatic view of the principle -upon which it is designed. The instructions for using the -‘Proto’ apparatus are as follows:</p> - -<p><i>The oxygen cylinders</i> (B, B), having been charged with -oxygen through the nipple at (H) to a pressure of 120 atmospheres -(about 1800 lbs. per square inch), are to be re-attached to the -belt as shown, and the reducing valve, with its tubes, &c., is to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[233]</a></span> -be connected to the nipple at (H). This supply is sufficient for -fully two hours.</p> - -<p><i>Charging the breathing bag.</i>—Put 4 lbs. of stick caustic <i>soda</i> -into the bag (D), i.e. 2 lbs. into each compartment, and immediately -fasten the mouth of the bag by means of the clamps -and wing nuts (O). If the apparatus is not to be used at once, -but is to be hung up for use at some future time, the indiarubber -plug which is supplied with the apparatus should be tightly -fitted into the mouthpiece in order to prevent access of air to -the caustic soda, and to preserve it until required for use.</p> - -<p>See that the inlet and outlet valves (T and S) and the connection -(N) are screwed up tightly.</p> - -<p>The small relief valve (K) is only to be opened (by pressing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[234]</a></span> -it with the finger) when the bag becomes unduly inflated -through excess of oxygen. This may occur from time to time, as -the reducing valve is set to deliver more than the wearer actually -requires.</p> - -<p><i>Equipment.</i>—The whole apparatus is supported upon a -broad belt which is strapped round the body. The bag is also -hung by a pair of shoulder braces.</p> - -<p>The wearer having put the equipment over his shoulders, -fastens the belt and takes the plug out of the mouthpiece. The -moment the mouthpiece is put into the mouth or the mask is -adjusted, the main valve (H) is to be opened not more than -one turn and the necessary supply of oxygen will then flow into -the bag. It is advisable to open the by-pass (I) to inflate -partially the breathing bag (D) for a start, but this valve should -again be screwed up quite tight and not touched again, except -in the case of emergency as previously described should the bag -become deflated. Breathing will then go on comfortably.</p> - -<p>Should the by-pass (I) on the reducing valve (C) get out of -order then the wearer should turn on the by-pass (I) from -time to time to give himself the necessary quantity of oxygen, -but, as stated above, this is only to be done in case of deflation -of the bag. The best guide as to the quantity of oxygen to -admit <i>in the above circumstances</i> is the degree of inflation of the -breathing bag. It will be found to be quite satisfactory if the -bag be kept moderately distended.</p> - -<p><i>After using the apparatus.</i>—The caustic soda should <i>at once</i> be -thrown away, but if it is neglected and the soda becomes caked, -it must be dissolved out with warm water before putting in a -fresh supply. Caustic soda will not damage vulcanised indiarubber, -but it will damage canvas and leather, and will burn the -skin if allowed to remain upon it.</p> - -<p>If the apparatus is to be used again at once, it can be recharged -with caustic soda at once, but if it is only to be charged -ready for use at some future time the indiarubber bag should -be thoroughly washed out with warm water and dried inside -with a cloth or towel.</p> - -<p>When emptying or recharging the rubber bag with caustic -soda, it must always be removed from the canvas bag. After -use each day, it is advisable to wash the rubber mouthpiece -(or mask, as the case may be) with yellow soap and water. This -acts as a preservative to the indiarubber.</p> - -<p>Every man who is to use the apparatus should have his own -mouthpiece and noseclip, or mask, as the case may be, under -his own special care, both for sanitary reasons and so that he -may shape and adjust the mask to fit himself comfortably and -air-tightly, to such an extent that if the outlets are stopped up -by the hands while the mask is held in position by its bands no -breath can pass in or out.</p> - -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[235]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 525px;" id="fig40"> - -<img src="images/fig40.jpg" width="525" height="700" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 40.</span>—‘Proto’ Patent Self-breathing Apparatus (<i>Siebe, Gorman & Co.</i>)</p> - -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[236]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 475px;" id="fig41"> - -<img src="images/fig41.jpg" width="475" height="700" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 41.</span>—Arrangement of Cloak-room, Washing and Bath Accommodation, -and Meal-room in a White Lead Factory</p> - -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[237]</a></span></p> - -<p>Where poisonous substances giving off dust or fumes are used, -regular washing and rinsing the mouth (especially before meals -and on leaving) is of great importance. Naturally the washing -conveniences (basins, soap, brushes, towels) must be sufficient -and suitable, and the workers instructed as to the importance -of cleanliness by the foreman. They should be urged to bath -in rotation, and time for it should be allowed during working -hours.</p> - -<p>The taking of meals and use of tobacco in the workrooms -must be prohibited. Meal rooms should be so arranged as to be -contiguous to the cloakroom and washing accommodation, the -worker gaining access to the meal room through the cloakroom -and bathroom. The arrangement described is illustrated in -<a href="#fig41">fig. 41</a>. The meal room serves also the purpose of a sitting-room -during intervals of work, and it goes without saying that -cloakroom and lavatory accommodation are as necessary in -small as in large premises.</p> - -<p>Simple lavatory basins of smooth impervious surface fitted -with a waste pipe and plug, or tipping basins, are recommended -in preference to troughs which can be used by several persons -at once. Troughs, however, without a plug, and with jets of -warm water, are free from objection.</p> - -<p>The douche bath has many advantages for workmen over -the slipper bath. The initial cost is comparatively small, so -that it can be placed at the disposal of the workers at very small -outlay. Maintenance and cleanliness of douche baths are -more easily secured than of other kinds, where changing the -water and keeping the bath in good order involve time and -expense. A dressing-room should form part of the douche -or slipper bath equipment. Walls and floors must be impervious -and, preferably, lined with smooth tiles or cement. -It is better that the shower bath should be under the control of -the worker by a chain rather than be set in motion by means of -mechanism when trodden upon. The arrangement of baths is -illustrated in <a href="#fig43">fig. 43</a>. In many large works large bath buildings -have been erected. <a href="#fig44a">Fig. 44</a> is a plan of the splendid bath -arrangements at the colour works of Messrs. Lucius, Meister -& Brüning of Höchst a.-M.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[238]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;" id="fig42"> - -<img src="images/fig42.jpg" width="700" height="475" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 42.</span>—Good Washing and Bath Accommodation in a Lead Smelting Works</p> - -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[239]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;" id="fig43"> - -<img src="images/fig43.jpg" width="700" height="475" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 43.</span>—Washing Trough, Douche Baths, and Clothes Cupboards, Type common on the Continent</p> - -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[240]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;" id="fig44a"> - -<img src="images/fig44a.jpg" width="400" height="175" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 44a.</span>—Baths in the Höchst Aniline Works (<i>after Grandhomme</i>)</p> - -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;" id="fig44b"> - -<img src="images/fig44b.jpg" width="500" height="425" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 44b.</span>—Ground Floor</p> - -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;" id="fig44c"> - -<img src="images/fig44c.jpg" width="600" height="475" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 44c.</span>—First Floor. -<i>a</i>, <i>c</i>, Baths (slipper and douche) for workmen; <i>b</i>, Washing accommodation for -workmen; <i>d</i>, <i>e</i>, Baths for officials; <i>g</i>, Attendant’s quarters; <i>f</i>, Hot air (Turkish) -baths; <i>i</i>, Warm water reservoir.</p> - -</div> - -<p>Naturally maintenance of the general health by good -nourishing diet is one of the best means of defence against -onset of chronic industrial poisoning. Over and over again it -has been noticed that ill-fed workers speedily succumb to doses -of poison which well-nourished workers can resist. It is not -our province here to discuss fully the diet of a working-class -population. We merely state that it is a matter of vital<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[241]</a></span> -importance to those employed in dangerous trades. The -question of a suitable drink for workers to take the place of -alcohol calls for special attention, as, when complicated with -alcoholism, both acute and chronic poisonings entail more -serious results than they otherwise would do. Over-indulgence -in alcohol, owing to its effect on the kidneys, liver, digestion, -nervous system, and power of assimilation generally, requires -to be checked in every way possible. Apart from good drinking -water, milk, coffee, tea, fruit juices and the like, are excellent. -Milk is especially recommended, and should be supplied gratis -to workers in dangerous trades, notably where there is risk -of lead poisoning.</p> - -<p>Lastly, other features such as games and exercise in the -open air, which help to strengthen bodily health, must not be -forgotten. In this connection much good work has already -been done by employers’ and workers’ organisations.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[242]</a></span></p> - -<h3>IV<br /> -<span class="smaller"><i>GENERAL REMARKS ON PREVENTIVE MEASURES</i></span></h3> - -<h4>GENERAL PRINCIPLES, SUBSTITUTES FOR DANGEROUS MATERIALS, -CLEANLINESS OF WORKROOMS, CUBIC SPACE, VENTILATION, -REMOVAL OF DUST AND FUMES</h4> - -<p>Preventive measures against industrial poisoning aim at -an unattainable goal of so arranging industrial processes that -employment of poisonous substances would be wholly avoided. -Such an ideal must be aimed at wherever practicable. Prohibition -of direct handling of poisonous substances is also -sometimes demanded, which presupposes (although it is not -always the case) that this is unnecessary or can be made unnecessary -by suitable mechanical appliances. We have to be -contented, therefore, for the most part, with removal of injurious -dust and fumes as quickly as possible at the point -where they are produced, and regulations for the protection -of workers from industrial poisoning deal mainly with the -question of the prevention of air contamination and removal of -contaminated air. Substitution of non-injurious for injurious -processes is only possible in so far as use of the harmless process -gives technically as good results as the other. If such a substitute -can be found let it be striven for. Mention has already -been made of international prohibition of certain substances, -and attention has been drawn to economical considerations -affecting this point.</p> - -<p>Prohibition obviously may paralyse branches of industry -and hit heavily both employers and employed. The skilled -trained workers are just the ones to suffer, since they are no -longer in a position to take up another equally remunerative -trade.</p> - -<p>Judgment has to be exercised before enforcing new regulations -in order that good and not harm may follow. If a -satisfactory substitute be discovered for methods of work -injurious to health, then ways and means will be found to -make the alteration in the process economically possible. It -may, however, demand sacrifice on the part of employers and -employed, but the progress is worth the sacrifice.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[243]</a></span></p> - -<p>The following are instances of substitution of safe processes -for those involving risk: generation of dust can sometimes be -avoided by a ‘wet’ method (watering of white lead chambers, -grinding pulp lead with oil, damping of smelting mixtures, &c.); -the nitrate of silver and ammonia process has replaced the tin -and mercury amalgam used in silvering of mirrors; electroplating -instead of water gilding (coating objects with mercury -amalgam and subsequently volatilising the mercury); enamelling -with leadless instead of lead enamels; use of air instead -of mercury pumps in producing the vacuum in incandescent -electric lamps.</p> - -<p>Dealing further with the sanitation of the factory and workshop -after personal cleanliness, the next most important measure -is cleanliness of the workroom and purity of the air. Workrooms -should be light and lofty; and have floors constructed of smooth -impervious material easily kept clean. The walls should be -lime-washed or painted with a white oil paint. Angles and -corners which can harbour dirt should be rounded. Cleansing -requires to be done as carefully and as often as possible, preferably -by washing down or by a vacuum cleaner. Saturation -of the floor with dust oil is recommended by some authorities -in trades where poisonous dust is developed and is permitted -as an alternative to the methods described. I refrain from -expressing an opinion on this method of laying dust, since by -adoption of the practice insistence on the need for removal of -the poisonous material from the workrooms loses its force—a -thing, in my opinion, to be deprecated.</p> - -<p>The necessity of keeping the atmosphere of workrooms -pure and fresh makes it essential that there should be sufficient -cubic space per person and that proper circulation of the air -should be maintained. The minimum amount of cubic space -legally fixed in many countries—10-15 cubic metres—is a -minimum and should be greatly exceeded where possible. -Natural ventilation which is dependent upon windows, -porosity of building materials, cracks in the floors, &c., -fails when, as is desirable for purposes of cleanliness, walls -and floors are made of smooth impermeable material, and -natural ventilation will rarely supply the requisite cubic feet -of fresh air quickly enough. Ordinarily, under conditions -of natural ventilation, the air in a workroom is renewed in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[244]</a></span> -from one to two hours. Artificial ventilation therefore becomes -imperative. Natural ventilation by opening windows and doors -can only be practised in intervals of work and as a rule only -in small workrooms. During work time the draught and -reduction of temperature so caused produce discomfort.</p> - -<p><i>Artificial ventilation</i> is effected -by special openings and ducts -placed at some suitable spot in the -room to be ventilated and arranged -so that either fresh air is introduced -or air extracted from the -room. The first method is called -propulsion, the latter exhaust ventilation. -Various agencies will produce -a draught in the ventilating -ducts, namely, difference of temperature -between the outside and -inside air, which can be artificially -strengthened (<i>a</i>) by utilising the -action of the wind, (<i>b</i>) by heating -the air in the exhaust duct, (<i>c</i>) by -heating apparatus, and (<i>d</i>) by -mechanical power (use of fans).</p> - -<p>Where advantage is taken of -the action of the wind the exit -to the ventilating duct must be -fitted with a cowl.</p> - -<p>The draught in pipes is materially -increased if they are led -into furnace flues or chimneys; in -certain cases there is advantage -in constructing perpendicular -ventilating shafts in the building -extending above the roof and fitted -with cowls. Combination of heating and ventilation is very -effective.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 150px;" id="fig45"> - -<img src="images/fig45.jpg" width="150" height="400" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 45.</span>—Steam Injector (<i>after -Körting</i>), showing steam injector -and air entry</p> - -</div> - -<p>In workrooms, however, where there is danger of poisoning -by far the most effective method of ventilation is by means of -fans driven by mechanical power. All the means for securing -artificial ventilation hitherto mentioned depend on a number of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[245]</a></span> -factors (wind, difference of temperature, &c.), the influence of -which is not always in the direction desired. Exact regulation, -however, is possible by fans, and the quantity of air introduced -or extracted can be accurately calculated beforehand -in planning the ventilation. In drawing up such a plan, -detailing the arrangement, proportions of the main and branch -ducts, expenditure of power, &c., a ventilating engineer should -be consulted, as it is his business to deal with complicated -problems of ventilation depending -entirely for success on the design -of the ventilation.</p> - -<p>Injectors are usually only employed -for special technical or -economical reasons. A jet of -steam or compressed air which -acts on the injector creates a -partial vacuum and so produces -a powerful exhaust behind. <a href="#fig45">Fig. -45</a> shows the mechanism of -an injector. They are used for -exhausting acid fumes which -would corrode metal fans and -pipes, and for explosive dust -mixtures where fans are inadmissible.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 325px;" id="fig46"> - -<img src="images/fig46.jpg" width="325" height="400" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 46.</span>—Propeller Fan coupled -to Electromotor (<i>Davidson & -Co., Ltd.</i>)</p> - -</div> - -<p>In the industries described in this book fans are most -commonly used. These are, in the main, wheels with two -or more wing-shaped flattened blades. Some are encased, -others are open and fitted by means of annular frames in the -ducts according to the intended effect and kind of fan. Fans are -of two kinds, propeller and centrifugal, and, according to the -pressure they exert, of low, medium, or high pressure. They -are now often driven electrically, in which case there is advantage -in coupling them directly with the motor.</p> - -<p><i>Propeller fans</i> have curved screw-shaped blades and are -set at right angles in the duct upon the column of air in which -they act by suction. The air is moved in the direction of the -axis of the fan, and generally it is possible, by reversing the -action, to force air in instead of extracting it. The draught -produced is a low-pressure one (generally less than 15 mm. of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[246]</a></span> -water). The current of air set in motion travels at a relatively -slow speed, yet such fans are capable, when suitably proportioned, -of moving large volumes of air. Propeller fans are -specially suitable for the general ventilation of rooms when -the necessary change of air is not being effected by natural -means.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 325px;" id="fig47"> - -<img src="images/fig47.jpg" width="325" height="400" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 47.</span>—The Blackman (Belt-driven) Fan.</p> - -</div> - -<p><i>Centrifugal</i> or <i>high-pressure fans</i> (see figs. <a href="#fig48a">48<span class="smcap">a</span></a> and <a href="#fig48b">48<span class="smcap">b</span></a> ) are -always encased in such a way that the exhaust ducts enter -on one or both sides of the axis. The air thus drawn in is -thrown by the quickly rotating numerous straight blades to -the periphery and escapes at the outlet. The centrifugal fan -travels at a great speed, and the air current has therefore great -velocity and high pressure. When the pressure is less than -120 mm. it is described as a medium, and when greater, a high-pressure -fan. For the former a galvanised iron casing suffices; -for the latter the casing requires to be of cast iron. Medium -pressure centrifugal fans are used to exhaust dust or fumes -locally from the point at which they are produced. They -play a great part in industrial hygiene.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[247]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;" id="fig48a"> - -<img src="images/fig48a.jpg" width="400" height="325" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 48a.</span>—‘Sirocco’ Centrifugal Fan</p> - -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;" id="fig48b"> - -<img src="images/fig48b.jpg" width="400" height="375" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 48b.</span>—Showing exhaust aperture and fan blades</p> - -</div> - -<p>High-pressure fans are used mainly for technical purposes, -as, for example, the driving of air or gas at high pressure. -Localised ventilation is needed to limit diffusion of dust -and fumes, which is attained in a measure also by separation -of those workrooms in which persons come into contact -with poisonous materials from others. Separation of workrooms, -however, is not enough, as it is the individual who -manipulates the poison for whom protection is desired. To -enclose or hood over a dusty machine or fume-producing -apparatus completely, or to close hermetically a whole series -of operations by complicated technical arrangements, is only -possible when no opening or hand feeding is required. -Dangerous substances can only be wholly shut in by substitution -of machinery for handwork.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[248]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;" id="fig49"> - -<img src="images/fig49.jpg" width="700" height="475" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 49.</span>—Localised Exhaust Ventilation in a Colour Factory (<i>Sturtevant Engineering Co., Ltd.</i>)</p> - -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[249]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;" id="fig50"> - -<img src="images/fig50.jpg" width="500" height="275" alt="" /> - -<table> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">Fig. 50a.</span></td> - <td><span class="smcap">Fig. 50b.</span></td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p class="caption">Ball Mills</p> - -</div> - -<p>Where, however, absolute contact is unavoidable the dust -or fume must be carried away at its source. This is done by -exhaust ventilation, locally applied, in the following manner: -A suitable hood or air guide of metal or wood is arranged -over the point where the dust is produced, leaving as small an -opening as possible for necessary manipulations. The hood -is connected with a duct through which the current of air -travels. An exhaust current dependent upon heat will only -suffice in the case of slight development of dust or fumes. -As a rule exhaust by a fan is necessary. Where exhaust -ventilation has to be arranged at several points all these are -connected up by branch ducts with the main duct and centrifugal -fan. Where the ducts lie near the floor it is advisable -to fix adjustable openings in them close to the floor to remove -the sweepings.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;" id="fig51"> - -<img src="images/fig51.jpg" width="400" height="600" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 51.</span>—Ventilated Packing Machine (<i>after Albrecht</i>)</p> - -<p class="caption"><i>A</i> Worm; <i>B</i> Collector; <i>D</i> Fan; <i>E</i> Filter bag; <i>J</i>, <i>F</i> Movable shutters; -<i>H</i> Jolting arrangement</p> - -</div> - -<p>It is important for the exhaust system of ventilation to be -designed in general so that the dust is drawn away from the -face of the worker downwards and backwards. Many horrible<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[250]</a></span> -arrangements are found in which the dust is first aspirated past -the mouth and nose before it is drawn into a hood overhead. -The proportions of the branch pipes to the main duct require to -be thought out, and friction and resistance to the flow must be -reduced as far as possible by avoidance of sharp bends. Branch -pipes should enter the main duct at an angle of thirty<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[251]</a></span> -degrees. A completely satisfactory system requires very special -knowledge and often much ingenuity when the apparatus is -complicated.</p> - -<p>Disintegrators and edge runners can generally be covered in -and the cover connected with an exhaust. Ball mills, when -possible, are best as the rotating iron cylinder containing the -steel balls and the material to be pulverised is hermetically -closed.</p> - -<p>Powdered material can be carried mechanically from one -place to another by worms, screws, endless bands, or be driven -in closed pipes by means of compressed air. The inevitable -production of dust in packing can be avoided by the use of -ventilated packing machines, which are especially necessary -in the case of white lead, bichromates, basic slag, &c.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;" id="fig52"> - -<img src="images/fig52.jpg" width="400" height="250" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 52.</span></p> - -</div> - -<p>The difficulty is great in preventing dust in sieving and -mixing, since this is mainly done by hand. Still here, for -example, by use of cases with arm-holes and upper glass cover, -injury to health can be minimised. Benches with a wire screen -and duct through which a downward exhaust passes are useful -in sorting operations (<a href="#fig52">fig. 52</a>).</p> - -<p><a href="#fig53">Fig. 53</a> illustrates a grinding or polishing wheel fitted with -localised exhaust.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[252]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 475px;" id="fig53"> - -<img src="images/fig53.jpg" width="475" height="700" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 53.</span>—Removing Dust from Bobs and Mops (<i>James Keith & Blackman Co., -Ltd. By permission of the Controller of H.M. Stationery Office</i>)</p> - -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[253]</a></span></p> - -<p>To prevent escape of injurious gases all stills and furnaces -must be kept as airtight as possible and preferably under a -slight negative pressure. Agitators must be enclosed and -should be fitted with arrangements for carrying on the work -mechanically or by means of compressed air and, if necessary, -exhaust ventilation applied to them. The aim should be to -enclose entirely drying and extracting apparatus.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;" id="fig54"> - -<img src="images/fig54.jpg" width="500" height="375" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 54.</span>—‘Cyclone’ Separator (<i>Matthews & Yates, Ltd.</i>)</p> - -</div> - -<p>An important question remains as to what shall be done with -the dust and fumes extracted. In many cases they cannot -be allowed to escape into the atmosphere outside, and in the -interests of economy recovery and utilisation of the waste -is the thing to aim at. This vital subject can only receive -barest mention here. The dust or fumes extracted require -to be subjected to processes of purification with a view to -recovery of the often valuable solid or gaseous constituents -and destruction of those without value.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[254]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;" id="fig55"> - -<img src="images/fig55.jpg" width="500" height="525" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 55a.</span> <span class="smcap">Fig. 55b.</span></p> - -<p class="caption">Dust-filter of Beth-Lübeck (<i>after Albrecht</i>)</p> - -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;" id="fig56"> - -<img src="images/fig56.jpg" width="500" height="250" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 56.</span>—Dust-filter of Beth-Lübeck—Detail</p> - -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[255]</a></span></p> - -<p>Collection of dust may take place in settling chambers as -in a cyclone separator in which the air to be purified is made -to travel round the interior of a cone-shaped metal receptacle, -depositing the dust in its passage (<a href="#fig54">see fig. 54</a>).</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;" id="fig57"> - -<img src="images/fig57.jpg" width="400" height="450" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 57.</span>—Arrangement for Precipitating Dust (<i>after Leymann</i>)</p> - -<p class="caption"><i>A</i> Entry of dust laden air; <i>B</i> Fan; <i>C</i> Purified air; <i>D</i> Pipe carrying -away water and last traces of dust; <i>E</i> Worm carrying away collection of dust.</p> - -</div> - -<p>The most effective method, however, is filtration of the -air through bags of canvas or other suitable fabric as in the -‘Beth’ filter (see figs. <a href="#fig55">55</a> and <a href="#fig56">56</a>). In the ‘Beth’ filter a -mechanical knocking apparatus shakes the dust from the -bag to the bottom of the casing, where a worm automatically -carries it to the collecting receptacle. In the absence of -mechanical knocking the filtering material becomes clogged -and increases the resistance in the system. Contrivances of -the kind unintelligently constructed become a source of -danger to the workers. Dust of no value is usually precipitated -by being made to pass through a tower down which -a fine spray of water falls. If the gases and fumes can be -utilised they are either absorbed or condensed—a procedure -of the utmost importance for the protection of the workers.</p> - -<p>Condensation of the gases into a liquid is effected by -cooling and is an essential part of all processes associated -with distillation. The necessary cooling is effected either -by causing the vapours to circulate through coils of pipes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[256]</a></span> -surrounded by cold water or by an increase in the condensing -surface (extension of walls, &c.), and artificial cooling of the -walls by running water.</p> - -<p>Absorption of gases and fumes by fluids (less often by -solid substances) is effected by bubbling the gas through -vessels filled with the absorbing liquid or conducting it through -towers (packed with coke, flints, &c.), or chambers down or -through which the absorbent flows. Such absorption towers -and chambers are frequently placed in series.</p> - -<p>The material thus recovered by condensation and absorption -may prove to be a valuable bye-product. Frequently the -gases (as in blast furnace gas, coke ovens, &c.) are led away -directly for heating boilers, or, as in the spelter manufacture, -to make sulphuric acid.</p> - -<h3 id="PARTICULAR_INDUSTRIES">V<br /> -<span class="smaller"><i>PREVENTIVE REGULATIONS FOR CHEMICAL INDUSTRIES</i></span></h3> - -<h4>Sulphuric Acid Industry</h4> - -<p class="center">(See also pp. <a href="#Page_4">4-14</a> and <a href="#Page_171">171</a>)</p> - -<p>Danger arises from escape of acid gases or in entering -chambers, towers, containers, &c., for cleaning purposes. -The whole chamber system, therefore, requires to be impervious -and the sulphur dioxide and nitrous gases utilised to -their fullest extent—a procedure that is in harmony with -economy in production. The pyrites furnace must be so -fired as to prevent escape of fumes, which is best attained by -maintenance of a slight negative pressure by means of fans. -The cinders raked out of the furnace because of the considerable -amount of sulphur dioxide given off from them should -be kept in a covered-in place until they have cooled. Any -work on the towers and lead chambers, especially cleaning -operations, should be carried out under strict regulations. Such -special measures for the emptying of Gay-Lussac towers have -been drawn up by the Union of Chemical Industry. Before -removal of the sediment on the floor they require a thorough<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[257]</a></span> -drenching with water, to be repeated if gases are present. -Perfect working of the Gay-Lussac tower at the end of the -series of chambers is essential to prevent escape of acid gases. -In a well-regulated sulphuric acid factory the average total -acid content of the final gases can be reduced to 0·1 vol. per -cent. Under the Alkali Works Regulation Act of 1881 the -quantity was limited to 0·26 per cent. of sulphur dioxide—and -this should be a maximum limit.</p> - -<p><i>Entering and cleaning out chambers and towers</i> should only -be done, if practicable, by workmen equipped with breathing -apparatus, and never without special precautionary measures, -as several fatalities have occurred at the work. Towers, -therefore, are best arranged so as to allow of cleaning from the -outside; if gases are noticed smoke helmets should be donned. -The same holds good for entering tanks or tank waggons. -After several cases of poisoning from this source had occurred -in a factory the following official regulations were issued:</p> - -<div class="blockquote"> - -<p>The deposit on the floor of waggons or tanks shall be -removed either by flushing with water without entering the -tank itself, or if the tank be entered the deposit is to be -scooped out without addition of water or dilute soda solution.</p> - -<p>Flushing out shall only be done after the workmen have -got out.</p> - -<p>Workmen are to be warned every time cleaning is undertaken -that poisonous gases are developed when the deposit -on the floor is diluted.</p> - -<p>Acid eggs, further, are to be provided with a waste pipe -and manhole to enable cleaning to be done from outside.</p> - -</div> - -<p>The poisoning likely to arise is partly due to arsenic impurity -(development of arseniuretted hydrogen gas) in the sulphuric -acid used. Unfortunately arsenic free acid is very difficult to -obtain.</p> - -<h4>Hydrochloric Acid—Saltcake and Soda Industries</h4> - -<p class="center">(See also pp. <a href="#Page_15">15-23</a> and <a href="#Page_170">170</a>)</p> - -<p>Preventive measures here depend upon observance of -the general principles already discussed.</p> - -<p>The <i>saltcake pan</i> and reverberatory furnace require to be -accurately and solidly constructed and the process carefully<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[258]</a></span> -regulated. Regulations indeed were drawn up at an early -date in England as to their working to prevent escape of -gases when adding the acid, raking over in the reverberatory -furnace, and withdrawal of the still fuming saltcake.</p> - -<p>The following are the most important of these recommendations:</p> - -<div class="blockquote"> - -<p>The saltcake pan must not be charged when overheated.</p> - -<p>Sulphuric acid shall be added only after all the salt has -been charged and the door shut.</p> - -<p>If hydrochloric acid fumes escape at the door when the -Glover acid flows in the flow must be interrupted.</p> - -<p>All doors must be closed while work is in progress.</p> - -<p>Definite times shall be fixed for withdrawal of the saltcake -in order to try and ensure that it be not still fuming, but -should this be the case cold sulphate of soda shall be -sprinkled over it.</p> - -</div> - -<p>The general principle should be observed of maintaining -a slight negative pressure in the furnace by insertion of a fan -in the gas conduit so as to avoid possible escape of gas. The -fuming saltcake is best dealt with by depositing it at once to -cool in ventilated receptacles or chambers.</p> - -<p>On grounds of economy and hygiene as complete an -absorption as possible of the hydrochloric acid gas developed -in the saltcake and soda ash process is to be aimed at, -by conveying it through impervious conduits to the -bombonnes and lofty absorption tower filled with coke or -flints down which water trickles. The entire loss of hydrochloric -acid should not amount to more than 1·5 per cent. of -the whole. Under the Alkali Act at first 5 per cent. was -allowed, but this is excessive now in view of improved methods -of condensation.</p> - -<p>In the <i>Leblanc</i> process the revolving furnace is on health -grounds to be preferred to the hand furnace. Such a furnace -occupies the space of but three hand furnaces and can -replace eighteen of them. The vast accumulation of waste, -consisting mainly of calcium sulphide, and generating sulphuretted -hydrogen gas in such amount as to constitute a -nuisance, is only partially prevented by the Chance-Claus -and other methods of recovery, and makes it most desirable -to adopt the Solvay ammonia process.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[259]</a></span></p> - -<p><i>Note.</i>—<i>Sulphonal, Oxalic acid, Ultramarine, Alum.</i>—The -production of <i>sulphonal</i> is intensely unpleasant owing to the -disagreeable smell (like cats’ excrement) of the mercaptan -developed. All work therefore must be carried on in air-tight -apparatus under negative pressure and careful cooling. Any -escaping fumes must be absorbed in solution of acetone and -fine water spray.</p> - -<p>Preparation of <i>oxalic acid</i> unless carried on in closed-in -vessels gives rise to injurious and troublesome fumes. If -open pans are used, hoods and ducts in connection with a fan -should be placed over them.</p> - -<p>Grinding of <i>ultramarine</i> and <i>alum</i> requires to be done in -closed-in mills, and any dust drawn away by locally applied -ventilation and filtered. The gases given off in the burning -process contain 3 per cent. of sulphur dioxide, which requires -to be absorbed—a procedure most easily effected in towers -where the upstreaming gas comes into contact with a dilute -solution of lime or soda.</p> - -<h4>Chlorine, Bleaching Powder, Chlorine Compounds</h4> - -<p class="center">(See also pp. <a href="#Page_23">23-9</a> and <a href="#Page_173">173</a>)</p> - -<p>What has been said as to imperviousness of apparatus, -negative pressure maintained by the tall chimney stack or -earthenware or fireclay fan, &c., applies equally here. The -exhaust ventilation is also required to aspirate the gas into -the bleaching chambers.</p> - -<p>At the end of the system there must be either a tower -packed with quicklime to absorb the last traces of chlorine or -such a number of bleach chambers into which the gas can -be led that no chlorine escapes. Production of chlorine gas -electrolytically is to be preferred to other processes on hygienic -grounds.</p> - -<p>Careful cleanliness is the best prophylactic against occurrence -of <i>chlorine rash</i> among persons employed in the electrolytic -production of chlorine. In some factories attempt has -been made to use other substances (magnetite) instead of -carbon for the anode, and the success attending their adoption -is further proof that the tar cement at the anode helped to -cause the acne.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[260]</a></span></p> - -<p>In the <i>Weldon</i> process care must be taken that the water -lutes are intact, and the stills must not be opened before -the chlorine has been drawn off. All processes in which -manganese dust can arise (grinding of manganese dioxide -and drying of Weldon deposit) should be done under locally -applied exhaust. The <i>bleaching powder</i> chambers must be -impervious and care taken that they are not entered before -the chlorine has been absorbed. Usually the number of lime -chambers connected up with each other is such that no chlorine -escapes free into the air. Emptying of the finished product -should not be done by hand, as considerable quantities of -chlorine escape and make the work extremely irksome. -Mechanical methods of emptying should be adopted in substitution -for hand labour, and of these the Hasenclever closed-in -apparatus is the best.</p> - -<h4>Nitric Acid and Explosives</h4> - -<p class="center">(See also pp. <a href="#Page_39">39-49</a> and <a href="#Page_172">172</a>)</p> - -<p>In the production of <i>nitric acid</i> complete imperviousness of -the system and as complete condensation of the gases as -possible by means of tourilles, cooling condensers, and the -requisite number of towers are necessary. The method -suggested by Valentine of manufacture of nitric acid in -apparatus under a partial vacuum has advantages from a -hygienic standpoint. Earthenware fans are used to force -the nitric acid gases onwards and have the advantage of -creating a negative pressure. Great care is needed in -handling, emptying, packing, conveying, and storing the -acid in consequence of the danger from breaking or spilling. -The bottles used must be in perfect condition and must be well -packed. No greater stock of nitric acid should be allowed -in a room than is absolutely necessary, and care must be -exercised in the event of a carboy breaking that the spilt acid -does not come into contact with organic substances, as that -would increase development of nitrous fumes.</p> - -<p>Workers must be warned not to remain in rooms in which -acid has been spilt. They are only to be entered by workers -equipped with breathing apparatus (smoke helmets).</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[261]</a></span></p> - -<p>Among the special regulations on the subject may be -mentioned those of the Prussian Ministerial Decree, dated -January 8, 1900, concerning nitrous fumes and means of -protection for workers employed with the acid. What has -been said on p. <a href="#Page_257">257</a> in regard to the transport of sulphuric -acid applies equally to nitric acid.</p> - -<p>In the <i>nitrating</i> process in the manufacture of explosives -(see p. <a href="#Page_47">47</a>) it is essential that the apparatus is hermetically -closed, that agitation is done mechanically, or better still -by means of compressed air, and that any fumes developed -are exhausted and condensed. In the preparation of <i>nitro-glycerin</i> -(see p. <a href="#Page_46">46</a>) the gases developed in the nitration of -the waste acid require to be carefully condensed. Contact -of nitro-glycerin with the skin has to be avoided and the -attention of the workers drawn to the danger. Preparation -of <i>gun cotton</i> (see p. <a href="#Page_48">48</a>) takes place in machines which are -at the same time nitrating and centrifugalising machines. -The apparatus is first filled with the nitrating acid and the -cotton added; the fumes are drawn off by earthenware -ducts and fans, and lastly the bulk of the acid is removed by -centrifugal action. Such machines carry out effectually the -principles of industrial hygiene.</p> - -<p>In the preparation of <i>fulminate of mercury</i> nitrous fumes, -cyanogen compounds, and acetic acid compounds are developed -by the action of the nitric acid on mercury, and require to -be dealt with by exhaust ventilation.<a name="FNanchor_7" id="FNanchor_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7" class="fnanchor">[G]</a></p> - -<h4>Artificial Manures, Fertilizers</h4> - -<p class="center">(See also pp. <a href="#Page_53">53</a> and <a href="#Page_54">54</a>)</p> - -<p>In grinding phosphorite and superphosphates, corrosive -dust is produced. All grinding operations must, therefore, be -carried out automatically in closed apparatus (ball mills, -disintegrators, &c.). In making the phosphorite soluble by -treatment with sulphuric acid, and subsequent drying of the -product, corrosive hydrofluoric acid gas is developed, which -requires to be carried away by an acid proof exhaust fan, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[262]</a></span> -condensed in a tower by water (<a href="#fig58">see fig. 58</a>). The modern -revolving drying machines are especially serviceable.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;" id="fig58"> - -<img src="images/fig58.jpg" width="500" height="550" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 58.</span>—Washing tower for hydrofluoric acid (<i>after Leymann</i>.)</p> - -</div> - -<p>In the production of <i>basic slag</i> corrosive dust is given off, -causing ulceration of the mucous membrane. Grinding and -other manipulations creating dust must be carried on in -apparatus under local exhaust ventilation. The following—somewhat -shortened—are the German Imperial Regulations, -dated July 3, 1909, for basic slag factories.</p> - -<div class="blockquote"> - -<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Basic Slag Regulations</span></p> - -<p>1. Workrooms in which basic slag is crushed, ground, or -stored (if not in closed sacks) shall be roomy and so arranged -as to ensure adequate change of air. Floors shall be of impervious -material allowing of easy removal of dust.</p> - -<p>2. Preliminary breaking of the slag by hand shall not be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[263]</a></span> -done in the grinding rooms, but either in the open air or in open -sheds.</p> - -<p>3. Slag crushers, grinding mills, and other apparatus shall -be so arranged as to prevent escape of dust as far as possible -into the workrooms. They shall be provided with exhaust -ventilation and means for collecting the dust if this cannot be -done in the absence of dust.</p> - -<p>4. Arrangements shall be made whereby barrows conveying -material to the grinding mills shall be emptied directly into -partially hooded hoppers provided with exhaust ventilation so as -to prevent escape of dust into the workrooms.</p> - -<p>5. The casing and joints of the grinding mills, ducts, dust -collectors and sieves shall be airtight; if leaks are noticed they -must be repaired forthwith.</p> - -<p>6. Ducts, dust collectors and sieves shall be so arranged as -to enable periodical cleansing to be undertaken from the outside.</p> - -<p>7. Repairs of the plant mentioned in Para. 5 in which workers -are exposed to inhalation of slag dust shall be entrusted by the -occupier only to such workers as wear respirators supplied for -the purpose or other means of protecting mouth and nostrils -such as wet sponges, handkerchiefs, &c.</p> - -<p>8. Emptying of slag powder from the grinding mills and -dust collectors and transference to the store rooms shall only -be done in accordance with special regulations designed to -minimise dust.</p> - -<p>9. Filling slag powder into sacks from the outlets of the -mills, elevating and discharging it into receptacles shall only -be done under efficient exhaust ventilation.</p> - -<p>10. Sacks in which the powder is transported and piled in -heaps shall be of a certain defined strength to be increased in -the case of sacks to be piled in heaps more than 3½ metres in -height. Special rooms separated from other workrooms shall be -provided for storage of slag powder in sacks. Only the sacks -representing the previous day’s production may be stored in the -grinding rooms.</p> - -<p>Basic slag in powder and not in sacks shall be kept in -special storage rooms shut off entirely from other workrooms. -No person shall enter such storage rooms when they are -being filled or emptied. Discharging the contents of the sacks -into them shall be done under exhaust ventilation.</p> - -<p>11. The floors of the workrooms described in Para. 1 -shall be cleaned before the commencement of each shift or -in an interval during each shift. No person except those -engaged in cleaning shall be present during the operation. If<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[264]</a></span> -cleaning is effected by sweeping, the occupier shall require the -persons doing it to wear the respirators provided or other -protection for the mouth and nose.</p> - -<p>12. The occupier shall not permit the workers to bring -spirits into the factory.</p> - -<p>13. A lavatory and cloakroom and, separated from them -and in a part of the building free from dust, a meal room shall -be provided. These rooms shall be kept clean, free from dust, -and be heated during the winter.</p> - -<p>In the lavatory and cloakroom water, soap, and towels shall -be provided and adequate arrangements shall be made for keeping -the clothing taken off before commencing work.</p> - -<p>The occupier shall give the persons employed opportunity -to take a warm bath daily before leaving work in a bathroom -erected inside the factory and heated during the winter.</p> - -<p>14. No woman or male young person under eighteen years -of age shall work or remain in a room into which basic slag is -brought.</p> - -<p>Persons under eighteen years of age shall not be employed in -beating sacks which have contained basic slag.</p> - -<p>15. No person employed in breaking or grinding, emptying, -packing, or storing basic slag, shall work more than ten hours -daily.</p> - -<p>There shall be intervals during working hours amounting -in the aggregate to two hours, one of them lasting at least an -hour. If duration of employment daily is limited to seven -hours with never longer than four hours’ work without an -interval, only one interval of at least one hour is required.</p> - -<p>16. For work mentioned in Para. 15 no person shall -be employed without a certificate from an approved surgeon -stating that he is free of disease of the lungs and not alcoholic. -The occupier shall place the supervision of the health of the -workers under a surgeon who shall examine them at least once -a month for signs of disease of the respiratory organs and -alcoholism. Workers engaged in the operations mentioned in -Para. 15 shall be suspended from employment when the -surgeon suspects such illness or alcoholism. Those showing -marked susceptibility to the effect of basic slag dust shall be -permanently suspended.</p> - -<p>17. A health Register shall be kept in which shall be entered -the precise employment, duration of work, and state of health -of the persons employed.</p> - -<p>18. The occupier shall obtain a guarantee from the workers -that no alcohol or food shall be taken into the workrooms.</p> - -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[265]</a></span></p> - -<h4>Preparation of Hydrofluoric Acid</h4> - -<p class="center">(See also pp. <a href="#Page_37">37</a> and <a href="#Page_171">171</a>)</p> - -<p>The fumes given off in the preparation of hydrofluoric acid -require to be collected in leaden coolers and vessels; that -which escapes requires to be absorbed by a water spray in -towers. The apparatus must be impervious and kept under a -slight negative pressure.</p> - -<h4>Chromium Compounds</h4> - -<p class="center">(See also pp. <a href="#Page_55">55-8</a> and <a href="#Page_185">185</a>)</p> - -<p>The German Imperial Decree, dated May 16, 1907, contains -the preventive measures necessary in bichromate factories. -According to this, workers suffering from ulceration of the -skin (chrome holes, eczema) are not to be employed except -on a medical certificate that they are free from such affections, -and daily examination for signs of ulceration is enjoined, so -that those affected may receive prompt treatment. Further, -periodical medical examination of the workers is required at -monthly intervals. Respirators (for work in which dust cannot -be avoided), with lavatory, cloakroom, and meal room accommodation, -are to be provided, and also baths. In handling -bichromates wearing of impervious gloves may be necessary, -and smearing the hands and face with vaseline is recommended. -In addition diffusion of dust and fumes must be minimised; -machines in which mixing, crushing, and grinding are done -must be impervious, and provided with exhaust ventilation. -Charging of the furnaces, where possible, should be effected -mechanically and the fumes developed both in manipulation -of the furnaces and from hot bichromate liquor removed by -an exhaust.</p> - -<p>A leaflet containing directions for workers coming into -contact with chromium compounds in chemical factories, -dyeing, tanning, wood staining, calico printing, wall paper -printing, painting, &c., has been drawn up by Lewin. It -contains a list of the poisonous chrome compounds and of the -industries in which chrome poisoning occurs, information as to -the action of chrome upon the skin and mucous membrane, and -the preventive measures necessary. Among the last named are:<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[266]</a></span> -smearing the skin with oil, use of impervious gloves, respirators -in work where dust arises, necessity of cleanliness, and periodical -medical examination.</p> - -<p>For the <i>chrome tanning industry</i> the following leaflet was -drawn up by the Imperial Health Office in Berlin, which -succinctly states the measures against chrome poisoning in -these industries and contains much practical information -for the workers:</p> - -<div class="blockquote"> - -<p>In chrome tanning by the two bath process, the first bath -containing potassium bichromate and hydrochloric acid has a -corroding effect upon broken surfaces of the skin (scratches, -chapped hands, eruptions, &c.). In consequence, they develop -into round ulcers (chrome holes) with hard raised edges which -are difficult to heal and go on increasing in size unless work at -the process is temporarily given up. In persons with very -sensitive skin, even though the surface may be intact, handling -the liquor brings on sometimes an obstinate rash (eczema) on -the hands and forearms.</p> - -<p>The solution used in the one bath process has no corrosive -action, but it is a strong poison, just as is the solution of -potassium bichromate of the two bath process. If swallowed, -the solutions cause vomiting, diarrhœa, kidney trouble, and -even death. Chromium compounds can also enter the body -through skin wounds and cause illness.</p> - -<p><i>Prevention.</i>—In order to prevent the occurrence of chrome -ulceration, workers employed with chrome or chrome solutions -must be especially careful in avoiding injury to the skin of the -hands or forearms. This applies especially to workers who -carry the vessels containing bichromate, who weigh and dissolve -the potassium bichromate, or who come into contact with the -tanning liquor or with undressed skins and hides which have -lain in the liquor.</p> - -<p>If, in spite of precautions, eruptions, rashes, or ulceration -occur, all work necessitating contact with corrosive tanning -liquors should be suspended until they are healed.</p> - -<p>In order to reduce risk of action of the liquor on the skin, -workers employed in the process described would do well if, -before commencing work, they carefully smeared hands and -forearms with unsalted lard, vaseline, or the like, and during -work avoided, as much as possible, soiling the bare hands and -arms with the liquor.</p> - -<p>If, nevertheless, a worker has contracted a chrome hole, or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[267]</a></span> -eruption, he should consult a medical man, informing him at -the same time of the nature of his work.</p> - -<p>To avoid internal absorption of chrome, workers preparing -the baths must carefully avoid inhaling the dust of chromium -salts. These and all other workers engaged with the liquors containing -chromium must not take food and drink while at work. -Working suits should be taken off and face and hands washed -with soap before eating or drinking, and before leaving the -factory.</p> - -</div> - -<h4>Petroleum, Benzine</h4> - -<p class="center">(See also pp. <a href="#Page_59">59-64</a> and <a href="#Page_222">222-4</a>)</p> - -<p>As crude petroleum and the higher fractions first distilled -from it affect the skin injuriously, wetting the skin should be -avoided, and careful cleanliness on the part of the workers -enjoined. Workers exposed to the influence of gases escaping -from naphtha springs and wells should be equipped with -breathing apparatus (smoke helmets); this applies to those -who have to enter stills and other apparatus connected with -the distillation of petroleum.</p> - -<p>In the preparation of petroleum by sulphuric acid -sulphur dioxide in great quantity is developed, constituting -a distinct danger to the workers. This process, therefore, -should be carried on in closed vessels furnished with mechanical -stirrers or compressed air agitators. The most suitable -apparatus is that illustrated in <a href="#fig13">fig. 13</a>.</p> - -<p>Petroleum tanks must be thoroughly aired before they are -cleaned and should be entered only by workers equipped with -breathing apparatus. Apparatus containing petroleum and -benzine requires, as far as possible, to be closed in and air tight -(as, for example, in the extraction of fat from bones and oil -seed, in the rubber industry, and in chemical cleaning establishments); -where benzine fumes develop they should be immediately -drawn away by suitably applied exhaust ventilation. -This is necessary, on account of the danger of fire, in chemical -cleaning establishments where purification is effected by means -of benzine in closed drums.</p> - -<p>Regulations for benzine extraction plants are contained in -the Prussian Ministerial Decree, dated January 5, 1909, for -benzine extraction works, and also in that of August 3, 1903, -for dry-cleaning premises, to which last were added ‘Directions<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[268]</a></span> -for safety,’ containing important regulations as to risk from -fire. From our standpoint the following points are of interest: -care is to be taken to provide and maintain exhaust ventilation -directly across the floor. The air, however, must not be -allowed to pass near any fire. Drying rooms especially are to -be lofty and airy, and separated from other workrooms. In -factories with mechanical power the authorities may require -provision of artificial ventilation for the drying rooms. Washing -machines, centrifugalising machines, and benzine rinsing -vessels should be furnished with well-fitting covers to be -removed only for such time as is absolutely necessary for -putting in and taking out the articles to be cleaned, shaken, or -rinsed. The vessels named are to be examined as to their -imperviousness at least once every quarter by a properly -qualified person. The condition in which they are found is -to be noted in a book to be shown to the Factory Inspector -and police authorities on demand.</p> - -<p>Lastly, substitution for benzine of other less poisonous -substances such as carbon tetrachloride has been urged.</p> - -<h4>Phosphorus, Lucifer Matches</h4> - -<p class="center">(See also pp. <a href="#Page_49">49-53</a> and <a href="#Page_190">190</a>)</p> - -<p>In view of the danger of the lucifer match industry, -measures were taken at an early date in almost all civilised -states to guard against phosphorus poisoning, and in many -countries have led to the prohibition of the use of white -phosphorus. Complete prohibition of its manufacture and use -was first enacted in Finland (1872) and in Denmark (1874). -Prohibition was decreed in Switzerland in 1879 (in January -1882 this was revoked, but again enacted in 1893), and in the -Netherlands in 1901. In Germany the law prohibiting the use -of white phosphorus came into force in January 1908, and -runs as follows:</p> - -<div class="blockquote"> - -<p>1. White or yellow phosphorus shall not be employed in the -production of matches and other lighting substances. Lighting -substances made with white phosphorus shall not be kept for -sale, or sold, or otherwise brought on the market. Provided -that this shall not apply to ignition strips which serve for the -lighting of safety lamps.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[269]</a></span></p> - -<p>2. Persons wilfully infringing this law shall be punished by -a fine of 2000 marks. If the infringement occurs through -ignorance the fine shall consist of 150 marks.</p> - -<p>In addition to the fine, all prohibited articles produced, -imported, or brought into the trade shall be confiscated, as well -as the implements used in their production, without reference -to whether they belong to the person convicted or not. If -prosecution or conviction of the guilty party cannot be brought -home, confiscation nevertheless is to be carried out independently.</p> - -</div> - -<p>Roumania and France have a state monopoly of matches; -in these states no white phosphorus matches have been produced -since 1900 and 1898 respectively. France, by the Law -of December 17, 1908, signified concurrence with the International -Convention in regard to the prohibition of the use of -white phosphorus.</p> - -<p>In Sweden and Norway the prohibition of white phosphorus -is in force only for the home trade. A Swedish Decree, dated -December 9, 1896, permitted factories carrying on the manufacture -for export to use white phosphorus, and almost precisely -similar provisions are contained in the Norwegian Decree. -The Swedish Decree, dated March 30, 1900, permits white -phosphorus matches to be exported, but not to be sold in the -country. In Austria difficulties in regard to prohibition of -white phosphorus arose owing to trade conditions (especially in -the East), and the attitude of the states competing in the lucifer -match trade, particularly Italy and Japan. Austria, therefore, -made agreement with international prohibition of white phosphorus, -dependent on the attitude of Japan; since Japan did -not concur, the decision of Austria fell through. When, however, -Italy in the year 1906 joined the Convention, the difficulties -were also overcome in Austria, and by a law similar to -that of Germany, dated July 13, 1909, prohibition of the -manufacture and sale of white phosphorus matches dates -from the year 1912.<a name="FNanchor_8" id="FNanchor_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8" class="fnanchor">[H]</a></p> - -<p>Belgium has refrained from prohibition of white phosphorus, -but on the other hand has passed a series of enactments relating -to the match manufacture, of which the most essential are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[270]</a></span> -here cited, since they characterise the measures which come -into consideration for factories in which white phosphorus is -still employed.</p> - -<div class="blockquote"> - -<p class="center"><i>Royal Decree, dated March 25, 1890, modified by the Royal -Decree, dated February 12, 1895, and November 17, 1902, -concerning employment in lucifer match factories.</i></p> - -<p>1. In match factories where white phosphorus is used, -mixing the paste and drying the dipped matches shall be carried -on in a place specially set apart for the purpose.</p> - -<p>2. Mixing the paste shall be carried on in an entirely closed -vessel or in one connected with an efficient exhaust draught -locally applied.</p> - -<p>The proportion of white phosphorus in the paste shall not -exceed in weight 8 per cent. of the total material, not including -water.</p> - -<p>3. Hoods and ducts communicating with an exhaust -draught shall be installed at the level of the plates for dipping -white phosphorus matches, and over the vessels containing -the paste.</p> - -<p>4. Drying rooms for white phosphorus matches, if entered -by the workers, shall be mechanically ventilated.</p> - -<p>5. Rooms in which phosphorus fumes can arise shall be -lofty and well ventilated, preferably by an exhaust at the -level of the work benches, communicating with the main -chimney stack.</p> - -<p>The workrooms shall be kept clean. No food or drink -shall be taken in them.</p> - -<p>6. In every match factory the workers shall have at their -disposal a special cloak room and suitable and sufficient washing -accommodation, so as to be able to change clothes before -commencing, and at the end of, work, and to wash the hands -and face on leaving.</p> - -<p>Cleanliness will be obligatory upon the workers manipulating -phosphorus paste or matches.</p> - -<p>7. Workers coming into contact with phosphorus paste or -matches shall be examined monthly by a surgeon appointed -by the Minister of Industry, who shall be paid by the occupier.</p> - -<p>Workers having decayed, unstopped teeth, or exhibiting -symptoms of gingivitis or stomatitis, or in poor health at the -time of examination, shall be temporarily suspended from work.</p> - -<p>The surgeon shall enter the results of his monthly examinations -in a prescribed register.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[271]</a></span></p> - -<p>This register shall be shown to the Factory Inspector on -demand.</p> - -</div> - -<p>These decrees are supplemented by further orders regarding -the taking of samples of paste in match factories and store -houses (Royal Orders of March 25, 1890; February 12, 1895; -April 18, 1898; November 17, 1902).</p> - -<p>As is evident from the Belgian enactment, in states where -prohibition of white phosphorus is not in force, palliative -measures only are possible and even then they can only be -enforced in large factories when automatic machinery is used -to eliminate hand labour in dangerous operations. In this -respect the introduction of closed, ventilated, mechanical -mixing apparatus provided with mechanical stirrers, closed -and ventilated mechanical dipping and drying apparatus, are -especially important. Certain modern American machines -carry through the whole complicated process of the phosphorous -match industry automatically. Seeing that prohibition of -white phosphorus is an accomplished fact and that matches -free from risk in their manufacture answer every purpose, -the universal enforcement of the prohibition of white -phosphorus should be striven for in civilised states.</p> - -<h4>Carbon bisulphide</h4> - -<p class="center">(See also pp. <a href="#Page_68">68-71</a> and <a href="#Page_193">193-5</a>)</p> - -<p>Use of carbon bisulphide in the vulcanising of indiarubber -goods by dipping them into the liquid and subsequently -drying them (usually in a current of hot air) causes -development of carbon bisulphide fumes in considerable -quantity, especially if the articles to be dried are laid on -shelves or hung up in the workroom, a procedure which should -never be permitted. Drying must be carried out under local -exhaust ventilation.</p> - -<p>All vessels holding carbon bisulphide used for dipping can -be placed in a wooden channel above the dipping vessels, provided -with openings for manipulation, and connected with an -exhaust system.</p> - -<p>The following are the German Imperial Regulations, dated -March 1, 1902, for vulcanising of indiarubber by means of -carbon bisulphide:</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[272]</a></span></p> - -<div class="blockquote"> - -<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Vulcanising by Means of Carbon Bisulphide</span></p> - -<p>(Notice concerning the erection and management of industrial -premises in which indiarubber goods are vulcanised by means -of carbon bisulphide or chloride of sulphur.)</p> - -<p>The following regulations shall apply in accordance with -paragraph 120 (<i>e</i>) of the Industrial Code:</p> - -<p>1. The floor of such rooms as are used for the vulcanising -of indiarubber goods by means of carbon bisulphide shall not -be lower than the surrounding ground. The rooms shall have -windows opening into the outer air, and the lower halves shall be -capable of being opened so as to render possible sufficient renewal -of air.</p> - -<p>The rooms shall be ventilated by fans mechanically driven. -With the approval of the higher authorities permission to -dispense with mechanical draught may be allowed, provided -that in other ways powerful change of air is secured. With the -approval of the higher authorities special ventilating arrangements -can be dispensed with if the fumes of carbon bisulphide -are removed immediately, at the point where they are produced, -by means of a powerful draught, and in this way purity of the -air be secured.</p> - -<p>2. The vulcanising rooms shall not be used as a dwelling, or -for sleeping in, or for preparing food in, or as a store, or drying -room, nor shall other processes than those of vulcanising be -carried on in them. No persons, except those engaged in vulcanising -processes, shall be allowed in the rooms.</p> - -<p>There shall be at least 20 cubic meters (700 cubic feet) of air -space allowed for each person employed therein.</p> - -<p>3. Only such quantities of carbon bisulphide shall be brought -into the vulcanising rooms as shall serve for the day’s supply. -Further storage shall be made in a special place separate from -the workrooms. Vessels to hold the vulcanising liquid shall be -strongly made, and when filled and not in use shall be well -covered.</p> - -<p>4. Vulcanising and drying rooms shall be warmed only by -steam or hot-water pipes.</p> - -<p>These rooms shall be lighted only by means of strong -incandescent electric lamps.</p> - -<p>Exceptions from paragraphs 1 and 2 may be allowed by -the higher authorities.</p> - -<p>5. Machines intended for vulcanising long sheets of cloth -shall be covered over (<i>e.g.</i>, with a glass casing) so as to prevent -as far as possible the entrance of carbon bisulphide fumes into -the workrooms, and from the casing the air shall be drawn<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[273]</a></span> -away effectually by means of a fan mechanically driven. -Entrance to the space which is enclosed shall only be allowed -in case of defects in the working.</p> - -<p>In cases where a covering of the machine is not practicable -for technical reasons the higher authorities can, if suitable means -of protection are used (especially when the machine is placed -in an open hall, and provided that no person works at the -machine for more than two days a week), allow of exception -to the above arrangement.</p> - -<p>6. Vulcanising of other articles (not mentioned in par. 5), -unless carried out in the open air, shall be done in covered-in -boxes into which the worker need only introduce his hands, and -so arranged as to keep the fumes away from the face of the -worker.</p> - -<p>The air must be drawn away from the box by means of a -powerful draught.</p> - -<p>7. Rule 6 shall apply in vulcanising both the outside and -inside of indiarubber goods. In vulcanising the inside no -worker shall be allowed to suck the fluid through with the -mouth.</p> - -<p>8. The goods after their immersion in the vulcanising fluid -shall not lie open in the room, but shall either be placed -under a ventilated cover or at once be carried into the drying -chamber.</p> - -<p>The drying chamber or drying rooms in which the wares are -exposed to artificial heat immediately after vulcanising shall be -so arranged that actual entrance into them for the putting in -or taking out of the vulcanised goods shall not be necessary. No -person shall be allowed to enter the drying chamber while work -is going on. The higher authorities can permit of exceptions to -this rule in the case of the drying of long rolls if sufficient protecting -arrangements are made.</p> - -<p>9. When vulcanisation is effected by means of chloride of -sulphur the vessels or chambers used for holding it shall be -so arranged that escape of the fumes is prevented.</p> - -<p>No person shall enter the vulcanising chamber until the -air in the chamber has been completely changed; it shall -not be used for purposes other than vulcanising.</p> - -<p>10. Employment in vulcanising with carbon bisulphide or -in other work exposing the workers to carbon bisulphide vapour -shall not be allowed without a break for more than two hours -and in no case for more than four hours in one day; after -two hours a pause of at least one hour must be allowed before -resumption.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[274]</a></span></p> - -<p>No person under 18 years of age shall be employed.</p> - -<p>11. The occupier shall provide all workers employed in work -mentioned in paragraph 10 with proper and sufficient overalls. -By suitable notices and supervision he shall see that when not -in use they are kept in their proper place.</p> - -<p>12. Separate washing accommodation and dressing-rooms -for each sex shall be provided, distinct from the workrooms, -for all persons employed as stated in paragraph 11.</p> - -<p>Water, soap, and towels and arrangements for keeping the -clothes put off before the commencement of work shall be -provided in sufficient amount.</p> - -<p>13. The occupier shall appoint a duly qualified medical -practitioner (whose name shall be sent to the Inspector of -Factories) to supervise the health of those exposed to the -effects of carbon bisulphide. He shall examine the workers -once every month with a view to the detection of poisoning -by carbon bisulphide.</p> - -<p>By direction of the medical practitioner workers showing -signs of carbon bisulphide poisoning shall be suspended from -work and those who appear peculiarly susceptible shall be -suspended permanently from work in processes mentioned in -paragraph 10.</p> - -<p>14. The occupier shall keep a book, or make some official -responsible for its keeping, of the changes in the personnel in -the processes mentioned in paragraph 10 and as to their state -of health. The book shall contain—</p> - -<div class="blockquote"> - -<p>(1) The name of the person keeping the book;</p> - -<p>(2) The name of the appointed surgeon;</p> - -<p>(3) Surname, Christian name, age, residence, date of -first employment, and date of leaving of every worker -mentioned in paragraph 10, and the nature of the employment;</p> - -<p>(4) The date of any illness and its nature;</p> - -<p>(5) Date of recovery;</p> - -<p>(6) The dates and results of the prescribed medical -examination.</p> - -</div> - -<p>15. The occupier shall require the workers to subscribe to -the following conditions:—</p> - -<div class="blockquote"> - -<p>No worker shall take food into the vulcanising rooms;</p> - -<p>The workers shall use the protection afforded in -paragraphs 5-7 and use the overalls in the work named;</p> - -<p>The workers shall obey the directions of the occupier -given in accordance with Rule 5, paragraphs 1 and 2, Rule -8, paragraphs 1 and 2, and Rule 9, paragraph 2. Workers<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[275]</a></span> -contravening these orders shall be liable to dismissal -without further notice.</p> - -<p>If in a factory regulations already exist (paragraph 134(a) -of the Industrial Code) the above shall be included.</p> - -</div> - -<p>16. In the vulcanising rooms mentioned in Rule 1 there -shall be posted up a notice by the police stating—</p> - -<div class="blockquote"> - -<p>(<i>a</i>) The cubic capacity of the rooms;</p> - -<p>(<i>b</i>) The number of workers who may be employed.</p> - -</div> - -<p>Further, in every vulcanising room there shall be posted -up in a conspicuous place and in clear characters Rules 1-15 -and the conditions in paragraph 15.</p> - -</div> - -<p>Reference should be made also to the Prussian Ministerial -Decree, dated February 23, 1910, on the preparation, storing, -and manufacture of carbon bisulphide, and to the French -Ministerial Circular, dated January 20, 1909 (Manufacture -of Indiarubber).</p> - -<p>Employment of benzine and chloride of sulphur for -vulcanising is, from a hygienic standpoint, to be preferred to -that of the much more dangerous carbon bisulphide. The -same applies also to the process of the extraction of fat.</p> - -<p>In the references made to general arrangements for the -protection of workers dealing with poisons, stress was laid on -the complete enclosing of extraction apparatus. This applies, -of course, to extraction by means of carbon bisulphide, both on -grounds of economy, health, and risk from fire.</p> - -<p>On account of the risk to health, efforts have been made -to substitute other means of equal efficiency, free from danger. -Such a substitute may be found in <i>carbon tetrachloride</i>. This -extracts well, and dissolves grease spots (like benzine), is not -explosive, is scarcely inflammable, and is less poisonous than -the substances commonly used for extraction. Its employment -is to be recommended on hygienic grounds, but the -relatively high price may stand in the way of its use.</p> - -<h4>Illuminating Gas Industry. Production of Tar and Coke</h4> - -<p class="center">(See also pp. <a href="#Page_71">71-90</a> and <a href="#Page_199">199</a>)</p> - -<p>In illuminating gas factories imperviousness of the whole -working system is especially important from an economical -and hygienic standpoint, since only in this way can danger<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[276]</a></span> -to the working staff be avoided. This applies especially -to the retorts, from which no gas should be allowed to -escape. If the exhaust is working satisfactorily this should -not be possible, as the pressure of the gas in the retorts during -distillation will be a negative one. Correct regulation of -pressure is thus of the greatest importance in the prevention -of poisoning in gas works.</p> - -<p>Further, special precaution is necessary in operations with -gas purifying material containing cyanogen, since otherwise -the workers suffer from the gases developed from the gas -lime.</p> - -<p>Work with gas purifying material should be so arranged -that injurious gases are carried away by suitable ventilating -arrangements. Consideration for the neighbourhood forbids -their discharge into the open air, and forbids also operations -with the gas purifying material in the open air; therefore non-injurious -removal of these gases is necessary.</p> - -<p>Quenching of the coke also should, on account of the -annoyance to the working staff and to lessen nuisance to the -neighbourhood, be carried out so that the fumes are drawn into -the main chimney stack.</p> - -<p>In coke ovens escape of tarry constituents and of poisonous -emanations are prevented by imperviousness of the apparatus, -by sufficiency of the exhaust draught, and especially by -passing the products of distillation, which cannot be condensed, -under a fire, or by absorbing them either with water -or oil.</p> - -<p>Special precautionary measures are needed further in the -distillation of the washing oil, and generally escape of poisonous -emanations must be prevented by the greatest possible imperviousness -of the distillation system and corresponding -regulation of pressure.</p> - -<h4>Gas Motors (Power Gas Stations)</h4> - -<p class="center">(See also pp. <a href="#Page_80">80-5</a>)</p> - -<p>The following points, taken from an Austrian Ministerial -Decree (dated December 2, 1903), for the prevention of -poisoning in power gas works, may be useful:</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[277]</a></span></p> - -<div class="blockquote"> - -<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Power Gas Installations</span></p> - -<p>In mixed gas installations (Dowson, water gas) of the older -system, the way in which the gas is produced causes the -whole apparatus and pipes to be under slight negative pressure, -because the steam required for the process must be blown into -the generator. In these works, therefore, a small special steam -boiler is required and a gas receiver to store the gas.</p> - -<p>In more modern suction generator gas installations the -piston is used to suck in steam and air as well as the gases -arising in the generator and to draw them into the motor -cylinder. Thus the whole system is kept in a condition of -slight negative pressure during the process. While the suction -generator gas system is working, only so much gas is produced -as the motor uses for the time being, so that with this system -there is no greater store of gas than is requisite.</p> - -<p>In such an installation the following rules should be borne -in mind:</p> - -<p>1. All the apparatus (gas pipes, valves, &c.) must be constructed -and maintained in a completely impervious condition. -Any water seals especially which may be in use must receive -attention.</p> - -<p>2. Precautions must be taken to prevent the gases from the -generator passing into the coolers and purifiers when the engine -is at rest.</p> - -<p>3. Care is to be taken when the apparatus is at rest to prevent -any possible subsequent escape of gas into the room where the -apparatus is installed.</p> - -<p>4. The return of explosive gas out of the gas engine into -the gas pipe by failure to ignite or other accident, must be made -impossible.</p> - -<p>5. The apparatus through which the generator is charged -must possess a tightly fitting double valve to prevent escape -of gas into the room during charging.</p> - -<p>6. The pipes for conducting away the unpleasantly smelling -bituminous constituents in the water mixed with sulphuretted -hydrogen from the scrubbers must not communicate with the -workroom.</p> - -<p>7. Precautions must be taken to minimise the danger -during the cleaning of the generator (removal of ashes and -slag).</p> - -<p>8. All stop-cocks and valves are to be so arranged that their -position at any time (open or shut) is clearly visible from outside.</p> - -<p>9. Purifiers with a capacity greater than two cubic meters<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[278]</a></span> -must be provided with appliances which make possible thorough -removal of the gas before they are opened.</p> - -<p>10. The gas washing and cleaning apparatus and pipes are -to be fitted with gauges indicating the pressure existing in them -at any moment.</p> - -<p>11. When a suction gas plant is first installed and also at -times when there is no gas in the pipes and plant between -the generator and the engine, gas must be blown in until all -air is expelled before the engine is set going.</p> - -<p>12. During the cleaning of apparatus and pipes which, when -in action, contain gas, the rooms must be thoroughly ventilated.</p> - -<p>13. Rooms in which suction gas plant is installed must be -of such a height that all the plant and its connections can be -easily reached for cleaning, &c., and be capable of such free -ventilation as to render impossible an accumulation of gas.</p> - -<p>14. These rooms must be separated from living rooms by -a wall without any openings in it. Emanations also must be -prevented as far as possible from entering into living or working -rooms situated over the gas engine.</p> - -<p>15. Erection of apparatus for generating and purifying -suction gas in cellars shall only be allowed if specially effective -ventilation is provided by natural or mechanical means.</p> - -</div> - -<p>Other Regulations are those of the Prussian Ministerial -Decree, dated June 20, 1904, as to the arrangement and -management of suction gas premises.</p> - -<h4><span class="smcap">Acetylene Gas Installations</span></h4> - -<p class="center">(See also pp. <a href="#Page_85">85-7</a>)</p> - -<p>The following regulations for the protection of workers in -acetylene gas installations are taken from the Prussian -Ministerial Decree, dated 2 November, 1897:</p> - -<div class="blockquote"> - -<p>1. Preparation and condensation of acetylene on the one -hand, and liquefaction on the other, must be carried on in -separate buildings.</p> - -<p>2. If the pressure employed for condensation of the gas -exceeds eight atmospheres, this work must take place in a room -set apart for the purpose.</p> - -<p>3. Rooms in which acetylene is prepared, condensed, or -liquefied shall not be used as, nor be in direct connection with, -living rooms. They must be well lighted and ventilated.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[279]</a></span></p> - -<p>4. The carbide must be kept in closed watertight vessels, -so as to ensure perfect dryness and only such quantities shall -be taken out as are needed. The vessels must be kept in dry, -light, well-ventilated rooms; cellar rooms may not be used for -storage purposes.</p> - -<p>5. Crushing of carbide must be done with the greatest -possible avoidance of dust. Workers are to be provided with -respirators and goggles.</p> - -<p>6. Acetylene gasometers must be fitted up in the open air -or in a well-ventilated room, separated from the gas generator. -Every gas receiver must have a water gauge showing the pressure -in the receiver.</p> - -<p>7. Between the gasometer and receiver a gas purifier must -be provided so as to remove impurities (phosphoretted hydrogen, -arseniuretted hydrogen, carbon bisulphide, ammonia, &c.).</p> - -<p>8. Condensation of acetylene gas at a pressure exceeding -ten atmospheres shall only be done in combination with cooling.</p> - -</div> - -<h4><span class="smcap">Distribution and Use of Power and Illuminating Gas</span></h4> - -<p>The Austrian Gas Regulations (of July 18, 1906) contain -general provisions as to impermeability and security of the -gas pipes and the precautions to be observed in their installation. -Special directions follow as to main flues, material, -dimensions, branches, and connections, valve arrangements, -testing of the pipes against leakage, directions for discovering -leaks, and other defects; also the nature of the branch pipes -(dimensions and material), valves, cocks, syphons, water seals, -and pressure gauges. In addition there are directions as to -testing pipes and how to deal with escape of gas, freezing of -pipes, and other mishaps.</p> - -<h4>Ammonia</h4> - -<p class="center">(See also pp. <a href="#Page_90">90-3</a> and <a href="#Page_175">175</a>)</p> - -<p>In the production of ammonia and ammonium salts -(ammonium sulphate) combination of the ammoniacal vapour -with the sulphuric acid is accompanied with the formation of -volatile dangerous gases containing sulphuretted hydrogen -and cyanogen compounds, which produce marked oppression -and sometimes endanger the health of the workers. Drawing-off -these fumes into the furnace (practised sometimes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[280]</a></span> -in small industries) is not advisable, as the sulphuretted -hydrogen is burnt to sulphur dioxide; if it is burnt absorption -of the sulphur dioxide should follow, or working it up into -sulphuric acid (Leymann). Often these gases are freed from -cyanogen compounds and sulphuretted hydrogen by means of -gas purifying materials, such as are used in gas works. The -whole apparatus must be impervious. Where liquids containing -ammonia are used exhaust ventilation is necessary.</p> - -<h4>Cyanogen, Cyanogen Compounds</h4> - -<p class="center">(See also pp. <a href="#Page_93">93-5</a> and <a href="#Page_195">195-7</a>)</p> - -<p>Processes in which cyanogen gas can develop, require to -be done under a powerful exhaust draught.</p> - -<p>In the production of cyanogen compounds possibility of the -escape of hydrocyanic acid (prussic acid) has to be borne in -mind. Such escape is possible in its production from raw -animal products.</p> - -<p>The most careful cleanliness and observance of general -measures for personal hygiene are necessary in factories in -which cyanogen compounds are manufactured or handled. In -crushing cyanide of potassium the workers should wear indiarubber -gloves and respirators. The products should be stored -in closed vessels in dry store rooms set apart for the purpose.</p> - -<p>Modern cyanide of potassium factories which work up -molasses, from which the sugar has been removed, and also -residuary distillery liquors, so far conform with hygienic requirements -that all the apparatus is under negative pressure, -so that poisonous gases cannot escape into the workrooms.</p> - -<h4>Coal Tar, Tar Products</h4> - -<p class="center">(See also pp. <a href="#Page_96">96-119</a>)</p> - -<p>Care must be taken for the removal of injurious gases -developed in the manipulation and use of tar (tar distillation) -and in the processes of cleaning connected therewith. This can -be most effectively done by carrying on the processes in closed -apparatus. Hofmann describes such a factory where all<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[281]</a></span> -mixing vessels in which the distillation products are further -treated are completely closed in, so that even in mixing and -running off, no contact is possible with the material.</p> - -<p>The vessels for holding tar, tar-water, &c., must be impervious -and kept covered. Only the cold pitch and asphalt -should be stored in open pits. The cooling of the distillation -products and residues, so long as they give off poisonous -and strongly-smelling fumes, should be carried out in metal -or bricked receivers. Such directions find a place in the -‘Technical Instructions’ appended to the German Factory -Code. Without doubt, tar is, because of its smell and for -other reasons, unpleasant to handle, and the danger to health -from contact with it is not a matter of indifference. Spilling -of small quantities of tar during transport and other manipulations -can hardly be avoided. Careful cleanliness, therefore, -on the part of workers is strongly urged. It may -be mentioned that if tar is covered with a layer of tar-water, -treatment with acid fluids develops sulphur and -cyanogen compounds, which may affect the workers. Tar -water should, therefore, be separated carefully from the tar -and used for the preparation of ammonia.</p> - -<p>The same remarks as to cleanliness, &c., apply in the -manufacture of felt, lamp-black, and briquettes, with use of tar. -Saturation of felt, and manufacture of tar plaster should be -done in closed apparatus. In the production of lamp-black, -even with a great number of soot chambers, there is escape of -soot causing nuisance to workers and the neighbourhood. -Complete avoidance of this seems to be difficult, so that -measures for personal hygiene must be assured. In briquette -factories it has been found useful to heat the tar by means of -steam instead of by direct fire, which renders possible the use -of a closed apparatus and mechanical stirring.</p> - -<p>In the distillation of tar, during the first distillation period -(first runnings) unpleasant and injurious gases containing -ammonia and sulphur escape from the stills. These should -(according to Leymann) be carried away through closed pipes -branching off from the lower end of the running-off pipe, -either into the furnace (in doing which a possible back flash of -flame is to be guarded against) or be subjected to purification<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[282]</a></span> -by lime or oxide of iron (similar to that in the case of illuminating -gas) with a view to recovery of ammonia and sulphur. -The lower end of the distillation pipes should be U-shaped -so as to form a liquid seal—the pipes for the drawing off of -the gases branching off before the curve. In the later stages -of distillation risk can be checked by careful cooling and -imperviousness of the apparatus.</p> - -<p>Very unpleasant yellow fumes develop in great quantity -when pitch is run off from the hot still. Hence hot pitch should -not be run off into open pitch receptacles, but be cooled first in -closed receptacles.</p> - -<p>The crude products obtained by distillation (light oil, -creosote oil) are subjected to purification consisting in treatment -on the one hand with alkali and on the other with acid -and followed by fractional distillation. In these processes -injurious fumes may develop, therefore they must—as already -mentioned—be carried on in closed vessels provided with -means of escape for fumes and appliances for mechanical -stirring; the fumes drawn off must be led into the chimney -stack.</p> - -<p>In the distillation of brown coal, of tar, and of resin, it is -necessary, as in the distillation of coal tar, to insist above all on -careful cooling and condensation, and thorough absorption of -uncondensed gases in washing towers. Special precautionary -rules are necessary to guard against the danger of entering tar -stills for cleaning purposes. Such directions were approved in -Great Britain in 1904 in view of accidents which occurred in -this way:</p> - -<div class="blockquote"> - -<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Tar Distilling</span></p> - -<p>The following directions<a name="FNanchor_9" id="FNanchor_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9" class="fnanchor">[I]</a> are approved by the Home Office and -are applicable to factories in which is carried on the distillation -of tar for the production of naphtha, light oil, creosote oil, -and pitch.</p> - -<p>1. During the process of cleaning, every tar still should be -completely isolated from adjoining tar stills either by disconnecting -the pipe leading from the swan neck to the condenser -worm, or by disconnecting the waste gas pipe fixed to the worm<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[283]</a></span> -end or receiver. Blank flanges should be inserted between the -disconnections. In addition, the pit discharge pipe or cock at -the bottom of the still should be disconnected.</p> - -<p>2. Every tar still should be ventilated and allowed to cool -before persons are allowed to enter.</p> - -<p>3. Every tar still should be inspected by the foreman or -other responsible person before any workman is allowed to enter.</p> - -<p>4. The inspecting foreman on first entering any tar still or -tank, and all persons employed in tar stills or tanks in which there -are no cross stays or obstructions likely to cause entanglement, -should be provided with a belt securely fastened round the -body with a rope attached, the free end being left with two -men outside whose sole duty should be to watch and draw out -any person appearing to be affected by gas. The belt and rope -should be adjusted and worn in such a manner that the wearer -can be drawn up head foremost and through the manhole and -not across it.</p> - -<p>5. A bottle of compressed oxygen, with mouthpiece, should -be kept at all times ready for use; and printed instructions -as to the use of this bottle, and the method to be employed for -resuscitation by means of artificial respiration should be kept -constantly affixed. A draft of such instructions is appended.</p> - -<p>6. A supply of suitable chemical respirators properly charged -and in good condition should be kept ready for use in case of -emergency arising from sulphuretted hydrogen or certain -poisonous gases. (Granules of carbon saturated with a solution -of caustic soda readily absorb sulphuretted hydrogen and may -be used for charging respirators.)</p> - -<p>7. The use of naked lights should be strictly prohibited in -any portion of the works where gas of an inflammable nature -is liable to be given off.</p> - -<p>8. Each still should be provided with a proper safety valve, -which should at all times be kept in efficient working condition.</p> - -</div> - -<h4><span class="smcap">Gassing</span></h4> - -<div class="blockquote"> - -<p><i>Symptoms.</i>—The first symptoms are giddiness, weakness in the legs, and -palpitation of the heart. If a man feels these he should at once move into -fresh warm air, when he will quickly recover if slightly affected. He should -avoid exposure to cold. He should not walk home too soon after recovery; -any exertion is harmful.</p> - -<p><i>First Aid.</i>—Remove the patient into fresh warm air. Send for the oxygen -apparatus. Send for a doctor. Begin artificial breathing at once if the -patient is insensible and continue it for at least half-an-hour, or until natural<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[284]</a></span> -breathing returns. Give oxygen<a name="FNanchor_10" id="FNanchor_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10" class="fnanchor">[J]</a> at the same time and continue it after -natural breathing returns.</p> - -<p><i>Artificial Breathing</i> (<i>Schäfer Method</i>).—Place the patient face downwards -as shown in the diagrams.</p> - -<p>Kneel at the side of the patient and place your hands flat in the small of -his back with thumbs nearly touching, and the fingers spread out on each -side of the body over the lowest ribs (<i>see</i> Diagram 1).</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> -<img src="images/diagram1.jpg" width="500" height="275" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Diagram 1</span></p> -</div> - -<p>Then promote artificial breathing by leaning forward over the patient -and, without violence, produce a firm, steady, downward pressure (<i>see</i> Diagram -2). Next release all pressure by swinging your body backwards without -lifting your hands from the patient (<i>see</i> Diagram 1).</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> -<img src="images/diagram2.jpg" width="500" height="300" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Diagram 2</span></p> -</div> - -<p>Repeat this pressure and relaxation of pressure without any marked -pause between the movements, <i>about 15 times a minute</i>, until breathing is -established.</p> - -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[285]</a></span></p> - -<p>In my opinion as expressed in the general discussion, use of -breathing apparatus (smoke helmets) with oxygen is strongly -advisable; these implements must be put on before entering the -still.</p> - -<p>In creosoting wood, opening the apparatus and taking out -the steeped wood should only be done when the apparatus is -sufficiently cooled, as otherwise injurious fumes escape.</p> - -<p>In heating asphalt unpleasant fumes arise which should -be drawn off into a furnace, or absorbed by a condenser -charged with oil (Leymann); open pans should be avoided, as -injurious to workers.</p> - -<h4>Organic Dye-stuffs, Coal-Tar Colours.</h4> - -<p class="center">(See also pp. <a href="#Page_107">107-19</a> and <a href="#Page_204">204-15</a>)</p> - -<p>The hygienic measures to be adopted for the prevention of -industrial poisoning in coal-tar colour factories are chiefly -concerned with the poisonous nature on the one hand of the raw -material (benzene, toluene, &c.) and on the other of the intermediate -products (nitrobenzene, aniline, toluidine, &c.) and -the subsidiary substances (chlorine, acids, especially nitric -acid, &c.,) used.</p> - -<p>The most important measures are as follows:</p> - -<p>In purifying the raw materials (benzene, &c.) the distillation -requires to be done under effective cooling and in impervious -apparatus. If injurious solvents are employed (such as -pyridine in the production of anthracene) the manipulations -should be performed in closed apparatus if possible, under -negative pressure. The fumes exhausted should be carefully -condensed by cooling or absorbed by a spray of water or oil.</p> - -<p>In view of the poisonous nature of benzene, the apparatus, -stills, receivers, tanks, tank waggons, &c., should only be -entered for the purpose of cleaning or repairing after preliminary -thorough removal of all residue of benzene, complete isolation -from all similar apparatus near, and thorough ventilation.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[286]</a></span> -Workers entering the stills, &c., should always be equipped with -breathing apparatus (smoke helmets) and with a supply of -oxygen. Other aids, such as safety belts which are held by -helpers, are not here advocated in view of the often sudden -fatal poisoning, especially as the rescuer is easily induced to -spring to the assistance of his unfortunate mate without the -necessary equipment. The frequency of such accidents calls -urgently for the use of breathing apparatus.</p> - -<p>In the manufacture of <i>diazo-</i> and <i>nitroso-compounds</i> and -generally in nitrating operations poisonous nitrous fumes are -developed. By reduction in an acid solution, acid fumes -and singularly pungent-smelling compounds can be given off. -If reduction by means of tin is practised, the arsenic in the tin -can cause evolution of the extremely poisonous arseniuretted -hydrogen gas. In sulphonating, sulphur dioxide can develop; -and sulphuretted hydrogen gas on heating with sulphur or -sulphide of sodium.</p> - -<p>All manipulations should take place in tightly closed-in -apparatus provided with exhaust, and the gases drawn off -should be absorbed or effectively carried away. In the case -of many injurious gases it is not sufficient merely to conduct -them into the flue; they ought to be condensed and got rid of. -Thus acid fumes (nitrous fumes, sulphur dioxide, hydrochloric -acid vapour, chlorine gas) are neutralised by water or milk of -lime, or a solution of soda; ammonia or alcohol by water; -sulphuretted hydrogen and arseniuretted hydrogen by lime -and oxide of iron; aniline, &c., by dilute acids.</p> - -<p>Production of <i>nitrobenzene</i>, by nitrating benzene requires -to be done in closed apparatus, provided with mechanical -agitators. In the subsequent separation of the nitrating acids -from the resulting nitro-compounds, escape of vapourised -nitro-compounds can scarcely be avoided even if closed -apparatus is used. Provision, therefore, must be made for -abundant ventilation of the workrooms. The reduction of the -nitro-compounds (nitrobenzene, nitrotoluene) to aniline -(toluidine) must similarly take place in closed agitating vessels. -Introduction of the iron filings and sulphuric or hydrochloric -acids, also the subsequent saturation with lime, and driving -over of the aniline, &c., with steam, and collection of the distillate, -must take place in completely closed apparatus.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[287]</a></span> -Nevertheless, escape of small quantities of aniline is very -difficult to prevent unless ample ventilation is provided.</p> - -<p>In the production of <i>fuchsin</i> by heating aniline hydrochloride -(toluidine, red oil) with nitrobenzene (formerly arsenic acid) -in closed vessels, furnished with mechanical stirring apparatus -the aniline remaining unconverted after the melting escapes in -the form of steam carrying aniline fumes, even with careful -condensation, so that thorough ventilation and the other general -measures for the protection of workers set forth on pp. <a href="#Page_242">242 -<i>et seq.</i></a> are required.</p> - -<p>Marked injury to health and distress to workers through acid -fumes are sometimes caused by the denitration of the waste -mixture of sulphuric and nitric acids in the nitrating process, -that is, by the separation of nitric acid from the acid mixture. -This denitration takes place usually in the Glover towers of the -lead chamber system which is often associated with the manufacture -of aniline. The mixed nitro-compounds of the waste -acids, however, are often not completely condensed, but pass -through the chambers and Gay-Lussac towers and escape into -the air, whence arises the constant smell of nitrobenzene in -aniline factories (Leymann). In the production of <i>naphthylamine</i> -and recovery of chlorinated products, escaping chlorine -should be led into chloride of lime chambers, hydrochloric -acid fumes into towers to be absorbed by water and milk of -lime or a solution of soda.</p> - -<p>In aniline factories danger can scarcely be wholly avoided, -as the workers, on the one hand, come into contact with -poisonous substances, nitrobenzene, aniline, &c., and on the -other hand, in spite of all technical hygienic measures, can -hardly help breathing in some of the aniline. Apart from the -technical regulations, therefore, there must be insistence on -cleanliness of the workrooms, personal cleanliness on the part -of the workers (washing, baths, working suits, cloak-rooms, &c.). -Besides this, contact with aniline, nitrobenzene, &c., wetting -of the body and clothes with these substances, and, especially -spilling, splashing, and scattering these fluids must be carefully -avoided. The workers require to be suitably instructed as to -the symptoms of nitrobenzene and aniline poisoning, and the -right steps to take, if poisoned. The oxygen apparatus must -always be at hand, ready for use; the workers must be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[288]</a></span> -instructed how to use it. Further, workers, especially those -newly employed, must be under supervision in order that -assistance may be rendered them on the first signs of poisoning; -medical assistance ought to be within easy reach. Workers -also should know of the tendency of aniline to cause cancer of -the bladder.</p> - -<p>Precautions against the poisonous nitro-derivatives of -benzene (nitrophenol, picric acid, &c.), which are in the form -of poisonous dust, must take the form of entirely closed-in -grinding and packing apparatus, or, at all events, removal of -the dust at its source.</p> - -<p>Among official regulations may be mentioned the Prussian -Ministerial Edict, dated December 18, 1908, as to purification -and storage of benzene, and further the Regulations dated -December 13, 1907, and December 30, 1908, in force in Great -Britain for the manufacture of nitro- and amido-derivatives of -benzene, and the manufacture of explosives with use of dinitrobenzene -or dinitrotoluene.</p> - -<h3>VI<br /> -<span class="smaller"><i>PREVENTIVE REGULATIONS—THE EXTRACTION -OF METALS (SMELTING WORK IN GENERAL)</i></span></h3> - -<p>Danger is incurred when the furnace leaks, a condition which -generally occurs in the course of time, or if gases escape during -the necessary manipulations through the working doors. This -can be avoided by maintaining the walls in as air-tight a state -as possible; but as very small leakages are almost unavoidable -the best course is to so regulate the draught in the furnace (by -means of fans) that a slight negative pressure always exists -in it. Naturally, poisonous gases escaping from the furnace -such as sulphur dioxide, carbonic oxide, carbon dioxide, and -hydrocarbons require to be drawn away and rendered harmless. -This can often be done by merely conducting them into -the main flue. Gases containing carbonic oxide possess high -heating capacity, and their escape can usually be prevented by -suitable cupola bells. They can be led away in impervious -conduits and utilised for heating purposes or for driving gas<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">[289]</a></span> -engines. Entering the flues for cleaning or repairing purposes -is especially dangerous; and as it is difficult to isolate one -portion entirely from another, such operations might well -be carried on by persons equipped with breathing apparatus -(smoke helmets or oxygen apparatus).</p> - -<p>In roasting operations handwork can be largely replaced by -furnaces worked mechanically. If the gases generated are rich -in sulphur dioxide they can be utilised for the manufacture of -sulphuric acid or for the production of liquid sulphur dioxide -either directly or after concentration; if not, they must be -rendered harmless by treatment with milk of lime in absorption -towers. Other methods of rendering the sulphur dioxide -(unsuited for manufacture of sulphuric acid) harmless depend -on treatment with minerals containing calcium carbonate, or -magnesium or aluminium hydrate, sodium sulphide, &c. -Sometimes the sulphurous gases are led into blast furnaces -containing oxide of iron and coal (so as to form sulphide of -iron) or are absorbed by means of moist scraps of sheet iron or -brown coal or peat briquettes.</p> - -<p>Use of chlorine compounds in the extraction of metals from -ores (silver, copper) causes evolution of chlorine and hydrochloric -acid vapour. These should be dealt with in absorption -towers. Metallic fumes are collected by suitable condensing -arrangements. Flue dust is retained in flue dust chambers, -but in the cleaning of such condensing flues and chambers -danger to the workers is considerable and they should be -equipped with respirators, working suits, &c. Personal -hygiene must be insisted on.</p> - -<h4>Iron</h4> - -<p class="center">(See also pp. <a href="#Page_146">146-51</a>)</p> - -<p>In blast furnace work, industrial poisoning occurs mainly -from escaping gases rich in carbonic oxide. They may also -contain sulphur dioxide and cyanogen compounds. The high -proportion of carbonic oxide, however, makes these gases -valuable and serviceable, because of their great heating value. -They are, therefore, now led away and utilised, the furnace -being closed by a cupola bell only opened by means of a -mechanical contrivance when charging is necessary; while this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">[290]</a></span> -is being done the ignited blast furnace gases pour out, and the -workers retire from the opening, so that danger to them is -avoided. The construction of a blast furnace with a cupola -bell can be seen in <a href="#fig29">fig. 29</a>. The blast furnace gases are conducted -away by an opening in the side, and pass along special -pipes to be utilised, after having gone through a purifying -process mainly for the removal of flue dust, &c. The gases -serve partly for the heating of the blast for the furnace itself, -and partly for driving the gas engines which serve the electrical -power apparatus, electric lighting, &c., in the works. Through -the rational utilisation of the blast furnace gases, the workers -are protected from their injurious action during the working -of the furnace. Serious gas poisoning, however, occurs not -infrequently to workers who have to enter the gas mains for -cleaning purposes. Workers, therefore, should only be permitted -to enter the flues, &c., a considerable time after the -process has been stopped and after as complete and thorough -a ventilation of the system as is possible.</p> - -<p>Any portion of the gas system which is to undergo cleaning -must be completely isolated. Ventilation is best effected by -the introduction of compressed air. Thus a foundry (in the -Duisburg district) has provided all its cellars and passages, -through which gas pipes pass, and which must be entered during -repairs, with compressed air pipes. It is, however, advisable -that gas conduits should only be entered by workers equipped -with breathing apparatus and oxygen supply. Naturally -adequate instruction of workers and training in first aid are -necessary, as well as a sufficient supply of oxygen in constant -readiness.</p> - -<p>Injurious gases can escape from the furnace during tapping -and slag running; poisonous gases with a disagreeable -odour, from presence of sulphuretted hydrogen, also arise in -granulating the slag, that is, when the fluid slag is led into water -for subsequent use in preparation of cement. These gases -should be collected by hoods, and be carried away as far as -possible.</p> - -<p>In the manufacture of <i>steel</i> by the <i>Bessemer</i> or <i>Thomas-Gilchrist</i> -process, the dark smoke arising out of the converter -during the blowing operation should be drawn off (led into -flues), as it is injurious to health. In the <i>Martin</i> furnaces<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">[291]</a></span> -poisoning may occur, especially when the gas flues are entered -after cessation of work. In letting out the gas in order to stop -the furnaces, the gas and air valves must first be closed and the -outlet valves for gas be opened only after the pipes have been -filled with steam. Steam is to be driven through until the -pipes are quite free from gas, and the system only entered after -it has become thoroughly cooled. If need arises for entering -portions of the system while neighbouring parts are still filled -with gas, the workers employed require to be provided with -breathing apparatus and smoke helmets.</p> - -<p>In the transport of <i>ferro-silicon</i> several cases of poisoning -have occurred. Cautionary regulations, therefore, relating to -this work have been found necessary.</p> - -<p>Such directions are contained in the police regulations of -the Prussian Minister of Trade and Industry respecting the -transport on the Rhine of corrosive and poisonous substances -(dated September 29, 1910).</p> - -<p>It is prescribed: (1) that ferro-silicon be packed in strong -watertight cases of wood or metal; (2) that on the cases -be inscribed, legibly and indelibly, the notice ‘Ferro-silicon. -To be kept dry! With care!’ (3) that the substance be -delivered dry and in dry cases; (4) that the cases be -stored in airy places on the deck of the ship in such a -manner that they are protected from wet.</p> - -<p>Further, care is to be taken that the storage on ships is -done in such a way that possible damage to the material in -which it is packed entails no risk. The harbour authorities -where loading or landing takes place can deal with special -cases as they think fit.</p> - -<p>International regulation as to transport of ferro-silicon in -the spirit of the above regulations would be most desirable in -view of the oversea trade in this substance.<a name="FNanchor_11" id="FNanchor_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11" class="fnanchor">[K]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">[292]</a></span></p> - -<h4>Lead</h4> - -<p class="center">(See also pp. <a href="#Page_120">120-40</a> and <a href="#Page_177">177-82</a>)</p> - -<p>For protection against lead poisoning, the most widely -spread of the slow industrial poisonings, all those measures are -of moment which we have described in our general discussion -on protection against danger from poison in industries, both -personal and general.</p> - -<p>Personal hygiene, especially careful washing after work, -prohibition of eating in workrooms, suitable working clothes, -provision of cloak rooms, meal rooms, baths, &c., are important -and effective measures for the protection of workers against -industrial lead poisoning.</p> - -<p>The worker should naturally be adequately instructed as to -the risk. Appropriate printed notices are especially adapted -for this purpose.</p> - -<p>Further, selection of workers should be made under medical -supervision. Workers who suffer from specific disease which, if -associated with lead poisoning, may prove dangerous, should be -excluded from all contact with lead. Among such illnesses must -be reckoned tuberculosis in all its forms, alcoholism, epilepsy, -tendency to mental disease (nervous disposition, hysteria, -neurasthenia, &c.), rheumatism, and disease of the kidneys.</p> - -<p>Overtime work undoubtedly increases risk; therefore working -hours should be shortened as much as possible, and handwork -replaced by machine work where possible. Young -persons and women especially should be excluded from work in -lead. Alternation of employment also is beneficial and essential -in very dangerous lead work, because the poison accumulates -in the body and only during intervals wherein absolutely -no poison can be absorbed has it time to be eliminated.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">[293]</a></span></p> - -<p>Periodical medical examination by a surgeon is of great -value with systematic entry of the results of examination in a -health register. As bearing on this, early diagnosis is of the -greatest importance, so that workers in whom the first signs -of lead poisoning appear may at once be suspended or transferred -to other work.</p> - -<p>Lead workers should take suitable nourishing food and -avoid particularly alcoholic excess.</p> - -<p>When the danger is due to fumes or dust in the air -the measures prescribed on pages 242-55 apply, particularly -those which aim at keeping the workrooms and the air in -the factories free of them by locally applied exhaust ventilation.</p> - -<p>In order to replace or reduce the use of lead we strongly -advocate the use of non-poisonous, or at any rate less poisonous, -substances, where this can be done without technical difficulties, -as, for instance, carborundum discs instead of lead in polishing -of precious stones, leadless glaze in pottery for lead glaze (so -far as this is possible, as to which see page 319), beds free of -lead (in different industries) for lead beds. In a number of -cases, however, such substitution is impracticable on technical -grounds or can only partially be carried out, as, for example, in -letterpress printing and in the paint and colour industry, in -which the prohibition of lead has often been repeatedly urged. -So far, unfortunately, it must be admitted that repeated -attempts to find a non-poisonous substitute for lead colours, -especially for white lead, of equal value technically, have not -succeeded. Endeavours have been made to substitute for lead, -zinc preparations (zinc white, lithopone, &c.), but hitherto (in -regard to durability, opacity, &c.) with incomplete success.</p> - -<p>Mention must be made of the measures based upon the relatively -non-poisonous nature of lead sulphide. Lead sulphide -is, in spite of various assertions to the contrary, practically -non-poisonous; a fact attributable to its insolubility in water -and weak acids. As lead sulphide is the only non-poisonous -lead compound it is a duty to take advantage of this fact for -purposes of lead prophylaxis.</p> - -<p>Attempts with this end in view were made by the introduction -of sulphur soaps in lead factories. Soaps containing -in large quantity soluble alkaline sulphides convert lead<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">[294]</a></span> -compounds adhering to the skin into black lead sulphide. -The lead compounds are in this way made harmless, and -besides this the worker is impelled to remove the staining -by washing. Such a sulphur soap has been brought into -the market under the name of akremnin soap, but does not -enjoy special popularity with the workmen on account of its -unpleasant smell.</p> - -<p>The struggle against the risks of lead employment has been -going on ever since efforts for the protection of workers were -commenced.</p> - -<p>The International Association for Labour Legislation has -made valuable inquiries in this direction. The question of -lead poisoning had been repeatedly discussed by this Association -and its branches in various countries. The International -Labour Bureau also took up the issue and in 1906—supported -by the Institute for General Welfare in Frankfurt a-M.—offered -a prize for the best treatise on the prevention of industrial -lead poisoning. The outcome of this competition was the -volume compiled by Leymann, ‘Die Bekämpfung der Bleigefahr -in der Industrie’ (published by Fischer, Jena, 1908).</p> - -<p>In connection with the resolution adopted at the third -Congress of the International Association for Labour Legislation -the Union of Social Reform (as the German branch is -called) addressed the Federal Council on the white lead question, -the chief points insisted upon being the need for: (1) regulations -for the house painting industry in pursuance of Section 120 of -the Factory Code; (2) report by the Imperial Health Office on -the practicability of substitutes for lead; (3) exclusion of lead -colours from use in the painting of public buildings; and (4) -treatment of lead poisoning by the State Insurance Office as an -accident entitling to compensation.</p> - -<p>These demands were supported by the central office of the -Society for Promoting the Welfare of Workers, which had as -far back as its seventh conference in 1898 occupied itself with -the question of dangerous trades and especially, at its conference -in 1905, taken up the subject of the protection of workers -against industrial poisoning.</p> - -<p>In Germany these efforts resulted in the passage of a -number of Imperial Regulations for separate lead industries.</p> - -<p>In other countries similar action was set on foot. In<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">[295]</a></span> -Austria, where the subject is of special importance in view of -the part played by lead in the home industries, the Government -undertook to improve the conditions in industries attended -with risk of lead poisoning. For this purpose the Statistical -Office of the Ministry of Commerce and Labour has, since -1904, carried out extensive inquiries into lead and zinc smelting -works, paint and colour factories, the painting and varnishing -trades, letterpress printing, and the ceramic industry. The -results are contained in the volume ‘Lead Poisoning in -Smelting Works and Industries Generally’ (published by -Hölder, Vienna).</p> - -<p>As in Germany and Austria, so also in Great Britain, France, -Switzerland, Belgium, and the Netherlands, regulations in -various lead industries were enforced after previous official -inquiry and report.</p> - -<p>A general code, however, affecting all lead industries has -only been published in one or two states. And yet this would, -in my opinion, be of very great practical value as it is hardly -possible to regulate each single branch of industry.</p> - -<p>In Germany the Regulations dated May 26, 1903, dealing -with lead colours are certainly comprehensive, but relate -primarily to paint factories, and are not, therefore, a general -Order in the sense indicated. In Saxony the decree of June -27, 1901, made notification of lead poisoning compulsory, -and in the subsequent decree of April 16, 1909, prescribed -general measures against lead poisoning. In Switzerland -single cantons have made general regulations. In France, by -a decree dated April 23, 1908 (in pursuance of the general -law of June 12, 1893), all industries attended with risk of -lead poisoning were brought under Regulation.</p> - -<p>We give the provisions of this interesting decree, as it is a -good example of the kind of Regulations we have in mind.</p> - -<div class="blockquote"> - -<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Decree of the President of the French Republic (April 23, -1908) relating to certain industries in which lead -is used</span></p> - -<p>1. In the lead industries hereinafter mentioned, viz.: -smelting, cupellation of argentiferous lead, manufacture of -accumulators, glass-making, manufacture and use of lead -enamels, manufacture of pottery, decoration of porcelain or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">[296]</a></span> -faience, ceramic chromo-lithography, manufacture of lead -alloys, oxides, salts and colours—employers, directors or -managers are required, apart from the general measures prescribed -by the Decree of 29 November, 1904, to take special -measures for protection and health as set forth in the following -sections.</p> - -<p>2. Lead melting pots shall be erected in an airy place -separated from the other workrooms.</p> - -<p>Hoods or other means for the effectual removal of fumes -shall be provided:—</p> - -<p>(<i>a</i>) Over the openings for the run of lead and slag in -lead smelting.</p> - -<p>(<i>b</i>) Before the furnace doors in the manufacture of -lead oxides.</p> - -<p>(<i>c</i>) Above the pots for melting lead or its alloys, in the -other industries enumerated in Section 1.</p> - -<p>3. All work with oxides and other compounds of lead capable -of producing dust shall be done as far as possible when in a damp -condition.</p> - -<p>When this work cannot be done in the presence of water or -other liquid, it shall be carried out by mechanical means, in -covered air-tight apparatus.</p> - -<p>If it is impossible to conform to the requirements of either -of the first two paragraphs of this section, the work shall be -done under a strong draught so arranged that the harmful products -may be intercepted by apparatus suitably placed.</p> - -<p>Finally, if none of these systems is possible the workmen -shall be supplied with respirators.</p> - -<p>4. Oxides and other compounds of lead, whether dry or -damp, in suspension or solution, shall not be handled with the -bare hand. The employer shall at his own expense provide -the workers in these operations with either gloves made of -impervious material such as indiarubber, or suitable appliances, -and shall cause them to be kept in good repair and frequently -cleaned.</p> - -<p>5. Tables on which these products are handled shall be -covered with some impervious material, kept in a perfectly -water-tight condition.</p> - -<p>The same requirement applies to the floors of the workrooms, -which shall also be kept damp.</p> - -<p>The floor shall be slightly sloped towards a water-tight -receptacle for collecting the lead substances which are washed -down.</p> - -<p>The work shall be so arranged that there shall be no splashing.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">[297]</a></span> -The tables, floors and walls shall be washed at least once -a week.</p> - -<p>6. Without prejudice to the requirements of section 3, the -grinding and mixing of lead products, and the use of them in -dusting shall be effected in special places with active ventilation.</p> - -<p>If the materials cannot be damped, the workers shall be -provided with respirators.</p> - -<p>7. Pottery shall not be dipped with bare hands in solutions -containing litharge, red lead, galena or white lead in suspension.</p> - -<p>8. No food or drink shall be brought into the works.</p> - -<p>9. Employers shall, at their own expense, provide and -maintain for the use of the workers, overalls or clothing for -use during work only, in addition to gloves and respirators.</p> - -<p>10. In a part of the building separated from the workrooms, -there shall be provided for the use of the workers exposed to -lead dust or fumes, a cloak room and lavatory kept in good order, -provided with basins or taps in sufficient number, a plentiful -supply of water, soap and a towel for each worker replaced at -least once a week.</p> - -<p>The cloak rooms shall be provided with cupboards or drawers -with locks or padlocks, the ordinary clothing being kept apart -from the working clothes.</p> - -<p>11. A warm bath or shower bath shall be provided each -week for the workers exposed to lead dust or fumes.</p> - -<p>A warm bath or shower bath shall be provided every day -after work, for each worker employed, either in emptying or -cleaning the condensing chambers and flues, in repairing -furnaces in lead works, in carrying lead corrosions from the -beds in white lead factories, in packing red lead, in grinding -lead enamels and in dry dusting.</p> - -<p>12. Employers are required to exhibit, in a conspicuous -position in the works, regulations imposing on the workers the -following obligations:—</p> - -<div class="blockquote"> - -<p>To use the appliances, gloves, respirators, and working -clothes placed at their disposal.</p> - -<p>Not to bring into the works either food or drink.</p> - -<p>To pay great care, before each meal, to the cleanliness of -the mouth, nose, and hands.</p> - -<p>To take the baths weekly or daily as provided in section 11.</p> - -</div> - -<p>13. The Minister of Labour may, by Order made with the -advice of the Consultative Committee for Arts and Manufactures, -exempt an establishment for a specified period, from all -or part of the requirements of Regs. 2ᵃ, 2ᵇ, 2ᶜ, 5² and 6¹ in any -case where it is found that observance of these requirements is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">[298]</a></span> -practically impossible, and that the health and safety of the -workers are assured by conditions at least equivalent to those -prescribed in the present Order.</p> - -<p>14. Subject to additional postponements which may be -granted by the Minister in pursuance of Section 6 of the Act of -12th June, 1893 (as amended by that of 11th July, 1903), the -delay required for the carrying out of the alterations necessitated -by the present Decree is limited to one year from the date of its -publication.</p> - -<p>15. The Ministry of Labour is charged with the administration -of this Decree.</p> - -</div> - -<p>This decree was supplemented by further noteworthy -additions requiring medical supervision in lead industries as -follows:</p> - -<div class="blockquote"> - -<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Decree of December 28, 1909, Organising Medical -Service in Industries Exposing the Workers to Risk -of Lead Poisoning</span></p> - -<p>1. In premises in which the processes enumerated in Regulation -1 of the Decree of April 23, 1908, are carried on medical -attendance as prescribed below shall be provided.</p> - -<p>2. A surgeon appointed by the occupier shall examine the -workers and enter the results of examination required in -Regulations 3 and 4. The examinations shall be paid for by -the occupier.</p> - -<p>3. No person shall be employed in work mentioned in -Regulation 1 of the Decree of April 23, 1908, without a certificate -from the surgeon stating that he is free from symptoms of lead -poisoning and of illness which might render him specially -susceptible.</p> - -<p>4. No worker shall remain at the same employment unless -the certificate is renewed one month after commencement of -employment and subsequently at quarterly intervals.</p> - -<p>In addition to the periodical examination the occupier shall -give an order on the surgeon to every workman declaring himself -to be ill from his employment or who desires to undergo -medical examination.</p> - -<p>5. A special Register open to the Factory Inspector shall be -kept containing the following particulars of each worker:</p> - -<p>(1) Dates and duration of absence on account of illness -of any kind;</p> - -<p>(2) Dates of medical certificates for such illness, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">[299]</a></span> -notes made by the surgeon and the name of the -surgeon furnishing them;</p> - -<p>(3) Instructions given by the appointed surgeon in -pursuance of Regulations 3 and 4 above.</p> - -</div> - -<h5>Lead Smelting Works</h5> - -<p class="center">(See also pp. <a href="#Page_122">122-31</a>)</p> - -<p>As the fumes in lead smelting works contain a high proportion -of lead, all apparatus, especially furnaces and working -doors, should be provided with efficient exhaust ventilation -and all flues, furnaces, and other apparatus be as airtight as -possible. Where lead dust is created exhaust ventilation -locally applied is necessary. Two of the most important -preventive measures are personal cleanliness and alternation of -employment. Dust arising in the furnaces and borne along -by the furnace gases together with arsenical fumes and dust -must be deposited in flues or chambers.</p> - -<p>In view of the importance of proper instruction of smelters -as regards the danger we quote the warning note prepared -by the Institute for Industrial Hygiene, Frankfurt a.-M., -which deserves wide circulation.</p> - -<div class="blockquote"> - -<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Lead Leaflet for Smelters</span></p> - -<p class="center"><i>How does Lead Poisoning arise?</i></p> - -<p>The danger of lead poisoning in lead, spelter and other -smelting premises can be avoided if due care is observed.</p> - -<p>Lead poisoning occurs when lead enters the system. This -takes place by breathing dust and fume containing lead, or by -eating and drinking, smoking, snuff taking and tobacco chewing -if food or tobacco is taken into the mouth with dirty hands -and dirty face and beard.</p> - -<p>No one is immune from lead. Lead accumulates in the -body of careless persons and he who is not sick to-day can be so -to-morrow or after weeks or months.</p> - -<p class="center"><i>How can Plumbism be avoided?</i></p> - -<p>All smelters must observe cleanliness. In this respect they -should see to the following points:</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">[300]</a></span></p> - -<p>1. It is to their interest to see that the exhaust ventilation -is kept in order and that the Special Rules or Regulations are -exactly followed. Further, special clothing should be worn, -the mouth and nose should be covered, and the floors sprinkled.</p> - -<p>2. It is especially important that in intervals and at the -close of work the mouth, face, beard, and hands should be -carefully cleaned. Food should not be eaten or the premises -left without putting on fresh clothes and thoroughly washing -or, still better, bathing. When drinking, the edge of the -drinking glass should not be fingered with dirty hands. -Especially important is it that the teeth should be cleaned -and the mouth washed out.</p> - -<p>3. During work smoking, snuff taking, and tobacco chewing, -which invariably convey lead into the mouth, should be given -up, as it is impossible to prevent the hands getting contaminated -with lead. Lighting the pipe with glowing lead ashes -is in the highest degree dangerous from the risk of inhaling -lead fume. The body must be strengthened to withstand the -action of lead. Moderation in drinking, especially avoidance -of spirits, should be observed. Alcoholic subjects succumb to -lead poisoning much more readily than the temperate.</p> - -<p>Food should be abundant and rich in fat, for example milk -and bacon. Thick soups are excellent before work. Work -should never be begun on an empty stomach. And lastly as -much fresh air as possible. Walking, athletics, work in the -garden and field will help to keep off many an attack. If -anyone thinks that he is suffering from lead poisoning he should -at once in his own and his family’s interest see the doctor of his -sick club.</p> - -</div> - -<p>The following are the</p> - -<div class="blockquote"> - -<p class="center"><span class="smcap">German Imperial Regulations for Lead Smelting Works, -dated June 16, 1905</span></p> - -<p class="center"><i>General Regulations</i></p> - -<p>1. Workrooms in which lead ores are roasted, sintered, or -smelted, pig lead produced and submitted to further treatment, -distillation of rich lead (bullion cupellation) litharge, red lead, -or other oxides of lead prepared, ground or sieved, stored or -packed, or zinc skimmings distilled, shall be roomy, high, and -so arranged that a sufficient constant exchange of air takes -place. They shall be provided with a level and solid floor to -allow of easy removal of dust by a moist method.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">[301]</a></span></p> - -<p>The walls shall be smooth so as to prevent collection of -dust; they shall be either washed down or lime washed at least -once a year.</p> - -<p>Provided that this shall not apply in the case of calcining -sheds with wooden walls.</p> - -<p>2. An abundant supply of good drinking water, protected -against contamination from dust, shall be provided for the -workers on the furnaces and smelting pots, and in such close -proximity to them, that they can obtain it at any time without -having to go into the open air.</p> - -<p>Arrangements for sprinkling the floors shall be provided -near the furnaces. The floors of the rooms mentioned in -paragraph 1 shall be wet cleansed at least once daily.</p> - -<p>3. Prepared (i.e. concentrated) lead ores and leady smelting -products, unless moist, shall not be crushed except in an -apparatus so arranged as to prevent as far as possible penetration -of dust into the workrooms.</p> - -<p>Provided that this shall not apply to calcined material from -converters.</p> - -<p>Sacks in which lead ores and materials containing lead have -been packed shall not be freed from dust and cleaned except -in a dust-proof apparatus or by washing.</p> - -<p>4. Materials containing lead for charging the blast-furnaces, -if they are oxides and form dust, shall be damped before they -are mixed with other materials, stocked on the feeding floor, or -charged into the blast-furnaces.</p> - -<p>Provided that this shall not apply in the case of calcined -material from converters.</p> - -<p>5. Dust, gases, and lead fumes, escaping from furnaces, and -converters, tapping spouts, tapping pots, drain sump, slag pots, -slag cars, or slag channels, and from glowing residues taken from -the furnaces, shall be caught as near as possible to the point of -origin and removed harmlessly.</p> - -<p>Dust collecting chambers, flues, as well as furnaces which -have been ‘blown down,’ shall not be entered by workmen -unless sufficiently cooled and ventilated.</p> - -<p class="center"><i>Special Regulations for such parts of a factory where lead colours -are prepared</i></p> - -<p>6. In grinding, sieving and packing dry leady materials, in -charging, and emptying litharge and red lead furnaces, in -collecting the red lead and similar operations in which leady<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">[302]</a></span> -dust is developed, exhaust arrangements shall be provided for -preventing the entrance of dust into the workrooms.</p> - -<p>7. Apparatus producing leady dust, if their construction and -manner of use does not effectually prevent evolution of dust, shall -have all cracks protected by thick layers of felt or woollen -material, or by similar means, so as to prevent the entrance of -dust into the workrooms.</p> - -<p>Apparatus of this character shall be provided with arrangements -for preventing compression of air in them. They shall -only be opened when the dust in them shall have completely -settled, and they are absolutely cool.</p> - -<p class="center"><i>Special arrangements in force for the distillation of zinc skimmings</i></p> - -<p>8. Proposed new furnaces for the distillation of zinc -skimmings (for which according to pars. 16 and 25 of the Industrial -Code a special permission is required) shall be so arranged -that (1) there shall be at least a clear space of 10 feet in front -of the charging opening; (2) any passages under the distillation -rooms shall be roomy, at least 11½ feet high in the centre, light -and airy.</p> - -<p>9. Dust, gases, and fumes arising from the zinc skimmings -distillation furnaces shall be collected as near as possible to the -point of origin, and carried outside the smelting room.</p> - -<p>The entrance of gases from the fires into the smelting room -shall be prevented as far as possible by suitable arrangements -for drawing them off.</p> - -<p>10. Sieving and packing of by-products obtained in the -distillation of zinc skimmings (poussière, flue dust) shall not be -done except in a special room separated from the other workrooms, -and complying with the requirements of Reg. 1.</p> - -<p>Sieving shall only be done in an apparatus so constructed -that dust shall not escape.</p> - -<p class="center"><i>Employment of workers.</i></p> - -<p>11. Women and young persons shall not be employed or -permitted in rooms mentioned in Reg. 1, in flue dust chambers, -or dust flues, or in the removal of flue dust.</p> - -<p>12. No person shall be newly employed in rooms mentioned -in Reg. 1, in flue dust chambers, or dust flues, or in the transport -of flue dust, without a certificate of fitness from the surgeon -appointed by the higher authorities.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">[303]</a></span></p> - -<p>These certificates shall be collected and shown to the Factory -Inspector and Appointed Surgeon on request.</p> - -<p>13. No person shall be employed in charging blast furnaces, -apart from mere labouring work on the floors, for more than -eight hours daily. The same shall apply in the case of workmen -employed in the inside of furnaces when cool, or in emptying flue -dust chambers, or dust flues which contain wet flue dust.</p> - -<p>No person shall be employed in cleaning out, from inside, -flue dust chambers, or dust flues containing dry flue dust for -more than four hours daily; and including emptying and work -of transport of this kind altogether no longer than eight hours -daily.</p> - -<p>Other workers in rooms specified in Reg. 1 shall not work -more than 10 hours in 24, exclusive of mealtimes.</p> - -<p>Exception to this is allowed in the case of those workers who -are employed for the purpose of a weekly change of shift, and for -whom exception as to Sunday employment is permitted by -Imperial Decree.</p> - -<p class="center"><i>Clothing, overalls, lavatory accommodation, &c.</i></p> - -<p>14. The occupier shall provide for all persons employed in -cleaning out flue dust chambers, dust flues, repairing of cooled -furnaces, grinding, sieving and packing of litharge, red lead, or -other lead colours, complete suits of working clothes, including -caps and respirators.</p> - -<p>15. Work with lead salts in solution shall not be done except -by workers who either grease their hands or are provided with -impermeable gloves.</p> - -<p>16. The suit of clothes, or overalls, provided in Regs. 14 -and 15, respirators and gloves, shall be provided in sufficient -amount and in proper condition. The occupier shall see that -they are always suitable for their purpose, and are not worn -except by those workers for whom they are intended; and that -they, at stated intervals (the overalls at least once a week, the -respirators and gloves prior to use), are cleaned, and during the -time that they are not in use are kept in a place specially reserved -for each article.</p> - -<p>17. A lavatory and cloak room shall be provided for the use -of the workmen in a part of the building free from dust. Separate -from it there shall be a dining-room. These rooms must be kept -free from dust and be warmed during the winter.</p> - -<p>In a suitable place provision shall be made for warming the -workers’ food.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">[304]</a></span></p> - -<p>Water, soap, and towels, and arrangements for keeping -separate the overalls from other clothing taken off before the -commencement of work shall be provided in sufficient amount in -the lavatory and cloak room.</p> - -<p>The occupier shall afford opportunity for persons engaged -in cleaning out flue dust chambers, dust flues, and the cooled -furnaces, to take a bath daily after the end of the work, and for -those handling oxides of lead, at least once a week, during -working hours inside the works. The bathroom shall be -warmed during the winter.</p> - -<p>18. The occupier shall place the supervision of the health of -the workers in the hands of a surgeon, appointed by the higher -authorities for this purpose, whose name shall be sent to the -Inspector of Factories. The surgeon shall examine the workers -at least once a month in the factory, with a view to the detection -of symptoms of lead poisoning.</p> - -<p>The occupier shall not employ persons suspected by the -surgeon of having contracted lead poisoning in the processes -mentioned in Reg. 1 or in cleaning out flue dust chambers, dust -flues, or furnaces when cold, or transport of the flue dust, until -they are quite well. Those who appear peculiarly susceptible -shall be permanently suspended from working in these processes.</p> - -<p>19. The Health Register shall be shown to the Factory -Inspector and Appointed Surgeon on demand. (Similar to -Reg. 15 of Spelter Regulations.)</p> - -<p>20. The occupier shall require the workers to subscribe to the -following conditions:—</p> - -<div class="blockquote"> - -<p>(1) Food must not be taken into the workrooms. -Meals may only be taken outside the workrooms.</p> - -<p>(2) Workmen must only enter the meal room to take -their meals or leave the factory, after they have -taken off their overalls and carefully washed their -face and hands.</p> - -<p>(3) Workmen must use the overalls, respirators and -gloves in those workrooms and for the particular -processes for which they are given them.</p> - -<p>(4) Cigar and cigarette smoking during work is forbidden.</p> - -<p>(5) A bath in the factory must be taken every day at -the close of their work by those engaged in the -emptying and cleaning of flue dust chambers, flues, -and furnaces when cold, and by those employed on -oxides of lead once a week.</p> - -</div> - -<p>Provided that this shall not apply in the case of workmen -exempted by the appointed surgeon.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">[305]</a></span></p> - -<p>Workers contravening these orders will be liable to dismissal -without further notice.</p> - -<p>21. In every workroom, as well as in the cloak room and meal -room, there shall be posted up by the occupier, in a conspicuous -place and in clear characters, a notice of these regulations.</p> - -<p>The occupier is responsible for seeing that the requirement of -Reg. 20 (1) is obeyed. He shall make a manager or foreman -responsible for the precise carrying out of Reg. 20 (1) (2) and (5). -The person thus made responsible shall see to the carrying out -of the regulations and for the exercise of necessary care as -prescribed in par. 151 of the Factory Act.</p> - -<p>22. No work in a lead smelting works shall be commenced -until notice of its erection has been sent to the Factory Inspector. -After receipt of the notice he shall personally visit to see whether -the arrangements are in accordance with these regulations.</p> - -<p>23. These regulations come into force on 1st January, 1906. -Where structural alterations are necessary for the carrying -out of Regs. 1, 5 (1), 6, 9, 10 and 17, the higher authorities may -allow an extension of time to a date not later than January 1st, -1908.</p> - -<p>If it seems necessary on strong grounds of public interest, the -Council (Bundesrath) may extend the time in particular works -until 1st January, 1913, and until then allow exceptions from the -regulations as regards Reg. 13 (1) and (2).</p> - -</div> - -<h5>Accumulator Factories</h5> - -<p>[Dr. Rambousek gives a very brief synopsis of the German -Imperial Regulations in force for this industry and mentions -that in Great Britain the Regulations of the Secretary of State -dated 1903 are similar. We have printed these, as the code is -fairly representative of the English Regulations for (1) smelting -of metals; (2) paints and colours; (3) tinning of hollow ware; -(4) yarn dyed with chromate of lead; (5) vitreous enamelling; -and the special rules for (6) white lead and (7) earthenware:</p> - -<div class="blockquote"> - -<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Regulations dated November 21, 1903, made by the -Secretary of State for the Manufacture of Electric -Accumulators</span></p> - -<p>Whereas the manufacture of electric accumulators has been -certified in pursuance of Section 79 of the Factory and Workshop -Act, 1901, to be dangerous;</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">[306]</a></span></p> - -<p>I hereby, in pursuance of the powers conferred on me by that -Act, make the following regulations, and direct that they shall -apply to all factories and workshops or parts thereof in which -electric accumulators are manufactured.</p> - -<p><i>Definitions.</i>—In these Regulations ‘lead process’ means -pasting, casting, lead burning, or any work involving contact -with dry compounds of lead.</p> - -<p>Any approval given by the Chief Inspector of Factories in -pursuance of these Regulations shall be given in writing, and -may at any time be revoked by notice in writing signed by him.</p> - -<p class="center"><i>Duties of Occupier</i></p> - -<p>1. <i>Ventilation.</i>—Every room in which casting, pasting or -lead burning is carried on shall contain at least 500 cubic feet of -air space for each person employed therein, and in computing -this air space, no height above 14 feet shall be taken into account.</p> - -<p>These rooms and that in which the plates are formed shall -be capable of through ventilation. They shall be provided with -windows made to open.</p> - -<p>2. <i>Separation of processes.</i>—Each of the following processes -shall be carried on in such manner and under such conditions as -to secure effectual separation from one another and from any -other process:</p> - -<div class="blockquote"> - -<p>(<i>a</i>) Manipulation of dry compounds of lead;</p> - -<p>(<i>b</i>) Pasting;</p> - -<p>(<i>c</i>) Formation, and lead burning necessarily carried on -therewith;</p> - -<p>(<i>d.</i>) Melting down of old plates.</p> - -</div> - -<p>Provided that manipulation of dry compounds of lead carried -on as in Regulation 5 (b) need not be separated from pasting.</p> - -<p>3. <i>Floors.</i>—The floors of the rooms in which manipulation of -dry compounds of lead or pasting is carried on shall be of cement -or similar impervious material, and shall be kept constantly -moist while work is being done.</p> - -<p>The floors of these rooms shall be washed with a hose pipe -daily.</p> - -<p>4. <i>Melting pots.</i>—Every melting pot shall be covered with a -hood and shaft so arranged as to remove the fumes and hot air -from the workrooms.</p> - -<p>Lead ashes and old plates shall be kept in receptacles -especially provided for the purpose.</p> - -<p>5. <i>Manipulation of dry compounds of lead.</i>—Manipulation of -dry compounds of lead in the mixing of the paste or other<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">[307]</a></span> -processes, shall not be done except (<i>a</i>) in an apparatus so closed, -or so arranged with an exhaust draught, as to prevent the escape -of dust into the work room: or (<i>b</i>) at a bench provided with (1) -efficient exhaust draught and air guide so arranged as to draw -the dust away from the worker, and (2) a grating on which each -receptacle of the compound of lead in use at the time shall stand.</p> - -<p>6. <i>Covering of benches.</i>—The benches at which pasting is done -shall be covered with sheet lead or other impervious material, -and shall have raised edges.</p> - -<p>7. <i>Prohibition of employment.</i>—No woman, young person, or -child shall be employed in the manipulation of dry compounds -of lead or in pasting.</p> - -<p>8. (<i>a</i>) <i>Appointed Surgeon.</i>—A duly qualified medical practitioner -(in these Regulations referred to as the ‘Appointed -Surgeon’) who may be the Certifying Surgeon, shall be appointed -by the occupier, such appointment unless held by the Certifying -Surgeon to be subject to the approval of the Chief Inspector of -Factories.</p> - -<p>(<i>b</i>) <i>Medical examination.</i>—Every person employed in a lead -process shall be examined once a month by the Appointed -Surgeon, who shall have power to suspend from employment in -any lead process.</p> - -<p>(<i>c</i>) No person after such suspension shall be employed in a -lead process without written sanction entered in the Health -Register by the Appointed Surgeon. It shall be sufficient compliance -with this regulation for a written certificate to be given -by the Appointed Surgeon and attached to the Health Register, -such certificate to be replaced by a proper entry in the Health -Register at the Appointed Surgeon’s next visit.</p> - -<p>(<i>d</i>) <i>Health Register.</i>—A Health Register in a form approved -by the Chief Inspector of Factories shall be kept, and shall contain -a list of all persons employed in lead processes. The -Appointed Surgeon will enter in the Health Register the dates -and results of his examinations of the persons employed and -particulars of any directions given by him. He shall on a -prescribed form furnish to the Chief Inspector of Factories on the -1st day of January in each year a list of the persons suspended by -him during the previous year, the cause and duration of such -suspension, and the number of examinations made.</p> - -<p>The Health Register shall be produced at any time when -required by H.M. Inspectors of Factories or by the Certifying -Surgeon or by the Appointed Surgeon.</p> - -<p>9. <i>Overalls.</i>—Overalls shall be provided for all persons -employed in manipulating dry compounds of lead or in pasting.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">[308]</a></span></p> - -<p>The overalls shall be washed or renewed once every week.</p> - -<p>10. <i>Cloak and dining rooms.</i>—The occupier shall provide and -maintain:</p> - -<div class="blockquote"> - -<p>(<i>a</i>) a cloak room in which workers can deposit clothing put -off during working hours. Separate and suitable -arrangements shall be made for the storage of the -overalls required in Regulation 9.</p> - -<p>(<i>b</i>) a dining room unless the factory is closed during meal -hours.</p> - -</div> - -<p>11. <i>Food, &c.</i>—No person shall be allowed to introduce, -keep, prepare or partake of any food, drink, or tobacco, in any -room in which a lead process is carried on. Suitable provision -shall be made for the deposit of food brought by the workers.</p> - -<p>This regulation shall not apply to any sanitary drink provided -by the occupier and approved by the Appointed Surgeon.</p> - -<p>12. <i>Washing.</i>—The occupier shall provide and maintain for -the use of the persons employed in lead processes a lavatory, with -soap, nail brushes, towels, and at least one lavatory basin for -every five such persons. Each such basin shall be provided with -a waste pipe, or the basins shall be placed on a trough fitted with -a waste pipe. There shall be a constant supply of hot and cold -water laid on to each basin.</p> - -<p>Or, in the place of basins the occupier shall provide and -maintain troughs of enamel or similar smooth impervious -material, in good repair, of a total length of two feet for every -five persons employed, fitted with waste pipes, and without -plugs, with a sufficient supply of warm water constantly -available.</p> - -<p>The lavatory shall be kept thoroughly cleansed and shall be -supplied with a sufficient quantity of clean towels once every -day.</p> - -<p>13. Before each meal and before the end of the day’s work, -at least ten minutes, in addition to the regular meal times, shall -be allowed for washing to each person who has been employed in -the manipulation of dry compounds of lead or in pasting.</p> - -<p>Provided that if the lavatory accommodation specially -reserved for such persons exceeds that required by Regulation 12, -the time allowance may be proportionately reduced, and that if -there be one basin or two feet of trough for each such person -this Regulation shall not apply.</p> - -<p>14. <i>Baths.</i>—Sufficient bath accommodation shall be provided -for all persons engaged in the manipulation of dry compounds -of lead or in pasting, with hot and cold water laid on, and a -sufficient supply of soap and towels.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309">[309]</a></span></p> - -<p>This rule shall not apply if in consideration of the special -circumstances of any particular case, the Chief Inspector of -Factories approves the use of local public baths when conveniently -near, under the conditions (if any) named in such -approval.</p> - -<p>15. <i>Cleaning.</i>—The floors and benches of each workroom -shall be thoroughly cleansed daily, at a time when no other work -is being carried on in the room.</p> - -<p class="center"><i>Duties of Persons Employed</i></p> - -<p>16. <i>Medical examination.</i>—All persons employed in lead -processes shall present themselves at the appointed times for -examination by the Appointed Surgeon as provided in -Regulation 8.</p> - -<p>No person after suspension shall work in a lead process, in -any factory or workshop in which electric accumulators are -manufactured, without written sanction entered in the Health -Register by the Appointed Surgeon.</p> - -<p>17. <i>Overalls.</i>—Every person employed in the manipulation -of dry compounds of lead or in pasting shall wear the overalls -provided under Regulation 9. The overalls, when not being -worn, and clothing put off during working hours, shall be -deposited in the places provided under Regulation 10.</p> - -<p>18. <i>Food, &c.</i>—No person shall introduce, keep, prepare, or -partake of any food, drink (other than any sanitary drink provided -by the occupier and approved by the Appointed Surgeon), -or tobacco in any room in which a lead process is carried on.</p> - -<p>19. <i>Washing.</i>—No person employed in a lead process shall -leave the premises or partake of meals without previously and -carefully cleaning and washing the hands.</p> - -<p>20. <i>Baths.</i>—Every person employed in the manipulation of -dry compounds of lead or in pasting shall take a bath at least -once a week.</p> - -<p>21. <i>Interference with safety appliances.</i>—No person shall in -any way interfere, without the concurrence of the occupier or -manager, with the means and appliances provided for the -removal of the dust or fumes, and for the carrying out of these -Regulations.</p> - -<p>These Regulations shall come into force on the 1st day of -January, 1904.</p> - -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310">[310]</a></span></p> - -<h5>White Lead</h5> - -<p class="center">(See also pp. <a href="#Page_131">131</a> and <a href="#Page_132">132</a>)</p> - -<p>In the manufacture of white lead processes which create -dust are specially dangerous, namely, emptying the corrosion -chambers, drying and grinding, transport of the material -in the form of powder, and packing. The following measures -are called for: emptying the chambers should only be -done by men wearing respirators or equipped with breathing -helmets after preliminary damping of the corrosions by means -of a spray. Use of a vacuum cleaning apparatus suggests -itself. Drying should be done as far as possible in stoves -charged mechanically, the temperature in which can be watched -from the outside; grinding must be done in closed and ventilated -mills; transport of the dried material should be effected by -mechanical means or vacuum apparatus, and packing should -be done in mechanical packing machines. Further, cleanliness -and strict discipline are essential. Alternation of employment -is advisable. The question of substitutes for white lead is -referred to on p. <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</p> - -<p>Manufacture of red lead calls for precisely similar preventive -measures. Charging and emptying the oxidising -furnaces should be done under efficient exhaust ventilation. -Conveyance, sifting, and grinding of the cooled material -requires to be done in the same way as has been described for -white lead.</p> - -<p>In the production of chrome colours (lead chromates) -besides the danger from lead the injurious action of chrome has -to be borne in mind.</p> - -<p>Regulations for white lead factories have been made in -Germany, Belgium, and Great Britain. We give below the -German Imperial Regulations dated May 26, 1903.</p> - -<div class="blockquote"> - -<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Regulations for Manufacture of Lead Colours and -Lead Products</span></p> - -<p>(1) The following regulations apply to all premises in -which lead colours or other chemical lead products (white lead, -chromate of lead, masicot, litharge, minium, peroxide of lead, -Cassel yellow, English yellow, Naples yellow, lead iodide, lead -acetate, &c., are manufactured), or in which mixtures of lead are -prepared as the principal or as a subsidiary business. They<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">[311]</a></span> -shall not apply to lead smelting works, even though processes -named in paragraph (1) are carried on.</p> - -<p>Neither shall they apply to workplaces in which manufactured -colours are intimately mixed or ground in oil or varnish in -connection with another industry.</p> - -<p>(2) The workrooms in which the materials mentioned in -paragraph 1 are prepared or packed shall be roomy, lofty, and -so arranged that sufficient and constant exchange of air can take -place.</p> - -<p>They shall be provided with a solid and smooth floor -permitting of easy removal of dust by a moist method. The -floor, unless for purposes of manufacture, shall be kept constantly -wet, and shall be wet cleansed at least once daily.</p> - -<p>The walls, when not of a smooth washable surface or -painted with oil, shall be whitewashed at least once a year.</p> - -<p>(3) The entrance of lead dust, or fumes, into the workrooms -shall be prevented by suitable means as far as possible. Rooms -which cannot be thus protected must be so separated from other -rooms that neither dust nor fumes can enter them.</p> - -<p>(4) Lead melting pots shall be covered with a hood and shaft -communicating directly or by a chimney with the open air.</p> - -<p>(8)<a name="FNanchor_12" id="FNanchor_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12" class="fnanchor">[L]</a> Grinding, sieving, and packing dry lead compounds, -emptying litharge and minium furnaces, and other operations in -which lead dust is generated, shall not be done except under -an exhaust draught, or other efficient means for preventing the -entrance of dust into the workrooms.</p> - -<p>In the packing of colours containing only a little lead, in -small amounts, or in small packages for retail purposes, exception -to these regulations can be allowed by the higher authorities.</p> - -<p>(9) Machines generating lead dust and not efficiently protected -by their construction or method of use against the escape -of dust, shall have all cracks occluded by means of thick layers -of felt or similar material, so as to prevent the entrance of dust -into the workrooms.</p> - -<p>Machines of this kind shall be provided with arrangements -preventing pressure of the air inside. They shall not be opened -until they are cool, and until the dust generated has settled.</p> - -<p>(10) Women shall not be employed in factories in which the -colours specified in paragraph (1) are prepared except in work -which does not expose them to the action of lead dust or fumes. -Young persons shall not be employed nor be allowed on -the premises in factories concerned exclusively or in great<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">[312]</a></span> -part with the preparation of lead colours or other lead -compounds.</p> - -<p>(11) No person shall be employed in rooms where the -processes specified in paragraph (1) are carried on who is not -provided with a certificate from a qualified surgeon stating that -he is physically fit and free from disease of the lungs, kidneys, -and stomach, and that he is not addicted to alcohol. This -certificate shall be kept and produced on demand to the Factory -Inspector or Appointed Surgeon.</p> - -<p>(12) No person shall be employed in packing lead colours or -mixtures containing lead or other lead compounds in a dry state, -or with the coopering of the filled casks for more than eight hours -daily. This regulation shall not apply where the packing -machines are provided with effectual exhaust arrangements, -or so constructed and used as effectually to prevent the escape -of dust.</p> - -<p>No person under 18 years of age shall be employed in the -process mentioned in the above paragraph, but exception can -be allowed in the packing of colours containing lead in small -amount, or in small packages for retail purposes, on application -to the higher authorities.</p> - -<p>For the rest, no person coming into contact with lead or lead -compounds shall be employed for more than 10 hours within the -space of 24 hours.</p> - -<p>(13) The occupier shall provide overalls and head-coverings -for all persons coming into contact with lead or lead compounds, -and suitable footwear for those emptying the oxidising -chambers.</p> - -<p>(14) The occupier shall not allow work involving exposure -to dust to be performed except by workers provided with -respirators or moist sponges covering the nose and mouth.</p> - -<p>(15) The occupier shall not allow work involving contact -with soluble salts of lead to be done except by workers provided -with waterproof gloves or by those whose hands have previously -been smeared with vaseline.</p> - -<p>(16) The occupier shall provide the overalls, respirators, &c., -mentioned in paragraphs (13) (14) and (15) for each one of the -workers in sufficient number and in good condition. He shall -take care that they are used only by the workers to whom they -are severally assigned, and that in the intervals of work and -during the time when they are not in use they shall be kept in -their appointed place. Overalls shall be washed every week, -and the respirators, sponges, and gloves before each time that -they are used.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">[313]</a></span></p> - -<p>(17) Lavatories and cloak rooms, and, separate from these, -a mess room, shall be provided for the workers coming into -contact with lead or lead compounds in a part of the works free -from dust. These rooms shall be kept in a cleanly condition, -free from dust, and shall be heated during the cold seasons. In -the meal room or in some other suitable place there shall be -means for warming food. The lavatories and cloak rooms shall -be provided with water, vessels for rinsing the mouth, nail -brushes for cleaning the hands and nails, soap, and towels. -Arrangements shall also be made for keeping separate clothes -worn during work from these taken off before the commencement -of work. The occupier shall give facilities for all persons -employed in emptying the oxidizing chambers to have a warm -bath daily after the end of the work, and for those persons -coming into contact with lead or lead compounds, twice weekly. -The time for this shall be during the hours of work, and in the -cold season the bath room, which must be on the factory premises, -shall be heated.</p> - -<p>(18) The occupier shall appoint a duly qualified medical -practitioner, whose name shall be sent to the Inspector of -Factories and to the Health Authority. He shall examine the -workers at least twice every month with a view to the -detection of symptoms of lead poisoning. The occupier shall -not employ workers suspected of symptoms of lead poisoning -in occupations exposing them to lead or lead compounds until -they have completely recovered. Those who appear peculiarly -susceptible shall be suspended permanently from work.</p> - -<p>(19) The occupier shall keep a book, or make some official -responsible for its keeping, recording any change in the personnel -employed in lead or lead compounds and as to their state of -health. He shall be responsible for the completeness and -correctness of the entries except those made by the surgeon.</p> - -</div> - -<p>The remaining regulations as to entries in the Health -Register, &c., are similar to those already given in the -Regulations for lead smelting works on p. <a href="#Page_300">300</a>.</p> - -<h5>Use of Lead Colours</h5> - -<p class="center">(See also pp. <a href="#Page_132">132-4</a>)</p> - -<p>As explained on pp. <a href="#Page_132">132-134</a> use of lead in the painting and -varnishing trades frequently causes lead poisoning. This has<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314">[314]</a></span> -led to regulations in various countries having for their object -partly hygienic measures and partly also limitation of colours -containing lead, such as prohibition of the use of lead paints in -the interior of buildings or in the painting of public buildings -and of ships, &c.</p> - -<p>The details of such regulations are seen in the German -Imperial Regulations dated June 27, 1905:</p> - -<div class="blockquote"> - -<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Order of the Imperial Chancellor relating to the -Processes of Painting, Distempering, Whitewashing, -Plastering, or Varnishing. June 27, 1906</span></p> - -<p>I.—<i>Regulations for carrying on the Industries of Painting, Distempering, -Whitewashing, Plastering, or Varnishing.</i></p> - -<p><i>Regulation 1.</i>—In the processes of crushing, blending, -mixing, and otherwise preparing white lead, other lead colours, -or mixtures thereof with other substances in a dry state, the -workers shall not directly handle pigment containing lead, -and shall be adequately protected against the dust arising -therefrom.</p> - -<p><i>Regulation 2.</i>—The process of grinding white lead with oil or -varnish shall not be done by hand, but entirely by mechanical -means, and in vessels so constructed that even in the process of -charging them with white lead no dust shall escape into places -where work is carried on.</p> - -<p>This provision shall apply to other lead colours. Provided -that such lead colours may be ground by hand by male workers -over 18 years of age, if not more than one kilogram of red lead -and 100 grains of other lead colours are ground by any one -worker on one day.</p> - -<p><i>Regulation 3.</i>—The processes of rubbing-down and pumice-stoning -dry coats of oil-colour or stopping not clearly free from -lead shall not be done except after damping.</p> - -<p>All <i>débris</i> produced by rubbing down and pumice-stoning -shall be removed before it becomes dry.</p> - -<p><i>Regulation 4.</i>—The employer shall see that every worker who -handles lead colours or mixtures thereof is provided with, and -wears, during working hours, a painter’s overall or other complete -suit of working clothes.</p> - -<p><i>Regulation 5.</i>—There shall be provided for all workers engaged -in processes of painting, distempering, whitewashing, plastering,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">[315]</a></span> -or varnishing, in which lead colours are used, washing utensils, -nail brushes, soap and towels. If such processes are carried on -in a new building or in a workshop, provision shall be made for -the workers to wash in a place protected from frost, and to store -their clothing in a clean place.</p> - -<p><i>Regulation 6.</i>—The employer shall inform workers, who -handle lead colours or mixtures thereof, of the danger to health -to which they are exposed, and shall hand them, at the commencement -of employment, a copy of the accompanying leaflet -(not printed with this edition), if they are not already provided -with it, and also a copy of these Regulations.</p> - -<p>II.—<i>Regulations for the Processes of Painting, Distempering, -Whitewashing, Plastering, or Varnishing when carried on -in connection with another Industry.</i></p> - -<p><i>Regulation 7.</i>—The provisions of paragraph 6 shall apply to -the employment of workers connected with another industry -who are constantly or principally employed in the processes of -painting, distempering, whitewashing, plastering, or varnishing, -and who use, otherwise than occasionally, lead colours or -mixtures thereof. The provisions of paragraphs 8-11 shall also -apply if such employment is carried on in a factory or shipbuilding -yard.</p> - -<p><i>Regulation 8.</i>—Special accommodation for washing and for -dressing shall be provided for the workers, which accommodation -shall be kept clean, heated in cold weather, and furnished -with conveniences for the storage of clothing.</p> - -<p><i>Regulation 9.</i>—The employer shall issue regulations which -shall be binding on the workers, and shall contain the following -provisions for such workers as handle lead colour and mixtures -thereof:</p> - -<div class="blockquote"> - -<p>1. Workers shall not consume spirits in any place where work -is carried on.</p> - -<p>2. Workers shall not partake of food or drink, or leave the -place of employment until they have put off their -working clothes and carefully washed their hands.</p> - -<p>3. Workers, when engaged in processes specified by the -employer, shall wear working clothes.</p> - -<p>4. Smoking cigars and cigarettes is prohibited during work.</p> - -</div> - -<p>Furthermore, it shall be set forth in the regulations that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316">[316]</a></span> -workers who, in spite of reiterated warning, contravene the -foregoing provisions may be dismissed before the expiration of -their contract without notice. If a code of regulations has been -issued for the industry (par. 134a of the G.O.) the above indicated -provisions shall be incorporated in the said code.</p> - -<p><i>Regulation 10.</i>—The employer shall entrust the supervision -of the workers’ health to a duly qualified medical man approved -of by the public authority, and notified to the factory inspector -(par. 139b of the G.O.), and the said medical man shall examine -the workers once at least in every six months for symptoms -indicative of plumbism.</p> - -<p>The employer shall not permit any worker who is suffering -from plumbism or who, in the opinion of the doctor, is suspected -of plumbism, to be employed in any work in which he has to -handle lead colours or mixtures thereof, until he has completely -recovered.</p> - -<p><i>Regulation 11.</i>—The employer shall keep or shall cause to be -kept a register in which shall be recorded the state of health of -the workers, and also the constitution of and changes in the staff; -and he shall be responsible for the entries being complete and -accurate, except in so far as they are affected by the medical -man.</p> - -</div> - -<p>Then follow the regulations as to entries in the Register, -as to which see the Regulations as to lead smelting works, -p. <a href="#Page_300">300</a>.</p> - -<h5>Type Founding and Compositors’ Work</h5> - -<p class="center">(See also pp. <a href="#Page_138">138</a> and <a href="#Page_139">139</a>)</p> - -<p>Fumes which may carry up lead dust are generated in the -casting of letters. Dust arises also in setting the type. General -hygienic measures are especially called for such as healthy -conditions in the workrooms. Much can be done by exhaust -ventilation locally applied to the type cases and to letter (mono- -and linotype) casting machines. Vacuum cleaning of printing -workshops and type cases is strongly advised.</p> - -<p>As some lead poisoning in printing works is attributable to -lead colours or bronze powder containing lead their use should -be limited as much as possible.</p> - -<p>The German Imperial Regulations for printing works and -type foundries are as follows:</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">[317]</a></span></p> - -<div class="blockquote"> - -<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Order of the Federal Council of July 31st, 1897, -regulating Letterpress Printing Works and Type -Foundries, in pursuance of Section 120<i>e</i> of the -Industrial Code</span></p> - -<p>I. In rooms in which persons are employed in setting up -type or manufacture of type or stereotype plates the following -provisions apply:</p> - -<div class="blockquote"> - -<p>1. The floor of workrooms shall not be more than a half a -meter (1·64 feet) below the ground. Exceptions may -only be granted by the higher administrative authority -where hygienic conditions are secured by a dry area, and -ample means of lighting and ventilating the rooms.</p> - -<p>Attics may only be used as workrooms if the roof is provided -with a lathe and plaster ceiling.</p> - -<p>2. In workrooms in which the manufacture of type or -stereotype plates is carried on, the number of persons -shall not exceed such as would allow at least fifteen -cubic meters of air space (529·5 cubic feet) to each. In -the rooms in which persons are employed only in other -processes, there shall be at least twelve cubic meters of -air space (423·5 cubic feet) to each person.</p> - -<p>In cases of exceptional temporary pressure the higher -administrative authority may, on the application of the -employer, permit a larger number in the workrooms, for -at the most 30 days in the year, but not more than will -allow ten cubic meters of air space (353 cubic feet) -for each person.</p> - -<p>3. The rooms shall be at least 2·60 meters (8· feet) in -height where a minimum of fifteen cubic meters are -allowed for each person, in other cases at least 3 meters -(9·84 feet) in height.</p> - -<p>The rooms shall be provided with windows which are -sufficient in number and size to let in ample light for -every part of the work. The windows shall be so constructed -that they will open and admit of complete -renewal of air in workrooms. Workrooms with sloping -roof shall have an average height equal to the -measurements given in the first paragraph of this -section.</p> - -<p>4. The rooms shall be laid with close fitting impervious floor, -which can be cleared of dust by moist methods. Wooden -floors shall be smoothly planed, and boards fitted to -prevent penetration of moisture.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318">[318]</a></span> -All walls and ceilings shall, if they are not of a smooth -washable surface or painted in oil, be limewashed once -at least a year. If the walls and ceilings are of a smooth -washable surface or painted in oil, they shall be washed -at least once a year, and the oil paint must, if varnished, -be renewed once in ten years, and if not varnished once -in five years.</p> - -<p>The compositors’ shelves and stands for type boxes shall -be either closely ranged round the room on the floor, so -that no dust can collect underneath, or be fitted with -legs, so that the floor can be easily cleaned of dust -underneath.</p> - -<p>5. The workrooms shall be cleared and thoroughly aired once -at least a day, and during the working hours means shall -be taken to secure constant ventilation.</p> - -<p>6. The melting vessel for type or stereotype metal shall be -covered with a hood connected to an exhaust ventilator -or chimney with sufficient draught to draw the fumes -to the outer air.</p> - -<p>Type founding and melting may only be carried on in -rooms separate from other processes.</p> - -<p>7. The rooms and fittings, particularly the walls, cornices, -and stands for type, shall be thoroughly cleansed twice a -year at least. The floors shall be washed or rubbed over -with a damp cloth, so as to remove dust once a day at -least.</p> - -<p>8. The type boxes shall be cleansed before they are put in use, -and again as often as necessary, but not less than twice -at least in the year.</p> - -<p>The boxes may only be dusted out with a bellows in the -open air, and this work may not be done by young -persons.</p> - -<p>9. In every workroom spittoons filled with water and one at -least for every five persons shall be provided. Workers -are forbidden to spit upon the floor.</p> - -<p>10. Sufficient washing appliances, with soap and at least one -towel a week for each worker, shall be provided as near -as possible to the work for compositors, cutters, and -polishers.</p> - -<p>One wash-hand basin shall be provided for every five -workers, fitted with an ample supply of water.</p> - -<p>The employer shall make strict provision for the use of the -washing appliances by workers before every meal and -before leaving the works.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319">[319]</a></span></p> - -<p>11. Clothes put off during working hours shall either be kept -outside the workroom or hung up in cupboards with -closely fitting doors or curtains, which are so shut or -drawn as to prevent penetration of dust.</p> - -<p>12. Artificial means of lighting which tend to raise the -temperature of the rooms shall be so arranged or -such counteracting measures taken that the heat of the -workrooms shall not be unduly raised.</p> - -<p>13. The employer shall draw up rules binding on the workers -which will ensure the full observance of the provisions -in sections 8, 9, 10, and 11.</p> - -</div> - -<p>II. A notice shall be affixed and a copy sent to the local -police authority shewing:</p> - -<div class="blockquote"> - -<p>(<i>a</i>) The length, height, and breadth of the rooms.</p> - -<p>(<i>b</i>) The air space in cubic measure.</p> - -<p>(<i>c</i>) The number of workers permitted in each room.</p> - -<p>A copy of Rules 1 to 13 must be affixed where it can be easily -read by all persons affected.</p> - -</div> - -<p>III. Provides for the method of permitting the exceptions -named above in sections 2 and 3, and makes it a condition of -reduction in cubic air space for each person employed as type -founder or compositor that there shall be adequate mechanical -ventilation for regulating temperature and carrying off products -of combustion from workrooms.</p> - -</div> - -<h5>Ceramic Industry</h5> - -<p class="center">(See also pp. <a href="#Page_135">135-8</a>.)</p> - -<p>A complete substitute for lead in glazes seems as yet impossible -on technical grounds, as glaze containing lead has -qualities which cannot be obtained without its use. In small -works the technique necessary for the production of leadless -glazes (special kinds of stoves) cannot be expected, especially -as those carrying on a small industry lack the necessary knowledge -of how to be able to dispense with the use of lead glazes -and substitute leadless materials without complete alteration -in their methods of manufacture. And yet discontinuance or -the utmost possible limitation of the use of lead glazes and -colours is most urgently needed in all small ceramic workshops, -as they are not in a position to put in localised exhaust ventilation, -&c., which is possible in large factories. Observance of -even the simplest hygienic measures can scarcely be obtained.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_320" id="Page_320">[320]</a></span> -Consequently very severe cases of lead poisoning are met with -in small works. An effort in the direction of discontinuance -of lead glazes was made in Bohemia, where (at the cost of -the State) technical instruction was given by an expert on the -preparation of leadless glazes especially in districts where the -industry was carried on in the homes of the workers. This -procedure, extension of which is expected, had good results.</p> - -<p>Many have demanded, in view of the possibility of substituting -leadless for lead glazes, the total prohibition of lead. -Such is the view of the Dutch inspector De Vooys; Teleky -and Chyzer share the view expressed so far as the small -industry is concerned, since the practicability of the change -has been demonstrated.</p> - -<p>English authorities (Thorpe, Oliver) propose diminution -of the lead in the glaze in such a way that on shaking with -weak acid not more than a specified small quantity shall be -dissolved (Thorpe test). In my opinion such a measure is -hardly enough for the small industry. I do not expect much -good from obligatory use of fritted glazes.</p> - -<p>In addition to earthenware, manufacture of tiles and -bricks leads not infrequently to cases of lead poisoning from -use of lead glaze.</p> - -<p>The following measures apply to the larger ceramic works. -Since risk is considerable, not only in glost placing but also -in grinding, ware-cleaning, &c., closed ball mills in grinding -and locally applied exhaust ventilation in ware-cleaning -operations, &c., must be arranged. Personal cleanliness and -proper equipment of a factory in all the essentials insisted on -on pp. <a href="#Page_226">226-9</a> are important, but nothing can take the place -of efficient locally applied ventilation.</p> - -<p>Vitreous enamelling of household utensils, baths, gas stoves, -signs, &c., is an analogous process as enamels containing lead -may be used. Sieving on the dry powder and brushing off -superfluous glaze often cause poisoning. Here generally the -same preventive measures apply.</p> - -<p>[In Great Britain the china and earthenware industry is -placed under Regulations dated January 2, 1913, which -supersede the previous Special Rules. These Regulations—thirty-six -in number—provide, among other usual provisions, -(1) for efficient exhaust ventilation in (<i>a</i>) processes giving rise<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321">[321]</a></span> -to injurious mineral dust (fettling and pressing of tiles, bedding, -and flinting, brushing and scouring of biscuit) and (<i>b</i>) dusty -lead processes (ware cleaning, aerographing, colour dusting, -litho-transfer making, &c.); and (2) monthly periodical -medical examination of workers in scheduled lead processes.]</p> - -<p>In the Netherlands, in consequence of lead poisoning in -porcelain works, committees were appointed to inquire into -the subject in 1901, 1902, and 1903.</p> - -<h5>File Cutting</h5> - -<p class="center">(See also p. <a href="#Page_140">140</a>)</p> - -<p>In file cutting the file is cut on a lead bed or a bed of an -alloy of zinc and lead. The same source of poisoning occurs -in other industries such as amber working. Lead poisoning -among file cutters is pronounced. The best preventive -measure is substitution of a bed of pure zinc for lead. The -German Imperial Health Office have issued a ‘Warning notice’ -for file-cutters.</p> - -<div class="blockquote"> - -<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Leaflet for File-cutters</span></p> - -<p>The use of lead beds or of alloys of lead with other metals -has repeatedly brought about lead poisoning in file-cutters. -The beds also supposed to be made of zinc usually contain a -considerable proportion of lead, and are thus dangerous to -health.</p> - -<p>Among file-cutters lead poisoning arises from absorption of -the metal in small quantities by means of dirty hands, eating, -drinking, smoking or chewing of tobacco. The consequences -of this absorption are not at once noticeable. They appear only -after weeks, months, or even years, according to the extent to -which the lead has accumulated in the system.</p> - -<p><i>How does lead poisoning show itself?</i>—The first sign is usually -a bluish-grey line on the gums called the blue line, associated -with anæmia or pallor. Later symptoms are very varied. -Most frequently lead colic comes on, the affected person suffering -from violent cramplike pains starting from the navel; the -stomach is hard and contracted; very often vomiting and -constipation ensue, or, very occasionally, diarrhœa. In some -cases paralysis shows itself—generally in those muscles which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_322" id="Page_322">[322]</a></span> -extend the fingers, usually affecting both arms. In exceptional -cases other muscles of the arms and legs are affected. -Sometimes lead poisoning manifests itself in violent pains in -the joints—generally the knee, more rarely in the shoulder and -elbow. In specially severe cases brain trouble supervenes—violent -headache, convulsions, unconsciousness or blindness. -Finally lead poisoning may set up disease of the kidneys—Bright’s -disease and gout.</p> - -<p>Women suffering from lead poisoning frequently miscarry. -Children born alive may, in consequence of lead poisoning, -die in their first year. Children fed at the breast are poisoned -through the milk.</p> - -<p>Apart from severe cases complicated with brain trouble, -which are often fatal, persons suffering from lead poisoning -generally recover if they withdraw from further contact. -Recovery takes place after a few weeks, but in severe cases -only after months.</p> - -<p>The most effective preventive measures are cleanliness and -temperance. Persons who, without being drunkards, are -accustomed to take spirits in quantity are more likely to -succumb than the abstemious. Spirits should not be taken -during working hours. In regard to cleanliness, file-cutters -using lead beds should be especially careful and observe the -following rules:</p> - -<p>1. Since soiling the hands with lead cannot be entirely -avoided, smoking and chewing tobacco during work should be -given up.</p> - -<p>2. Workers should only take food and drink or leave the -works after thoroughly washing the hands with soap—if possible -with pumice stone; if drinking during work cannot be wholly -given up the edges of the drinking vessels ought not to be -touched by the hands.</p> - -<p>If a file-cutter falls ill in spite of precautions with symptoms -pointing to lead poisoning he should, in his own and his family’s -interest, at once consult a doctor, telling him that he has been -working with a lead bed.</p> - -</div> - -<h5>Other Industries in which Lead is used</h5> - -<p>In cutting <i>precious stones</i> with use of lead discs lead -poisoning frequently occurs, especially where this trade, as -in some parts of Bohemia, is carried on as a home industry. -The authorities have required substitution of carborundum<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_323" id="Page_323">[323]</a></span> -(silicon carbide) for lead discs. As, therefore, an efficient -substitute is possible, use of lead should be prohibited. -Similarly, use of lead in the making of musical instruments -should, if possible, be discontinued. Brass pipes in <i>musical -instrument</i> making are filled with lead to facilitate hammering -and bending, and in this way poisoning has occurred. In -numerous other industries where the use of lead cannot be -avoided, and where consequently the danger must be present, -as, for instance, in <i>lead melting</i>, <i>soldering</i>, <i>lead rolling</i>, -<i>stamping</i>, <i>pressing</i>, &c., in the manufacture of <i>lead -piping</i>, <i>shot</i>, <i>wire</i>, <i>bottle capsules</i>, <i>foil</i>, <i>toys</i>, and many other -articles, general preventive measures should be carefully -carried out. <i>Melting of lead</i> and <i>lead alloys</i> should be -carried out only under efficient exhaust ventilation. In larger -works where dust is generated this should be drawn away at -the point where it is produced. This applies also to processes -in the chemical industries where lead or lead compounds are -used, seeing that no substitute is possible.</p> - -<h4>Zinc, Brass-casting, Metal Pickling, Galvanising</h4> - -<p class="center">(See also pp. <a href="#Page_151">151</a> and <a href="#Page_182">182</a>)</p> - -<p>In zinc smelting account has to be taken of fumes which -may contain lead, zinc, arsenic, sulphur dioxide, and carbonic -oxide. Metallic fumes require to be condensed—a procedure -in harmony with economic interests. This is effected -in a technically arranged condensing system, consisting of a -condenser and prolong, in which the fumes are given as large -a space as possible in which to condense and cool. In order -to prevent the entry of fumes into the shed when removing -distillation residues, hoods should be arranged over the front -of the furnace through which the gases can be conducted into -the main chimney stack or be drawn away by a fan; in -addition the residue should fall into trolleys which must either -be covered at once or placed under a closely fitting hood -until the fuming contents are cool. As the mixing of the -materials for charging and the sifting and packing of the -zinc dust (poussière) may cause risk, these processes require -to be carried out mechanically with application of local<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_324" id="Page_324">[324]</a></span> -exhaust. Such an arrangement is shown in <a href="#fig59">fig. 59</a> below. -The material which is fed in is carried by the elevator to the -sifting machine, falls into the collecting bin, and is then -packed. The points at which dust can come off are connected -with the exhaust and carried to the dust collector; fans carry -the filtered air to the outside atmosphere.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;" id="fig59"> - -<img src="images/fig59.jpg" width="500" height="550" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 59.</span>—Arrangement for Sieving and Packing Zinc Dust (poussière).</p> - -<p class="caption"><i>a</i> Charging hopper; <i>b</i> Distributor; <i>c</i> Elevator; <i>d</i> Sieve; <i>e</i> Collector; <i>f</i> Packing -machine; <i>g</i> Exhaust pipe; <i>h</i> Worm; <i>i</i> Dust Collector; <i>k</i> Motor</p> - -</div> - -<p>Only paragraphs 3-8 of the German Imperial Regulations -dated February 6, 1900, for Spelter Works are quoted, as the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_325" id="Page_325">[325]</a></span> -remainder are on precisely similar lines to those for lead -smelting works given in full on p. <a href="#Page_300">300</a>.</p> - -<div class="blockquote"> - -<p>3. Crushing zinc ore shall not be done except in an apparatus -so arranged as to prevent penetration of dust into the workroom.</p> - -<p>4. The roasting furnaces as well as the calcining furnaces -shall be provided with effective exhaust arrangements for the -escaping gases. The occupier shall be responsible for their -efficiency during the time the furnace is at work.</p> - -<p>5. To avoid dust, ores intended for charging distillation -furnaces shall not be stacked in front of or charged into the -furnace, or mixed with other material, except in a damp condition.</p> - -<p>This regulation shall not apply to large so-called Silesian</p> - -<p>Retorts when in use in the zinc smelter; yet in the case of them -also the Higher Authorities may require damping of the charging -material if specially injurious to health.</p> - -<p>6. Dust, gases and vapours escaping from distillation -furnaces shall be caught as near as possible to the point of origin -by efficient arrangements and carried out of the smelting rooms. -The entrance of the gases from the fires into the smelting room -shall be prevented as far as possible by suitable arrangements -for drawing them off.</p> - -<p>7. Residues shall not be drawn into the smelting room; -they shall be caught in closed channels under the furnaces and -emptied from these channels at once into waggons placed in -passages beneath the distillation rooms.</p> - -<p>This regulation (where the Higher Authorities approve) -shall not apply to existing plants, should it be impossible to -make the arrangements mentioned in Reg. 1, or where such -additions could only be added by rebuilding at a prohibitive cost.</p> - -<p>8. Sieving and packing of by-products obtained by the -distillation of zinc (poussière, flue dust) shall not be done except -in a special room separate from other workrooms, in accordance -with Reg. 1.</p> - -<p>Sieving shall only be done in an apparatus so arranged as to -prevent escape of dust.</p> - -</div> - -<p>In <i>brass casting</i>, in order to prevent occurrence of brass-founders’ -ague, it is necessary that the zinc oxide fumes -evolved should be effectively drawn away from the crucible -by locally applied exhaust ventilation. General ventilation -merely of the room is almost useless, as in casting the fumes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326">[326]</a></span> -rise up into the face of the pourer. Seeing that casting is -carried on in different parts of the foundry, it is advisable to -connect up the hoods over the moulds by means of metal -piping with the exhaust system, or to arrange a flexible duct -which can be moved about as occasion requires.</p> - -<p>Dangerous acid fumes (notably nitrous fumes) are evolved -in metal pickling, especially of brass articles (such as harness -furniture, lamp fittings, church utensils, &c.), for the purpose -of giving them a shiny or dull surface by immersion in baths -of nitric, hydrochloric, or sulphuric acid. As severe and even -fatal poisoning has occurred in these operations they should be -conducted in isolated compartments or channels under exhaust -ventilation. If the ventilation provided is mechanical an acid -proof earthenware fan or an injector is necessary. The following -description applies to one large works: The pickling -troughs are placed in a wooden compartment closed in except -for a small opening in front. To this compartment a stoneware -pipe leading to a stoneware fan is connected. The nitrous -fumes are drawn through the pipe and led into the lower part -of an absorption tower filled with cone-shaped packing material -through which water trickles from a vessel placed at the top. -The greater part of the acid fumes are absorbed as they pass -upwards and the water collects in a receiver below, from which -it is blown by compressed air into the vessel above for utilisation -again until it becomes so charged with acid that it can -be used for pickling purposes.</p> - -<p>In <i>galvanising</i> and <i>tinning</i> acid fumes, injurious acroleic -vapour, and metallic fumes can arise as the metal articles -(iron, copper, &c.) first require to be cleaned in an acid bath -and then dipped into molten fat or molten zinc or tin. Here -also the fumes should be drawn away in the manner described.</p> - -<h4>Recovery and Use of Mercury</h4> - -<p>Escape of mercury vapour and development of sulphur -dioxide seriously endanger workers engaged in smelting -cinnabar. The danger can be minimised by proper construction -of furnaces preventing escape as far as possible of fumes -and most careful condensation of the mercury in impervious -and sufficiently capacious chambers and flues.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_327" id="Page_327">[327]</a></span></p> - -<p>Continuous furnaces are to be preferred to those working -intermittently. The system of condensing chambers and -flues must offer as long a passage as possible to the fumes, and -care must be taken to keep them thoroughly cool. Removal -of the deposit rich in mercury from the flues is especially -fraught with danger. This work should only be carried on -after efficient watering by workers equipped with respirators, -working suits, &c.</p> - -<p><i>Use of mercury.</i>—Mirror making by coating the glass with -mercury used to be one of the most dangerous occupations. -Now that a fully adequate substitute for mercury has -been found in the nitrate of silver and ammonia process, -use of mercury should be prohibited. As a home industry -especially mirror coating with mercury should be suppressed. -Fortunately the dangerous mode of production is rapidly being -ousted.</p> - -<p>The following requirements are contained in a decree of the -Prussian Government dated May 18, 1889:</p> - -<p>(1) Medical certificate on admission to employment in -mirror making with use of mercury;</p> - -<p>(2) restriction of hours to six in summer and in winter to -eight daily, with a two hours’ mid-day interval;</p> - -<p>(3) fortnightly examination of the workers;</p> - -<p>(4) air space per person of 40 cubic meters in the coating -room and 30 in the drying room, and, in both, introduction -of 60 cubic meters of air per head per hour;</p> - -<p>(5) Work to cease if the temperature of the room in summer -reaches 25° C.</p> - -<p>Measures are necessary to prevent occurrence of mercury -poisoning in hatters’ furriers’ processes (preparation of rabbit -fur for felt hats) in consequence of the use of nitrate of mercury. -Danger arises chiefly in cutting the hair, in dressing and drying, -in sorting, and also in the subsequent stages of hard felt hat -manufacture. Aspiration of the dust and fluff at its point of -generation, isolation of the drying rooms and prohibition of -entry into them while drying is going on, are necessary. In -dressing (commonly known as ‘carotting’), the nitric acid -vapour requires to be drawn away. In addition strict personal -hygiene, especially of the teeth, is very important. Processes -involving <i>water gilding</i> (nowadays practised on a very small<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328">[328]</a></span> -scale) should only be carried on in stoves provided with exhaust -ventilation. Electroplating, fortunately, has almost entirely -taken its place.</p> - -<p>As cases of mercury poisoning have been reported from use -of mercurial pumps in producing the vacuum inside <i>electric -incandescent bulbs</i>, air pumps should be substituted for them -whenever possible.</p> - -<p><i>Barometer</i> and <i>thermometer</i> makers may and do suffer -severely if care is not taken to draw away the fumes and -ensure good ventilation of the workrooms. Careless handling -and the dropping of mercury on the benches make it difficult -to prevent some volatilisation. Personal hygiene and especially -a proper hygiene of the mouth are of the greatest importance in -this class of work.</p> - -<p>Preparation of mercury compounds in chemical factories, -especially the dry processes (sublimation), as in production of -cinnabar, corrosive sublimate and calomel mixing, grinding, -and sublimation, require to be carried on in closed apparatus. -Preparation of the substances named above in solution involves -much less risk than subliming. From our point of view, -therefore, the former is to preferred.</p> - -<h4>Arsenic, Arsenic Compounds, Arseniuretted Hydrogen</h4> - -<p>For arsenic works imperviousness of the system and as -complete condensation as possible are necessary to prevent -escape of fumes.</p> - -<p>Respirators should be worn in manipulations with white -arsenic, and such work as packing done under conditions of -locally applied exhaust ventilation.</p> - -<p>Industrial use of arsenic compounds, in view of the risk -attaching to them, should be reduced as much as possible. -This has sometimes been achieved by technical improvement -in processes of manufacture. Thus in the colour industry, where -formerly colours containing arsenic played an important rôle, -coal-tar colours have taken their place, and use of arsenic -even in these (as in the manufacture of fuchsin) has been -replaced by nitrobenzene.</p> - -<p>As the danger from arseniuretted hydrogen gas is especially -great in processes in which acid acts on metal and either one<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_329" id="Page_329">[329]</a></span> -or both of them contain arsenic, the materials, should be as -free from arsenic as possible, in the production, for example, -of hydrogen for soldering, in extracting metals by means of -acids, in galvanic elements, in accumulator works, in the -storage and transport of acids in metal vessels, and in -galvanising.</p> - -<p>In any case the workers in these industries should be -warned of the danger and instructed in case of emergencies. -For soldering exclusive use of hydrogen produced electrolytically -and procurable in steel cylinders is advisable.</p> - -<h4>Extraction and Use of Gold and Silver</h4> - -<p>In the extraction of gold and silver by amalgamation and -subsequent volatilisation of mercury there is risk of mercurial -poisoning. The preventive measures necessary are similar to -those for poisoning in the recovery of mercury (see p. <a href="#Page_327">327</a>).</p> - -<p><i>Argyria</i> in pearl bead blowers can be avoided by using -pumps to blow the silver solution into the beads instead of the -mouth.</p> - -<p>In electroplating the possibility of poisonous fumes arising -from the baths must be guarded against because hydrocyanic -(prussic) acid, though only in minute quantities, may be -evolved; care must be taken that the workrooms are well -ventilated or the baths hooded. Careful personal hygiene is -essential, for the prevention of skin diseases from which -workers in electroplating often suffer.</p> - -<h3 id="OTHER_TRADES">VII<br /> -<span class="smaller"><i>PREVENTIVE MEASURES IN OTHER TRADES</i></span></h3> - -<h4>Ceramic Industry</h4> - -<p>In the glass industry use of lead, chrome, and arsenic -compounds should be restricted as much as possible or allowed -only under suitable precautions (exhaust ventilation, personal -hygiene, &c.).</p> - -<p><i>Etching on glass</i> by means of hydrofluoric causes almost -inevitably injury to the workers. Rendering the surface of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_330" id="Page_330">[330]</a></span> -glass opaque should preferably be done by sand blast. When -a bath of hydrofluoric acid for etching on glass is used the -fumes require to be drawn away by hoods over the baths -and the work-rooms well ventilated.</p> - -<p>Further precautionary measures are called for in view of -industrial poisoning by furnace gases in various ceramic -industries, as, for example, cement works, glass works, and -tile works.</p> - -<p>The following suggestions are made in the technical introduction -to the Germany Factory Act for prevention of poisoning -from carbonic oxide, carbon dioxide, and sulphur dioxide:</p> - -<p>(1) Even the fixing of benches which might be used for -sleeping on near the furnaces should be strictly forbidden;</p> - -<p>(2) All furnaces which are roofed over should be provided -with adequate side and roof ventilation;</p> - -<p>(3) All gas pipes and cocks must be maintained in an -impervious condition.</p> - -<h4>Manufacture and Use of Varnishes and Drying Oils</h4> - -<p>Unpleasant fumes are given off on boiling linseed oil with -oxidising substances, which should be prevented by closely -fitting covers and condensation of the fumes in cooling apparatus. -In heating and dissolving resin for the production of -varnishes the fumes evolved require to be dealt with in a -similar way.</p> - -<p>Preventive measures must be taken also in the use of -quick-drying paints on ships and inside steam boilers as, owing -to the rapid evaporation of the poisonous solvents—benzene, -benzine and turpentine—fatalities have occurred. As a result -of elaborate investigation by the inspectors of factories in -Hamburg the following instructions were issued:</p> - -<div class="blockquote"> - -<p>Quick-drying paint for ships and for preventing rust should -only be used under the supervision of a person conversant with -the danger to health and risk from fire.</p> - -<p>They should only be allowed for the painting of interior -surfaces after adoption of adequate precautions—free ventilation, -use of smoke helmets with air conducting apparatus, and no -naked lights, &c. Since use of quick-drying paints cannot -easily be prohibited and the fumes from the substitutes for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_331" id="Page_331">[331]</a></span> -turpentine—benzene and other light tarry oils—exert injurious -effect on man, precautionary measures are called for. Regulation -of working hours is as important as provision of -adequate ventilation. Workers, therefore, should be allowed -proper intervals from work.</p> - -<p>Confined spaces in the interior of ships should be adequately -ventilated before, after, and during work; all persons -who use the paints should have opportunity for washing given -them at their work places, and should be compelled to avail -themselves of these facilities; indulgence in alcohol and smoking -should be prohibited; receptacles in which quick-drying paints -are sold should be provided with an air-tight cover and with a -warning notice as to the danger of the contents.</p> - -<p>Paints made from petroleum fractions of low boiling-point, -light coal-tar oils, turpentine oil, carbon bisulphide, and -similar substances, are to be regarded as injurious to health.</p> - -<p>Persons under eighteen, and women, should not be allowed -to work with quick-drying paints.</p> - -<p>Obligatory notification of cases of poisoning by hydrocarbons -and other similar poisonings would have a good effect.</p> - -</div> - -<p>Schaefer (Inspector of Factories in Hamburg) has drawn -up the following leaflet for painters, varnishers, workers in -dry docks, and others engaged in painting with quick drying -paints and oils:</p> - -<div class="blockquote"> - -<p>All quick-drying paints and oils are more or less injurious -to health and very inflammable, as they contain volatile substances -such as benzine (naphtha, petrol ether), benzene, turpentine -oil, carbon bisulphide, &c. These paints are mostly -used in painting interiors of ships, boilers, machinery, apparatus, -&c., and come on the market under various names, such as -Black Varnish Oil, Solution, Patent Colour, Anti-corrosive, -Dermatin, Acid-proof Paint, Apexior, Saxol, &c.</p> - -<p>Even at ordinary temperatures the volatile fluids used as -mediums for dry paint powders, or as a first coating, evaporate. -Air filled with the fumes is not only harmful to health, but -liable to explosion. Working with these paints and oils in the -interior of ships, or steam boilers and the like, has repeatedly -led to explosions and fatal poisoning.</p> - -<p><i>Danger of Poisoning.</i>—All persons are exposed to the danger -of poisoning who use quick-drying paints in the interior of -rooms or receptacles, or otherwise manipulate the paints. The -warmer the room and the less ventilation there is before and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_332" id="Page_332">[332]</a></span> -during the painting, the greater the danger of poisoning. On -the other hand, use of these paints in the open air is generally -without effect.</p> - -<p>Poisoning arises from inhaling the fumes of hydrocarbons. -The symptoms are oppression, headache, inclination to vomit, -cough, hiccough, giddiness, noises in the ears, drunken-like -excitement, trembling and twitching. Inhalation of larger -quantities brings on, quite suddenly and without previous -warning, unconsciousness, which may last many hours and is -often fatal. Except in severe cases the symptoms generally -soon disappear, if the affected person withdraws from further -contact with the fumes. The most effective protection therefore -against poisoning is fresh air and temperance. In so far -as painting with quick-drying materials is necessary in workrooms, -interiors of ships, water and ballast tanks, double bottoms, -bunkers, bilges, cabins, boilers and receptacles, care must be -taken to ensure thorough ventilation before, after, and while -the work is going on. Where no sufficient ventilation is possible -these paints ought not to be used. Frequent intermission of -work by a short stay in the open air is useful. When working -in spaces not easily accessible, the worker should be roped.</p> - -<p>Speaking, singing, or whistling during work favours inhalation -of the fumes and is, therefore, to be avoided. Indulgence -in spirits, especially during working hours, increases the danger -of poisoning. Habitual drinkers should not be allowed to work -at all with quick-drying paints and oils.</p> - -<p>At the first signs of discomfort work should be stopped. -An immediate stay in the open air will then usually dispel the -poisonous symptoms.</p> - -<p>If, notwithstanding this, severe symptoms develop, oxygen -inhalation should be commenced forthwith and medical aid -called in.</p> - -</div> - -<h4>Production of Vegetable Foods and Luxuries</h4> - -<p class="center">(See also p. <a href="#Page_154">154</a>)</p> - -<p>Measures for the prevention of industrial poisoning have to -be thought of in connection with drying processes (by smoke -gases, carbon dioxide, and carbonic oxide), many processes -of preserving (use of sulphur dioxide, &c.), and fermentation -(accumulation of carbonic acid).</p> - -<p>In breweries the use of kilns allowing fire gases to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_333" id="Page_333">[333]</a></span> -enter the drying-rooms formerly caused carbonic oxide and -carbonic acid poisoning. The general introduction of hot -air kilns provided with mechanical malt-turning apparatus -should be insisted on, and is in keeping with progress in technical -methods.</p> - -<p>The accumulation of carbonic acid in the malting cellars -can be prevented in the same way as in a distillery.</p> - -<p>If ammonia is used for <i>refrigeration</i>, precautions are -necessary so that, in the event of leakage or bursting of pipes, -the workers may escape. Naturally the imperviousness of -the freezing system must be guaranteed.</p> - -<p>Oppression and danger to the health of the workers is -occasionally caused by the development of gases in the coating -of barrels with pitch, partly preventable by the use of pitching -machines.</p> - -<p>In the production of <i>spirits</i> carbonic acid poisoning can -occur from accumulation of carbonic acid in the fermentation -cellars. These should be thoroughly ventilated and in view -of the heaviness of the gas, openings for ventilation should -always be located at the floor level.</p> - -<p>In the <i>sulphuring of malt</i> the following recommendations -were made by the Austrian inspectors:</p> - -<p>During the sulphuring process the room ought not to be -entered (for the turning over of the malt). When the sulphur -has been burnt, the drying-room must be ventilated from the -outside, by opening the windows and letting in cold currents -of air, until the sulphur dioxide has completely dispersed, -which can be tested by holding a strip of moistened blue -litmus paper at the half-opened door. If it does not turn -red, turning over of the malt may be proceeded with.</p> - -<p>As the <i>sulphuring of hops</i> in hop districts is done in primitive -little kilns, in which the hops are spread out on a kind of gridiron -and sulphur burnt below in iron pans, development of sulphur -dioxide may affect the workers. The following regulations are -therefore suggested for work in these kilns:</p> - -<div class="blockquote"> - -<p>The rooms in which sulphuring takes place must be airtight, -capable of being locked, and provided with arrangements which -make it possible to remove the sulphur dioxide fumes before -the room is entered. This can usually be done by a strong<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_334" id="Page_334">[334]</a></span> -coke fire, maintained in the chimney place, which creates the -necessary draught. If fans are used, it must be remembered -that iron is affected and destroyed by acid gases; stoneware -fans are therefore advisable.</p> - -</div> - -<p>In the production of <i>vinegar</i>, air escapes laden with acetic -acid vapour, alcohol, lower oxidation products of alcohol, -aldehyde, acetic ether, &c. Their escape can be avoided if -the whole process is carried on in a closed self-acting apparatus -with the advantage also that no loss occurs.</p> - -<p>In premises for <i>drying agricultural products</i> (fruit, chicory, -turnips) the persons employed in the drying-room are exposed -to the danger of carbonic oxide poisoning from direct firing.</p> - -<p>The following recommendations for work in drying-rooms -with direct firing are taken from an Austrian decree of 1901:</p> - -<div class="blockquote"> - -<p>The lower drying chambers, in which the real drying process -is effected, should be so arranged that the objects dried in them -can be removed by means of long-handled implements through -a passage shut off from the drying-room. The separation of -this passage can be effected by loose tin plates which can be -removed as required for the work of turning or removal of the -dried products, so that the worker need not come into contact -with the gases.</p> - -<p>Open fires should be so arranged that if required they can -be shut off, by simple arrangements, from the drying-rooms -in which the workers are temporarily occupied in carrying in, -and turning, the objects to be dried, transferring the partly -dried products to hotter hurdles, and emptying them when -finished, in such a way that the entrance of combustion gases -into the drying chambers can be completely prevented. In -order, however, to prevent a back draught, arrangements must -be made for simultaneous removal of the gases by pipes -connected with a chimney or smoke flue. The places from -which the fires are charged should, in addition, be furnished -with suitably arranged openings for ventilation leading into -the outer air, in order to neutralise, in case of need, any back -draught from the furnaces into the rooms.</p> - -<p>The windows of the drying chambers should be so arranged -as to open both from within and without.</p> - -<p>The floor of the roof space, or attic, which forms at the same -time the ceiling of the upper drying-room, should be kept -perfectly airtight, as also the openings into it through which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_335" id="Page_335">[335]</a></span> -the steam pipes pass. For this purpose the floor should be a -double one and the openings or boxes into which material is -thrown should have a double cover above and below. Further, -situated in the highest point of the ceiling of the roof space, -there should be a suitable number of openings topped by -louvred turrets. In the roof space no work should be done -except manipulations necessary for the charging of the hurdles -with the goods to be dried. Use of the roof floor as a sleeping -or living room is not permissible.</p> - -<p>Before the workers enter the drying chambers for the purpose -of turning the materials, the stove should be shut off, the gases -drawn from the furnace into the chimney or flue, and at the -same time the doors and windows of the drying rooms opened.</p> - -<p>Entering of drying chambers for working purposes should -only be done after a sufficient time has elapsed for removal of -the air by ventilation.</p> - -<p>Charging of the furnaces should be so arranged that they -burn as low as possible before the removal of the dried -materials and before subsequent work in the drying chambers. -Seeing that chicory and turnip drying is done intermittently -by night, a special sleeping or waiting room with free ventilation -should be provided. The regulations concerning the ventilation -of the workrooms are to be made known to the workers.</p> - -</div> - -<h4>Cigar Industry</h4> - -<p>In order to prevent injury to health to tobacco workers -the dust and fumes, especially at cutting and sifting machines, -require to be drawn away by locally applied exhaust ventilation. -The workrooms, moreover, must conform to hygienic -requirements, especially as to cleanliness. Washing accommodation -and baths are desirable, but are only likely to be -provided in large works.</p> - -<h4>Wood Working</h4> - -<p class="center">(See also p. <a href="#Page_154">154</a>)</p> - -<p>Risk from poisonous woods can be avoided by exhaust -ventilation applied to the wood-working machinery.</p> - -<p>To lessen the danger to health in the use of methylated -spirits in the polishing of wood adequate ventilation of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_336" id="Page_336">[336]</a></span> -workrooms is necessary; drawing off the fumes by local -ventilation is often impossible.</p> - -<h4>Production of Wood-pulp (Cellulose) and Paper.</h4> - -<p>In the <i>sulphite cellulose</i> process, sulphur dioxide may -escape from the sulphur stoves or from the boilers; escape -of sulphur dioxide is also possible through defective gas pipes -and condensers. Gas pipes and condensers require to be -quite impervious and condensation or absorption as complete -as possible. The fumes escaping from the boilers should -be led through pipes into closed boilers for condensation -purposes; the gases not condensed here are to be led into -absorption towers.</p> - -<p>In the manufacture of <i>paper</i> with use of chloride of lime -for bleaching chlorine can be given off in considerable quantity, -requiring removal of the gases from the apparatus.</p> - -<p>The use of poisonous colours containing lead or arsenic, -and addition of lead-containing substances to the paper pulp, -is now very rare.</p> - -<h4>Textile Industries.</h4> - -<p class="center">(See also p. <a href="#Page_156">156</a>)</p> - -<p>In the textile industry only a few manipulations are associated -with serious risk of poisoning. Those engaged in -carbonising are exposed to acid fumes; closed and ventilated -apparatus, therefore, as far as possible, require to be used -and the acid gases escaping from them should be absorbed. -These requirements are fulfilled by carbonising stoves which -are ventilated and connected with coke condensers. It is -especially urged that only arsenic free acid be employed, as -otherwise danger of poisoning by arseniuretted hydrogen may -be incurred.</p> - -<p>In the making of <i>artificial silk</i>, according to the Chardonnet-Cadoret -process, the precautionary measures recommended in -nitrating together with careful exhaustion of the ether and -camphor fumes apply.</p> - -<p>The combustion gases (containing carbonic oxide) developed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_337" id="Page_337">[337]</a></span> -in the process of singeing are harmful and require -to be led away at their source.</p> - -<p>Poisonous metallic salts, especially lead and lead-containing -zinc, are used as weighting materials, in dressing or -finishing, and sometimes cause symptoms among the workers. -Apart from the danger to those occupied in spinning and -weaving, the workers who handle these products (in the -clothing trade) also run a risk from lead.</p> - -<p>Precautionary measures are necessary in the <i>varnishing of -woven materials</i>, as the substances employed may contain -volatile poisonous solvents. If these poisonous solvents -cannot be replaced by others less poisonous, carefully applied -exhaust ventilation must be provided. The same holds good -when carbon bisulphide, benzene, and benzine are used as -solvents in the production of woven materials impregnated -with indiarubber.</p> - -<p>Employment of lead salts and other poisonous metallic -salts in the glossing of woven materials, or in order to render -them non-inflammable, is to be deprecated.</p> - -<p>Cases of lead poisoning have occurred in the working-up -of asbestos, as lead wire is sometimes used in the process -of weaving.</p> - -<p>To protect workers in <i>chlorine</i> and <i>sulphur bleaching</i> from -poisoning by chlorine or sulphur dioxide the gases arising -from the bleaching liquids should be drawn away. Use -of closed bleaching apparatus, as is the case in large -works, reduces the danger to a minimum. Bleaching-rooms -should be connected with a powerful stoneware fan, so that -they may be thoroughly aired before they are entered.</p> - -<h4>Dye Works</h4> - -<p>Industrial poisoning by dyes is, in general, rare, as the -natural dyes (wood and tar dyes) are almost without -exception non-poisonous. Further, the dyes are generally -only used in diluted solution. Formerly the arsenic in many -tar dyes caused poisoning, but now it is usually the -mordants which have harmful effect. To this class belong -chromic acid salts and mordants containing arsenic, antimony -(tartar-emetic), and also chloride of tin. In the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_338" id="Page_338">[338]</a></span> -scraping off of layers of paint containing arsenic, arsenic -dust may arise. In Turkey red dyeworks, especially sodium -arsenite is used for fixing the tar dyes.</p> - -<p>Orpiment dyes which may give off poisonous arseniuretted -hydrogen gas are becoming less and less used; from the -point of view of industrial hygiene, the utmost possible -avoidance of the use of arsenic-containing preparations in -dye works is to be recommended. Where this is not possible, -strict personal hygiene must be enforced (as, for instance, -application of vaseline to the skin).</p> - -<hr /> - -<div class="footnotes"> - -<h2>FOOTNOTES</h2> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_1" id="Footnote_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1"><span class="label">[A]</span></a> Leymann has dealt with the conditions of health in a large aniline factory -in a later work which is referred to in detail in the section on the aniline -industry.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_2" id="Footnote_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2"><span class="label">[B]</span></a> Poisoning by lead, phosphorus, and arsenic contracted in a factory or -Workshop has been notifiable in Great Britain and Ireland since 1895.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_3" id="Footnote_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3"><span class="label">[C]</span></a> ‘On the Nature, Uses, and Manufacture of Ferro-silicon,’ 1909, Cd. 4958.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_4" id="Footnote_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4"><span class="label">[D]</span></a> In Great Britain section 73 of the Factory and Workshop Act, 1901, requires -every medical practitioner attending on or called in to visit a patient whom he -believes to be suffering from lead, phosphorus, arsenical or mercurial poisoning, or -anthrax, contracted in any factory or workshop, to notify the Chief Inspector of -Factories, and a similar obligation is placed on the occupier to send written notice -of every case to the inspector and certifying surgeon of the district.</p> - -<p>The table on p. <a href="#Page_222">222</a> shows the number of reports included in returns for the -years 1900-12.</p> - -<p>Cases of acute poisoning in factories and workshops are reportable to the -Inspector and certifying surgeon, under the Notice of Accidents Act, 1906, when -(<i>a</i>) causing loss of life or (<i>b</i>) due to molten metal, hot liquid, explosion, <i>escape of -gas</i> or steam, and so disabling any person as to cause absence throughout at least -one whole day from his ordinary work.</p> - -<p>The following table gives indication of the relative frequency of cases of -poisoning from gases and fumes, although some were reported as accidents the -result of the unconsciousness induced:</p> - -<table summary="Yearly frequency of cases of poisoning from gases and fumes" class="borders"> - <tr> - <th>Nature of Gas or Fumes.<br />(1)</th> - <th colspan="2">1912.<br />(2)</th> - <th colspan="2">1911.<br />(3)</th> - <th colspan="2">1910.<br />(4)</th> - <th colspan="2">1909.<br />(5)</th> - <th colspan="2">1908.<br />(6)</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Carbon monoxide</td> - <td class="tdr nbr">91</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">14</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">64</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">6</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">53</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">9</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">53</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">6</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">55</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">5</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub1">(<i>a</i>) Blast furnace</td> - <td class="tdr nbr">33</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">5</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">16</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">2</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">19</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">7</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">16</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">26</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">3</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub1">(<i>b</i>) Power (suction, producer, Mond, Dowson).</td> - <td class="tdr nbr">19</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">4</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">31</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">1</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">25</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">25</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">4</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">19</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">2</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub1">(<i>c</i>) Coal</td> - <td class="tdr nbr">29</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">2</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">6</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">2</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">4</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">11</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">1</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">9</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub1">(<i>d</i>) Other</td> - <td class="tdr nbr">10</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">3</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">11</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">1</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">5</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">2</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">1</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">1</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">1</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Sulphuretted hydrogen</td> - <td class="tdr nbr">6</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">8</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">2</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">2</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">5</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">2</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">8</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">1</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Carbon dioxide</td> - <td class="tdr nbr">3</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">2</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">1</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">1</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">2</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">1</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">2</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">2</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">4</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">3</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Ammonia</td> - <td class="tdr nbr">1</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">1</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">1</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">2</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">1</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">1</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Chlorine and hydrochloric acid fumes</td> - <td class="tdr nbr">3</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">5</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">1</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">3</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">1</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">1</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Nitrous fumes</td> - <td class="tdr nbr">12</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">1</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">18</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">2</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">11</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">12</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">2</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">3</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">1</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Nitro and amido derivatives of benzene</td> - <td class="tdr nbr">9</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">1</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">21</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">18</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">4</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">2</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Naphtha and benzene</td> - <td class="tdr nbr">3</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">1</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">1</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"><span class="smaller">1</span></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">—</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">11</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr nbr">2</td> - <td class="tdr nbl"></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bb">Other (Sulphur dioxide, &c.)</td> - <td class="tdr bb nbr">7</td> - <td class="tdr bb nbl"><span class="smaller">2</span></td> - <td class="tdr bb nbr">4</td> - <td class="tdr bb nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr bb nbr">4</td> - <td class="tdr bb nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr bb nbr">4</td> - <td class="tdr bb nbl"></td> - <td class="tdr bb nbr">3</td> - <td class="tdr bb nbl"></td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p>The principal figures are those of all cases, fatal and non-fatal; the small figures relate to fatal -cases.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_5" id="Footnote_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5"><span class="label">[E]</span></a> The principal numbers relate to cases, the small figures to deaths. Fatal cases not reported in previous years are included as both cases and deaths.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_6" id="Footnote_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6"><span class="label">[F]</span></a> Fischer adopts a chemical basis in his classification. His two main subdivisions -are (1) inorganic and (2) organic poisons. The sub-divisions of the -inorganic poisons are (<i>a</i>) non-metallic—chlorine, calcium chloride, hydrochloric -acid, potassium chlorate, hydrofluoric acid, carbonic oxide, phosgene, carbon -dioxide, cyanogen compounds, ammonia, nitrous fumes, phosphorus, phosphoretted -hydrogen, arsenic compounds, antimony compounds, sulphur dioxide, sulphuric -acid, sulphuretted hydrogen, carbon bisulphide, chloride of sulphur; and (<i>b</i>) -metallic—chromic acid and chromates, manganese dioxide, sulphate of nickel, -mercury and lead. The sub-divisions of (2) the organic substances are into (<i>a</i>) the -unsaturated carbon compounds—benzene, petroleum, methyl-, ethyl-, amyl-, and -allyl-alcohol, oxalic acid, formal- and acetaldehyde, acrolein, acetone, methyl-bromide -and iodide, nitro-glycerin, dimethyl-sulphate and amyl acetate, and (<i>b</i>) the -aromatic series benzene, nitro-, chloro-nitro-, dinitro-, chloro-dinitro-benzene, -phenol, picric acid, phenyl-hydrazine, aniline, and certain aniline colours, para-nitraniline, -pyridine, naphthalene, nitro-naphthalene, naphthlyamine, naphthol, -benzidine, acridine, turpentine, and nicotine.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_7" id="Footnote_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7"><span class="label">[G]</span></a> A Prussian Ministerial Decree, dated March 31, 1892, deals with the preparation -of nitrate of mercury.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_8" id="Footnote_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8"><span class="label">[H]</span></a> In Great Britain and Ireland the White Phosphorus Matches Prohibition -Act became operative from January 1, 1910. In the United States of America -a Prohibition Act became operative on July 1, 1913.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_9" id="Footnote_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9"><span class="label">[I]</span></a> Reprinted by permission of the Controller of H.M. Stationery Office.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_10" id="Footnote_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10"><span class="label">[J]</span></a> <i>Use of Oxygen Cylinder.</i>—Open the valve gradually by tapping the -lever key (which must first be extended to its full length) with the wrist, -until the oxygen flows in a gentle stream from the mouthpiece into the patient’s -mouth. The lips should not be closed round the mouthpiece. The nostrils -should be closed during breathing in, and opened during breathing out.</p> - -<p>If the teeth are set, close the lips and one nostril. Let the conical end of -the mouthpiece slightly enter the other nostril during breathing in, and -remove it for breathing out.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_11" id="Footnote_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11"><span class="label">[K]</span></a> The suggested regulations made after his inquiry (see p. 149) by Dr. Copeman -are:</p> - -<p>1. Ferro-silicon should not be sent out from the works immediately after -manufacture, but after being broken up into pieces of the size in which it is usually -sold, should be stored under cover, but exposed to the air as completely as possible, -for at least a month before being despatched from the works.</p> - -<p>2. Manufacturers should be required to mark in bold letters each barrel or other -parcel of ferro-silicon with the name and percentage grade (certified by chemical -analysis) of the material; the name of the works where it is produced; the date of -manufacture; and date of despatch.</p> - -<p>3. The carriage of ferro-silicon on vessels carrying passengers should be prohibited. -When carried on cargo boats it should, if circumstances permit, be stored -on deck. If it be considered necessary to store it elsewhere, the place of storage -should be capable of being adequately ventilated, and such place of storage should -be cut off by airtight bulkheads from the quarters occupied by the crew of the -vessel.</p> - -<p>4. This regulation should apply to the transport of ferro-silicon on river or -canal barges as well as on sea-going vessels.</p> - -<p>5. Storage places at docks or at works where ferro-silicon is used should have -provision for free access of air, and should be situated at a distance from work-rooms, -mess-rooms, offices, &c.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_12" id="Footnote_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12"><span class="label">[L]</span></a> Regulations 5-7 contain precautions to be observed in the corroding -chambers.</p> - -</div> - -</div> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_339" id="Page_339">[339]</a></span></p> - -<h2 id="APPENDIX">APPENDIX<br /> -<span class="smaller">REFERENCES</span></h2> - -<h3>PART I<br /> -<span class="smcap">Processes of Manufacture and Instances of Poisoning</span></h3> - -<h4><span class="smcap">General Survey of Poisoning in Chemical -Industries</span></h4> - -<p><a href="#endnote-ref1"><span class="endnote-marker" -id="endnote1">1</span></a> Leymann, <i>Concordia</i>, 1906, Nos. 7, -8 and 9; <a href="#endnote-ref2"><span class="endnote-marker" -id="endnote2">2</span></a> Grandhomme, <i>Die Fabriken der Farbwerke zu -Höchst a. M.</i>, Verlag Mahlau, 4th edition.</p> - -<h4><span class="smcap">Sulphuric Acid Industry</span></h4> - -<p><a href="#endnote-ref3"><span class="endnote-marker" -id="endnote3">1</span></a> <i>Zeitschr. für. Gewerbe-Hygiene</i>, 1907, -p. 230; <a href="#endnote-ref4"><span class="endnote-marker" -id="endnote4">2</span></a> Bath, <i>Zeitschr. f. Angew. Chemie</i>, 1896, p. -477.</p> - -<h4><span class="smcap">Hydrochloric Acid and Saltcake -Manufacture</span></h4> - -<p><a href="#endnote-ref5"><span class="endnote-marker" -id="endnote5">1</span></a> <i>Zeitschr. f. Gewerbe-Hygiene</i>, 1906, -p. 562; <a href="#endnote-ref6"><span class="endnote-marker" -id="endnote6">2</span></a> <i>Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg.</i> 1902, p. -62; <a href="#endnote-ref7"><span class="endnote-marker" -id="endnote7">3</span></a> Walther in Weyl’s <i>Arbeiterkrank-keiten</i>, p. -666.</p> - -<h4><span class="smcap">Chlorine and Bleaching Powder</span></h4> - -<p><a href="#endnote-ref8"><span class="endnote-marker" -id="endnote8">1</span></a> <i>Zeitschr. für. Gew.-Hyg.</i>, 1906, -p. 280; <a href="#endnote-ref9"><span class="endnote-marker" -id="endnote9">2</span></a> <i>Concordia</i>, 1906, No. 8; -<a href="#endnote-ref10"><span class="endnote-marker" -id="endnote10">3</span></a> <i>Arch. f. Hyg.</i>, vol. 46, p. -322; <a href="#endnote-ref11"><span class="endnote-marker" -id="endnote11">4</span></a> Egli, <i>Unf. b. Chem. Arb.</i>, -Zurich, 1902, p. 40; <a href="#endnote-ref12"><span -class="endnote-marker" id="endnote12">5</span></a> Vaubel, -<i>Chemiker Zeitung</i>, 1903; <a href="#endnote-ref13"><span -class="endnote-marker" id="endnote13">6</span></a> <i>Concordia</i>, -1907, No. 7; <a href="#endnote-ref14"><span class="endnote-marker" -id="endnote14">7</span></a> Rumpf, <i>D. Med. Wochenschr.</i>, 1908, vol. -34, p. 1331; <a href="#endnote-ref15"><span class="endnote-marker" -id="endnote15">8</span></a> Müller, <i>Vierteljahrsschr. f. Ger. -Med. ü öffentl. Sanitätsw.</i>, vol. ix., p. 381; and Roth, <i>Komp. -d. Gewerbekrankh</i>, p. 205; <a href="#endnote-ref16"><span -class="endnote-marker" id="endnote16">9</span></a> Klocke-Bochum, -<i>Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg.</i>, 1906, p. 563; <a href="#endnote-ref17"><span -class="endnote-marker" id="endnote17">10</span></a> Sury -Bienz, <i>Vierteljahrsschr. f. Ger. Med.</i>, 1907, vol. 34, p. -251; <a href="#endnote-ref18"><span class="endnote-marker" -id="endnote18">11</span></a> Erben, <i>Handb. d. ärztl. Sachverst</i>, -1910, vol. ii. p. 266; <a href="#endnote-ref19"><span -class="endnote-marker" id="endnote19">12</span></a> <i>Concordia</i>, -1902, No. 5., and <i>Vierteljahrsschr. f. öff. Ges. Pfl.</i>, 1902, -Suppl. p. 371; <a href="#endnote-ref20"><span class="endnote-marker" -id="endnote20">13</span></a> Mohr, <i>D. Med. Wochenschr</i>., 1902, vol. -28, p. 73; <a href="#endnote-ref21"><span class="endnote-marker" -id="endnote21">14</span></a> ‘Über Chlorakne,’ <i>Archiv. f. -Dermatol.</i>, 1905, vol. 77, p. 323; <a href="#endnote-ref22"><span -class="endnote-marker" id="endnote22">15</span></a> Dammer, <i>Handb. -d. Arb. Wohlf.</i>, vol. i. p. 433; <a href="#endnote-ref23"><span -class="endnote-marker" id="endnote23">16</span></a> <i>D. Arch. f. -Klin. Med.</i>, 1901, vol. 71, p. 370; <a href="#endnote-ref24"><span -class="endnote-marker" id="endnote24">17</span></a> Schuler, -<i>D. Vierteljahrsschr. f. öffentl. Ges. Pfl.</i>, vol. 31, p. -696; <a href="#endnote-ref25"><span class="endnote-marker" -id="endnote25">18</span></a> Egli, <i>Unf. b. Chem. Arb.</i>, Zurich, 1902, -pp. 22, 45; <a href="#endnote-ref26"><span class="endnote-marker" -id="endnote26">19</span></a> Rambousek, <i>Concordia</i>, 1910, No. 6.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_340" id="Page_340">[340]</a></span></p> - -<h4><span class="smcap">Manufacture and Use of Nitric Acid and its -Compounds</span></h4> - -<p><a href="#endnote-ref27"><span class="endnote-marker" -id="endnote27">1</span></a> Schmitz, <i>Berl. Klin. Wochenschr.</i>, 1884, -vol. 21, p. 428, and Becker, <i>Aerztl. Sachv. Ztg.</i>, 1899, vol. -v. p. 277; <a href="#endnote-ref28"><span class="endnote-marker" -id="endnote28">2</span></a> <i>Concordia</i>, 1908, No. 23, p. -498; <a href="#endnote-ref29"><span class="endnote-marker" -id="endnote29">3</span></a> Schmieden, <i>Zentralbl. f. Klin. Med.</i>, -1892, No. 11; Kockel, <i>Vierteljahrsschr. f. Ger. Med.</i>, 1898, -vol. 15; <a href="#endnote-ref30"><span class="endnote-marker" -id="endnote30">4</span></a> Egli, <i>Unf. b. chem. arb.</i>, 1903, -p. 52; <a href="#endnote-ref31"><span class="endnote-marker" -id="endnote31">5</span></a> <i>Chem. Industrie</i>, 1905, p. -444; <a href="#endnote-ref32"><span class="endnote-marker" -id="endnote32">6</span></a> <i>Chem. Industrie</i>, 1905, p. -445; <a href="#endnote-ref33"><span class="endnote-marker" -id="endnote33">7</span></a> <i>Berl. Klin. Wochenschr.</i>, 1886, vol. -23, p. 417; <a href="#endnote-ref34"><span class="endnote-marker" -id="endnote34">8</span></a> <i>Komp. d. Gewerbekrankheiten</i>, p. -62; <a href="#endnote-ref35"><span class="endnote-marker" -id="endnote35">9</span></a> <i>Intern. Uebers. über Gew.-Hyg.</i>, 1907, p. -76.</p> - -<h4><span class="smcap">Phosphorus and Lucifer Match -Manufacture</span></h4> - -<p><a href="#endnote-ref36"><span class="endnote-marker" -id="endnote36">1</span></a> <i>Die Phosphornekrose, ihre Verbreitung -in Oesterreich</i>, Wien, 1907; <a href="#endnote-ref37"><span -class="endnote-marker" id="endnote37">2</span></a> Friedrichs, -in <i>Arb. d. Ung. Ver. f. ges. Arbeiterschutz</i> 1908, vol. 4, pp. -1-176; <a href="#endnote-ref38"><span class="endnote-marker" -id="endnote38">3</span></a> v. Jaksch, <i>Handb. d. ärztl. Sachv.-Tät.</i>, -1909, vol. 7, p. 239; and Lévai, <i>W. Klin. Rundsch.</i>, 1900, -vol. 14, p. 33, and Dearden, <i>Brit. Med. Journ.</i>, 1899, vol. 1, -p. 92; <a href="#endnote-ref39"><span class="endnote-marker" -id="endnote39">4</span></a> Wodtke, <i>Vierteljahrsschr. f. ger. Med. und -öffentl. Sanitätsw.</i>, vol. 18, p. 325.</p> - -<h4><span class="smcap">Chromium Compounds</span></h4> - -<p><a href="#endnote-ref40"><span class="endnote-marker" -id="endnote40">1</span></a> Hermanni, <i>Münch med. Wochenschr.</i>, 1901, -No. 14, and Wodtke, <i>loc. cit.</i>, p. 325; <a href="#endnote-ref41"><span -class="endnote-marker" id="endnote41">2</span></a> <i>Zeitschr. -f. Gew.-Hyg.</i>, 1908, p. 161; <a href="#endnote-ref42"><span -class="endnote-marker" id="endnote42">3</span></a> Wutzdorff und Heise, -<i>Arb. a. d. Kais. Ges. Amt.</i>, vol. xiii.; <a href="#endnote-ref43"><span -class="endnote-marker" id="endnote43">4</span></a> <i>Zeitschr. f. öffentl. -Ges. Pfl.</i>, 1894; <a href="#endnote-ref44"><span class="endnote-marker" -id="endnote44">5</span></a> Burns, <i>Ann. Rept. of C. I. of F.</i>, -1903; <a href="#endnote-ref45"><span class="endnote-marker" -id="endnote45">6</span></a> Neisser, <i>Intern. Uebers. über Gew.-Hyg.</i>, -1907, p. 92.</p> - -<h4><span class="smcap">Manganese Compounds</span></h4> - -<p><a href="#endnote-ref46"><span class="endnote-marker" -id="endnote46">1</span></a> Couper, <i>Journ. de Chimie</i>, vol. 3, -series ii.; <a href="#endnote-ref47"><span class="endnote-marker" -id="endnote47">2</span></a> <i>Münch. med. Wochenschr.</i>, 1901, -p. 412; <a href="#endnote-ref48"><span class="endnote-marker" -id="endnote48">3</span></a> Embden, <i>D. med. Wochenschr.</i>, vol. 27, p. -795.</p> - -<h4><span class="smcap">Petroleum and Benzine Industry</span></h4> - -<p><a href="#endnote-ref49"><span class="endnote-marker" -id="endnote49">1</span></a> Berthenson, <i>D. Vierteljahrsschr. f. öffentl. -ges.-Pfl.</i>, 1898, vol. 30, p. 315; <a href="#endnote-ref50"><span -class="endnote-marker" id="endnote50">2</span></a> <i>Virchow’s Archiv</i>, -vol. 112, p. 35; <a href="#endnote-ref51"><span class="endnote-marker" -id="endnote51">3</span></a> Felix, <i>D. Vierteljahrsschr. f. -öffentl. ges.-Pfl.</i>, 1872; <a href="#endnote-ref52"><span -class="endnote-marker" id="endnote52">4</span></a> <i>Lancet</i>, 1886, -p. 149; <a href="#endnote-ref53"><span class="endnote-marker" -id="endnote53">5</span></a> <i>Ramazzini</i>, 1908, vol. 2, p. -226; <a href="#endnote-ref54"><span class="endnote-marker" -id="endnote54">6</span></a> Dorendorf, <i>Zeitschr. f. Klin. Med.</i>, -1901, p. 42; <a href="#endnote-ref55"><span class="endnote-marker" -id="endnote55">7</span></a> <i>Brit. Med. Journ.</i>, 1903, p. 546, -and <i>ibid.</i>, 1908, p. 807; <a href="#endnote-ref56"><span -class="endnote-marker" id="endnote56">8</span></a> <i>Zeitschr. -f. Gew.-Hyg.</i>, 1907, p. 157; <a href="#endnote-ref57"><span -class="endnote-marker" id="endnote57">9</span></a> Wichern, <i>Zeitschr. -f. Gew.-Hyg.</i>, 1909, Nos. 3 and 4; <a href="#endnote-ref58"><span -class="endnote-marker" id="endnote58">10</span></a> Mitchell, <i>Med. News</i>, -iii., p. 152; <i>Ann. d’Hyg. publ.</i>, vol. 24, p. 500; Arlidge, <i>Dis. of -Occupation</i>; <i>Revue d’Hygiène</i>, 1895, p. 166; Neisser, <i>Intern. Uebers. -f. Gew.-Hyg.</i>, 1907, p. 96.</p> - -<h4><span class="smcap">Sulphuretted Hydrogen Gas</span></h4> - -<p><a href="#endnote-ref59"><span class="endnote-marker" -id="endnote59">1</span></a> <i>Chem. Ind.</i>, 1908, p. 323; <a href="#endnote-ref60"><span class="endnote-marker" -id="endnote60">2</span></a> Pfeiler, <i>D. -Vierteljahrsschr. f. öffentl. Ges.-Pfl.</i>, 1904; <a href="#endnote-ref61"><span class="endnote-marker" -id="endnote61">3</span></a> <i>Lehre v. d. schädl. u. -gift. Gasen</i>, p. 274.</p> - -<h4><span class="smcap">Carbon Bisulphide</span></h4> - -<p><a href="#endnote-ref62"><span class="endnote-marker" -id="endnote62">1</span></a> <i>Archiv f. Hyg.</i>, vol. 15, pp. -125-141; <a href="#endnote-ref63"><span class="endnote-marker" -id="endnote63">2</span></a> Santesson, <i>Archiv f. Hyg.</i>, vol. 31, -p. 336; <a href="#endnote-ref64"><span class="endnote-marker" -id="endnote64">3</span></a> <i>Chem. Ind.</i>, 1905, p. 442; -<a href="#endnote-ref65"><span class="endnote-marker" -id="endnote65">4</span></a> <i>Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg.</i>, 1908 and -1909; <a href="#endnote-ref66"><span class="endnote-marker" -id="endnote66">5</span></a> <i>Arch. f. Hyg.</i>, xx., p. 74; -<a href="#endnote-ref67"><span class="endnote-marker" -id="endnote67">6</span></a> <i>Die Schwefelkohlenstoffvergiftung -der Gumniarbeiter</i>, Leipzig, Veit & Comp., 1899; -<a href="#endnote-ref68"><span class="endnote-marker" -id="endnote68">7</span></a> <i>Ann. d’Hyg. publ.</i>, 1863.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_341" id="Page_341">[341]</a></span></p> - -<h4><span class="smcap">Illuminating Gas</span></h4> - -<p><a href="#endnote-ref69"><span class="endnote-marker" -id="endnote69">1</span></a> <i>Krankheiten des Arbeiter</i>, -1871; <a href="#endnote-ref70"><span class="endnote-marker" -id="endnote70">2</span></a> <i>Gewerbepathologie</i>, 1877; -<a href="#endnote-ref71"><span class="endnote-marker" -id="endnote71">3</span></a> <i>Weyl’s Handb. d’Hyg.</i>, 1894, vol. -8; <a href="#endnote-ref72"><span class="endnote-marker" -id="endnote72">4</span></a> Sprenger and Albrecht: Albrecht’s -<i>Gewerbehygiene</i>, 1896; <a href="#endnote-ref73"><span -class="endnote-marker" id="endnote73">5</span></a> Jehle, ‘Hygiene -der Gasarbeiter,’ <i>Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg.</i>, 1901, pp. 245 and -261; <a href="#endnote-ref74"><span class="endnote-marker" -id="endnote74">6</span></a> Schütte: ‘Krankheiten der -Gasarbeiter,’ Weyl’s <i>Arbeiterkrankheiten</i>, 1908, p. 239; -<a href="#endnote-ref75"><span class="endnote-marker" -id="endnote75">7</span></a> Heymann’s Verlag, 1910; <a -href="#endnote-ref76"><span class="endnote-marker" -id="endnote76">8</span></a> <i>Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg.</i>, 1909, -No. 12; <a href="#endnote-ref77"><span class="endnote-marker" -id="endnote77">9</span></a> <i>Chem. Ind.</i>, 1905, p. 442; -<a href="#endnote-ref78"><span class="endnote-marker" -id="endnote78">10</span></a> Egli, <i>Über d. Unf. b. Chem. Arb.</i>, -Zurich, 1903; <a href="#endnote-ref79"><span class="endnote-marker" -id="endnote79">11</span></a> <i>Gewerb. techn. Ratgeber</i>, 1906, p. 96.</p> - -<h4><span class="smcap">Coke Ovens</span></h4> - -<p><a href="#endnote-ref80"><span class="endnote-marker" -id="endnote80">1</span></a> Hesse, <i>Concordia</i>, 1909.</p> - -<h4><span class="smcap">Power Gas, Suction Gas, &c.</span></h4> - -<p><a href="#endnote-ref81"><span class="endnote-marker" -id="endnote81">1</span></a> <i>Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg.</i>, 1906, p. -250; 1909, p. 297; 1906, p. 19; <a href="#endnote-ref82"><span -class="endnote-marker" id="endnote82">2</span></a> <i>Gewerbl. -techn. Ratgeber</i>, 1906, p. 297; <a href="#endnote-ref83"><span -class="endnote-marker" id="endnote83">3</span></a> Nottebohm, -<i>Socialtechnik</i>, 1907, vol. 7, p. 80; <a href="#endnote-ref84"><span -class="endnote-marker" id="endnote84">4</span></a> Finkelstein, <i>Jahr. -d. Peych.</i>, 1897, vol. 15, p. 116; <a href="#endnote-ref85"><span -class="endnote-marker" id="endnote85">5</span></a> Jokote, <i>Arch. f. -Hyg.</i>, 1904, vol. 49, p. 275.</p> - -<h4><span class="smcap">Ammonia</span></h4> - -<p><a href="#endnote-ref86"><span class="endnote-marker" -id="endnote86">1</span></a> <i>Ber. pr. Gew. Insp.</i>, 1904; -<a href="#endnote-ref87"><span class="endnote-marker" -id="endnote87">2</span></a> Egli, <i>loc. cit.</i>, No. 2, p. -48; <a href="#endnote-ref88"><span class="endnote-marker" -id="endnote88">3</span></a> <i>Lehre v. d. schädl. u. gift. Gasen</i>, -p. 274; <a href="#endnote-ref89"><span class="endnote-marker" -id="endnote89">4</span></a> <i>Zeitschr. f. gew.-Hyg.</i>, 1909, p. -242; <a href="#endnote-ref90"><span class="endnote-marker" -id="endnote90">5</span></a> <i>Berl. Klin. Wochenschr.</i>, 1908.</p> - -<h4><span class="smcap">Cyanogen Compounds</span></h4> - -<p><a href="#endnote-ref91"><span class="endnote-marker" -id="endnote91">1</span></a> <i>Handb. d. Hyg.</i>, vol. 8, p. -897; <a href="#endnote-ref92"><span class="endnote-marker" -id="endnote92">2</span></a> Merzbach, <i>Hyg. Rundsch.</i>, 1899, -No. 1; <a href="#endnote-ref93"><span class="endnote-marker" -id="endnote93">3</span></a> <i>Zeitschr. f. Med. Beamte</i>, 1907, vol. -20, p. 825; <a href="#endnote-ref94"><span class="endnote-marker" -id="endnote94">4</span></a> Kockel, <i>Vierteljahrsschr. f. ger. Med.</i>, -1903, vol. 26; <a href="#endnote-ref95"><span class="endnote-marker" -id="endnote95">5</span></a> Erben, <i>Vergiftungen</i>, ii. p. 204.</p> - -<h4><span class="smcap">Tar and its Derivatives</span></h4> - -<p><a href="#endnote-ref96"><span class="endnote-marker" -id="endnote96">1</span></a> Lewin, <i>Münchn. med. Wochenschr.</i>, -1907; <a href="#endnote-ref97"><span class="endnote-marker" -id="endnote97">2</span></a> Santesson, <i>Skand. Arch. f. Physiol.</i>, -1900, vol. 10, pp. 1-36; <a href="#endnote-ref98"><span -class="endnote-marker" id="endnote98">3</span></a> <i>Concordia</i>, 1901, -p. 287 Jahresber. d. Staatl. Aufsichtsbeamten über Unfallverbütung, -1909; <a href="#endnote-ref99"><span class="endnote-marker" -id="endnote99">4</span></a> Arb. d. Hamb. Gewerbeinspektoren, -1909; <a href="#endnote-ref100"><span class="endnote-marker" -id="endnote100">5</span></a> Greiff, <i>Vierteljahrsschr. f. ger. Med.</i>, -1890.</p> - -<h4><span class="smcap">Coal Tar Colours</span></h4> - -<p><a href="#endnote-ref101"><span class="endnote-marker" -id="endnote101">1</span></a> <i>Die Fabriken der Farbwerke -vorm. Meister Lucius & Brüning zu Höchst a. M.</i>, 1896; -<a href="#endnote-ref102"><span class="endnote-marker" -id="endnote102">2</span></a> <i>Concordia</i>, 1910, p. 355; -<a href="#endnote-ref103"><span class="endnote-marker" -id="endnote103">3</span></a> <i>Vierteljahrsschr. f. öffentl. Ges.-Pfl.</i>, -Supplem. pro 1902, p. 371; <a href="#endnote-ref104"><span -class="endnote-marker" id="endnote104">4</span></a> Schröder, -<i>Vierteljahrsschr. f. ger. Med.</i>, 1903, p. 138; Rump, <i>Zeitschr. -f. Med. Beamte</i>, 1903, p. 57; <a href="#endnote-ref105"><span -class="endnote-marker" id="endnote105">5</span></a> Brat, <i>D. med. -Wochenschr.</i>, 1901, Nos. 19 and 20; <a href="#endnote-ref106"><span -class="endnote-marker" id="endnote106">6</span></a> Mohr, <i>D. -med. Wochenschr.</i>, 1902; <a href="#endnote-ref107"><span -class="endnote-marker" id="endnote107">7</span></a> <i>Zeitschr. -f. Gew.-Hyg.</i>, 1908, p. 383; <a href="#endnote-ref108"><span -class="endnote-marker" id="endnote108">8</span></a> Hanke, <i>W. -Klin. Wochenschr.</i>, 1899, vol. 12, p. 725; Frank, <i>Beiträge zur -Angenheilk.</i>, 1898, vol. 31, p. 93; Silex, <i>Zeitschr. f. Angenheilk.</i>, -1902, p. 178; <a href="#endnote-ref109"><span class="endnote-marker" -id="endnote109">9</span></a> Dearden, <i>Brit. Med. Journ.</i>, 1902, vol. -2, p. 750; <a href="#endnote-ref110"><span class="endnote-marker" -id="endnote110">10</span></a> <i>Ann. Rept. of C. I. of F.</i>, 1905, -p. 165; <a href="#endnote-ref111"><span class="endnote-marker" -id="endnote111">11</span></a> <i>Münch, med. Wochenschr.</i>, -1907; <a href="#endnote-ref112"><span class="endnote-marker" -id="endnote112">12</span></a> Erdmann, <i>Arch. f. exp. Path.</i>, 1905, vol. -53, p. 401.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_342" id="Page_342">[342]</a></span></p> - -<h4><span class="smcap">Ferro-silicon</span></h4> - -<p><i>Nature, Uses and Manufacture of Ferro-silicon</i>, by S. M. Copeman, S. -R. Bennett, and H. W. Hake. London. 1909. Cd. 4958.</p> - -<h4><span class="smcap">Lead and its Compounds</span></h4> - -<p>Legge and Goadby, <i>Lead Poisoning and Lead Absorption.</i> Edward Arnold. -1912.</p> - -<p><a href="#endnote-ref113"><span class="endnote-marker" -id="endnote113">1</span></a> Wächter, <i>Die gewerbliche Bleivergiftung -im Deutschen Reich</i>, 1908, p. 36; <a href="#endnote-ref114"><span -class="endnote-marker" id="endnote114">2</span></a> <i>XIV. Intern. Kongr. -f. Hyg. und Dem.</i>, 1907, vol. 2, p. 746; <a href="#endnote-ref115"><span -class="endnote-marker" id="endnote115">3</span></a> Rambousek, -<i>Concordia</i>, 1910; <a href="#endnote-ref116"><span class="endnote-marker" -id="endnote116">4</span></a> Müller, <i>Die Bekämpfung der Bleigefahr -in Bleihütten</i>, Fischer, 1908, 156; <a href="#endnote-ref117"><span -class="endnote-marker" id="endnote117">5</span></a> Frey, -<i>Die Zinkgewinning und ihre Hygiene</i>, Hirschwald, Berlin, -1907; <a href="#endnote-ref118"><span class="endnote-marker" -id="endnote118">6</span></a> Wächter, <i>Die gew. Bleivergiftung</i>, 1908, -Braun, Karlsruhe; <a href="#endnote-ref119"><span class="endnote-marker" -id="endnote119">7</span></a> Clayton, <i>Brit. Med. Journ.</i>, 1906, vol. -1, p. 310; <a href="#endnote-ref120"><span class="endnote-marker" -id="endnote120">8</span></a> <i>Bericht an die Intern. Vereinigung für -Arbeiterschutz</i>, 1908.</p> - -<h4><span class="smcap">Mercury and its Compounds</span></h4> - -<p><a href="#endnote-ref121"><span class="endnote-marker" -id="endnote121">1</span></a> Laureck, <i>Weyl’s Arbeiterkr.</i>, p. -62; <a href="#endnote-ref122"><span class="endnote-marker" -id="endnote122">2</span></a> Giglioli, Ramazzini, 1909, vol. 3, p. 230.</p> - -<h4><span class="smcap">Arsenic and its Compounds</span></h4> - -<p><a href="#endnote-ref123"><span class="endnote-marker" -id="endnote123">1</span></a> <i>Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg.</i>, 1902, p. -441; <a href="#endnote-ref124"><span class="endnote-marker" -id="endnote124">2</span></a> Prölss, <i>Friedreich’s Bl. f. ger. Med.</i>, -1901, p. 176.</p> - -<h4><span class="smcap">Antimony</span></h4> - -<p><a href="#endnote-ref125"><span class="endnote-marker" -id="endnote125">1</span></a> <i>Vergiftungen</i>, vol. ii. p. 285.</p> - -<h4><span class="smcap">Brass</span></h4> - -<p><a href="#endnote-ref126"><span class="endnote-marker" -id="endnote126">1</span></a> <i>Vierteljahrsschr. f. ger. Med.</i>, 1906, -p. 185; <a href="#endnote-ref127"><span class="endnote-marker" -id="endnote127">2</span></a> <i>Arch. f. Hyg.</i>, 1910, vol. 72, p. 358.</p> - -<h3>PART II<br /> -<span class="smcap">Pathology and Treatment</span></h3> - -<h4><span class="smcap">Oxygen Inhalation in Industrial Poisoning</span></h4> - -<p>Brat, ‘Bedeutung der Sauerstofftherapie in der Gewerbehygiene, <i>XIV. Intern. -Kongr. f. Hyg. u. Dem.</i> und <i>Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg.</i> 1908, Heft 13, S. 305; Dräger, -‘Zur Physiologie des Rettungsapparates mit komprim. Sauerstoff, <i>I. Intern. -Kongr. f. Rett.-Wes., Frankfurt a. M.</i> 1908, und <i>Fabrikfeuerwehr</i> 1908, Heft 19, -S. 74; Klocke, ‘Die Bedeutung der Sauerstoffinhalationen in der Gewerbehygiene,’ -<i>Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg.</i> 1906, Heft 20, S. 559; Dräger, ‘Neue Untersuchungen -über die Erfordernisse eines zur Arbeit brauchbaren Rettungsapparates,’ <i>Zeitschr. -f. Gew.-Hyg.</i> 1905, S. 49; Klocke, ‘Sauerstoffrettungsapparate,’ <i>Soz. Techn.</i> 1908, -Nr. 14, S. 272.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_343" id="Page_343">[343]</a></span></p> - -<h4><span class="smcap">Hydrofluoric Acid Poisoning</span></h4> - -<p>Egli, <i>Unf. b. chem. Arb.</i>, I, S. 23, und II, S. 45; Rambousek, ‘Gewerbekrankh. -in Böhmen,’ <i>Concordia</i> 1910, Heft 6, und <i>Amtsarzt</i> 1910, Heft 7.</p> - -<h4><span class="smcap">Sulphuric Acid and Sulphur Dioxide</span></h4> - -<p>Ogata, <i>Arch. f. Hyg.</i>, Bd. 2; Lehmann, <i>Arch. f. Hyg.</i>, Bd. 18, S. 180 ff; Klocke -‘(SO₂-Vergiftung und O-Inhal.),’ <i>Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg.</i> 1906, S. 562 und 617; -‘SO₂-Absorption beim Atemprozess,’ Chem. Ztg. 1909, S. 246; ‘Tod durch Einatmung -von Schwefelsäuredampf,’ <i>Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg.</i> 1907, S. 430; ‘Schwefel-dioxydvergiftung -in England,’ <i>Concordia</i> 1909, Heft 5, S. 105; ‘Schwefels.-Vergiftung, -<i>Chem. Ind.</i> 1909 <i>(Ber. d. Berufsgen. f. chem. Ind. pro</i> 1908, S. 26); Egli, -<i>Unf. b. chem. Arb.</i>, ii, S. 52.</p> - -<h4><span class="smcap">Nitric Acid and Nitrous Fumes</span></h4> - -<p>‘Verg. durch nitrose Gase in einer Zellulosefabrik,’ <i>Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg.</i> 1908 -Heft 24, S. 565; ‘Behandlung von Nitrosevergiftungen durch Sauerstoffinhalationen,’ -<i>Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg.</i> 1908, Heft 20, S. 560; ‘Behandlung durch Chloroform,’ -<i>Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg.</i> 1904, Heft 10, S. 226, und 1907, Heft 8, S. 183; -‘Vergiftungen durch nitrose Gase (Zusammenfassung),’ Holtzmann, <i>Concordia</i>, -1908, Nr. 23, S. 498.</p> - -<h4><span class="smcap">Chlorine, Bromine, and Iodine</span></h4> - -<p>Leymann, <i>Arch. f. Hyg.</i>, Bd. 7, S. 231; Binz, <i>Arch. f. exp. Path.</i>, Bd. 13; -<i>Vierteljahrsschr. f. ger. Med.</i> 1888, S. 345; Lehmann, <i>Arch. f. Hyg.</i>, Bd. 34, S. 302, -und <i>Arch. f. Hyg.</i>, Bd. 17, S. 336; <i>Arch. f. exp. Path. u. Ph.</i> 1887, S. 231; Egli, -<i>Unf. b. chem. Arb.</i>, II, S. 51; Chlorverg., <i>Chem. Ind.</i> 1907, S. 347, 1908, S. 325; -Neisser, <i>Intern. Uebers. über Gew.-Hyg.</i>, I, S. 94; ‘Chlorverg. in England,’ <i>Concordia</i> -1909, S. 105.</p> - -<p><i>Literatur Über Chlorakne.</i>—Herxheimer, <i>Münchn. med. Wochenschr.</i> 1899 -S. 278; Bettmann, <i>D. med. Wochenschr.</i> 1901, S. 437; Lehmann, <i>Arch. f. Dermatol.</i> -1905, S. 323; Leymann, ‘Erk.-Verh. der chem. Grossind.,’ <i>Concordia</i> 1906, Nr. 7-9; -Holtzmann, <i>D. Vierteljahrsschr. f. öffentl. Ges.-Pfl.</i> 1907, Bd. 39, S. 258.</p> - -<h4><span class="smcap">Chlorides of Phosphorus</span></h4> - -<p>Vaubel, <i>Chem. Ztg.</i> 1903; Leymann, <i>Concordia</i> 1906, Nr. 7; Egli, <i>Unf. b. -chem.-Arb.</i> 1902, S. 49; Rumpf, <i>D. med. Wochenschr.</i> 1908, Bd. 34, S. 1331.</p> - -<h4><span class="smcap">Chloride of Sulphur</span></h4> - -<p>Lehmann, <i>Arch. f. Hyg.</i> 1894, Bd. 20, S. 26; Leymann, <i>Concordia</i> 1906, Heft 7.</p> - -<h4><span class="smcap">Ammonia</span></h4> - -<p>Lehmann, ‘Verauche über die Wirkung,’ <i>Arch. f. Hyg.</i>, Bd. 5; ‘Vers. über -die Resorption,’ <i>Arch. f. Hyg.</i>, Bd. 17 u. 67; ‘Versuche über die Gewöhnung,’ -<i>Arch. f. Hyg.</i>, Bd. 34; Lewin, ‘Tödl. Ammoniakverg. in einer chem. Fabrik, -Berl. klin. Wochenschr. 1908; ‘Tödl. Ammoniakverg.,’ <i>Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg.</i> -1909, Wr. 9, S. 242; ‘Ammoniakverg. in der Kälte-Ind.’</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_344" id="Page_344">[344]</a></span></p> - -<h4><span class="smcap">Lead Poisoning</span></h4> - -<p>‘Vorkommen der Bleivergiftung. Bleierkrankungen in der Bleihütte -Braubach,’ <i>Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg.</i> 1909, S. 291; <i>Bleivergiftungen in gewerbl. u -hüttenmänn. Betrieben</i> (<i>Oesterreichs</i>), herausgegeben vom k. k. Arbeitsstat. Amt: -I. Erhebungen in Blei- und Zinkhütten; II. Erhebungen in Bleiweiss- und Bleioxydfabriken; -III. Expertise, betreffend die Blei- und Zinkhütten; IV. Expertise, -betreffend die Bleiweiss- und Bleioxydfabriken; V. Erhebungen in Farbenfabriken -und Betrieben mit Anstreicher-, Lackierer- und Malerarbeiten; VI. Expertise -hierzu; VII. Erhebungen und Expertise in Buch- und Steindruckereien und -Schriftgisseereien (alle Teile erschienen bei Alfr. Hölder, Wien 1905-1909). Frey, -<i>Zinkgewinnung im oberschles. Industriebezirk</i>, Berlin 1907, Verlag Hirschwald; -Leymann, <i>Die Bekämpfung der Bleigefahr in der Industrie</i>, Verlag Fischer, Jena -1908; Müller, <i>Die Bekämpfung der Bleigefahr in Bleihütten</i>, Verlag Fischer, Jena -1908; Wächter, <i>Die gewerbl. Bleiverg. im Deutschen Reich</i>, Verlag Braun, Karlsruhe -1908; Chyzer, <i>Les intoxications par le plomb se présentant dans la céramiquen en -Hongrie</i>, Schmidl, Budapest 1908; Kaup, <i>Bleiverg. in der keramischen Ind.</i>, als -Manuskript gedruckt, D. Sekt. Ges. f. Soziale Reform; Teleky, ‘Beitrag z. H. d. -Erzeug. v. ord. Töpferware usw. in Oesterr.,’ <i>Arbeiterschutz</i>, 1908, Nr. 19, 20; De -Vooys, <i>Bleiverg. in der niederl. keram. Ind.</i> (Nederl. Vereen. voor wettelijke Beseherming -van arbeiders 1908); Kaup, <i>Bleiverg. in österr. Gew.-Betrieben</i>, Schriften -des österr. Vereines für Arbeiterschutz 1902, Heft 3; Sommerfeld, ‘Zur Bleiweissfrage,’ -<i>Soz. Praxis</i> 1902, Nr. 8; Friedinger, ‘Sanit. Verh. in d. Buchdr.,’ <i>Soz. -Praxis</i> 1902, Nr. 9; Wutzdorff, <i>Bleiverg. in Zinkhütten</i>, Arb. a. d. Kais. Ges.-Amte, -Bd. 17, S. 441; Blum, <i>Unters. über Bleiverg.</i>, Frankfurt a.M. 1900, <i>Vierteljahrsschr. -f. öffentl. Ges.-Pfl.</i>, Suppl. 32, S. 630; Panwitz, <i>Bleiverg. in Buchdruckereien</i>, -Veröff. d. Kais. Ges.-Amtes 1897, S. 503; Teleky, ‘Bleiverg. bei Fransenknüpferinnen,’ -Ref. <i>Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg.</i> 1907, Nr. 1, S. 13; ’ Bleierkrankung und -Bekämpfung ders., Literatursammlung,’ <i>Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg.</i> 1904, Nr. 6, S. 131; -Teleky, ‘Die gewerbl. Bleiverg. in Oesterreich,’ <i>Soz. Techn.</i> 1909, Nr. 17, S. 333; -Bleiverg. (Legge), Verh. d. II. Intern. Kongr. f. Gewerbekrankh. in Brüssel 1910; -Bleiverg. in Böhmen (Rambousek), Concordia 1910, Nr. 7, Amtsarzt 1910, Nr. 6; -Abelsdorff, Statistik d. Bleiverg., Concordia 1910, Heft 17, S. 359; Wutzdorff, -‘Bleiverg. in Akkumulatoreniabr.,’ <i>Arb. a. d. Kais. Ges.-Amte</i> 1898, Bd. 15, S. 154; -Rasch, ‘Ueber Bleiverg. d. Arb. in Kachelfabr.,’ <i>Arb. a. d. kais. Ges.-Amte</i> 1898, -Bd. 14, S. 81.</p> - -<h4><span class="smcap">General Literature on Pathology and Treatment of Lead Poisoning</span></h4> - -<p>Jores, ‘Die allg. pathol. Anatomie der chron. Bleiverg. des Kaninchens,’ -<i>Beiträge z. path. Anat. u. allg. Path.</i> 1902, Bd. 31, S. 183; Glibert, <i>Le saturnisme -experimental, extrait d. rapp. ann. de l’insp. du travail en 1906</i>, Bruxelles, 1907. -Rambousek, ‘Die Pathol. d. Bleiverg.’ in Leymann’s <i>Bekämpfung d. Bleigef.</i>, S. 15, -Velag Fischer, Jena 1908; <i>Die Verhütung d. Bleigefahr</i>, Verlag Hartleben 1908; -Blum, ‘Unters. über Bleiverg., Frankfurt a.M. 1900,’ <i>Vierteljahrsschr. f. öffentl -Ges.-Pfl.</i>, Suppl. 32, S. 630; Elschnig, ‘Sehstörungen b. Bleiverg.,’ Ges. d. Aerzte, -Wien, Sitzung v. 15. April 1898, und <i>Wiener med. Wochenschr.</i> 1898, S. 1305; -‘Neuere Forschungen über Bleiverg.,’ <i>Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg.</i> 1909, S. 629; Seeligmüller, -‘Einfl. d. Bleies auf den Frauenorganismus usw.,’ <i>Berl. klin. Wochenschr.</i> -1901, S. 842; Bernhardt, ‘Zur Pathol. d. Bleilähmung,’ <i>Berl. klin. Wochenschr.</i> -1900, S. 26; Rambousek, ‘Die Bleierkrankung,’ <i>Zeitschr. f. ärztl. Fortbildung</i> 1909, -Nr. 7; Israel, ‘Obd.-Befund b. Bleiverg.,’ <i>Berl. klin. Wochenschr.</i> 1895, S. 575; -Gumpertz, Bernhardt, ‘Anom. d. elektr. Erregb. b. Bleiverg.,’ <i>Berl. klin. Wochenschr.</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_345" id="Page_345">[345]</a></span> -1894, S. 372 u. S. 284; Jolly, ‘Sekt.-Befund b. Bleilänmung, Entart. d. Gangl.,’ -<i>Berl. klin. Wochenschr.</i> 1893; Miura, ‘Ueber die Bedeutung des Bleinachweises auf -der Haut Bleikranker,’ <i>Berl. klin. Wochenschr.</i> 1890, S. 1005; Mattirolo, ‘Behandlung -d. Bleikolik mit Erythroltetranitrat,’ <i>Wiener med. Presse</i> 1901, <i>Wiener med. -Wochenschr.</i> 1901, S. 2171; Oddo und Silbert, ‘Ausscheidung des Bleis,’ <i>Revue -med.</i> 1892, Nr. 4, und <i>Wiener med. Presse</i> 1892, S. 1182; Mosse, ‘Veränderungen -d. Gangl. coeliac. bei exper. Bleikolik,’ <i>Wiener klin. Wochenschr.</i> 1904, S. 935; -Escherich, ‘Zwei Fälle v. Bleilähmung b. Kindern (Peroneuslähmung.),’ <i>Wiener -klin. Wochenschr.</i> 1903, S. 229; Variot, ‘Ein Fall v. Bleilähmung b. einem Kinde -(Peroneuslähmung),’ <i>Gaz. des Hôp.</i> 1902, S. 482, und <i>Wiener klin. Wochenschr.</i> -1902; Sorgo, ‘Progress. Muskelatrophie nach Bleiverg.,’ <i>Weiner med. Wochenschr.</i> -1902, S. 919; Variot, ‘Bleiverg. b. einem Kinde, Parese d. unt. Extrem.,’ <i>Wiener -med. Wochenschr.</i> 1902, S. 2056; Rome, ‘Bleiverg. b. Kindern,’ <i>La trib. med.</i> 1902, -Nr. 39, und <i>Wiener med. Wochenschr.</i> 1902, S. 2391; Layal, Laurencon, Rousel, -‘Erscheinungen der Pylorusstenose b. Bleiverg.,’ <i>Wiener med. Wochenschr.</i> 1897; -Macfairlain, ‘Chloroformbehandlung bei Bleikolik,’ <i>Wiener med. Wochenschr.</i> 1895; -Bechtold, ‘Spast. Spinalparalyse b. Bleiverg.,’ <i>Med. chir. Zentralbl.</i> 1904, Nr. 40; -Oliver, ‘Lead-poisoning, &c.,’ <i>Lancet</i>, 1891, S. 530; Heymann, ‘Lähmungen d. -Kehlkopfmuskeln b. Bleiverg.,’ <i>Arch. f. Laringol.</i> 1896, S. 256; Clayton, ‘Ind. -lead-poisoning,’ <i>Brit. med. journ.</i> 1906, S. 310; Taylor, ‘Bleiamblyopie,’ <i>Lancet</i> -1898, S. 742; Seeligmüller, ‘Zur Pathol. d. chron. Bleiverg.,’ <i>D. med. Wochenschr.</i> -1902, S. 317; Lewin, ‘Puls b. Bleiverg.,’ <i>D. med. Wochenschr.</i> 1897, S. 177; -Walko, ‘Erkr. d. Magens b. chron. Bleiverg.,’ <i>Münchn. med. Wochenschr.</i> 1907, -S. 1728; Tielemanns, <i>Parotiserkr. b. Bleiverg.</i>, Monogr., Paris 1895; Borgen, -‘Blutdruckbestimmungen b. Bleikolik,’ <i>D. Arch. f. klin. Med.</i> 1895, S. 248; -Klieneberger, ‘Intox. saturn. und Nephritis sat.,’ <i>München. med. Wochenschr.</i> -1904, S. 340; Bach, ‘Augenerkr. b. Bleiverg.,’ <i>Arch. f. Augenheilk.</i> 1893, S. 218; -Redlich, ‘Tabes und chron. Bleiverg.,’ <i>Wiener med. Wochenschr.</i> 1897, S. 801; -Seifert, ‘Kehlkopfmuskellähmung b. Bleiverg.,’ <i>Berl. klin. Wochenschr.</i> 1884, -S. 555.</p> - -<h4><span class="smcap">Literature on Blood Changes in Lead Poisoning</span></h4> - -<p>Schmidt, ‘Die Bleiverg. und ihre Erkennung,’ <i>Arch. f. Hyg.</i> 1907, Bd. 63, -Heft 1; Galperin-Teytelmann, <i>Die basophilen Granula der roten Blutk. b. Bleairbeitern, -Ing. Diss.</i>, Bonn 1908; Carozzi, <i>Reperti ematol. e loro valore statistico nel -saturn. prof. Corr. sanitar.</i> 1909, Bd. 20, Nr. 5 u. 6; Gilbert, <i>Le saturnisme exp.</i>, -Bruxelles, 1907; Rambousek, ‘Beitrag z. Pathol. d. Stoffw. und d. Blutes b. -Bleiverg., <i>Zeitschr. f. exp. Path. und Therap.</i> 1910, Bd. 7; Moritz, ‘Beziehungen -der basophilen Granula zu den Erythrozyten,’ <i>Münchn. med. Wochenschr.</i> 1901, -Nr. 5; <i>St. Petersburger med. Wochenschr.</i> 1901, Nr. 26, 1903, Nr. 50; <i>Verh. d. I. -Intern. Kongr. f. Arb.-Krankh. in Mailand</i> 1906, <i>Atti del congresso</i>, S. 601-607; -Trautmann, ‘Blutunters. b. Bleiverg.,’ <i>Münchn. med. Wochenschr.</i> 1909, S. 1371; -Grawitz,’Ueber die körn. Degenerat. d. roten Blutkörperchen,’ <i>D. med. Wochenschr.</i> -1899, Nr. 44; ‘Die klin. Bedeutung und exp. Erzeugung körn. Degener. in den -roten Blutkörperchen,’ <i>Berl. klin. Wochenschr.</i> 1900, Nr. 9; Hamel, ‘Ueber die -Beziehungen der körn. Degener. der roten Blutkörperchen zu den sonst. morph. -Veränd. des Blutes mit besonderer Berücks. d. Bleiintox.,’ <i>D. Arch. f. klin. Med.</i> -1900, Bd. 67; Frey, ‘Beitrag zur Frühdiagnose v. chron. Bleiverg.,’ <i>D. med. -Wochenschr.</i> 1907, Nr. 6; Grawitz, <i>Klin. Pathol. des Blutes</i>, Leipzig 1906, S. 120 ff.; -Naegeli, ‘Ueber die Entstehung der basoph. gek. roten Blutk.,’ <i>München. med. -Wochenschr.</i> 1904, Nr. 5; Schmidt, ‘Zur Frage d. Entstehung d. basoph. Körner,’ -<i>D. med. Wochenschr.</i> 1902, Nr. 44; <i>Exp. Beiträge z. Pathol. d. Blutes</i>, Jena 1902;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_346" id="Page_346">[346]</a></span> -‘Ein Beitrag. z. Frage d. Blutregen.,’ <i>Münchn. med. Wochenschr.</i> 1903, Nr. 13; -Erben, ‘Chem. Zusammensetzung d. Blutes b. Bleiverg.,’ <i>Zeitschr. f. Heilkunde</i>, -1905, S. 477.</p> - -<h4><span class="smcap">Literature on Changes in Metabolism in Lead Poisoning</span></h4> - -<p>Preti, ‘Beitrag z. Kenntn. d. Stickstoffums. b. Bleiverg.,’ 1909, S. 411; Rambousek, -‘Beitrag z. Pathol. d. Stoffw. und d. Blutes,’ <i>Zeitschr. f. exp. Path. und -Ther.</i> 1910, Bd. 7; ‘Pathol. d. Bleiverg.’ in Leymann’s <i>Bekämpfung d. Bleigefahr</i>, -Fischer, Jena 1909; Minkowski, <i>Die Gicht</i>, Wien, 1903, Holders Verlag.; Schittenhelm -und Brugsch, ‘Zur Stoffwechselpathol. d. Gicht,’ <i>Zeitschr. f. exp. Path. und -Ther.</i>, Bd. 4, S. 494-495.</p> - -<h4><span class="smcap">Literature on Toxicity of Various Lead Compounds</span></h4> - -<p>Blum, ‘Unters. über Bleiverg., Frankfurt a. M. 1900,’ <i>Vierteljahrsschr. f. -öffentl. Ges.-Pfl.</i>, Suppl. 32, S. 630; Rambousek, <i>Die Verhütung der Bleigefahr</i>, -Verlag Hartleben 1908; Biondi und Rambousek, ‘Polemik über die Ungiftigkeit d. -Bleisulfids,’ <i>I. Intern. Kongr. f. Gew.-Krankh. in Mailand</i> 1906, <i>Atti del congresso</i>, -S. 617-622; Lehmann, ‘Hyg. Unters. über Bleichromat,’ <i>Arch. f. Hyg.</i> 1893, -Bd. 16, S. 315.</p> - -<h4><span class="smcap">Zinc</span></h4> - -<p>Schlockow, ‘Ueber ein eigenartiges Rückenmarksleiden bei Zinkhüttenarbeitern,’ -<i>D. med. Wochenschr.</i> 1879, S. 208; Tracinsky, ‘Die oberschlesische -Zinkindustrie usw.,’ <i>D. Vierteljahrsschr. f. öffentl. Ges.-Pfl.</i> 1888, Bd. 20, S. 59; -Seiffert, ‘Erkr. d. Zinkhüttenarb. usw.,’ <i>ibidem</i> 1897, Bd. 31, S. 419; Lehmann, -‘Beiträge z. hygien. Bedeutung d. Zinks,’ <i>Arch. f. Hyg.</i> 1897, Bd. 28, S. 300; -Neuere Arbeiten: Frey, <i>Die Zinkgew. im oberschl. Industriebez.-usw.</i>,’ Verlag -Hirschwald-Berlin 1907 und <i>Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg.</i> 1907, Nr. 16, S. 376; Sigel, -‘Das Giesserfieber u. seine Bekämpfung,’ <i>Vierteljahrsschr. f. ger. Med.</i> 1906, Bd. 32, -S. 173; Lehmann, ‘Giess- oder Zinkfieber,’ <i>Arch. f. Hyg.</i> 1910, Bd. 72, S. 358.</p> - -<h4><span class="smcap">Mercury</span></h4> - -<p>Schönlank, <i>Fürther Spiegelfabriken</i> 1888 (Monogr.); Wollner, ‘Quecksilberspiegelfabrik -in Fürth,’ <i>Vierteljahrsschr. f. öffentl. Ges.-Pfl.</i>, Bd. 19, 3, S. 421, und -<i>Münchn. med. Wochenschr.</i> 1892, Bd. 39, S. 533; Stickler, ‘Hutfabrikation, 1886,’ -<i>Revue d’Hygiène</i>, VIII, S. 632; Charpentier, ‘Spiegelfabrik,’ <i>Annal. d’hyg. publ.</i>, -avril 1885, S. 323; Henke, <i>Quecksilberverg. in Hutfabriken</i>, Knauer, Frankfurt -1889; Wittzack, ‘Quecksilberverg. b. d. Spiegelbel. usw.,’ <i>Vierteljahrsschr. f. -öffentl. Ges.-Pfl.</i> 1896, S. 216; Donath, ‘Quecksilberverg. in Gluhlampenfabriken,’ -<i>Wiener med. Wochenschr.</i> 1894, 8. 888; Renk, ’ Quecksilberverarbeitung,’ Arb. -a. d. Kais. Ges.-Amte, Bd. 5, Heft I; Letulle, ‘Hasenhaarschneiderei,’ <i>Revue -d’Hyg.</i>, XI, S. 40; Ueber Hasenfellbeize, <i>Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg.</i> 1909, S. 821; -<i>Sozialtechn.</i> 1910, S. 39; ‘Quecksilberverg. in d. Glühlampenind.,’ <i>Zeitschr. -f. Gew.-Hyg.</i> 1908, S. 469; ‘Quecksilberverg. in Amiata in Italien (ausführliche -Schilderung der Symptome schwerer Quecksilberverg.),’ Giglioli, im <i>Ramazzini</i> -1909, Bd. 3, S. 230, und ‘Demonstration am II. Ital. Kongr. f. Arbeiterkrankh. -in Florenz 1909,’ ref. <i>Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg.</i> 1909, S. 289, und <i>Chem. -Ztg.</i>, Repert., 1909, S. 411; ‘Quecksilberverg. in Hutfabriken in Italien,’ -<i>Ramazzini</i>, 1909, S. 230; Laureck, in Weyls <i>Handb. d. Arb.-Krankh.</i> 1909, S. 62.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_347" id="Page_347">[347]</a></span></p> - -<h4><span class="smcap">Manganese</span></h4> - -<p>Couper, <i>Journ. de chim.</i>, 1837, Bd. 3, S. 2; Jaksch, <i>Münchn. med. Wochenschr.</i> -1901, S. 602; Embden, <i>D. med. Wochenschr.</i>, Bd. 27, S. 795, u. <i>Münchn. med. -Wochenschr.</i> 1901, S. 1852; Jaksch, ‘Ueber Manganintoxikationen u. Manganophobie,’ -<i>Münchn. med. Wochenschr.</i> 1907, Bd. 54, S. 969; Hauck, ‘Manganismus.’ -Vortrag auf dem XIV. Intern. Kongr. f. Hyg. u. Dem., Berlin 1907, Bd. 4, S. 337; -Friedel, D. med. Wochenschr. 1909, S. 1292.</p> - -<h4><span class="smcap">Chromium</span></h4> - -<p>Delpech et Hillaret, <i>Annal. d’Hyg. publ.</i> 1876; Viron, <i>Contrib. à l’étude phys. -et tox. de quelques prép. chromés</i>, Paris, 1885; Burghardt, ‘Chromverg. in der -Zündhölzchenindustrie,’ <i>Charité Annalen</i>, XXIII, 1898, S. 189; Wutzdorff, ‘Die -in den Chromatfabriken beobachteten Gesundheits-schädigungen.’</p> - -<h4><span class="smcap">Nickel</span></h4> - -<p>Nickelkrätze: ‘Jahresberichte d. preuss. Reg.- u. Gewerberäte für das Jahr -1907,’ <i>Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg.</i> 1908, Nr. 8, S. 185, u. 1909, Nr. 14, S. 374; Klocke, -<i>Soz. Med. u. Hyg.</i> 1910, Bd. 5, Nr. 2.</p> - -<h4><span class="smcap">Nickel Carbonyl</span></h4> - -<p>H. W. Armit: <i>Journ. of Hygiene</i>, 1907, p. 524, and 1908, p. 565; Vahlen, -<i>Arch. exp. Pathol. u. Ph.</i> 1902, Bd. 48, S. 117; Mittasch, <i>Arch. f. exp. Path.</i> 1903, -Bd. 49, S. 367; Langlois, <i>Compt. rend. de la soc. de Biol.</i> 1891, S. 212.</p> - -<h4><span class="smcap">Silver (Argyria)</span></h4> - -<p>Schubert, ‘Argyrie bei Glasperlenversilberern,’ <i>Zeitschr. f. Heilk.</i> 1895, Bd. 16, -S. 341; Lewin, ‘Lokale Gewerbeargyrie,’ <i>Berl. klin. Wochenschr.</i> 1886, S. 417; -Blaschko, <i>Arch. f. mikr. Anatomie</i>, Bd. 27, S. 651.</p> - -<h4><span class="smcap">Arsenic</span></h4> - -<p>‘Arsenverg. in der Delainage,’ <i>Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg.</i> 1906, Nr. 3, S. 71; -‘Arsenikverg. in der Ind.,’ <i>Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg.</i> 1907, S. 353, und 1903, S. 476; -‘Arsenikverg. in England, nach den Ber. der engl. Gew.-Insp.,’ <i>Concordia</i> 1909, -Nr. 5, S. 105; Egli, <i>Unf. b. chem. Arb.</i>, II, S. 51.</p> - -<h4><span class="smcap">Phosphorus</span></h4> - -<p>Lorinser, <i>Med. Jahrb. d. österr. Staates</i>, 1845, Bd. 51, S. 257; und <i>Zeitschr. d. -Gesellsch. d. Aerzte in Wien</i>, 1851, Bd. 55, S. 22; Geist u. Bibra, <i>Die Krankh. d. Arb. -in der Phosphorzündholzfabrik</i>, Erlangen 1847; Wegner, <i>Virch.-Arch.</i> 1872, Bd. 55, -S. 11; Magitot, <i>Revue d’Hygiène</i>, 1895, Bd. 17, S. 201; Kollin, ‘Oberkiefernekrose,’ -<i>Zentralbl. f. inn. Med.</i> 1889, S. 1279; Dearden, ‘Osseous fragilit. am. -workers in luc. match fet.,’ <i>Brit. Med. Journ.</i> 1899, S. 92; Lévai, ‘Ueber Phosphornekrose,’ -<i>Wiener klin. Rundsch.</i> 1900, S. 33; ‘Ein Fall von Phosphornekrose -19 Jahre nach der Arbeit in Zündhölzchenfabriken,’ <i>Wiener klin. Rundsch.</i> 1896, -Nr. 29, S. 503; Stockman, <i>Brit. Med. Journ.</i> 1899; Stubenrauch, <i>Arch. f. klin. -Chir.</i> 1899, Heft 1, und <i>Samml. klin. Vortr.</i> 1901, Nr. 303; Röpke, <i>Zeitschr. d. -Zentralst. f. Arb.-Wohlf.-Einr.</i> 1901, Nr. 1; ‘Phosphorverg. in England (nach -den Berichten der engl. Gew.-Insp.),’ <i>Concordia</i>, 1909, Nr. 5, S. 105; Teleky, ‘Die -Phosphornekrose in Oesterreich,’ <i>Schriften der Oesterr. Gesellsch. f. Arbeiterschutz</i>, -Heft 12, Verlag Deuticke 1907; Friedrich, ‘Die Phosphorverg. in Ungarn’ (in -ungar. Sprache), <i>Schriften der Ungar. Gesellsch. f. Arbeiterschutz</i>, Heft 4, Budapest -1908.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_348" id="Page_348">[348]</a></span></p> - -<h4><span class="smcap">Phosphoretted Hydrogen</span></h4> - -<p>Schulz, <i>Arch. f. exp. Path. u. Phys.</i> 1890, Bd. 27, S. 314; Dietz, ‘Phosphorwasserstoffverg. -bei einem Phosphorfabrikarb.,’ <i>Arch. f. Hyg.</i> 1904, Bd. 49.</p> - -<p>Spezielle Literatur über Phosphorwasserstoffvergiftung durch Ferrosilizium: -Bahr, Lehnkering, ‘Phosphorverg. durch Ferrosiliz.,’ <i>Vierteljahrsschr. f. ger. -Med.</i> 1906, S. 123; <i>Jahresber. d. engl. Gew.-Insp. f. d. J.</i> 1907 (vgl. <i>Soz. Techn.</i> -1908, Bd. 7, S. 689 und 690); Oliver, <i>Diseases of Occupation</i>, 1908; H. Le Chatelier, -<i>Ann. Min.</i> 1909, Bd. 15, S. 213; vgl. ferner <i>Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg.</i> 1908, S. 574, und -S. 181.</p> - -<h4><span class="smcap">Hydrogen Sulphide</span></h4> - -<p>Lehmann, ‘Exp. Studien über Schwefelw.,’ <i>Arch f. Hyg.</i>, Bd. 14, S. 142; -‘Gewöhnung an Schwefelw.,’ <i>ibidem</i>, Bd. 34, S. 303; ‘Absorption von Schwefelw.,’ -<i>ibidem</i>, Bd. 17, S. 332; Blumenstock, ‘Lehre von der Verg. mit Kloakengasen,’ -<i>Vierteljahrsschr. f. ger. Med.</i> 1873, Bd. 18, S. 295; Kasper, ‘Massenverg. mit -Kloakengas,’ <i>Vierteljahrsschr. f. ger. Med.</i>, Bd. 2, S. 593; Römer, ‘Akute tödl. -Schwefelwasserstoffverg.,’ <i>Münchn. med. Wochenschr.</i> 1897, S. 851; Oliver, dieselbe, -<i>Lancet</i>, 1903, S. 225; ‘Schwefelwasserstoffverg. bei der Saturation v. Schwefelbarium,’ -<i>Ber. d. Berufsgen. f. Chem. Ind.</i> 1907, <i>Chem. Ind.</i> 1908, S. 323; ‘Schwefelwasserstoffverg. -in einer Fabrik auf Ammoniaksalze’; Egli, <i>Unf. b. chem. Arb.</i>, -II, S. 46; ‘Schwefelwasserstoffverg. in England, Ber. d. engl. Gew.-Insp.,’ siehe -<i>Concordia</i>, 1909, S. 105; ‘Schwefelwasserstoffverg. in d. chem. Ind.,’ <i>Techn. -gewerbl. Ratgeber</i> 1906, S. 108; ‘Schwefelwasserstoffverg. und Sauerstoffinhalation,’ -<i>Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg.</i> 1906, S. 587; ‘Erste Hilfe bei Schwefelwasserstoffverg.,’ -<i>Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg.</i> 1908, S. 455, auch <i>Chem Ind.</i> 1908, S. 327.</p> - -<h4><span class="smcap">Carbon Bisulphide</span></h4> - -<p>Delpech, ‘Accidents qui développent chez les ouvriers en caoutchouc et du -sulfure de carbone etc.,’ <i>L’Union méd.</i> 1876, No. 66; ‘Nouvelles recherches sur -l’intox. du <i>CS</i>₂ etc.,’ <i>Ann. d’Hyg. publ.</i> Nr. 37; Sapelier, ‘Étude sur le sulfure de -carbone,’ Thèse, Paris 1885; Rosenblatt, <i>Ueber die Wirkung v. CS₂-Dämpfen auf -den Menschen</i>, Diss. Würzburg 1890; Pichler, <i>Ein Beitrag z. Kenntn. d. akuten CS₂-Verg.</i>, -Berlin 1897 (Fischer); Lehmann, ‘Exp. Stud. über Schwefelk.,’ <i>Arch. f. -Hyg.</i> 1894, Bd. 20, S. 56 ff.; <i>Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg.</i> 1899, ‘Schutzmassregeln der -Kautschukindustrie in England’; Laudenheimer, <i>Schwefelk.-Verg. d. Gummiarb.</i> -899, Leipzig, Veit & Comp.; Harmsen, ‘Die Schwefelk. im Fabr. Betrieb,’ <i>Vierteljahrsschr. -f. ger. Med.</i> 1905, S. 149; Riegler, ‘Die nervösen Störungen bei -CS₂-Verg.,’ <i>Zeitschr. f. Nervenh.</i> 1907, Bd. 33; Roth, ‘Gewerbl. CS₂-Verg. usw.,’ -<i>Berl. klin. Wochenschr.</i> 1901, S. 570; Reiner, ‘Schwefelk.-Amblyopie,’ <i>Wiener klin -Wochenschr.</i> 1895, S. 919; Quensel, ‘Geistesstörungen nach CS₂-Verg.,’ <i>Monatsh. f. -Psych.</i> 1905, Bd. 16.</p> - -<h4><span class="smcap">Cyanogen and Cyanogen Compounds (Prussic Acid, &c.)</span></h4> - -<p>Merzbach, ‘Chron. Zyanverg. bei einem Galvaniseur,’ <i>Hyg. Rundsch.</i> 1899, -Nr. 1; Pfeiffer, ‘Zyanverg. d. Kanalgase (Abgänge v. d. Zyangewinnung),’ -<i>Vierteljahrsschr. f. öffentl. Ges.-Pfl.</i> 1904; Stritt, ‘Verg. d. Zyanverb. im Düngemittel,’ -<i>Zeitschr. f. Hyg.</i> 1909, Bd. 62, S. 169; Tatham, ‘Zyanverg. beim Reinigen -v. Goldspitzen,’ <i>Brit. Med. Journ.</i> 1884, S. 409; Kockel, ‘Blausäureverg. bei -einem Zelluloidbrand,’ <i>Vierteljahrsschr. f. ger. Med.</i> 1903, S. 1; ‘Zyanverg. u. -Sauerstoffinhal.’ (Brat), <i>Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg.</i> 1906, S. 588; Lehmann, ‘Ueber die<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_349" id="Page_349">[349]</a></span> -Gift. d. gasförm. Blausäure (Giftigkeitsgrenzen),’ <i>Berl. klin. Wochenschr.</i> 1903, -S. 918; Blaschko, ‘Berufsdermatosen d. Arb. (Hautleiden b. Verwendung v. -Zyaniden),’ <i>D. med. Wochenschr</i>, 1889, S. 915; MacKelway s. (Hautleiden), -<i>Amer. Journ. of Medic. Science</i>, 1905, S. 684; Wilkes (ditto), <i>Lancet</i>, 1904, S. 1058.</p> - -<h4><span class="smcap">Arseniuretted Hydrogen Gas</span></h4> - -<p>‘Arsenwasserstoffverg. (Verfertigen v. Kinderballons),’ <i>Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg.</i> -1902, S. 441; ‘Arsenwasserstoffverg. (Ausleeren eines Schwefelsäuretanks),’ -<i>Gewerbl. techn. Ratgeber</i> 1906, S. 109; ‘Arsenwasserstoffverg. im Hüttenbetriebe -(<i>O</i>-Inhalation),’ <i>Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg.</i> 1906, S. 589 u. S. 617; ‘Arsenwasserstoffverg.,’ -<i>Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg.</i> 1908, S. 263, u. 1910, S. 179; ‘Arsenwasserstoffverg. in -England, nach den Ber. d. engl. Gew.-Insp.,’ <i>Concordia 1909</i>, S. 105; Egli, ‘Arsenwasserstoffverg.,’ -<i>Unf. b. chem. Arb.</i>, II, S. 42; Lunge, ‘Arsenwasserstoffverg. -beim Löten,’ <i>Chem.-Ztg.</i> 1904, S. 1169; Barié, ‘Arsenwasserstoffverg. durch -Ballongas,’ <i>Arch. f. krim. Anthrop.</i> 1906, S. 147.</p> - -<h4><span class="smcap">Carbonic Oxide</span></h4> - -<p><i>General Literature on CO-Poisoning.</i>—Becker, ‘Die <i>CO</i>-Verg. u. ihre -Verhütung,’ <i>Vierteljahrsschr. f. ger. Med.</i> 1893, S. 349; Greiff, ‘<i>CO</i>-Verg. -bei d. Teerdestill., <i>Vierteljahrsschr. f. ger.</i> Med. 1890, S. 359; Brouardel, ‘<i>CO</i>-Verg. -d. Kalkofengase,’ <i>Ann. d’Hyg. publ.</i> 1840; Becker, ‘Nachkrankheiten d. <i>CO</i>-Verg.,’ -<i>D. med. Wochenschr.</i> 1893, S. 571; Reinhold, ‘Chron. <i>CO</i>-Verg.,’ <i>Münchn. med. -Wochenschr.</i> 1904, S. 793; ‘<i>CO</i>-Verg. beim Sengen des Garnes,’ <i>Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg.</i> -1909, S. 267.</p> - -<p><i>Literature on CO-Poisoning in Gas Works.</i>—Jehle, ‘Hyg. d. Gasarbeiter,’ -<i>Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg.</i> 1901, Heft 14 u. 15, S. 245 ff.; Schütte, ‘Krankh. d. Gasarb.,’ -Weyls <i>Arbeiterkrankh.</i> 1908, S. 239 ff.; Rambousek, <i>Concordia 1910</i>, Nr. 6.</p> - -<h4><span class="smcap">Carbon Oxychloride (Phosgene Gas)</span></h4> - -<p>‘Tödl. Verg. d. Phosgen in einer Farbenfabrik,’ <i>Jahresber. d. Berufsgen. f. d. -Chem. Ind.</i> 1905, vgl. <i>Gewerbl. techn. Ratgeber</i>, 1906, S. 108; Klocke, ‘Mehrere -gewerbl. Phosgenverg.,’ <i>Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg.</i> 1906; Sury-Bienz, ‘B. z. Kasuistik -d. Intox.,’ <i>Vierteljahrsschr. f. ger. Med.</i> 1907, S. 251; Müller, <i>Zeitschr. f. angew -Chemie</i>, Bd. 13 (Heft v. 12. Aug. 1910).</p> - -<h4><span class="smcap">Carbon Dioxide</span></h4> - -<p>‘Kohlensäureverg. b. d. Kesselreinigung,’ <i>Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg.</i> 1906, S. 129; -Kohlensäureverg. und <i>O</i>-Inhalation,’ ebenda 1906, S. 589; Lehmann, ‘Unters. -über die langdauernde Wirkung mittlerer Kohlensäuremengen auf den Menschen,’ -<i>Arch. f. Hyg.</i> 1900, S. 335.</p> - -<h4><span class="smcap">Petroleum, Benzine, &c.</span></h4> - -<p><i>Petroleumvergiftung.</i>—Borthenson, ‘Die Naphthaind. in sanit. Beziehung,’ -Vortrag auf dem XII. Intern. Aerztekongr. in Moskau 1897 u. <i>D. Vierteljahrsschr. -f. öffentl. Ges.-Pfl.</i> 1898, Bd. 30, S. 315; Burenin, ‘Die Naphtha u. i. Verarb. in -sanit. Beziehung, Petersburg 1888; Lewin, ‘Ueber allg. und Hautverg. d. Petrol.,’ -<i>Virchows Arch.</i> 1888, Bd. 112, S. 35; Sharp, ‘The Poison Effects of Petrol.,’ -<i>Med. News</i>, 1888; Samuel, ‘Verg. in Petroleumtanks,’ <i>Berl. klin. Wochenschr.</i>, -1904, Bd. 41, S. 1047; Foulerton, ditto, <i>Lancet</i> 1886, S. 149; Mabille, ditto, -<i>Revue d’Hyg.</i> Bd. 18, 1896, Nr. 3; <i>Ber. d. engl. Gew.-Insp.</i>; vgl. <i>Concordia</i> 1909, -S. 105.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_350" id="Page_350">[350]</a></span></p> - -<p><i>Skin diseases in Petroleum und Paraffinarbeiter.</i>—Chevallier, <i>Ann. d’Hyg.</i> -1864; Lewin, <i>Virchows Arch.</i> 1888 (siehe oben); Mitchell, <i>Med. News</i>, Bd. 53, -S. 152; Derville u. Guermonprez (Papillome), <i>Annal. derm.</i> 1890, S. 369; Brémont, -<i>Revue d’Hyg.</i> 1895, S. 166; Rambousek, <i>Concordia</i> 1910, Nr. 6.</p> - -<p><i>Benzinvergiftung.</i>—Dorendorf (b. Kautschukarb.), <i>Zeitschr. f. klin. Med.</i> 1901, -S. 42; Finlayson, <i>Brit. Med. Journ.</i> 1903, S. 546; Bürgi (Verg. d. Autobenzin), -<i>Korr. f. Schweiz. Aerzte</i>, 1906, Bd. 36, S. 350; Box, <i>Brit. Med. Journ.</i> 1908, S. 807; -<i>Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg.</i> 1908, S. 333, 1907, S. 157, und 1906, S. 515; Schäfer, -‘Verwendung u. schädl. Wirkung einiger Kohlenwasserstoffe u. anderer Kohlenstoffverbindungen,’ -<i>Hamb. Gew.-Insp.-Arb. u. Sonderberichte</i>, 1909, S. 7.</p> - -<h4><span class="smcap">Benzene</span></h4> - -<p>Benzolverg. b. d. Benzoldestill: <i>Zeitschr. f. angew. Chemie</i>, 1896, S. 675; <i>Chem. -Ind.</i> 1906, S. 398; <i>Chem. Ztg.</i> 1910, S. 177. Benzolverg. (Benzolextrakt.-Appar.): -Egli, <i>Unf. b. chem. Arb.</i> 1903, S. 58; <i>Chem. Ind.</i> 1907, S. 347; vgl. Lewin, <i>Münchn. -med. Wochenschr.</i> 1907 und <i>Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg.</i> 1907, S. 581. Benzolverg. b. -Reinigen von Benzollagerkesseln: <i>Chem. Ind.</i> 1905, S. 444; 1907, S. 347; ferner -1909, Nr. 14, Beil. S. 25. Benzolverg. in einer Gummifabrik: <i>Chem. Ind.</i> 1905, -S. 442. Benzolverg. bei d. Fabr. v. Antipyrin: Egli, <i>Unf. b. chem. Arb.</i>, I, 1903, -S. 58. Benzolverg. d. Asphaltanstrichmasse: <i>Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg.</i> 1904, S. 292. -Santesson, ‘Bensolverg. in einer Gummiw.-Fabrik. (und exper. Untersuchungen),’ -<i>Arch. f. Hyg.</i> 1897, Bd. 31, S. 336. Rambousek, <i>Die gewerbl. Benzolverg. Bericht am -II. Int. Kongr. f. Gewerbekrankh. in Brüssel</i> 1910. Wojciechowski, <i>Ueber die -Giftigkeit versch. Handelssorten des Benzols in Gasform</i>, Inaug.-Diss. Würzburg, -1910; Lehmann, ‘Aufnahme von Benzol aus der Luft durch Tier und Mensch,’ -<i>Arch. f. Hyg.</i> 1910, Heft 4; Sury Bienz, ‘Tödliche Benzolverg.,’ <i>Vierteljahrsschr. -f. ger. Med.</i> 1888, S. 138; Schaefer, ‘Verwendung u. schädl. Wirkung einiger -Kohlenw. u. anderer Kohlenstoffverbindungen,’ <i>Hamb. Gew.-Insp., Arb. und -Sonderberichte</i>, 1909.</p> - -<h4><span class="smcap">Halogen Substitution Products of the Aliphatic Hydrocarbons -(Narcotics)</span></h4> - -<p>Lehmann, ‘Aufnahme chlorierter Kohlenwasserstoffe aus der Luft durch -Mensch und Tier (Chloroform, Tetrachlorkohlenstoff, Tetrachloräthan),’ <i>Arch. f. -Hyg.</i> 1910, Bd. 72, Heft 4; Grandhomme, <i>Die Fabr. d. A.-G. Farbwerke in Höchst -a. M. in sanit. und soz. Beziehung</i>, 1893, 3 Aufl., S. 88 (Jodmethylverg. b. d. -Antipyrinbereitung); Jacquet, ‘Gewerbl. Brom- und Jodmethylverg.,’ <i>D. Arch. -f. klin. Med.</i> 1901, Bd. 71, S. 370; Schuler, ‘Gewerbl. Brommethylverg.,’ <i>D. -Vierteljahrsschr. f. öffentl. Ges.-Pfl.</i> 1899, Bd. 31, S. 696; Schaefer, ‘Verwendungsart -u. schädl. Wirkung einiger Kohlenwasserst. u. anderer Kohlenstoffverg.’ -(Tetrachlorkohlenstoff),’ <i>Ber. d. Hamburger Gewerbe-Inspektion</i>, 1909, S. 11.</p> - -<h4><span class="smcap">Halogen Substitution Products of the Benzene Series (Chlorbenzene, &c.).</span></h4> - -<p>Leymann, ‘Erkr.-Verh. in einigen chem. Betr.,’ <i>Concordia</i> 1906, Heft 7 (Chlorbenzol, -Benzoylchlorid); ‘Verg. mit Chlorbenzol, Nitrochlorbenzol usw.,’ <i>Vierteljahrsschr. -f. öffentl. Ges.-Pfl.</i> 1902, Suppl. S. 371, und <i>Concordia</i> 1902, Nr. 5; Mohr, -‘Chlorbenzolverg.,’ <i>D. med. Wochenschr.</i> 1902, S. 73.</p> - -<h4><span class="smcap">Hydroxyl Substitution Products of the Aliphatic Series (Alcohols)</span></h4> - -<p>Pohl, ‘Wirkungen von Methylalkohol,’ <i>Arch. f. exp. Path.</i> 1893, S. 281; Patillo u. -Colbourn, ‘Gewerbl. Methylalkoholverg.,’ <i>Ophthalm. Rec.</i> 1899.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_351" id="Page_351">[351]</a></span></p> - -<h4><span class="smcap">Nitro and Amido Derivatives of Benzene (Nitrobenzene, Aniline, &c.)</span></h4> - -<p>Leymann, ‘Erkr.-Verh. in einer Anilinfarbenfabrik,’ <i>Concordia</i> 1910, Heft 17, -S. 355; Grandhomme, <i>Die Fabr. d. A.-G. Farbw. in Höchst. a. M. in sanit. u. soz. -Beziehung</i>, 1896 (und <i>Vierteljahrsschr. f. ger. Med.</i> 1880); ‘Nitrobenzol- und -Anilinverg., Vorschr. f. d. Verhalten,’ <i>Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg.</i> 1906, Nr. 22, S. 619; -‘Nitrobenzol (in Mineralöl),’ <i>Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg.</i> 1910, S. 159; Röhl, ‘Akute -u. chron. Verg. m. Nitrokörpern d. Benzolreihe,’ <i>Vierteljahrsschr. f. ger. Med.</i> 1890, -S. 202; Letheby, ditto, <i>Proceed. of the Roy. Soc. London</i>, 1863, S. 550; Thompson, -ditto, <i>British Med. Journ.</i> 1891, S. 801; Friedländer, ‘Intox. m. Benzol- u. Toluolderivaten,’ -<i>Neurol. Zentralbl.</i> 1900; S. 294; ‘Nitrotoluolverg. in einer Sprengstoffabrik,’ -<i>Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg.</i> 1908, S. 383; ‘Nitroxylolverg.,’ <i>Chem. Ind.</i> 1905, -S. 444; ‘Intox. m. Nitrokörpern. u. deren Behandl. m. Sauerstoffinhal.,’ <i>Zeitschr. -f. Gew.-Hyg.</i> 1906, S. 617; Brat, ‘Gew. Methämoglobinverg. u. deren Behandl. m. -Sauerstoff,’ <i>D. med. Wochenschr.</i> 1901, S. 296; Leymann, ‘Verg. m. Nitrobenzol, -Nitrophenol, Dinitrophenol, Nitrochlorbenzol, usw.,’ <i>Concordia</i> 1902, Nr. 5; -Schröder und Strassmann (Verg. in Roburitfabriken), <i>Vierteljahrsschr. f. ger. Med.</i>, -Suppl. 1891, S. 138; Brat, ‘Erkr. in einer Roburitfabrik,’ <i>D. med. Wochenschr.</i> -1901, Nr. 19 und Nr. 20; ‘Verg. m. Dinitrobenzol in England,’ <i>Concordia</i> 1909, -S. 105; Mohr, ‘Verg. m. Chlorbenzol, <i>D. med. Wochenschr.</i> 1902, S. 73; Silex, -‘Augenschädigungen d. Nitronaphthalin,’ <i>Zeitschr. f. Augenheilk.</i> 1902, S. 178; -Häusermann und Schmidt, ‘Gewerbl. Nitrobenzol- u. Anilinverg.,’ <i>Vierteljahrsschr. -f. ger. Med.</i> 1877, S. 307; ‘Gewerbl. Anilinverg.,’ <i>Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg.</i> 1909, -S. 350 u. S. 602, 1908, S. 384, 1906, S. 455, S. 599, S. 617 u. 619 (Behandlung), -1903, S. 133, 1902, S. 63; ‘Anilinverg. in England,’ <i>Concordia</i> 1909, S. 105; -Hildebrandt, ‘Anilinderivate, Giftwirkung (Intern. med. Kongr. Budapest 1909),’ -<i>Chem. Ztg.</i> 1909, S. 997; Seyberth, ‘Blasengeschwülste d. Anilinarb.,’ <i>Münchn. -med. Wochenschr.</i> 1907, S. 1573; ‘Erhebungen über das Vorkommen von Blasengeschwülsten -bei Anilinarb.,’ <i>Zeitschr. für Gew.-Hyg.</i> 1910, S. 156; Rehn, ‘Blasengeschwülste -bei Anilinarb.,’ <i>Arch. f. klin. Chir.</i> 1895, S. 588; Lewin, ‘Paranitranilinverg., -Obergutachten,’ <i>Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg.</i> 1909, S. 597; Criegern, -‘Gewerbl. Paraphenylendiaminverg.,’ XX. Kongr. f. inn. Medizin, Wiesbaden, -1902; Erdmann, Vahlen, ‘Wirkung des Paraphenylendiamins,’ <i>Arch. f. exp. -Path.</i> 1905, S. 401; Georgievics (Wirkung d. Teerfarbstoffe), <i>Farbenchemie</i>, 1907, -S. 13; Prosser White, Researches into the Aromatic Compounds, <i>Lancet</i>, 1901, -Case of Aniline Poisoning, Intern. Cong. Brussels, 1910.</p> - -<h4><span class="smcap">Turpentine</span></h4> - -<p>Lehmann, ‘Beiträge z. Kenntn. d. Terpentinölwirkung,’ <i>Arch. f. Hyg.</i> 1899, -S. 321; Reinhard, ‘Gewerbl. Terpentinintox.,’ <i>D. med. Wochenschr.</i> 1887, S. 256; -Drescher, ‘Terpentindampfinh. tödl. Verg. eines Arb. beim Innenanstrich eines -Kessels,’ <i>Zeitschr. f. med. Beamte</i> 1906, S. 131; Schaefer, ‘Verwendungsart u. -schädl. Wirkung einiger Kohlenwasserstoffe u. and. Kohlenstoffverbind.,’ <i>Hamburger -Gew.-Insp., Arbeiten und Sonderabdrücke</i>, 1909, S. 9.</p> - -<h4><span class="smcap">Pyridene</span></h4> - -<p>Blaschko, ‘Möbelpoliererekzem,’ <i>D. med. Wochenschr.</i> 1890, S. 475.</p> - -<h4><span class="smcap">Tobacco, Nicotine</span></h4> - -<p>Jehle, ‘Gesundh. Verhältn. d. Tabakarb.,’ <i>Arch. f. Unf.-Heilk.</i> 1901, ref. -<i>Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg.</i> 1901, S. 236; Rochs, ‘Einfluss d. Tabaks auf die Gesundheitsverhältnisse -d. Tabakarb.,’ <i>Vierteljahrsschr. f. ger. Med.</i> 1889, S. 104.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_352" id="Page_352">[352]</a></span></p> - -<h3>PART III<br /> -<span class="smcap">Preventive Measures</span></h3> - -<h4><span class="smcap">General Measures (Notification, Lists of Poisonous Substances, &c.)</span></h4> - -<p>Fischer, <i>Liste der gewerbl. Gifte</i> (<i>Entwurf</i>), Frankfurt a. M. (als Manuskript -gedruckt), 1910; Sommerfeld, <i>Liste der gewerbl. Gifte</i> (<i>Entwurf</i>) Verlag Fischer, -Jena, 1908; Carozzi, <i>Avvelenamenti ed infezioni professionali</i> (<i>gewerbl. Gifte und -Infektionen</i>), Verlag Fossati, Mailand, 1909; Rambousek, <i>IIᵉ Congrès int. des -maladies prof. Bruxelles</i> 1910, S. 14; ‘Anzeigepflicht bei gewerbl. Erkrankungen,’ -Ber. über die Verh. d. Abt. f. Gewerbekrankh. auf der 36. Jahresvers. der British -med. Assoc. in Sheffield 1908, <i>Brit. Med. Journ.</i> 1908, S. 401-408 und 480-496; -Rambousek, ‘Arbeiterschutz und Versicherung bei gewerbl. Erkrankungen,’ -<i>Sozialtechnik</i> 1909, Heft 4, S. 65; Lewin, <i>Grundlagen für die med. und rechtl. -Beurteilung des Zustandekommens und des Verlaufes von Vergiftungs- u. Infektions-Krankheiten -im Betriebe</i> (Monogr.) Berlin, Heymanns Verlag, 1907.</p> - -<h4><span class="smcap">Sulphuric Acid Industry</span></h4> - -<p>‘Schwefelsäureerzeugung, Schutz gegen Nitroseverg.,’ <i>Gewerbl. techn. Ratgeber</i>, -1906, Heft 6, S. 109; ‘Schwefelsäureerzeugung, Reinigung von Tankwaggons,’ -<i>Gewerbl. techn. Ratgeber</i>, 1906, Heft 6, S. 109; ‘Schwefelsäuretransport,’ <i>Zeitschr. -f. Gew.-Hyg.</i> 1902, Nr. 4, S. 63; ‘Schwefelsäureverg., Verhütung,’ <i>Chem. Ind.</i> -1909, Beilage, <i>Ber. d. Berufsgen. f. d. chem. Ind. f. d. J.</i> 1908, S. 26; ‘Ausräumen -des Gay-Lussac, Verhütung von Verg., <i>Chem. Ind.</i> 1907, S. 351; ‘Sauerstoff gegen -Schwefelsäureverg., Atemapparate,’ <i>Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg.</i> 1906, Nr. 20, S. 562, -und 1906, Nr. 22, S. 617.</p> - -<h4><span class="smcap">Petroleum, Benzine</span></h4> - -<p>Berthenson, ‘Die Naphthaindustrie in sanit. Beziehung,’ <i>Vierteljahrsschr. f. -öffentl. Ges.-Pfl.</i> 1898, Bd. 30, S. 315; Korschenewski, <i>Wratsch</i>, 1887, Nr. 17; -Burenin, ‘Die Naphtha und ihre Verarbeitung in sanit Beziehung,’ Petersburg -1888; Mabille, ‘Revue d’Hygiène,’ Bd. 18, Nr. 3; <i>Bericht der Berufsgen. f. chem. -Ind.</i> 1905; <i>Bericht der preuss. Gew.-Insp.</i> 1904; Klocke, <i>Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg.</i> -1908, S. 379; ‘Benzinersatz (in chem. Wäschereien),’ <i>Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg.</i> 1906, -S. 248, und 1908, S. 384; ‘Schutz des Arbeiters vor Benzindämpfen,’ <i>Zeitschr. -f. Gew.-Hyg.</i> 1906, S. 236.</p> - -<h4><span class="smcap">Carbon Bisulphide</span></h4> - -<p>‘Nachweisung von Schwefelkohlenstoffdämpfen in Fabrikräumen,’ <i>Zeitschr. f. -Gew.-Hyg.</i> 1908, Nr. 5, S. 107; ‘Hygienische Einrichtung beim Vulkanisieren -(Glibert),’ <i>Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg.</i> 1902, Nr. 1, S. 1; ‘Absaugung der Dämpfe an -Vulkanisiertischen,’ <i>Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg.</i> 1903, Nr. 14, S. 305; Laudenheimer, -‘Die Schwefelkohlenstoffverg. bei Gummiarbeitern,’ Leipzig, Veit & Comp., 1899; -Roeseler,’Schwefelkohlenstofferkrankungen und deren Verhütung,’ <i>Vierteljahrsschr. -f. Med. u. öffentl. Sanitätswesen</i> 1900, 3. Folge, Bd. 20, S. 293 (ref. <i>Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg.</i> -1901, S. 164); ‘Einrichtungen von Gummifabriken,’ <i>Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg.</i> -1903, S. 260 u. 484.</p> - -<h4><span class="smcap">Illuminating Gas</span></h4> - -<p>‘Leuchtgasverg.-Verhütung,’ <i>Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg.</i> 1909, Heft 22, S. 604; -‘Kokslöscheinrichtung,’ <i>Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg.</i> 1908, Heft 10, S. 231; ‘Bedeutung<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_353" id="Page_353">[353]</a></span> -der Sauerstoffinhalationen in der Leuchtgasindustrie,’ <i>Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg.</i> 1906, -Heft 21, S. 590; ‘Entleerung der Reinigungskästen in der Leuchtgasfabrik, -<i>Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg.</i> 1903, Nr. 13, S. 283; Jehle, ‘Hygiene der Gasarbeiter,’ -<i>Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg.</i> 1901, Nr. 14, S. 245.</p> - -<h4><span class="smcap">Coal Tar Colours (Aniline Factories)</span></h4> - -<p>Grandhomme, <i>Die Fabriken der A.-G. Farbwerke vorm. Meister, Lucius & -Brüning zu Höchst a. M.</i>, Frankfurt a. M. 1896; Leymann, ‘Ueber die Erkrankungsverhältnisse -in einer Anilinfabrik,’ <i>Concordia</i> 1910, Heft 17, S. 355 ff.; -Leymann, <i>Die Verunreinigung der Luft durch gewerbliche Betriebe</i> (Fischer, Jena, -1903); ‘Sauerstoffinhalationen in Anilinfabriken,’ <i>Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg.</i> 1906, -Nr. 22, S. 617, und 1908, S. 327.</p> - -<h4><span class="smcap">Lead (General)</span></h4> - -<p>Legge & Goadby, ‘Lead Poisoning and Lead Absorption,’ 1912; <i>Bleiverg. in -gewerbl. u. hüttenmänn. Betrieben Oesterreichs</i>, herausgeg. vom. k. k. Arbeitsstatist. -Amte, I-VI, Verlag Hölder, 1905-1909; Leymann, <i>Die Bekämpfung der Bleigefahr -in der Ind.</i>, Verlag Fischer, Jena, 1908; Wächter, <i>Die gewerbl. Bleiverg. im -Deutschen Reiche</i>, Verlag Braun, Karlsruhe 1908; Blum, ‘Untersuch, über -Bleiverg., Frankfurt a. M. 1900,’ <i>Wiener klin. Wochenschr.</i> 1904, S. 1935; Rambousek, -<i>Ueber die Verhütung der Bleigefahr, Wien</i>, Hartleben, 1908; Teleky, ‘Die -gewerbl. Bleiverg. in Oesterr.,’ <i>Sozialtechnik</i> 1909, S. 333, <i>Wiener klin. Wochenschr.</i> -1907, S. 1500.</p> - -<h4><span class="smcap">Lead Smelting</span></h4> - -<p><i>Bleiverg. in gewerbl. u. hüttenmänn. Betrieben Oesterr.</i>, I und III, Verlag Hölder, -Wien; Müller, <i>Die Bekämpfung der Bleigefahr in Bleihütten</i>, Verlag Fischer, Jena, -1908; Wutzdorff, <i>Bleiverg. in Zinkhütten</i>, Arb. a. d. Kaiserl. Ges.-Amte, Bd. 17, -S. 441; Elsässer, ‘Schädl. in Blei- und Silberhütten,’ <i>Vierteljahrsschr. f. ger. -Med.</i> 1903, Bd. 25, S. 136.</p> - -<h4><span class="smcap">Paints and Colour Factories</span></h4> - -<p>Über Hygiene der Erzeugung und Verwendung von Bleifarben: <i>Bleiverg. in -gewerbl. u. hüttenm. Betrieben Oesterreichs</i>, IV., V. und VI. Teil, <i>Hölder Wien</i>; -Stüler, ‘Bleiverg. bei Malern’; <i>Vierteljahrsschr. f. öffentl. Ges.-Pfl.</i> 1895, S. 661; -‘Bleiweissfabriken (Staubabsaugung),’ <i>Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg.</i> 1909, Nr. 22, S. 601; -‘Kampf gegen die Bleifarben in Frankreich,’ <i>Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg.</i> 1909, Nr. 23, -S. 543; ‘Gefahren in Bleiweissfabriken,’ <i>Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg.</i> 1907, Nr. 9, S. 205; -‘Bleiweissersatz (Ausstellung),’ <i>Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg.</i> 1907, Nr. 11, S. 254; ’ Bleifarbenverbot,’ -<i>Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg.</i> 1904, Nr. 10, S. 221; ‘Bleigefahr im Gewerbe -der Anstreicher, Maler usw.,’ <i>Soz. Technik.</i> 1909, Nr. 17, S. 333; ‘Bleiweissfrage,’ -<i>Sozialtechn.</i> 1908, Nr. 16, S. 310.</p> - -<h4><span class="smcap">Electric Accumulator Factories</span></h4> - -<p>Wutzdorff, <i>Bleiverg. in Akkumul.-Fabr.</i>, Arb. a. d. Kaiserl. Ges.-Amt -1908, Bd. 15, S. 154; ‘Hygiene der Akkumulatorräume,’ <i>Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg.</i> -1909, Heft 3, S. 79, und Heft 21, S. 494; Chyzer, ‘Hygiene der Akkumulatorräume,’ -<i>Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg.</i> 1907, Nr. 20, S. 476; ‘Bekämpfung von Verg. in -Akkumulatorräumen,’ <i>Concordia</i> 1908, Heft 13, S. 273.</p> - -<h4><span class="smcap">Letterpress Printing</span></h4> - -<p><i>Bleiverg. in gewerbl. u. hüttenm. Betrieb. Oesterr.</i>, k. k. Arbeitsstat. Amt, VII. -Teil, Wien, Hölder 1909; Panwitz, <i>Bleiverg. in Buchdruckereien</i>, Veröff. d. Kais. -Ges.-Amtes, Bd. 17, S. 503; ‘Bleiverg. in der Buchdruckerei (Enquete),’ <i>Zeitschr.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_354" id="Page_354">[354]</a></span> -f. Gew.-Hyg.</i> 1909, Heft 6, S. 152 ff.; ‘Bleifreie Druckfarben und Bronzen (Preisausschriebung),’ -<i>Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg.</i> 1909, Heft 23, S. 630 ff.; ‘Setzkasten mit -doppeltem Boden,’ <i>Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg.</i> 1908, Nr. 10, S. 237; ‘Bleinachweis in -den Dämpfen der Typengiesserei,’ <i>Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg.</i> 1906, Nr. 24, S. 677; -‘Schriftsetzerei (Typenbläserei),’ <i>Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg.</i> 1904, Nr. 8, S. 176; -‘Bleigefahr in Druckereien,’ <i>Concordia</i> 1908, Heft 18, S. 384.</p> - -<h4><span class="smcap">Filecutting</span></h4> - -<p>‘Bleiverg. bei Feilenhauern in England,’ <i>Zeitschr. d. Zentralst. f. Arb.-Wohlf.-Einr.</i> -1901, S. 232; ‘Bleierkr. b. Feilenhauern,’ <i>Gewerbl. techn. Ratgeber</i> 1905, -Heft 3, S. 50; ‘Hygiene d. Feilenhauerei (Chyzer),’ <i>Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg.</i> 1908, -N. 13, S. 303.</p> - -<h4><span class="smcap">Zinc Smelting</span></h4> - -<p>Frey, <i>Die Zinkgewinnung im oberschles. Industriebezirk und ihre Hygiene</i>, -Berlin 1907, Verlag Hirschwald; Sigel, ‘Das Giesserfieber und seine Bekämpfung,’ -<i>Vierteljahrsschr. f. ger. Med.</i> 1906, Bd. 32, S. 173; ‘Lehmann, Beiträge zur hyg. -Bedeutung des Zinks,’ <i>Arch. f. Hyg.</i> 1897, Bd. 28, S. 300; ‘Giess- oder Zinkfieber,’ -<i>Arch. f. Hyg.</i> 1910, Bd. 72, S. 328; ‘Hyg. der Zinkerei,’ <i>Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg.</i> -1907, Nr. 2, S. 39; ‘Zinkhütten, hyg. Einricht.,’ <i>Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg.</i> 1901, Nr. 18, -S. 321, und 1910, Heft 11, S. 250; ‘Giesserfieber, Bekämpfung,’ <i>Soz. Techn.</i> 1907, -Heft 3, S. 51; ‘Giesserei, Hyg.,’ <i>Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg.</i> 1903, Heft 16, S. 351, -Heft 21, S. 479, und 1904, Heft 13, S. 344, ‘Schutz gegen Säuredämpfe bei der -Metallbearbeitung,’ <i>Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg.</i> 1904, Heft 1, S. 5 u. 11, ferner Heft 14, -S. 317, u. 1905, Heft 10, S. 287, Heft 22, S. 643.</p> - -<h4><span class="smcap">Mercury</span></h4> - -<p>Quecksilberhütten in Idria: Laureck in Weyls <i>Handb. d. Arb.-Krankh.</i> 1909, -S. 62; ‘Quecksilberhütten in Amiata’: Giglioli, <i>Ramazzini</i> 1909, Bd. 3, S. 230.</p> - -<p>Quecksilberbelegerei, Hyg: Schönlanck, <i>Fürther Spiegelbelegen</i> (Monogr.) 1888; -Wollner, ‘Fürther Spiegelbelegen,’ <i>Vierteljahrsschr. f. öffentl. Ges.-Pfl.</i> XXIX -3, S. 421, und <i>München. med. Wochenschr.</i> 1892, Bd. 39, S. 533; Charpentier, -‘Fürther Spiegelbelegen,’ <i>Ann. d’Hyg. publ.</i> 1885, S. 323.</p> - -<p>Quecksilber in Hutfabriken, Quecksilberbeize: Stickler, <i>Revue d’Hygiène</i> 1886, -S. 632; Henke (Monogr.), Frankfurt a. M. 1899; Hasenfellbeize (Ersatz), <i>Jahresber. -d. Fabr.-Insp.</i> 1884, S. 489, <i>Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg.</i> 1902, S. 360, 1909, S. 281, <i>Soz. -Techn.</i> 1910, S. 39; Hutfabriken in Italien (Hyg.), <i>Ramazzini</i> 1909, S. 230.</p> - -<p>Sonstige Gewerbe: Glühlampenind. (Hyg.): Donath, <i>Wiener med. Wochenschr.</i> -1894, S. 888, <i>A. Mitt. a. d. Ber. d. Gew.-Insp.</i> 1899, <i>Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg.</i> 1902, -Heft 20, S. 356, und 1908, Heft 20, S. 469, Thermometererzeug. (Hyg.), <i>Zeitschr. f. -Gew.-Hyg.</i> 1901, S. 32.</p> - -<h4><span class="smcap">Arsenic</span></h4> - -<p>‘Arsenikbestimmung im Hüttenrauch’ (Harkins & Swein), <i>Journ. Amer. Chem. -Soz.</i> 1907, Bd. 29, S. 970; <i>Chem. Ztg.</i>, Rep. 1907, S. 447; ‘Arsenikverg. in der -Ind.’ (Heim, Herbert), <i>Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg.</i> 1907, Bd. 14, S. 354; ‘Arsenverg. in -der Delainage,’ <i>Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg.</i> 1906, Nr. 3, S. 71; ‘Gewerbl. Arsenverg.’ -(Legge), <i>Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg.</i> 1903, Heft 21, S. 476; ‘Arsenwasserstoffverg. im -Gewerbe (Prophyl.),’ <i>Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg.</i> 1908, Nr. 10, S. 229; ‘Arsenwasserstoff -im Ballongas (Beseitigung),’ <i>Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg.</i> 1908, Nr. 11, S. 263; ‘Arsenwasserstoff -beim Ausleeren von Schwefelsäuretanks (Verhütung),’ <i>Gewerbl. techn. -Ratgeber</i> 1906, Heft 6, S. 109; ‘Arsenfreier Wasserstoff zum Löten,’ <i>Gewerbl. techn. -Ratgeber</i> 1906, Heft 10, S. 173; und <i>Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg.</i> 1905, Heft 9, S. 252; -‘Befreiung der Salzsäure vom Arsengehalt,’ <i>Zeitschr. f. Gew.-Hyg.</i> 1903, Heft 21, -S. 477.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_355" id="Page_355">[355]</a></span></p> - -<h2 id="INDEX">INDEX</h2> - -<p>Heavy type refers to the main treatment of the subject and the Roman -figures in brackets following to the Part of the book: (i) Occurrence -of Poisoning; (ii) Pathology; (iii) Preventive Measures.</p> - -<ul> - -<li class="ifrst">Absorption towers, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Accumulator manufacture, <a href="#Page_135"><b>135</b></a> (i), <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_305"><b>305-9</b></a> (iii)</li> - -<li class="indx">Acetic acid, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Acetylene, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_85"><b>85-87</b></a> (i), <a href="#Page_278"><b>278</b></a> (iii), <a href="#Page_279">279</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Acrolein vapour, <a href="#Page_326">326</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Aerograph, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Akremnin soap, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Alcohol, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Alcoholism, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Aliphatic series. <a href="#Hydrocarbons">See Hydrocarbons</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Alizarin, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> -<li class="isub1">colours, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Alkaline bromides, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li> -<li class="isub1">hydroxides, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Alkaloids, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Alternation of employment, <a href="#Page_227"><b>227</b></a> (iii), <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Amalgam. <a href="#Mercury_amalgam">See Mercury amalgam</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Amido compounds, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_212"><b>212</b></a> (ii), <a href="#Page_287">287</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Amines, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ammonia, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76-79</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_90"><b>90-93</b></a> (i), <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_175"><b>175</b></a> (ii), <a href="#Page_279"><b>279</b></a> (iii), <a href="#Page_280">280</a></li> - -<li class="indx" id="Ammonia_soda">Ammonia soda process, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_20"><b>20</b></a> (i), <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ammonium carbonate, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li> -<li class="isub1">compounds, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_90"><b>90</b></a> (i), <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_174"><b>174</b></a> (ii), <a href="#Page_279"><b>279</b></a> (iii)</li> -<li class="isub1">nitrate, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li> -<li class="isub1">oxalate, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li> -<li class="isub1">phosphate, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li> -<li class="isub1">superphosphate, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Amyl alcohol, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li> -<li class="isub1">nitrite, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Aniline, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_116"><b>116-119</b></a> (i), <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_212"><b>212-214</b></a> (ii), <a href="#Page_286"><b>286-288</b></a> (iii)</li> - -<li class="indx">Aniline black, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li> -<li class="isub1" id="Aniline_colours">colours, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_285"><b>285-288</b></a> (iii)</li> -<li class="isub1">oil, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a></li> -<li class="isub1">poisoning, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_116"><b>116-119</b></a> (i), <a href="#Page_212"><b>212-214</b></a> (ii), <a href="#Page_256"><b>256-288</b></a> (iii)</li> - -<li class="indx">Animal products, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Anthracene, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96-97</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Anthraquinone, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Antimony, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_146"><b>146</b></a> (i)</li> -<li class="isub1">chloride and oxide, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Antipyrin, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Argyria, <a href="#Page_45"><b>45</b></a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>. <a href="#Silver">See also Silver</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Aromatic series. <a href="#Hydrocarbons">See Hydrocarbons</a></li> - -<li class="indx" id="Arsenic">Arsenic, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_143"><b>143-146</b></a> (i), <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_159"><b>159</b></a> (ii), <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_328"><b>328-329</b></a> (iii)</li> - -<li class="indx">Arseniuretted hydrogen gas, <a href="#Page_12">12-14</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_145"><b>145-146</b></a> (i), <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_197"><b>197</b></a> (ii), <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_328"><b>328-329</b></a> (iii)</li> - -<li class="indx">Artificial manure, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_53"><b>53</b></a> (i), <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_176"><b>176</b></a> (ii), <a href="#Page_261"><b>261-265</b></a> (iii)</li> - -<li class="indx">Artificial respiration, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_284"><b>284</b></a> (iii)</li> - -<li class="indx">Asphalt, <a href="#Page_98"><b>98</b></a> (i), <a href="#Page_285">285</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Aspirin, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Azo-colours, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Balloon filling, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_329">329</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Barium chloride, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> -<li class="isub1">nitrate, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Barometers, manufacture of, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Baryta, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_356" id="Page_356">[356]</a></span>Basic slag, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_54"><b>54</b></a> (i), <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_261"><b>261-264</b></a> (iii)</li> - -<li class="indx">Basophil granules, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Baths, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Beer brewing, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Benzalchloride, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Benzaldehyde, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> - -<li class="indx" id="Benzene">Benzene (Benzene poisoning), <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77-79</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_99"><b>99-100</b></a> (i), <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102-106</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112-114</a>, <a href="#Page_204"><b>204-208</b></a> (ii), <a href="#Page_285"><b>285-286</b></a> (iii), <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Benzidine, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li> - -<li class="indx" id="Benzine">Benzine, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_59"><b>59</b></a> (i), <a href="#Page_61"><b>61</b></a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_204"><b>204</b></a> (ii), <a href="#Page_267"><b>267</b></a> (iii), <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Benzol. <a href="#Benzene">See Benzene</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Benzo-trichloride, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Benzoyl chloride, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Benzyl chloride, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bessemer process, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Beth filter, <a href="#Page_254">254</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bichromate, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>. <a href="#Chromates">See Chromates</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bladder, cancer of, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Blast furnace, <a href="#Page_146"><b>146</b></a> (i), <a href="#Page_289"><b>289</b></a> (iii)</li> -<li class="isub1">gas, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_89"><b>89</b></a> (i), <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_289"><b>289-290</b></a> (iii)</li> - -<li class="indx">Blasting gelatine, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bleaching, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a></li> -<li class="isub1" id="Bleaching_powder">powder, <a href="#Page_26"><b>26</b></a> (i), <a href="#Page_259"><b>259</b></a> (iii)</li> - -<li class="indx">Blood poisons, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199-201</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211-214</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bone extraction, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Boracic acid, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bottle capsules, <a href="#Page_323">323</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Brass (brass-casters’ ague), <a href="#Page_152"><b>152</b></a> (i), <a href="#Page_182"><b>182</b></a> (ii), <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_325"><b>325</b></a> (iii)</li> - -<li class="indx">Breathing apparatus, <a href="#Page_231"><b>231-237</b></a> (iii), <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Briquettes, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bromine, <a href="#Page_29"><b>29</b></a> (i), <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_173"><b>173</b></a> (ii)</li> - -<li class="indx">Bronze, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Brunswick green, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Butyl alcohol, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Butyric acid, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Calamine, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Calcium carbide, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_85"><b>85</b></a> (i), <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a></li> -<li class="isub1">sulphide (soda waste), <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Calomel, <a href="#Page_143"><b>143</b></a></li> - -<li class="indx">Camphor, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cancer, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Carbon bisulphide, poisoning by, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_68"><b>68</b></a> (i), <a href="#Page_68">68-71</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_193"><b>193-195</b></a> (ii), <a href="#Page_271"><b>271-275</b></a> (iii)</li> -<li class="isub1" id="Carbon_oxychloride">oxychloride, <a href="#Page_32"><b>32</b></a> (i), <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_294"><b>294</b></a> (iii)</li> -<li class="isub1">tetrachloride, <a href="#Page_34"><b>34</b></a> (i), <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Carbonic acid gas (carbon dioxide), <a href="#Page_17"><b>17</b></a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_201"><b>201-202</b></a> (ii), <a href="#Page_330">330</a>, <a href="#Page_332">332</a></li> -<li class="isub1">oxide, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74-76</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_87"><b>87-90</b></a> (i), <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_199"><b>199-200</b></a> (ii), <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>, <a href="#Page_332">332</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Carbonising, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Carborundum. <a href="#Silicon_carbide">See Silicon carbide</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Carburetted gas, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Caustic alkali, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li> -<li class="isub1">potash, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li> -<li class="isub1">soda, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Celluloid, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cellulose, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Chamber acid, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Chance-Claus process, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Chemical cleaning. <a href="#Benzine">See Benzine industry</a>, <a href="#Page_1"><b>1</b></a> (i), <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_256"><b>256</b></a> (iii)</li> - -<li class="indx">Chili saltpetre, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Chloral, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li> - -<li class="indx" id="Chlorates">Chlorates, <a href="#Page_23"><b>23</b></a> (i), <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Chloride of lime. <a href="#Bleaching_powder">See Bleaching powder</a></li> -<li class="isub1">sulphur, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272-274</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Chlorides, <a href="#Page_30"><b>30</b></a> (i), <a href="#Page_174"><b>174</b></a> (ii)</li> - -<li class="indx">Chlorine, <a href="#Page_23"><b>23</b></a> (i), <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30-32</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_173"><b>173</b></a> (ii), <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_259"><b>259</b></a> (iii), <a href="#Page_285">285</a></li> -<li class="isub1">rash, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Chlorine compounds, organic, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Chloroform, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Chrome colours, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a></li> -<li class="isub1">poisoning, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_56"><b>56</b></a> (i), <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_185"><b>185</b></a> (ii), <a href="#Page_265"><b>265</b></a> (iii)</li> -<li class="isub1">tanning, <a href="#Page_55"><b>55</b></a> (i), <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_266"><b>266</b></a> (iii)</li> -<li class="isub1">yellow, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li> - -<li class="indx" id="Chromates">Chromium (chromates), <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_55"><b>55</b></a> (i)-58, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_185"><b>185</b></a> (ii), <a href="#Page_265"><b>265</b></a> (iii), <a href="#Page_271">271</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Coal tar. <a href="#Tar">See Tar</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cobalt, <a href="#Page_144"><b>144</b></a></li> - -<li class="indx">Coke ovens, <a href="#Page_77"><b>77</b></a> (i), <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_276"><b>276</b></a> (iii)</li> - -<li class="indx">Compositors. <a href="#Printing">See Printing</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Condensation, <a href="#Page_255"><b>255</b></a> (iii), <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a></li> -<li class="isub1">of mercury, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li> -<li class="isub1">zinc, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Copper, <a href="#Page_151"><b>151</b></a> (i), <a href="#Page_188"><b>188</b></a> (ii)</li> - -<li class="indx">Cresols, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cumene, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cyanogen, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_93"><b>93</b></a> (i), <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_195"><b>195</b></a> (ii), <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_280"><b>280</b></a> (iii)</li> -<li class="isub1"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_357" id="Page_357">[357]</a></span>compounds, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_93"><b>93</b></a> (i), <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_195"><b>195</b></a> (ii), <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_280"><b>280</b></a> (iii), <a href="#Page_289">289</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Deacon process, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Denitration, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Desilverising, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Diaphragm method (chlorine), <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Diazo-compounds, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Diethyl sulphate, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Digestive tract, diseases of, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Dimethyl aniline, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Dinitrobenzene, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Dinitrochlorobenzene, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Dinitrophenol, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Dinitrotoluol, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Distillation, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a></li> -<li class="isub1">of alcohol, <a href="#Page_333">333</a></li> -<li class="isub1">petroleum. <a href="#Petroleum">See Petroleum distillation</a></li> -<li class="isub1">tar. <a href="#Tar">See Tar distillation</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Dowson gas, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Dräger’s oxygen apparatus, <a href="#Page_165">165-167</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Dry cleaning. <a href="#Benzine">See Benzine</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Dust removal, <a href="#Page_243"><b>243-256</b></a> (iii). <a href="#Ventilation">See also Ventilation</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Dye stuffs, <a href="#Page_107"><b>107-119</b></a> (i), <a href="#Page_214"><b>214</b></a> (ii), <a href="#Page_285"><b>285-288</b></a> (iii), <a href="#Page_337">337</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Dyeing and colouring, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310-316</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Dynamite, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Earthenware. <a href="#Pottery">See Pottery</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Eczema, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Electric furnace, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Electroplating, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>, <a href="#Page_329">329</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Enamel, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Encephalopathy, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Etching on glass and metal, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ether, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ethyl alcohol, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li> -<li class="isub1">chloride, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Explosives, <a href="#Page_45"><b>45</b></a> (i), <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_260"><b>260</b></a> (iii)</li> - -<li class="indx">Extraction, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_68"><b>68</b></a> (i), <a href="#Page_68">68-69</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_253"><b>253</b></a> (iii), <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272-274</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Eye affections, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Fans, <a href="#Page_244"><b>244-247</b></a> (iii). <a href="#Ventilation">See also Ventilation</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Fat extraction, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272-274</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Fermentation, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ferrosilicon, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_149"><b>149-151</b></a> (i), <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_291"><b>291</b></a> (iii)</li> - -<li class="indx">File cutting, <a href="#Page_140"><b>140</b></a> (i), <a href="#Page_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_322"><b>322-323</b></a> (iii)</li> - -<li class="indx">Fluorine. <a href="#Hydrofluoric_acid">See Hydrofluoric acid</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Fluorine compounds, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Flux, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Frit, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Fuchsin, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Fulminate of mercury, <a href="#Page_46"><b>46</b></a> (i), <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Galvanising, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, <a href="#Page_329">329</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Gas engines, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_276"><b>276-278</b></a> (iii)</li> -<li class="isub1">lighting, <a href="#Page_71"><b>71-89</b></a> (i), <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_275"><b>275</b></a> (iii)</li> -<li class="isub1">lime, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a></li> -<li class="isub1">purifying material, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_93"><b>93</b></a> (i), <a href="#Page_275"><b>275</b></a> (iii), <a href="#Page_276">276</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Gay-Lussac tower, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Generator gas. <a href="#Producer_gas">See Producer gas</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Glass etching, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a></li> -<li class="isub1">industry, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_153"><b>153</b></a> (i), <a href="#Page_322">322</a></li> -<li class="isub1">pearl silvering, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Glazing, <a href="#Page_135"><b>135-138</b></a> (i), <a href="#Page_319"><b>319-322</b></a> (iii)</li> - -<li class="indx">Glover acid, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li> -<li class="isub1">tower, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Gold, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Gun-cotton, <a href="#Page_47">47-49</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Guttapercha, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Hæmolysis, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Halogens, <a href="#Page_31"><b>31</b></a> (i), <a href="#Page_173"><b>173-174</b></a> (ii)</li> - -<li class="indx">Hargreaves process, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hatters’ furriers’ processes, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hausmannite, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Health register, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hides and skins, preparation of, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hops, sulphuring of, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a></li> - -<li class="indx" id="House_painting">House painting, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_132"><b>132-133</b></a> (i), <a href="#Page_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_314"><b>314-316</b></a> (iii)</li> - -<li class="indx" id="Hydrocarbons">Hydrocarbons, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>, <a href="#Page_331">331</a></li> -<li class="isub1">(aliphatic), <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li> -<li class="isub1">(aromatic), <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hydrochloric acid, <a href="#Page_14"><b>14</b></a> (i), <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30-35</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_170"><b>170</b></a> (ii), <a href="#Page_257"><b>257-258</b></a> (iii), <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a></li> - -<li class="indx" id="Hydrofluoric_acid">Hydrofluoric acid, <a href="#Page_29"><b>29</b></a> (i), <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_171"><b>171</b></a> (ii), <a href="#Page_265"><b>265</b></a> (iii)</li> - -<li class="indx">Hypochlorite, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_358" id="Page_358">[358]</a></span>Incandescent lamps, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a></li> - -<li class="indx" id="Indiarubber">Indiarubber, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_68"><b>68-71</b></a> (i), <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_271"><b>271-274</b></a> (iii)</li> - -<li class="indx">Indigo, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Injectors, <a href="#Page_245">245</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Insurance, Workmen’s, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li> - -<li class="indx">International Labour Bureau, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Iodine, <a href="#Page_30"><b>30</b></a> (i), <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_173"><b>173</b></a> (ii)</li> -<li class="isub1">compounds and poisoning, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Iron, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_146"><b>146-149</b></a> (i), <a href="#Page_289"><b>289-291</b></a> (iii)</li> - -<li class="ifrst" id="Kidney_disease">Kidney disease, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Lampblack, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lead, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_120"><b>120-140</b></a> (i), <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_177"><b>177-182</b></a> (ii), <a href="#Page_329">329</a></li> -<li class="isub1">acetate, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li> -<li class="isub1">burning, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a></li> -<li class="isub1">carbonate. <a href="#White_lead">See White lead</a></li> -<li class="isub1">chloride, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li> -<li class="isub1">chromate, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a></li> -<li class="isub1">colic, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>. <a href="#Lead_poisoning">See Lead poisoning</a></li> -<li class="isub1">colours, <a href="#Page_131"><b>131-134</b></a> (i), <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_310"><b>310-316</b></a> (iii)</li> -<li class="isub1">nitrate, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li> -<li class="isub1">oxide, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li> -<li class="isub1">piping, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a></li> -<li class="isub1" id="Lead_poisoning">poisoning, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_120"><b>120-122</b></a> (i), <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149-152</a>, <a href="#Page_177"><b>177-182</b></a> (ii), <a href="#Page_292"><b>292-323</b></a> (iii)</li> -<li class="isub1">silicate, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li> -<li class="isub1">smelting, <a href="#Page_122"><b>122-131</b></a> (i), <a href="#Page_299"><b>299-305</b></a> (iii)</li> -<li class="isub1">sulphate, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li> -<li class="isub1">sulphide, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_293"><b>293</b></a> (iii)</li> - -<li class="indx">Leblanc soda process, <a href="#Page_14"><b>14</b></a> (i), <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Light oils, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ligroine, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lime kilns, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Litharge, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300-305</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lithopone. <a href="#Zinc_white">See Zinc white</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lungs, diseases of, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169-177</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213-216</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Mahogany, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Malt drying, <a href="#Page_333">333</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Manganese (manganese poisoning), <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_58"><b>58</b></a> (i), <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_179"><b>179-180</b></a> (ii)</li> - -<li class="indx">Meal rooms, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mercaptan, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mercury and mercury poisoning, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_141"><b>141</b></a> (i), <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_184"><b>184</b></a> (ii), <a href="#Page_326"><b>326-327</b></a> (iii), <a href="#Page_329">329</a></li> -<li class="isub1" id="Mercury_amalgam">amalgam, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Metals, recovery of, <a href="#Page_120"><b>120</b></a> (i), <a href="#Page_176"><b>176</b></a> (ii) <a href="#Page_288"><b>288</b></a> (iii)</li> - -<li class="indx">Metaphenylene diamine, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Methyl alcohol, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_210"><b>210</b></a> (ii), <a href="#Page_336">336</a></li> -<li class="isub1">bromide and iodide, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a></li> -<li class="isub1">chloride, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a></li> -<li class="isub1">violet, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Methylamine, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Methylene chloride, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mineral acids, <a href="#Page_169"><b>169-172</b></a> (ii)</li> - -<li class="indx">Mineral oil, <a href="#Page_59"><b>59</b></a> (i), <a href="#Page_60">60-63</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mirbane, oil of. <a href="#Nitrobenzene">See Nitrobenzene</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mond gas, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mordants, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Muffle furnace, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Naphtha. <a href="#Petroleum">See Petroleum</a></li> -<li class="isub1">vapour, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a></li> -<li class="isub1">wells, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Naphthalene, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_208"><b>208</b></a> (ii)</li> - -<li class="indx">Naphthol, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li> -<li class="isub1">yellow, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Naphthylamine, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Narcotic poisons, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Nephritis. <a href="#Kidney_disease">See Kidney disease</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Nerve poisons, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Nervous diseases, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Nickel, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_186"><b>186</b></a> (ii)</li> -<li class="isub1">carbonyl, <a href="#Page_186"><b>186-188</b></a> (ii)</li> -<li class="isub1">eczema, <a href="#Page_186">186</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Nicotine, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Nitrating, <a href="#Page_41">41-43</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_108"><b>108</b></a> (i), <a href="#Page_261"><b>261</b></a> (iii), <a href="#Page_286">286</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Nitric acid, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_39"><b>39</b></a> (i), <a href="#Page_43">43-49</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_172"><b>172</b></a> (ii), <a href="#Page_260"><b>260</b></a> (iii), <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285-287</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a></li> - -<li class="indx" id="Nitrobenzene">Nitrobenzene, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_108"><b>108-115</b></a> (i), <a href="#Page_212"><b>212</b></a> (ii), <a href="#Page_285"><b>285-288</b></a> (iii)</li> - -<li class="indx">Nitro-cellulose, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Nitrochlorobenzene, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Nitro-compounds, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_108"><b>108</b></a> (i), <a href="#Page_109">109-112</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_211"><b>211-214</b></a> (ii), <a href="#Page_286"><b>286-288</b></a> (iii)</li> - -<li class="indx">Nitro-glycerin, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_46"><b>46</b></a> (i), <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_212"><b>212</b></a> (ii), <a href="#Page_261"><b>261</b></a> (iii)</li> - -<li class="indx">Nitronaphthalin, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Nitrophenol, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Nitrous fumes, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_40"><b>40-44</b></a> (i), <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_261"><b>261</b></a> (iii), <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Notification of poisoning, <a href="#Page_220"><b>220-225</b></a> (iii)</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Oil, extraction, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Organ pipe making, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_359" id="Page_359">[359]</a></span>Oxalic acid, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Oxygen inhalation, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_164"><b>164-168</b></a> (ii), <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200-202</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_231"><b>231-237</b></a> (iii)</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Painting. <a href="#House_painting">See House painting</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Paints (quick-drying), <a href="#Page_330"><b>330-332</b></a></li> - -<li class="indx">Paper, manufacture of, <a href="#Page_336">336</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Paraffin, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li> -<li class="isub1">eczema, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Paranitraniline, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Paraphenylene diamine, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Parkes’ process, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pattinson process, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Petrol ether, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_331">331</a></li> - -<li class="indx" id="Petroleum">Petroleum (petroleum poisoning), <a href="#Page_59"><b>59-65</b></a> (i), <a href="#Page_202"><b>202-204</b></a> (ii), <a href="#Page_267"><b>267</b></a> (iii)</li> - -<li class="indx">Phenanthrene, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Phenol, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96-100</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Phenylhydrazine, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Phosgene. <a href="#Carbon_oxychloride">See Carbon oxychloride</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Phosphor bronze, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Phosphoretted hydrogen gas, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_52"><b>52</b></a> (i), <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_191"><b>191-192</b></a> (i)</li> - -<li class="indx">Phosphorus, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_49"><b>49</b></a> (i), <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_190"><b>190-191</b></a> (ii), <a href="#Page_268"><b>268-271</b></a> (iii)</li> -<li class="isub1">necrosis, <a href="#Page_51"><b>51</b></a> (i) <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_190"><b>190-191</b></a> (ii), <a href="#Page_268"><b>268-271</b></a> (iii)</li> -<li class="isub1">prohibition of, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_268"><b>268-271</b></a> (iii)</li> - -<li class="indx">Photography, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Picric acid, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_213"><b>213</b></a> (ii)</li> - -<li class="indx">Pitch, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Plate towers, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Poisons, classification of, <a href="#Page_157"><b>157-163</b></a>, <a href="#Page_169"><b>169</b></a> (ii)</li> - -<li class="indx">Porcelain, <a href="#Page_138"><b>138</b></a> (i), <a href="#Page_322">322</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Potassium bichromate. <a href="#Chlorates">See Chromium chlorate</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li> - -<li class="indx" id="Pottery">Pottery, <a href="#Page_135"><b>135-138</b></a> (i), <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_319"><b>319-321</b></a></li> - -<li class="indx">Power gas, <a href="#Page_80"><b>80-90</b></a> (i), <a href="#Page_277"><b>277</b></a> (iii)</li> - -<li class="indx" id="Printing">Printing, <a href="#Page_138"><b>138-139</b></a> (i), <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_317"><b>317-319</b></a> (iii)</li> - -<li class="indx" id="Producer_gas">Producer gas, <a href="#Page_80">80-82</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87-89</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276-278</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Propyl alcohol, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Prussic acid. See Hydrocyanic acid</li> - -<li class="indx">Pulmotor, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pyridine, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_216"><b>216</b></a> (ii), <a href="#Page_285">285</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pyrites burner, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pyroxyline, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Quick-drying paints, <a href="#Page_330"><b>330-332</b></a></li> - -<li class="indx">Quicklime, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Quinoline bases, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Realgar. <a href="#Arsenic">See Arsenic</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Refrigeration, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Regenerator firing, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Rescue appliances, <a href="#Page_164"><b>164-168</b></a> (ii), <a href="#Page_230"><b>230-235</b></a> (iii)</li> - -<li class="indx">Respirators, <a href="#Page_229"><b>229</b></a> (iii)</li> - -<li class="indx">Roasting (calcining furnaces, &c.), <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125-127</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_288"><b>288-289</b></a> (iii), <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Roburite, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Roofing felt, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Rubber. <a href="#Indiarubber">See Indiarubber</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Salt, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Saltcake. See Sodium sulphide</li> - -<li class="indx">Saltpetre, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Satinwood, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sewer gas, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Shot, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li> - -<li class="indx" id="Silicon_carbide">Silicon carbide, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Silicofluoric acid, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Silk, artificial, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li> - -<li class="indx" id="Silver">Silver (argyria), <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_120"><b>120</b></a> (i), <a href="#Page_122">122-125</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li> -<li class="isub1">nitrate, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></li> -<li class="isub1">smelting, <a href="#Page_122"><b>122</b></a>, <a href="#Page_131"><b>131</b></a> (i)</li> - -<li class="indx">Skin diseases, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154-156</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185-189</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Smelting processes, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_119"><b>119</b></a> (i), <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_288"><b>288-290</b></a> (iii), <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323-325</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Smokeless powder, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Soda, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_14"><b>14</b></a> (i), <a href="#Page_17">17-20</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_258"><b>258</b></a> (iii)</li> -<li class="isub1">electrolytic, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li> -<li class="isub1">waste, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sodium bichromate. <a href="#Chromates">See Chromate sulphate and sulphide</a>, <a href="#Page_14"><b>14</b></a> (i), <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19-22</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_258"><b>258</b></a> (iii), <a href="#Page_286">286</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Soldering, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_329">329</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Solvay method. <a href="#Ammonia_soda">See Ammonia soda</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Solvent naphtha, <a href="#Page_99">99-102</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_207"><b>207</b></a> (ii), <a href="#Page_330">330</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Spirit, denaturing of, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Substitutes for poisonous materials, <a href="#Page_243"><b>243</b></a> (iii)</li> - -<li class="indx">Suction gas, <a href="#Page_82"><b>82</b></a> (i), <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87-89</a>, <a href="#Page_276"><b>276-278</b></a> (iii)</li> - -<li class="indx">Sulpho-cyanide compounds, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sulphonal, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_259"><b>259</b></a> (iii)</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_360" id="Page_360">[360]</a></span>Sulphur, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_65"><b>65</b></a> (i), <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sulphur dioxide, <a href="#Page_5"><b>5</b></a> (i), <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122-125</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_171"><b>171</b></a> (ii), <a href="#Page_257"><b>257</b></a> (iii), <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a></li> -<li class="isub1">dyes, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> -<li class="isub1">soap, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sulphuretted hydrogen, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52-54</a>, <a href="#Page_65"><b>65</b></a> (i), <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90-93</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_192"><b>192</b></a> (ii), <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sulphuric acid, <a href="#Page_5"><b>5</b></a> (i), <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18-20</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37-41</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_171"><b>171</b></a> (ii), <a href="#Page_256"><b>256-257</b></a> (iii), <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a></li> -<li class="isub1">arsenic free, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Superphosphate industry, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_53"><b>53</b></a> (i), <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_176"><b>176</b></a> (ii), <a href="#Page_261"><b>261-265</b></a> (iii)</li> - -<li class="indx">Swedish matches, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Tanning, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_329">329</a></li> - -<li class="indx" id="Tar">Tar, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77-80</a>, <a href="#Page_96"><b>96-107</b></a> (i), <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>, <a href="#Page_280"><b>280-285</b></a> (iii)</li> -<li class="isub1">colours. <a href="#Aniline_colours">See Aniline colours</a></li> -<li class="isub1">derivatives, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_96"><b>96-107</b></a> (i), <a href="#Page_204"><b>204-208</b></a> (ii), <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_213"><b>213-215</b></a> (iii)</li> - -<li class="indx">Teak wood, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Textile industry, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_156"><b>156</b></a> (i), <a href="#Page_336"><b>336</b></a> (iii)</li> - -<li class="indx">Thermometers, manufacture of, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tiles, <a href="#Page_137"><b>137-138</b></a> (i). <a href="#Pottery">See also Pottery</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tin, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tobacco industry, <a href="#Page_154"><b>154</b></a> (i), <a href="#Page_335"><b>335</b></a> (iii)</li> - -<li class="indx">Toluene, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_206"><b>206</b></a> (ii), <a href="#Page_285">285</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Toluidine, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Treatment of poisoning, <a href="#Page_163"><b>163-127</b></a> (ii)</li> - -<li class="indx">Turpentine, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_215"><b>215</b></a> (ii), <a href="#Page_331">331</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Type casting, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Ultramarine, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ursol, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Varnish, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_330">330-332</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Vaseline, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Vegetable food stuffs, preparation of, <a href="#Page_154"><b>154</b></a> (i), <a href="#Page_332"><b>332-336</b></a> (iii)</li> - -<li class="indx" id="Ventilation">Ventilation, <a href="#Page_243"><b>243-255</b></a> (iii)</li> -<li class="isub1">artificial, <a href="#Page_244">244-247</a></li> -<li class="isub1">localised, <a href="#Page_248">248-250</a></li> -<li class="isub1">natural, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Vermilion, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Vulcanising, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_68"><b>68</b></a> (i), <a href="#Page_68">68-70</a>, <a href="#Page_272"><b>272-274</b></a> (iii)</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Washing accommodation, <a href="#Page_237"><b>237</b></a> (iii)</li> - -<li class="indx">Waste sulphuric acid, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li> -<li class="isub1">water, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Water gas, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li> -<li class="isub1">gilding, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Weldon process, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li> - -<li class="indx" id="White_lead">White lead, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_131"><b>131-134</b></a> (i), <a href="#Page_310"><b>310-313</b></a> (iii)</li> - -<li class="indx">Wood (poisonous), <a href="#Page_154"><b>154-156</b></a> (i), <a href="#Page_216"><b>216</b></a> (ii), <a href="#Page_335"><b>335</b></a> (iii)</li> - -<li class="indx">Workmen’s baths, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a></li> -<li class="isub1">clothing, <a href="#Page_229">229</a></li> -<li class="isub1">insurance, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li> -<li class="isub1">welfare, <a href="#Page_237">237-242</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Xylene, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Zinc, <a href="#Page_120"><b>120</b></a> (i), <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_122"><b>122-131</b></a> (i), <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_182"><b>182-183</b></a> (ii), <a href="#Page_294"><b>294</b></a>, <a href="#Page_299">299-305</a>, <a href="#Page_323"><b>323-325</b></a> (iii)</li> -<li class="isub1">ashes, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li> -<li class="isub1">oxide, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li> -<li class="isub1">poisoning, <a href="#Page_182"><b>182-183</b></a> (i), <a href="#Page_325"><b>325</b></a> (iii)</li> -<li class="isub1">smelting, <a href="#Page_122">122-125</a>, <a href="#Page_125"><b>125-131</b></a> (i), <a href="#Page_323"><b>323-325</b></a> (iii)</li> -<li class="isub1" id="Zinc_white">white, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a></li> - -</ul> - -<p class="titlepage">THE END</p> - -<p class="titlepage smaller">PRINTED BY<br /> -SPOTTISWOODE AND CO. 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