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Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..7fa963a --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #60441 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/60441) diff --git a/old/60441-0.txt b/old/60441-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 9829b63..0000000 --- a/old/60441-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,10007 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Class Book for The School of Musketry Hythe, by -E. C. Wilford - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license - - -Title: Class Book for The School of Musketry Hythe - Prepared for the Use of Officers - -Author: E. C. Wilford - -Release Date: October 6, 2019 [EBook #60441] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CLASS BOOK *** - - - - -Produced by Brian Coe, Harry Lamé and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive). The book cover image was created by the -transcriber and is placed in the public domain. - - - - - - - - Transcriber’s Note - - Text printed in italics has been transcribed between _underscores_. - Small capitals have been replace with ALL CAPITALS. Superscript texts - are transcribed as ^{text}. - - Sidenotes are surrounded by ~tildes~. - - More Transcriber’s Notes may be found at the end of this text. - - - - - CLASS BOOK - FOR - THE SCHOOL OF MUSKETRY - HYTHE. - - PREPARED FOR THE USE OF OFFICERS. - - BY - COLONEL E. C. WILFORD, - _Assistant-Commandant and Chief Instructor_. - - HYTHE: - W. S. PAINE, STATIONER, POST OFFICE, HIGH STREET. - - 1861. - - - - -INTRODUCTION. - - -The School of Musketry was founded in 1853, by the then -Commander-in-Chief, the late Viscount Hardinge, as a normal school of -instruction in Musketry. - -It has for its especial object the formation of officers and -non-commissioned officers to act as instructors in the several -battalions throughout the Army. - -In the book of “Regulations for conducting the Musketry Instruction of -the Army,” promulgated by order of His Royal Highness the -Commander-in-Chief, it is ordered at page 33, and paragraph 35, that, -“The Commanding Officer is to assemble the officers of the battalion at -least once in each half-year, and to cause the non-commissioned officers -and men to be assembled occasionally by squads or companies, at other -times than when the annual course is proceeding, when the -officer-instructor, having previously explained the theoretical -principles detailed in the foregoing lessons, will be at liberty to -advance deeper into the subject, developing to a degree proportionate to -the rank and intelligence of his auditors, the whole history of small -arms, from the first invention of gunpowder, and the successive steps by -which the rifle-musket has attained its present efficiency; in order -that the officers and soldiers, by acquiring a thorough knowledge of the -subject theoretically, may take a greater interest in the practical part -of this most important branch of their duty.” - -The following Lectures have been prepared for the use of officers -qualifying at the School of Musketry for the positions of Instructors in -their respective Regiments. They are not to be considered as complete -treatises or histories, but merely as “aids” to instruction, which can -be expanded by the Instructor in viva voce Lectures, and if bound with -an alternate ruled blank leaf, they may be corrected and enlarged when -desirable, to suit the various improvements in arms, &c., introduced -from time to time. - -These Lectures are a mere compilation, extracted from a vast amount of -interesting and valuable matter, systematically arranged. The names of -the various authors upon whom wholesale plunder has been committed are -mentioned in the course of the work, and the compiler hopes this general -confession may secure their pardon. - -The Theory of Gunnery has been very slightly touched upon: it cannot be -pursued by any persons unless well grounded in Mathematics, and the -short time passed by officers at Hythe wholly precludes so abstruse a -study. Our School is decidedly a practical institution; to acquire an -art or skill is our object, and we only broach the subject of Theory to -soldiers, so far as to enable them to understand the reasons for all -those rules which have to be attended to in practice. - - E. C. WILFORD, - COLONEL. - - HYTHE, _January, 1861_. - - - - -CONTENTS - - - PAGE. - History of Gunpowder 1 - Manufacture of Gunpowder 7 - Foreign Gunpowder 20 - Explosive force of Gunpowder 29 - Experiments with Gunpowder 36 - Magazines 23 - Lightning Conductors 24 - Greek Fire 4 - Ancient Engines of War 39 - On Artillery 62 - Portable Fire Arms 73 - The Rifle 86 - The Bayonet 83 - Accoutrements 84 - Breech-loaders 92 - On Rifling 95 - On Rifle Projectiles 101 - Theoretical Principles 110 - Gravity 113 - Atmosphere 115 - Form of Bodies 119 - Causes of Deviation 121 - Windage 121 - Rotation 122 - On Eccentric Projectiles 124 - - Extended Table of Contents - - - - -ERRATA. - - - Page 6, para. 5, line 6, for “_have before stated_” read “_shall - state_.” - - Page 20, last line but one, for “_altogether_” read “_all together_” - - Page 25, para. 3, line 5, for “_descriptive_” read “_disruptive_.” - - Page 30, para. 3, line 9, for “_expansive_” read “_expansion_.” - - Page 31, para. 3, line 1, for “_art_” read “_act_.” - - Page 32, para. 7, line 9, for “_considerable_” read “_considerably_.” - - Page 32, para. 7, line 10, for “_Robert_” read “_Piobert_.” - - Page 35, para. 3, line 1, for “_sulphurate of Potassia_” read - “_sulphide of Potassa_.” - - Page 36, para. 4, lines 1 and 2, for “_which is a mortar_” read “_the - chamber being_.” - - Page 40, last line but 3, for “_Polyreetes_” read “_Polyorcetes_.” - - Page 41, para. 4, line 10, for “ix” read “xii.” - - Page 53, para. 2, line 9, for “_incredible_” read “_incredibly_.” - - Page 66, para. 6, line 2, after “_has_” insert “_a_” - - Page 78, para. 5, line 3, for “753in.,” read “·753in.” - - Page 78, para. 5, line 3, for “16” read “14¹⁄₂.” - - Page 79, line 4, for “600” read “6,000.” - - Page 84, para. 2, line 1, for “_Latinat_” read “_Catinat_.” - - Page 84, para. 3, line 1, for “_masquitairy_” read “_mousquetaires_.” - - Page 86, para. 10, line 2, for “_Carabins ragees_,” read “_Carabines - rayées_.” - - Page 86, para. 12, line 1, for “_subaltern officers_” read - “_Non-Commissioned Officers_.” - - Page 89, line 3, for “_range_” read “_rayé_.” - - Page 89, line 3, for “_ball culot_” read “_balle à culot_.” - - Page 91, para. 4, last line, for “⁷⁄₁₀₀” read “¹⁄₁₀₀” - - Page 93, para. 8, line 1, for “_wounds_” read “_rounds_.” - - Page 98, para. 1, lines 6 and 7, for “_possible. For_,” read - “_possible; for_” - - Page 103, para. 3, line 7, for “_proportionary_” read - “_proportionate_.” - - Page 103, para. 5, line 4, for “_reserved_” read “_reversed_.” - - Page 105, para. 6, line 3, for “_horn-wood_” read “_hora, wood_.” - - Page 112, para. 1, line 8, after “_direction_,” insert “_b_.” - - Page 114, para. 2, line 7, for “16-48-80” read “16+48+80.” - - Page 115, para. 2, line 2, for “_sine_” read “_tangent_.” - - Page 115, para. 2, for “_plate_ 21, _fig._ 3,” read “_plate_ 22, - _fig._ 3.” - - Page 119, para. 3, line 1, after “_moving_,” insert “_in_.” - - Plate 21, fig. 5, should be lettered as fig. 4. plate 22. - - - - -HISTORY OF GUNPOWDER. - - -The History of Gunpowder may well form a prelude to that of Fire Arms, -as the existence of the latter is wholly dependent on the discovery of -the former. Of all the discoveries which have been made, there is, -perhaps, none which has produced more important consequences to mankind -than the discovery of Gunpowder, as by introducing fire-arms, and a new -method of fortifying, attacking, and defending Towns, it wrought a -complete change in the whole art of war. - - ~Knock’s opinion.~ - -The invention of Gunpowder is completely involved in obscurity, and this -very fact is one great proof of its antiquity. Knock observes that the -invention of Gunpowder comprises several discoveries, which it is -necessary to distinguish from each other. - - ~Order of discovery.~ - -1st.--The discovery of Nitre, the principal ingredient, and the cause of -its detonation. - -2nd.--The mixture of nitre with sulphur and charcoal, which, properly -speaking, form gunpowder. - -3rd.--The application of powder to fire-works. - -4th.--Its employment as a propelling agent for throwing stones, bullets, -&c. - -5th.--Its employment in springing mines and destroying fortifications. - -All these discoveries belong to different periods. - - ~Mr. Duten’s account.~ - -Mr. Dutens carried the antiquity of gunpowder very high; and refers to -the accounts given by Virgil, and others, of Salmonens’ attempt to -imitate thunder, presuming from hence that he used a composition of the -nature of Gunpowder. - - ~Known in China, A. D. 85.~ - -It has been said that it was used in China as early as the year A. D. -85, and that the knowledge of it was conveyed to us from the Arabs, on -the return of the Crusaders to Europe. - - ~Known in India, A. D. 250.~ - -The Brahmas and Indians, whose practice is recorded by Philostratus, in -his life of Appolonius Tyanœus, written about 1600 years ago. “These -truly wise men,” says he, “dwell between the rivers Hyphasis and Ganges; -their country Alexander never entered, their cities he never could have -taken, for they come not out to the field to fight those who attack -them, but they overthrow their enemies with tempests and thunderbolts, -shot from their walls.” - -This is a most striking illustration of the antiquity of Gunpowder, for -if some such composition be not implied in the foregoing quotation, it -must remain for ever perfectly unintelligible. - -Saltpetre, which is the principal ingredient of Gunpowder, is found in -its natural state in the East, and from this it seems highly probable -they were acquainted with the composition of Gunpowder before the -Europeans. - - ~Powder at siege of Mecca, A. D. 690.~ - -The Arabs are said to have employed Gunpowder at the siege of Mecca, -A. D. 690. - - ~Oldest book on gunpowder A. D. 900.~ - -There is a manuscript book still extant, entitled Liber Ignium, written -by Marcus Græcus, who lived about the end of the eighth century, and the -composition there prescribed is 6lbs. saltpetre, 2lbs. charcoal, 1lb. -sulphur, to be well powdered and mixed in a stone mortar. - - ~Work on gunpowder in Escurial Collection A. D. 1249.~ - -There is in the Escurial Collection a treatise on Gunpowder, written in -1249. - - ~Roger Bacon on powder, A. D. 1267.~ - -Our countryman, Roger Bacon, who was born 1214, and published works at -Oxford 1267, expressly mentions the ingredients of Gunpowder, not as any -new discovery, but as a well known composition, used for recreation. He -describes it as producing a noise like thunder, and flashes like -lightning, but more terrible than those produced by nature; and adds -that it might be applied to the destruction of an army or a city. Bacon, -in his treatise “De Secretis Operibus,” says that from saltpetre, -sulphur, and wood coals, we are able to make a fire that shall burn at -any distance we please. - - ~Tradition of Schwartz, A. D. 1320.~ - - ~Mortar.~ - -The common tradition of Bartholdus Schwartz having invented Gunpowder -and Artillery, about 1320, is without the slightest foundation, but he -might possibly have suggested the simplest application of it to warlike -purposes, in consequence of some accidental explosion while mixing the -ingredients in a mortar. Indeed, the name, as well as the form of the -old species of artillery, which was employed to throw large bullets at -an elevation, strongly corroborate this conjecture; but Schwartz cannot -lay any claim to originality of invention. - - ~Powder made in the reign of Richard II. 1378.~ - -Gunpowder was made in England in the fourteenth century, as Richard II. -commissioned Sir Thomas Norwich to buy, in London, or in any other -place, certain quantities of “sulphur, saltpetre, and charcoal,” for -making Gunpowder. - - ~Tartaglia on Powder, A. D. 1500.~ - -Tartaglia, at the commencement of the sixteenth century, sets down -twenty-three different compositions, made use of at different times, the -first of which, being the most ancient, consists of equal parts of -nitre, sulphur, and charcoal. - - ~Ancient gunpowder weak.~ - -Gunpowder, for some time after the invention of artillery, was of a -composition much weaker than what we now use, or than that ancient one -mentioned by Marcus Græcus; but this, it is presumed, was owing to the -weakness of their first pieces, rather than to the ignorance of a better -mixture. - - ~Graining.~ - -The change of the proportion of the materials composing it was not the -only improvement it received. The invention of graining it is doubtless -a considerable advantage to it; for powder, at first, was always in the -form of fine meal, such as it was reduced to by grinding the materials -together. It is doubtful whether the first graining of powder was -intended to increase its strength, or only to render it more convenient -for the filling into small charges, and the charging of small arms, to -which alone it was applied for many years, whilst meal-powder was still -made use of in cannon. But at last the additional strength which the -grained powder was found to acquire from the free passage of the fire -between the grains, occasioned the meal-powder to be entirely laid -aside. - - ~Tartaglia wrote, 1537.~ - - ~William Bourne, 1577.~ - -That powder was first used in meal, and continued in its old form for -cannon long after the invention of graining it for small arms, are facts -not to be contested. Tartaglia expressly asserts that in his time -cannon-powder was in meal, and the musket-powder grained. And our -countryman, William Bourne, in his “Art of Shooting in great Ordnaunce,” -published forty years after Tartaglia, tells us, in chap. I, that -serpentine powder, (which he opposes to corn, or grained-powder) should -be as fine as sand, and as soft as flour: and in his third chapter he -says that two pounds of corn-powder will go as far as three pounds of -serpentine-powder. - - ~Tartaglia on the proportions.~ - -We learn from Tartaglia, that the cannon-powder was made of four parts -saltpetre, one part sulphur, and one part charcoal; and the -musket-powder of forty-eight parts saltpetre, seven parts sulphur, and -eight parts charcoal; or of eighteen parts saltpetre, two parts sulphur, -and three parts charcoal. These compositions for musket powder are very -near the present standard; the first having, in one hundred pounds of -powder, about one pound of saltpetre more than is at present allowed, -and the second three pounds more. - - ~Nye’s treatise on the proportions.~ - -Nye, in his treatise on fireworks, gives the proportions of the -ingredients, and the dates when they are used, thus in 1380 equal parts -of each were employed. This would be about as efficient as a common -squib of the present time. In 1410, three parts saltpetre, two sulphur, -and two charcoal. In 1520, for the best powder, four parts saltpetre, -one sulphur, and one charcoal, and afterwards, five saltpetre, one -sulphur, and one charcoal. - - ~Early gunpowder mere mixture.~ - -In fact, Gunpowder was merely those substances, combined, with little or -no purification. It was not at first corned or grained, as at present, -but remained in its mealed state, and was called “serpentine powder,” in -several accounts of stores in the time of Edward VI., and Elizabeth. - - ~Two kinds.~ - -Soon after this two kinds of powder were used for the same gun, one in -its mealed state (for priming only) as being more readily ignited by the -match, the other, corned or grained, for the charge in the gun barrel. - - ~Powder first used to explode mines in 15th century.~ - -The application of powder to mines, and to the destruction of -fortifications, does not appear to have been in practice before the end -of the fifteenth century. - - ~Elizabeth had powder made, 1558 to 1603.~ - -Camden, in his life of Queen Elizabeth, says that she was the first who -procured Gunpowder to be made in England, that she might not pray and -pay for it also to her neighbours; but it has been stated that it was -previously made in the reign of Richard II. - - ~Charles I. from A. D. 1625 to 1649.~ - -Sir Henry Manwayring, in his Seaman’s Dictionary, presented to the Duke -of Buckingham, in the time of Charles 1st, under the word powder, tells -us, “There are two kinds of powder, the one serpentine-powder, which -powder is dust (as it were) without corning. The other is “corn-powder;” -though he informs us the serpentine-powder was not used at sea. Indeed, -when that book was written, it is believed powder was usually corned, -for the foreign writers on artillery had long before recommended its -general use. - - ~Causes which checked the progress of Fire-Arms.~ - - ~Fire-Arms supposed to extinguish bravery, and to be contrary to - humanity.~ - - ~Fire-Arms expensive and powder difficult to procure.~ - -Various circumstances tended to check the progress of fire-arms, and the -improvement of artillery, for a long period after the invention of -gunpowder. Custom made most people prefer the ancient engines of war. -The construction of artillery was very awkward and imperfect; and the -bad quality and manufacture of gunpowder, so that it could produce but -little effect; and there was a general aversion to the newly invented -arms, as calculated to extinguish military bravery, and as being -contrary to humanity; but above all, the knights (whose science was -rendered completely useless by the introduction of fire-arms) opposed, -with all their might, this invention, to which may be added the great -cost and difficulty of procuring gunpowder. - - ~Rockets in India.~ - -It is known that iron rockets have been used in India as military -weapons, time out of mind. (See plate 4, fig. 3.) - - -GREEK FIRE. - - ~Discovered by Callinicus. A. D., 617.~ - -The Greek Fire has been highly extolled for its wonderful effects, but -it owed much of its effect to the terrors and imagination of the -beholders. It is said by the Oriental Greeks, to have been discovered by -Callinicus, an architect of Heliopolis or Balbeck, in the reign of the -Emperor Constantine Pogonatus, who, it is said, forbad the art of making -it to be communicated to foreigners, but it was at length known, and in -common use, among the nations confederated with the Byzantines. - - ~Known in China, 917.~ - -It is also said to have been known in China in 917, being 300 years -after Constantine Pogonatus, under the name of “The oil of the -cruelfire,” and was carried thither by the Kitan Tartars, who had it -from the King of Ou. - - ~Wild fire from the Saracens.~ - -It was thrown by machines, by the hand, and by cross bows, fastened to -the heads of arrows. The Crusaders obtained a knowledge of a sort of -wild fire from the Saracens, which could only be extinguished by dust or -vinegar. It was composed of the gum of resinous trees, reduced to powder -with sulphur, to which was added naptha, and other bitumens, and -probably nitre. - - ~Wild fire in the Holy Wars.~ - - ~Geoffrey de Vinesauf’s account.~ - - ~Father Daniel’s account.~ - - ~Used at the siege of Dieppe.~ - -It is much spoken of in all the Holy Wars, as being frequently employed -by the Saracens against the Christians. Procopius, in his history of the -Goths, calls it Media’s oil, considering it an infernal composition -prepared by that sorceress. Geoffrey de Vinesauf, who accompanied -Richard I. to the Crusades, says that it could not be extinguished by -water, but that sand thrown upon it abated its virulence, and vinegar -poured upon it put it out. Father Daniel says this wild fire was not -only used in sieges, but even in battles, and that Philip Augustus, King -of France, having found a quantity of it ready prepared at Acre, brought -it with him to France, and used it at the siege of Dieppe, for burning -the English vessels in that harbour. - - ~Greek fire and gunpowder, both used at the siege of Ypres, 1383.~ - -The Greek fire was used long after the invention of firearms; when the -Bishop of Norwich besieged Ypres, 1383, the garrison is said by -Walsingham to have defended itself so well, with stones, arrows, lances, -and certain engines called guns, that they obliged the English to raise -the siege with such precipitation, that they left behind them their -great guns, which were of inestimable value. - -Greek fire was probably a more recent invention than Gunpowder. - - * * * * * - - ~Powder used by Arabs, 14th century.~ - -It is ascertained that Gunpowder was employed by the Arabs as an agent -for throwing bolts and stones, about the commencement of the fourteenth -century, and that the Moors first availed themselves of its advantages -in their wars with the Spaniards. From Spain, the use of Gunpowder and -Artillery gradually extended itself to France, and thence over the other -States of Europe. - - * * * * * - -Some idea of the importance of Gunpowder may be formed by the estimate -of the enormous quantity employed in sieges, and warfare generally. - - ~Quantity used in sieges.~ - -At the siege of Ciudad Rodrigo, January, 1812, 74,978lbs. were consumed -in 30¹⁄₂ hours; at Badajos, March, 1812, 228,830lbs. in 104 hours, and -this from the great guns only. - - ~San Sebastian and Zaragoza.~ - -At the two sieges of San Sebastian, 502,110lbs. At Zaragoza, the French -exploded 45,000lbs. in the mines, and threw 16,000 shells. - - ~Sebastopol.~ - -During the siege of Sebastopol, extending over a period of eleven -months, the enormous quantity of 2,775,360lbs., or 1,239 tons of -gunpowder, were expended by ourselves alone; 9,076 tons of shot and -shell having been launched by us on that memorable occasion, from 476 -pieces of heavy ordnance; of which only 11 actually burst, though 269 -were rendered unserviceable. - - ~Quantity made.~ - -Some of our private manufactories make from 8 to 10,000 barrels of -powder a year in time of peace, and from 10 to 14,000 during war. - - ~Quantity proved by Government.~ - - ~Quantity in store in 1783.~ - -The quantity of powder received and proved from Faversham, at the Royal -Magazines, and from the several powder makers contracting with -Government, amounted, during the several years from 1776 to 1782 -inclusive, to 244,349 barrels of 100 lbs. each, being equal, on an -average, to 3,490,700lbs. annually. The quantity of powder in store in -Great Britain, Guernsey, Jersey, and the Isle of Man, in 1783, was about -80,000 barrels. - - ~Gunpowder used for works of peace.~ - -Sir George Staunton observes, that gunpowder in India and China seems -coeval with the most distant historic events, and that the Chinese have -at all times applied it to useful purposes, as the blasting of rocks, -and also in the preparation of fireworks, in which they greatly excel -other nations. - - ~Powder used at Woodhead tunnel.~ - -In blasting the Woodhead tunnel, in the county of Chester, not less than -three thousand five hundred barrels of gunpowder, weighing about one -hundred and sixty tons, were used in its formation. The average number -of men employed was about a thousand; and during the six years the works -were in progress, twenty-six men were killed. There were about 400 minor -accidents, many of them attended with loss of limb, and the sum total of -the casualties, in proportion to the men employed, was greater, -according to Mr. Edwin Chadwick, than was suffered by the British army -in the battles of Talavera, Salamanca, Vittoria, and Waterloo. - - ~Powder used on S. Eastern Railway.~ - -In the formation of the South-Eastern Railway, the blasts of the cliffs -between Dover and Folkestone have astonished even scientific men. On one -occasion 18,500 pounds of gunpowder were ignited by galvanic action at -the same instant, which severed from the Round-down cliff, the height of -which is 375 feet above the level of the sea, more than 1,000,000 tons -of chalk. The fallen mass extended 1200 feet into the ocean, and covered -a space of 18 acres. By another statement, the quantity of earth moved -by the explosion was 400,000 cubic yards, and was a saving to the -Company of £7,000. - - ~No. of men employed at Waltham Abbey.~ - - ~Quantity made.~ - -There are 134 men employed in the Government works at Waltham Abbey in -the manufacture of gunpowder, who make about 9,000 barrels a year. The -premises are near two miles long, consisting of detached mills, &c., on -a small stream, which runs through the whole length of the premises and -communicates with the Thames, whereby there is water-carriage to the -Government Powder Magazines at Purfleet. The barges conveying powder are -not allowed to anchor in the river off London during the night. Where -two buildings are adjacent, there are frequently heavy buttresses of -masonry between them, and lightning conductors are placed in great -numbers. - - ~Saving to Government.~ - -There is a great saving, amounting to upwards of £300,000, in the cost -of powder, when compared to the price paid to the merchants in seven -years of the war from 1809 to 1815, from the Government having Waltham -Abbey, Faversham, and Ballincollig. - - ~Improved Quality.~ - -At Waltham Abbey, in a very few years after it was constructed, the -powder was so improved, that the charge of powder to the weight of shot -was reduced from one-half to one-third; therefore two barrels were used -instead of three--an advantage in stowing on board ship as well as in -the field. - - ~Made by Contract.~ - -A great part of the powder for H. M. Government has at present to be -supplied by merchants. The contracts are made out sometimes for them to -supply their own saltpetre, and at others for the Government to furnish -it pure, at the rate of 77·5 lbs. per barrel of 100 lbs., they finding -the other materials and manufacture, a corresponding reduction in price -being made: as, however, it has to come up in nearly all respects to the -sample, the requirements of which we shall state, certain proofs have to -be undergone before being received for the different services. - - NOTE.--The foregoing is mainly compiled from Robins’s _New Principles - of Gunnery_, by Hutton; _Engines of War_, by Wilkinson; and - _Projectile Weapons of War_, by J. Scoffern, M.B. - - - - -ON THE MANUFACTURE OF GUNPOWDER. - - - ~Composition of powder.~ - -Gunpowder is an explosive propellant agent; a mechanical combination and -intimate mixture of saltpetre, charcoal, and sulphur, in certain fixed -proportions, the result of successive experiments. - - ~Ought to keep without deterioration.~ - -To be effective, Gunpowder should, - -1st.--Preserve itself in a good state, whether in magazine or in -carriage. - - ~Leave no residue.~ - -2nd.--Leave as little residue as possible after ignition. - - ~Combine quickness and power.~ - -3rd.--Should combine a certain quickness of combustion with great -explosive force. - - -SALTPETRE, OR NITRE. - - ~Nitre.~ - - ~Where found.~ - - ~Unfit in natural state.~ - -The principal ingredient in Gunpowder is an abundant production of -Nature, and is a combination of nitric acid with the vegetable alkali. -It is never found pure, being always contaminated with other salts and -earthy matter. It is principally found in the East Indies, Ceylon, and -South America, and is sometimes produced from decayed animal and -vegetable matter. It is totally unfit for Gunpowder until it has been -refined; for, being combined with muriates of soda, lime, magnesia, and -other salts, which absorb moisture, the close contact of the ingredients -would be deranged by their presence, the strength of the powder -weakened, and the power of resisting the action of the atmosphere -greatly lessened. As for the efflorescent salts it may contain, they are -noxious only inasmuch as, possessing no particular useful property, they -interpose their atoms between the more combustible ingredients, and -impede the rapidity of deflagration. - - ~Two methods of refining.~ - -There are two methods of refining saltpetre at Waltham Abbey:--1st, the -Old Method, of re-crystallizing three times; and 2nd, the New Method, -which has only just been adopted, both of which we shall here briefly -describe. - - -OLD METHOD. - - ~Old method.~ - - ~Saltpetre fuzes at 600°.~ - -About 35 cwt. of the grough saltpetre, as it is termed, viz., as it is -imported in its impure state, is put into a copper capable of holding -500 gallons, with 270 gallons of water, in the proportion of about -1¹⁄₂lbs. of nitre to 1lb. of water, (which proportion varies with the -quality of the saltpetre). This is allowed to boil, and the impurities -are skimmed off as they appear on the surface. Cold water is -occasionally thrown in to precipitate portions of the chloride, which -otherwise would remain on the top by the action of boiling. After being -allowed to boil from three and a half to four hours, the furnace doors -are thrown open, when the chlorides and salts fall to the bottom. In -about two hours, a copper pump is lowered into the liquor, which is -pumped out into a wooden trough, having four or five brass cocks, under -which are suspended canvas filtering bags in the shape of a V. The -solution is then filtered, and run off into pans, containing about 36 -gallons, and allowed to remain for twenty-four hours, to crystallize, -when they are set up on edge, to drain off the liquor which remains -uncrystallized, and which is called mother liquor. The saltpetre thus -obtained is called once-refined, and undergoes the same process twice -again, the only difference being that there is a greater proportion to -the water each time, viz. 1³⁄₄lb. to 1lb. of water the second time, and -2lb. to 1lb. of water the third time: moreover, the third time, a small -quantity of ground charcoal is put into the solution, and it passes -through double filters, which brings it to a very fine pure white colour -when melted. The mother water which remains in the pans after each -crystallization is conveyed away by gutters to cisterns under the -building; it is then evaporated in iron pots to one quarter of its -original bulk, filtered, and allowed to crystallize. The saltpetre -obtained from the first mother water is considered one stage inferior to -grough; that from the second, equal to grough; that from the -treble-refined, equal to once-refined saltpetre. The water left from -every stage is treated in the same way, so that actually nothing is lost -of the pure material. Saltpetre treble-refined by this process is -perfectly pure, and fit for the manufacture of Gunpowder; and in order -to free it from moisture, as well as for the convenience of storage and -transport, it is melted in iron pots holding about 4 cwt., by raising it -to a temperature of 600° Fahrenheit, and cast into gun-metal circular -moulds holding about 38lbs. each. It must be observed that it requires -about two hours to bring the saltpetre into a liquid state, and that, -after this, the furnace doors are thrown open, to lower the heat to the -proper temperature for casting into the moulds. When the cakes are cold, -they are packed away in barrels containing 1 cwt., 1 qr. each, and put -into store. Care must be taken, in melting the saltpetre, not to raise -it to too high a temperature, as this would reduce the quantity of -oxygen, and form nitrite of potash, which would render it unfit as an -ingredient in the composition of Gunpowder. - - ~A neutral salt.~ - -Saltpetre is a neutral salt, the constituents of which are 46.55 potash, -and 53.45 nitric acid; the latter consisting of two volumes nitrogen and -five of oxygen. It is white, and of a fresh, sharp, and slightly bitter -taste. It crystallizes in six-sided prisms. Exposed to the air, it -remains permanent unless impure, or that the atmosphere is very moist. - - -NEW METHOD. - - ~New method.~ - -Forty cwt. of the grough saltpetre is put into a copper with 270 gallons -of water, and treated in precisely the same way as we have before -described for the first refining; it is then filtered and run off into -large troughs, about 10 feet long by 6 feet wide, and 9 inches deep, -lined with sheet copper; this liquor is then kept in a state of -agitation by a wooden rake, until nearly cold. By this process a large -quantity of very minute crystals are formed, which are collected as they -form by a wooden hoe, and shovelled with a spade on to a framework -covered with copper sieving resting on the opposite sides of the trough, -and allowed to drain. These fine white crystals, which have exactly the -appearance of snow, when they have drained sufficiently, are raked over -in a washing cistern adjoining, which is about 6 feet long, 4 feet wide, -and 3ft. 6in. deep, and fitted with a false wooden bottom that can be -removed at pleasure. Cold water is allowed to run on to the saltpetre in -this cistern till it is nearly level with the top. After remaining for -an hour it is drained off, and filled again with fresh water, which is -drained off after about another hour. The saltpetre thus obtained is -perfectly pure, and equal in every respect to the treble-refined by the -old method. The water remaining in the cisterns after agitation, is left -till the next morning, when a quantity of larger crystals are formed on -the bottom and sides; these are equal to once-refined by the old method, -and are used with grough; the mother-liquor is then drained off, and -evaporated in the usual way. The water from each washing is conveyed -into cisterns, and used with grough saltpetre instead of water; but, as -it contains a small portion of saltpetre in solution, a lesser quantity -of grough is used to make the proportions correct. - - ~Drying.~ - -The saltpetre flour, however, contains a certain degree of moisture, -which has to be dried off in the following way: two large copper trays, -about 10 feet by 6 feet, with a 3-inch rim, are fixed over flues heated -by a furnace, 4 inches of sand being between the flues and the bottom of -the trays; the saltpetre is spread about 2 inches deep all over, and -raked about till dry; it is then barrelled up for use. It takes about -two hours to dry 5 cwt. - - ~Comparison of the two methods.~ - -On comparing the two systems, there cannot for one moment be a doubt as -to the immense advantages of the latter over the former. As an example, -in the refinery where this new process is carried on, the result (that -is to say, pure saltpetre) is obtained in one day instead of six, with -less than one half the amount of labour and coals. - - ~Why new method best.~ - -On reflection, the reason of the great gain of time by this process will -suggest itself. In the former method, when allowed to remain quiet, the -crystals formed are very large, and the spaces left in them always -contain a certain amount of mother-water, which necessitates its being -crystallized three times to perfectly free it from the liquor. In the -latter, the crystals are so minute that there is practically no space -for the mother-water to collect; consequently, by careful washing, the -saltpetre is obtained perfectly pure. - - -CHARCOAL. - - ~Charcoal.~ - - ~Object of charring.~ - - ~Best wood for charcoal.~ - -Wood charcoal is the woody fibre that remains after the liquid and more -volatile parts have been driven off by the fire in the process of -charring. The temperature resulting from the combustion of charcoal is -much higher than that from burning wood, in consequence of the absence -of the large quantity of water which wood contains, amounting to between -50 and 60 per cent.; the object, therefore, of charring wood is the -removal of moisture, and also, what is of great importance, the -expulsion of those matters contained in it which become volatile before -they are burned, thus rendering a large amount of heat latent. The woods -generally used in this country in making charcoal for gunpowder are the -alder, willow, and dogwood. There are about 60 acres of wood grown for -charcoal at Waltham Abbey. The alder is cut every eight years, and the -willow in six years. It is used after one year. Other woods are -sometimes used by English and foreign manufacturers, but none produce a -powder of such quality as obtained from the above. It is usually -considered that better charcoal is distilled when the wood is allowed to -season for a time; but recent experience has shown that wood only lately -cut and peeled, after being desiccated in a hot chamber, will make -equally good charcoal with that which has been seasoning for three or -four years. - - ~First process.~ - -All the wood which is cut in the Government grounds or purchased from -merchants, is stripped of the bark, on account of its being impregnated -with salts and gummy substances, cut into lengths of 3 feet for the -convenience of loading the iron slips, which are a little above this -length, and stacked in the wood-yard. - - ~Cylinder charcoal.~ - - ~Quantity produced.~ - - ~Qualities.~ - - ~Kept dry.~ - - ~Absorbs.~ - -Cylindrical cases of the required size, fitted with lids, are filled -with wood. These cases are made to fit easily, and slide horizontally -into iron retorts built in the wall, which admit of the accurate -regulation of heat (communicated to them by furnaces underneath) -throughout the operation of charring. A great saving of time and heat is -effected by their use, as when the wood has been properly charred the -case or slip containing it may be easily withdrawn, and another -containing a fresh charge at once introduced into the retort, without -allowing the latter to cool down, as would otherwise be necessary. When -it has been sufficiently charred (which is known by experience, in -watching the burning of the gas that is produced and is conducted into -the fire), the slip is withdrawn by tackling, and at once lowered down -into iron coolers or cases, which are immediately covered up with -close-fitting lids, and then allowed to remain until all fire is -extinguished. The goodness of charcoal is an essential point in the -manufacture of gunpowder. About twenty-five to thirty per cent. is -obtained; and one cord will produce about four cwt. of charcoal. If -properly charred, it should have a jet black appearance, and when -powdered a lustre resembling velvet; it should be light and sonorous -when gently dropped, and its fracture should exhibit the same appearance -throughout; it should be so soft as not to scratch polished copper, and -ought not to exhibit any alkali when treated with pure distilled water. -Charcoal is very porous, and absorbs very greedily gases and moisture -from the atmosphere; no large store therefore is ever kept, and -particular care is taken to prepare it only in proportion as it is -required for use. At all times it must be kept exceedingly dry; when -whole it will absorb about eight per cent. its weight of moisture, and -when in powder 15 per cent., so that the fresher the charcoal is the -better for the powder. - - -SULPHUR. - - ~Sulphur.~ - - ~How purified.~ - - ~Flowers of sulphur unsuitable.~ - -Sulphur is a simple, combustible, solid, non-metallic, elementary body. -It is found generally in great quantities in the neighbourhood of -volcanoes. It is also obtainable from metallic ores, and readily fuzes. -At 170° Fahrenheit it begins to evaporate; at 185° to 190° it melts; at -220° it is perfectly fluid; and at 600° it sublimes. Sulphur is purified -simply by melting: that which is supplied to Waltham Abbey has been once -refined, and the following is a description of the apparatus and method -for purifying and rendering it fit as an ingredient in Gunpowder. A -large iron pot is set about three feet off the ground, or about the -height that an ordinary boiling copper is placed, having a furnace -underneath. This pot has a movable lid, which is fixed into the top of -the pot with clay, and in which lid is an iron conical plug that can be -removed at pleasure. From the pot lead two pipes, one to a large -circular dome, and another to an iron retort, rather below its level. -The last-mentioned pipe has a casing, or jacket, round it, which can be -filled with cold water. The communication of these pipes with the -melting pot can be shut off or opened, as occasion requires, by a -mechanical arrangement. About 5¹⁄₂ to 6 cwt. of the once-refined sulphur -is broken up into small pieces, placed in the iron melting pot, and -subjected to the action of the furnace. The plug in the lid, and the -pipe leading to the dome are now left open, but the pipe to the retort -closed. After from two to three hours a pale yellow vapour rises, when -the plug is put in, and the vapour conducted into the dome, where it -condenses in the form of an impalpable powder, commonly called flowers -of sulphur. A small pipe leads from the bottom of the dome, on the -opposite side, into water, to allow the escape of the air, and sulphuric -acid is taken up by this water. In about one and a half to two hours -after, the vapour becomes of a deep iodine colour, when the -communication with the dome is shut, and the one to the retort opened; -at the same time, cold water from a tank above is allowed to pass into -the jacket we have before mentioned, surrounding this pipe. The vapour -then which distils over is condensed in the pipe, and runs into the -retort below in the form of a thick yellow fluid. When nearly all has -distilled, which can be known by the jacket getting cold, the -communication is again closed with the retort, and the fluid sulphur -left an hour, to get sufficiently cool to ladle out into moulds, the -furnace door and the communication with the dome at the same time are -again thrown open, that the rest of the vapour may pass into the latter. -The flowers of sulphur thus obtained are used for laboratory purposes, -being unfit for the manufacture of Gunpowder, from the acid they -contain, and the crystalline sulphur, after being allowed to cool in the -moulds, is barrelled up and used as the third ingredient in Gunpowder. - - -PULVERIZING THE INGREDIENTS. - - ~Grinding.~ - - ~Screening.~ - -The three ingredients are now ground separately to a very fine powder. -The mills (vide plate 1) which effect this, and incorporate, are so -similar, that a description will be given under the head of -“Incorporation.” After being ground in this way, the saltpetre is -passed through a slope cylindrical reel, covered with copper sieving -wire of 60 meshes to the inch, which, as it revolves, sifts it to the -required fineness, being then received in a box or bin underneath. The -charcoal and sulphur are likewise passed through similar reels of 32 and -60-mesh wire respectively, and that which remains without passing -through, is ground again under the runners. A very excellent machine has -been invented by Mr. Hall, the engineer, of Dartford, for grinding -charcoal, which makes a most useful addition to the Gunpowder factory. -It consists of a conical drum, working in a conical box, on the same -principle as a coffee-grinding machine, the axis being vertical. The -mill is fed with charcoal by a hopper, and, as it passes through in fine -powder, falls into a revolving reel, which sifts it in the same manner -as before described, the whole being covered in, to prevent the great -annoyance of dust, which was felt until lately, from the old charcoal -mill. The three ingredients having been pulverized, are now fit for the -mixing process. - - -MIXING THE INGREDIENTS. - - ~Mixing and proportions.~ - - ~Green charges.~ - -The ingredients are now weighed out very accurately, in the proportion -of 75 nitre, 15 charcoal, and 10 sulphur, in 42lb. charges, viz., nitre, -31lbs. 8oz., charcoal, 6lbs. 4oz. 13drs., sulphur, 4lbs. 3oz. 3drs., and -thoroughly mixed in a machine, which consists of a cylindrical gun-metal -or copper drum, about two feet in diameter, with an axle passing through -its centre, on which there are metal flyers, like forks. The machinery -is so arranged that the flyers and drum revolve in opposite directions -when in motion, at a rate of about one hundred revolutions per minute. -Five minutes is sufficient for a thorough mixture. The composition is -then drawn off by a slip into canvas bags the proper size to hold the -42lb. charges, which are tightly tied, and taken to small magazines. -These are called green charges, and are now ready for the next process, -incorporation. - - -THE INCORPORATING MILL. - - ~Incorporation.~ - -The Incorporating Mill consists of an iron or stone circular flat bed, -about seven feet in diameter, fixed very firmly in the floor of the -building which covers it, whereon two iron or stone cylindrical runners, -from five to seven feet in diameter, fourteen to eighteen inches wide, -and each weighing from 3 to 4¹⁄₂ tons, revolve. They have a common axle, -and a vertical shaft passing through the centre of the bed is connected -with this axle, and to machinery above or below, which communicates the -motion. These runners are not equidistant from the centre, by which -arrangement in their revolution every part of the composition on the bed -is subjected to their action, which is threefold, viz., crushing, -grinding, and mixing; crushing, from the weight of the cylinders; -grinding, from the twisting motion which they are forced into from so -large a diameter revolving in so small a circle; and mixing, from a -combination of the two former motions. To prevent the powder from -falling over the side of the bed, a wooden rim, about two feet in -height, is placed at an angle of forty-five degrees with it, like the -side of a funnel, and fitted closely all round its circumference. This -is called the “curb;” and in the centre of the bed a gun-metal ring, or -“cheese,” as it is termed, about two feet in diameter, and five inches -high, concentric with the bed, prevents the powder working beyond in -that direction. Moreover, two scrapers, or “ploughs,” connected by stays -with the horizontal axle, revolve with the runners, one rubbing against -the inner, and the other the outer circle. These ploughs are made of -hard wood, shod with leather and felt, and their use is continually to -disturb and rout about the composition, and keep it under the path of -the runners, so that every part should get its share of incorporation. -The houses or sheds which cover these buildings have hitherto been -constructed of wood, with either corrugated iron or wooden roofing. The -new incorporating mills in this factory, which are just completed, are -built with three sides of strong three-foot brickwork, and the fourth -side and roof of corrugated iron and glass. They are also placed in a -line contiguous to each other, the alternate ones only facing the same -way, so that an explosion from one would probably communicate no -further, and the lighter parts of the building would blow away, leaving -the rest entire. Most of the machinery in the factory is driven by -water-wheels; the motive power of these mills is steam. A horizontal -shaft, worked by the engine, passes underneath the entire length of the -building in a cast-iron tank, and a bevel wheel on this shaft is geared -into another one on the vertical shaft under the centre of each bed, -which, communicating with the runners, gives the necessary motion. - - ~Water-tanks to prevent explosions.~ - -In order, as much as possible, to guard against any explosion spreading, -above each bed, placed so as just to clear the runners, is suspended or -balanced a copper tank, holding about forty gallons of water. On one -side of the tank is fixed a small shaft, which communicates with similar -cisterns over the beds of the mills on either side. The other end of the -tank rests on a flat board, which is subjected to a great part of the -force of an explosion. This consequently lifts, disengaging the support -of the tank, the contents of which drench the bed which has just -exploded, thereby putting out all fire, and cooling the machinery, -besides having a similar effect on the mills right and left, preventing, -by this means, any extension of fire. - - -INCORPORATING THE INGREDIENTS. - - ~Incorporation.~ - - ~Mill cake.~ - - ~Proof of mill cake.~ - -The charge is spread pretty evenly over the surface of the bed, and -moistened with from four to six pints of distilled water; the quantity -varying according to the state of the atmosphere; the runners are then -set in motion, and run from seven to eight revolutions per minute for -three and a half hours, during which time the powder is often routed up -by a copper-shod spud, and watered slightly with a fine rose watering -pot, according to the experience of the millman; at the end of this time -the mixture is thoroughly incorporated, possesses all the chemical -properties of Gunpowder, and is taken off the bed in the form of a cake, -varying from a quarter to half an inch in thickness, and of a -blackish-grey colour. This is called “Mill Cake,” and when broken, the -fracture should exhibit the same uniform appearance, without presenting -any sparkling or yellow specks; should this, however, be the case, it is -a sign of the ingredients not being sufficiently incorporated. In this -stage it undergoes certain proofs; samples of the cake are taken from -every charge that is worked, dried in an oven, and granulated; half a -drachm of this is fired in a vertical eprouvette, which it ought to -raise 3.5 inches; and half an ounce is flashed on a glass plate. If very -little residue or ash is left, it is an additional proof of its being -well incorporated, and that the millman has done his work properly. - - ~Importance of incorporation.~ - -Incorporation is by far the most important process in the manufacture of -Gunpowder; for, however carefully the other part of the fabrication is -carried on, should there be a failing in this, the powder will be worth -nothing. - - ~Object of manufacture.~ - -The great and ultimate object to be attained in the manufacture of -Gunpowder is, to produce that which shall give equal results with equal -charges; the greatest regularity should therefore be observed in this -stage. The millman should have great experience; the runners and beds -should be, as nearly as possible, the same size and weight, and driven -at the same speed throughout the factory; at any rate, each charge -should be worked to the same number of revolutions; the motion of the -runners should also be as uniform as possible, which is very -satisfactorily accomplished by each water-wheel being regulated by a -governor. - - -BREAKING DOWN THE MILL CAKE. - - ~Breaking down the mill cake.~ - - ~Object of mealing.~ - -The mill cake, after it comes off the bed of the incorporating mill, is -placed in wooden tubs, and taken to small-expense magazines, and from -there, in about twelve hours, to the breaking-down house; the object of -the machine from which this takes its name, is to reduce the cake to a -convenient size for the hydraulic-press box, and also that, by being -crushed again to meal, it may get a more even pressure. It consists of a -strong gun-metal framework, in which are fixed two pairs of fine-toothed -or plain rollers, which revolve towards each other, working in spring -collars, so that on any hard substance getting in by mistake, they would -open, and allow it to pass through, thereby preventing the dangerous -friction which would otherwise result. A hopper, or upright wooden -funnel, capable of holding about 500 lbs. is fixed at one end of the -machine, and an endless canvass band 2ft. 6in. wide, having strips of -leather sewn across at intervals of four inches, passes over one roller -at the bottom of the hopper, and one at the top of the machine. When set -in motion, this conveys the cake from the hopper to the highest point of -the band; it then falls through the first pair of rollers, and from -thence through the second, passing in the form of meal into small wooden -carriages underneath, which, as they are filled, move forward by a -self-acting motion, making room for others. The mill cake thus broken -down, is fit for the press. - - -PRESSING THE MEAL BY THE HYDRAULIC PRESS. - - ~Hydraulic Pressure.~ - -The meal is now subjected to very powerful pressure; and, in order to -explain the way in which this is effected, a short description of the -apparatus must be given. The principle of the hydraulic press is so -familiar to most, that it will be unnecessary to do more than show how -the power is applied (vide plate 2). - - ~Description of box.~ - -A very strong oak box, 2 feet 6 inches square, and 2 feet 9 inches deep, -is constructed so that two of the sides of the lid will fall back on -hinges, or form a compact solid box when screwed firmly together. -Forty-six copper plates, 2 feet 5¹⁄₂ inches square, slide vertically -into this box, and are kept five-eighths of an inch apart by two metal -slips with corresponding grooves, which can be removed when necessary. - - ~Quantity pressed.~ - - ~Amount of pressure.~ - -About 800 lbs. of the meal is put into this box while the plates are in -the position we have described. When full, the slips are withdrawn, the -plates being then only separated by the powder between them: the lid is -now firmly screwed down, and the box turned over by an arrangement of -pulleys, so that the plates which were vertical will now be horizontal. -The present upper side is then unscrewed, and a travelling crane, moving -on a rail overhead, is lowered till the claws attached to it hook on to -two trunnions fixed on the sides of the box; it is now hoisted by means -of a handwheel windlass, and the box being suspended, is pushed easily -by means of the rail, and deposited in this position on to the table of -the ram under the press block. The pumps are now set in motion by a -water-wheel, and are allowed to work up to the required pressure, which -is about seventy tons to the square foot; it is then conveyed from under -the block in the same manner, and very easily unloaded. The press cake -is then taken out in layers between each plate, resembling dark pieces -of slate, about half an inch in thickness. After a day or so, this -hardens so much as to be difficult to break, and the appearance of the -fracture resembles that of the finest earthenware. Many important -advantages are gained by this pressure, of which the following are the -principal:-- - - ~Reasons for pressure.~ - -First, the density of the powder is increased, which prevents it falling -to dust in transport, or by rough usage. Secondly, its keeping qualities -are improved, for it withstands the action of the atmosphere, and -absorbs less moisture than a porous light powder. Thirdly, it produces -more grain in the manufacture than mill cake; and a less proportion, -consequently, is lost in dust. Fourthly, a closer connection of the -ingredients is obtained. Fifthly, a greater volume of inflammable gas is -produced from a certain bulk, than from a corresponding bulk of lighter -powder. - - ~Disadvantages of pressure.~ - -The range, however, is lessened, from a greater quantity being blown out -of a gun unignited; but this small loss is more than counterbalanced by -the former advantages, and actually it is only perceptible in newly-made -powder; for a light, porous powder soon loses its superior range from -its absorption of moisture, while that of the dense powder remains -unaltered. - - -GRANULATING THE PRESS CAKE. - - ~Mode of granulation.~ - - ~Screening.~ - -The next process is granulation, or reducing this press cake into the -proper sized grain for cannon, musket, or rifle powder. The machine -which effects this is very beautifully contrived, and is entirely -self-acting, obviating the necessity of any one being in the building -while it is in motion. It resembles, in appearance and action, the -breaking-down machine, except that it is larger, and is fitted with -three pairs of toothed rollers, of different degrees of fineness, -working in the same kind of collars already mentioned, so that, on any -hard substance passing through, they would open accordingly, and thus -prevent friction. At one end of the machine is a wooden hopper, or -funnel, which is filled with the press cake. This is contrived so as to -rise gradually by the motion of the machine, and constantly to supply an -endless band, similar to the one described in the breaking-down house. -When the cake arrives at the highest point of this band, it falls over, -and is granulated between the first pair of gun-metal rollers. Under -each pair is a screen, covered with 8-mesh wire. All that is not -sufficiently small to pass through, is carried on to the next pair of -rollers; and, in like manner, that which does not pass through the -second screen is carried to the third pair. In addition to these -screens, there are three oblong sieves covered with 8- and 16-mesh wire, -and 56 cloth respectively, fixed under, and parallel to, each other, -each being separated by about four inches of space, running at an -incline just below the three pairs of rollers; these all lead to little -wooden carriages placed on the opposite side of the machine, which are -divided so as to collect the different sized grain as it passes down. To -facilitate the separation and sifting of the powder, and to prevent -masses of it forming and clogging up the wire, a shaking motion is -imparted by a circular wheel attached to the framework of these sieves -revolving against an octagonal one fixed to the machine. The grains -which pass through each screen below the rollers fall on the upper one -of these three last-mentioned sieves. That portion which passes through -this, and is retained on the 16-mesh wire, is cannon powder; that -passing through the 16-mesh sieve, and retained on the 56-cloth, is fine -grain; and a board, running also parallel underneath, retains the dust -that passes through the cloth. - - ~Chucks regranulated.~ - -The “chucks,” as they are called, or those grains that are too large to -pass through these different sieves, are collected in the same way as -the grain, and undergo the process of granulation again. - - -DUSTING LARGE-GRAIN POWDER. - - ~Object of dusting.~ - - ~How performed for large-grain.~ - - ~Glazed at same time.~ - -The keeping qualities of powder are very much improved by removing the -dust, which quickly absorbs moisture from the atmosphere. This -operation, for large-grain, is performed by cylindrical reels, about -8ft. 6in. long, and 3ft. 8in. in diameter, clothed with 28-mesh canvas, -which revolve at the rate of thirty-eight times per minute. Those for -large-grain are called horizontal reels, in contradistinction to those -for fine-grain, that are called slope reels. Each is enclosed by a -wooden case, to prevent the dust flying about the house. When the powder -has run its time, one end of the reel is lowered. It then runs out into -barrels placed to receive it. This entirely separates the dust, and -imparts a fine black gloss, which is sufficient glazing for the -large-grained powder. - - -DUSTING FINE-GRAIN POWDER. - - ~Dusting fine-grain.~ - -The fine-grain powder has a much greater proportion of dust when it -leaves the granulating house than the large-grain, and it is found -necessary, on this account, to use a different kind of reel. They -resemble those for the former powder, except that they are covered with -44-mesh canvas instead of 28, and are placed at an incline which -prevents their being choked up with the quantity of dust; each end is -also open, and a continuous stream of powder, fed by a hopper, passes -through while they revolve, and pours out at the lower end into barrels. -This process is repeated a second time, which sufficiently frees it from -dust. - - -GLAZING FINE-GRAIN POWDER. - - ~Glazing fine-grain.~ - -The fine-grain powder thus dusted, is then glazed for three hours in -barrels capable of holding 300lbs. which are 3ft. 6-in. in length, and -2ft. 8-in. in diameter, revolving at the rate of thirty two times in a -minute. By the mere friction of the grains against each other and the -inside of the barrel, a glaze is imparted, presenting a fine polished -surface to the grain. - - ~Object of glazing.~ - -Powder glazed in this way withstands the action of moisture to a far -greater extent than unglazed powder, and in transport very little dust -is formed. - - -STOVING OR DRYING POWDER. - - ~Drying.~ - -A drying-room, heated by steam pipes, is fitted with open framework -shelves, on which rests small wooden trays about 3ft. long, 1ft. 6-in. -in breadth, and 2¹⁄₂in. deep, having canvas bottoms; on each is spread -8lbs. of powder. This room holds about 40 barrels, or 4,000lbs., which -remains in it for twenty four hours, and is subjected to a heat of 130° -Fahrenheit for sixteen hours, communicated by steam passing through -pipes arranged horizontally on the floor of the room. The temperature is -raised and lowered gradually, otherwise the too sudden change would be -likely to destroy the texture of the grain. The ceiling and roof are -fitted with ventilators, through which all the moisture escapes, so that -there is a constant current of hot air circulating through the room. It -is of the greatest importance that the vapour should be carried off; -for, if this is not effectually done, on the decrease of temperature, it -would return to its liquid state, and form again on the powder. - - -FINISHING DUSTING. - - ~Final dusting.~ - - ~Barrelling.~ - -The action of heat however produces a small portion of dust; both these -powders, therefore, when they leave the stove, are reeled in horizontal -reels, clothed with 28 and 44-mesh canvas respectively, for one hour and -a half. This perfectly separates any remaining dust, and gives the -finishing glaze to the large-grain powder. This is the final process, -and the powder thus finished is taken to the barrelling-up house; -weighed out into barrels holding 100lbs. each; marked L. G. -(large-grain), and F. G. (fine-grain), as the case may be; and stored in -magazines. - - -EXAMINATION AND PROOF OF GUNPOWDER. - - ~Desired properties of gunpowder.~ - - ~Specific gravity.~ - - ~Strength.~ - - ~Purity.~ - -The great and ultimate object to be attained in the manufacture of -Gunpowder is, not so much to produce that which ranges the highest, as -one that shall be durable in its texture, not easily deteriorated by -atmospheric influence or transport, and one with which equal charges -shall produce equal effects. It should present uniformity in the -appearance of its grains, which should be angular, crisp and sharp to -the touch, not easily reduced to dust by pressure between the fingers, -or dusty in handling; its specific gravity should not be under 55lbs. to -the cubic foot, (that of Waltham Abbey is generally 58lbs.) taking water -at 1000ozs.; its strength is tested by firing three rounds from an 8 -inch mortar, throwing a 68-pounder solid shot with a charge of 2oz. this -should give a range of from 270 to 300 feet. The distance however, -varies considerably, according to the state of the atmosphere, and the -density of the powder: for, the greater the density, the less the range -in small charges. Half an ounce flashed on a glass plate should leave -little or no residuum; should white beads or globules appear, it is a -sign of imperfect incorporation. - - -PROOF OF MERCHANT’S POWDER. - -The following are the different proofs merchant’s powder is subjected -to:-- - -Lots of 100 barrels are sent in, marked with the number of the lot and -the maker’s name on the head of each barrel. 25 per cent. of these are -unheaded in the examining house; the Proof Officer then-- - - ~If dusty.~ - -First, takes a bowl out of each barrel, and holding it about three feet -above, pours it out quickly; should there be a good deal of dust, it is -satisfactorily shown by this means. - - ~Firmness.~ - - ~Size of grain.~ - -Secondly, it is handled and pressed between the fingers, to test the -firmness of its grain; and should there appear to be any great -difference in the proportions of different sizes to that laid down as a -standard, it is sifted and compared accordingly, being rejected should -the quantities fall short or exceed the sample in any great degree. - - ~Density.~ - -Thirdly, a barrel or two are selected, and the powder poured into a -hopper, under which is placed a box very carefully constructed, so as to -hold exactly a cubic foot. A slide is now withdrawn at the bottom of the -hopper, and the powder allowed to run into the box in a continuous even -stream until it is piled up; the hopper is then removed, and the powder -struck off with a straight edge, level with the top of the box. The -weight is now carefully taken, that of the latter being subtracted; -should this not amount to 55lbs. it is rejected, as not being of -sufficient density. - - ~Strength by range.~ - -Fourthly, samples are taken from every barrel, and lot for the firing -proof. - -Firing Proof.--An average of nine rounds of sample Waltham Abbey powder -is taken, three rounds being respectively fired at the beginning, -middle, and end of the proof, from the same kind of mortar before -mentioned, with a charge of 2oz. An average of three rounds of each lot -of the merchant’s powder is also taken; should it fall short by more -than 1 in 20, it is rejected. - - ~Purity by flashing.~ - -Fifthly, to ascertain if any residuum or ash is left after ignition, -about half an ounce is burned on a clean glass plate, and fired with a -hot iron. The explosion should be sharp, and produce a sudden concussion -in the air; and the force and power of this concussion should be judged -by that of known good quality. Few sparks should fly off, nor should -white beads or globules appear, as it would be a sure indication, as we -have before explained, of insufficient incorporation. It is also -subjected to a second proof. - - ~Purity by weight after exposure to damp.~ - -Second proof.--A sample of 1lb. from each lot, carefully weighed up, and -a similar sample of the comparison powder, is exposed for three weeks in -a box perforated with holes (called a damp chest), to the action of the -atmosphere. This box is placed under cover, so that it is sheltered from -the wet, but that the moisture can get to it. If, at the end of this -time, there is a greater proportion of difference in range between them -than one-twentieth, it is rejected. The pounds are also very carefully -weighed up again, to ascertain the comparative absorption of moisture. -This is called the hygrometric test. - - -REMARKS ON THE PROOF OF POWDER BY THE EPROUVETTES. - - ~By eprouvettes or pendulum.~ - -By comparing the results of the proofs by the eprouvettes with those -furnished by the cannon pendulum (vide plate 1, fig. 2 and 3), it will -appear that the eprouvettes are entirely useless as instruments for -testing the relative projectile force of different kinds of powder, when -employed in large charges in a cannon. Powders of little density, or of -fine grain, which burn most rapidly, give the highest proof with the -eprouvettes, whilst the reverse is nearly true with the cannon. - - ~Real use of eprouvettes.~ - -The only real use of these eprouvettes is to check and verify the -uniformity of a current manufacture of powder, where a certain course of -operations is intended to be regularly pursued, and where the strength, -tested by means of any instrument, should therefore be uniform. - - ~Best proof, by service charges.~ - -The only reliable mode of proving the strength of Gunpowder is, to test -it with service charges in the arms for which it is designed; for which -purpose the balistic pendulums (vide plate 3), are perfectly adapted. - - ~Best proof for small arms.~ - -For the proof of powder for small arms, the small balistic pendulum is a -simple, convenient, and accurate instrument. - - ~Common eprouvette.~ - -The common eprouvettes are of no value as instruments for determining -the relative force of different kinds of Gunpowder. - - -OF THE SIZE OF GRAIN FOR GUNPOWDER. - - ~On size of grain.~ - -With regard to the particular size of grain for Gunpowder, I am -confident great improvements might be made, both in obtaining greater -regularity of effect and propelling force, by the adoption of a more -uniform even grain. There are at present half-a-dozen different sizes in -our cannon and musket powder; and I think it stands to reason, that the -more equal the size, the more uniform will be the ignition of all the -grains, and consequently the effect of the same charges will be much -more regular. - - -OBSERVATIONS ON THE MANUFACTURE OF GUNPOWDER ON THE CONTINENT AND -AMERICA. - -It may not be uninteresting to have a slight knowledge of the method -employed on the Continent, &c., for the production of Gunpowder. - - ~Proportion of the ingredients.~ - -The proportions of the three ingredients vary slightly all over the -Continent and America, being as follows:-- - - SALTPETRE. CHARCOAL. SULPHUR. - France } 75 12.5 12.5 - Belgium } - Russia 73.78 13.59 12.63 - Prussia 75 13.5 11.5 - Austria 75.5 13.2 11.3 - Spain 76.47 10.78 12.75 - United States 76 14 10 - - -PRODUCTION AND PURIFICATION OF THE INGREDIENTS. - - ~Production and purification of the ingredients.~ - -The nitre is purified in a similar way to the new method employed at -Waltham Abbey, though it is seldom obtained with so faint a trace of -chlorides, owing probably to its being of an inferior quality, and of -higher refraction when it is imported. - -The sulphur is supplied to the manufactories in France in the form of -roll sulphur, from Marseilles and Bordeaux, where there are very large -refineries. - -The charcoal is prepared from dogwood, alder, willow, hazel, and poplar, -sometimes in pits, and occasionally in cylinders, as at Waltham Abbey. -At Wetteren, and in some parts of France, it is distilled by the action -of steam. The “charbon roux” taking its name from its brownish-red -tinge, from being only partially burned, was used formerly more than -now, as the powder made from it was found to injure and exert very -pernicious effects upon fire-arms. - - -PULVERIZING AND MIXING THE INGREDIENTS. - - ~Pulverizing and mixing the ingredients.~ - -The ingredients are generally pulverized in copper drums, capable of -holding 224 kilogrammes. Part of the charcoal is mixed with the sulphur, -and part of the sulphur with the saltpetre. They are then put into -separate drums, which revolve about twenty-five times per minute for -three hours, and in which are about 500 gun-metal or bronze balls, the -size of good large marbles. The ingredients are brought to the most -minute state of division by these means, and are then mixed all -together, for one hour, in similar drums covered with leather, -containing wooden balls. - - -INCORPORATING PROCESS. - - ~Incorporation.~ - -The fine powder thus obtained is sometimes merely moistened, so as to -form a stiff paste, and passed through rollers, the cake formed, being -dried and granulated. The incorporating cylinders are used occasionally, -but the more usual plan adopted on the Continent to effect this -operation is the stamping-mill, which requires a short description. It -is nothing more nor less than the pestle-and-mortar principle, each mill -consisting of from six to twelve bronze or wooden mortars bedded in the -floor of the building; they are the shape of the frustum of a cone, the -mouth being much narrower than the base; the pestles, or stampers as -they are called, are made of wood, shod with either very hard wood or -bronze, on which project wooden teeth about twelve inches long; a -vertical movement is imparted to them by a shaft worked by the -water-wheel having similar teeth attached; in its revolution it raises -the stamper about eighteen inches, which falls again as the projection -is disengaged, twenty five times in a minute. This operation is carried -on for twelve hours, during which period the charge (about 15lbs.) is -moistened at intervals, and routed up with a copper-shod spud; at the -end of this time the cake is taken out, and left to dry and harden; it -seldom receives any pressure--although, in some manufactories, presses -are being erected. - - -GRANULATING. - - ~Granulation.~ - -The cake is then granulated in sets of sieves fitting one into the -other, having perforated zinc bottoms of different degrees of fineness, -which are suspended from the ceiling of the room by ropes, an ash spring -being attached to each box holding the sieves, the cake is put into the -uppermost one with some gun-metal balls, and shaken backwards and -forwards, which motion the spring facilitates; it is thus broken up into -different sized grains, which are separated by passing through the -several meshes. - -The grain formed is then dusted in bags or shaking-frames covered with -canvas, and then glazed in barrels. - - -STOVING OR DRYING. - - ~Drying.~ - - ~Comparative merits of foreign and English gunpowder.~ - -In summer the process of drying is often performed in the sun, and in -winter by the steam stove, in the following way. The powder is spread -about three or four inches thick on a large canvas tray, under which is -an arrangement of pipes, which convey the hot air forced by a fan -through a cylinder heated by steam: it is considered to be sufficiently -dried in from three to four hours, during which time it is occasionally -raked about. In some manufactories it undergoes a further operation of -being dusted, and is then barrelled up for use. Generally the great -failure in the foreign manufacture is the neglect of the principal stage -of the fabrication, viz. incorporation; with the old stamping-mill, it -is quite impossible that the process can be carried out to the necessary -extent. The Continental powder is usually very soft in its grain, -dusty, and quickly absorbs moisture from the atmosphere; its density is -below the English powder, on account of its never being subjected to -pressure; consequently it is not so durable, and forms a good deal of -dust in transport; a great amount of residue is generally left in the -gun, and its strength, as a propelling agent, is far inferior to our -powders. On being flashed on a glass plate, instead of producing a -sudden concussion, like the sharp rap of a hammer, it burns more like -composition, throwing off a quantity of sparks. - - -NEW RIFLE POWDER. - -The following mode of manufacturing rifle powder, appeared in Garrison -Orders at Woolwich, 31st December, 1859: - - Composition in 100 parts:-- - - Saltpetre 75 - Charcoal 15 - Sulphur 10 - --- - 100 - -The charcoal to be prepared from dogwood, burned slowly in cylinders -three hours. The composition to be worked under the runners for five and -a half hours, and submitted to a pressure of about 50 tons to the square -foot. The size of the grain to be that collected between sieves of 16 -and 24 meshes. The grain to be glazed for five hours. - - * * * * * - - NOTE.--The foregoing, on the manufacture of gunpowder, is principally - taken from an article in the Aide Memoire (1860), by Major Baddeley, - Royal Artillery; Captain Instructor, Waltham Abbey. - - - - -ON MAGAZINES. - - -It is impossible to make powder magazines too dry, and every care should -be taken to ventilate them as much as possible during dry weather, by -opening all doors, windows, loopholes, &c. Magazines are generally made -bomb-proof, and are furnished with lightning conductors. They are -divided into chambers, and these again divided by uprights into bays. At -Purfleet, which is the grand depôt for gunpowder in England, there are -five magazines capable of containing 9,600 whole barrels each. Each -magazine is divided into two chambers, and each chamber into 24 bays, -and in each bay is placed 200 whole, 400 half, or 800 quarter barrels of -powder. Total in the five Magazines, 48,000 barrels, equal to 4,800,000 -pounds. - - - - -LIGHTNING CONDUCTORS. - - _Principles and Instructions relative to their application to Powder - Magazines, by_ SIR W. SNOW HARRIS, F.R.S. _Extracted from Army List - for July, 1859._ - - -1.--Thunder and lightning result from the operation of a peculiar -natural agency through an interval of the atmosphere contained between -the surface of a certain area of clouds, and a corresponding area of the -earth’s surface directly opposed to the clouds. It is always to be -remembered that the earth’s surface and the clouds are the terminating -planes of the action, and that buildings are only assailed by Lightning -because they are points, as it were, in, or form part of, the earth’s -surface, in which the whole action below finally vanishes. Hence -buildings, under any circumstances, will be always open to strokes of -Lightning, and no human power can prevent it, whether having Conductors -or not, or whether having metals about them or not, as experience shows. - -2.--Whenever the peculiar agency, (whatever it may be), active in this -operation of nature, and characterized by the general term Electricity, -or Electric Fluid, is confined to substances which are found to resist -its progress, such, for example, as air, glass, resinous bodies, dry -wood, stones, &c., then an explosive form of action is the result, -attended by such an evolution of light and heat, and by such an enormous -expansive force, that the most compact and massive bodies are rent in -pieces, and inflammable matter ignited. Nothing appears to stand against -it. Granite rocks are split open, oak and other trees, of enormous size, -rent in shivers, and masonry of every kind frequently laid in ruins. The -lower masts of ships of the line, 3 feet in diameter, and 110 feet long, -bound with hoops of iron half an inch thick and 5 inches wide, the whole -weighing about 18 tons, have been, in many instances, torn asunder, and -the hoops of iron burst open and scattered on the decks. It is, in fact, -this terrible expansive power which we have to dread in cases of -buildings struck by Lightning, rather than the actual heat attendant on -the discharge itself. - -3.--When, however, the electrical agency is confined to bodies, such as -the metals, which are found to oppose but small resistance to its -progress, then this violent expansive or disruptive action is either -greatly reduced, or avoided altogether. The explosive form of action we -term Lightning, vanishes, and becomes, as it were, transformed into a -sort of continuous current action, of a comparatively quiescent kind, -which, if the metallic substance it traverses be of certain known -dimensions, will not be productive of any damage to the metal. If, -however, it be of small capacity, as in the case of a small wire, it may -become heated and fused. In this case, the electrical agency, as before, -is so resisted in its course as to admit of its taking on a greater or -less degree of explosive and heating effect, as in the former case. It -is to be here observed, that all kinds of matter oppose some resistance -to the progress of what is termed the Electrical Discharge, but the -resistance through capacious metallic bodies is comparatively so small, -as to admit of being neglected under ordinary circumstances; hence it is -that such bodies have been termed Conductors of Electricity, whilst -bodies such as air, glass, &c., which are found to oppose very -considerable resistance to electrical action, are placed at the opposite -extremity of the scale, and termed Non-conductors or Insulators. - -The resistance of a metallic copper wire to an ordinary electrical -discharge from a battery, was found so small, that the shock traversed -the wire at the rate of 576,000 miles in a second. The resistance -however, through a metallic line of Conduction, small as it be, -increases with the length, and diminishes with the area of the section -of the Conductor, or as the quantity of metal increases. - -4.--It follows from these established facts, that if a building were -metallic in all its parts, an iron magazine for example, then no damage -could possibly arise to it from any stroke of Lightning which has come -within the experience of mankind; e.g., a man in armour is safe from -damage by Lightning; in fact, from the instant the electrical discharge -in breaking with disruptive and explosive violence through the resisting -air, seizes upon the mass in any point of it, from that instant the -explosive action vanishes, and the forces in operation are neutralized -upon the terminating planes of action, viz., the surface of the earth, -and opposed clouds. - -5.--All this plainly teaches us, that in order to guard a building -effectually against damage by Lightning, we must endeavour to bring the -general structure as nearly as may be, into that passive or -non-resisting state it would assume, supposing the whole were a mass of -metal. - -6.--To this end, one or more conducting channels of copper depending -upon the magnitude and extent of the building should be systematically -applied to the walls; these conducting channels should consist either of -double copper plates united in series one over the other, as in the -method of fixing such Conductors to the masts of Her Majesty’s Ships, -the plates being not less than 3¹⁄₂ inches wide, and of ¹⁄₁₆th and ¹⁄₈th -of an inch in thickness, or the Conductors may with advantage be -constructed of stout copper pipe not less than ³⁄₁₆ths of an inch thick, -and 1¹⁄₂ to 2 inches in diameter: in either case the Conductors should -be securely fixed to the walls of the building, either by braces, or -copper nails, or clamps; they should terminate in solid metal rods -above, projecting freely into the air, at a moderate and convenient -height above the point to which they are fixed, and below they should -terminate in one or two branches leading outward about a foot under the -surface of the earth; if possible, they should be connected with a -spring of water or other moist ground. - -It would be proper in certain dry situations, to lead out in several -directions under the ground, old iron or other metallic chains, so as to -expose a large extent of metallic contact in the surface of the earth. - -7.--All the metals in the roof and other parts of the building of -whatever kind, should so far as possible have metallic communication -with these Alarm Conductors, and in case of any prominent elevated -chimney, it would be desirable to lead a pointed conducting tube along -it to the metals of the roof; all of which satisfies the conditions -above specified. - -8.--Remark 1.--It is now proved beyond all questions, that the -electrical discharge never leaves perfect conducting lines of small -resistance, in order to pass out upon bad conducting circuits, in which -the resistance is very great, that is an established law of nature; -hence a stroke of Lightning upon such conducting lines will be confined -to the Conductors as constituting a line of discharge of less resistance -than any other line of discharge through the building, which can be -assigned. The apprehension of “Lateral Discharge” therefore, from the -Conductor, is quite absurd; and is not countenanced by any fact -whatever; if any doubt could possibly exist, it would be now most -completely set at rest by the experience of the permanent Conductors, -applied to the masts of Her Majesty’s ships. In very many instances -furious discharges of Lightning have fallen on the masts with a crash as -if the ship’s broadside had been fired, and the solid point aloft has -been found melted; in all these cases electrical discharge robbed by the -Conductor of its explosive violence, has traversed the line of action to -the sea, through the ship, and through the copper bolts, driven through -the ship’s solid timbers, without the least damage to the surrounding -masses, whether metallic, as in the case of the massive iron hoops on -the lower masts, or not. Persons have either been close by or actually -leaning against the Conductors at the time, without experiencing any ill -consequence. - -9.--Remark 2.--It has also been incontestably shown, that metallic -bodies have not any specific attractive force or affinity for the matter -of Lightning; metals are as little attractive of lightning as wood or -stone. All matter is equally indifferent to Electricity so far as -regards a specific attraction, hence the idea that metals attract or -invite Lightning is a popular but very unlearned error contradicted by -the most satisfactory evidence, and the whole course of experience; in -short, we find that Lightning falls indiscriminately upon trees, rocks, -and buildings, whether the buildings have metals about them or not. - -10.--Remark 3.--A building that is hence clear, may be struck and -damaged by Lightning without having a particle of metal in its -construction; if there be metals in it, however, and they happen to be -in such situations as will enable them to facilitate the progress of the -electrical discharge, so far as they go, then the discharge will fall on -them in preference to other bodies offering more resistance, but not -otherwise; if metallic substances be not present, or if present, they -happen to occupy places in which they cannot be of any use in helping on -the discharge in the course it wants to go, then the electricity seizes -upon other bodies, which lie in that course, or which can help it, -however small their power of doing so, and in this attempt such bodies -are commonly, but not always, shattered in pieces. The great law of the -discharge is,--progress between the terminating planes of action, -viz:--the clouds and earth, and in such line or lines as upon the whole, -offer the least mechanical impediment or resistance to this operation, -just as water falling over the side of a hill in a rain storm, picks out -or selects as it were by the force of gravity, all the little furrows or -channels which lie convenient to its course, and avoids those which do -not. If in the case of Lightning you provide through the instrumentality -of efficient Conductors, a free and uninterrupted course for the -electrical discharge, then it will follow that course without damage to -the general structure; if you do not, then this irresistible agency will -find a course for itself through the edifice in some line or lines of -least resistance to it, and will shake all imperfect conducting matter -in pieces in doing so; moreover it is to be specially remarked in this -case, that the damage ensues, not where the metals are, but where they -cease to be continued, the more metal in a building therefore the -better, more especially when connected by an uninterrupted circuit with -any medium of communication with the earth. - -Such is, in fact, the great condition to be satisfied in the application -of Lightning Conductors, which is virtually nothing more than the -perfecting a line or lines of small resistance in given directions, less -than the resistance in any other lines in the building, which can be -assigned in any other direction, and in which by a law of nature the -electrical agency will move in preference to any others. - -11.--It follows from the foregoing principles, that a magazine -constructed entirely of iron or other metal, would be infinitely more -safe in Lightning storms than if built with masonry in the usual way; -metallic roofs for magazines, with capacious metallic Conductors to the -earth, would be unobjectionable, and a source of security. - -Metallic gutters and ridges having continuous metallic connection with -the earth are also unobjectionable. - -A good method of Conductors for magazines built of masonry, would be -such as already described, regard being had to the position of the -building, its extent, and most prominent points, also to the nature, -state, and condition of the soil, whether it be moist or dry, alluvial -calcareous, or of hard rock; we must also consider the extent, -disposition, and peculiar position of the metallic bodies entering into -the general structure of the building, whether the roof be flat, -pointed, or angular in various parts. - -The pointed projecting extremities of the two Conductors, one or more as -the case may be, will be commonly sufficient; but, in buildings having -tall chimneys or other elevated prominent points, at a distance from the -Main Conductor, it will be requisite to guard such chimneys or other -parts, by a pointed rod, led along them to the metals of the roof, or -directly connected with the Main Conductors, by metallic connections. - -12.--Pointed terminations of the Conductors in the air, are so far -important that they tend to break the force of a discharge of Lightning -when it falls on them. In fact, before the great shock actually takes -place, under the form of a dense explosion, a very large amount of the -discharge, which otherwise would be concentrated, runs off, as it were, -through the pointed Conductor; but they have no other influence. - -With respect to these pointed terminations, no great care need be taken -about them, except that they should consist of solid copper rod, of -about three-quarters of an inch in diameter, and about a foot in length, -and be united by brazing to the conducting tube, elevated at such -convenient height above the walls of the building as the case may -suggest. - -As a support to the Conductor, when raised above the wall, we may employ -a small staff or spar of wood fixed to the masonry. - -13.--Copper linings to the doors and window shutters of magazines are -not objectionable, if requisite, as a precaution against fire; but they -are useless as a means of keeping out Lightning; on the other hand, it -is not easy to conceive a case in which the explosion of the gunpowder -is to be apprehended from the action of Lightning on the doors or -windows. Supposing, however, such metallic linings desirable as a -precaution against common cases of fire, then the masses of metal -should, according to the principles already laid down, have metallic -communication with the general system of conduction in the building and -the Main Conductor. - - - - -ON THE EXPLOSIVE FORCE OF GUNPOWDER. - - - ~Advantages of Gunpowder~ - -The advantages of Gunpowder, as a propelling agent, over any other -explosive material are, the comparative safety attending its manufacture -and transport, and the gradual nature of its decomposition when compared -with those materials, such as fulminating gold, silver, mercury, &c. &c. -In gunpowder, the force resulting from the rapid evolution of gas in a -confined space has sufficient time to overcome the inertia of the -projectile, which is not the case with other explosive materials, the -conversion of which gaseous products is so instantaneous that nothing -can resist the intensity of their explosive action. Other advantages -suggest themselves in the use of Gunpowder, such as the comparative -cheapness of the ingredients composing it, and the ease with which they -may be obtained; for the sulphur and saltpetre are very abundant -productions of nature, and the charcoal can be manufactured cheaply and -with great facility, and if care is taken in the process of the -fabrication of powder, little deterioration will take place on its -exposure to heat or moisture. - - ~Air & Steam as propellants~ - -Condensed air and steam have been used as propelling agents; but the -great inconvenience attending their use quite preclude the possibility -of adapting them to war purposes. - - ~Force of Gunpowder.~ - -As the force and effect obtained from Gunpowder is the foundation of all -other particulars relating to Gunnery, we will briefly consider these -points. - - ~Upon what the action of powder depends.~ - -The action of Gunpowder is dependent upon a purely chemical process. Mr. -Robins proved that the force generated by the combustion of gunpowder, -was owing to an elastic gas which was suddenly disengaged from the -powder, when it was brought to a certain temperature, and further that -this disengaged gas had its elastic force greatly augmented by the heat -evolved by the chemical action. - - - ~Ingredients are charged with a large volume of heated gas.~ - -The propelling power of Gunpowder is dependent on the rapid -decomposition of the nitre into its component parts; the oxygen forms -carbonic acid with the carbon in the charcoal, and the heat thus -generated by ignition changes both this and the nitrogen into a large -volume of heated gas. In a mixture of nitre and charcoal alone, the -oxidation proceeds with comparative slowness; by the addition of -sulphur, an augmentation of combustibility is gained, in consequence of -its igniting at a very low temperature; the sulphur, also, by its -presence, renders available for the oxidation of the carbon an -additional amount of oxygen, viz: that which is united with the -potassium, the latter being at once converted into sulphite upon -ignition of the powder. - - ~Weight of gas evolved.~ - - ~Volume of gas evolved.~ - - ~Heat of gas evolved.~ - - ~Pressure of gas generated.~ - - ~Strength of powder not affected by density of air, but by damp.~ - -It appears that the weight of gas generated is equal to three tenths of -the weight of the powder which yielded it, and that its bulk when cold, -and expanded to the rarity of Common air was 240 times that of the -powder; the barometer standing at about 30 inches. From this Robins -concluded that if the fluid occupied a space equal to the volume of the -gunpowder, its elastic force, when cold, would be 240 times the pressure -of the atmosphere, when the barometer stands as above. Mr. Robins also -considered that the heat evolved was at least equal to that of red hot -iron, and he found by experiments that air heated to this temperature -had its elasticity quadrupled, and therefore, that the force of gas from -powder is at least four times 240 = 960, or in round numbers 1,000 times -as great as the elasticity of the air measured by its pressure on an -equal extent of surface. From the height of the barometer it is known -that the pressure of the atmosphere is about 14³⁄₄lbs. upon the square -inch, so that the pressure of the elastic gas generated by the -combustion of the gunpowder upon the same area would be 14.75 by 1,000 -or 14,750lbs. at the moment of explosion. He found that the strength of -Gunpowder was the same whatever might be the density of the atmosphere, -but that the moisture of the air effected it considerably, in fact that -the same quantity of powder which would give a bullet an initial -velocity of 1,700 feet per second on a day when the atmosphere was -comparatively dry, would upon a damp day give no more than 1,200 or -1,300 feet. - - ~Velocity of gas~ - -The velocity of the expansion of the gas is a most important point, upon -which depends, chiefly, the peculiar value of the substance as a -propelling agent. Many of the warlike machines of the Ancients produced -a momentum far surpassing that of our heaviest cannon, but the great -celerity given to the bodies projected from guns by gunpowder cannot be -in the least approached by any other means than by the sudden production -of an elastic gas. Mr. Robins found that the flame of gunpowder expanded -itself when at the muzzle of the gun with a velocity of 7,000 feet per -second. - - ~Dr. Hutton’s calculation as to:--_Volume, Temperature, Pressure_.~ - - ~Temperature~ - - ~Expansion.~ - - ~How to calculate expansion~ - - ~Absolute force of gunpowder cannot be determined.~ - -It has been calculated that one cubic inch of powder is converted into -250 cubic inches of gas at the temperature of the atmosphere, and Dr. -Hutton states that the increase of volume at the moment of ignition -cannot be less than eight times; therefore one inch of gunpowder, if -confined, at the time of explosion exerts a pressure of about 30,000lbs. -being 250 by 8 by 15 = 30,000lbs. on the cubic inch, or 5,000lbs. on the -square inch; and which at once accounts for its extraordinary power. The -value of the temperature to which the gases are raised, on the explosion -of the powder, has been variously estimated and it may be concluded to -rise as high as will melt copper, or 4,000° Fahrenheit. All gases expand -uniformly by heat, the expansion having been calculated with great -precision, to be ¹⁄₄₈₀th for each degree of Fahrenheit. If therefore we -take Dr. Hutton’s calculations of one volume of powder expanding into -250 volumes of gas at the temperature of the atmosphere, and if we -suppose 4,000° Fahrenheit to be the heat to which they are raised on -ignition, the expansion of gunpowder would be calculated. Thus, suppose -the gas to be at 60°, the temperature of the atmosphere, we must deduct -60° from 4,000°, which will give 3,940, being the number of degrees -remaining to which it is raised, hence - - temp. vol. temp. vol. vol. - 1 3940 - 1° : --- 3,940° : ---- = 8·2 - 480 480 - -that is, each volume of gas would at a temperature of 4000° be -increased 8·2 in volume. Gunpowder when at the temperature of the air -being expanded 250 times in volume; therefore 250 by 8·2 = 2,050 as the -increased expansion for each volume of gas generated by the explosion of -gunpowder at the temperature of 4,000° Fahrenheit. Lieut-Colonel Boxer -calculates that the heat generated by good dry powder is not under -3,000° Fahrenheit. It appears with our present knowledge, the absolute -value of the force of gunpowder cannot be determined. Still by careful -and extensive experiments no doubt a near approximation to the truth may -ultimately be arrived at, so that although much has already been done by -various eminent philosophers, there is still more to be accomplished; -and the importance of the subject ought to act as a stimulus to the -exertions of those belonging to a profession the most interested in the -question. - - ~Loss of velocity by windage.~ - -It has been found by experiments that in calculating the initial -velocity of a projectile, one third of the whole force was lost with a -windage of ¹⁄₁₀th inch with a shot of 1·96-in. and 1·86-in. in diameter. -The bore of the gun being 2·02-in. - - ~Definition of ignition and combustion.~ - -By ignition we understand the act of setting fire to a single grain, or -to a charge of gunpowder, and by combustion we mean the entire -consumption of a grain or of a charge. - - ~Quickness of combustion.~ - -Upon the quickness of combustion mainly depends the applicability of -gunpowder for Military purposes. - - ~Ignition by heat.~ - -Gunpowder may be inflamed in a variety of ways, but whatever be the -method, one portion of the substance must in the first instance be -raised to a temperature a little above that necessary to sublime the -sulphur, which can be removed from the other ingredients, by gradually -raising the compound to a heat sufficient to drive it off in a state of -vapour. The heat required for this purpose is between 600° and 680° -Fahrenheit. - - ~Progressive combustion.~ - -When a charge of powder is exploded in the bore of a gun, to all -appearance there would seem to be an instantaneous generation of the -whole force. But in fact it is not so, a certain time being necessary to -the complete combustion of the substance. This gradual firing is of the -utmost importance, for were it otherwise, the gun, unless of enormous -strength, must be shattered in pieces, as well as the projectile; for in -such a case, this great force being suddenly exerted upon one part only -of the material, there would not be time for the action to be -distributed over the particles, at any great distance, before those in -the immediate vicinity of the explosion, were forced out of the sphere -of action of the cohesive force, and consequently rupture must take -place. - - ~Substances which have a more violent action than powder.~ - -The effect of such an action may be observed by exploding detonating -powders, in which are contained chlorate of potash or fulminating -mercury. The action of that peculiar substance the chlorite of nitrogen -is still more remarkable. There is also another compound, containing -three parts of saltpetre, one part of carbonate of potash and one part -of sulphur, which when brought to a certain heat will explode with great -violence, its destructive force being very considerable; and this is -principally due to the rapidity of the evolution of the gas, for its -amount is less than that produced from gunpowder, but the complete -decomposition occurs in a much shorter time. - - ~In a damp state less quickly fired, and why.~ - -If gunpowder be in a damp state, the velocity of combustion will be less -than when dry, and also a longer time will be necessary to ignite it, -since the moisture upon its conversion into vapour, absorbs a certain -amount of heat which remains latent, and of which the useful effects so -far as igniting the powder is concerned, is entirely lost. - - ~Ignition by percussion.~ - -Gunpowder may be ignited by the percussion of copper against copper, -copper against iron, lead against lead, and even with lead against wood, -when the shock is very great. It is more difficult to ignite gunpowder -between copper and bronze,[1] or bronze and wood than between the other -substances. Again, out of ten samples which were wrapt in paper and -struck upon an anvil with a heavy hammer, seven of grained powder -exploded and nine of mealed. - - [1] Bronze consists of 78 parts copper to 20 of tin. Bell metal--78 - copper and 22 tin. Gun metal--100 copper to 8 to 10 tin. Brass--2 - copper, 1 zinc and calamine stone, to harden and colour. - - ~Influence of shape of grain on ignition.~ - -If the part to which the heat is applied be of an angular shape, the -inflammation will take place quicker than if it be of a round or flat -form, on account of the greater surface that is exposed to the increased -temperature. - - ~The form of the grain influences the velocity of the transmission of - flame.~ - -If the grains are of a rounded form, there would be larger interstices, -and a greater facility will be afforded to the passage of the heated -gas, and therefore this shape is most favourable to the rapid and -complete inflammation of each grain in the whole charge. On the other -hand, particles of an angular or flat form, fitting into each other as -it were, offer greater obstruction to this motion, and the velocity of -the transmission of inflammation is thereby diminished. - - ~Effect of size on the velocity of transmission of inflammation.~ - -If the grains be small, the interstices will be small also, and the -facility to the expansion of the gas thereby diminished. In the -experiments with trains of powder, the increased surface exposed to the -heated gas was found to more than compensate for the diminished facility -to its expansion, and generally a train of small-grained powder laid -upon a surface without being enclosed, will be consumed more quickly -than a train of large-grained powder. - - ~Large grain best suited for heavy ordnance.~ - -But this is not the case in a piece of ordnance, a circumstance which -amongst others will account for the diminished initial velocity given to -the shot by a charge of small-grained musket powder, below that produced -by the large-grained usually adopted for this service. - - ~Velocity of the transmission of inflammation of the charge.~ - - ~Estimate of Mr. Piobert.~ - -When a number of grains of powder are placed together as in the charge -of a gun, and a few of them are ignited at one end of the cartridge, a -certain quantity of gas is developed of a temperature sufficiently high -to ignite those in their immediate vicinity. This has also such -elasticity as to enable it to expand itself with considerable velocity. -Again, the grains which are so ignited continue the inflammation to -others in the same manner. The absolute velocity of expansion of this -gas is very considerable; but the grains of gunpowder in the charge -offer an obstruction to this motion, the gas having to wind its way -through the interstices, and consequently the velocity is considerably -diminished, but it is quite clear that it must be very much greater than -the velocity of combustion. Mr. Piobert estimates the velocity of -transmission of inflammation of a charge in a gun at about 38 feet per -second, and in all probability even this is much under the mark. - - ~Experiments made on this subject.~ - -Many experiments have been made by observing the velocity of -transmission of inflammation of trains of powder under various -circumstances, but they do not show us what would be the velocity in a -confined charge. The velocity increased with the section of the train, -and further when at the end first lighted, there was an obstruction to -the escape of gas, as in the case of a gun, a much shorter time was -required for complete inflammation. - - ~Time of decomposition depends upon form of grain.~ - -When the charge of powder in a gun is ignited the grains being enveloped -by the heated gas, we may consider that each grain is ignited over its -whole surface at once. If the grains of powder were of equal or regular -form, the time each would be consuming, might be easily calculated, but -since in ordinary cases they are irregular in form, although the grains -may be of the same weight, the time necessary for their complete -decomposition will be very different. - - ~Circumstances affecting combustion.~ - -The quickness of combustion will depend upon the dryness of the powder, -the density of the composition, the proportion of the ingredients, the -mode of manufacture, and the quality of the ingredients. - - ~Combustion of cubical grains considered.~ - -Were a cubical grain to be ignited upon its whole surface, the -decomposition may be supposed to take place gradually from the surface -to the centre, and the original cubical form to remain until the whole -is consumed, the cube becoming smaller and smaller. If, then, the rate -of burning be the same throughout, the quantity of gas generated in the -first half portion of the time will evidently be considerably more than -in the latter half, as in the latter case there will be a much lesser -surface under the influence of flame. - - ~Elongated and cylindrical grains.~ - -If the form of the grain be elongated, then will the quantity of gas -generated in a given time from a grain of similar weight to that of the -cube or sphere, be increased, on account of the greater ignited surface, -and consequently the time necessary for its combustion will be -diminished. If it be of a cylindrical form for example, this time must -be reckoned from the diameter of the cylinder, its length not -influencing it in the least, although as we have seen, it enters into -the consideration of the quantity of the gas generated in a given time. - - ~Large grain.~ - -In the ordinary large-grain powder, the majority of the grains are of -the elongated or flat form, from whence considerable advantage is -derived, particularly in short guns, since it causes the greatest -portion of the charge to be decomposed before the projectile is moved -sensibly from its original position. - - ~Mealed powder.~ - -If the charge be composed of mealed powder a longer time is found to be -necessary for the complete combustion of the whole than in the case -where the substance is granulated, and the initial velocity of a shot is -reduced about one third by employing the substance in that state. - - ~The effect of granulating gunpowder.~ - -A piece of pressed cake weighing 1·06oz., was put into a mortar, and a -globe of some light substance, placed upon it, and the powder being -consumed after ignition without ejecting the ball from the bore of the -piece. When an equal quantity was divided into seven or eight pieces, -the globe was thrown out of the mortar; breaking the cake into twelve -pieces; the ball ranged 3·3 yards; being further increased to fifty -grains, it ranged 10·77 yards; and when the ordinary powder was used, -the ball was projected 56·86 yards. - - ~Action depends upon size and form of grain.~ - -It will appear from the above remarks, that the force generated from the -charge of powder in a gun, will be greatly influenced by the size and -form of the grains composing it. - - ~Density of gunpowder.~ - -In order to obtain a gunpowder which shall possess a proper amount of -force, it is necessary that the ingredients should be thoroughly -incorporated, and the process of incorporation will in great measure -affect the density of the grains. After going through the process, it is -subjected to a certain pressure, in order that the substance in -travelling may not be reduced to a fine powder, which would cause the -velocity of transmission of inflammation to be diminished. But there is -a certain point beyond which it would not be advantageous to increase -the density, and this seems to vary with the size of the grain. With -large-grain powder the action in a musket, or in guns with small -charges, is greatest with a low density; while with very small grain, -the highest velocities are obtained generally with the gunpowder of -great density; but in heavy guns with ordinary charges, the -large-grained powder should be of considerable density in order to -obtain the greatest effect, though still it must not be too great. - - ~Advantages of glazing.~ - -The principal advantages of glazing are; first, that the powder so -prepared, will in travelling, owing to the smaller amount of destructive -force consequent on friction, produce less mealed powder; and secondly, -that in a damp country like England, the glazing imparts a preserving -power to the powder, as the polished surface is less likely to imbibe -moisture than the rough. - - ~Disadvantages of glazing.~ - - ~Experiments as to glazing.~ - - ~Glazing less hurtful to fine grains.~ - -The disadvantages of glazing consists in its polishing the surface, and -thus depriving it of those angular projections which cause the ignition -and combustion to be carried on with greater rapidity, by rendering the -interstices smaller, the consequence of which is, that there is not so -much gas produced previously to the projectile leaving the gun, and in -large charges a portion will be blown out unfired. There must be a limit -then to glazing, which it would not be proper to exceed. At an -experiment with glazed and unglazed powder, the ranges on the eprouvette -were 75 for glazed, and 98 for unglazed. This loss of power, consequent -on glazing, has caused it to be done away with in France and Russia. -With fine grain powder it is not of so much consequence, as it is, to a -certain degree, corrected by the size of the grain. - - ~Size of grain determined by size of charge.~ - - ~Tight ramming bad.~ - -The rapidity with which a charge of gunpowder is consumed will depend -not only in a certain degree upon the size of the grain, but on the -manner in which the charge is put together, for if a charge is closely -pressed, the gases meeting resistance in their endeavours to escape -between the interstices, will not propagate the ignition so rapidly. -With large charges, there exists a positive advantage for the grains to -be rather large, so that the most distant parts of the charge should be -reached by the gases as quickly as possible; whilst with that of a -rifle, the charge being small, the fineness of the grain does not -interfere with the quantity of the gas developed. Whence it may -rationally be concluded that the dimensions of the grains should -increase in proportion to the quantity of the charges into which they -are to enter, that is to say, in proportion to the interstices. Ramming -down a charge tightly must therefore interfere with the velocity of -combustion. - - NOTE--The foregoing on the explosive force of gunpowder was taken from - Lieut-Colonel E. M. Boxer’s Treatise on Artillery. - - -FOULING. - - ~Produce of decomposed gunpowder.~ - -The produce obtained by the decomposition of gunpowder are the gaseous -and the solid. The gaseous is chiefly nitrogen and carbonic acid. The -solid is sulphur and potassium, mixed with a little charcoal, but the -solid produce is nearly entirely volatilized at the moment of explosion -through the high temperature. - - ~Fouling.~ - -Fouling is occasioned by the deposition inside the barrel of the solid -residue proceeding from the combustion of the powder. - - ~Conditions of fouling depend on state of atmosphere~ - -One of the principal of these, namely, the sulphide of Potassa, is -deliquescent, or attracts water from the atmosphere. Hence, on a clear -day, when the air holds little moisture, the fouling does not attain -that semi-fluid state it so speedily attains in a damp day, and it is -not so easily removed, and tends to accumulate inside the barrel. -Fouling may also be increased or diminished, according to the quality of -the powder. - - ~Effects of Fouling.~ - -Fouling occasions loss of power from the increased friction, and causes -inaccuracy in direction and elevation, by filling the grooves, and thus -preventing the proper spiral motion being imparted to the projectile. - - -EFFECTS OF GUNPOWDER ON METALS. - - ~Difference of effect on brass and iron guns.~ - -The effect produced by Gunpowder on metals, in long continued and rapid -firing, is very extraordinary. Several of the guns employed at the siege -of San Sebastian were cut open, and the interior of some of the vent -holes, which were originally cylindrical, and only two-tenths of an inch -in diameter, were enlarged in a curious and irregular manner, from three -to five inches in one direction, and from two to three inches in -another, but the brass guns were much more affected than the iron. In -December, 1855, there were lying in the arsenal at Woolwich several of -the heaviest sea mortars, which had recently been used at the -bombardment of Sweaborg, and the continuous firing on that occasion had -split them into two nearly equal portions from muzzle to breech, a -trunnion being with each half. - -Heavy guns for garrisons, sieges, &c., are made of cast iron; guns for -field purposes, where lightness is required, are made of gun metal. - - - ~Difference of effect of brass and iron guns~ - -These guns are generally denominated brass guns. They can be loaded, -properly pointed at an object, and fired about four times in three -minutes, but they will not stand long continued rapid firing, or more -than 120 rounds a day, as the metal, when heated, softens, and the shot -then injures the bore. Heavy iron guns may be loaded, fired, &c., once -in two minutes. They suffer more from the total number of rounds that -have been fired from them, without reference to the intervals between -each round, than from the rapidity of the firing. Four hundred and five -hundred rounds per day have not rendered an iron gun unserviceable. - - -MISCELLANEOUS EXPERIMENTS. - -The following experiments, extracted from Mr. Wilkinson’s “Engines of -War,” serve to illustrate the capability of metals to resist the force -of gunpowder, and may be of some practical utility, as well as prove -interesting merely as matter of curiosity. - -Experiment 1.--A piece about 5 inches long was cut off the breech-end of -a common musket barrel. It was screwed at the part cut, and another plug -fitted, so as to have two plugs, one at each end, leaving an internal -space of about 3 inches. A percussion nipple was screwed into the end of -one of these plugs. This being arranged, one of the plugs was turned -out, and one drachm of gunpowder introduced. The plug was replaced, and -the powder fired by putting a copper cap on the nipple, and striking it -with a hammer. The whole force of the powder escaped at the hole in the -nipple. Two, three, four, five, and six drachms were successively -introduced, and fired in the same manner, without bursting or injuring -the piece of barrel. At last, seven drachms forced out one end, in -consequence of the screw having been carelessly fitted. This defect -being repaired, Mr. Marsh, of Woolwich, repeatedly fired it with five -drachms, merely holding it with a towel in his left hand, and firing it -with a blow of a hammer. Six drachms of powder is the full service -charge for a flint musket, and four drachms of a percussion musket; yet -this immense pressure can be resisted by a cylinder of iron not more -than one quarter of an inch thick, and not iron of the best quality. - -Experiment 2.--A good musket barrel had a cylinder of brass, three -inches long, turned to fit the muzzle, and soldered in, so as to close -it air-tight. The plug, or breech-screw, was removed, and a felt wad was -pushed in with a short piece of wood, marked to the exact depth the -charge would occupy, to prevent the ball rolling forward. A musket ball -was then dropped in, and a cartridge, containing three drachms of -powder, was introduced. The breech being screwed in, left the barrel -loaded. It was fired by a percussion tube, but there was no report. On -removing the breech-screw, the ball was found to be flattened. A -repetition of this experiment, with four drachms, produced a similar -result, but the ball was rather more flattened. With five drachms, the -ball was perfectly round and uninjured. Six drachms burst the barrel -close under the bayonet stud; the ball escaped through the opening, -disfigured, but fell close to the barrel. In these experiments the -barrel always advanced, instead of recoiling, as usual. - -Experiment 3.--Made at Woolwich Arsenal, with a Gomer mortar, the -chamber being bored conically, so that the shell, when dropped in, fits -closely all round, instead of being bored cylindrically, with a chamber -in the centre. The mortar being laid at an angle of 45°, one drachm of -powder was put into the bottom, and a 68-pounder iron shot over it. When -fired, the ball was projected two feet clear of the mortar. A wooden -ball, precisely the same diameter, but weighing only 5lbs., was scarcely -moved by the same charge, and with two drachms of powder it was just -lifted in the mortar, and fell into its place again. Here we find a -weight of 68lbs. thrown to the distance of two feet by the same power -which would not lift 5lbs., and the wooden ball scarcely moved by double -the powder. - -This proves that the firing of gunpowder under such circumstances is not -instantaneous. In the first instance, the small quantity of powder had a -large space to fill below the ball, and a heavy weight to move; -therefore, could not stir it at all until the whole was ignited, when -the force was sufficient to throw it forward two feet. In the second -case, the first portion of gas that was generated by ignition of the -powder, was sufficient to lift the lighter weight, just enough to allow -all the force to escape round it before it had time to accumulate. - -Experiment 4.--A cannon ball, weighing 24lbs., was placed exactly over -the vent-hole of a loaded 32-pounder cannon, which was fired by a train -of gunpowder, when the rush from the vent projected the 24-pounder ball -to a very considerable height in the air, although the diameter of the -hole was only two-tenths of an inch. - -Experiment 5.--A most ingenious method of ascertaining the relative -quickness of ignition of different qualities of gunpowder. - -A gun-barrel mounted on a carriage with wheels, and moving on a -perfectly horizontal railway, is placed at right angles to another short -railway, at any convenient distance (suppose fifty feet, or yards); on -the second railway a light carriage moves freely with any desired -velocity, being drawn forward by means of a weight and pulleys: a cord -is attached to the front of this carriage, which passes over a pulley at -the end of the railroad, and is continued up a high pole or staff over -another pulley at the top, at which end the weight is attached. A long -rectangular frame covered with paper is fixed perpendicularly on the -carriage, so that when it moves forward it passes across the direct line -of the barrel, and forms a long target. A percussion lock is attached to -the barrel, which is fired by a detent, or hair-trigger, and the wire -which pulls it is disengaged at the same instant to admit of recoil. -This wire is carried straight on to the target railroad, and fixed to a -small lever, against which the front part of the target-carriage strikes -as it is carried onwards by the weight. This constitutes the whole -apparatus. When required to be used, the barrel is loaded with gunpowder -accurately weighed, and a brass ball that fits the bore correctly: the -weight is then disengaged, and the target moves quickly along, -discharging the barrel as it passes, and the ball goes through it. With -the same powder tried at the same time, the ball constantly goes through -the same hole, or breaks into it. If the next powder tried be slower of -ignition than the preceding, the ball will pass through another part of -the target more in the rear; if quicker, more in advance; thus affording -a means of ascertaining this important quality of gunpowder with -considerable accuracy: the velocity of the target-carriage can be easily -regulated by increasing or diminishing the weight which draws it -forward. The differences in the distances between which the balls strike -the target with different kinds of powder was frequently as much as ten -or twelve inches; but it is not an apparatus commonly used, having been -merely constructed for experimental purposes. - - -ON THE TIME REQUIRED FOR IGNITION OF GUNPOWDER. - -Gunpowder like all other inflammable substances requires to be raised to -a certain temperature, before it will ignite, viz., to a dull red heat, -or about 600° Fahrenheit. If the heat passes with such rapidity through -the powder, so as not to raise the temperature to the necessary degree, -then the powder will not ignite, from the velocity of transit, so that -it might be possible to calculate theoretically, the velocity that must -be given to a red hot ball to enable it to pass through a barrel of -gunpowder without causing explosion. The passage of electric fluid -through gunpowder may be adduced in evidence of the ignition being -dependent on the degree of velocity. The flame of all fulminating -powders will pass through the centre of a box filled with gunpowder -without igniting one grain of it. If a train of gunpowder be crossed at -right angles by a train of fulminating mercury, laid on a sheet of paper -or a table, and the powder be lighted with a red hot iron wire, the -flame will run on until it meets the cross train of fulminating mercury, -when the inflammation of the latter will be so instantaneous as to cut -off all connection with the continuous train of powder, leaving the -remaining portion of the gunpowder unignited. If on the contrary the -fulminating powder be lighted first, it will go straight on and pass -through the train of gunpowder so rapidly, as not to inflame it at all. -Were a gun to be charged with gun-cotton and gunpowder, the latter would -be fired out unignited. - - -EFFECTS OF ACCIDENTAL EXPLOSIONS OF GUNPOWDER. - -Considering the combustible nature of the materials, accidents very -seldom occur; when they do, it is more frequently in the process at the -Mill while under the runners. - -On one occasion at Waltham Abbey Mills, when the powder exploded, after -having been two hours under the runners, the doors and windows of the -Mills on the opposite side of the stream, were forced open outwards, and -the nails drawn. A similar effect took place when the Dartford Mills -blew up, January 1833, in consequence of an accident in the packing -house. A window which had been recently fitted up in Dartford Town, -about a mile and a half distant from the works, was blown outwards into -the street, and a considerable quantity of paper was carried as far as -Eltham and Lewisham, distances of eight and ten miles. The sudden -rarification of the air may account for this circumstance, the -atmospheric pressure being removed in the vicinity of the doors and -windows, they were forced open outwards by the expansive force of the -air contained within the buildings. - - - - -ON ANCIENT ENGINES OF WAR. - - - ~War a painful topic.~ - - ~Advantages of war being destructive.~ - -The Utopian may shrink from the contemplation of so painful a subject as -War, the Moralist may raise his voice against the justice of it, but the -practical philosopher can see very little chance of its cessation, and -actuated with the very best intentions, will endeavour to render War as -terrible as possible, well knowing, that as soon as certain death awaits -two rival armies, princes must fight their own battles, or war must -cease. - - ~First missile weapons, sticks and stones.~ - - ~Javelin.~ - - ~Sling.~ - - ~Bow.~ - - ~Arbalest.~ - -Man’s first rude attempts at missile weapons were doubtless limited to -throwing sticks and stones by the mere aid of his hands; acts in which -the monkey, the bear, and even the seal are very successful emulators. A -desire of more successful aggression, together with increased facilities -for the destruction of game and wild animals, doubtless soon suggested -to man the use of projectiles more efficient than these. By a very -slight change of form, the simple stick would become a javelin, capable -of being hurled with great force and precision. An aid would suggest -itself for casting a stone, by means of a fillet or band, subsequently -called a sling, and next would be invented the bow, which, in process of -time by subsequent additions would become the arbalest or cross-bow. - - ~Axes used as projectiles.~ - -It appears that axes have been used as _projectiles_: for Procopius, -describing the expedition of the Franks into Italy, in the sixth -century, tells us:--Among the hundred thousand men that King Theodobert -I. led into Italy, there were but few horsemen. The cavalry carried -spears. The infantry had neither bow nor spear, all their arms being a -sword, an axe, and a shield. The blade of the axe was large, its handle -of wood, and very short. They _hurl_ their axes against the shields of -the enemy, which by this means are broken; and then, springing on the -foe, they complete his destruction with the sword. - - ~Tomahawk used as a projectile.~ - -A hatchet or tomahawk is used as a projectile weapon by the North -American Indians. The difficulty of throwing such a weapon with effect, -would of course consist in causing the edge to strike the object aimed -at. Now, such a hatchet as they usually make use of, if thrown by its -handle, will revolve in a perpendicular plane about once in every three -yards, irrespective of the force with which it moves. An Indian judges -his enemy to be distant from him any multiple of 3 yards as 15, 18, 21, -and strikes him full with the edge of his weapon accordingly. - - ~“Chuckur” or disk used as a projectile.~ - -A circular disk or quoit is in use in India amongst the Sikhs, -particularly that sect of them called Akali, as a weapon, and in their -warlike exercises; the species used in war have a triangular section, -those thrown for amusement are flat with a sharp edge. A skilful man -will throw one of these chuckers or quoits to a distance of a hundred -and thirty yards, or more, with very considerable accuracy, the quoit -being at no period of its flight above six feet from the ground. The -sharpness of edge, combined with the rotatory motion of these quoits, -and the difficulty of avoiding them, renders them formidable weapons in -skilled hands. The Akali wear them on their turbans, of several -different sizes and weights; a small one is often worn as a bracelet on -the arm. Many of these fanatics took part in the last Sikh war, and -severe wounds made with these weapons were by no means uncommon. - - ~Armour and fortifications.~ - -By the time portable weapons would have been brought to some degree of -perfection, man’s increasing sciences and civilization would have led -him to make armour, to build cities, and enclose them with walls. Now -would arise the necessity for other projectiles of greater force, -inasmuch as in the event of war, the armour should be penetrated, and -walls, &c., would have to be demolished. - - ~Improved projectiles.~ - - ~Change to heavy projectiles.~ - - ~Catapulta.~ - - ~Balistæ.~ - - ~Sling principles.~ - -The transition from portable projectiles to those of a heavier class was -obvious enough. Enormous javelins and darts were hurled by cross-bows of -corresponding size, termed Catapultæ, (plate x.), and stones, &c., were -thrown by Balistæ (plate ix. and xii); and secondly, instruments formed -on the principle of the sling. - - ~Projectiles used with Catapulta.~ - -These machines threw not only large darts and stones, but also the -bodies of men and horses. Athenæus speaks of a Catapulta which was only -one foot long, and threw an arrow to the distance of half a mile. Other -engines, it is said, could throw javelins from one side of the Danube to -the other. Balistæ threw great beams of wood, lances twelve cubits long, -and stones that weighed three hundred pounds. - - ~Millstones, &c., used in England.~ - -Our forefathers used to cast forth mill-stones. Holinshead relates that -when Edward I. besieged Stively Castle, he caused certain engines to be -made, which shot off stones of two or three hundred weight. - - ~B. C. 1451.~ - - ~B. C. 809.~ - - ~First mention of Artillery.~ - -The first intimation of trees being cut down “to build bulwarks against -the city till it be subdued,” occurs in Deut. xx., 19, 20, but the -earliest precise mention of Artillery is in 2nd Chron., xxvi, 15, where -we are told that Uzziah “made in Jerusalem engines invented by cunning -men, to be upon the towers and upon the bulwarks, to shoot arrows and -great stones withal;” and Josephus relates that Uzziah “made many -engines of war for besieging cities, such as hurl stones and darts with -grapplers, and other instruments of that sort.” He must therefore be -considered the inventor of them, and from that time they began to be -employed in attacking and defending towns. - - ~Balistæ at Regium, B. C. 388.~ - - ~At Motya B. C. 370.~ - -The earliest instances of projectile machines in profane history appear -to be at the siege of Regium and Motya by Dionysius, where, having -battered the walls with his rams, he advanced towards them towers rolled -on wheels, from whence he galled the besieged with continual volleys of -stones and arrows, thrown from his Balistæ and Catapultæ. - - ~At Rhodes B. C. 303.~ - -The next memorable instance is the siege of Rhodes by Demetrius -Polyorcetes, who brought forward a newly invented machine, called -Helepolis, (taker of Cities), with a variety of other engines, and -employed 30,000 men in the management of them. - - ~Balistæ at Cremona.~ - -Tacitus mentions an extraordinary engine, used by the 15th Legion at the -battle of Cremona, against the troops of Vespasian. It was a Balista of -enormous size, which discharged stones of weight sufficient to crush -whole ranks at once. Inevitable ruin would have been the consequence, -had not two soldiers, undiscovered, cut the ropes and springs. At -length, after a vigorous assault from Antonius, the Vittelians, unable -to resist the shock, rolled down the engine, and crushed numbers of -their assailants, but the machine, in falling, drew after it a -neighbouring tower, the parapet, and part of the wall, which afforded -the besiegers easier access to the city. - - ~Balistæ at siege of Jotapata.~ - - ~Dead men and horses projected.~ - -Josephus relates that at the siege of Jotapata, “a stone from one of the -Roman engines carried the head of a soldier, who was standing by him, -three furlongs off;” that “lances were thrown with great noise, and -stones, weighing 114lbs. troy, “together with fire and a multitude of -arrows.” The dead bodies of men and horses were also thrown at this -siege, and at that of Jerusalem, A. D. 70, to inspire terror. - - ~Form of Balistæ.~ - -The earliest form of Balistæ appears to have been a very long beam, -suspended in a frame on a centre of motion, one end being considerably -longer than the other. To the short end was attached a great weight, -such as a chest filled with earth or stones. To the longer end a sling -was affixed, in which, after being drawn down, a stone was placed, and -on being suddenly let go, the long end flew up, and discharged the stone -with great violence. - - ~Form of Catapultæ.~ - -Catapultæ were sometimes constructed to discharge a flight of arrows at -once, by placing them on a rack, and causing a strong plank, previously -drawn back, to strike against their ends. The more perfect engines of -the Romans were all dependent on the elasticity of twisted cords made of -flax, hemp, the sinews or tendons of animals, from the neck of the bull, -or legs of the deer species, and ropes formed of human hair were -preferred to all others, as possessing greater strength and elasticity. -Catapultæ were immensely powerful bows, drawn back by capstans, levers, -or pulleys, having only a single cord for the arrow, (plate x.), but the -Balistæ had a broad band, formed of several ropes to project the stone, -which was placed in a kind of cradle, like a cross-bow. (plate xii.) - - ~Balistæ at battle of Hastings 1066~ - -The Normans appear to have introduced a kind of Field-Artillery, -consisting of instruments or machines, from which darts and stones were -thrown to a considerable distance, as they occur at the battle of -Hastings. They also employed arrows, headed with combustible matter, for -firing towns and shipping. - - ~Fiery darts, A. D. 64.~ - -We read in the Scriptures of “Fiery Darts.” Ephns. vi., 16. - - ~Fire from Balistæ.~ - -Our ancestors derived the knowledge of some composition from the -Saracens, which resembled Greek-fire, and was often thrown in pots from -the Balistæ. - - ~Fire by Arabs commencement of 13th century.~ - -From a treatise on the “Art of Fighting,” by Hassan Abrammah, we learn -that the Arabs of the 13th century employed their incendiary -compositions in four different ways. They cast them by hand; they fixed -them to staves, with which they attacked their enemies; they poured -forth fire through tubes; and they projected burning mixtures of various -kinds by means of arrows, javelins, and the missiles of great engines. - - ~Bombs of glass, &c.~ - - ~Fire-mace.~ - -Vessels of glass or pottery, discharged by hand or by machines, were so -contrived, that on striking the object at which they were aimed, their -contents spread around, and the fire, already communicated by a fusee, -enveloped everything within its reach. A soldier, on whose head was -broken a fire-mace, became suddenly soaked with a diabolic fluid, which -covered him from head to foot with flame. - - ~Bombs from Balistæ.~ - -Bombs were also thrown from Balistæ. An engine was constructed at -Gibraltar, under the direction of General Melville, at the desire of -Lord Heathfield, for the purpose of throwing stones just over the edge -of the rock, in a place where the Spaniards used to resort, and where -shells thrown from mortars could not injure or annoy them. - - ~Onager.~ - -Of machines formed on the sling principle, that called Onager (plates -vii. and viii.) may be regarded as typical of all the rest. Its force -entirely depended upon the torsion of a short thick rope, acting upon a -lever which described an arc of a vertical circle. The lever had -attached to its free extremity a sling, or sometimes it merely -terminated in a spoon-shaped cavity. When bent back, it was secured by a -catch or trigger, and charged with a stone. On starting the catch by a -blow with a mallet, the lever described its arc of a circle with great -velocity, and projected the stone to a considerable distance. - -I shall now briefly describe some of the portable missive weapons which -have been used by different nations. - - ~Javelin.~ - - ~Arms of the early Romans.~ - - ~Aid to projection.~ - -The Javelin, or dart, variously modified, is known under several names. -The ancients were well acquainted with it. In the Scriptures, we have -frequent notice of it; and the ancients instituted javelin matches. It -would appear that the javelin used on horseback was about five feet and -a half long, and headed with steel, usually three-sided, but sometimes -round. The Roman Cavalry, after the conquest of Greece, were armed much -like the Infantry, carrying swords, shields, and javelins with points at -both ends. Sometimes, in order to launch it with greater force, it was -not propelled by the unaided arm, but by the assistance of a thong -fastened to its butt end; and we are informed that the Greeks and Romans -projected darts and javelins by the assistance of a sling or strap, girt -round their middle. - - ~Djereed.~ - - ~Pilum.~ - - ~Australian mode.~ - - ~Harpoon.~ - -At the present time, a javelin, termed Djereed, is used with -considerable effect by certain oriental nations, who invariably employ -it on horseback. The Roman infantry possessed a weapon of the javelin -kind, termed Pilum, every man of the legionary soldiers carrying two. -The point of this weapon being very long and small, was usually so bent -at the first discharge as to be rendered useless afterwards. With every -improvement that the javelin was susceptible of, it never could acquire -a long range; hence we find, that as Archery became developed, the use -of the weapon declined. Amongst savage nations, the use of the javelin -is very common, but the inhabitants of Australia have a manner of -throwing it altogether peculiar to themselves, not throwing it while -poised at the balance, but projecting it by means of a stick applied at -the butt end. This contrivance accomplishes a great increase of range, -but does not contribute to accuracy of direction. At short distances, -the penetrating force of the javelin is considerable, as is learned from -the act of harpooning a whale, a harpoon being merely a javelin. - - -THE SLING. - - ~Slings mentioned in Judges. B. C. 1406.~ - - ~Slings used B. C. 1406.~ - -Means by which stones would be thrown by greater force than the hand, -would naturally be resorted to; accordingly we find the sling ranks -amongst the first of ancient offensive weapons. Numerous examples are -mentioned in Scripture, as in Judges xx., 16, “Among all this people, -there were seven hundred chosen men left-handed; every one could sling -stones at a hair breadth and not miss;” and also that of David and -Goliath, &c. - - ~Siege of Troy between 800 and 900 B. C.~ - - ~Battle of the Granicus B. C. 334.~ - - ~First Punic war 241 to 263 B. C.~ - -At the siege of Troy, the masses were organized into two kinds of -infantry: one light and irregular, carrying horn bows, short darts, and -slings; the other regular and heavy, armed with spears. At the battle of -the Granicus, B. C. 334, Alexander the Great had in his army light -infantry, consisting of slingers, bow-men, and javelin-men. The -Carthagenians had slingers in their pay before the first Punic War. - - ~Slings common in Greece.~ - - ~Slingers in Roman armies.~ - -The Sling was very common in Greece, and used by the light armed -soldiers. Arrows, stones, and leaden plummets, were thrown from them, -some of which weighed no less than an Attic pound. Seneca reports that -its motion was so vehement that the leaden plummets were frequently -melted!!! The Romans had slingers in their armies, for the most part -inhabitants of the Islands of Majorca, Minorca and Ivica. - - ~Invention ascribed to Phœnicians and also to inhabitants of Balearic - islands.~ - -Pliny ascribes the invention of slings to the Phœnicians, but Vegetius -to the inhabitants of the Balearic Islands, who were famous in antiquity -for using them. It is said, those people bore three kinds of slings, -some longer and others shorter, to be used as their enemies were nearer -or more remote; the first served them for a head band, the second for a -girdle, and the third they always carried in their hands. In fight they -threw large stones with such violence, that they seemed to be projected -from some machine, and with such exactness, as rarely to miss their aim; -being constantly exercised from their infancy, their mothers not -allowing them to have any food, until they struck it down from the top -of a pole with stones thrown from their slings. - - ~Materials of slings.~ - - ~Slings with cup.~ - - ~Staff-sling.~ - -The Latin for our English word farm is _fundus_, which originally -signifies a “stone’s-throw of land,” or as much land as could be -included within the range of a stone thrown from a sling. The materials -of which slings were composed, were either flax, hair or leather, woven -into bands or cut into thongs, broad in the centre to receive the load, -and tapering off to the extremities. Slings have been made with three -strings, with a cup let into the leather to hold the bullet or stone, -and were called “Fronde à culôt.” In plate xiii, fig. 3, there is a -representation of a slinger of the early part of the thirteenth century, -whose weapon differs from that of the Anglo-Saxon or common sling, in -having a cup for the reception of the projectile. Slings were sometimes -attached to sticks to increase their power, as, besides the ancient cord -sling, there appears in the manuscripts of the thirteenth century a -variety of this arm; the “Staff Sling.” (plate xiii, fig. 2.) It seems -to have been in vogue for naval warfare, or in the conflicts of siege -operations. - - ~Force of slings.~ - - ~Used for the English, A. D. 1342.~ - - ~Bullets out of slings.~ - -The slings projected their missiles with such force that no armour could -resist their stroke. Slings never appear to have been much used by the -English, although Froissart mentions an instance of their having been -used for them by the people of Brittany, in a battle fought in that -province during the reign of Philip de Valois, between the troops of -Walter de Manin, an English knight, and Louis d’Espagne, who commanded -six thousand men on behalf of Charles de Blois, then competitor with the -Earl of Montford for the Duchy of Brittany. Froissart says, that what -made Louis lose the battle was, that during the engagement the country -people came unexpectedly and assaulted his army with _bullets_ and -slings. - - ~Slings at the siege of Sancere, 1572.~ - - ~Range.~ - - ~Slings last used, 1814.~ - -According to the same author, slings were used in naval combats, when -stones were also sometimes thrown by hand.[2] Slings were used in 1572, -at the siege of Sancere by the Huguenots, in order to save their powder. -They were also used by the people of Brittany to such an extent against -the Roman Catholic party, that the war was called “Guerre de Fronde.” -With respect to the range of this projectile, it is said, that a good -slinger could project a stone 600 yards. This seems doubtful. The most -recent instance of slings being used in war, occurs in “Straith on -Fortification,” page 121, and which contains an extract from the siege -journal of Serjeant St. Jacques of the French Corps de Genie, who was -most successfully employed with a small French garrison in the defence -of the Castles of Monzowin, Arragon, against the Spaniards, 1814. - - [2] It is stated by Sir Robert Wilson that at the battle of Alexandria - the French and English threw stones at each other, during a temporary - want of ammunition, with such effect that a Serjeant of the 28th - Regiment was killed, and several of the men were wounded. Stones were - thrown by the English Guards at the battle of Inkerman. - - -THE BOW. - - ~The bow almost universal.~ - -This weapon under some shape or other was employed by most nations of -antiquity, but not always as a warlike instrument. Scarcely any two -nations made their bows exactly alike. The Scythian bow we are told, was -very much curved, as are the Turkish, Persian, and Chinese bows (plate -iv. figs. 1 & 2) at the present day, whilst the celebrated weapon of our -ancestors when unstrung was nearly straight. - -It is now used among those savage tribes of Africa and America, to which -fire-arms have not yet reached. - - ~Bows in Scripture.~ - - ~Bows B. C. 1892.~ - - ~B. C. 1760.~ - - ~B. C. 1058.~ - - ~Manner of drawing the bow.~ - - ~First used by Romans.~ - -We frequently read of the bow in Scripture, and the first passage in -which the use of the bow is inferred, is in Gen. xxi. 20, where it is -said of Ishmael, “And God was with the lad, and he grew, and dwelt in -the wilderness and became an archer.” But in the 16th verse it is said -that Hagar his mother, “sat her down over against him, a good way off, -as it were a _bow shot_; for she said let me not see the death of the -child”:--this verse implies an earlier practice with the bow than can be -adduced by any profane historian. In Gen. xxvii. 3, Isaac directs his -son Esau: “Now therefore take I pray thee thy weapons, thy quiver and -thy bow, and go out to the field, and take me some venison; and make me -savory meat, such as I love, and bring it to me that I may eat, and that -my soul may bless thee before I die.” The overthrow of Saul was -particularly owing to the Philistine archers; and “David bade them -teach the children of Judah the use of the bow.” The companies that came -to David at Ziklag were armed with bows, and “could use the right hand -and the left in hurling stones and shooting arrows.” (I. Chron. xii. 2.) -The bow is of very high antiquity among the Greeks, whose bows were -usually made of wood, but sometimes of horn, and frequently in either -case beautifully ornamented with gold and silver; the string generally -made of twisted hair, but sometimes of hide. The ancient Persians drew -the strings towards their ears, as is the practice still with the -English. The ancient Greeks, however, drew the bowstring towards their -breast, and represented the fabled Amazons as doing the same, and hence -the tradition of these people cutting off their right breasts, in order -to give facility for drawing the bow. Until the second Punic war, the -Romans had no archers in their armies, except those who came with their -auxiliary forces. Subsequently they became more employed, although as -far as we can learn, not by native troops, but by Orientals in their -pay. - - ~Bows of Britons.~ - - ~Bows of Welsh.~ - - ~Bows of Anglo-Saxons.~ - -The early Britons had merely bows and arrows of reed, with flint or bone -heads. Arrows were used by the Welch in Norman reigns, who were famous -archers; their bows were made of wild elm, but stout, and not calculated -to shoot a great distance, but their arrows would inflict very severe -wounds in close fight. Their arrows would pierce oaken boards four -inches thick. The bow was also a weapon of war among the Anglo-Saxons. -The Salic law shows that both the sling and the bow were used by the -contemporary Franks; and they even used poisoned arrows. The Anglo-Saxon -bow was of the form of the Grecian, but it was only under the Normans -that the bow became a master weapon; the Saxons principally using it, -like the people of Tahiti of the present day, for killing birds. - - ~No bows in France A. D. 514.~ - -During the reign of Clovis, the French made no use of the bow in their -armies, but it was employed during the reign of Charlemagne, who -flourished in the end of the eighth century; as a Count is mentioned, -who was directed on conducting soldiers to the army, to see they had -their proper arms; that is a lance, a buckler, a bow, two strings, and -twelve arrows. - - ~A. D. 1066. Harold shot with an arrow~ - - ~Known by Danes and Saxons.~ - - ~As a military weapon at the battle of Hastings.~ - - ~Archery encouraged by statute.~ - - ~Long bow in conquest of Ireland 1172.~ - -William the Conqueror was a skilful archer, and the battle of Hastings -was decided by the bow, and we hear that Harold was shot with an arrow. -Although the Anglo-Saxons and Danes were well acquainted with the bow -from the earliest period, it appears to have been only employed for -obtaining food, or for pastime, and we are perhaps indebted to the -Norman Conquest for its introduction as a military weapon. The Normans -at the battle of Hastings are said to have used the arbalest or -cross-bow as well as the long bow. Ever after this, the bow became a -favourite weapon. During the reign of Henry II., archery was much -cultivated, and great numbers of bowmen were constantly brought into the -field; and to encourage its practice, a law was passed, which freed from -the charge of murder any one who in practising with arrows or darts, -should kill a person standing near. This appears to be the first -regulation to be found in our annals, and was probably founded on the -old law of Rome. The English conquests in Ireland during the reign of -Henry II. were principally owing to the use of the long bow in battle, -which the Irish wanted. The Invasion of Ireland was headed by Richard de -Clare, Earl of Pembroke, surnamed “Strong-bow.” His force was -numerically very small, consisting chiefly of archers, and it is stated -that such was the advantage their superior arms and military skill gave -the invaders, that 10 knights and 70 archers defeated a body of 3000 -Irish opposed to them, on their landing near Waterford. - - ~A. D. 1199.~ - -The exact time when shooting with the long-bow began in England is -unsettled, our chroniclers do not mention archery till the death of -Richard I. - -During the reign of Henry III. there were among the English infantry, -slingers, archers, and cross-bow men. - - ~Cressy 1346.~ - - ~Poictiers 1356.~ - -It seems that the long-bow was at its zenith in the reign of Edward -III., who appears to have taken great pains to increase its efficacy, -and to extend its use. The terrible execution effected by the English -archers at Cressy, and at Poictiers ten years after, was occasioned by -British archers. - - ~Homelden 1403.~ - -The decisive victory over the Scots at Homelden was entirely achieved by -them, and the Earl of Douglas found the English arrows were so swift and -strong, that no armour could repel them; though his own was of the most -perfect temper, he was wounded in five places. The English men-at-arms, -knights and squires, never drew sword or couched lance, the whole affair -being decided by the archers. - - ~Shrewsbury 1403.~ - - ~Agincourt 1415.~ - -They again did terrible execution at the battle of Shrewsbury, in 1403, -where Hotspur was slain, and the battle of Agincourt was their undivided -conquest. - - ~20,000 bow-men 1455.~ - - ~Bow preferred to fire-arms.~ - - ~Bows at Isle of Ré, 1627.~ - - ~Bows against Scots, 1644 to 1647.~ - - ~Bows in William 3rd’s time.~ - -During the reign of Henry VI., the Parliament voted an army of 20,000 -bow-men for service in France. The battle of St. Albans, 1455, seems to -have been entirely won by the archers. Although fire-arms had attained -no inconsiderable degree of perfection in the reign of Henry VIII., yet -the long-bow was still the favourite weapon. Indeed, in the reign of -Elizabeth, the musket was so unwieldy, and slow to charge and discharge, -that the bow was considered superior by many. We find that Queen -Elizabeth, 1572, engaged to furnish Charles IX. of France with 6,000 -men, part to be armed with long, and part with cross-bows; and in the -attack made by the English on the Isle of Ré, 1627, it is said some -cross-bow-men were in the army. In 1643 a company of archers was raised -for the service of Charles I.; and in a pamphlet printed in 1664, there -is an account of the successes of the Marquis of Montrose against the -Scots; and bow-men are repeatedly mentioned as in the battle. The -Grenadiers of the Highland Regiments, in the time of William III., when -recruiting, wore the old red bonnet, and carried bows and arrows with -them. - -The Highland bow was very short, and by no means powerful. - - -MERITS OF THE LONG BOW. - - ~Range of long-bow.~ - - ~Accuracy of long-bow.~ - -The English could not accomplish more than 600 yards, except on a few -extraordinary occasions; our modern archers not more than from 300 to -500 yards. The Turkish ambassador when in England in 1795, sent an arrow -upwards of 480 yards; and there are two or three instances on record -since archery has been merely a pastime, which have exceeded it by -twenty or thirty yards. It is said of Domitian, that he would cause one -of his slaves to stand at a great distance with his hands spread as a -mark, and would shoot his arrows so correctly as to drive them between -his fingers. Commodus, with an arrow headed with a semi-circular cutting -edge, could cut or sever the neck of a bird. The story of William Tell, -who struck an apple placed upon his child’s head, is well known, and -generally regarded in the light of an historical fact. It is stated that -Robin Hood could split a hazel wand. - - ~Penetration of long-bow.~ - -In a journal of Edward VI., His Majesty relates that 100 archers of his -guard shot before him two arrows each, and afterwards altogether. The -object aimed at was a well-seasoned deal board, one inch thick. Many -pierced it quite through, and some struck in a board on the other side. -The distance is not mentioned, but we know that Henry VIII. prohibited -any one above the age of 25 to shoot at a mark at a less distance than -200 yards. - - ~Advantages of the long-bow.~ - -The long-bow was light, inexpensive, and unaffected by weather, as the -strings could be removed. Moreover, 12 arrows could be fired with -accuracy in one minute. Two feathers in an arrow were to be white, and -one brown or grey, and this difference in colour informed the archer in -an instant how to place the arrow. - - ~Disadvantages of the long-bow.~ - -Although arrows could be shot from a bow with far greater rapidity and -precision than balls from a musket, yet in damp weather the bow and -string might become so much relaxed that the efficacy of the instrument -became much impaired. A side wind deflected the arrow exceedingly in its -flight, and even against a moderate wind, it was difficult to shoot at -all. - - -_Our Forefathers encouraged to acquire skill in archery by legal -enactments, and by the founders of our public schools._ - - -1ST. BY LEGAL ENACTMENTS. - - ~Henry 2nd from 1154 to 1189.~ - -We have previously stated that the first law encouraging the practice of -archery was passed in the reign of Henry II. - - ~Richard 2nd from 1377 to 1399.~ - -An Act of Parliament was passed in the reign of Richard II., to compel -all servants to shoot on Sundays and holidays. - - ~Edward 4th from 1461 to 1483.~ - - ~Every man to have a bow.~ - -In the reign of Edward IV., an act was passed, ordaining every -Englishman to have a bow of his own height, and during the same reign -butts were ordered to be put up in every township for the inhabitants to -shoot at on feast days, and if any neglected, the penalty of one -halfpenny was incurred. The same monarch also passed an act, that bows -were to be sold for 5s. 4d. - - ~Cross-bows prohibited by Henry 7th & Henry 8th.~ - -Henry VII. prohibited the use of the cross-bow, and Henry VIII., less -than twenty years after, renewed the prohibition. He forbad the use of -cross-bows and hand guns, and passed a statute which inflicted a fine of -£10 for keeping a cross-bow in the house. Every man, being the King’s -subject, was obliged to exercise himself in shooting with the long bow, -and also to keep a bow with arrows continually in his house. Fathers and -guardians were also commanded to teach their male children the use of -the long bow. - - ~Encouraged by Philip and Mary.~ - -A statute of Philip and Mary mentions the quantity and kind of armour -and weapons, to be kept by persons of different estates, viz:--“Temporal -persons having £5 and under £10 per annum, one coat of plate furnished, -one black bill or halbert, one long bow, one sheaf of arrows, and one -steel cap or skull.” - - ~Prices fixed by Elizabeth.~ - -An act of Elizabeth, fixed the prices for long bows, at 6s. 8d., 3s. -4d., and a third sort at 2s. each bow. - - ~Encouraged by monarchs from Henry 8th to Charles 1st.~ - - ~Proclamation by Charles 1st.~ - -Numerous statutes were passed to encourage archery in the reigns of -Henry VIII., Elizabeth, James I. and Charles I. in whose reign the -legislature interfered for the last time in 1633, when Charles I. issued -a commission for preventing the fields near London being so enclosed, -“as to interrupt the necessary and profitable exercise of “shooting,” -and also a proclamation for the use of the bow and pike together:--“A. -D. 1633.--Whereas in former tyme bowes and arrowes have been found -serviceable weapons for wars, whereby great victories and conquests have -been gotten, and by sundry statutes the use thereof hath been enjoined, -&c. &c.--and we expect that our loving subjects should conform -themselves thereunto, knowing the exercise of shooting to be a means to -preserve health, strength and agility of body, and to avoid idleness, -unlawfull disports, drunkenness, and such like enormities and disorders, -which are too frequent among our people.” - - -2ND.--BY THE FOUNDERS OF OUR PUBLIC SCHOOLS. - - ~Estimation of archery by founders of schools.~ - -The founders of our Grammar Schools appear to have considered that the -acquirement of skill in archery by their scholars was no less worthy of -attention than their moral and intellectual improvement. They provided -by their statutes sound learning and a religious education for all, but -secured the removal of such as shewed no aptitude or disposition to -learn. They also prescribed the amusements and exercises of the -scholars, and prohibited such as were calculated to lead to idle and -vicious habits. In fact, as true patriots, they understood how the sons -of free men ought to be educated in youth, and that “a complete and -generous education is that which fits a man to perform justly, -skilfully, and magnanimously, all the offices, both private and public, -of peace and war.” - - ~Harrow School, founded 1571.~ - -The founder of Harrow School, Mr. John Lyon, prepared a body of statutes -to be observed in the management of the School. By one of these he -limited the amusements of the Scholars “to driving a top, tossing a -hand-ball, running, shooting, and no other.” By another he -ordered:--“You shall allow your child at all times, bow-shafts, -bow-strings, and a bracer, to exercise shooting.” On the entrance-porch -to the Master’s house are two shields, the one bearing the Lion rampant, -the other, two arrows crossed, an ancient device which had its origin in -the design of the founder. This device is also impressed on the exterior -of all books which are presented by the Head-Master as prizes to those -scholars, whose improvement entitled them to such rewards. The practice -of archery was coeval with the foundation of the School, and was -continued for nearly two centuries. Every year there was a public -exhibition of archery, when the scholars shot for a silver arrow. The -last silver arrow was contended for in 1771. - - ~St. Albans School.~ - -At St. Alban’s Grammar School, one of the articles to be recited to such -as offered their children to be taught in the School was,--“Ye shall -allow your child at all times, a bow, three arrows, bow-strings, a -shooting glove, and a bracer, to exercise shooting.” - - ~Wilton School.~ - -Sir John Dean, who founded, in 1558, the Grammar School of Wilton, in -Cheshire, framed a body of statutes for the School. One of them -provides:--“That upon Thursdays and Saturdays, in the afternoons, and -upon holidays, the scholars refresh themselves, and that as well in the -vacations as in the days aforesaid, they use their bows and arrows only, -and eschew all bowling, carding, dicing, cocking, and all other unlawful -games, upon pain of extreme punishment to be done by the Schoolmaster.” - - ~Dedham School in Essex.~ - -The Free Grammar School of Dedham, in Essex, was endowed in 1571, and -confirmed by a Charter of Queen Elizabeth in 1574. Her Majesty’s -injunctions to the parents of the boys who should attend the school at -Dedham were:--“That they should furnish their sons with bows, shafts, -bracers and gloves, in order to train them to arms.” - - ~St. Saviour’s School in Southwark.~ - -One of the statutes at the Grammar School of St. Saviour, in Southwark, -decrees that “the plays of the scholars shall be shooting in long-bows, -chess, running, wrestling, and leaping:--players for money, or betters, -shall be severely punished and expulsed.” - - ~Camberwell School.~ - -A statute in the same words is found in the rules and orders framed for -the government of Camberwell Grammar School, which was founded in 1615, -by letters patent. - - -MEANS BY WHICH SKILL IN ARCHERY WAS ACQUIRED. - - ~An archer made by long training, &c.~ - -A successful archer could only be constituted by long training, -strength, and address, we need not therefore wonder that the practice of -the long-bow was not more copied by our neighbours, as the French -pertinaciously adhered to the use of the cross-bow. - - ~Every man had arms.~ - -Etienne di Perlin, a Frenchman who wrote an account of a tour in England -in 1558, says:--“The husbandmen leave their bucklers and swords, or -sometimes their bow, in the corner of the field, so that every one in -this land bears arms;” and it is also stated that all the youth and -manhood of the yeomanry of England were engaged in the practice of the -long-bow. - - ~Public matches.~ - -Public exhibitions of shooting with the bow continued during the reigns -of Charles II. and James II., and an archer’s division, at least till -within these few years, formed a branch of the Artillery Company. The -most important society of this kind now existing is “The Royal Company -of Archers, the King’s body-guard of Scotland.” The exact time of its -institution is unknown, but it is referred by the Scottish antiquarians -to the reign of their James I. - - ~Causes of bad shooting.~ - -Roger Ascham, in “Toxophilos,” states that the main difficulty in -learning to shoot, arises from having acquired and become confirmed in -previous bad habits; so that, “use is the onlye cause of all faultes in -it, and therefore children more easelye and soner may be taught to -shoote excellently then men, because children may be taught to shoote -well at the first, menne have more paine to unlearne their ill uses than -they have labour afterwarde to come to good shootinge;” and after having -enumerated a long list of faults ordinarily committed, he thus proceeds -to describe the secret of shooting straight with the long-bow. - - ~Shooting depends on the eye.~ - - ~The hand obeys the eye.~ - -“For having a man’s eye alwaye on his marke, is the onlye waye to shoote -straighte, yea, and I suppose so redye and easye a waye, if it be -learned in youth and confirmed with use, that a man shall never misse -therein. Men doubt yet in loking at the marke what way is best, whether -betwixt the bow and the stringe, above or beneath his hande, and manye -wayes moo. Yet it maketh no greate matter which waye a man loke at his -marke, if it be joined with comlye shooting. The diversitye of mens -standing and drawing causeth divers men loke at their marke divers -wayes; yet they all had a mans hand to shoote straighte if nothinge els -stoppe. So that cumlynesse is the onlye judge of best lokinge at the -marke. Some men wonder whye in castinge a man’s eye at the mark, the -hande should go streight. Surely if he considered the nature of a man’s -eye, hee woulde not wonder at it. For this I am certaine of, that no -servaunt to his maister, no child to his father, is so obedient as -everye joynte and peece of the bodye is to do whatsoever the eye biddes. -The eye is the guide, the ruler, and the succourer of all the other -parts. The hande, the foote, and other members dare do nothinge withoute -the eye, as doth appear on the night and darcke corners. The eye is the -very tongue wherewith witte and reason doth speake to everye parte of -the bodye, and the witte doth not so soone signifye a thinge by the eye, -as every part is redye to followe, or rather prevent the bidding of the -eye. This is plaine in manye thinges, but most evident in fence and -feighting, as I have heard men saye. There every parte standing in feare -to have a blowe, runnes to the eye for help, as younge children do to -the mother; the foote, the hande, and all wayteth upon the eye. If the -eye bid the hand eyther beare of or smite, or the foote eyther go -forward or backeward, it doth so. And that which is most wonder of al, -the one man lokinge stedfastlye at the other mans eye and not at his -hand, wil, even as it were, rede in his eye wher he purposeth to smyte -next, for the eye is nothing els but a certain windowe for wit to shoote -out her heade at. This wonderfull worke of God in making all the members -so obedient to the eye, is a pleasant thing to remember and loke upon: -therefore an archer may be sure in learninge to loke at his marke when -hee is younge alwayes to shoote streight.” - -The following description of the English archer is from an ancient -treatise on Martial Discipline:-- - - ~Archer to wear easy dress.~ - - ~Captains to see that bows &c., were in good order.~ - - ~Twenty-four arrows to each man.~ - -“The yeoman hadde, at those dayes, their lymmes at libertye, for their -hoseyn were then fastened with one point, and their jackes were long, -and easy to shote in, so that they mighte draw bowes of great strength, -and shote arrowes of a yarde long. Captens and officers should be -skilful of that most noble weapon, and to see that their soldiers -according to their draught and strength have good bows, well nocked, -well strynged, everie stringe whippe in their nocke, and in the myddes -rubbed with wax, braser and shuting glove, some spare strings trymed as -aforesaid, everie man one shefe of arrows, with a case of leather -defensible against the rayne, and in the same shefe fower and twentie -arrows, whereof eight of them should be lighter than the residue, to -gall and astoyne the enemy with the hailshot of light arrows, before -they shall come within range of their harquebuss shot.” - - ~Encouraged from the pulpit.~ - -The subject of archery was not deemed, in those days, an unsuitable -theme for the pulpit, as may be seen by the following extract from one -of the seven sermons (the sixth) preached before Edward VI., within the -preaching place in the palace of Westminster, on the 12th of April, -1549, by that patriotic reformer, Bishop Latimer. With honest, plain -spoken words, in the midst of his discourse he breaks off-- - - ~Training of Bishop Latimer.~ - -“Men of England, in times past, when they would exercise themselves, -(for we must needs have some recreation, our bodies can not endure -without some exercise), they were wont to goe abroad in the fieldes a -shooting; but now it is turned into glossing, gulling, and whooring -within the house. The arte of shooting hath bene in times past much -esteemed in this realme, it is a gift of God that He hath geven us to -excell all other nations withall, it hath been God’s instrument whereby -He hath geven us many victories against our enemies. But now we have -taken up whooring in townes, instead of shooting in the fieldes. A -wonderous thing that so excellent a gift of God should be so little -esteemed. I desire you, my Lordes, even as ye love the honour and glory -of God, and entend to remove his indignation, let there be sent forth -some proclamation, some sharpe proclamation to the justices of peace, -for they doe not thier dutie, justices now be no justices, there be many -good actes made for this matter already. Charge them upon their -allegiance that this singular benefite of God may be practised, and that -it be not turned into bolling, glossing, and whooring within the townes: -for they be negligent in executing these laws of shooting. In my time my -poore father was as diligent to teach me to shoote as to learne me any -other thing, and so I think other men did their children. He taught me -how to draw, how to lay my body in my bow, and not to draw with strength -of armes as other nations doe, but with strength of the body. I had my -bowes bought me according to my age and strength, as I encreased in -them, so my bowes were made bigger and bigger: for men shall never shoot -well except they be brought up in it. It is a goodly arte, a wholesome -kinde of exercise, and much commended in phisicke.” - -The following is another extract from the same sermon:-- - - ~How estimated by the people.~ - -“I came once myself to a place, riding on a journey homeward from -London, and I sent word over night into the towne that I would preach -there in the morning, because it was a holiday, and methought it was an -holidayes work. The church stood in my way, and I took my horse and my -company, and went thither, (I thought I should have found a great -company in the church,) and when I came there, the church door was fast -locked. I tarryed there halfe an houre and more, at last the key was -found, and one of the parish comes to me and said: ‘Sir, this is a busie -day with us, we cannot heare you, it is Robin Hood’s day. The parish -are gone abroad to gather for Robin Hood. I pray you let them not.’ I -thought my rochet should have been regarded, though I were not: but it -would not serve, it was faine to give place to Robin Hood’s men.” - - -PROOFS OF THE IMPORTANCE OF ARCHERY. - - ~By names of places.~ - -There is little at the present day in England to afford any adequate -idea of the high importance, the great skill, and the distinguished -renown of the English archers. Some few places still retain names which -tell where the bowmen used to assemble for practice, as “Shooter’s -Hill,” in Kent; “Newington Butts,” near London; and “St. Augustine’s -Butts,” near Bristol. The Butts will be found applied to spots of land -in the vicinity of schools, as for instance, the College School of -Warwick. - -The fields situated to the east of the playing-fields at Eton, and known -by the name of “The Upper and Lower Shooting-fields,” were probably so -named from the ancient exercise of archery on these grounds. - - ~Armorial Bearings.~ - -Many of the noble and county families of Great Britain and Ireland have -the symbols of archery charged on their escutcheons; as, for instance, -the Duke of Norfolk, the Marquis of Salisbury, Lord Grey de Wilton, the -Earl of Aberdeen, the Earl of Besborough, the Earl of Portarlington, the -Baronetal family of Hales, Sir Martin Bowes, and also on the arms of -Sydney Sussex College, in Cambridge, and the seal of the Sheffield -Grammar School. - - ~Government brand.~ - -The mark or brand used by the Government of the present day, to identify -public property, is an arrow-head, commonly called “The King’s broad -arrow.” - - ~Surnames of families.~ - -There are also existing families which have derived their surnames from -the names of the different crafts formerly engaged in the manufacture of -the bow and its accompaniments; as, for instance, the names of Bowyer, -Fletcher, Stringer, Arrowsmith, Arrow, Bowman, Bowwater, &c. - - ~National proverbs.~ - -If reference be made to our language, there will be found many phrases -and proverbial expressions drawn from or connected with archery; some -suggesting forethought and caution, as “Always have two strings to your -bow;” “Get the shaft-hand of your adversaries;” “Draw not thy bow before -thy arrow be fixed;” “Kill two birds with one shaft.” To make an enemy’s -machination recoil upon himself, they expressed by saying, “To outshoot -a man in his own bow.” In reference to a vague foolish guess, they used -to say, “He shoots wide of the mark;” and of unprofitable silly -conversation, “A fool’s bolt is soon shot;” and as a proof of -exaggeration, “He draws a long bow.” The unready and unskilful archer -did not escape the censure and warning of his fellows, although he might -be a great man and boast that he had “A famous bow, but it was up at the -castle.” Of such they satirically used to remark, that “Many talked of -Robin Hood, who never shot in his bow.” Our ancestors also expressed -liberality of sentiment, and their opinion that merit belonged -exclusively to no particular class or locality, by the following pithy -expressions, “Many a good bow besides one in Chester,” and “An archer is -known by his aim, and not by his arrows.” To these may be added, -“Testimony is like the shot of a long-bow, which owes its efficacy to -the force of the shooter; argument is like the shot of a cross-bow, -equally forcible, whether discharged by a dwarf or a giant.” - - -MILITARY AND POLITICAL CONSEQUENCES OF SKILL IN THE USE OF THE BOW. - - ~Commenced at the battle of Hastings.~ - - ~Achievement lasted through a period of 500 years.~ - - ~England had a voluntary army.~ - -From the time of the battle of Hastings the English archers began to -rise in repute, and in course of time proved themselves, by their -achievements in war, both the admiration and terror of their foes, and -excelled the exploits of other nations. The great achievements of the -English bowmen which shed lustre upon the annals of the nation, extended -over a period of more than five centuries, many years after the -invention and use of fire-arms. England, therefore, in those times, -possessed a national voluntary militia, of no charge to the Government, -ready for the field on a short notice, and well skilled in the use of -weapons. Hence sprung the large bodies of efficient troops which at -different periods of English history, in an incredibly short time, were -found ready for the service of their country. These men were not a rude, -undisciplined rabble, but were trained, disciplined men, every one -sufficiently master of his weapon to riddle a steel corslet at five or -six score paces, or in a body, to act with terrible effect against -masses of cavalry; while most of them could bring down a falcon on the -wing by a bird-bolt, or with a broad arrow transfix the wild deer in the -chase. - - ~Archers defeated men-at-arms.~ - - ~Value in sieges.~ - -Before the simple weapon of the British archer, itself but a larger form -of the simplest plaything of a child, all the gorgeous display of -knighthood, the elaborated panoply of steel, the magnificent war-horse, -the serried ranks, the ingenious devices of tacticians and strategists, -at once gave way; nothing can withstand the biting storm of the -“cloth-yard shaft.” It was equally efficacious in the field and in the -siege. The defender of town or castle could not peep beyond his bretèche -or parapet, but an English arrow nailed his cap to his head. In a field, -provided the archers were, by marsh, wood or mountain, secured from a -flank attack, they would bid defiance to any number of mounted -men-at-arms. Their shafts, falling thick as hail among the horses, soon -brought them to the ground, or threw them into utter disorder; then the -armed footmen advanced and commenced a slaughter which was scarcely -stayed but by weariness of slaying; the archers meantime continuing -their ravages on the rear of the enemy’s cavalry by a vertical attack, -prolonged, when the ordinary supply of their quivers had been exhausted, -by withdrawing them arrows from their slain enemies, to be sent forth on -new missions of death:--here is encouragement for our modern marksmen -who are armed with a far more deadly weapon. - - ~Opinion on English archers by Napoleon III.~ - - ~Destroyed the prestige of cavalry.~ - - ~Estimation of infantry by continental nations.~ - -The most complete and philosophic digest, which relates to the system of -British archery, considered from a military point of view, is that given -by the present Emperor of the French in his treatise “_Sur le Passé et -l’Avenir de l’Artillerie_.” That the British victory at Cressy was -wholly attributable to the prowess of British archers, is well known; -not so well, a circumstance pointed out by the Emperor of the French, -that thenceforward, and in consequence of that victory, the prestige of -cavalry declined. Now, there is a political, no less than military -significance in this lowering of the esteem in which cavalry had -previously been held. Horsemen were gentlemen, and infantry men of -inferior degree. Whenever and wherever British archery were _not_ -brought to bear, horsemen were omnipotent, and infantry of little avail. -During the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries--the golden age of archery -in this land, when yeomen or archers were in such high repute,--France -and continental nations generally, treated foot soldiers with disdain. -The Emperor of the French, in his systematic book just adverted to, -mentions several examples where foot soldiers were ruthlessly cut down -and ridden over by their own cavalry--the men-at-arms; not that the -infantry fought ill, but that they fought too well. They were -slaughtered lest the men-at-arms should have no scope for the exercise -of their skill. - - ~Archer a yeoman.~ - - ~Political results.~ - -English men-at-arms never sullied their fame by cruel acts like these; -not that they were better at heart: seeing that human nature is -everywhere, and under all circumstances, pretty much alike. English -infantry, mainly composed of archers, were far too valuable to be thus -used. They bore the first brunt of battle, and not unfrequently decided -it. At the time when every other foot soldier in Europe was the merest -serf, the British archer was a yeoman. He had a fixed heraldic rank; the -first of low degree. He was above the handicraftsman, however -skilful,--above the merchant--taking his rank immediately after the -gentry. The excellence of British archery, then tended to bring about a -political result; helping to establish that middle-class which, ever -since its consolidation, has been one of the sheet-anchors of our -glorious constitution. - - -THE ARBALEST, OR CROSS-BOW. - - ~Cross-bow, modification of long.~ - -In process of time a modification of the bow was invented. In place of -the original instrument, a much shorter and stiffer bow, usually of -steel, was placed transversely in a stock, bent by a lever, and -discharged by a trigger, after the manner since used for a gun. - - ~Invented in Crete or Sicily.~ - -The cross-bow, or arbalest, called in Latin, arcus balistarius, or -balista manualis, and in French arbalèt, is said by some to be of -Sicilian origin; others ascribe its invention to the Cretans. It is -supposed to have been introduced into France by the first crusaders, and -is mentioned by the Abbé Suger in his life of Louis le Gros, as being -used by that Prince, in the beginning of his reign, which commenced in -the year 1108. - - ~To England by Saxons.~ - -Verstigan seems to attribute the introduction of this weapon into -England to the Saxons, under Hengist and Horsa, but cites no authority -in support of that supposition. In a print representing the landing of -those generals, the foremost of them is delineated with a cross-bow on -his shoulder, and others are seen in the hands of the distant figures of -their followers, landed and landing from their ships. - - ~The Normans got cross-bows from Italy.~ - -It would appear that the Normans derived the cross-bow, with its name, -from Italy. In Domesday Book mention is made of Odo, the arbalester, as -a tenant in capite of the king of lands in Yorkshire; and the manor of -Worstead, Norfolk, was at the time of Domesday survey, held of the -Abbot of St. Benet at Holme, by Robert the cross-bow man. The names show -them to have been Normans, and these instances are sufficient to prove -the introduction of the weapon, though the few that may have been used -at the battle of Hastings might occasion its not being represented in -the Bayeux tapestry. - - ~No cross-bow among Romans.~ - -The absence of the cross-bow in early Roman monuments leaves it a matter -of doubt, whether an arbalester would not simply mean the engineer of a -catapult. There is no mention made of the hand cross-bow in very ancient -authorities. - - ~William II surnamed Rufus, from 1087 to 1100~ - -The cross-bow has been used in England (at least, on hunting excursions) -in the time of Rufus, for Wace tells us, that “Prince Henry, going the -same day to New Forest, found the string of his cross-bow broken, and -taking it to a villain to be mended, saw an old woman there, who told -him he should be king.” - - ~Henry I, 1100 to 1135.~ - - ~Cross-bow in war.~ - -During the reign of Henry I. the cross-bow seems to have been -principally used in the chase. The projectile was in form of a short -arrow, with a pyramidical head, called a quarrel, (plate 14, fig. 2 and -4). Simeon of Durham speaks of it in the time of Henry I. thus:--“He -raised a machine from whence the archers and cross-bowmen might shoot.” - - ~Genoese celebrated for the use of.~ - -The Genoese were at all times most celebrated for the skilful management -of the cross-bow. The success which attended the Christians at the siege -of Jerusalem, 1100, is attributed principally to the mechanical talents -of this people. - - ~Use of forbad.~ - -The use of the cross-bows was general in Italy in 1139, for at that time -Pope Innocent II. particularly forbad them. The German Emperor Conrad -did the same, as we learn from William de Dole, who lived in the latter -part of the 12th century, they not being looked upon as a fair weapon. - - ~Richard I from 1189 to 1199.~ - - ~Siege of Acre~ - - ~Universal in Crusades.~ - - ~Richard killed by.~ - -It is said of Richard I.:--“Truly he revived the use of this kind of -shooting, called cross-bow shooting, which had long since been laid -aside, whence he became so skilful in its management, that he killed -many people with his own hand.” It is supposed that Richard I. first -used the cross-bow as a weapon of war at the siege of Acre. In every -action, however, of which we read in the history of the second crusade, -as well as the third, in which Richard participated, cross-bows, as well -as other bows, are repeatedly noticed. It is stated that he was killed -by an arrow, said to have been shot from a cross-bow at the Castle of -Chaluz. - - ~Genoese cross-bow men.~ - - ~Mounted Arbalists 1225.~ - -From the beginning of the 13th, and until the middle of the 15th -century, cross-bow men are uniformly mentioned as part of the Genoese -troops. From Justinius we learn, that in 1225 “Twenty Arbalestes -mounted, and one hundred on foot, with cross-bows of horn, were then -employed in the army of the state.” - -The cross-bow man was an essential component of the host during all this -period. He was in the van of the battle. - - ~Battle near Damietta 1237.~ - -In the battle near Damietta, in 1237, “more than a hundred knights of -the Temple fell, and three hundred cross-bow men, &c., &c.” - - ~Campaign in Italy 1239.~ - -The Emperor Frederic, in 1239, giving an account of his Italian campaign -to the king of England, writes: “After we had, by our knights and -cross-bow men, reduced all the province of Liguria,” &c. - - ~Genoese 1245.~ - - ~Treatment of.~ - -Five hundred Genoese cross-bow men were sent against the Milanese in -1245, and these unfortunate men being placed in front of the line, were -taken prisoners by the enemy, who, to revenge themselves for the havoc -done by their bows, cruelly punished each with the loss of an eye, and -amputation of an arm. - - ~Cross-bows at Cressy 1346.~ - -There were 15,000 Genoese cross-bow men in the front rank of the French -army at the battle of Cressy, 1346. - - ~At siege of Le Roche de Rién.~ - -The next year we find that Charles, Earl of Blois, had at the siege of -Le Roche de Rién no less than 2,000 in his army. - - ~Corporation of Arbalisters 1359.~ - -The “Corporation des Arbalestriers de Paris,” in 1359, consisted of two -hundred members. In 1373, their number, as fixed by a royal ordinance, -was eight hundred. They were not bound to serve beyond the limits of -their district without the consent of the Provost of Paris. There were -both foot and mounted cross-bowmen in this body. - - ~Cross-bow encouraged by Edward III.~ - - ~No English in wars of Edward III.~ - - ~Genoese mercenaries.~ - -Edward III., though he wished principally to encourage the long-bow, -could not help seeing the advantages which might be derived from the -cross-bow, from the accuracy of its shot, and its convenience on -horseback. It does not appear that, in the long wars of Edward with the -French in this century, cross-bowmen were raised in England, though they -were supplied by Genoese contractors on various occasions for service at -sea. In 1363 the king caused public proclamation to be made, in order to -encourage its use. - - ~Matches.~ - -There were also matches made in different parts of Europe, at which -prizes were given to the most skilful cross-bowmen. - - ~Mounted cross-bow men in France 1373.~ - -In the list of the Grand Masters of the Arbalesters of France under -Charles V., in 1373, appears “Marc de Grimant, Baron d’Antibes, -Captain-General of Arbalesters, both foot and horse, in the service of -the king.” And a similar notice occurs in the reign of King John, -Baudoin de Lence being Grand Master; but it would appear that the -mounted cross-bowmen were retained in much smaller numbers than the -foot. - - ~“Pavisers.”~ - -During the reign of Edward III. cross-bowmen seem first to have been -protected by “Pavisers,” (plate 15), or men who held before them a large -shield called a “Pavise.” - - ~Pavisers by English 1404.~ - -On the attack by the French and Spaniards upon the Isle of Portland in -1404, the English formed pavisers to protect themselves from the -cross-bow bolts, by taking the doors from their houses, and fixing them -upright by props. Under this cover the archers plied their arrows. - - ~Cross-bow not esteemed by English.~ - - ~Forbad by Henry VII 1508 & 1515.~ - - ~Forbad by Henry VIII 1535.~ - - ~Decline of cross-bow.~ - -The English never had much esteem for the cross-bow in the field. Among -the 10,500 men led out of England by Henry VI., in 1415, there were only -ninety-eight Arbalesters, of whom eighteen were horsemen; nevertheless, -Henry VII. found it necessary to prohibit the use of the cross-bow in -1508, and, seven years after, another statute was passed, renewing the -prohibition. This interference, however, of the legislature does not -seem to have produced the intended effect, for in less than twenty years -later the use of the cross-bow had become so prevalent, that a new -statute was judged requisite, which inflicted on every person that kept -one in his house, the penalty of twenty pounds. It is from this period, -therefore, that we may date the decline of the arbalest in this -country, as these statutes produced by degrees the reformation sought -for. Not a single cross-bow man is to be seen in the paintings belonging -to the Society of Antiquaries, nor at Cowdray House, representing the -battles of Henry VIII., and painted at the period; and, to give a -finishing blow, another statute soon followed, still more decisive. - - -DESCRIPTION OF CROSS-BOW. - - ~Description.~ - -The ancient cross-bow, which differed in many particulars from those of -late times, is thus described by Father Daniel, who formed his -description from one or more then before him. - -The cross-bow was an offensive weapon, which consisted of a bow fixed to -the top of a sort of staff, or stock of wood, which the string of the -bow, when unbent, crossed at right angles. - - ~Stock.~ - - ~Trigger.~ - -The handle or bed, which was called the stock of the cross-bow, had -towards the middle a small opening or slit, of the length of two -fingers, in which was a little moveable wheel of solid steel; through -the centre of it passed a screw that served for an axis; this wheel -projected a little beyond the surface of the stock, and had a notch, or -catch, which stopped and held the string of the bow when bent. In the -opposite side of the circumference was a much smaller notch, by the -means of which the spring of the trigger kept the wheel firmer, and in -its place; this wheel is called the nut of the cross-bow. Under the -stock, near the handle, was the key of the trigger, like that of the -serpentine of a musket; by pressing this key with the hand, to the -handle of the cross-bow, the spring released the wheel that held the -string, and the string by its motion drove forward the dart. - - ~Back-sight.~ - - ~Fore-sight.~ - -Upon the stock below the little wheel was a small plate of copper, which -lifted up and shut down, and was fixed by its two legs, with two screws -to the two sides of the stock; this was a back-sight; it was pierced -above by two little holes, one over the other, and when the plate was -raised, these two holes answered to a globule, which was a small bead, -no bigger than that of a chaplet, that was suspended at the end of the -cross-bow by a fine wire, and fastened to two perpendicular columns of -iron, one on the right, the other on the left, and this little globule, -answering to the holes in the plate, served to direct the aim, whether -for shooting horizontally, upwards, or downwards. - - ~Cord.~ - -The cord or string of the bow was double, each string separated by two -little cylinders of iron, equi-distant from the extremities of the bow -and the centre; to these two strings in the middle was fixed a ring of -cord, which served to confine it in the notch previously mentioned when -the bow was bent. Between the two cords in the centre of the string, and -immediately before the ring, was a little square of cord, against which -was placed the extremity of the arrow or dart, to be pushed forward by -the cord. - - ~Bent by hand.~ - - ~By foot~ - - ~By pulley.~ - -The smaller cross-bows were bent with the hand; the larger ones were at -first bent by the soldier placing his foot in a stirrup, attached to the -end of the bow; a cord was then fixed by one end to the butt of the -stock, the other end being fastened to a waistbelt. A pulley, running -upon the cord, was hooked to the bowstring, and the bow was then bent by -raising the body and keeping the leg firm. - - ~By moulinet.~ - -The cross-bow was afterwards furnished with the moulinet and pulleys, -(plate 13) which after the bow had been bent, could be removed for the -discharge; these consisted of an iron cylinder in a frame of the same -metal, made to turn by two moveable handles in opposite directions, and -having a cap likewise of iron to fit on the butt end of the stock. On -each side of this cap was a small pulley, the wheel of which was one -inch and a half in diameter, having attached to one of its arms a strong -cord that passed thence round an equal sized wheel, returned over the -first, and then went round one double in diameter, situated beyond the -second, and so passed to the cylinder of the moulinet, by winding which, -the power required to bend the bow was lessened to one fourth. Attached -to the arms of the greater wheels was a double claw, made to slide on -the plane of the stock, which, catching hold of the bowstring, drew it -up to the nut. An improvement of the moulinet was, that the handles of -the cylinder were both made in the same line, instead of being one up -and the other down. - - ~By windlass.~ - -At a later period the cross-bow was bent by a windlass, which consisted -of a bar of iron, shaped at its end into a claw, and having teeth the -whole length of one edge. This slipped through an iron box, containing a -wheel, the cogs of which fitted the teeth of the bar, and as a handle -was fixed to the axle, on turning it the string was wound up. This -apparatus was attached by a loop, which slipped over the stock, and was -kept in its place by two iron pins, that projected from the side, and -then, when bent, it could be easily removed. - - ~By steel lever.~ - -Another mode of bending the cross-bow was by means of a steel lever, -called the goat’s-foot lever, which was moveable. This was formed of two -legs, a catch and a handle, all acting on one pivot. The legs were -applied to the projecting pieces of iron on each side the stock, and -then the purchase was very great. - - ~Latch.~ - - ~Prodd.~ - -There were two principal varieties of cross-bows, viz., the “Latch,” -with grooved stock, for “quarrels,” and the “Prodd,” for bullets. (Plate -14, fig. 1 and 2.) - - ~Dimensions and form of latch.~ - - ~Quarrels viretons.~ - -In the reign of Henry VI. the stocks of cross-bows were made of hard -wood, ornamented with ivory. They were about three feet three inches -long, the bow of steel, about two feet eight inches from end to end, -weighing in all about fifteen pounds. The length of the groove for the -quarrel about one foot four inches. The arrows discharged were called -both quarrels and viretons, (plate 14, fig. 2 and 4,) some with -feathers, others without. The vireton is a French name; the feathers -being set on a little curved, made it spin round as it passed through -the air. - - ~Arquebus or barrelled cross-bow.~ - - ~Slit in tube.~ - - ~Fired leaden balls.~ - -It is stated by Captain Panôt, that the Arquebus was in use before the -invention of powder, and was but an improvement on the arbalest, or -cross-bow. The Arquebus, like the cross-bow, had a stock, upon which was -fixed a tube, intended to receive the projectile. This tube was split, -for the passage of a cord, which was held back by a kind of sheave or -pulley, which communicated motion to the projectile, on the trigger -being pulled. In general, leaden balls were fired from the arquebus. The -barrelled cross-bow was suggested by the “balista grossa de arganellis,” -which was furnished with tubes for ejecting Greek fire. - - ~Repeating cross-bow.~ - -In the United Service Museum, Whitehall, there is a cross-bow of -Cingalese manufacture. It strings itself, and discharges two arrows each -time in rapid succession, until the magazine is exhausted, which -contains twelve arrows, and may be replenished in a moment. - - ~Range in Henry V.~ - -It is evident that the different sizes and various powers of cross-bows -occasioned a great diversity in the distance of their range. Thus, in -Henry 5th’s time the range of the cross-bow is stated to have been forty -rods (220 yards), and it never appears to have been more powerful than -at that period. - - ~Range in Elizabeth’s.~ - -M. de Bellay says that the cross-bowman will kill at 100 or 200 paces, -which gives a great range to the arbalests of Elizabeth’s time. - -Sir John Smith, however, in his observations, not long after this, very -much contracts the distance of their shot, for he says that “a cross-bow -will kill point-blank between 40 and 60 yards, and, if elevated, 120, -140, or 160 yards, or further.” - -The former probably alluded to the prod, the latter to the latch. - - -COMPARATIVE MERITS OF THE LONG AND CROSS BOW. - -How inefficient the cross-bow was found, when opposed by English -archery, appears in every page of the histories of the fourteenth -century. - - ~Why long-bow superior.~ - -The superiority of the long-bow mainly depended upon the strength and -skill of the archer, while a greater amount of accuracy at shorter -ranges could be had out of the cross-bow, with much less training; and -the success of the English archers when opposed to cross-bowmen may be -mainly ascribed to the more “rapid” fire of the former. - - ~Celerity the great advantage of the long-bow.~ - -It is generally conceded that the long-bow could deliver at least six -shafts while the cross-bow discharged one; and, “with such odds against -them, it became impossible for the bravest and most expert troops, -whether at Cressy or elsewhere, to make a stand against their opponents”. - - ~Cross-bow best on horseback.~ - -On the other hand, the cross-bow was decidedly a more convenient weapon -on horseback than the long-bow. - - -COMPARATIVE MERITS BETWEEN BOWS AND EARLY FIRE-ARMS. - -The invention of gunpowder, and its application to artillery and small -arms, did not produce that sudden change in the art of war, or in -weapons, that might, on a first consideration, have been expected. Many -of the old soldiers were much divided in their opinion of the -superiority of fire-arms, nor does it appear that the government of -those days were decided upon it, as the strongest statutes for enforcing -the practice of archery were enacted after their introduction. - - ~Long-bow preferred in Edward III.~ - -Joshua Barnes, in his life of Edward III., observes, that “without all -question, the guns which are used now-a-days, are neither so terrible in -battle nor do such execution nor work such confusion as arrows can do; -for bullets, being not seen, only hurt where they hit, but arrows -enrage the horse, and break the array, and terrify all that behold them -in the bodies of their neighbours. Not to say that every archer can -shoot thrice to a gunner’s once, and that whole squadrons of bows may -let fly at one time, when only one or two files of musqueteers can -discharge at once. Also, that whereas guns are useless when your pikes -join, because they only do execution point-blank, the arrows which will -kill at random may do good service even behind your men of arms.” - - ~Long-bow the favourite in Henry VIII.~ - -Although fire-arms had attained no inconsiderable degree of perfection -in the reign of Henry VIII., yet the long-bow was still the favourite -weapon. - - ~Merits balanced in Queen Mary’s reign.~ - -So indifferent were the ministers of Queen Mary respecting them, that in -her ordinance respecting armour and weapons, the alternative is left to -the choice of the people, whether they should find a long-bow and sheaf -of arrows, or a haquebutt, in every case where they were by law charged -with the latter. - - ~The lighter ammunition of the harquebus an advantage.~ - -In the reign of Elizabeth, the musket was so slow to charge and -discharge that the bow was considered superior by many; and Mons. de -Bellay states that if archers and cross-bowmen could carry their arrows, -&c., as easy as harquebusiers do their ammunition, he would prefer the -former weapon over the latter. - - ~Arrows make more severe wounds than bullets.~ - -The effects of arrows sticking in horses, are said to have been -frightful. This can be easily imagined. A fire-arm bullet can be shot -quite through a horse without causing the animal to show one sign of -anguish. He goes steadily on his previous course, and makes no sign. -However fatal of necessity, a fire-arm bullet gives no immediate pain. -Not so the arrow. Planted never so lightly in a horse’s neck or flank, -the animal grew furious. Starting off into a wild gallop to escape the -barbed sting, the animal had no respite for his agony. The wilder the -pace, the greater the pain. Far from the serried squadrons where he fain -would be, sore against his will, rushed the mail-clad knight. Plunging -and rearing, the steed would throw him at last, amidst the dead and -dying; himself to die. - -Though comparatively few men or horses were killed by arrow wounds at -once, few, nevertheless, recovered. The barbed arrow-head was -immeasurably more dangerous, imbedded in the flesh, than a mere lump of -lead. Hundreds of men, hale and well to-day, have had fire-arm bullets -imbedded in their flesh for years. Not so in the time of archery. The -arrow-head must be extracted, or mortification came on, and soon a cruel -death. Neither was the surgical process of extraction often happy in the -results. It would not be easy to extract a barbed arrow-head even now, -with all the appliances of modern surgery at hand. - - ~Arrow wounds more fatal.~ - -Another fatal consequence of arrow wounds on the field of battle was -this: men wounded thus were rarely taken prisoners. Arrows were -expensive ammunition. The battle over, detachments were sent out to -collect them; and the collection was not done too tenderly. To regain an -arrow seemed a far more meritorious act than to save the life of an -enemy. The throat of many a wounded wretch was mercilessly cut, that he -might be quiet whilst the arrow was being extracted. - - ~Bows useless in wind.~ - - ~In rain.~ - -The defects of archery were these:--the ammunition was expensive, and -when lost, not easily replaced. The flight of arrows is never correct on -a windy day, from whatever direction the wind may blow. Rain relaxes the -bow and bowstring, so that archery then is of little use. All these are -serious defects; but there was another of more importance still. When -the archer’s ammunition was all expended, he was nearly powerless. A -sword, indeed, he carried, for close fighting; and each archer stuck -into the ground before him a sharp pointed stake as a protection against -cavalry. - - ~Hand-gun most penetration.~ - - ~Silent discharge in favor of bows.~ - -The great advantage of the hand-gun was from its penetration, as no -armour could keep out balls, but the _silent_ discharge of the cross-bow -rendered it superior in the pursuit of timid animals, and the prodd has -continued in use to the present day, for the purpose of killing deer, -rooks, and rabbits. - - NOTE.--The articles on ancient Engines of War, and upon the Bow, are - principally taken from the following works, viz:--“Military - Antiquities,” by F. Grose, Esq.; “A Critical Inquiry into Ancient - Armour,” by Sir S. R. Meyrick; “Ancient Armour and Weapons in Europe,” - by John Hewitt; “Projectile Weapons of War,” and “Report of the Rifle - Match at Wimbledon Common,” by J. Scoffern, M. B.; “Engines of War,” - by H. Wilkinson, and “The Long-Bow of the Past and the Rifle for the - Future,” by H. Britannicus. - - - - -HISTORY OF ARTILLERY. - - - ~Fate of nations depends on arms.~ - -There is no subject more intimately connected with the history of the -world, from the remotest antiquity than the history of Arms, the fate of -nations having always depended either on the superiority of the Arms -employed, or on the superior discipline or dexterity of those who used -them, wholly independent of the numbers by which they were opposed. - - ~Artillery includes all war-engines.~ - -Before the introduction of gunpowder, all kinds of weapons, both -offensive and defensive, were included in the term “Artillery,” which -has since become restricted to the larger kinds of fire-arms, such as -guns, mortars, howitzers, rockets, &c. Thus we find in the I. Saml. xx., -40, “And Jonathan gave his artillery to his lad,” when speaking of bows -and arrows. Again, in the 20th, Henry VIII., a patent was granted to -Anthony Knevt and Peter Mentas, “to be overseers of the science of -Artillery;” and in an enumeration of the different species of Artillery, -printed in 1594, are reckoned “long-bows, cross-bows, slur-bows, -stone-bows, scorpions, and catapultas.” - - ~Definition of Artillery.~ - -The root of the word “artillery,” is the Latin word “_ars_,” an “art.” -It has been fantastically derived from the Italian _arte di tirare_, the -art of firing. In the fourteenth century the science of war-engines was -called _artemonie_, and its productions _artillerie_, from the old -French word _artiller_, “to employ art.” Some writers state that the -word “artillery,” is derived from _arcus_ “a bow,” the earlier species -of artillery being termed _arcualia_. - - ~First invention unknown.~ - - ~Names of gun--from old machines.~ - -It is difficult to determine with any degree of accuracy the epoch at -which gunpowder and its resultants, fire-arms, were first employed for -the purposes of war in any part of the world; and this difficulty is -increased, at least, as far as regards Europe, from the fact, that the -first engines of war, depending on the use of gunpowder, were named -after the old machines for throwing darts, stones, &c. - - ~First mention of guns.~ - -The earliest account which we have of gunpowder, where it is mentioned -as applied to fire-arms, exists in a code of Gentoo Laws, and is thought -by many to be coeval with the time of Moses. The notice occurs in the -Sanscrit preface to the Code of Gentoo Laws, translated by Halhed, at -page 53, viz:--“The Magistrate shall not make war with any deceitful -machine, or with poisoned weapons, or with _cannon or guns_, &c.” Halhed -observes: “It will no doubt strike the reader with wonder to find a -prohibition of fire-arms in records of such unfathomable antiquity, and -he will probably hence renew the suspicion, which has long been deemed -absurd, that Alexander the Great did absolutely meet with some weapons -of this kind in India, as a passage in Quintus Curtius seems to -ascertain.” - - ~Greek fire, earliest European combustible.~ - - ~Gunpowder known before in China.~ - - ~Chinese explosive shell.~ - - ~Early Chinese cannon.~ - -The Greek fire seems to have been one of the earliest attempts in Europe -at the manufacture of a military combustible; but there is some reason -to believe that the Chinese had become acquainted with the nature of -gunpowder long before the introduction or invention of the aforenamed -substance; and they appear to have been the first who took any steps in -its manufacture, or in that of weapons of war resulting from its use. -Amongst the machines constructed by this extraordinary people, was one -called “the thunder of the earth,” which is thus described by M. -Reinaud; and M. Favé: “A hollow globe of iron was filled with a bucket -of gunpowder, mixed with fragments of metal, and was so arranged, that -it exploded on the approach of an enemy, so as to cause great -destruction in his ranks.” The “impetuous” dart of the Chinese, was a -round bamboo, about two and a half feet in length, lashed with hempen -cords to prevent its splitting, and having a strong wooden handle fixed -to one end, thus making its entire length about five feet. This was then -charged with powder of different kinds, arranged in layers, over which -were placed fire balls, which being thrown to a distance of thirty or -forty yards by the discharge, consumed any combustible materials they -might come in contact with. - - ~Guns in China, 618 B. C.~ - -A late writer, M. Paravey, has in a great measure established the fact, -that gunpowder and fire-arms were known to the Chinese long before the -Christian era; and it is mentioned in Chinese writings, that in the year -618 B. C., a gun was in use, bearing this inscription, “I hurl death to -the traitor, and extermination to the rebel.” - - ~A. D. 757.~ - -Guns are said to have been constructed in China, in 757 A. D., for the -purpose of throwing stones of the weight of from ten to fourteen pounds -to a distance of 300 paces. Whatever doubts may exist as to the earlier -history of artillery among the Chinese, it is almost beyond question, -that cannon were extensively used by them in the beginning of the 13th -century, as we have access to various reliable accounts, establishing -this fact. - - ~Artillery at Saragossa, A. D., 1118.~ - - ~At Niebla, A. D., 1157.~ - -Condé, in his history of the Moors in Spain, states that artillery was -used by them against Saragossa in 1118 A. D., and that in 1157, A. D. -they defended themselves in Niebla, against the Spaniards, by means of -machines, which threw darts and stones, through the agency of fire. - - ~Used against the Moguls, A. D. 1232.~ - -In 1232 A. D. cannon throwing stone shot were used against the Moguls, -and during this war, certain machines were also employed, which being -filled with powder, and ignited at the proper time, burst with a noise -like thunder, and whose effect extended for the space of half an acre -round the spot where they exploded. - - ~Cannon bearing date 1258 found in France.~ - -A small brass cannon is said to have been found at the bottom of a deep -well of the Castle de Clucy, in France, with the date 1258 upon it. - - ~Cannon used against Cordova, A. D. 1280.~ - - ~Iron shot, 14th century.~ - -In 1280 A. D., cannon were used against Cordova, after which period, -they are frequently mentioned in the records of Spain. Iron shot appear -to have been first used in that country in the beginning of the 14th -century. - - ~Cannon used by Arabians, 1312.~ - -Cannon are described by Arabian authors as early as 1312. - -The first mention we have of the use of fire arms, after this period, is -in the life of Robert Bruce, by John Barbour, Archdeacon of Aberdeen, in -which certain engines termed, “crakeys of war,” are spoken of, as having -been used by Edward III., in his campaign against the Scots, in 1327. - - ~Cannon in France, 1338.~ - -It is generally believed that cannon were commonly employed in Europe -since 1338, as they were used by the French in that year to demolish -some castles. - - ~Siege of Algesiras, 1342 to 1344.~ - -Gunpowder is said to have been used at the siege of Algesiras by -Alphonse of Castile against the Moors, 1342 to 1344. - - ~Cannon at Cressy, 1346.~ - -Edward III. had four guns at the battle of Cressy, 1346. Froissart -mentions these guns in one of his manuscripts, now preserved in the -library of Amiens. A free translation of the passage referred to would -run as follows: “And the English caused to fire suddenly certain guns -which they had in the battle, to astonish (or confound) the Genoese.” -Vilani, a Florentine historian, also confirms this statement, as well as -a passage in the chronicles of St. Denis, which speaks of the use of -cannon by the English at Cressy. An ancient manuscript also mentions the -existence of gunners and artillerymen, whom Edward III. employed when he -landed before Calais in 1346, and the several stipends each soldier -received. The sentence runs thus: “Masons, carpenters, engineers, -gunners, and artillerymen, the sum of 12, 10, 6, and 3 pence per diem.” - - ~Cannon of two kinds.~ - - ~Used by the Black Prince, 1356.~ - - ~At St. Valery, 1358.~ - -The first fire-arms appear to have consisted of two kinds; a larger one -for discharging stones, called a bombard, (plate 18, fig. 3) and a -smaller for propelling darts and leaden balls, both of which were used -in 1356, by the Black Prince, to reduce the castle of Romozantin; and -two years later, the artillery of St. Valery did great execution among -its besiegers. - - ~Cannon made in England, 1377~ - -Cannon were made in England in the fourteenth century, and Richard II. -commissioned Sir Thomas Norwich to buy two great and two small cannon in -London, or in any other place; and also 600 balls of stone for cannon -and for other engines, to be sent to the Castle of Bristol. - - ~Cannon at St. Malo.~ - -When the English unsuccessfully besieged St. Malo, 400 cannon are said -to have been used, but these are supposed to have been of the smaller -kind, called hand cannon, or culverins, which were carried by two men, -and fired from a kind of tripod or rest fixed in the ground. - - ~Cannon general.~ - - ~Bombards made of iron.~ - - ~Bronze.~ - - ~Leather, rope, &c.~ - - ~Wood.~ - -From this period, cannon were used in all the offensive and defensive -operations of war; though a considerable time elapsed before it became a -really serviceable arm for field operations. The earlier kinds of cannon -were called bombards or bombardæ. Those first employed were clumsy, -(plate 16) and ill contrived, wider at the mouth than at the chamber. -They merely consisted of bars of iron, arranged in such a manner that -their internal aspects should form a tube. The bars were not welded -together, but merely confined by hoops. They were also made of iron bars -over a cylinder of copper, strengthened by iron hoops, driven on red -hot, and others were entirely composed of copper. Bronze was also -employed in the manufacture of artillery, as well as thin sheets of iron -rolled together; and guns made of leather, and coiled rope, over a -cylinder of copper or gun metal, were also introduced, and continued in -use for a considerable time. Guns also appear to have been made of wood. - - ~Rope mortar at Venice.~ - -In the arsenal at Venice there is an ancient mortar, constructed of -leather and rope, used in the siege of the island of Chioggia, near -Venice, against the Genoese, 1380. The shot is of stone, 14in. in -diameter. - - ~Cannon of paper.~ - -It has been heard recently, that the Chinese constructed their cannon of -prepared paper, lined with copper. - - ~Field cannon to keep up with army, 1380.~ - -As early as 1380 it is said the French were able to procure for the -invasion of Italy, a great number of brass cannon, mounted on carriages, -and drawn by horses, instead of oxen; these pieces threw balls of from -40lbs. to 60lbs. in weight and could always keep pace with the army. -(Plate 18, fig. 1, 3, and 4.) - - ~Large cannon 1400.~ - -A cannon taken at the siege of Dien in 1546, by John de Castro, and now -in Lisbon, is 20 feet 7in. in length, 6 feet 3in. in diameter in the -middle, and threw a ball of 100lbs. A Hindostani inscription on it -states that it was cast in 1400. - - ~Bolts and quarrels shot, 1413.~ - - ~Red-hot iron balls used at Cherbourg, 1418.~ - - ~Slow to discharge.~ - -Bolts and quarrels were shot from cannon in the reign of Henry V.; these -were succeeded by stones, as he ordered in 1418, “labourers to make -7,000 stones for the guns of different sorts from the quarries of -Maidstone.” We learn from Elam’s life of Henry V., that when an English -army, commanded by the Duke of Gloucester, besieged Cherbourg in 1418, -the besieged discharged _red-hot_ balls of _iron_ from their cannon into -the English camp, to burn the huts. So much time elapsed between the -loading and discharging the great guns, that the besieged had sufficient -time to repair at their leisure, the breaches made by the enormous -stones, &c., thrown from them. - - ~Cannon at Meaux, 1422.~ - -Five wrought-iron bombards are preserved in the “Musée de l’Artillerie,” -at Paris; which were, it is said, abandoned by the English, at the town -of Meaux, in 1422. - - ~Cannon cast, 1450.~ - -About the middle of the fifteenth century, the ancient method of -constructing cannon was exchanged for that of casting. A hard or mixed -metal was invented called “font metal” or bronze, and cannon were then -cast in one piece, and instead of fanciful names, they began to be -indicated by the weight of their ball, as at present. - - ~Siege of Constantinople, 1453.~ - - ~Small guns with several barrels.~ - - ~Large brass gun, cast at Adrianople.~ - -At the siege of Constantinople, by Mahomet II., stones were thrown -weighing 1,200lbs.! The cannon employed could not be discharged more -than three or four times a day. This siege was distinguished by the -re-union of ancient and modern artillery; the small arms of the -Christians discharged five, or even ten balls at the same time, as large -as walnuts; and one piece made for the Turks, by Urban, a Dane, cast a -stone bullet weighing 600lbs., which could be discharged seven times a -day, but it ultimately burst. This gun was cast of brass at Adrianople, -of stupendous and almost incredible magnitude; twelve palms is assigned -to the bore. A vacant space before the palace was chosen for the first -experiment, but to prevent the sudden and mischievous effects of -astonishment and fear, a proclamation was issued that the cannon would -be discharged on the following day. The explosion was felt or heard in a -circuit of 100 furlongs, the ball was driven above a mile and buried -itself a fathom in the ground. A carriage of thirty waggons was linked -together to carry the gun along, and drawn by a team of sixty oxen; 200 -men on both sides were stationed to poise or sustain the rolling weight, -250 workmen marched before it to smooth the way, and repair the bridges, -and near two months were employed in a laborious journey of 150 miles. -This enormous gun was flanked by two of almost equal magnitude, and -fourteen batteries, mounting 130 guns, were brought to bear upon the -place. The cannon were intermingled with machines for throwing stones -and darts. - - ~Artillery of Scots 1496.~ - - ~Breech-loaders.~ - -The Scots had a kind of artillery peculiar to themselves, called “Carts -of War.” They are described in an Act of Parliament, thus “ilk Cart twa -gunnis and ilk ane to have twa Chalmers and an Cumrand man to shute -theme.” These were breech-loaders, and in 1471, the Barons were -commanded to provide such “Carts of War” against their old enemies the -English. (Plate 18, fig. 1.) - - ~Cannon named.~ - -It was not uncommon to give strange names to early cannon; thus Louis -XII. had twelve brass ones cast in 1503, of enormous size, which he -named after the twelve Peers of France; the Spaniards and Portugese -christened theirs after their Saints, and the Emperor Charles V. had -twelve when he went against Tunis, which he named after the Twelve -Apostles. - - ~Cause of improvements.~ - - ~Iron balls in England, 15th century.~ - -As a knowledge of the art of gunnery increased, great improvements took -place with regard to projectiles; and balls of iron were substituted in -the place of those formed of stone, being introduced into England in the -sixteenth century. - - ~Iron guns cast.~ - - ~Hand-culverines.~ - - ~Organ-guns.~ - -Iron guns were not cast in this country until the year 1547, foreigners -being generally employed to manufacture them. Both Henry VII. and Henry -VIII. took great pains to introduce the art of gunnery into the kingdom; -and to this end, had a number of Flemish gunners in their daily pay; in -fact, it is said, that the latter monarch himself, invented small pieces -of artillery to defend his waggons. The earlier species of field -artillery, embraced among others, a small kind of ordnance called, “hand -cannon,” or culverins, which were so light and portable, that they could -be carried and served by two men; they were fired from a rest, placed on -the ground; also “ribandequins” or organ guns; these latter consisted of -a number of tubes, placed in a row, like those of an organ, and appear -to have been of French origin, as were many of the improvements which -took place about that period, including the invention of wall pieces, -throwing leaden balls of ten to the pound. - - ~Mortars, Henry VIII.~ - - ~Shells.~ - - ~Varieties of cannon.~ - - ~Queen Elizabeth’s Pocket-pistol.~ - -For mortars we are indebted to workmen of Henry VIII. as “one Peter Bawd -and one Peter Vancollen, both the king’s feed men, devised and caused to -be made certain mortar pieces, being at the mouth from eleven to -nineteen inches wide, and also certain hollow shot of cast iron, to be -stuffed with fire-work or wild-fire, for to break in pieces the same -hollow shot.” And in the first year of Edward VI. the said Peter Bawd -did make ordnance of iron of divers forms, as fawconet, fawkons, -minions, sakers, &c. His servant, J. Johnson, did like make and cast -iron ordnance cleaner and to better perfection, to the great use of this -land. His son Thomas Johnson, in 1593, made forty two cast pieces of -great ordnance for the Earl of Cumberland, demi cannon, weighing -5,000lbs. or three tons the piece. At Dover there is a culverine, -presented to Queen Elizabeth, by the States General of Holland, and -called Queen Elizabeth’s Pocket-pistol. It is 24 feet long, diameter of -bore 4¹⁄₂ inches, weight of shot 12lbs.; it was manufactured in 1544, -and is mounted on an ornamented iron carriage made in 1827, at the Royal -Carriage Department, Woolwich Arsenal. (Plate 17, fig. 2.) - - ~Mons Meg.~ - -There is a large gun at Edinburgh Castle, called Mons Meg; it measures -about 13 feet 4 inches in length, the diameter of the bore is about 1 -foot 6 inches; it has a chamber about 4 feet long and 6 inches in -diameter. (Plate 17, fig. 3.) - - ~Field-guns, 1554.~ - -The battle of Remi, in 1554, was the first action in which light field -guns, having limbers, were used,--these guns accompanied the cavalry. - - ~Red-hot shot, 1580.~ - -Pere Daniel says that red-hot iron shot were used by Marshal Matignan, -during the siege of la Fère, in 1580. - - ~Calibre, time of Queen Elizabeth.~ - -In a table of ordnance, given by Fosbrooke, as being a list of the guns -used in the time of Elizabeth, and immediately preceding her, we find -how little the calibres of iron guns have altered during the last two or -three centuries, as these guns have all their antitypes among those of -the present day. - - ~Origin of canister and grape.~ - - ~Improved mode of loading, by Gustavus Adolphus.~ - -The beginning of the seventeenth century was an important epoch in the -history of artillery; and much attention was given to this branch of the -military profession, by Henry IV., of France, Maurice, of Nassau, and -Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden. The former of these distinguished leaders, -introduced new and improved forms and kinds of missiles; such as tin -cases, filled with steel bolts or darts; canvas cartridges, containing -small balls, and hollow shot or shells, filled with combustible -materials. Gustavus Adolphus, introduced really serviceable field guns, -of a lighter construction than had hitherto been made use of, and he -also adopted the use of cartridges, with shot attached, so that these -pieces might be discharged eight times before the musket could be fired -six. It is said that he chiefly owed his victory at Leipzig, in 1631, to -guns made of leather and coiled rope, over a cylinder of copper or gun -metal. On the whole, the artillery of Gustavus was admirably organized; -and he was the first who appreciated the importance of causing artillery -to act in concentrated masses, a principle, now so fully recognized by -all artillerists. - - ~Bombs at sea.~ - -Bombs were first used at sea, by the French, in the bombardment of -Algiers, Oct. 28th, 1681, in the reign of Louis XIV. - - ~The largest gun.~ - -One of the largest cannon now existing is a brass one at Bejapoor, -called “Moolik-i-Meidan,” or “The Lord of the Plain.” It was cast in -commemoration of the capture of that place by the Emperor Alum Geer, in -1685. Its length is 14ft. 1in., diameter about 5ft. 8in., diameter of -bore, 2ft. 4in., interior length of bore, 10ft.; length of chamber -unknown; shape of gun nearly “cylindrical;” description of shot, -_stone_. An iron shot for this gun, of proper size, would weigh 1600lbs. -It is now lying in a dilapidated circular bastion on the left of the -principal gateway of the city. The trunnions are broken off, and there -is a ring on each side of it, as well as two Persian inscriptions on the -top. It is placed on three heavy beams of wood, packed round with large -stones. A number of _stone_ shot, of 2ft. 2in. in diameter, are -scattered about. This gun is said to be the heaviest piece of ordnance -in the world. It weighs about forty-two tons. An Italian of Otranto, who -served in the Mogul armies under the title of Renni Khan, had it in his -park of artillery, and used it at several battles, occasionally firing -sacks of copper coins out of it. (Plate 18, fig. 2.) - - ~Gun at Moorshedabad.~ - -There is a remarkable gun near the palace of the Nawab of Moorshedabad, -which measures 17ft. 8in. in length, 5ft. in circumference at the -smallest part near the muzzle, while it is only 6in. in the diameter of -the bore, and the foresight is at least four or five inches above the -muzzle. After the battle of Khallissie, which was fought about 25 miles -from here, it is supposed to have been buried under a tree. The tree, -having grown since then, has forced the gun above the ground about three -feet, where it now remains, partly encircled by the roots and trunk. It -has no name; the natives call it “the gun in the tree.” It is made of -cast iron, and is evidently of Indian manufacture, having Hindostanee -inscriptions engraved on it, but no date. - - ~Size and expense of cannon, 1688.~ - -Bishop Wilkins says, “These Gunpowder instruments are extremely -expensive, as a whole cannon commonly weighs 8000lbs., requiring 90 men, -or 16 horses, with a charge of 40lbs. of powder, and a ball weighing -64lbs”. - - ~Length and weight gradually reduced.~ - -The length and diameter of cannon became gradually much reduced, -experience having determined how much they might be diminished in weight -without injury to their safety, or to the effects they were intended to -produce. - - ~Horse artillery by Frederick the Great.~ - -Frederick the Great of Prussia made some improvements with regard to the -calibre of field guns, and to him may be given the credit of the -introduction of Horse Artillery. - - ~Guns bored.~ - -Guns, at this period, were cast hollow by means of a core, which was -kept suspended in the centre of the mould, while the metal was being run -in. Owing, however, to the great difficulty experienced in keeping this -core in a perfectly true position, several artillerists deliberated -whether guns, cast hollow or solid, had the preference, and -investigations took place as to the possibility of boring the latter, -the result of which was, that Maritz, who had a foundry at Geneva, -informed the Court of France, in 1739, that he had discovered a method -of boring guns and mortars which had been cast solid. He was at once -invited to France, where, first at Lyons, and afterwards at Strasbourg, -he secretly worked at boring pieces of ordnance, which, on trial, proved -perfectly satisfactory. - - ~Guns of ice.~ - -In the year 1740, a curious experiment in artillery was made at St. -Petersburgh, where guns were cut out of solid ice, from which balls of -the same substance were fired repeatedly, without bursting. - - ~Improvements.~ - - ~Axle-trees.~ - - ~High limbers.~ - - ~Reduction of windage.~ - -From this period, the science of artillery progressed rapidly, and -various improvements were made in this arm of the service, such as the -introduction of iron axle-trees, and high limbers for the carriages of -field guns. The reduction of windage, (mainly owing to the invention of -carronades), and the use of cartridges and elevating screws, which -latter served to render the fire of artillery much more rapid and -regular. - - ~Rifled ordnance 1774.~ - -The invention of rifled ordnance is claimed by a Dr. Lind and a Capt. A. -Blair, late 69th regt. Experiments were made at Landguard Fort, 26th -August, 1774, by which it was intended to prove that shot weighing -42lbs., in the shape of a pear, would do as much execution, fired out of -an 18 pounder, with a third of the quantity of powder, as could be -effected by round balls of the same weight, fired from a 42 pounder. - - ~Perforated and fluted shot.~ - -Sundry trials were also made with shot perforated through the centre, -and spirally fluted on the surface, suggested by Professor Anderson, of -Glasgow, in order to prevent the common aberration in the flight of -shot. - - ~Leaden projectiles.~ - - ~Breech-loading Rifled cannon.~ - -There were different modes of charging the rifled guns; one was, after -the powder was put in, to take a leaden bullet something larger than the -bore of the gun, and grease it well; in ramming it down with an iron -rammer hollow at one end, the spiral threads of the rifle entered and -cut into the bullet, and caused it to turn round in going down, and on -being shot out, it would rotate on an axis coincident with its flight. -Another mode was to charge them at the breech, where an opening for the -reception of the powder and ball was afterwards closed up by a screw; -but some barrels were screwed off at the breech-end to be charged, where -they were made stronger than common. - - ~Congreve’s rockets.~ - -The adaptation of the rocket to the purposes of war, by Sir William -Congreve, in 1806, introduced a new feature into the artillery of this -and other countries. - - ~Mr. Monk’s improvements.~ - -Recently, at the suggestion of a Mr. Monk, of Woolwich Arsenal, a -quantity of useless metal has been removed from before the trunnions, -and the thickness increased considerably at the breech end, where alone -it was wanted. - - ~Mallet’s monster mortar.~ - -The monster mortars recently constructed by Mr. Mallet, of separate -compound hoops, must be regarded as a triumph of constructive skill. The -shell is 30 inches in diameter, holding a bursting charge of 480 lbs., -and weighing when charged 1¹⁄₂ tons (3,360 lbs.). Value of shell -charged, £25. Weight, without bed, 42 tons. Weight of bed, 8 tons. -Total, 50 tons. - - ~Cavalli’s and Wahrendorff’s~ - -In 1846, two rifled cannon were invented, one by Major Cavalli, of the -Sardinian Artillery; and the other by Baron Wahrendorff, a Swedish -nobleman. Both of these were iron breech-loading guns, having two -grooves in order to give the requisite rifle motion to their -projectiles. - - ~Experiments to test.~ - -Experiments were carried on at Shoeburyness, in 1850, with these guns. -The deviations were always in the direction of the rotation of the -projectiles; but they were so variable in amount that no allowance could -be made for them in laying the gun with respect to the object. The -Cavalli gun became unserviceable after having fired four rounds, by the -copper ring or bouche imbedded in the metal of the gun at the bottom of -the bore being damaged. The Wahrendorff gun stood well, the wedge -resisting more effectually the force of the discharge than that of the -Cavalli gun. - - ~Lancaster’s rifle gun.~ - -Mr. Lancaster’s novel invention of applying the rifle principle to -cannon, may be described as “a two-grooved rifle in disguise,” having a -“gaining twist,” the bore being an ellipse. - - ~Defects of.~ - -The chief defect in the Lancaster gun is the liability of the projectile -to jam in the bore, both in loading and firing, the former rendering the -loading difficult, while the latter endangers the safety of the gun. In -consequence of several of these guns bursting, and also from the -anticipated large range with great precision not being obtained from -them, the Lancaster guns were removed from the service after the Crimean -war. - - ~Sir W. Armstrong.~ - -Sir W. Armstrong submitted a proposal for his breech-loading gun to the -Duke of Newcastle, then Minister at War, towards the end of 1854; his -proposal being accepted, and a gun accordingly constructed, it was -submitted to numerous trials, both at Shoeburyness, and near Sir W. -Armstrong’s private factory at Newcastle. This gun is now made entirely -of wrought iron, although the original one had a steel bore. It is a -built-up gun, that is to say, it is composed of separate pieces, each -piece being of such moderate size as to admit of being forged without -risk of flaw or failure. By this mode of construction, great strength, -and consequently, great lightness, are secured. The shell used combines -the principle of the shrapnel and percussion shell, i.e., it may be made -to explode either as it approaches the object, or as it strikes it. -Moreover, it may be made to explode at the instant of leaving the gun, -in which case, the pieces spread out like a fan, and produce the usual -effect of grape or canister. Armstrong’s guns are now (1860) being -employed in China. - - ~Whitworth.~ - -Mr. Whitworth’s rifled gun, with which experiments were lately made near -Liverpool, is also a breech-loading piece, and of the following -construction. The form of the bore is that of a hexagonal spiral, the -corners of which are rounded off. The inclination of the spiral varies -with the diameter of the bore, but is in all these guns very great, the -projectiles being comparatively long. - - ~French rifled ordnance.~ - -Rifled ordnance were introduced into the French service just previous to -the commencement of the late Italian war of 1859, and aiming at the -greatest practical simplicity, the French government adopted only one -nature of gun for field service, and one for siege purposes, both made -of bronze. The French rifled cannon are muzzle loading, and those first -introduced had two or three grooves, but the field pieces used in Italy -had six grooves, their inclination being about one turn in 59 inches. A -number of heavy cast-iron guns are rifled with two grooves, and have -been placed on board French ships of war; and these, unless -strengthened, could be used but with very small charges. - - ~Advantages of rifled guns.~ - -The advantages obtained by the successful employment of rifled guns-- - - Great accuracy of fire, - Long range, - Penetration, - Small charge, - Simplicity of equipment and ammunition, - Lightness of gun. - - ~Classification of artillery.~ - -Artillery may be classed under the several heads of field artillery -(including artillery of position), siege artillery and artillery for the -armament of garrisons, fortresses, and coast defences; its equipment is -a combination of men, materiel, and horses necessary for these services. - - ~Three kinds of guns.~ - -All ordnance employed in the service, may be divided into three classes, -viz., Guns, Mortars, and Howitzers. - - ~Carronades discontinued.~ - -Carronades may be considered obsolete, although a certain number are -still supplied to the navy, and a few will be found mounted in some -garrisons and coast batteries. - - ~Classification of guns and their uses.~ - -Guns are used for projecting shot and shell, horizontally or at very low -angles, and as they are fired with large charges of powder, which are -fixed for each nature of gun, very great strength and considerable -weight are required in their construction. Guns are of two kinds, viz., -(solid) shot guns, and shell guns. Some guns are also classed as heavy, -medium, and light. Those generally employed for field service, are made -of bronze or gun-metal; all guns of higher calibre, of cast-iron. - - ~Mortars.~ - -Mortars are short pieces of ordnance, used to throw shells at high -angles (vertical fire), generally 45°, the charge varying with the range -required; they are distinguished by the diameters of their bores. -Mortars are made of cast-iron or bronze; the former being principally -intended for garrisons, battering trains, the navy, &c., and the latter, -which are of small calibre, and very light, are chiefly employed in -sieges. - - ~Howitzers.~ - -Howitzers resemble guns in form, but are much shorter and lighter in -proportion to their calibre, and are, consequently, fired with less -charges of powder; shells and case are fired from them, but not solid -shot. - - ~Use of Howitzers.~ - - ~Superseded by shell guns.~ - -These pieces were originally introduced for the purpose of firing shells -at low angles, and have constantly been found most useful both in the -field and in siege operations during the wars of the last and present -centuries. Since, however, the introduction of shell guns their utility -has greatly decreased, for the shell gun possesses greater accuracy and -range than the howitzer, those being in the present day of greater -importance than small weight. - - ~Artillery from the East.~ - -The Germans claim the invention of cannon for their countryman, -Bartholdus Schwartz, who is said to have discovered it in 1336, but -seeing that fire-arms first became prevalent in Europe in those -countries which mixed with the Saracens, we are constrained to lean to -the opinion that fire-arms were not re-invented in Europe, but -introduced from the East. - -This part of our subject might be much enlarged, but we have merely -attempted to give heads of information, which can be pursued by those -who desire to do so. We must now leave it, in order to treat upon that -more immediately interesting to officers of infantry, viz., the history -of portable fire-arms. - - * * * * * - -The following extract from an account of the furniture of the ship, -called the “Harry Grace de Dieu,” will give a good idea of the state of -the ordnance at the time of Henry VIII.:-- - - _Gonnes of Brasse._ - - Cannons, - Di. cannons, - Culveryns, - D. culveryns, - Sakers, - Cannon perers, - Fawcons, - - _Gonnes of Yron._ - - Port pecys, - Slyngs, - Di. slyngs, - Fowlers, - Baessys, - Toppe peces, - Hayle shotte pecys, - - Hand gonnes complete. - -Another account of ancient English ordnance in Queen Elizabeth’s time, -mentions the following:-- - - Bombards, - Bombardilles, - Cannon royal, - Cannon, - Cannon serpentine, - Bastard cannon, - Demi cannon, - Cannon petre, - Culverin, - Basilisk, - Demi culverin, - Bastard culverin, - Sacar, - Minion, - Faulcon, - Falconet, - Serpentine, - Rabinet. - - -ETYMOLOGIES. - -CANNON.--From the Latin word _canna_, signifying a tube or cane. - -HOWITZER.--From the German word _haubitz_, (derived from _haube_, top of -a furnace), in French, _obus_, or _obusier_. - -CARRONADE.--From _Carron Ironworks_, near Stirling, where it was -invented in the year 1774. - -BOMBARD.--From the Greek word _bombos_, or noise. - -BOMBARDILLE.--A smaller kind of bombards. - -BASILISK.--The name of a snake. - -CULVERIN.--From the French _couleuvrine_, from _couleuvre_, a snake. - -SAKER.--From _Saker_, or _Sacre_, a bird of the falcon species. - -FALCON.--From the _bird_ of that name. - -CANNON PERERS.--_Stone-throwers_, from the French word _pierre_, a -stone. - -TOPPE PECES.--To be used in the tops, _i.e._, the stands on the ship’s -masts. - - NOTE.--The History of Artillery is mainly compiled from the - following:--“Engines of War,” by Wilkinson; “Ancient Armour and - Weapons in Europe,” by John Hewitt; “Military Antiquities,” by F. - Grose; “Critical Inquiry into Ancient Armour,” by Meyrick; “Elementary - Lectures on Artillery,” by Major C. H. Owen and Capt. T. L. Dames, - R.A.; and “Our Engines of War,” by Capt. Jarvis, M.P., Royal - Artillery. - - - - -HISTORY OF PORTABLE FIRE-ARMS. - - - ~Form of early hand-guns.~ - -The earliest hand-guns differed in nothing but in size from the small -cannon of the day: they consisted of a metal tube fixed in a straight -stock of wood; the vent was at the top of the barrel; there was no lock -of any kind. The barrels were short and made of iron or brass; they were -occasionally furnished with moveable chambers. (Plate 19, fig. 1.) - - ~With trunnions.~ - - ~Breech-loader.~ - -A specimen of hand-cannon of the early part of the reign of Henry VI., -is made of iron, and furnished with trunnions, which from this specimen, -appear to have been appropriated to small fire-arms before they were -adopted for artillery. The breech is made of a separate piece and -screwed on to the tube, on the further end of which is a sight. It was -placed on a stock or club, and fired by hand with a match. (Plate 19, -fig. 2.) - - ~Invented 14th century.~ - -That hand-guns were invented, though but rarely appearing, in the -fourteenth century, seems very probable from several cotemporary -evidences. An inquisition taken in 1375, at Huntercombe, (a place -belonging to the Abbey of Dorchester) and now preserved among the -records at the Chapterhouse, Westminster, states that one Nicholas -Huntercombe, with others, to the number of forty men, armed with -“haubergeons, plates, bacenettes, cum aventayles, paletes, lanceis, -scutis, arcubus, sagittis, balistis, _et gonnes_, venerunt ad Manerium -de Huntercombe, and there made assault,” &c. It appears very improbable -that a body of men making a sudden attack upon an abbey manor-house, -would be armed with any kind of “gonnes” except hand-guns. - - ~Bohemia 1340.~ - - ~Lithuanians 1383.~ - -Mons. Mangeot states that “canons de fusil” were said to have been first -invented in Bohemia, 1340, but that it is safer to fix the date at 1378, -when mention is made of the “arquebuse à mèche” in Germany. In the year -1381, the inhabitants of Augsburg had thirty six arquebusiers, and in -the following year they had portable fire-arms at the battle of -Rosabecque. In 1383 the Lithuanians were acquainted with hand fire-arms, -and used them at the siege of Froski. All these arms had straight -stocks. - -In the excavations of the Castle of Tannenberg, dismantled in 1399, -there was found a hand-gun of brass, with part of the wooden stock -remaining, and the iron rammer belonging to it. - -An early mention of the hand-gun is that of Juvenal des Ursins, who -tells us, under the year 1414, that they were used at the siege of -Arras. - - ~Siege of Lucca 1430.~ - - ~Said to have been invented in Italy.~ - -Billius, a learned and noble Milanese, who lived at the time, says that -hand-guns were first used at the siege of Lucca, in 1430. The -Florentines were provided with artillery, which, by the force of -gunpowder, discharged large stones, but the Luccquese perceiving that -they did very little execution, came at last to despise them, and every -day renewed their sallies to the great slaughter of their enemies, by -the help of _small fire-arms_, to which the Florentines were strangers, -and which before this time were not known in Italy. Billius explains -this by saying, “That besides darts and balistas for arrows, they -invented a new kind of weapon. They carried in their hand a club, a -cubit and a half long, to which were affixed iron barrels. These they -filled with sulphur and nitre, and by the power of fire, iron balls were -thus ejected.” (Plate 19, fig. 1 and 10). - - ~Scorpion.~ - -About this time the scorpion (afterwards a piece of ordnance) was a tube -for firing gunpowder, held in the hand, and called by the English, -hand-cannon, and also hand-culverines. - - ~Made of brass.~ - -From a roll of purchases for Holy Island 1446 is,--“bought 11 hand -gunnes de ere,” from whence we learn that they were made of brass. - - ~Edward IV.~ - - ~Harquebus invented.~ - - ~Stock, &c., from cross-bow.~ - - ~Match-lock. 1478.~ - -Hand-guns, or hand-cannons were used in the early part of the reign of -Edward IV., and towards the close of it, we learn from Philip de -Comines, that the harquebus was invented; this seems to have been an -improvement on the hand-gun. The Latin word used for this weapon was -arcusbusus, evidently derived from the Italian, arca-bouza, a bow with a -tube or hole; to that people, therefore, are we to ascribe the -application of the stock and trigger in imitation of the cross-bow. -Hitherto the match had been applied by the hand to the touch-hole, but -the trigger of the arbalest suggested the idea of one to catch into a -cock, which having a slit in it, might hold the match, and by the motion -of the trigger be brought down on a pan which held the priming, the -touch-hole being no longer at the top but at the side. (Plate 19, fig. -9). - - ~Hand-gun improvements.~ - - ~Sighted.~ - -The hand-gun was _cast_ in brass, and, as a tube, was of greater length -than the hand cannon; a flat piece of brass, made to turn upon a pin, -covered the pan which contained the powder; it had also a piece of brass -fixed on the breech, and perforated to ensure the aim. - - ~Hand-guns in England 1471.~ - - ~Made in England, 1474.~ - -The first introduction of hand-guns into England, we find, was soon -after their invention in Italy; in the year 1471, King Edward IV., -landed at Ravenspurg, in Yorkshire, and brought with him, among other -forces, three hundred Flemings, armed with “hange-gunnes.” In 1474, he -directed “all the bombs, cannon, culverines, fowlers, surpentines, and -all other cannon whatsoever, as also powder, sulphur, saltpetre, stones, -iron, lead and other materials, fit and necessary for the same cannon, -wherever found, to be taken and provided for his use, paying a -reasonable price for the same.” - - ~Harquebusiers.~ - - ~Morat 1476.~ - -Arquebusiers, or harquebusiers, are mentioned as troops, by Philip de -Comines, in these words, where he speaks of the battle of Morat, fought -on the 22nd of June, 1476. “The said towns had in their army, as some -that were in the battle informed me, 35,000 men, whereof fower thousand -were horsemen, the rest footmen, well chosen and well armed, that is to -say, 10,000 pikes, 10,000 halberds, and 10,000 harquebusiers.” - - ~Improvements.~ - - ~Held to breast.~ - - ~Bent butt.~ - - ~Hackbutt.~ - -Hitherto the harquebuss had only a straight stock, but now it had a wide -butt end, which might be placed against the right breast, and thus held -more steadily. Many ancient pieces were held to the breast instead of -the shoulder, which will account for their being so short in the stock. -A notch was made in the butt for the thumb of the right hand, in order -to hold the piece more firmly. When the butt was bent down or hooked as -it was at a later period, it was called, from the German word Hake, a -hackbutt, haggebut or hagbut, the small sort being denominated -demi-hags. - - ~Mounted Harquebussiers.~ - -Philip de Commines mentions that there were at the battle of Fourniée, -in 1495, German harquebusiers, on foot and on horseback. (Plate 19, fig. -6.) - - ~Arms in time of Henry VIII.~ - -The small arms in the time of Henry VIII., were hand-guns, haguebuts, -demi-hagues and the pistol, and it was enacted, “that no hand-gun should -be used, of less than one yard, gun and stock included, and the haguebut -was not to be under three-quarters of a yard.” The demi-hagues were -still smaller, and gave occasion for the origin of pistols, which were -invented in the latter part of this reign, at Pistoria in Tuscany. The -dag, dagger, or tache, differed from the pistol merely in the shape of -its handle. - - ~Inconveniences of match.~ - - ~Objections to fire-arms.~ - - ~Rest.~ - - ~Wheel-lock, 1517.~ - - ~Used at Parma, 1521.~ - - ~In England, 1530.~ - - ~Serpentine and wheel.~ - -The match was a constant source of trouble to the soldier, both from the -difficulty of keeping it alight in bad weather, and from the length of -time it sometimes took to ignite the charge. It was therefore not -without justice that many persons clamoured about this time against the -introduction of fire-arms. They contended that upon no point, save that -of penetration, was the harquebuss superior or equal to the long-bow; -its great weight 16 or 18lbs. (seldom less than 12lbs.) obliged it to be -supported by a rest, which had a kind of fork to receive the musket, and -at the bottom a sharp metal spike, to strike into the ground; (Plate 19, -fig. 5, 7, and 8). When the harquebuss was shouldered the rest was -carried in the right hand, and subsequently hung upon it, by means of a -string or loop. The difficulty of keeping the powder and match dry, the -time taken to load, and its comparative inaccuracy, rendered it of low -reputation. Nevertheless it held its ground, and the next improvement -was the wheel-lock, by which a more instantaneous ignition of the charge -was secured; it was invented at Nuremberg, 1517. It consisted of a -little solid wheel of steel, fixed against the plate of the lock of the -harquebuss or pistol; it had an axis that pierced it in its centre; at -the interior end of this axis which went into the lock, a chain was -fastened, which twisted round it on the wheel being turned, and bent the -spring by which it was held; to bend this spring a key was made use of, -into which the exterior end of the axis was inserted. By turning this -key from left to right, the wheel was made to revolve, and by this -movement a little slider of copper, which covered the pan with the -priming, retired from over it; and by the same movement the cock, armed -with a flint like the cock of a fusil, was in a state to be discharged -on pulling the trigger with the finger; the cock then falling on the -wheel, produced fire, and communicated it to the priming. The wheel-lock -was first used at the siege of Parma, 1521, and was brought to England -1530. It was however complicated and difficult to repair, for which -reason it could not always be depended upon, as is proved by some -fire-arms of this description at the Tower, which are made with a -serpentine, as well as with a wheel, both acted upon by the same -trigger. - - ~Musket in Spain.~ - - ~At Pavia, 1525.~ - - ~Low Countries, 1567.~ - -The inconsiderable execution done by pieces of small calibre probably -caused the introduction of the muskets or mosquet, which originated in -Spain about the time of Francis I. They are said to have been first -employed extensively at the battle of Pavia, 1525; but, if we believe -Brantome, it was the Duke d’Alva who first brought them into use in the -armies, when during the reign of Philip II., he went to take upon him -the government of the Low Countries in the year 1567; but that only -means, he brought them more into fashion than they were till that time, -and that till then they were rarely used, at least in the field, on -account of their cumbrous nature. A Spanish army of 10,000 men sailed -from Carthagena, 27th April, 1567, _en route_ for the Netherlands, to do -which they had to cross the Alps. It was a picked body of troops, of -whom about 1,300 were cavalry. The Duke d’Alva formed them into three -divisions, and dispensed with artillery, not wishing to embarrass his -movements. Each company of foot was flanked by a body of soldiers, -carrying heavy muskets with rests attached to them. - - ~Lephanto, 1571.~ - -At the battle of Lephanto 1571, fought between the Venetians and Turks, -it is stated by the historian, that one chief reason why so few -Christians were killed in comparison, was because the Turks used for the -most part bows and arrows, whereas the former were supplied with -muskets. - - ~Caliver.~ - -A lighter kind of musket was called a caliver or calliver, which was -only a corruption of calibre, denoting that they were all of one guage, -as the original harquebuses were not of any particular length or bore; -the caliver was fired without a rest. - - ~Dimensions, 1621.~ - -Sir Thomas Kellie in his “Art Militaire,” published in 1621, says, “The -barrel of a musket should be four feet in length, the bore capable of -receiving bullets twelve whereof weigh a pound, previous to this some -had carried ten to the pound.” - - ~Hand-mortar, 1594.~ - - ~From butt of musket.~ - - ~By hand.~ - - ~From muzzle.~ - -The hand-mortar for throwing grenades are said to have been first used -in 1594, and gave origin at a later date to the troops thence -denominated, _grenadiers_. They appear to have been fired from the -shoulder. (Plate 19, fig. 3.) In the reign of James II., a -flint-lock-musket was adapted to fire grenades from the butt, the small -of which was made to resemble a chambered mortar; the heel of the butt -formed a cover, which opened with a spring on a hinge; the priming was -put into the usual pan, and a small piece of metal moved so as to open a -communication with the powder in the chamber. A rest was formed by a -slender iron rod, about three feet long, and when not required let into -the stock, in the place usually occupied by the ramrod, and turning upon -a pivot placed a few inches in front of the guard-brass. The scouring -rod is run through metal loops on one side of the stock. Afterwards -grenades were thrown by hand, the musket being slung over the soldier’s -back, and more recently experiments were made with an iron tube about -four inches long, placed on the muzzle in the same manner as the -bayonets. - - ~Match-locks and rest, James I.~ - -In the time of James I., part of the infantry were armed with calivers -or muskets and rests, both of which were fired with match-locks, the -soldier carrying the match lighted at both ends. - - ~Trickerlock, 1629.~ - -“A match trickerlock compleat,” occurs in a schedule of 1629. This was -the adoption of what is now called a hair trigger, which was added to -the former one, and gives a more instantaneous discharge. A tricker -wheel lock of Charles I., a tricker match-lock of Charles II., and a -tricker fire-lock of James II., are preserved in Sir S. Meyrick’s -collection. - - ~Fowling pieces.~ - -The Earl of Albermarle in 1646, says, “It is very fit likewise that you -have in each company six good fowling pieces, of such a length that the -soldier may well be able to take aim and shoot off at ease; being placed -six on each flank of a division of foot to skirmish with an enemy. These -soldiers ought to have command, when they come within distance, that -they shoot at officers only.” We have here plainly the origin of -riflemen. - - ~Tin tube for match.~ - - ~First fire-lock.~ - -Each musketeer formerly carried a tin tube, pierced full of holes, to -contain the match, and prevent his being discovered; in wet weather it -was necessary to carry it in the crown of his cap, to prevent it from -being extinguished. One of the earliest attempts to overcome this -difficulty is in the Arsenal, at Dresden, where there is an old -_buchse_, with a piece of pyrites fixed opposite to the touch-hole, and -which requires to be rubbed with a file, chained to it, until sparks are -elicited sufficient to fire the powder. - - ~Snaphaunce.~ - -The next improvement upon the wheel-lock was the snaphaunce; a flat -piece of steel, furrowed in imitation of the wheel, was placed on a -steel post, which being screwed beyond the pan, was made moveable; the -pan had a cover which required to be pushed off by the thumb, and the -furrowed piece being then brought to stand over it, on pulling the -trigger, the flint, which was substituted for pyrites, struck against -it, and gave the spark. - - ~Flint lock.~ - -The next step in the improvement of the musket was the introduction of -the flint-lock, now so well known, that I need not enter into the -details of its mechanism. - - ~In France, 1630.~ - - ~In England, 1677.~ - - ~Earl Orrery’s opinion.~ - -It was used in France as early as 1630, but was not employed in the army -until 1670 or 80, when it took the name of “fusil.” It was not employed -in England until about 1677, and its advantages over the matchlock are -thus described in a work addressed to King Charles II., in 1677, by the -Earl of Orrery:--“First it is exceedingly more ready, for with the -fire-lock you have only to cock, and you are prepared to shoot, but with -the matchlock, you have several motions, besides if you fire not the -matchlock as soon as you have blown your match, (which often, -particularly in hedgefights and sieges, you cannot do) you must a second -time blow your match. The match is very dangerous, either when -bandoliers are used, or when soldiers run hastily in fight to the budge -barrel, to refill their bandoliers. I have often seen sad instances -thereof. Marching in the nights to avoid an enemy or to surprise one, or -to assault a fortress, the matches often discover you, whereby you -suffer much, and he obtains much. In wet weather, the rain deads the -powder and the match too, and the wind sometimes blows away the powder, -ere the match can touch the pan; nay, in very high winds, I have seen -the sparks blown from the match, fire the musket ere the soldier meant -it, and either thereby lose his shot, or kill some one before him. -Whereas in the firelock, the motion is so sudden, that what makes the -cock fall on the hammer, strikes the fire and opens the pan at once. -Lastly, the quantity of match does much add to the baggage, it naturally -draws the moisture of the air, which makes it less fit, and if you march -without close waggons, it is the more exposed, and without being dried -again in ovens is but of half the use which otherwise it would be of, -and which is full as bad as the skeans you give the corporals, and the -sinks you give the private soldiers, being rendered useless if damp; -nothing of all which can be said of the flint, but much of it to the -contrary.” - - ~Bows to be replaced by muskets, 1596.~ - -In a proclamation of Queen Elizabeth dated 1596, it is stated, “You -shall bring with you all such furniture and weapon for footmen as you -stand charged withall by statute, or have formerly shewed at other -musters heretofore, changinge your billes into pikes, and your bowes -into muskettes accordinge to our sayde former letters.” - - ~Muskets with two locks.~ - - ~Match-lock preferred.~ - - ~Match made of.~ - -In France, as late as 1702, when the flint had wholly superseded the -pyrites, and the structure differed very little from our present -musket-locks, an additional cock was attached to the end of the -lock-plate, and a sliding cover placed over a hole in the hammer-seat, -for the purpose of lighting the powder by a match, if the flint failed. -The match was therefore from its simplicity, preferred from all others -for a considerable period, and is still used by the Chinese, Tartars, -Persians, and Turks, in some provinces either wholly, or partially. The -match itself was made of cotton or hemp, spun slack, and boiled in a -strong solution of saltpetre, or in the lees of wine. - - ~Iron ramrod 1740.~ - -In the time of Frederick the Great, (1740 to 1786), the invention of the -iron ramrod by the Prince of Dessau, trifling matter as it seems, -doubled the value of the fire of infantry. Prior to this the rammer had -been made of wood, and was called the scouring stick. - - ~Dimensions, &c. of English musket, in 1800.~ - - ~Charge.~ - - ~Priming, 1st. mode.~ - - ~Priming, 2nd mode.~ - -At the commencement of this (19th) century, the weight of the English -musket and bayonet was, 11lbs. 4ozs., bayonet 1lb. 2ozs., length of -barrel 3ft. 3-in., bore ·753-in., bullets 14¹⁄₂ to the pound. Charges of -powder 6 drs., F.G. Every soldier was furnished with three flints for 60 -rounds. Originally it had been necessary to put the priming into the pan -from a flask, containing a finer grained powder, called “Serpentine -powder,” but in the early flint-lock musket this was rendered -unnecessary, as in loading, a portion of the charge passed through the -communication hole into the pan, where it was prevented from escaping by -the hammer. Latterly a portion of the cartridge was bitten off, and the -pan filled with priming before loading. - - ~Objections to flint-lock.~ - - ~Priming by detonation, 1807.~ - - ~Experiments, 1834.~ - - ~Advantages of percussion.~ - - ~Reduced charge.~ - - ~Reduced pull of trigger.~ - -The objections to the flint-lock were, that it did not entirely preserve -the priming from wet. Sometimes the flint failed to ignite the charge, -and it was necessary to change it frequently. Owing to these -imperfections, in 1807, the Rev. Mr. Forsyth obtained a patent for -priming with fulminating powder. The composition consisted of sulphate -of potash, sulphur, and charcoal, and exploded when struck by any metal -or hard substance. This composition was considered too corrosive, but -was subsequently improved, and finally applied to the musket, in the -form of the present percussion cap, which consists of chlorate of -potash, three parts; fulminating mercury two parts; and ground glass one -part. The experiments for Mr. Forsyth’s invention, commenced in 1834. -Six thousand rounds were fired from each description of arm, and the -experiments conducted in all weathers, six of each kind of arm being -used. The result proved exceedingly favourable to the percussion -principle, and may be briefly summed up as follows:--1st, out of 6,000 -rounds from the flint-lock, there were 922 missfires, being 1 in 6¹⁄₂, -whereas in the percussion musket there were only 36 misses in 6,000 -rounds, or 1 in 166. With the flint-lock there were 3,680 hits out of -the 6,000, and with the percussion 4,047 hits, being 7 per cent. in -favour of the latter. To fire 100 rounds with the flint required 32 -minutes 31 seconds, whereas the percussion occupied only 30 minutes 24 -seconds. Another advantage of the percussion musket, was that it was -capped _after_ being loaded. Hitherto a certain amount of powder had -been allowed for priming, but as this vestige of the hand-gun could be -dispensed with, a reduction of charge could be made; a total reduction -however was made from 6 to 4¹⁄₂ drs., which caused a diminution of -recoil. The 4¹⁄₂ drs. then recommended was known to be more than was -necessary for the projection of the bullet, but an extra ¹⁄₂ dr. was -retained to allow for the effect of damp or waste on service. In the -course of these experiments, it was found that the considerable force -required to pull the trigger might be advantageously reduced, and that -increased accuracy would ensue, therefore the pull of the trigger was -lessened to 7lbs. - - ~New model musket.~ - -The advantages of the percussion system having been satisfactorily -shown, it was decided to convert a portion of the old flint-locks into -percussions, and to establish a new model percussion musket for the -English army. - - ~Percussion at Canton.~ - -The following anecdote illustrates the weak points of the flint-lock. -During the Chinese war, a company of the 37th Madras Native Infantry had -been detached to the left, when, the evening closing, the order was -given to rejoin, and the whole were to retire upon Canton, and just as -it was being carried into execution, a tremendous storm of wind and rain -arose, making the air so dark, that no one could see 20 yards. The -detached company retired sounding bugles and beating drums, which were -drowned by the tempest, and they could not find the battalion. In a few -minutes the enemy got between this company and the retreating force. The -muskets would not go off, and several attempts of the enemy to close -were with difficulty repulsed with the bayonet. In the meantime, the -enemy contrived to fire off their own matchlocks, and some of the -sepoys’ muskets of men who had dropped in the retreat, by applying -matches to them. The square into which the company was formed, was thus -being diminished, while the only return that could be made, was an -occasional shot from a solitary musket, which the three officers of the -company managed to clean out, under cover of great coats held over the -muzzle. A company of Marines was dispatched for the 37th party, armed -with percussion muskets, scarcely one of which missed at the first fire, -and a few volleys sufficed to clear the way, and both detachments -reached the camp in safety, with but little loss. This happened in the -early part of 1841. - - ~Percussion introduced, 1842.~ - - ~Sighted for 150 yards.~ - -After a “hang-fire” of about 200 years, a new pattern percussion musket -was issued in 1842. Its weight was greater than that of the old -flint-lock, being with the bayonet about 11-lbs., 6-oz., bayonet 1-lb., -0-oz., 8-drs., bore ·753, barrel 3-ft. 3-in., length, with bayonet 6 -feet, length without 4-ft. 6³⁄₄-in., a block sight for 150 yards, and a -percussion lock. For many years prior to 1839 no sight at all was -thought necessary for the musket, the bayonet stud being sufficient, but -which was totally obscured when fired with fixed bayonets. This arm -continued as the approved weapon for our infantry without improvement -until 1851, when the Minié rifle was partially introduced. - - ~Comparison with foreign muskets.~ - - ~Brown Bess advocated.~ - -The English musket (1842) differed from all those in use on the -Continent, in having, 1st, the least accuracy, 2nd, reduced range, 3rd, -heavier, 4th, shorter, 5th, larger bore, 6th, greater windage, 7th, -double the charge of powder, 8th, the greatest recoil, and 9th, the most -expensive! _i. e._, as compared with those of France and Belgium, -Prussia, Austria, or even with the old Sikh matchlock!! And yet a “stand -up fight” was stoutly maintained for this most inefficient arm, by many -military men, as may be seen from the following extract from a note in -Part II., Vol. II., of the “Aide Memoire to the military -sciences:”--“Erroneous ideas prevail as to the precise wants of the -service with regard to the musket, and its proper qualities and utility -in the field, as well as much exaggeration as to the defects of the new -percussion musket of 1842, for the infantry of the line. It is stated -that it is too heavy and of imperfect construction. Some prefer the -French pattern, and others would lessen the weight and calibre still -more, reducing also the windage: as, however, the new regulation has -brought into use some hundreds of thousands of new muskets, and has been -approved by the highest authorities, some considerations are necessary -before a radical change can be effected beyond range and a nice accuracy -of fire. 1st, What are the essentials for a musket for the infantry of -the line? 2nd, The application of the musket to the infantry soldier. It -is evident that the most essential points are strength, and facility of -pouring into your enemies’ ranks a powerful fire. Troops do not halt to -play at long bowls; a field of battle presents a series of movements for -the purpose of outflanking or closing in upon your enemy, and when -within two hundred yards, to deliver your fire with effect. Firing at -500 or 600 yards is the business of artillery, and, therefore, to fire -at 300 or 400 yards is a misapplication of the musket, a loss of time, a -waste of ammunition, and tends to make men unsteady in the ranks.” - - ~Brown Bess tried at Chatham.~ - - ~Merits of “Brown Bess” illustrated.~ - -The shooting powers of the musket (1842) are stated in the report on -Experimental Musketry firing carried on by Captain (now Lieut.-Colonel) -McKerlie, Royal Engineers, at Chatham, in 1846, which concludes as -follows: “It appears by these experiments, that as a general rule, -musketry fire should never be opened beyond 150 yards, and certainly not -exceeding 200 yards. At this distance, half the number of shots missed a -target 11-ft. 6-in., and at 150 yards a very large proportion also -missed. At 75 and 100 yards every shot struck the target, only 2-ft. -wide, and had the deviation increased simply as the distance every shot -ought to have struck the target 6-ft. wide at 200 yards, instead of -this, however, some were observed to pass several yards to the right and -left, some to fall 30 yards short, and others to pass as much beyond, -and this deviation increased in a still greater degree as the range -increased. It is only then under peculiar circumstances, such as when it -may be desirable to bring a fire on Field Artillery when there are no -other means of replying to it, that it ought ever to be thought of -using the musket at such distances as 400 yards.” In fact, it has been -stated that the probability of hitting one man with a musket ball at 500 -yards would be as one farthing to the National Debt! On a recent -occasion, at the Cape, 80,000 rounds were fired to kill 25 men!! To put -a man “_hors de combat_” requires his weight in lead, and six times his -weight in iron!!! - - ~Price.~ - - ~Fastened by bands.~ - - ~Bands unsightly!!~ - - ~Supposed profit of large bore.~ - -Our musket cost £3, the French and Belgian £1 8s. 6¹⁄₂d. In foreign arms -the barrel is fastened to the stock by bands, binding the two together, -and thus adding greatly to their strength. This mode, although -acknowledged to be infinitely superior for military purposes, by our -Inspector of small arms, was condemned as unsightly!! The French musket, -although three inches longer, is beautifully poised, being lightened -forward. Our bore being larger was considered an advantage, as their -balls could be fired out of our barrels, while our balls could not out -of their muskets. It was generally thought that the greater weight of -the English ball produced an increased range and momentum, but this was -counteracted by the excess of windage. - - * * * * * - - ~Various forms of early fire-arms.~ - -In former days small arms were made of various shapes and devices, and -also combined with other weapons of attack and defence. - -There is in the arsenal at Venice a matchlock containing twenty barrels, -ten gun barrels, about 2¹⁄₂ feet long, and ten pistol barrels half that -length. The match exploded a gun and pistol barrel together. - -The Chinese of the present day make use of a species of matchlock -revolvers, and also of another matchlock, consisting of several barrels, -placed on a common stock, diverging from each other, and fired -simultaneously. (Plate 4, fig. 4 and 5.) - - ~Shield fire-arms.~ - - ~Breech-loaders.~ - -Soon after the invention of fire-arms, the boss, or spike, issuing from -the centre of the targets or shields, was superseded by one or more -short barrels, fired by a matchlock, and having an aperture covered with -a grating above, for the purpose of taking aim. These barrels were -loaded at the breech, the charge being put into an iron tube, or short -barrel, which was pushed in at the end, and retained there by shutting -down a lid or spring. - - ~Cross-bow and pistol united.~ - -There were cross-bows, which combined a pistol and cross-bow, the -wheel-lock being placed about the centre of the handle on one side, -whilst on the other was the string of the bow, and the windlass for -drawing it up. - - ~Pike and pistol.~ - -Pistols were frequently introduced into the butt-end of pikes, and also, -in the reign of Edward VI., in the handle of the battle-axe, the spiked -club, the martlet, and other weapons, even the dagger. - - ~Carabines with joint.~ - - ~Heel plate to draw out.~ - -In the time of Charles I. there were esclopette carbines, made with the -butt to double back on a hinge, in order to get them into a holster; and -a little later the butt was lengthened by drawing out the steel cap -which formed its cover, now called heel plate. - - ~Revolvers in Charles I.~ - - ~Double-barrelled pistols.~ - -In the reign of Charles I. there were also revolvers, with eight -chambers to hold the charges; and in the time of Cromwell and Charles -II. we find self-loading and self-priming guns. Pistols were made both -double-barrelled and revolving. - - ~Arrows fired out of muskets, 1591.~ - -In Sir Richard Hawkins’ account of his voyage in the South Sea, 1591, -mention is made of his shooting arrows from muskets with great success -at shipping: “for the upper works of their ships being musket proof, -they passed through both sides with facilitie, and wrought extraordinary -disasters, which caused admiration to see themselves wounded with small -shot when they thought themselves secure.” These wooden arrows were -called sprites or sprightes. Lord Verulam says, “it is certain that we -had in use at one time for sea fight short arrows which they call -sprights, without any other head save wood sharpened, which were -discharged out of muskets, and would pierce through the sides of ships, -when a bullet would not pierce.” - - ~Sprites required wads.~ - -Sir Richard Hawkins informs us, that in a discourse which he held with -the Spanish General, Michael Angell, the latter demanded, “for what -purpose served the little short arrowes which we had in our shippe, and -those in great quantity. I satisfied him that they were for our muskets. -Hereof they prooved to profit themselves after; but for that they wanted -the tampkins, which are first to be driven home, before the arrow be put -in, and as they understood not the secret, they rejected them as -uncertaine, and therefore not to be used; but of all the shot used now -adayes, for the annoying of an ennemie in fight by sea, few are of -greater moment for many respects, which I hold not convenient to treat -of in public.” - -Thus it appears that bullets of metal, have been fired out of bows and -slings, stone balls out of guns, and arrows from muskets. - -The following are the names of different descriptions of small arms, -viz:-- - - Hand-cannon - Hand-gun - Arquebus - Caliver - Petronel - Scorpion - Dragon - Musketoon - Hague - Demi-hague - Esclopette - Currier - Fusil - Hand-mortar - Blunderbuss - Musket - Pistol - Dag - Tack - - - - -THE BAYONET. - - - ~Pointed stake.~ - -It was common with archers to place a long pointed stake in the ground -to protect themselves against cavalry. On the arquebus replacing the bow -the same practice was continued. - - ~Pike.~ - -From the earliest ages it had been customary to arm some of the infantry -with pikes, and in the middle ages when cavalry was so much employed in -armies, it was found impossible to dispense with this weapon; for some -time after the introduction of fire-arms, only a portion of the infantry -were armed with them, and the remainder were pikemen. The proportion of -each varied at different times, from one half to two thirds, but as the -proportion of musketeers increased it became necessary to contrive some -method, by which they could defend themselves. - - ~_Marlets-de-fer_ with touch.~ - - ~Rest, with touch.~ - - ~Swines’ feathers.~ - -In the latter part of the reign of James I., some attempts were made to -convert the musketeer’s rest into a defence against cavalry. -_Marlets-de-fer_ and small pole-axes had a touch enclosed in them, which -by touching a spring opened a small valve and sprung out. The musket -rest, instead of having a wooden shaft, was now made of a thin tube of -iron, like these pole-axes covered with leather, and armed with the -touch. Rests thus armed were said to contain Swedish or Swines’ -feathers. It was found however that the musketeer could not do his duty -when armed with musket, sword, and rest, (especially if he had a Swedish -feather to manage with them) which led to the abandonment of the rest -during the Protectorate. - - ~Sword stuck in muzzle.~ - - ~Bayonets in France, 1671.~ - -To remedy the inconvenience of a Musketeer being compelled to draw his -sword and defend himself after the discharge of his piece, and to render -him more competent to act against the pikemen, a long thin rapier blade -fixed into a handle, and carried in a sheath called a Swine’s feather, -was drawn out of its scabbard, and fixed into the muzzle of his gun, -which gave him a weapon of great length. (Plate 19, fig. 11.). And this -dagger or sword, stuck into the muzzle of the gun, gave origin to the -bayonet, which was first made at Bayonne, and introduced into the French -army in 1671. - - ~Swords discontinued, 1745.~ - - ~Improved bayonet.~ - - ~Bayonet in Flanders, William III.~ - - ~Bayonet at Killicrankie.~ - -Swords in general were left off in the battalion companies ever since -the year 1745, and about 1762 by the grenadiers. As a still further -improvement the bayonet was made to fit on to the side of the barrel, so -as to leave it clear. An early application of the improved bayonet took -place in the campaigns of William III., in Flanders. Three French -regiments thus armed, marched with fixed bayonets, and one of them -against the 25th regiment. Lieut-Colonel Maxwell ordered his men to -screw their bayonets into their muzzles to receive them; but to his -great surprise when they came within the proper distance, the French -threw in such a heavy fire, as for the moment to stagger his people, who -by no means expected such a greeting, not conscious how it was possible -to fire with fixed bayonets. Macaulay in the 3rd volume of his History, -states “That at the battle of Killicrankie, the King’s army being drawn -up in position, the Highlanders advanced to the attack, and immediately -after having delivered their fire, threw away their muskets and rushed -on to the charge with Claymores. It took the regular musketeer two or -three minutes to alter his missile weapon into one with which he could -encounter an enemy hand to hand, and during this time the battle of -Killicrankie had been decided.” Mackay therefore ordered all his -bayonets to be so made that they might be screwed upon the barrel. - - ~Bayonets, Marsaglia, 1693, and Spiers, 1703.~ - - ~Pike abolished, 1703.~ - - ~Earl Orrery in favour of pike versus musket, 1677.~ - -Bayonets were employed by Marshal Catinat at the battle of Marsaglia, -when the slaughter was immense. Also at the battle of Spiers, in 1703. -Thus improved, the bayonet came into general use, and the pike was -abolished in France by Royal Ordinance 1703, with the advice of Marshal -Vauban. Before the introduction of the improved bayonet, Lord Orrery, in -1677, thus speaks in favour of the pike:--“But what need I more say of -the usefulness of the pike above the musket, than that all persons of -quality carry the pike which they would not do unless it had adjudgedly -the honour to be the noblest weapon, since the bravest choose and fight -with it. I wish our companies consisted of fewer shots and more pikes, -for they are not only always in readiness but need no ammunition, which -cannot be said of the musket which requires powder, bullet, and match, -and in wet or windy weather often disappoints the service.” - - ~M. Mallet, pike versus musket, 1684.~ - -Mons. Mallet in his “Travaux de Mars,” speaks lightly of the -“mousquetaires,” without pikemen; he says, “A horse wounded by a -fire-arm is only more animated, but when he finds himself pierced by a -pike, all the spurs in the world will not make him advance.” - - ~Gen. Loyd, pike versus bayonet, 1766.~ - - ~Pike recently discontinued.~ - -Even so recently as about ninety-two years ago, and ninety-five years -after the introduction of the improved bayonet, General Loyd in his -history of the war in Germany, recommends the abandonment of the system -of arming the whole of the infantry with fire-arms, “which he says are -useful only in _defensive_ warfare, and even then not more than one shot -in four hundred takes effect.” For many years after pikes were -discontinued by our infantry, the officers carried a short one, and the -sergeants only gave up their halberts within the last thirty years. The -soldiers of artillery when in Holland under the late Duke of York, -carried short pikes for the defence of their field guns. - - - - -ACCOUTREMENTS AND AMMUNITION. - - - ~Armament of infantry soldier.~ - - ~Bandolier.~ - - ~Bandolier abandoned in France, 1684.~ - - ~Flask resumed.~ - - ~Patrons.~ - - ~Cartridges.~ - -Besides his matchlock, the soldier carried a powder horn or flask, a -ball bag, slow match, a rest, and a sword. The two last changed for a -bayonet. In order to accelerate the loading, a large leather belt, -called bandolier, was worn over the shoulder. To this were hung twelve -wooden cases, each of which contained one charge, with a case of finer -powder for priming, and at the lower end a bag for balls. This system -was soon found to be inconvenient, as the cases were apt to get -entangled in passing through woods, &c. It was therefore abandoned in -France in 1684, and the flask resumed. Sir James Turner, speaking of the -pistol, says, “All horsemen should always have the charges of their -pistols ready in patrons, the powder made up compactly in paper, and the -ball tied to it with a piece of pack thread.” In this description we -have evidently the cartridge, though not expressed by name. It is a -curious fact that these were first confined to the cavalry, and that the -general adoption of the cartridge was not earlier than the common use of -the modern firelock. The Patron was an upright semi-cylindrical box of -steel, with a cover moving on a hinge, filled with a block of wood with -five perforations, to hold as many pistol cartridges. - - ~Earl of Orrery in favour of pouches.~ - -The Earl of Orrery, in 1677, writes, “I am, on long experience, an enemy -to bandoliers, but a great approver of boxes of cartridges for them, as -by biting off the bottom of the cartridge, you charge your musket for -service with one ramming. I would have these boxes of tin, because they -are not so apt to break as the wooden ones are, and do not, in wet -weather, or lying in the tents, relax. Besides, I have often seen much -prejudice in the use of bandoliers, which are often apt to take fire. -They commonly wound, and often kill he that wears them, and those near -him, for likely if one take fire, all the rest do in that collar. They -often tangle when they have fired, and are falling off by the flanks of -the files of the intervals to get into the rear to load again. Their -rattling in the night often discovers the designs; and if the weather be -windy, their rattling also often hinders the soldier from hearing, and, -consequently, obeying the word of command. Whereas the cartridge boxes -exempt those who use them from all these dangers and prejudices. They -enable the soldier to fire more expeditiously. They are also usually -worn about the waist of the soldier, the skirts of whose doublet and -whose coat doubly defend them from all rain, that does not pierce both, -and being worn close to his body, the heat thereof keeps the powder -dryer. Besides all this, whoever loads his musket with cartridges, is -sure the bullet will not drop out, though he takes his aim under breast -high; whereas those soldiers on service who take the bullets out of -their mouths, which is the nimblest way, or out of their pouches, seldom -put any paper, tow, or grass, to ram the bullet in, whereby if they fire -above breast high the bullet passes over the head of the enemy, and if -they aim low the bullet drops out, ere the musket is fired, and it is to -this that I attribute the little execution I have seen musketeers do in -time of fight, though they fired at great battalions, and those also -reasonably near.” - - The preceding article on Portable Fire-Arms is principally compiled - from “Military Antiquities,” by Francis Grose; “Ancient Armour and - Weapons of War,” by John Hewitt; “Engraved Illustrations of Ancient - Armour,” by Joseph Skelton, F.S.A.; “A Critical Enquiry into Ancient - Armour,” by Sir R. S. Meyrick, Knt.; and “Deane’s Manual of - Fire-arms.” - - - - -HISTORY OF THE RIFLE. - - - ~Invention of the rifle.~ - -We shall now direct our attention to the rifle,--its invention is -ascribed to Gaspard Zollner, of Vienna, towards the end of the fifteenth -century. - - ~1466.~ - -The first society for firing with the arquebuss was founded at Bâle, in -Switzerland. - - ~Rifles at Leipsic, 1498.~ - -In the practice of firing at a mark, at Leipsic, 1498, the greater part -of the Sharpshooters or Marksmen, were armed with the Rifles. - - ~Rifles used first for amusement.~ - -At first, Rifle arms were used only for amusement, and sometimes for the -defence of places, but very rarely as weapons of war in the field. - - ~Rifles used in war.~ - -Their employment in a campaign only dates from a little before the -middle of the seventeenth century. - - ~Landgrave of Hesse, 1631.~ - -In 1631, the Landgrave William of Hesse had three companies of -Chasseurs, armed with rifles. - - ~Elector Maximilian, 1645.~ - -In 1645, the Elector Maximilian of Bavaria formed three regiments of -Chasseurs, armed with rifles which he intended to employ principally in -the minor operations of war. - - ~Frederick William of Prussia, 1674.~ - -In 1647, Frederick William of Prussia, in his campaign on the Rhine, -distributed in each company of infantry, some light infantry and -Riflemen. - - ~Frederick the Great in Seven Years’ War.~ - - ~By Austrians ditto.~ - -Frederick the Great, in order to counterbalance the Austrian Light -Troops, more particularly the Tyrolese Marksmen, whose fire was -exceedingly deadly, felt obliged during the seven years’ war to add a -company of trained light infantry to the effective strength of each -battalion. - - ~Rifles in France, 1674.~ - -In France the Cavalry were supplied with rifles before the Infantry. -Towards 1674 Louis XIV. created some squadrons of Cavalry armed with -“Carabines rayées.” The name was given in France to all arms which were -grooved, and it also served for the name of the corps which were first -armed with them, viz., “Carabins.” - - ~Rifles in English Life Guards.~ - -In 1680 eight rifle carbines were carried in each troop of English Life -Guards. - - ~Rifles in Sweden, 1691.~ - -In 1691 the Non-Commissioned Officers of the Swedish Dragoons received -the rifled carabin, and in 1700 those of the Prussian Cavalry received -the same rifled arms. - - ~Experiments in England, 1776.~ - -Experiments were tried with rifled small arms in England in the year -1776. - -We read in the Scots’ Magazine, vol. 36, that “the Guards are every day -practising the use of the Rifle Gun in Hyde Park. On Saturday, April -27th, 1776, their Majesties attended a Review of the Rifle-men -yesterday, and were much pleased with the dexterity of the officer, who -loaded and fired several times in a minute, and hit the mark each time. -He lies upon his back when he discharges his piece.” - - ~Rifles in Austria, 1778.~ - -Austria kept 2000 Sharpshooters, having double carbines, which were -supplied with a crotch to rest them upon while shooting. Only one of the -barrels was rifled. - - ~Rifles in French infantry, 1793.~ - -In 1793 the first model carbine for French Infantry was made at -Versailles; at the same time the model for Cavalry was also fixed. -Rifles were soon abandoned in the French Army; they deemed them of more -trouble than profit. - - ~Rifles, English, 1794.~ - -In 1794 the English adopted the Rifle, which, I fancy, was first used by -a Battalion of the 60th, or Royal American Regiment. - - ~Rifles numerous in Austria, 1796.~ - -In 1796 there were in the Austrian Army 15 Battalions of Light Infantry, -the greater part of whom were armed with Rifles. - - ~Rifles for the 95th regt., 1800.~ - -In 1800, Rifles were placed in the hands of the 95th Regiment, now the -Rifle Brigade of four Battalions. These Rifles weighed about 10¹⁄₂lbs. -each, with the sword. They were sighted for 100 and 200 yards, with -seven grooves, having a quarter turn in the length of the barrel, which -was about 2 feet 6 inches, the length of the Rifle 3 feet 10 inches, -weight of sword 1lb., diameter of bore ·623. The locks were excellent, -and had a detent, to prevent the nose of the sear catching at half cock, -and it had a bolt, to prevent its going off at half cock. The ball was -spherical, and driven in with a mallet, which was afterwards dispensed -with, and a greased patch substituted. - - ~Rifle ball in two sizes.~ - - ~Range of English rifle.~ - -During the Peninsular War, our Riflemen were supplied with balls of two -sizes, the easiest fitting being designed for use where celerity of -loading was required. Baker, who made these Rifles, says in his Work, -1825, “I have found 200 yards the greatest range I could fire to any -certainty. At 300 yards I have fired very well at times, when the wind -has been calm. At 400 yards, and at 500 yards, I have frequently fired, -and have sometimes struck the object, though I have found it to vary -much.” - - ~Rifles in 7th and 10th Dragoons.~ - -Colonel Dickson, R.A., says, “In the early part of the present century, -there was also introduced a rifle-arm for cavalry. The barrel 20 inches, -calibre 20 bore, grooves 7, having the same pitch as those for the -infantry; the 7th and 10th light cavalry were the only regiments armed -with them, but they were soon discontinued from being considered as -unfit for cavalry service.” - - ~Brunswick rifle.~ - -The Brunswick rifle was introduced in 1836. Weight with bayonet 11lbs. -5oz., length of barrel 2ft. 6-in., bore ·704. Two deep spiral grooves -with one turn in the length of the barrel. Sighted for 100, 200, and 300 -yards. Bullet spherical and belted, diameter ·696. Weight of bullet 557 -grains. The shooting of this arm was superior to our first rifle, -although the loading was not so easy as was desired, and a great -disadvantage existed in the bullet and cartridge being separate in the -soldier’s pouch, the grooves were deeper and rounder than those of the -ordinary rifle, the projecting zone of the ball was made to fit the -grooves, the ball was wrapped in a linen patch dipped in grease. It was -found that, although the rifle loaded easily at first, after constant -firing the barrel became very foul, rendering loading nearly as -difficult as under the old system of the indented ball. The belt on the -ball caused considerable friction while passing through the air. (Plate -20, fig. 1). - - ~Merits of the Brunswick rifle.~ - -By a committee of officers assembled at Enfield, it was determined that -all firing with the Brunswick beyond 400 yards was too wild to give a -correct angle of elevation. It was tested at Antwerp in 1844, in an -experiment extending to 44,000 rounds, and declared to be the worst -tried. - - ~Improvements from France.~ - -From France chiefly have proceeded most of the modern improvements in -fire-arms. - - ~French at discount without rifles.~ - - ~Captain Delvigne’s first step to restore rifles in France.~ - - ~The French desired to be on an equality with Arabs.~ - - ~Expansion by chamber.~ - - ~Defects of chambered rifle.~ - - ~Poncharra Delvigne rifle 1833.~ - -The original French rifle (like our own) was loaded by force with a -strong ramrod and mallet, and they found that it gave precision with -diminution of range. For these reasons during the early campaigns of the -French Revolution, the rifle was given up in the French army; but as -their Chasseurs were found to be unequally matched against those of -other armies, who surpassed them in accuracy as marksmen, a series of -experiments were carried on at different times, with a view to its -reintroduction into their service. No satisfactory result was obtained -until the occupation of Algeria, when Mons. Delvigne, of the Guarde -Royale, took the first step in its restoration. In the flying wars kept -up against them by Abd-el-Kader, they found that masses of their men -were struck by Arab balls at distances where the French muskets were -apparently powerless, and this they afterwards found arose from the long -matchlocks of their enemies being fired at a much greater elevation than -was ever thought of by European troops. In order to put themselves on an -equality with their enemies, Mons. Delvigne showed in 1828 how the rifle -bullet could be made to enter the piece easily, and quit it in a forced -state; a method of loading as easy and simple as that of a smooth-bore -arm. Expansion was obtained by the introduction of a chamber in the -bore, which furnished an annular surface to receive the bullet, and on -its being struck a small blow with the rammer it was expanded into the -grooves. (Plate 20, fig. 2). The objection to the chambered rifle, was -that after frequently firing, a residuum collected which eventually left -the powder less room in the chamber, and of necessity it then reached -above the shoulder of the latter, so that the ball resting upon the -powder instead of upon the shoulder of the chamber, was not so readily -dilated by the strokes of the ramrod into the grooves. To remedy this -defect the wooden sabot and greased patch (plate 20, fig. 3) were -suggested by Colonel Poncharra, in 1833, introduced into the French army -1839, and employed in Algeria, 1840, but several inconveniences attended -its use. - - ~Carabine à Tige, 1842.~ - - ~Defects of Tige.~ - - ~Tige introduced, 1846.~ - -Colonel Thouvenin endeavoured to overcome these difficulties by fixing -at the bottom of the bore an iron shank, around which was placed the -powder. This stem, (plate 20, fig. 4) stopping the bullet, allowed it to -be struck in such a manner as to cause the lead to penetrate into the -grooves. There is much fouling at the breech, and around the pillar of -these rifles. They are difficult to clean, the soldier having to carry -an instrument for this purpose. The Chasseurs and Zouaves of the African -Army were armed with the tige in 1846. - -At first a spherical ball had been used, and then a solid -cylindro-conical bullet was resorted to; (Plate 20, fig. 6.) Messrs. -Delvigne and Minié having long previously experimented with hollow -cylindro-conical projectiles. - - ~Minié iron cup.~ - - ~French army 1850.~ - -Some years after these experiments, Captain Minié proposed the adoption -of a bullet which should receive its expansion by placing an iron cup in -the hollow of the base, which should be driven up by the gas, and force -the walls of the cavity outwards, thus making them enter the grooves. -(Plate 20, fig. 7.) In 1850 the Fusil rayé with balle à culot was put -into the hands of some French regiments of the line, and since then the -French Imperial Guard have been armed with the old musket rifled, and a -hollow bullet without a cup. - -At present it is understood that the French are rifling all their smooth -bore arms, and the Russians are doing the same. - - ~Prussian. army.~ - - ~Russian riflemen.~ - - ~Austrian riflemen.~ - - ~Belgium.~ - - ~Portugal.~ - -The Prussians have many thousands of their infantry armed with a -breech-loading long range Rifle. The Russian Army is to have fifty-four -rifle regiments, with a rifle company to each other regiment of -Infantry. The Austrians are busy at work, according to their means. The -Tyrol has always supplied them with a large number of marksmen. The -Belgians are, I believe, universally armed with rifles, and even the -little Kingdom of Portugal has ordered 28,000 rifles from Belgium. - - ~Conoidal bullet, with Brunswick.~ - - ~Minié rifle, introduced, 1851.~ - - ~Performance and angle of Minié.~ - -Subsequent to the French experiments with the conoidal bullet, and the -great results obtained over the spherical from it, it was proposed to -adapt a conoidal bullet to the Brunswick Rifle. (Plate 20, fig 5.) This -was done as an experiment, and succeeded very well, but at the same time -the new arm, called the Minié pattern, 1851, was also tried, and the -shooting exhibited greater accuracy with this latter arm. Nothing -further was done with the Brunswick rifle and conoidal bullet; and the -(then called) “new regulation Minié,” was introduced into the service by -the late Marquis of Anglesea, Master-General of Ordnance, with the -approval of the late Duke of Wellington. Its weight with bayonet, was -10lbs. 8³⁄₄ozs., bore ·702, four spiral grooves, with one turn in 6 feet -6-in., powder, 2¹⁄₂ drs., bullet, 680 grs., with iron cup, diameter of -bullet, ·690, windage, ·012. When the axis is parallel to the ground at -4 feet 6-in. above it, the first graze is about 177 yards, and the angle -of elevation at 800 yards, is 3° 25. - - ~Consequences of improvements in military rifles.~ - -A few years previous to the Russian war, rifles had attained to a degree -of improvement in structure and adaptability to the general purpose of -war, which threatened subversion to the established notions of the -military world. - - ~Probable effect on artillery.~ - - ~On cavalry.~ - - ~Minié in Kaffir war.~ - - ~Bullet improved.~ - -The artillery arm was menaced in its long rested monopoly of range and -precision, with an equilibrium in hands it had never dreamed to find it; -one which not alone would curb the wonted dash of field batteries to -within the “shortest range,” but also impress a more than wonted respect -upon the best led and most daring cavalry, for even the thinnest -formation of that arm, which it had hitherto been taught to despise. The -Minié was first used in the Kaffir war, and next at Alma and Inkerman, -when it proved that the gallant Marquis had advanced a step in the right -direction; who had ordered 28,000, but quarrels taking place among the -contractors this order was never completed. The accuracy of firing from -the Minié was improved by altering the form of the bullet from conoidal -to cylindro-conoidal, (plate 20, fig. 8.) and the iron cup from -hemispherical to a conical shape with a hole in the apex. - - ~Lord Hardinge’s desire for improvement.~ - - ~Experiments at Enfield.~ - -Lord Hardinge, succeeding to the post of Master-General, and after to -that of Commander-in-Chief, zealously followed out the prosecution of -the now becoming fixed idea, the general adoption for British infantry, -of a pattern rifle-musket, which should combine lightness with -solidity, precision, and superior range. Lord Hardinge opened -competition to the leading British gun makers, when the following sent -in muskets for trial, viz:--Purdy, Westley Richards, Lancaster, -Wilkinson, and Greener. The Minié pattern, (51), and Brunswick, (36), -were also subjected to a course of trial before the committee assembled -at Enfield, in 1852, for the purpose of determining the best description -of fire-arm for military service. - - ~Merits of the Brunswick.~ - -The Brunswick rifle showed itself to be very much inferior in point of -range to every arm hitherto tried. The loading was so difficult, that it -is wonderful how the rifle regiments can have continued to use it so -long, the force required to ram down the ball was so great as to render -a man’s hand much too unsteady for accurate shooting. Colonel Gordon, -says, “It should be noticed here with the exception of Mr. Wilkinson, -every one of the makers changed either his musket or projectile during -the trials, thereby causing them to be protracted much beyond the time -originally intended.” - - ~All had reduced bores.~ - - ~Elongated bullets.~ - - ~Reversed cartridge.~ - - ~Best shooting from short rifle.~ - - ~Advantage of small bore.~ - - ~Disadvantages of small bore.~ - -The diameter of the bore of all the new muskets was less than that -hitherto in use, all the bullets were elongated and had auxiliaries for -expansion, being metallic, or in one case a horn plug, one pattern had -cannelures and the whole required the cartridge to be reversed in -loading. It is worthy of remark that the best shooting at these trials -was from a short rifle made at Enfield, which was named the artillery -carbine, but not the one now used by the Royal Artillery. The barrel was -only 2 feet 6-in. long, and the projectile cylindro-conoidal, with an -iron cup weighing 620 grains; thus proving that great length of barrel -is not absolutely necessary in a rifle; but a certain length of barrel -is required to fire in double ranks, and so that the weapon may be -effectually used as a pike. With a small bore, a greater number of -rounds of ammunition may be carried, greater penetration, velocity, -lower trajectory, and more accuracy, than with larger projectiles of -equal weight. The alleged disadvantages of small bore are, the slender -form of cartridge and the smaller hole made in a man’s body, as stated -to be proved in the case of wild animals, in proof of which it is said -that they are found to run further when wounded with a small ball, than -they do with a large one; but this reasoning does not seem applicable to -the human race, for it is presumed that few men would be found willing -to move far when wounded by a musket ball, whether the hole in their -body was ·702 or ·530 of an inch in diameter. - - ~Objection to reversing the cartridge.~ - -An absurd objection was stated as to reversing the cartridge, viz:--that -drill with blank would be performed in a different manner to firing -ball, and that in action the soldier would forget to reverse his -cartridge, and put in the ball first. As we now always perform our -drill, and as our present blank cartridges require to be reversed or -will not ignite, this objection is removed. It also was said that mice, -rats, &c., &c., would eat off the lubricating mixture!! - -It was proposed to give the Enfield, (1853,) a back sight to 900 yards, -when an outcry was raised against the monstrous proposition of giving to -every common soldier a delicately made back sight, whether he knew how -to use it or not!!! and those rifles first issued, were only sighted to -300 yards. - - ~The Enfield rifle.~ - -At the conclusion of the trials at Enfield, in August, 1852, two rifles -were made at the Royal Manufactory, in which were embodied the -improvements and alterations suggested by the experience obtained during -the course of the trials, and which was hoped would possess the -necessary requirements for a military weapon, and which proved superior -to the Minié, the Brunswick, and all those presented for trial by the -different manufacturers. - - ~Dimensions, &c., of Enfield.~ - -This beautiful rifle though 2¹⁄₂lbs. less than the old musket, is fully -as strong, and as capable of rough usage. Weight, including bayonet, -9lbs. 3 ozs., bore, ·577, length of barrel, 3 feet 3-in., weight of -barrel, 4lbs. 6 ozs., three grooves with spiral of one turn in 6 feet -6-in.; the barrel to be fastened to the stock by bands. The bayonet to -be fixed by means of a locking ring. The lock to have a swivel. The -bullet was of a pattern suggested by Mr. Pritchett. (Plate 20, fig. 9.) - - ~Attempts to improve the bullet.~ - - ~Description of Pritchett.~ - -Lord Hardinge, desirous to improve the projectile, and if possible to -get rid of the cup, having requested the leading gun makers to lay any -suggestions before the small arms committee, none were submitted but one -by Mr. Wilkinson, which was not a compound. It was solid with two deep -cannelures, but it lost its accuracy when made up into a cartridge, and -made very wild practice beyond 300 yards. (Plate 20, fig. 10.) -Subsequently a bullet was proposed by Mr. Pritchett, being -cylindro-conoidal in form, with a small hollow at the base, which was -made more to throw the centre of gravity forward than to obtain -expansion thereby. This bullet weighed 520 grains, or 24 guage, and -excellent practice was made with it at Enfield, from 100, to 800 yards, -and it was accordingly introduced into the service, to the suppression -of the Minié, with iron cup; and for which Mr. Pritchett, received -£1,000. - - ~Lancaster smooth _bore_ rifles.~ - -Shortly after the establishment of the School of Musketry, in June, -1853, twenty Enfield rifles were sent down for trial in competition with -the Minié, and also with “Lancaster’s smooth bore eliptical rifle, with -increasing spiral and freed at the breech,” when the Enfield was found -to be superior to both. It is stated that Mr. Lancaster’s invention is -intended to overcome the inconvenience attendant on the wearing out the -rifle ridges, by the ramrod, &c.; these rifles are also easily cleaned, -the difference in width between the major and minor axis of the ellipse -was, ¹⁄₁₀₀ of an inch. - - ~Engineer Carbine.~ - -Carbines on this principle are now carried by the Royal Engineers, and -shoot well, and by some persons are thought to be superior to the -Enfield, 1853; they fire the same ammunition, and there is no question -but that their firing is much more accurate from using the improved -wooden plug bullet. - - ~Failure of the Pritchett.~ - -In May, 1855, the ammunition was found to be in a most unsatisfactory -state and unfit to be used, there being bullets of various diameters in -many of the packages of the cartridges. The correct size of the -Pritchett bullet viz., ·568, was found to produce accurate shooting, at -600 yards, while bullets of a smaller diameter fired very badly. - - ~Return to iron cup.~ - -To get out of this difficulty, Colonel Hay recommended the application -of the iron cup to the bullet, which was approved, when more uniform -expansion resulted and greater accuracy. - -Thus by using an auxiliary to expansion there is a margin left to cover -any trifling inaccuracy in manufacture, in diameter of either bullet or -bore. - - ~Woolwich account for bad _ammunition_.~ - -The Woolwich authorities stated that they had seven dies at work making -bullets, and which were made small at first as they gradually wore -larger; when any one die became too large it was destroyed, and replaced -by a smaller one. To this cause they imputed the failure of our -Pritchett ammunition. It was afterwards suggested from the School of -Musketry, to procure expansion by using a wooden plug, and after most -extensive experiments, this was found to be superior to any description -of bullet yet tried at Hythe, and the wooden plug has accordingly been -established for the British army. (Plate 20, fig. 11.) - - ~On expansion.~ - -Uniform accuracy mainly results from the bullet continuing to receive a -sufficient and uniform expansion into the grooves, so that the -projectiles get such an amount of rotation as shall last until they have -reached the object fired at. The more perfect the expansion, the less -the accumulation of fouling and consequently accuracy is further -increased. - -The Enfield has frequently been fired to 200 rounds and the loading -continued easy. - - ~Progressive grooving 1858.~ - -Early in 1858, the regulation rifle, (53), was changed from grooves of -uniform, ·014 in depth, to ·005 at muzzle, increasing in depth to ·015 -at the breech; while new, these rifles shoot well, but they require -increased elevation at long ranges. How far these shallow grooves will -answer, or how long it will take to convert these aims into smooth bores -at the muzzle, by the continued friction of the ramrod, remains to be -seen. - - ~Origin of progressive grooving.~ - - ~Advantages.~ - -Captain Panot, of the French service, states, “it is but a few years -since all our smooth bore barrels were reamed so that they would carry -the spherical ball of ·669, instead of ·641. It was afterwards -determined to convert these arms into rifles. To prevent weakening the -reamed up barrels, M. Tamisier proposed to vary the depth of the -grooves, making them deeper at the breech than at the muzzle.” Grooves -thus made, are said to have a greater accuracy of fire from keeping the -ball perfectly tight as it leaves the bore and destroying all windage at -the muzzle. This is called “progressive grooving.” Rifles upon this -principle require to be fired at an increased elevation, attributed to -the greater amount of friction experienced by the bullet while passing -down the barrel. - - ~Short Enfield.~ - -Rifle regiments and all serjeants of infantry have been furnished with a -weapon requiring the same ammunition as the regulation arm, but six -inches shorter, being mounted in steel, with a sword bayonet. - - ~Royal Navy rifle.~ - -A five “grooved progressive” carbine has recently been given to the -Royal Marine Artillery and the Royal Navy, with the same bore as the -Enfield. - - -RIFLED BREECH-LOADERS. - - - ~Early guns loaded at the breech.~ - -It is worthy of notice that, while numerous attempts are now making to -perfect the breech-loader for sporting as well as military purposes, our -early cannon and first hand guns were loaded at the breech, and if all -mechanical difficulties could be overcome, the breech-loading principle -for portable fire-arms would deserve the preference. We can easily -understand why it did not continue in favour in early days, as this mode -includes a great deal of perfection in mechanical workmanship, and to -which the ancient gun maker was a stranger. - - ~Disadvantages of breech-loaders.~ - -The great argument against breech-loaders as military weapons is the -expense, their intricate construction, the escape of gas, and the -probable waste of ammunition, in the hands of an uneducated soldier. It -may be briefly answered. - - ~1st. As to expense.~ - -1st.--As to expense, the most destructive weapon, by preventing and -curtailing war, must in the long run be the cheapest. - - ~2nd. As to intricacy.~ - -2nd.--As to intricacy of construction, the soldier is the user, not the -maker of his gun; it matters not how delicate the mechanism of a watch -may be, the only question is, does it continue to go well!! And who dare -say that the brains of man shall never suggest a simple mode of -construction. Of course anything fragile would be totally unfit for -military purposes. The escape of gas has been entirely overcome. - - ~3rd. As to waste of ammunition.~ - -3rd.--As to waste of ammunition, is it absolutely necessary that a -soldier should remain uneducated? Are not soldiers men? And men can be -taught almost anything, or are they incapable of being taught? Does a -soldier fire how, when and where he chooses? Is it too high an -aspiration that the British army should carry the best arm that can be -made, to be placed in the hands of a taught and skilful soldier, acting -under the guidance and control of intelligent officers? - - ~Breech-loaders highly improved.~ - - ~Ammunition the difficulty.~ - -As far as the arm only is concerned, breech-loaders have now (1860) -attained a high degree of perfection, as is proved by the deserved -celebrity of that made by Mr. Westley Richards. The only remaining -difficulty is one of ammunition. Loose powder cannot be employed in -loading with a breech as it can with a muzzle-loader. We are up to this -time under the necessity of introducing the whole of the cartridge, this -of course augments fouling and lessens accuracy; there is also increased -difficulty in producing ignition through the fold of the cartridge -paper. - - ~Capt. Brown’s compressed powder.~ - -Recently a most ingenious mode of compressing the grains of powder -contained in a charge into one mass, so that every description of rifle -may be rapidly loaded without any paper, has been invented by Captain -Brown, R. N., and I have every hope and confidence that the only -remaining breech-loading difficulty may now be considered overcome. - - ~Advantages of breech-loaders.~ - - ~1st. Celerity.~ - - ~2nd. Load lying down.~ - - ~3rd. Easily cleaned.~ - - ~4th. Solid ball.~ - -The advantages of breech-loaders, are, 1st.--Celerity of fire, about ten -rounds a minute have been attained. 2nd.--The soldier can load while -lying flat on the ground. 3rd.--The barrel can be easily cleaned and -examined as to its state. 4th.--A solid ball can be fired, and with less -windage. - - ~Self capping.~ - -Various modes of self capping have been brought forward, but that by -Maynard seems to merit the preference; time is further economized, and -the powers of the breech-loader thereby increased. - - ~Cavalry have breech-loaders.~ - -Our cavalry regiments in India, are partially armed with breech-loading -rifles, and all their pistols are rifled, and upon the tige principle. - - ~Rifles universal in English army.~ - -The whole of our Guards, regular Infantry, Royal Marines, Militia, and -Royal Engineers, are armed with rifles, and the Carabine used by the -Royal Artillery, is also rifled. All our Colonial corps are supplied -with rifled arms, with the exception of the Native corps, serving in the -East Indies and Ceylon. - - ~In larger numbers.~ - - ~Taught to use.~ - - ~Prizes.~ - -Thus rifles are introduced in larger numbers and of better quality in -the armies of England, in proportion to their numbers, than amongst any -other nation. While more care and expense is incurred in qualifying our -soldiers efficiently to use them. In illustration of which, it is only -needful to call attention to the simple fact that £20,000 per annum is -distributed as a stimulus to the marksmen of the British army, for which -boon all honour to our Royal Commander-in-Chief. - - ~Explosive shells.~ - -The idea has recently been revived to increase the destructive powers of -Infantry, by furnishing them with shells, with which they may explode -ammunition waggons, artillery limbers, &c., &c., to the distance of -1,000 yards. Captain Norton, Mr. Dyer, Colonel Jacobs, and Mr. -Whitworth, have directed their minds to this most important subject. - - - - -ON RIFLING. - - -It has been stated that amongst the different gun makers who assembled -at Woolwich, for the carrying on of experiments in 1851, no two agreed -upon any one thing; and in 1860, it may still be averred, with almost -equal truth, and that it yet remains an unsettled question as to the -form, width, depth, number or degree of spirality of the grooves, as -also the harmony which should subsist between the grooves, diameter of -bore, the form and weight of projectile, and the quality and quantity of -charge. - - ~Description of Rifles.~ - - ~Advantages of a rifle.~ - -Robins, in 1742, says, “rifles though well known on the continent, being -but little used in England, it is necessary to give a short description -of their make. The rifle has its cylinder cut with a number of spiral -channels, so that it is in reality a female screw, varying from the -fabric of common screws, only in this, that its threads or rifles are -less deflected and approach more to a straight line.” The advantage of a -rifle (with a round bullet), is that the axis of rotation not being in -any accidental position, as in a smooth bore, but coincident with the -line of its flight, it follows that the resistance on the fore part of -the bullet is equally distributed round the centre of gravity, and acts -with an equal force on every side of the line of direction, and also -should the resistance be greater on one side of the bullet than the -other from irregularities on its surface, as this part continually -shifts its position round the line in which it is proceeding, the -deflections which this irregularity would occasion are neutralized. With -an elongated projectile rifling also prevents it from rotating round its -shorter axis. - - ~Rifling invented in Germany.~ - - ~Rifles used 1498.~ - - ~Straight grooves.~ - -It is to the artizans of Germany, that the rifle owes its origin, as at -the close of the fifteenth century barrels with straight grooves were -used by the citizens of Leipsic, at target practice, in 1498, and the -invention of grooving or rifling fire-arms is generally supposed to be -the result more of accident than theory. In Dean’s Manual of fire-arms, -it is stated that, “the idea of grooving arms in the direction of the -axis of the barrel to receive the residium of the powder, and thereby, -not only facilitate the loading, but increase both the bite or forcing -of the ball, by impressing upon it the grooves, and thus maintain it -during its passage through the barrel in a direction more in harmony -with the line of fire, was doubtless a conception based upon no previous -theory or practice now to be traced, but was formed in that -suggestiveness which in the individual founds for itself a theory based -upon the likelihood of possible result. Upon trial also of the straight -grooves a greater precision for short distances would have been -observed than with the smooth bore.” This must of itself therefore have -led to the establishment of a certain grade of theory which it was -endeavoured to amplify by various means, such as increasing the number -of grooves, then of changing the inclination of grooves from the -straight line to the spiral. - -To deem that the practised crack “shots and armourers of a time when -target practice was the constant recreation of the citizen, and his -pride to excel in, were so brainless as to conceive no theory, -unelaborated though it may have been, and that all their even now -admired efforts in Germany, were the products of mere accident, is -therefore scarcely a rational supposition.” - - ~Spiral grooves, by Koster, of Nuremberg in 1522.~ - -It is stated that Koster, of Nuremburg, in 1522, first suggested giving -a spiral form to the grooves, and experience proved that much greater -accuracy of shooting was the result. - - ~Damer of Nuremberg, 1552.~ - -In 1552, Damer, of Nuremburg, made some great improvements in rifles, -but we are not aware of their precise nature. - - ~Koster of Nuremberg, 1620.~ - -Koster, of Nuremburg, who died 1630, by some authorities is said to have -discovered that straight grooves did not fulfil the intentions of their -inventor, and to have been the first who suggested spiral grooves in -1620. - - ~Robins first explained action of grooves.~ - - ~Robins structure of rifles.~ - - ~Modes of loading.~ - -The important stage next arrived at was the scientific explanation of -the true value of spiral grooves. The honor of this entirely belongs to -our countryman, Benjamin Robins, who in his Principles of Gunnery, gives -a complete and satisfactory explanation of the action of the grooves in -determining the flight of the bullet. Robins states that “the degree of -spirality, the number of threads, the depth the channel are cut down to, -are not regulated according to any invariable rule, but differ according -to the country where the work is performed, and the caprice of the -artificer. The most usual mode of charging rifles is by forcing the ball -with a strong rammer and mallet. But in some parts of Germany and -Switzerland, an improvement is made by cutting a piece of very thin -leather or fustian in a circular shape, somewhat larger than the bore, -which being greased on one side is laid upon the muzzle with its greasy -part downwards, and the bullet being placed upon it, is then forced down -the barrel with it. When this is practised the rifles are generally -shallow, and the bullet ought not to be too large. - - ~Early rifles, breech-loaders.~ - -As both these methods of charging rifles take up a good deal of time; -the rifled barrels which have been made in England, (for I remember not -to have seen it in any foreign piece,) are contrived to be charged at -the breech, where the piece is made larger, and the powder and bullet -are put in through an opening in the side of the barrel, which, when the -piece is loaded is fitted up with a screw. And perhaps somewhat of this -kind, though not in the manner now practised, would be of all others the -most perfect method for the construction of these sorts of barrels.” - - -ON THE NUMBER, FORM &c., &c., &c., OF THE GROOVES. - - ~Number of grooves.~ - - ~Degree of spirality.~ - -Almost every description of twist, number, &c., &c., of grooves have -been tried, according to the individual tastes and theories of the -manufacturers. It is absolutely necessary to have two grooves, as a -single one would give a wrong direction. Rifles have been made with, -from two to one hundred and thirty three grooves, and in the majority of -cases, an odd seems to have been preferred to an even number. In Dean’s -Manual it is stated, that “in the numerous collections of arms that have -at various times come under our personal notice, some were rifled with -straight, but the majority with grooves in a spiral line, sometimes with -a half, sometimes a three quarter, and seldom more than a whole turn in -a length of two, two and a half and three feet; deviations based upon no -principle transmitted to us, but requiring nevertheless a decided -research for principles upon which to establish a theory; we have also -met with every one of those configurations of the spiral and form of -groove, &c., &c., which have been arrogated as modern conceits and -discoveries.” - - ~Spirality.~ - -Some rifles have sharp muzzle twist decreasing to the breech;--sharp -breech twist decreasing to the muzzle; an increase of twist in the -middle of the barrel decreasing at both extremities. - - ~Modification in France. 1740.~ - -In France a modification of the Carabine took place in 1740;--the -grooves were made to begin at eight inches from the muzzle, the unrifled -part being of the same calibre as the bottom of the grooves, so that the -bullet might pass easily; thus also facilitating the loading of the -weapon. - - ~Rifled only at muzzle.~ - -There is an old rifle in the United Service Institution, and also a -barrel brought from Lucknow, (in the Model Room of the School of -Musketry,) grooved only for about one foot from the muzzle, the -remainder of the barrels are smooth bored. - - ~Degree of spirality.~ - -The degree of spirality is found to vary from a whole turn in 1 foot -5-in., to a whole turn in 11 feet. - - ~Depth of spiral.~ - -The depth of grooves vary from ·005 of an inch, to about ·125; and some -rifles have been made with an alternate deep and shallow groove. - - ~Form of grooves.~ - -Grooves have been made round, circular, triangular, rectangular, and -indefinite, alternate round and angular, elliptical, polygonal; and some -cut deep only on one side. - - ~Proportion of groove to land.~ - -Some gun makers are of opinion that there should be a greater proportion -of groove or furrow than of land or plain surface, because they say the -ball is thus more firmly held, while others maintain that by diminishing -the number of the grooves, the accuracy and range would be increased, -and this has led to the opposite theory, that perhaps if anything, the -plain surface of the bore should predominate over the grooved. - - ~Form of early grooves straight.~ - -The earliest rifles had two straight deep creases opposite to each -other, the bullet being spherical, and furnished with small circular -knots of lead, large enough to fill the creases. - - ~Form &c., of ancient rifles.~ - -The greater number of ancient rifles have a whole turn, with an odd -number of deep and rounded grooves; hence we may infer these were -considered the best forms. - - ~Objects of rifling.~ - -As accuracy of direction is the result of a spiral motion round an axis -coincident with the flight of the bullet, communicated to it by the -grooves, it is clear that the depth, number, and form of the grooves -should be such as will hold the bullet firmly, and prevent all tendency -to strip. - - ~On the degree of spirality.~ - - ~Sharp twist and large charge not cause stripping.~ - -The degree of spirality should be sufficient to retain the projectile -point foremost during the whole of its flight. It was at one time -supposed that if the spiral turn was great, and the charge strong, the -bullet would not conform, but strip, and that the same results would -occur even with grooves but little curved. Unquestionably this would -prove true if certain limits were to be exceeded. A false conclusion was -built upon this theory, viz., that the greater the spiral turn the less -the charge should be; and that therefore in rifles intended for war, the -greatest initial velocity being required to produce the greatest range, -the groove should have as little turn as possible; for extreme ranges -have been obtained with Jacob’s, Whitworth’s, and Lancaster’s rifles; -the first has a full turn in 24in. the second in 20in. These rifles -perform well with 90 grains of powder, and both Whitworth’s and -Lancaster’s might even fire better were the charge of powder increased -to 100 grains, the recoil might be objectionable while there would be no -symptoms of stripping. - - ~On depth of groove.~ - -Great depth of groove can only be hurtful, owing to the difficulty of -closing up all passage to the gas, which should not be allowed to escape -round the bullet, as this would cause deviation and shorten range. Deep -grooves become a receptacle for fouling, are difficult to clean; and -high projections must offer great resistance to the atmosphere, and -particularly to a side wind. - - ~Patches.~ - -When fustian or leather are used as patches, they receive and -communicate the spiral motion to the bullet, without the zone of the -projectile being at all indented, but in this case the spiral must be -diminished, otherwise the bullet would not turn with the grooves. If the -patches be made of a thick material, the grooves should be many, broad, -and not too shallow, in order to receive the folds of the patch. - - ~Shallow grooves best.~ - -From our present amount of experience it seems safe to conclude that the -shallower the grooves are the better, so that they perform their -intended functions. - - ~Proportion of groove to land.~ - -It is now generally recommended that the grooves be made broader than -the lands, _i.e._, that the rifling surface should predominate over the -unrifled part of the bore. Shallow grooves with rounded edges, have the -advantage of not leaving any angular traces on the surface of the -bullet, besides they afford a greater facility for cleaning. - - ~Circular grooving.~ - -Circular grooving is composed of segments of circles, leaving no sharp -edges on the bullet, and is no doubt a very good form. - - ~Gaining twist.~ - - ~Cause of canting.~ - -An American gentleman named Chapman, who has written a very clever book -upon the rifle, is a strong advocate for the “gaining twist,” which form -prevails generally in American rifles. He states, “In a rifled barrel, -it is obvious that a bullet instantaneously started from a state of -rest, with a velocity of 5,000ft. a second, must exert at the moment of -starting, a tendency to move along the bore in a straight line. However, -meeting with the resistance that the lands employ to keep it to the -twist, it communicates to the rifle itself a certain amount of motion in -the direction of the twist of the creases, and this as the angle of the -twist increases, combined with the size of the calibre, and the weight -of the ball.” - - ~Remedy for canting.~ - -“If the angle of the twist at the breech end can be reduced, the bullet -at the same time leaving the muzzle with sufficient spin to last -throughout its flight, it is certain we shall have less twisting of the -rifle in the marksman’s hands, less friction of the bullet against the -lands, less tendency for the bullet to upset, (or be destroyed,) and -consequently, from obtaining a higher velocity, (because enabled to use -a greater quantity of powder,) less time for the action of regular or -irregular currents of air.” - - ~Uniform spiral by American Government.~ - -After careful experiments by the American Government, preparatory to the -establishing the model for their Military Rifle, it was decided that the -turn for the grooves should be uniform; and that those with an -increasing twist did not give any superiority of accuracy. The “gaining -twist,” although adopted by Mr. Lancaster, is opposed by Mr. Whitworth, -and all other Rifle manufacturers, and our increased experience does not -prove it to possess any advantages over uniform spirality. Theory would -indicate that it must occasion increased friction. - - ~Decreasing spiral.~ - -Mr. Greener advocates decreasing spirality. It is to be hoped he is the -only advocate for so seemingly absurd an idea. To give a certain measure -of spiral turn at the breech, to be withdrawn gradually as the bullet -reaches the muzzle, is simply ridiculous, and which, with other conceits -previously referred to, it is to be hoped are no more to be repeated. - - ~Polygonal rifling.~ - -By the desire of our first Patron, the late Lord Hardinge, Mr. Whitworth -was induced to turn his mechanical genius to the Soldier’s Gun, which -resulted in his adopting the polygonal form of bore. His barrel is -hexagonal, and thus, instead of consisting of non-effective lands, and -partly of grooves, consists entirely of effective rifling surfaces. The -angular corners of the hexagon are always rounded. Supposing a bullet of -a cylindrical shape to be fired, when it begins to expand it is driven -into the recesses of the hexagon. It thus adapts itself to the curves of -the spiral, and the inclined sides of the hexagon offering no direct -resistance, expansion is easily effected. - - ~Westley Richards octagonal.~ - -Mr. Westley Richards has followed Mr. Whitworth, by using a polygonal -bore, having applied his highly meritorious system of breech-loading to -a barrel upon the Whitworth principle, of an octagonal form. - - ~Eliptic rifling.~ - - ~By Captain Berner, 1835.~ - - ~By Mr. Lancaster.~ - -The cardinal feature of this structure is, that the bore of the barrel -is smooth, and instead of being circular, is cut into the form of an -ellipse, i.e., it has a major and minor axis. Upon being expanded by the -force of the powder, the bullet is forced into the greater axis of the -ellipse, which performs the office of the grooves, rifling the -projectile, and imparting to it the spiral or normal movement round its -own axis. In 1835 a Captain Berner submitted his elliptical bore musket -to the inspection and trial of the Royal Hanoverian Commission, -appointed for that purpose, and which gave results so satisfactory, that -it was considered admirably adapted for the Jäger and Light Infantry -Battalions. This principle has been patented by Mr. Lancaster, and the -advantages of this form have been previously adverted to. - - ~Odd number of grooves.~ - -It is supposed by some persons that if the number of grooves be even, so -that they will be opposite to one another, the bullet would then require -more force to enlarge it, so as to fill them properly. If the number be -unequal, the lands will be opposite to the grooves, and the lead, in -forcing, spreading on all sides, will encounter a land opposite to each -groove, which will in some measure repel it, and render its introduction -into the opposite groove more complete. - -This ingenious theory is set at nought by Whitworth, Jacobs, Lancaster, -W. Richards, &c., &c., who all recommended an even number of grooves, -while the Government arms have an odd number. - - ~Drift or cant.~ - -If the grooves twist or turn over from left to right, the balls will be -carried to the right; and if from right to left, they will group to the -left; and this result will be great in proportion to the degree of -spirality. The causes of Drift or “Derivation” will be treated of -hereafter. We know from observation that the majority of balls strike to -the right of the mark. The recoil and _pulling_ the trigger throw back -the right shoulder, which tend to increase the “derivation” to the -right. If the twist were, then, from _right_ to _left_, the drift, error -from _pulling_, and from recoil, would tend to neutralize each other; -the twist of the grooves should therefore be from right to left, instead -of the present universal practice of from _left_ to right. - - ~On length of barrel.~ - - ~Favors expansion.~ - - ~Assists aiming, firing two deep: when using bayonet.~ - -The barrel of a gun may be looked upon as a machine in which force is -generated for the propulsion of the bullet. It is well known that the -continued action of a lesser force, will produce a much greater effect, -than a greater amount of power applied suddenly; hence mild gunpowder is -more suitable for rifle shooting than strong, or that which evolves the -whole of its gas instantaneously. Time is necessary for the entire -combustion of a charge of gunpowder, consequently more mild gunpowder -can be fired out of a long, than out of a short barrel, as if fired out -of a short barrel, some of the grains might be ejected unconsumed. All -extra length, after the last volume of gas is evolved, can only be -injurious, by causing loss of velocity from friction. A billiard ball -would travel none the further nor straighter, were it to be propelled -through a hollow tube, neither would a barrel to a cross bow aid in -killing rooks. A barrel favours expansion of the bullet, which is -produced by the force of the generated gas, opposed by the column of air -in the hollow tube and by the motion of the projectile. Facility in -aiming is promoted by the sights being distant from each other. In a -military arm a certain length is necessary in order to fire when two -deep in the ranks, and length is also advantageous, should the rifle be -used as a pike. - - ~Advantages of short rifle.~ - - ~Disadvantages of short rifles.~ - -The short rifle can be held steadier when standing, by a weak man, and -during wind, it is handy when passing through a wood or thicket, and a -very short man has more command of his gun when loading; but with the -sword bayonet, it is heavier than the long Enfield and bayonet; while -the sword is very inconvenient when running, firing kneeling, or lying -down. - - ~Thickness of barrel.~ - -Great substance was at one time considered necessary for accurate -firing, it being supposed necessary to prevent vibrations in the barrel; -this is true within certain limits, and the heavier the charge, the -heavier the metal ought to be, especially at the breech, but diminishing -the thickness, has been proved in no wise to lessen the accuracy. A -heavy barrel also lessens recoil, but it would be folly to carry more -weight than would neutralize the recoil which could be produced by a -greater charge of powder than could be consumed in a given length of -barrel. - - ~Size of bore.~ - -The two grand requirements of a soldier’s gun are, celerity of loading, -combined with accuracy at long ranges; and the distance at which he -should have the power of firing, should be limited by the strength of -his eye. The weight of the projectile being fixed (·530 grs.), good -shooting at extreme distances can only be obtained by reducing the -diameter of the bore, which, lessening the frontage of the bullet, -causes it to experience less resistance from the air; it therefore -retains a higher degree of velocity than a larger bullet of the same -form and weight, and therefore travels further and faster. Gravity has -less time to act upon it, in a given distance, and therefore it can be -fired at a lower angle, or has what we call a lower trajectory, and its -accuracy is increased in direct proportion to the lowness of its flight, -all other things being equal. - - ~Best form of rifling still undetermined.~ - -While the best form, &c., &c., for rifles is not yet determined, there -are many points upon which the generality of persons seem more agreed, -viz., reduction of bore to about ¹⁄₂-in. in diameter, fewer grooves, -shorter barrel, and with increased spirality; at least, one may safely -say that ideas seem to travel in this direction. - - -ON RIFLE PROJECTILES. - - ~Projectiles used in early guns.~ - - ~Elliptical iron bullets 1729.~ - -We have learned that out of early Artillery were fired bolts, darts, -bombs, stones and (more recently) iron shot. From the harquebus and -musket: arrows, darts, quarrels, sprites, iron, and lastly leaden -spherical balls. Some assert that the idea of lengthened eliptical -bullets was enunciated so far back as 1729, and that good results -followed their employment, but it is doubtful whether such really did -take place. - - ~Leutman.~ - -Leutman, in his “History of St. Petersburgh,” says that “it is very -profitable to fire elliptical balls out of rifled arms, particularly -when they are made to enter by force.” - - ~Robins 1742.~ - -Robins, in 1742, recommended the use of projectiles of an egg like form, -(see plate 20, fig. 12), they were to be fired with the heavy end in -front, to keep the centre of gravity forward. - - ~Beaufoy 1812.~ - -Colonel Beaufoy, in a work called “Scloppetaria,” 1812, remarks that -several experiments have been tried with egg-shaped bullets, recommended -by Robins. It was found, however, that these bullets were subject to -such occasional random ranges, as completely baffled the judgment of the -shooters to counteract their irregularity. Their deviations to windward -most likely arose from the effect of the wind on the after part, which, -as being the lightest of the two, was driven more to leeward, and -consequently acted as a rudder to throw the foremost end up to the wind. - - ~Turpin 1770.~ - -In 1770 Messrs. Turpin tried elongated bullets, at La Fiere, and at -Metz. - - ~Rifled guns &c., 1776.~ - -We are informed, in the Annual Register for 1776, and also in the Scots -Magazine for the same year, that rifled Ordnance were experimented with -at Languard Fort, &c., &c., in 1774. Dr. Lind, one of the inventors, -states that to remedy the deflection of shot, “One way is to use bullets -that are not round but oblong. But in our common guns that are not -rifled, I know no way to prevent deflection, except you choose to shoot -with a rifled bullet.” - - ~Elongated projectiles 1789.~ - - ~1800 and 1815.~ - -Elongated Projectiles were tried in the years 2, 6, and 9 of the -Revolution, by Mons. Guitton de Moreau. They were proposed by Mons. -Bodeau. In 1800 and 1815 the Prussians tried ellipsodical bullets. -Colonel Miller, Colonel Carron, Captain Blois, and others, also -experimented with the cylindro-conical form. - - ~Captain Norton 1824.~ - -Captain Norton (late 34th Regt.), the original inventor of the -application of the percussion principle to shells for small arms, in -1824, completed an elongated rifle shot and shell, the former precisely -of the form of the Minié bullet, with projections to fit the grooves of -the barrel. - - ~Mr. Greener 1836.~ - -Mr. Greener, in 1836, presented an expanding bullet to the Government -for experiment, (plate 20, fig. 13). It is oval, with a flat end, and -with a perforation extending nearly through. A taper plug, with a head -like a round-topped button, is also cast of a composition of lead and -zinc. The end of the plug being slightly inserted in the perforation, -the ball is inserted either end foremost. When the explosion takes -place, the plug is driven home into the lead, expanding the outer -surface, and thus either filling up the grooves of the rifle, or -destroying the windage of the musket. The result was favourable beyond -calculation. Of about 120 shots by way of experiment, a man was able to -load three times to one of the old musket, and accuracy of range at 350 -yards was as three to one. - - ~Mr Greener’s invention rejected.~ - -Mr. Greener’s invention was rejected, and the only notice he received -from the Board was, it being “a compound,” rendered it objectionable!!! - - ~Mr. Greener rewarded.~ - -The following extract appears in the Estimates of Army Service for -1857-8. “To William Greener, for the first Public Suggestion of the -principle of expansion, commonly called the Minié principle for bullets -in 1836, £1,000.” - - ~Wilkinson 1837.~ - - ~Cork plug 1851.~ - -Many experiments were made by Mr. Wilkinson in 1837, with balls -precisely similar in shape to the Minié, with a conical hole in them, -using a wooden plug; and in 1851 experiments were tried at Woolwich with -a soft elastic cork, fitting the aperture in the projectile very -closely, the compression of which it was conceived would sufficiently -expand the cylindrical part, and make it fit the grooves, &c. In some -instances it succeeded perfectly, but in many the cork was driven -through the lead. - - ~Gen. Jacobs.~ - - ~Form of leaden bullet destroyed.~ - - ~Zinc point to bullets.~ - -Major-General Jacobs for many years carried on a series of experiments -with rifles, and in 1846 submitted a military rifle, with an elongated -projectile, for experiments, to the Government at home, and also to that -in India. It did not meet with approval in England, and the Company cut -the matter short by stating, that what was good enough for the Royal -Army was good enough for theirs. There is nothing peculiar in General -Jacob’s rifle. He recommends an elongated projectile (plate 20, fig. 14) -solid at the base, cast with four raised flanges to fit into the -grooves. General Jacobs states, that the desired initial velocity could -not be produced with a projectile made entirely of lead, as a slight -increase of charge had the effect of destroying the form of the -projectile. He also states that the limit of the powers of leaden balls -having been attained, it became necessary to find a method of -constructing rifle balls, so that the fore part should be capable of -sustaining the pressure of large charges of fired gunpowder, without -change of form, and retain that shape best adapted for overcoming the -resistance of the air, on which all accurate distant practice depends; -and at the same time having the part of the ball next the powder -sufficiently soft and yielding to spread out under its pressure, so as -to fill the barrel and grooves perfectly air tight. And he professes to -have solved the problem, by having the fore part of the bullet cast of -zinc, in a separate mould. - - ~Expansion by hollow bore.~ - -Captain Delvigne, who had been experimenting since 1828, proposed the -adoption of lengthened bullets, consisting of a cylinder terminated by a -cone, which was subsequently replaced by an ogive. He obtained a patent -dated 21st June, 1841, “For having hollowed out the base of my -cylindro-conical bullet, to obtain its expansion by the effect of the -gases produced through the ignition of the powder.” - - ~Hollow in case to throw centre of gravity forward.~ - -The main object of Captain Delvigne in hollowing the base was, to throw -the centre of gravity forward; but a Captain Blois, in France, had -previously tried this important suggestion. Captain Delvigne states, if -the hollow is too deep, the expansion is too great, and the consequent -friction enormous; or the gas may pass through the bullet, and leave a -hollow cylinder of lead within the barrel. Sometimes the gas will -traverse the sides of the bullet, and consequently the projectile is -deprived of a proportionate amount of velocity; if too small, the -expansion does not take place. - - ~Capt. Minié iron cup.~ - -Captain Minié, an instructor of the School at Vincennes, merely fitted -into this hollow an iron cup, hoping to prevent the gas forcing its way -through the bullet, and that the iron pressing upon the lead should -increase the expansion. (Plate 20, fig. 7). - - ~Groove suppressed.~ - -A perfect bullet was now supposed to have been discovered, of a -cylindro-ogival form, (no part was a true cylinder), having a groove -originally intended to fasten on a greased patch, and in some cases the -cartridge, but the patch being dispensed with, and the cartridge -reversed, the groove, supposed to be useless, was suppressed. - - ~Results.~ - -People were then surprised to find that firing lost much of its -accuracy, and the groove was replaced; when it was observed that any -variation in its shape and in its position, materially affected the -practice. Not only variations in the grooves caused great alteration in -the accuracy of fire, but any modification bearing on the trunk in rear, -or on the fore-ogive, altered the conditions of the firing, so that the -groove became lost in the midst of so many other principles, the -functions of which were so much unknown. These theoretical -considerations served, however, as a point of departure for further -investigations. - - ~Tamisier lengthened bullets.~ - -Captain Tamisier had not ceased for several years, concentrating his -attention on the subject. He varied the length of the cylindrical part -and the angle of the cone, and tried experiments with bullets of 5-in. -in length, and obtained considerable range, and great accuracy with -them; the recoil however was excessive, and to use such bullets heavier -arms, a smaller bore, and other modifications would be necessary. - - ~Centre of gravity formed by blunting tips.~ - -He endeavoured to carry the centre of gravity to the furthest possible -point forward, (which Robins suggested 100 years before), but to effect -this he was compelled to flatten the fore end of the bullet, which had -the disadvantage of increasing the resistance of the air to the movement -of projection. - - ~Path rectified by resistance in rear.~ - - ~Many cannelures.~ - -He was then led to another plan for rectifying the path of the bullet -through each instant of projection, and which was by creating at the -posterior end, resistances, which should act in case the axis of the -bullet did not coincide with the direction of motion, and this was -carried out by cutting upon the cylindrical part, instead of one, as -many circular grooves of ·28 in depth, as that cylindrical, or rather, -slightly conical, part could contain. An increased precision in firing -was the immediate result. (Plate 20, fig 15.) - - ~Shape of cannelures.~ - -Feeling his way most carefully, Captain Tamisier then made a great -number of experiments in this direction, and perceived that it was -important to render the posterior surface of the grooves as sharp as -possible, so as to augment the action of the air; for these grooves lose -their shape, owing to the lead, from its malleable nature, yielding -under the strokes of the ramrod. - - ~Elongated Projectiles, whose Centres of Gravity do not correspond - with Centre of Figure.~ - - ~Action of the air.~ - -Elongated projectiles, whose centres of gravity do not exactly coincide -with the centre of figure, when they do not turn over, tend to preserve -their axis in the primary direction which was imparted to them, in the -same manner as an imperfectly feathered arrow flying with little -velocity, the point of the moving body being constantly above the -trajectory, and its axis making a certain angle (plate 21, fig 1) with -the target to the curve. Therefore the part A.B. of the bullet being -exposed to the direct action of the air’s resistance, the atmospherical -fluid is compressed on the surface A.B., and rarified upon that of A.C. -Hence it will be perceived that the compressed fluid supports the moving -body, and prevents its descending as rapidly as would a spherical -bullet, which is constructed to meet the same direct resistance from the -air. This trajectory will therefore be more elongated than that of the -spherical bullet in question. - - ~Remedied by the grooves.~ - - ~Cause of deviation.~ - - ~Remedy.~ - -But the resistance of the air, acting upon the groove of the projectile, -produces, on the lower part of this groove, an action which tends to -bring back its point upon the trajectory, yet with so little force, that -often, in its descent, the projectile turns over, and moves breadthways -at ranges of 1000 and 1200 yards. The lower side of the projectile, -therefore, moving in the compressed air, and the upper in the rarified -air, deviation must ensue, for, as the upper part of the bullet moves -from left to right, the bottom must move from right to left. But the -lower resistance to the motion of rotation being produced by the -friction of the compressed air, is greater than the upper resistance, -which depends on the friction of the rarified air. By combining these -two resistances, there results a single force, acting from left to -right, which produces what Captain Tamisier termed “derivation,” and it -was to overcome this derivation that this officer proposed the circular -grooves to the bullet, which he considered would act, like the feathers -of the arrow, to maintain the moving body in its trajectory. - - ~How to obtain knowledge of the bullet’s rotation.~ - - ~By the arrow.~ - - ~Use of feathers on arrows.~ - -If, however, we would wish to obtain some idea of the rotatory motion of -a bullet in its path through the air, let us consider the action of the -arrow, and see how it is constructed, so that the resistance of the air -should not act in an unfavourable manner. First, nearly all its weight -is concentrated at the point, so that its centre of gravity is close to -it. At the opposite end feathers are placed, the heaviest of which does -not affect the centre of gravity, but gives rise to an amount of -resistance in rear of the projectile, and which prevents its ever taking -a motion of rotation perpendicular to its longer axis, and keeps it in -the direction of its projection. This difficulty which the arrow finds -in changing its direction must concur in preventing its descending so -rapidly as it would do were it only to obey the law of gravity, and must -therefore render its trajectory more uniform. - - ~Similar effects on bullet with grooves.~ - -Let us, however, now come back to the grooves of Mons. Tamisier, and we -shall find that they concur in giving to the bullet the two actions of -the resistance of the air, which we have demonstrated with respect to -the arrow. - - ~Effect of grooves.~ - -Suppose that such a bullet describes the trajectory M, and A.B. be the -position of its axis, it will be seen that the lower part of the bullet -re-establishes the air compressed, whilst the upper part finds itself in -the rarified air. That, consequently the lower parts of the cannelures -are submitted to the direct action of the air’s resistance, whilst their -upper parts totally escape this action. (Plate 21, fig. 2). The -resultant of the air’s resistance evidently tends to bring back the -point of the moving body, according to the trajectory; but as this -action is produced by the pressure of an elastic fluid, it results that -the point B, after having been an instant upon the trajectory, will fall -below, in virtue of the velocity acquired; but then the upper grooves -finding themselves acted on by the action of the air’s resistance, this -action, joined to its weight, will force the point of the projectile -upwards, which will descend to come up again, so that the projectile -will have throughout its flight a vertical swing, which is seen -distinctly enough in arrows. - - ~Union of Robins and Tamisier.~ - -Let us connect the suggestion of Robins, with the experiments of Captain -Tamisier, to cause the posterior end to act as a rudder to guide the -projectile in its true path, as undoubtedly during the descent of a -bullet there is a tendency for the centre of gravity to fall first, as -the ball of the shuttlecock. In the first Prussian balls, and in those -used in the Tige, the centre of gravity being nearer the base, the rear -end of these balls have a tendency to fall before the foremost, but this -is most undoubtedly counteracted by grooves, while it would be -impossible to fire an elongated projectile with its centre of gravity -backwards, with any accuracy out of a smooth-bored gun. - - ~Cannelures improved shooting.~ - - ~Why none in English bullet.~ - -Captain Jervis says that these grooves have the effect of improving the -accuracy of firing when the bullets are not perfectly homogeneous, is -certain, but the British Committee on small arms justly considered that -owing to the careful way in which the bullets are made in England by -compression, these grooves might be dispensed with. - - ~Variety of forms.~ - - ~Auxiliaries to expansion, various.~ - -Almost every conceivable form of projectile, internal and external, have -been made and experimented upon. Auxiliaries to expansion have been -used, made of metal, horn, wood, and leather, with plugs, screws, or -cups of divers shapes. Cannelures are used, of varying forms, depth and -number. - - ~Rotation from smooth bores.~ - -It has even been attempted to construct bullets upon the screw -principle, so that the projectile should receive spirality from the -action of the air upon its outer or inner surface, when fired out of a -smooth bore musket. - - ~General characteristics of modern rifles.~ - -The general characteristics of the European rifles, up to 1850, are a -very large calibre, a comparatively light short barrel, with a quick -twist, _i.e._, about one turn in three feet, sometimes using a patch, -and sometimes not, the bullet circular, and its front part flattened by -starting and ramming down. - - ~American alterations.~ - -It appears that the introduction of additional weight in the barrel, -reduction in the size of the calibre, the constant use of the patch, a -slower twist, generally one turn in 6ft., combined with (what is now -known to be a detriment) great length of barrel, are exclusively -American. - - ~Picket bullet.~ - -A round ended picket (plate 20, fig. 16), was occasionally used in some -parts of the States, until the invention of Mr. Allen Clarke, of the -flat ended picket, which allows a much greater charge of powder, -producing greater velocity, and consequently less variation in a side -wind. - - ~On the comparative merits of rifles.~ - - ~Points in a perfect rifle.~ - -A rifle may perform first rate at short ranges, and fail entirely at -long, while a rifle which will fire well at extreme ranges can never -fail of good shooting at short. In fact certain calibres, &c., &c., &c., -perform best at certain distances, and in the combinations of a perfect -rifle there are certain points to be attended to, or the weapon will be -deficient and inferior. - - ~Velocity.~ - -It is desirable to give a bullet as much velocity as it can safely be -started with, and the limit is the recoil of the gun, and the liability -of the bullets to be upset or destroyed, for as soon as this upsetting -takes place, the performance becomes inferior, and the circle of error -enlarged. - - ~Degree of twist.~ - -It is clear that a bullet projected with sufficient twist to keep it -steady in boisterous and windy weather, must of necessity have more -twist than is actually necessary in a still favourable time; hence a -rifle for general purposes, should always have too much twist rather -than too little. - - ~Weight of bullet.~ - -The weight of the bullet must be proportioned to the distance it is -intended to be projected with the greatest accuracy; for it is a law, -that with bodies of the same densities, small ones lose their momentum -sooner than large ones. It would be madness to use a bullet ninety to -the pound at nine hundred yards, merely because it performed first rate -at two hundred yards; or a forty to the pound at two hundred yards, -because it performed well at nine hundred yards. The reason is that a -forty to the pound cannot be projected with as much velocity at two -hundred yards, as the ninety to the pound can, because the ninety uses -more powder in proportion to the weight of the bullet than the forty -does. Again, the heavier bullet performs better than the lighter one at -nine hundred yards, simply because the momentum of the light ball is -nearly expended at so long a range as nine hundred yards, and its -rotatory motion is not enough to keep it in the true line of its flight, -whereas a heavy bullet, having from its weight more momentum, preserves -for a longer distance the twist and velocity with which it started. - - ~Calibre.~ - -As weight of projectile is a leading element in obtaining accuracy at -long ranges, and as the weight cannot be increased beyond a certain -limit in small arm ammunition, hence a small bore is an indispensable -requisite for a perfect rifle. - - ~Result of Mr. Whitworth’s experiments.~ - -In the foregoing brief summary of the most important properties which -should be possessed by a first class rifle, we have dealt in -generalities, but we shall now record the experience of Mr. Whitworth, -who has entered into the most minute details, and has pointed out the -harmony which should subsist between the twist, bore, &c., and the -projectile, in the combinations of a perfect rifle. - - ~Bore and weight limited.~ - -Premising, that when Mr. Whitworth was solicited by the late honored -Lord Hardinge to render the aid of his mechanical genius to the -improvement or perfecting a military weapon, he was restricted as to -length of barrel, viz., 3 feet 3-in., and weight of bullet, ·530 grains. -We shall now proceed and use Mr. Whitworth’s words. - - ~Consideration for curve.~ - -“Having noticed the form (hexagonal) of the interior which provides the -best rifling surfaces, the next thing to be considered is the proper -curve which rifled barrels ought to possess, in order to give the -projectile the necessary degree of rotation.” - - ~Hexagonal form admits of quick turn.~ - -“With the hexagonal barrel, I use much quicker turn and can fire -projectiles of any required length, as with the quickest that may be -desirable they do not ‘strip.’ I made a short barrel with one turn in -the inch (simply to try the effect of an extreme velocity of rotation) -and found that I could fire from it mechanically--fitting projectiles -made of an alloy of lead and tin, with a charge of 35 grains of powder -they penetrated through seven inches of elm planks.” - - ~Degree of spiral fixed.~ - - ~Diameter of bore determined.~ - -After many experiments, in order to determine the diameter for the bore -and degree of spirality, Mr. Whitworth adds: “For an ordinary military -barrel, 39 inches long, I proposed a ·45-inch bore, with one turn in 20 -inches, which is in my opinion the best for this length. The rotation is -sufficient with a bullet of the requisite specific gravity, for a range -of 2000 yards.” Under these conditions the projectiles on leaving the -gun would be about two and a half diameters of the bore in length. “The -gun responds to every increase of charge, by firing with lower -elevation, from the service charge of 70 grains up to 120 grains; this -latter charge is the largest that can be effectively consumed, and the -recoil then becomes more than the shoulder can conveniently bear with -the weight of the service musket. - - ~Advocates of slow turn.~ - - ~Effects of quick turn.~ - -“The advocates of the slow turn of one in 6 feet 6 inches, consider that -a quick turn causes so much friction as to impede the progress of the -ball to an injurious and sometimes dangerous degree, and to produce loss -of elevation and range; but my experiments show the contrary to be the -case. The effect of too quick a turn, as to friction, is felt in the -greatest degree when the projectile has attained its highest velocity in -the barrel, that is at the muzzle, and is felt in the least degree when -the projectile is beginning to move, at the breech. The great strain put -upon a gun at the instant of explosion is due, not to the resistance of -friction, but to the _vis inertiæ_ of the projectile which has to be -overcome. In a long barrel, with an extremely quick turn, the resistance -offered to the progress of the projectile is very great at the muzzle, -and although moderate charges give good results, the rifle will not -respond to increased charges by giving a better elevation. If the barrel -be cut shorter, an increase of charge then lowers the elevation.” - - ~Objections to increasing spiral.~ - -“The use of an increasing or varying turn is obviously injurious, for -besides altering the shape of the bullet, it causes increased resistance -at the muzzle, the very place where relief is wanted.” - - ~Length and spiral increased.~ - - ~Diameter decreased.~ - - ~Trajectory lowered.~ - -“Finding that all difficulty arising from length of projectiles, is -overcome by giving sufficient rotation, and that any weight that may be -necessary can be obtained by adding to the length, I adopted for the -bullet of the service weight, an increased length, and a reduced -diameter, and obtained a comparatively low trajectory; less elevation is -required, and the path of the projectile lies more nearly in a straight -line, making it more likely to hit any object of moderate height within -range, and rendering mistakes in judging distances of less moment. The -time of flight being shortened, the projectile is very much less -deflected by the action of the wind.” - - ~Proper powder for expanding bullets.~ - - ~Powder for hardened bullets.~ - - ~Consequences of imperfect expansion.~ - - ~Advantages of hexagonal form.~ - -“It is most important to observe that with all expanding bullets proper -powder must be employed. In many cases this kind of bullet has failed, -owing to the use of a slowly igniting powder, which is desirable for a -hard metal projectile, as it causes less strain upon the piece, but is -unsuitable with a soft metal expanding projectile, for which a quickly -igniting powder is absolutely requisite to insure a complete expansion, -which will fill the bore. Unless this is done the gases rush past the -bullet between it and the barrel, the latter becomes foul, the bullet is -distorted, and the shooting must be bad. If the projectiles used be made -of the same hexagonal shape externally as the bore of the barrel -internally, that is, with a mechanical fit, metals of all degrees of -hardness, from lead, or lead and tin, up to hardened steel may be -employed, and slowly igniting powder, like that of the service may be -employed.” - - ~Mr. Whitworth’s claims.~ - -Mr. Whitworth does not lay claim to any originality as inventor of the -polygonal system, but merely brings it forward, as the most certain mode -of securing spiral motion, but he deserves to be honored by all -Riflemen, as having established the degree of spirality, the diameter of -bore, to ensure the best results from a given weight of lead, and length -of barrel. - - -CONCLUSION. - -In achieving the important position obtained by the rifle in the present -day, it has nevertheless effected no more than was predicted of it by -Leutman, the Academician of St. Petersburg, in 1728, by Euler, Borda, -and Gassendi, and by our eminent but hitherto forgotten countryman -Robins, who in 1747, urgently called the attention of the Government and -the public to the importance of this description of fire-arm as a -military weapon. - -In the War of American Independence, the rifle, there long established -as the national arm for the chase, exhibited its superiority as a _war_ -arm also, in so sensible a manner, that we were constrained to oppose to -the American hunters the subsidised Riflemen of Hesse, Hanover, and -Denmark. - - ~Robins’ prophecy.~ - -We shall close by quoting the last words in “Robins’ Tracts of Gunnery.” - -“Whatever State shall thoroughly comprehend the nature and advantages of -rifled barrel pieces, and having facilitated and completed their -construction, shall introduce into their armies their _general_ use with -a _dexterity_ in the _management_ of them; they will by this means -acquire a superiority, which will almost equal anything that has been -done at any time by the particular excellence of any one kind of arms; -and will perhaps fall but little short of the wonderful effects which -histories relate to have been formerly produced by the first inventors -of fire-arms.” - - NOTE.--The preceding articles on the Rifle, Rifling, and Rifle - Projectiles are mainly compiled from: “New Principles of Gunnery, by - Robins,” “Scloppetaria,” “Remarks on National Defence, by Col. the - Hon. A. Gordon,” “Dean’s Manual of Fire Arms,” “Rifle Ammunition, by - Capt. A. Hawes,” “Rifles and Rifle Practice, by C. M. Wilcox,” “Papers - on Mechanical Subjects, by Whitworth,” “The Rifle Musket, by Capt. - Jarvis, Royal Artillery,” “Des Armes Rayees, by H. Mangeot,” “Cours - Elementaire sur les Armes Portatives, by F. Gillion,” and “Cours sur - les Armes a feu Portatives, by L. Panot.” - - - - -THEORETICAL PRINCIPLES. - - -DEFINITIONS. - - ~Matter.~ - -Matter,--everything which has weight. - - ~Body.~ - -Body,--a portion of matter limited in every direction. - - ~Mass.~ - -Mass,--the quantity of matter in any body. - - ~Particle.~ - -Particle,--or material point, is a body of evanescent magnitude, and -bodies of finite magnitude are said to be made up of an indefinite -number of particles, or material points. - - ~Inertia.~ - -Inertia,--passiveness or inactivity. - - ~Attraction.~ - -Attraction,--a fundamental law of nature, that every particle of matter -has a tendency to be attracted towards another particle. - - ~Density.~ - -Density,--is in proportion to the closeness of the particles to each -other. - - ~Volume.~ - -Volume,--the space bounded by the exterior surface of a body, is its -apparent volume or size. - - ~Elasticity.~ - -Elasticity,--a body that yields to pressure, and recovers its figure -again; hence air and gasses are elastic bodies; lead a non-elastic body. - - ~Motion.~ - -Motion,--is the changing of place, or the opposite to a state of rest. - - ~Velocity.~ - -Velocity,--is the rate of motion; there are four rates of motion, viz., -Uniform, Variable, Accelerated, and Retarded. - - ~1st. Uniform.~ - -1st. Uniform,--when a particle traverses equal distances, in any equal -successive portion of time. - - ~2nd. Variable.~ - -2nd. Variable,--when the spaces passed over in equal times, are unequal. - - ~3rd. Accelerated.~ - -3rd. Accelerated,--when the distances traversed in equal times are -successively greater and greater. - - ~4th. Retarded.~ - -4th. Retarded,--when the distances traversed in equal times are -successively less and less. - -Acceleration or Retardation, may also be equal or unequal, that is -uniform or variable. - - ~Friction.~ - -Friction,--arises from the irregularities of the surfaces which act upon -one another. - - ~Force.~ - -Force,--any cause which produces, or tends to produce a change in the -state of rest, or of motion of a particle of matter. - - ~Measure of force.~ - -Forces are measured by comparison with weights. Thus any forces which -will bend a spring into the same positions as weights of 1lb., 2lbs., -3lbs., &c., are called respectively forces of 1lb., 2lbs., 3lbs., &c., -&c. - - ~Momentum.~ - -Momentum,--or quantity of motion. If a body moving at first with a -certain velocity is afterwards observed to move with double or triple -this velocity, the quantity of motion of the body is conceived to be -doubled or tripled, hence the momentum of a body, depends upon its -velocity, as the quantity of motion of a body is the product of the -velocity by the mass or weight. - - ~Laws of motion.~ - -The elementary principles upon which are based all our reasonings -respecting the motions of bodies, are called the “Laws of Motion,” and -as arranged by Sir Isaac Newton, are three in number. - - ~1st Law.~ - -1st. A particle at rest will continue for ever at rest, and a particle -in motion will continue in motion uniformly forward in a straight line, -until it be acted upon by some extraneous force. - - ~2nd Law.~ - -2nd. When any force acts upon a body in motion, the change of motion -which it produces is proportional to the force impressed, and in the -direction of that force. - - ~3rd Law.~ - -3rd. Action and reaction are equal, and in contrary directions. In all -cases the quantity of motion gained by one body is always equal to that -lost by the other in the same direction. Thus, if a ball in motion, -strikes another at rest, the motion communicated to the latter will be -taken from the former, and the velocity of the former be proportionately -diminished. - - ~Centre of Gravity.~ - -Centre of Gravity,--is that point at which the whole weight of the body -may be considered to act, and about which consequently, the body, when -subjected to the force of gravity only, will balance in all positions. - - ~Specific Gravity.~ - -Specific Gravity,--the weight belonging to an equal bulk of every -different substance, and is estimated by the quantities of matter when -the bulks are the same; or in other words, it is the density that -constitutes the specific gravity. It is agreed to make pure rain-water -the standard, to which they refer the comparative weights of all other -bodies. Lead is about eleven times the weight of the same bulk of water. - - ~Initial Velocity.~ - -Initial Velocity is the velocity which a bullet possesses on leaving the -muzzle of a gun; and in the speaking of the velocity of bullets fired -from the musket now used, you understand 1200 feet per second, for the -Initial Velocity. - - ~Angular Velocity.~ - -Angular Velocity is the velocity with which the circular arc is -described; and depends upon the perpendicular distance of the point from -the axis of rotation. - - ~Terminal Velocity.~ - -Terminal Velocity: if a cannon ball were to be let fall from a very -great height, it would by the law of gravity, descend with accelerated -motion towards the earth, but as the resistance of the air increases as -the squares of velocities, a point would be reached when the resistance -would be equal to the force of gravity, from whence it would fall to the -earth in uniform motion. - - ~Eccentric Body.~ - -An Eccentric Body, is one whose centre of figure does not correspond -with the centre of gravity. - - -MOTION OF A PROJECTILE. - - ~Modified by Gravity and air.~ - -If no force were acting upon the projectile, except the explosive force -of gunpowder, it would by the first law of motion, move on for ever in -the line in which it was discharged; this motion is modified by the -action of two forces, viz., gravity and the resistance of the air. - -As the early cannons were of the rudest construction, and were used only -to force open barriers, or to be employed against troops at a very short -range, it was a matter of secondary consideration what course the bullet -took, indeed it was generally believed, that it flew for some distance -in a straight line, and then dropped suddenly. Acting upon this opinion -we find that most of the early cannon had a large metal ring at the -muzzle, so as to render it the same size as at the breech, and with such -as were not of this construction they made use of a wooden foresight -which tied on to the muzzle, so as to make the line of sight parallel to -the axis, by which they conceived that they might aim more directly at -the object which the bullet was designed to hit. - - ~Leonardo da Vinci, 1452.~ - -The first author who wrote professedly on the flight of a cannon shot -was a celebrated Italian Mathematician, named Leonardo da Vinci, who -explains his manner of studying phenomena, in order to arrive at safe -conclusions, thus: “I will treat of the subject, but first of all I will -make some experiments, because my intention is to quote experience, and -then to show why bodies are found to act in a certain manner;” and -taking as his motto, “Science belongs to the Captain, practice to the -Soldier,” he boldly asks: “If a bombard throws various distances with -various elevations, I ask in what part of its range will be the greatest -angle of elevation?” The sole answer is a small drawing of three curves, -(plate 20, fig. 3.), the greatest range being the curve about midway -between the perpendicular and the horizontal. Yet this small drawing is -very remarkable when we come to examine it. In the first place, we see -that he recognises the fact that the trajectory is a curve throughout -its length; secondly, that a shot fired perpendicularly will not fall -again on the spot whence it was fired. Simple as they may seem, these -two propositions recognise the force of gravity, resistance of the air, -and the rotary motion of the earth. - - ~Tartaglia, 1537.~ - -The next author who wrote on the flight of cannon shot was another -celebrated Italian Mathematician, named Tartaglia. In the year 1537, and -afterwards in 1546, he published several works relating to the theory of -those motions, and although the then imperfect state of mechanics -furnished him with very fallacious principles to proceed on, yet he was -not altogether unsuccessful in his enquiries, for he determined -(contrary to the opinion of practitioners) that no part of the track of -a bullet was in a straight line, although he considered that the -curvature in some cases was so little, as not to be attended to, -comparing it to the surface of the sea, which, although it appears to be -a plain, when practically considered, is yet undoubtedly incurvated -round the centre of the earth. It was only by an accident he nearly -stumbled upon one truth in the theory of projectiles, when he stated -that the greatest range obtained by equal forces is at 45°. Calculating -that at the angle 0° the trajectory was null, that by raising the -trajectory, the range increased up to a certain point, afterwards -diminished, and finally became null again when the projective force -acted perpendicularly, he concluded that the greatest range must be a -medium between these two points, and consequently at 45°. - -Others thought that a shot, on leaving the muzzle, described a straight -line; that after a certain period its motion grew slower, and then that -it described a curve, caused by the forces of projection and gravity; -finally, that it fell perpendicularly. Tartaglia seems to have -originated the notion that the part of the curve which joined the -oblique line to the perpendicular, was the arc of a circle tangent to -one and the other. - - ~Galileo, 1638.~ - -In the year 1638, Galileo, also an Italian, printed his dialogues, in -which he was the first to describe the real effect of gravity on falling -bodies; on these principles he determined, that the flight of a cannon -shot, or of any other projectile, would be in the curve of a parabola, -unless it was deviated from this track by the resistance of the air. A -parabola is a figure formed by cutting a cone, with a plain parallel to -the side of the cone. - - -GRAVITY. - - ~Bullet as influenced by powder and gravity only.~ - -We will now proceed to consider the course of a bullet, as affected by -_two_ forces only, viz., 1st. The velocity communicated to it by the -explosion of the powder; and 2nd. By the force of Gravity. - -The attraction of the earth acts on all bodies in proportion to their -quantities of matter. - - ~If no air, all bodies would fall in same time.~ - - ~Gold and dry leaf in same time.~ - -The difference of time observable in the fall of bodies through the air, -is due to the resistance of that medium, whence we may fairly conclude, -that if the air was altogether absent, and no other resisting medium -occupied its place, all bodies of whatever size, and of whatever weight, -must descend with the same speed. Under such circumstances, a balloon -and the smoke of the fire would descend, instead of ascending as they -do, by the pressure of the air, which, bulk for bulk, is heavier than -themselves. A dry leaf falls very slowly, and a piece of gold very -rapidly, but if the gold be beaten into a thin leaf, the time of its -descent is greatly prolonged. If a piece of metal and a feather are let -fall at the same instant from the top of a tall exhausted receiver, it -will be found that these two bodies, so dissimilar in weight, will -strike the table of the air-pump, on which the receiver stands, at the -same instant. Supposing the air did not offer any resistance to the -onward course of a projectile, and that the instantaneous force -communicated to a bullet, from the explosion of the gunpowder, were to -project it in the line A.B. (plate 21, fig. 4.) from the point A., with -a velocity that will send it in the first second of time as far as C., -then if there were no other force to affect it, it would continue to -move in the same direction B., and with the same velocity, and at the -next second it would have passed over another space, C.D., equal to -A.C., so that in the third second it would have reached E., keeping -constantly in the same straight line. - - ~Bullet under two forces, powder and gravity.~ - -But no sooner does the bullet quit the muzzle, than it immediately comes -under the influence of another force, called the force of gravity, which -differs from the force caused by the explosion of the powder, which -ceases to influence the bullet, after it has once communicated to it its -velocity. - - ~An accelerating force.~ - - ~Effect of gravity.~ - -Gravity is an accelerating force, acting constantly upon, and causing -the bullet to move towards the earth, with a velocity increasing with -the length of time the bullet is exposed to its influence. It has been -found from experiment that this increase of velocity will cause a body -to move through spaces, in proportion to the squares of the time taken -to pass over the distance. Thus, if a body falls a given space in one -second, in two it will have fallen over a space equal to four times what -it fell through in the first second, and in the three first seconds it -will have fallen through a space equal to nine times that which it fell -through in the first second. - - ~Result of gravity.~ - - ~Course of the bullet.~ - -The consequence of this principle is, that all bodies of similar figure, -and equal density, at equal distances from the earth, fall with equal -velocity; and if a body describes a space of 16ft. in the first second -of time, it will, in the next second of time, fall _three_ times 16, or -48 feet, and thus will have fallen, from the time it first dropped, four -times 16 feet, or 64 feet, because 4 is the square of 2, the time the -body was falling. In the third second, it will fall 5 times 16 feet, or -80 feet, and these sums collectively, viz., 16 + 48 + 80 = 144 feet, the -whole distance described by the falling body in three seconds of time. - -From this it is evident, that instead of moving in a straight line A. -B., (plate 21, fig. 5.), the bullet will be drawn from that course. - - ~Parabolic theory.~ - -From the point C., draw C. F., equal to the space that the bullet may be -supposed to fall in one second of time, then at the end of the first -second of time the bullet will be at F., instead of at C., and will have -moved in the direction A. F., instead of A. C.; at the end of the next -second it will have fallen a total distance D. G., equal to four times -C. F., thus the bullet will have fallen at the end of the third second a -distance E. H., equal to nine times C. F., and it will have moved in the -line A. F. G. H. instead of the straight line A. B., in which it would -have moved, had it not been affected by the force of gravity. The curve -A. H., is of the form called a Parabola, and hence the theory is called -the “Parabolic Theory.” It is founded on the principle that the velocity -given to the bullet by the explosion of the gunpowder is continued -throughout its course, but this would only be true in vacuo, and is -therefore of little value in calculating the real course of the bullet -in the air. - - -ON THE TIME TAKEN TO DRAW A BALL TO THE GROUND BY THE FORCE OF GRAVITY. - - ~If fired with axis parallel to the ground.~ - -1st Case. Supposing a ball to be fired when the axis of the piece is -parallel to the ground and 16 feet above it, then the projectile will -strike the earth in the same length of time that it would have done, had -it been rolled out of the muzzle, quite irrespective of the velocity -with which it may have been propelled, or the consequent extent of -range; that is to say the ball will have reached the point B., (plate -22, fig. 1.), in the same length of time that it would require to fall -from the muzzle A., to the earth C.; _i. e._, in one second. - -2nd Case. Were three guns to be fired at the same instant, with their -three axes parallel to the horizon as before, and loaded respectively -with ¹⁄₂ drm., 1 drm., and 1¹⁄₂ drm. of powder of the same strength, -then, although the three initial velocities and three ranges would -consequently all be different, yet the three balls would strike the -ground at the same time, _i. e._ at the points B. B. B. in one second. -(Plate 22, fig. 2.) - - ~If axis at an angle to the ground.~ - -3rd Case. When a ball is fired at an angle of elevation it will reach -the earth in the same length of time which it would occupy in falling -the length of the tangent of the angle of projection; hence supposing F. -G. (plate 22, fig. 3.) to be 16 feet, the ball would reach the point G. -in one second, irrespective of the distance from D. to G. - - -ATMOSPHERE. - -Let us now take into our consideration the course of a projectile while -under the influence of _three_ forces, viz., powder, gravity, and air. - - ~Why named.~ - -The atmosphere, or sphere of gases, is the general name applied to the -whole gaseous portion of this planet, as the term ocean is applied to -its liquid, and land to its solid portions. - -Being much lighter than either land or water, it necessarily floats or -rests upon them, and is in sufficient quantity to cover the highest -mountains, and to rise nine or ten times their height, to about 45 miles -above the sea level, so as to form a layer over the whole surface, -averaging probably between forty and fifty miles in thickness, which is -about as thick, in proportion to the globe, as the liquid layer adhering -to the surface of an orange, after it had been dipped in water. - - ~Composition of air.~ - -It consists essentially of two gases, called oxygen and nitrogen, and -also contains a variable quantity of aqueous vapour. - - ~Qualities of air.~ - -In common with matter in every state, the air possesses impenetrability. -It can be compressed, but cannot be annihilated. It has weight, inertia, -momentum, and elasticity. - -In consequence of its weight is its pressure, which acts uniformly on -all bodies, and is equal to between 14lbs. and 15lbs. on every square -inch of surface at the sea-level. - - ~Early idea of air’s resistance.~ - - ~How air acts.~ - -The first experiments that were made on projectiles, were carried out on -the idea that the resistance of the air would not materially affect the -track of a bullet which had great velocity. But the moment a body is -launched into space, it meets with particles of the air at every instant -of its movement, to which it yields part of its velocity, and the air -being a constant force, the velocity of the body decreases at every -instant from the commencement of its motion. - - -RESULT OF THE AIR’S RESISTANCE. - - ~Robins, 1742, showed effect of air’s resistance.~ - - ~Course of ball was not a parabola.~ - - ~Why not a parabola.~ - -It remained for Robins, 1742, in a work then published, to show the real -effect of the atmosphere upon moving bodies. He proved by actual -experiment, that a 24lb. shot did not range the fifth part of the -distance it should have done according to the parabolic theory. If a -cannon shot moved in a parabolic curve, then from the known properties -of that curve, it was evident that when fired with elevation, the angle -of descent of the bullet should have been the same as the angle at which -it was projected, and this he showed was not the case in practice. Now -Robins acknowledged the opinion of Galileo, as regards the force of -gravity, to be correct; he could not therefore attribute to him any -miscalculation on the score of gravity. He therefore concluded, that the -error of the “parabolic theory” arose from the supposition that the -bullet continued to move at the same velocity throughout its course. - - ~Ballistic pendulum.~ - -Robins tried a series of experiments by firing at a ballistic pendulum -at different distances; the oscillation of this pendulum enabled him to -calculate the velocity of the bullet, at the time it struck the -pendulum, and by this means he ascertained, that according to his -expectations, the bullet moved slower in proportion as it became more -distant from the point at which it was fired. This diminution he -attributed to the resistance of the air. - - ~Trajectory more curved than a parabola.~ - -From these considerations it is evident that instead of moving over -equal spaces A. C., C. D., D. E., (plate 22, fig. 4), at each succeeding -second of time, it will require considerably longer to traverse each -succeeding distance, and the force of gravity will consequently have -longer time to act upon it, and will have the effect of lowering the -bullet much more than it would do according to the “parabolic theory;” -moreover it is evident, that as the velocity of the bullet diminishes, -the trajectory or path followed by the bullet, will become still more -incurvated. - -Having now proved the error of the “parabolic theory,” Robins began his -endeavours to calculate the actual course of the bullet, according to -this new theory which he had demonstrated, but this calculation was -necessarily attended with great difficulties, for in so doing a number -of circumstances had to be considered. - - ~Resultant.~ - -The resultant of the three forces acting on a projectile, (plate 23, -fig. 1), viz., gunpowder, gravity, and the resistance of the air, is a -motal force, diminishing in velocity at every instant, causing the -projectile to describe a curved line in its flight, the incipient point -of the curve lying in the axis of the bore of the piece, and its -continuation diverging in the direction of the attraction of gravity, -till the projectile obeys the latter force alone. - - -EXPERIMENTS IN FRANCE. - - ~Angle for greatest range.~ - - ~Velocity.~ - -It is stated by Captain Jervis, R.A., in the “Rifle Musket,” that “From -experiments made in France, it has been found that the greatest range of -the common percussion musket, with spherical bullet fired with the -regulation charge, was at 25°; yet, by theoretical calculation, it -should be 45°; also that the usual velocity was some 500 yards per -second, whilst in vacuum it would be 19,792 yards per second. - - ~Elevation giving certain range.~ - -“At an angle of from 4° to 5°, the real range was about 640 yards; -without the resistance of the air, and at an angle of 4¹⁄₂°, it would be -3,674, or six times greater.” - - -ON THE EFFECT OF THE RESISTANCE OF THE AIR UPON THE MOTION OF A -PROJECTILE. - - ~The effect of the air’s resistance upon the motion of a projectile.~ - -The effect of the resistance of the atmosphere to the motion of a -projectile, is a subject of the greatest importance in gunnery. It has -engaged the attention of the most eminent philosophers, and on account -of the great difficulty of determining by experiment, the correctness of -any particular hypothesis, much difference of opinion is entertained as -to the absolute effect of this retarding force upon bodies moving in the -atmosphere with great velocities; and although sufficient is known to -guide the practical artillerist in that art to which he is devoted, -still as a scientific question, it is one of considerable interest, but -more on account of the difficulty of its solution, than from its -practical importance. - - ~Mr. Robins’ discoveries.~ - -To our distinguished countryman, Mr. Benjamin Robins, is due the credit -of not only being the first practically to determine the enormous effect -of the resistance of the air in retarding the motions of military -projectiles, but also of pointing out and experimentally proving other -facts with regard to this resistance, which will be noticed when -considering the subject of the deviation of shot from the intended -direction. - - ~Result of Dr. Hutton’s experiments.~ - -After him, Dr. Hutton made a great number of experiments upon the same -point, viz., the effect of the resistance of the air upon bodies moving -in that medium, both with great and small velocities; and the inferences -which he drew from these experiments, although not absolutely true, are -sufficiently correct for all practical purposes. - - -ON THE RESISTANCE OF A FLUID TO A BODY IN MOTION. - - ~Circumstances affecting the resistance which a body meets with in its - motion in a fluid.~ - -The resistance which a body meets with in its motion through a fluid -will depend upon three principal causes, viz:-- - -1st. Its velocity, and the form and magnitude of the surface opposed to -the fluid. - -2nd. Upon the density and tenacity of the fluid or cohesion of its -particles, and also upon the friction which will be caused by the -roughness of the surface of the body. - -3rd. Upon the degree of compression to which this fluid, supposed to be -perfectly elastic, is subjected, upon which will depend the rapidity -with which it will close in and fill the space behind the body in -motion. - - ~The resistance of a fluid to a body as the squares of the - velocities.~ - -Firstly, with regard to the velocity of the body. It is evident that a -plane moving through a fluid in a direction perpendicular to its -surface, must impart to the particles of the fluid with which it comes -in contact, a velocity equal to its own; and, consequently, from this -cause alone, the resistances would be as the velocities; but the number -of particles struck in a certain time being also as the velocities, from -these two causes combined, the resistance of a fluid to a body in -motion, arising from the inertia of the particles of the fluid, will be -as the square of the velocity. - - ~Cohesion of the particles of a fluid, and friction.~ - -Secondly, a body moving in a fluid must overcome the force of cohesion -of those parts which are separated, and the friction, both which are -independent of the velocity. The total resistance then, from cohesion, -friction, and inertia, will be partly constant and partly as the square -of the velocity. - - ~Result.~ - -The resistances therefore are as the squares of the velocities in the -same fluid, and as the squares of the velocities multiplied by the -densities in different fluids. - -Hitherto, however, we have imagined a fluid which does not exist in -nature; that is to say, a _discontinued_ fluid, or one which has its -particles separated and _unconnected_, and also perfectly non-elastic. - - ~Atmosphere, and its properties bearing on the question of its - resistance.~ - -Now, in the atmosphere, no one particle that is contiguous to the body -can be moved without moving a great number of others, some of which will -be distant from it. If the fluid be much compressed, and the velocity of -the moving body much less than that with which the particles of the -fluid will rush into vacuum in consequence of the compression, it is -clear that the space left by the moving body will be almost -instantaneously filled up, (plate 23, fig. 2); and the resistance of -such a medium would be less the greater the compression, provided the -density were the same, because the velocity of rushing into a vacuum -will be greater the greater the compression. Also, in a greatly -compressed fluid, the form of the fore part of the body influences the -amount of the retarding force but very slightly, while in a -non-compressed fluid this force would be considerably affected by the -peculiar shape which might be given to the projectile. - - ~Resistance increased when the body moves so fast that a vacuum is - formed behind it.~ - -Thirdly. If the body can be moved so rapidly that the fluid cannot -instantaneously press in behind it, as is found to be the case in the -atmosphere, the resisting power of the medium must be considerably -increased, for the projectile being deprived of the pressure of the -fluid on its hind part, must support on its fore part the whole weight -of a column of the fluid, over and above the force employed in moving -the portion of the fluid in contact with it, which force is the sole -source of resistance in the discontinued fluid. Also, the condensation -of the air in front of the body will influence considerably the relation -between the resistances and the velocities of an oblique surface: and it -is highly probable that although the resistances to a globe may for slow -motions be nearly proportional to the squares of the velocities, they -will for great velocities increase in a much higher ratio. - - -ON THE VELOCITY WITH WHICH AIR WILL RUSH INTO A VACUUM. - - ~The velocity of the rush of air into a vacuum.~ - -When considering the resistance of the air to a body in motion, it is -important that the velocity with which air will rush into a vacuum -should be determined; and this will depend upon its pressure or -elasticity. - - ~Result.~ - -It has been calculated, that air will rush into a vacuum at the rate of -about 1,344 feet per second when the barometer stands at 30 inches, so -that should a projectile be moving through the atmosphere at a greater -velocity than this, say 1,600 feet per second, then would there be a -vacuum formed behind the ball, and instead of having merely the -resistance due to the inertia of the particles of the air, it would, in -addition, suffer that from the whole pressure of a column of the medium, -equal to that indicated by the barometer. - - - - -UPON THE RESISTANCE OF THE AIR TO BODIES OF DIFFERENT FORMS. - - - ~Difficulties of the question.~ - -The influence of the form of a body upon the resistance offered to it by -a fluid, is a problem of the greatest difficulty; and although the most -celebrated mathematicians have turned their attention to the subject, -still, even for slow motions, they have only been able to frame strictly -empirical formula, founded upon the data derived from practice; while -with regard to the resistance at very high velocities, such as we have -to deal with, very little light has hitherto been thrown upon the -subject. - - ~Compressed fluid.~ - -When a body moves in the atmosphere, the particles which are set in -motion by the projectile, act upon those in proximity to them, and these -again upon others; and also from the elasticity of the fluid, it would -be compressed before the body in a degree dependant upon the motion and -form of the body. Moreover, the atmosphere itself partakes so much of -the nature of an infinitely compressed fluid, as to constantly follow -the body without loss of density when the motion is slow, but not when -the velocity is great, so that the same law will not hold good for both. -In an infinitely compressed fluid (that is, one which would fill up the -space left behind the body instantaneously) the parts of the fluid which -the body presses against in its motion would instantaneously communicate -the pressure received by them throughout the whole mass, so that the -density of the fluid would not undergo any change, either in front of -the body or behind it, consequently the resistance to the body would be -much less than in a fluid partially compressed like the atmosphere; and -the form of the body would not have the same effect in diminishing or -increasing the amount of resistance. - - ~When a vacuum is formed behind the ball.~ - -When the velocity of a body moving in the atmosphere is so great that a -vacuum is formed behind it, the action of the fluid approaches to that -of the discontinued fluid. - - -RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTS WITH SLOW MOTIONS. - - ~Resistance in proportion to surface.~ - -1st. It appears from the various experiments that have been made upon -bodies moving in the atmosphere, that the resistance is nearly as the -surface, increasing a very little above that proportion in the greater -surfaces. - - ~Resistance as squares of velocity.~ - -2nd. That the resistance to the same surface with _different_ -velocities, is in _slow_ motions nearly as the squares of the velocity, -but gradually increasing more and more in proportion as the velocities -increase. - - ~Rounded and pointed ends suffer less resistance.~ - -3rd. The round ends, and sharp ends of solids, suffer less resistance -than the flat or plane ends of the same diameter. Hence the flat end of -the cylinder and of a hemisphere, or of a cone, suffer more resistance -than the round or sharp ends of the same. - - ~Sharp ends not always least resistance.~ - -4th. The sharper ends have not always the smaller resistances; for -instance, the round end of a hemisphere has less resistance than the -pointed end of a cone, whose angle with the axis is 25° 42′. - - ~Form of base affects resistance.~ - -5th. When the hinder parts of bodies are of different forms, the -resistances are different, though the fore parts are the same. Hence the -resistance to the fore part of a cylinder is less than that on the -equally flat surface of the cone or hemisphere, owing to the shape of -the _base_ of the cylinder. The base of the hemisphere has less -resistance than the cone, and the round side of the hemisphere less than -that of the whole sphere. - - ~Only proved for slow motions.~ - -The above refers only to _slow_ motions, and the results given, from -experiments with very small velocities; and it is to be expected, that -with very rapid motions the form of the fore, as well as the hind part, -of the projectile, will influence the amount of resistance in a much -higher degree. - - ~Form of hind part.~ - -That form for the hind part will be best which has the greatest pressure -upon it, when moving with a certain velocity. - - ~Best shape for fore and hind part.~ - -The ogivale form seems, from experiment, to fulfil the former condition. -The best form for the _hind_ part, for _rapid_ motions, has not been -determined; it may, however, be considered to be of much less importance -than the shape of the fore part. - - ~Form determined by extent of range.~ - -Of course the best form can be determined by extent of range, but -deductions from this will depend upon such a variety of circumstances, -the effects of some of which must be entirely hypothetical, that the -correctness of any formulæ obtained in this manner must be very -uncertain. - - ~Form suggested by Sir I. Newton.~ - -Sir Isaac Newton, in his “Principia,” has given an indication of that -form of body, which, in passing through a fluid, would experience less -resistance than a solid body of equal magnitude of any other form. It is -elongated. - - ~Axis of elongated bodies must be fixed.~ - -It is plain, however, that the minimum of resistance would not be -obtained with a shot of an elongated form, unless the axis can be kept -in the direction of the trajectory; as not only will the axis -perpetually deviate from the true direction, but the projectile will -turn over and rotate round its shorter axis, that is, if fired out of a -smooth bore. - - ~Advantages of conical bullets.~ - -Conical bullets have an advantage, from their pointed end, which enables -them to pass through the air with greater facility; and for the same -reason they are better calculated to penetrate into any matter than -spherical ones. - - ~Disadvantages of conical bullets.~ - -A _solid_ bullet cannot be pointed without sending backward the centre -of gravity. The sharper the point, the more it is liable to injury, and -if the apex of the cone does not lie true, in the axis of the -projectile, then such an imperfection of figure is calculated to cause -greater deflections in the flight than any injury which a round surface -is likely to sustain. In penetrating into solid bodies, it is also -important that the centre of gravity should be near its work. - - -RESISTANCE OF THE AIR, AS AFFECTED BY THE WEIGHT OF PROJECTILES. - - ~Resistance overcome by weight.~ - -Bodies of similar volume and figure overcome the resistance of the air -in proportion to their densities. The amount of the air’s resistance is -in proportion to the magnitude of the surface. - - ~Contents of circles.~ - -The superficial contents of circles are as the _squares_ of their -diameters. Hence if the ball A. (plate 23, fig. 3) be 2in. in diameter, -and the ball B. 4in., the amount of resistance experienced would be as -four to sixteen. - - ~Contents of spheres.~ - -The cubical contents, or weights of spheres, are in proportion to the -_cubes_ of their diameters. Hence the power to overcome resistance in -the balls A and B would be as _eight_ to _sixty-four_. Thus the power to -overcome resistance increases in much greater proportion than the -resistance elicited by increasing the surface. - - ~Advantages of elongated bullets.~ - -Suppose an elongated body to have the diameter of its cylindrical -portion equal to that of the ball A., _i.e._, E.F. = C.D., (plate 23, -fig. 4), and elongated so that its weight should be equal to that of the -spherical shot B., it is evident that it would meet equal resistance -from the air, to the ball A., having, at the same time, as much power to -overcome resistance as the body B. - -Elongated balls, by offering a larger surface to the sides of the -barrel, are less liable to be affected by any imperfections in the bore; -whereas the spherical ball, pressing only on its tangential point, will -give to any little hollows, or undulations, wherever they occur. - - ~Balls cannot be expanded.~ - - ~Elongated projectiles easily expanded.~ - -A spherical ball cannot be expanded into the grooves, unless there be -very little windage, except by blows from the ramrod, the gas escaping -round the circumference of the ball, and giving it an irregular motion -while passing down the barrel; but an elongated projectile can be -readily expanded, and the facility of doing so is in proportion to the -difference of length between its major and minor axis. - - - - -DEVIATIONS OF PROJECTILES FROM SMOOTH-BORED GUNS. - - - ~Causes of deviation of shot.~ - -Very great irregularities occur in the paths described by projectiles -fired from smooth-bored guns. It is a fact well known to all practical -artillerists, that if a number of solid shot or any other projectile be -fired from the same gun, with equal charges and elevations, and with -gunpowder of the same quality, the gun carriage resting on a platform, -and the piece being laid with the greatest care before each round, very -few of the shot will range to the same distance; and moreover, the -greater part will be found to deflect considerably (unless the range be -very short) to the right or left of the line in which the gun is -pointed. - - ~Four causes of deviation.~ - -The causes of these deviations may be stated as follows:--1st, Windage; -2nd, Rotation; 3rd, Wind; 4th, from Rotation of the Earth. - - -1st CAUSE, WINDAGE. - - ~Action from windage.~ - - ~False direction.~ - - ~Gives rotation.~ - -Windage causes irregularity in the flight of a projectile, from the fact -of the elastic gas acting in the first instance on its upper portion, -and driving it against the bottom of the bore; the shot re-acts at the -same time that it is impelled forward by the charge, and strikes the -upper surface of the bore some distance down, and so on by a succession -of rebounds, until it leaves the bore in an accidental direction, and -with a rotatory motion, depending chiefly on the position of the last -impact against the bore. Thus should the last impact of a (concentric) -shot when fired from a gun be upon the right hand side of the bore, as -represented, (plate 23, fig. 5); the shot will have a tendency to -deflect to the left in the direction. While at the same time a rotation -will be given to it in the direction indicated by the arrows. - - - - -2nd CAUSE, ROTATION. - - - ~Rotation without translation.~ - -Every body may have a twofold motion, one by which it is carried -forward, and the other by which it may turn round on an axis passing -through its centre, called a motion of rotation. - -When a body has only a motion of translation all the particles of which -it is composed move with equal swiftness, and also in parallel -directions; and by the first law of motion, every particle put in such -motion will constantly move with the same velocity in the same -direction, unless it be prevented by some external cause. - - ~Rotation.~ - - ~Rotation and translation combined.~ - -By a motion of rotation, a body without changing its place, turns round -on an axis passing through its centre of gravity. A body may have at the -same time both a progressive and rotatory motion, without either -disturbing the other, and one may suffer a change from the action of -some external force, while the other continues the same as before. - - ~Force through centre of gravity, causes progressive motion only.~ - -If the direction of the force be through the centre of gravity, it -causes a progressive motion only, that is, if the body was at rest -before, it will move forward in the direction of the impressed force. - - ~Effect of force on a body in motion.~ - -If a body had a progressive motion before, then impressed force will -cause it to move faster or slower, or to change its direction, according -as the direction of this second force conspires with or opposes its -former motion, or acts obliquely on its direction. - - ~Rotation not disturbed by second force in direction of centre of - gravity.~ - -If a body, besides its progressive motion had a motion of rotation also, -this last will not be changed by the action of a new force passing -through the centre of gravity. - - ~Rotation of force does not pass through the centre of gravity.~ - -If the direction of the force does not pass through the centre of -gravity, the progressive motion will be altered, and the body will then -also acquire a rotatory motion round an axis passing through the centre -of gravity, and perpendicular to a plane passing through the direction -of the force and this centre. - - -CASES BEARING UPON THE FOREGOING THEORY. - - ~When ball is perfectly round, centre of gravity coincides with - figure, and no windage.~ - -1st Case. Suppose the ball to be perfectly round, its centre of gravity -and figure to coincide, and let there be no windage. In this case the -force of the powder not only passes through the centre of gravity of the -shot, but proceeds in a direction parallel to the axis of the bore, and -there would be but small friction due to the weight of the shot. - - ~If windage then rotation.~ - -2nd Case. But as there is a considerable amount of friction between the -bore and the projectile in the case where there is windage, the -direction of this force being opposite to that of the gunpowder, and -upon the surface of the ball, it will therefore give rotation to the -shot. - - ~Eccentricity causes rotation.~ - -3rd Case. Suppose the ball to be perfectly round, but its centre of -gravity not to coincide with the centre of figure. In this case the -impelling force passes through the centre of the ball, or nearly so, and -acts in a direction parallel to the axis of the piece; but if the centre -of gravity of the ball lie out of the line of direction of the force of -the powder, the shot will be urged to turn round its centre of gravity. - - ~Angular velocity.~ - -The angular velocity communicated to the body will depend, firstly, upon -the length of the perpendicular from the centre of gravity upon the -direction of the impelling force, and secondly, upon the law of density -of the material or the manner in which the metal is distributed. The -direction of rotations will depend upon the position of the centre of -figure with regard to that of gravity. (Plate 23, fig. 6.) - - ~Robins’ remarks.~ - -Robins remarks, bullets are not only depressed beneath their original -direction by the action of gravity, but are also frequently driven to -the right or left of that direction by the action of some other force. -If it were true that bullets varied their direction by the action of -gravity only, then it ought to happen that the errors in their flight to -the right or left of the mark, should increase in proportion to the -distance of the mark from the firer only. - - ~Deflection not in proportion to distance.~ - -But this is contrary to all experience, for the same piece which will -carry its bullet within an inch at ten yards, cannot be relied upon to -ten inches in one hundred yards, much less to thirty inches in three -hundred. - -Now this irregularity can only arise from the track of the bullet being -incurvated sideways as well as downwards. The reality of this doubly -incurvated track being demonstrated, it may be asked what can be the -cause of a motion so different from what has been hitherto supposed. - - ~1st cause of increase, deflection.~ - -1st Cause. Is owing to the resistance of the air acting obliquely to the -progressive motion of the body, and sometimes arises from inequalities -in the resisted surface. - - ~2nd cause, from whirling motion.~ - - ~Direction of a shot influenced by position of axis round which it - whirls.~ - -2nd Cause. From a whirling motion acquired by the bullet round its axis, -for by this motion of rotation, combined with the progressive motion, -each part of the bullet’s surface will strike the air in a direction -very different from what it would do if there was no such whirl; and the -obliquity of the action of the air arising from this cause will be -greater, according as the rotatory motion of the bullet is greater in -proportion to its progressive motion; and as this whirl will in one part -of the revolution conspire in some degree with the progressive, and in -another part be equally opposed to it, the resistance of the air on the -fore part of the bullet will be hereby affected, and will be increased -in that part where the whirling motion conspires with the progressive; -and diminished where it is opposed to it. And by this means the whole -effort of resistance, instead of being in a direction opposite to the -direction of the body, will become oblique thereto, and will produce -those effects we have already mentioned. For instance, if the axis of -the whirl was perpendicular to the horizon, then the incurvation would -be to the right or left. If that axis were horizontal to the direction -of the bullet, then the incurvation would be upwards or downwards. But -as the first position of the axis is uncertain, and as it may -perpetually shift in the course of the bullet’s flight, the deviation of -the bullet is not necessarily either in one certain direction, nor -tending to the same side in one part of its flight that it does in -another, but it more usually is continually changing the tendency of its -deflection, as the axis round which it whirls must frequently shift its -position during the progressive motion. - - ~Doubly incurvated track.~ - -It is constantly found in practice that a shot will deviate in a curved -line, either right or left, the curve rapidly increasing towards the end -of the range. This most probably occurs from the velocity of rotation -decreasing but slightly, compared with the initial velocity of the shot, -or, if a strong wind is blowing across the range during the whole time -of flight, the curve would manifestly be increased according as the -velocity of the ball decreased. - - -ILLUSTRATIONS OF ROBINS’ THEORY OF ROTATION. - - ~With ball and double string.~ - -1st Illustration. A wooden ball 4¹⁄₂ inches in diameter suspended by a -double string, nine feet long. It will be found that if this ball -receive a spinning motion by the untwisting of the string it will remain -stationary. If it be made to vibrate, it will continue to do so in the -same vertical plane. But if it be made to spin while it vibrates it will -be deflected to that side on which the whirl combines with the -progressive motion. - - ~By firing through screens.~ - -2nd Illustration. By firing through screens of thin paper placed -parallel to each other, at equal distances, the deflection or track of -bullets can easily be investigated. It will be found that the amount of -deflection is wholly disproportioned to the increased distance of the -screens. - - ~Bent muzzle.~ - -3rd Illustration. To give further light upon this subject, Mr. Robins -took a barrel and bent it at about three or four inches from the muzzle -to the left, the bend making an angle of 3° or 4° with the axis of the -piece. - -By firing at screens it was found that although the ball passed through -the first screens to the left, it struck the butt to the right of the -vertical plane on which aim was taken in line of the axis of the unbent -portion of the barrel. This was caused by the friction of the ball on -the right side of the bent part of the muzzle, causing the ball to spin -from left to right. - - -ON ECCENTRIC PROJECTILES. - - ~How to find centre of gravity.~ - -Sir Howard Douglas, in his “Naval Gunnery,” states:--“The position of -the centre of gravity can be found by floating the projectile in -mercury, and marking its vertex. Then mark a point upon the shot -diametrically opposite to that point, which will give the direction of -the axis in which the two centres lie. Thus the shot can be placed in -the gun with its centre of gravity in any desired position.” - - ~Effect of eccentricity.~ - -“On making experiments, it appeared that not one shot in a hundred, when -floated in mercury, was indifferent as to the position in which it was -so floated, but turned immediately, until the centre of gravity arrived -at the lowest point, and consequently that not one shot in a hundred was -perfect in sphericity, and homogeneity. Shells can be made eccentric by -being cast with a solid segment in the interior sphere, left in the -shell, or by boring two holes in each shell, diametrically opposite to -one another, stopping up one with 5lbs. of lead, and the other with -wood. When the centre of gravity was above the centre of the figure, the -ranges were the longest, and when below, the shortest. When to the right -or left hand, the deviations were also to the right or left. The mean -range which, with the usual shot, was 1640 yards, was, with the shot -whose centres of gravity and of figure were not coincident, the centre -of gravity being upwards, equal to 2140 yards, being an increase of 500 -yards. - - ~Ricochet of eccentric shot.~ - -“With respect to the ricochet of eccentric spherical projectiles, the -rotation which causes deflection in the flight, must act in the same -manner to impede a straight forward graze. When an ordinary well formed -homogenous spherical projectile, upon which probably very little -rotation is impressed, makes a graze, the bottom of the vertical -diameter first touches the plane, and immediately acquires, by the -reaction, a rotation upon its horizontal axis, by which the shot rolls -onwards throughout the graze, probably for a straight forward second -flight. But in the case of an eccentric spherical projectile, placed -with its centre of gravity to the right or to the left, its rotation -upon its vertical axis during the graze must occasion a fresh deflection -in its second flight, and it is only when the centre of gravity is -placed in a vertical plane passing through the axis of the gun, that the -rotation by touching the ground will not disturb the direction of the -graze, though the extent of range to the first graze will be affected -more or less according as the centre of gravity may have been placed -upwards or downwards. Whether the rebounds take place from water, as in -the experiments made on board the “Excellent,” or on land, as those -carried on at Shoeburyness, the shot, when revolving on a vertical axis, -instead of making a straight forward graze, suffered deflection which -were invariably towards the same side of the line of fire as the centre -of gravity; and at every graze up to the fourth, a new deflection took -place. - - ~Knowledge derived from experiments with eccentric shot.~ - -“The results of these very curious and instructive experiments fully -explain the extraordinary anomalies, as they have heretofore been -considered, in length of range and in the lateral deviations: these have -been attributed to changes in the state of the air, or the direction of -the wind, to differences in the strength of the gunpowder, and to -inequalities in the degrees of windage. All these causes are, no doubt, -productive of errors in practice, but it is now clear that those errors -are chiefly occasioned by the eccentricity and nonhomogeneity of the -shot, and the accidental positions of the centre of gravity of the -projectile with respect to the axis of the bore. The whole of these -experiments furnish decisive proof of the necessity of paying the most -scrupulous attention to the figure and homogeneity of solid shot, and -concentricity of shells, and they exhibit the remarkable fact that a -very considerable increase of range may be obtained without an increase -in the charge, or elevation of the gun.” - - ~No advantage in using eccentric projectiles.~ - -It is not to be expected that eccentric projectiles would be applicable -for general purposes, on account of the degree of attention and care -required in their service, nor would much advantage be gained by their -use, as the momentum is not altered, and it is only necessary to give -the ordinary shot a little more elevation in order to strike the same -object. - - ~Range of elongated projectiles at certain low elevations greater in - air than in vacuo.~ - -There is another point of great importance with regard to the range of -elongated projectiles. It is asserted by Sir W. Armstrong and others, -that at certain low elevations the range of an elongated projectile is -greater in the atmosphere than in vacuo, and the following is the -explanation given by the former of this apparent paradox. “In a vacuum, -the trajectory would be the same, whether the projectile were elongated -or spherical, so long as the angle of elevation, and the initial -velocity were constant; but the presence of a resisting atmosphere makes -this remarkable difference, that while it greatly shortens the range of -the round shot, it actually prolongs that of the elongated projectile, -provided the angle of elevation do not exceed a certain limit, which, in -my experiments, I have found to be about 6°. This appears, at first, -very paradoxical, but it may be easily explained. The elongated shot, if -properly formed, and having a sufficient rotation, retains the same -inclination to the horizontal plane throughout its flight, and -consequently acquires a continually increasing obliquity to the curve of -its flight. Now the effect of this obliquity is, that the projectile is -in a measure sustained upon the air, just as a kite is supported by the -current of air meeting the inclined surface, and the result is that its -descent is retarded, so that it has time to reach to a greater -distance.” - - ~Charge.~ - -The form and weight of the projectile being determined as well as the -inclination of the grooves, the charge can be so arranged as to give the -necessary initial velocity, and velocity of rotation; or if the nature -of projectile and charge be fixed, the inclination of the grooves must -be such as will give the required results. The most important -consideration is the weight and form of projectile; the inclination of -the grooves, the charge, weight of metal in the gun, &c., are regulated -almost entirely by it. The charges used with rifle pieces are much less -than those with which smooth-bored guns are fired, for little or none of -the gas is allowed to escape by windage, there being therefore no loss -of force; and it is found by experience that, with comparatively low -initial velocities, the elongated projectiles maintain their velocity, -and attain very long ranges. - - NOTE.--The foregoing articles on “Theory,” are principally extracted - from “New Principles of Gunnery by Robins,” “Treatise on Artillery, by - Lieut.-Colonel Boxer, R.A.” “The Rifle Musket, by Captain Jervis, - M.P., Royal Artillery.” “Elementary Lecturers on Artillery, by Major - H. C. Owen and Captain T. Dames, Royal Artillery.” - - -THE END. - -[Illustration: PLATE 1. - -FIG. 1. - -Powder Mill. - -FIG. 2. - -Old Eprouvette Pendulum - -FIG. 3. - -New Pattern Eprouvette - -_Harry Vernon delt._ - -Day & Son Lith^{rs}. to the Queen.] - -[Illustration: PLATE 2. - -Hydraulic Press - -_Enlarged section of Valve_ - -_Harry Vernon delt._ - -Day & Son Lith^{rs}. to the Queen.] - -[Illustration: PLATE 3. - -Robins’ Balistic Pendulum - -_Harry Vernon delt._ - -Day & Son Lith^{rs}. to the Queen.] - -[Illustration: PLATE 4. - -FIG. 1. - -Bow unstrung - -FIG. 2. - -Bow strung - -FIG. 3. - -Hand or Arrow Rocket - -FIG. 4. - -Five barrelled Matchlock - -FIG. 5. - -Revolving Barrelled Matchlock - -CHINESE EXPLOSIVE AND OTHER WEAPONS. - -FIG. 6. - -Asiatic Bow - -_Harry Vernon delt._ - -Day & Son Lith^{rs}. to the Queen] - -[Illustration: PLATE 5. - -FIG. 1. - -Matchlock - -FIG. 2. - -Breech loading Gingal (Chamber in) - -FIG. 3. - -Breech loading Gingal (Chamber out) - -CHINESE EXPLOSIVE ARMS. - -_Harry Vernon delt._ - -Day & Son Lith^{rs}. to the Queen.] - -[Illustration: PLATE 6. - -FIG. 1. - -FIG. 2. - -FIG. 3. - -FIG. 4. - -_Harry Vernon dele._ - -MACHINES FOR THROWING DARTS AND STONES. - -Day & Son Lith^{rs}. to the Queen.] - -[Illustration: PLATE 7. - -ONAGER (SLUNG). - -_Harry Vernon delt._ - -Day & Son, Lith^{rs}. to the Queen.] - -[Illustration: PLATE 8. - -Onager (unslung). - -_Harry Vernon delt._ - -Day & Son Lith^{rs}. to the Queen.] - -[Illustration: PLATE 9. - -Balista - -_Arthur Walker C.^{t} 79.^{th} delt._ - -Day & Son Lith^{rs}. to the Queen.] - -[Illustration: PLATE 10. - -Catapulta. - -_Dessiné par Arthur Walker._ - -Day & Son Lith^{rs}. to the Queen.] - -[Illustration: PLATE 11. - -FIG. 1. - -Staff slings, Longbows, Crossbows and Flail. - -FIG. 2. - -Onager. - -FIG. 3. - -Trepied. - -_Harry Vernon delt._ - -Day & Son Lith^{rs}. to the Queen.] - -[Illustration: PLATE 12. - -Detail of Springs. - -Balista. - -_Harry Vernon Staff Serj^{t}. del._ - -Day & Son Lith^{rs}. to the Queen.] - -[Illustration: PLATE 13. - -FIG. 1. - -FIG. 2. - -FIG. 3. - -_Harry Vernon delt._ - -A Cross bow man and Slinger. - -Day & Son Lith^{rs}. to the Queen.] - -[Illustration: PLATE 14. - -FIG. 1. - -FIG. 2. - -FIG. 3. - -FIG. 4. - -Cross-bows and Quarrels. - -_Harry Vernon delt._ - -Day & Son Lith^{rs}. to the Queen.] - -[Illustration: PLATE 15. - -_Harry Vernon delt._ - -A Cross bow man and his Paviser. - -Day & Son Lith^{rs}. to the Queen.] - -[Illustration: PLATE 16. - -FIG. 1. - -Gun and Querrel Temp: Edward 3^{rd}. Sloane M^{ss}. - -FIG. 2. - -Small chambered Cannon from the Santini M^{ss}. - -FIG. 3. - -Santini M^{ss}. Early part of 15^{th} Cent^{y}. - -FIG. 4. - -Mode of mounting from Froissart. - -FIG. 5. - -Method of obtaining elevation. - -FIG. 6. - -Mode of Mounting from Valturius. - -FIG. 7. - -From the wreck of the “Mary Rose” Temp: Henry 8^{th}. - -FIG. 8. - -Hooped Cannon in wooden bed. - -FIG. 9. - -Ancient Screw piece. - -FIG. 10. - -Ancient Screw Breech loader. - -FIG. 11. - -Chinese Field piece Peiho 1860. - -FIG. 12. - -Ancient howitzer Cannon for throwing balls Filled with powder - -_Arthur Walker delt._ - -Day & Son Lith^{rs}. to the Queen.] - -[Illustration: PLATE 17. - -FIG. 1. - -Giorgio Martini, 15^{th}. Century, latter part. - -FIG. 2. - -Queen Elizabeth’s Pocket Pistol. - -Mons Meg. - -Chamber. - -Pierrier or Paterera__16^{th}. Century. - -_H. Cautly del._ - -Day & Son Lith^{rs}. to the Queen.] - -[Illustration: PLATE 18. - -FIG. 1. - -Cart of War.__Temp: Henry 8^{th}. - -FIG. 2. - -“Moolik i Meidan.” - -FIG. 3. - -Bombard and Carriage.__15^{th}. Cent^{y}. - -FIG. 4. - -Long Serpentine of Wrought Iron.__15^{th}. Cent^{y}. - -_R.G. Coles del.^{t}_ - -Day & Son Lith^{rs}. to the Queen.] - -[Illustration: PLATE 19. - -FIG. 1. - -FIG. 2. - -FIG. 3. - -FIG. 4. - -FIG. 5. - -FIG. 6. - -FIG. 7. - -FIG. 8. - -FIG. 9. - -Musketeer 16^{th}. Cent^{y}. - -FIG. 10. - -Earliest form of Hand Gun. - -FIG. 11. - -FIG. 12. - -_Arthur Walker, delt._ - -Day & Son Lith^{rs}. to the Queen.] - -[Illustration: PLATE 20. - -1 - -2 - -3 - -4 - -5 - -6 - -7 - -8 - -9 - -10 - -11 - -12 - -13 - -14 - -15 - -16 - -17 - -18 - -19 - -Day & Son Lith^{rs}. to the Queen.] - -[Illustration: PLATE 21. - -FIG. 1. - -FIG. 2. - -FIG. 3. - -FIG. 4. - -FIG. 5. - -_Arthur Walker del._ - -Day & Son Lith^{rs}. to the Queen.] - -[Illustration: PLATE 22. - -FIG. 1. - -FIG. 2. - -FIG. 3. - -FIG. 4. - -_Arthur Walker L^{t}. 79^{th}. del._ - -Day & Son Lith^{rs}. to the Queen.] - -[Illustration: PLATE 23. - -FIG. 1. - -FIG. 2. - -FIG. 3. - -FIG. 4. - -FIG. 5. - -FIG. 6. - -_Harry Vernon Staff Serj^{t}. del._ - -Day & Son Lith^{rs}. to the Queen.] - - - - -Extended Table of Contents - - - Page - INTRODUCTION. i - - CONTENTS iii - - ERRATA. iv - - HISTORY OF GUNPOWDER. 1 - GREEK FIRE. 4 - - ON THE MANUFACTURE OF GUNPOWDER. 7 - SALTPETRE, OR NITRE. 7 - OLD METHOD. 7 - NEW METHOD. 8 - CHARCOAL. 9 - SULPHUR. 11 - PULVERIZING THE INGREDIENTS. 11 - MIXING THE INGREDIENTS. 12 - THE INCORPORATING MILL. 12 - INCORPORATING THE INGREDIENTS. 13 - BREAKING DOWN THE MILL CAKE. 14 - PRESSING THE MEAL BY THE HYDRAULIC PRESS. 14 - GRANULATING THE PRESS CAKE. 15 - DUSTING LARGE-GRAIN POWDER. 16 - DUSTING FINE-GRAIN POWDER. 17 - GLAZING FINE-GRAIN POWDER. 17 - STOVING OR DRYING POWDER. 17 - FINISHING DUSTING. 17 - EXAMINATION AND PROOF OF GUNPOWDER. 18 - PROOF OF MERCHANT’S POWDER. 18 - REMARKS ON THE PROOF OF POWDER BY THE EPROUVETTES. 19 - OF THE SIZE OF GRAIN FOR GUNPOWDER. 19 - OBSERVATIONS ON THE MANUFACTURE OF GUNPOWDER ON THE CONTINENT - AND AMERICA. 20 - PRODUCTION AND PURIFICATION OF THE INGREDIENTS. 20 - PULVERIZING AND MIXING THE INGREDIENTS. 20 - INCORPORATING PROCESS. 21 - GRANULATING. 21 - STOVING OR DRYING. 21 - NEW RIFLE POWDER. 22 - - ON MAGAZINES. 23 - - LIGHTNING CONDUCTORS. 24 - - ON THE EXPLOSIVE FORCE OF GUNPOWDER. 29 - FOULING. 35 - EFFECTS OF GUNPOWDER ON METALS. 35 - MISCELLANEOUS EXPERIMENTS. 36 - ON THE TIME REQUIRED FOR IGNITION OF GUNPOWDER. 38 - EFFECTS OF ACCIDENTAL EXPLOSIONS OF GUNPOWDER. 38 - - ON ANCIENT ENGINES OF WAR. 39 - THE SLING. 43 - THE BOW. 44 - MERITS OF THE LONG BOW. 45 - Our Forefathers encouraged to acquire skill in archery by legal - enactments, and by the founders of our public schools. 47 - 1ST. BY LEGAL ENACTMENTS. 47 - 2ND.—BY THE FOUNDERS OF OUR PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 48 - MEANS BY WHICH SKILL IN ARCHERY WAS ACQUIRED. 49 - PROOFS OF THE IMPORTANCE OF ARCHERY. 52 - MILITARY AND POLITICAL CONSEQUENCES OF SKILL IN THE USE OF THE - BOW. 53 - THE ARBALEST, OR CROSS-BOW. 54 - DESCRIPTION OF CROSS-BOW. 57 - COMPARATIVE MERITS OF THE LONG AND CROSS BOW. 59 - COMPARATIVE MERITS BETWEEN BOWS AND EARLY FIRE-ARMS. 59 - - HISTORY OF ARTILLERY. 62 - ETYMOLOGIES. 72 - - HISTORY OF PORTABLE FIRE-ARMS. 73 - - THE BAYONET. 83 - - ACCOUTREMENTS AND AMMUNITION. 84 - - HISTORY OF THE RIFLE. 86 - RIFLED BREECH-LOADERS. 92 - - ON RIFLING. 95 - ON THE NUMBER, FORM &c., &c., &c., OF THE GROOVES. 96 - ON RIFLE PROJECTILES. 101 - CONCLUSION. 108 - - THEORETICAL PRINCIPLES. 110 - DEFINITIONS. 110 - MOTION OF A PROJECTILE. 111 - GRAVITY. 113 - ON THE TIME TAKEN TO DRAW A BALL TO THE GROUND BY THE FORCE OF - GRAVITY. 114 - ATMOSPHERE. 115 - RESULT OF THE AIR’S RESISTANCE. 115 - EXPERIMENTS IN FRANCE. 116 - ON THE EFFECT OF THE RESISTANCE OF THE AIR UPON THE MOTION OF - A PROJECTILE. 117 - ON THE RESISTANCE OF A FLUID TO A BODY IN MOTION. 117 - ON THE VELOCITY WITH WHICH AIR WILL RUSH INTO A VACUUM. 118 - - UPON THE RESISTANCE OF THE AIR TO BODIES OF DIFFERENT FORMS. 119 - RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTS WITH SLOW MOTIONS. 119 - RESISTANCE OF THE AIR, AS AFFECTED BY THE WEIGHT OF PROJECTILES. 121 - DEVIATIONS OF PROJECTILES FROM SMOOTH-BORED GUNS. 121 - 1st CAUSE, WINDAGE. 121 - 2nd CAUSE, ROTATION. 122 - CASES BEARING UPON THE FOREGOING THEORY. 122 - ILLUSTRATIONS OF ROBINS’ THEORY OF ROTATION. 124 - ON ECCENTRIC PROJECTILES. 124 - - Original Table of Contents - - - - -Transcriber’s Notes - - - The original language has been retained, including inconsistencies and - errors in spelling, hyphenation, capitalisation, etc., except as - mentioned below. - - Depending on the hard- and software used and their settings, not all - elements may display as intended. - - Table of Contents: as present in the source document. The reason for - the order of entries is not clear, and some chapters are not listed, - nor are the sections. The structure of the text has been determined - based on what seemed the most logical interpretation of (the lay-out - of) the chapter and section headings in the text. The Extended Table - of Contents in the back of the book has been created for this text on - the basis of this assumed structure. - - The text refers to the plates by both Roman and Arabic numbers. This - has not been standardised. The numbering of the actual plates has been - standardised. - - Page 29, great inconvenience ... quite preclude: as printed in the - source document. - - Page 29 and 35 (and Errata), sulphite and sulphide: as printed in the - source document. - - Page 30 and 31, calculations: as printed in the source document. - - Page 44, Slings were used in 1572, at the siege of Sancere by the - Huguenots, in order to save their powder: there should be a comma - after Sancere, the Huguenots were the besieged party. - - Page 47, Our forefathers ... public schools: considered to be a - section heading. - - Page 66, both the king’s feed men: other sources mention Peter Bawd - and Peter Vancollen / Van Collen as freed men. - - Page 107, weight of bullet, ·530 grains: as printed in the source - document, but unlikely to be correct. - - Page 114, paragraph on Parabolic theory: even with the corrections - mentioned in the errata, some of the reference letters are missing; F, - G and H are presumably the ends of the vertical lines through C, D and - E respectively. - - Page 119, strictly empirical formula: should probably have been a - plural. - - - Changes made: - - Sidenotes have been moved to directly before, footnotes have been - moved to directly after the paragraph to which they refer. - - Some minor obvious punctuation and typographical errors have been - corrected silently. - - B.C./B. C. and A.D./A. D. have been standardised to B. C. and A. D., - respectively. Minie, Miniè (the spelling used most commonly in this - book) and Minié have been standardised to Minié. - - The (corrected, see below) Errata have already been applied to the - text. - - Errata: Page 32, para. 6, line 10 changed to Page 32, para.7, line 10; - IX and XII changed to ix and xii; Page 84, para. 2, line 1 (2nd entry) - changed to Page 84, para. 3, line 1. Subalterns changed to subaltern - officers; Page 91, para. 5 changed to Page 91, para. 4; sign changed - to sine. - - Page 4: Poganatus changed to Pogonatus as elsewhere - - Page 5: Talavara changed to Talavera - - Page 21: frustrum changed to frustum - - Page 30: 3490 changed to 3940 - - Page 32, sidenote: Robert changed to Piobert (as in text and Errata) - - Page 35: deliquescient changed to deliquescent - - Page 38: dull read heat changed to dull red heat - - Page 52: closing quote mark inserted after Shooting-fields - - Page 54: yeoman or archers changed to yeomen or archers - - Page 61: opening quote mark inserted before Report of the Rifle Match - - Page 65: opening quote marks inserted before Musée - - Page 74, sidenote: 1491 changed to 1471 - - Page 86, Bàle changed to Bâle - - Page 88, sidenote: Carabine a Tige changed to Carabine à Tige - - Page 105: cups divers shapes changed to cups of divers shapes - - Page 115: Plate 21, fig. 2 changed to Plate 22, fig. 2 - - Plate 18: opening quote marks inserted before Moolik. - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Class Book for The School of Musketry -Hythe, by E. 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margin-left: 2em; text-indent: -1em;} - .w200 - {width: 200px;} - - </style> - </head> -<body> - - -<pre> - -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Class Book for The School of Musketry Hythe, by -E. C. Wilford - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license - - -Title: Class Book for The School of Musketry Hythe - Prepared for the Use of Officers - -Author: E. C. Wilford - -Release Date: October 6, 2019 [EBook #60441] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CLASS BOOK *** - - - - -Produced by Brian Coe, Harry Lam and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive). The book cover image was created by the -transcriber and is placed in the public domain. - - - - - - -</pre> - - -<div class="bodycenter"> - -<div class="tnbox"> - -<p class="noindent">Please see the <a href="#TN">Transcriber’s Notes</a> at the end of this text.</p> - -<p class="noindent blankbefore1">The cover image has been created for this text, and is placed in the public domain.</p> - -</div><!--tnbox--> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="scr"> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/cover_sm.jpg" alt="Cover image" width="478" height="600" /> -</div> - -</div><!--scr--> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="page"> - -<h1><span class="fsize200"><b>CLASS BOOK</b></span><br /> -<span class="fsize60">FOR</span><br /> -<span class="fsize110">THE SCHOOL OF MUSKETRY</span><br /> -<span class="fsize90">HYTHE.</span></h1> - -<p class="center blankbefore4 fsize110 gesp2">PREPARED FOR THE USE OF OFFICERS.</p> - -<p class="center blankbefore4 highline2"><span class="fsize60">BY</span><br /> -<span class="fsize150"><b><span class="gesp1">COLONEL E. C. WILFORD</span>,</b></span><br /> -<i>Assistant-Commandant and Chief Instructor</i>.</p> - -<hr class="cover top" /> -<hr class="cover bot" /> - -<p class="center highline2"><span class="gesp2">HYTHE</span>:<br /> -W. S. PAINE, STATIONER, POST OFFICE, HIGH STREET.<br /> -1861.</p> - -</div><!--page--> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Pagei">[i]</span></p> - -<h2>INTRODUCTION.</h2> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/line1.png" alt="Ornamental line" width="250" height="15" /> -</div> - -<div class="introduction"> - -<p class="noindent">The School of Musketry was founded in 1853, by the then Commander-in-Chief, the -late Viscount Hardinge, as a normal school of instruction in Musketry.</p> - -<p>It has for its especial object the formation of officers and non-commissioned officers -to act as instructors in the several battalions throughout the Army.</p> - -<p>In the book of “Regulations for conducting the Musketry Instruction of the Army,” -promulgated by order of His Royal Highness the Commander-in-Chief, it is ordered at -page 33, and paragraph 35, that, “The Commanding Officer is to assemble the officers -of the battalion at least once in each half-year, and to cause the non-commissioned -officers and men to be assembled occasionally by squads or companies, at other times -than when the annual course is proceeding, when the officer-instructor, having previously -explained the theoretical principles detailed in the foregoing lessons, will be at liberty -to advance deeper into the subject, developing to a degree proportionate to the rank -and intelligence of his auditors, the whole history of small arms, from the first invention -of gunpowder, and the successive steps by which the rifle-musket has attained its present -efficiency; in order that the officers and soldiers, by acquiring a thorough knowledge -of the subject theoretically, may take a greater interest in the practical part of this -most important branch of their duty.”</p> - -<p>The following Lectures have been prepared for the use of officers qualifying at the -School of Musketry for the positions of Instructors in their respective Regiments. They -are not to be considered as complete treatises or histories, but merely as “aids” to instruction, -which can be expanded by the Instructor in viva voce Lectures, and if bound -with an alternate ruled blank leaf, they may be corrected and enlarged when desirable, -to suit the various improvements in arms, &c., introduced from time to time.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Pageii">[ii]</span></p> - -<p>These Lectures are a mere compilation, extracted from a vast amount of interesting -and valuable matter, systematically arranged. The names of the various authors upon -whom wholesale plunder has been committed are mentioned in the course of the work, -and the compiler hopes this general confession may secure their pardon.</p> - -<p>The Theory of Gunnery has been very slightly touched upon: it cannot be pursued -by any persons unless well grounded in Mathematics, and the short time passed by officers -at Hythe wholly precludes so abstruse a study. Our School is decidedly a practical institution; -to acquire an art or skill is our object, and we only broach the subject of -Theory to soldiers, so far as to enable them to understand the reasons for all those rules -which have to be attended to in practice.</p> - -<p class="right"><span class="padr10">E. C. WILFORD,</span><br /> -<span class="smcap padr4">Colonel</span>.</p> - -<p class="fsize80"><span class="smcap">Hythe</span>, <i>January, 1861</i>.</p> - -</div><!--introduction--> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Pageiii">[iii]</span></p> - -<h2>CONTENTS</h2> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/line2.png" alt="Ornamental line" width="169" height="15" /> -</div> - -<table class="toc" summary="ToC"> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td class="pageno">PAGE.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle">History of Gunpowder</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page1">1</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle">Manufacture of Gunpowder</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page7">7</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle">Foreign Gunpowder</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page20">20</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle">Explosive force of Gunpowder</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page29">29</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle">Experiments with Gunpowder</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page36">36</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle">Magazines</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page23">23</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle">Lightning Conductors</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page24">24</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle">Greek Fire</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page4">4</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle">Ancient Engines of War</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page39">39</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle">On Artillery</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page62">62</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle">Portable Fire Arms</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page73">73</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle">The Rifle</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page86">86</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle">The Bayonet</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page83">83</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle">Accoutrements</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page84">84</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle">Breech-loaders</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page92">92</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle">On Rifling</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page95">95</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle">On Rifle Projectiles</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page101">101</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle">Theoretical Principles</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page110">110</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle">Gravity</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page113">113</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle">Atmosphere</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page115">115</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle">Form of Bodies</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page119">119</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle">Causes of Deviation</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page121">121</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle">Windage</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page121">121</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle">Rotation</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page122">122</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle">On Eccentric Projectiles</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page124">124</a></td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p class="right fsize80"><a href="#BetterToC">Extended Table of Contents</a></p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Pageiv">[iv]</span></p> - -<h2>ERRATA.</h2> - -<p class="noindent">Page 6, para. 5, line 6, for “<i>have before stated</i>” read “<i>shall state</i>.”</p> - -<p class="noindent">Page 20, last line but one, for “<i>altogether</i>” read “<i>all together</i>”</p> - -<p class="noindent">Page 25, para. 3, line 5, for “<i>descriptive</i>” read “<i>disruptive</i>.”</p> - -<p class="noindent">Page 30, para. 3, line 9, for “<i>expansive</i>” read “<i>expansion</i>.”</p> - -<p class="noindent">Page 31, para. 3, line 1, for “<i>art</i>” read “<i>act</i>.”</p> - -<p class="noindent">Page 32, para. 7, line 9, for “<i>considerable</i>” read “<i>considerably</i>.”</p> - -<p class="noindent">Page 32, para. 7, line 10, for “<i>Robert</i>” read “<i>Piobert</i>.”</p> - -<p class="noindent">Page 35, para. 3, line 1, for “<i>sulphurate of Potassia</i>” read “<i>sulphide of -Potassa</i>.”</p> - -<p class="noindent">Page 36, para. 4, lines 1 and 2, for “<i>which is a mortar</i>” read “<i>the chamber -being</i>.”</p> - -<p class="noindent">Page 40, last line but 3, for “<i>Polyreetes</i>” read “<i>Polyorcetes</i>.”</p> - -<p class="noindent">Page 41, para. 4, line 10, for “ix” read “xii.”</p> - -<p class="noindent">Page 53, para. 2, line 9, for “<i>incredible</i>” read “<i>incredibly</i>.”</p> - -<p class="noindent">Page 66, para. 6, line 2, after “<i>has</i>” insert “<i>a</i>”</p> - -<p class="noindent">Page 78, para. 5, line 3, for “753in.,” read “·753in.”</p> - -<p class="noindent">Page 78, para. 5, line 3, for “16” read “14<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub>.”</p> - -<p class="noindent">Page 79, line 4, for “600” read “6,000.”</p> - -<p class="noindent">Page 84, para. 2, line 1, for “<i>Latinat</i>” read “<i>Catinat</i>.”</p> - -<p class="noindent">Page 84, para. 3, line 1, for “<i>masquitairy</i>” read “<i>mousquetaires</i>.”</p> - -<p class="noindent">Page 86, para. 10, line 2, for “<i>Carabins ragees</i>,” read “<i>Carabines -rayées</i>.”</p> - -<p class="noindent">Page 86, para. 12, line 1, for “<i>subaltern officers</i>” read “<i>Non-Commissioned -Officers</i>.”</p> - -<p class="noindent">Page 89, line 3, for “<i>range</i>” read “<i>rayé</i>.”</p> - -<p class="noindent">Page 89, line 3, for “<i>ball culot</i>” read “<i>balle à culot</i>.”</p> - -<p class="noindent">Page 91, para. 4, last line, for “<sup>7</sup>⁄<sub>100</sub>” read -“<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>100</sub>”</p> - -<p class="noindent">Page 93, para. 8, line 1, for “<i>wounds</i>” read “<i>rounds</i>.”</p> - -<p class="noindent">Page 98, para. 1, lines 6 and 7, for “<i>possible. For</i>,” read “<i>possible; for</i>”</p> - -<p class="noindent">Page 103, para. 3, line 7, for “<i>proportionary</i>” read “<i>proportionate</i>.”</p> - -<p class="noindent">Page 103, para. 5, line 4, for “<i>reserved</i>” read “<i>reversed</i>.”</p> - -<p class="noindent">Page 105, para. 6, line 3, for “<i>horn-wood</i>” read “<i>hora, wood</i>.”</p> - -<p class="noindent">Page 112, para. 1, line 8, after “<i>direction</i>,” insert “<i>b</i>.”</p> - -<p class="noindent">Page 114, para. 2, line 7, for “16-48-80” read “16+48+80.”</p> - -<p class="noindent">Page 115, para. 2, line 2, for “<i>sine</i>” read “<i>tangent</i>.”</p> - -<p class="noindent">Page 115, para. 2, for “<i>plate</i> 21, <i>fig.</i> 3,” read “<i>plate</i> 22, <i>fig.</i> -3.”</p> - -<p class="noindent">Page 119, para. 3, line 1, after “<i>moving</i>,” insert “<i>in</i>.”</p> - -<p class="noindent">Plate 21, fig. 5, should be lettered as fig. 4. plate 22.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page1">[1]</span></p> - -<div class="sidenotetext"> - -<h2>HISTORY OF GUNPOWDER.</h2> - -<hr class="chapline top" /> -<hr class="chapline bot" /> - -<p>The History of Gunpowder may well form a prelude to that of Fire Arms, as -the existence of the latter is wholly dependent on the discovery of the former. Of -all the discoveries which have been made, there is, perhaps, none which has produced -more important consequences to mankind than the discovery of Gunpowder, as by -introducing fire-arms, and a new method of fortifying, attacking, and defending -Towns, it wrought a complete change in the whole art of war.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Knock’s -opinion.</p> - -<p>The invention of Gunpowder is completely involved in obscurity, and this very -fact is one great proof of its antiquity. Knock observes that the invention of Gunpowder -comprises several discoveries, which it is necessary to distinguish from each -other.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Order of -discovery.</p> - -<p>1st.—The discovery of Nitre, the principal ingredient, and the cause of its -detonation.</p> - -<p>2nd.—The mixture of nitre with sulphur and charcoal, which, properly speaking, -form gunpowder.</p> - -<p>3rd.—The application of powder to fire-works.</p> - -<p>4th.—Its employment as a propelling agent for throwing stones, bullets, &c.</p> - -<p>5th.—Its employment in springing mines and destroying fortifications.</p> - -<p>All these discoveries belong to different periods.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Mr. Duten’s -account.</p> - -<p>Mr. Dutens carried the antiquity of gunpowder very high; and refers to the -accounts given by Virgil, and others, of Salmonens’ attempt to imitate thunder, -presuming from hence that he used a composition of the nature of Gunpowder.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Known in -China, A. D. -85.</p> - -<p>It has been said that it was used in China as early as the year -<span class="smcapall">A. D.</span> 85, and that -the knowledge of it was conveyed to us from the Arabs, on the return of the -Crusaders to Europe.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Known in -India, A. D. -250.</p> - -<p>The Brahmas and Indians, whose practice is recorded by Philostratus, in his -life of Appolonius Tyanœus, written about 1600 years ago. “These truly wise men,” -says he, “dwell between the rivers Hyphasis and Ganges; their country Alexander -never entered, their cities he never could have taken, for they come not out to the -field to fight those who attack them, but they overthrow their enemies with tempests -and thunderbolts, shot from their walls.”</p> - -<p>This is a most striking illustration of the antiquity of Gunpowder, for if some -such composition be not implied in the foregoing quotation, it must remain for ever -perfectly unintelligible.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page2">[2]</span></p> - -<p>Saltpetre, which is the principal ingredient of Gunpowder, is found in its natural -state in the East, and from this it seems highly probable they were acquainted with -the composition of Gunpowder before the Europeans.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Powder at -siege of Mecca, -A. D. 690.</p> - -<p>The Arabs are said to have employed Gunpowder at the siege of Mecca, <span class="smcapall">A. D.</span> -690.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Oldest book -on gunpowder -A. D. 900.</p> - -<p>There is a manuscript book still extant, entitled Liber Ignium, written by -Marcus Græcus, who lived about the end of the eighth century, and the composition -there prescribed is 6lbs. saltpetre, 2lbs. charcoal, 1lb. sulphur, to be well powdered -and mixed in a stone mortar.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Work on gunpowder -in Escurial -Collection -A. D. 1249.</p> - -<p>There is in the Escurial Collection a treatise on Gunpowder, written in 1249.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Roger Bacon -on powder, -A. D. 1267.</p> - -<p>Our countryman, Roger Bacon, who was born 1214, and published works at -Oxford 1267, expressly mentions the ingredients of Gunpowder, not as any new -discovery, but as a well known composition, used for recreation. He describes it as -producing a noise like thunder, and flashes like lightning, but more terrible than -those produced by nature; and adds that it might be applied to the destruction of an -army or a city. Bacon, in his treatise “De Secretis Operibus,” says that from saltpetre, -sulphur, and wood coals, we are able to make a fire that shall burn at any -distance we please.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Tradition of -Schwartz, -A. D. 1320.</p> - -<p>The common tradition of Bartholdus Schwartz having invented Gunpowder and -Artillery, about 1320, is without the slightest foundation, but he might possibly have -suggested the simplest application of it to warlike purposes, in consequence of some -accidental explosion while mixing the ingredients in a <span class="sidenote">Mortar.</span> -mortar. Indeed, the name, as -well as the form of the old species of artillery, which was employed to throw large -bullets at an elevation, strongly corroborate this conjecture; but Schwartz cannot lay -any claim to originality of invention.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Powder made -in the reign -of Richard II. -1378.</p> - -<p>Gunpowder was made in England in the fourteenth century, as Richard II. commissioned -Sir Thomas Norwich to buy, in London, or in any other place, certain -quantities of “sulphur, saltpetre, and charcoal,” for making Gunpowder.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Tartaglia on -Powder, -A. D. 1500.</p> - -<p>Tartaglia, at the commencement of the sixteenth century, sets down twenty-three -different compositions, made use of at different times, the first of which, being the -most ancient, consists of equal parts of nitre, sulphur, and charcoal.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Ancient gunpowder -weak.</p> - -<p>Gunpowder, for some time after the invention of artillery, was of a composition -much weaker than what we now use, or than that ancient one mentioned by Marcus -Græcus; but this, it is presumed, was owing to the weakness of their first pieces, -rather than to the ignorance of a better mixture.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Graining.</p> - -<p>The change of the proportion of the materials composing it was not the only -improvement it received. The invention of graining it is doubtless a considerable -advantage to it; for powder, at first, was always in the form of fine meal, such as it -was reduced to by grinding the materials together. It is doubtful whether the first -graining of powder was intended to increase its strength, or only to render it more -convenient for the filling into small charges, and the charging of small arms, to which -alone it was applied for many years, whilst meal-powder was still made use of in -cannon. But at last the additional strength which the grained powder was found to<span class="pagenum" id="Page3">[3]</span> -acquire from the free passage of the fire between the grains, occasioned the meal-powder -to be entirely laid aside.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Tartaglia -wrote, 1537.</p> - -<p>That powder was first used in meal, and continued in its old form for cannon -long after the invention of graining it for small arms, are facts not to be contested. -Tartaglia expressly asserts that in his time cannon-powder was in meal, and the -musket-powder grained. <span class="sidenote">William -Bourne, 1577.</span>And our countryman, William Bourne, in his “Art of -Shooting in great Ordnaunce,” published forty years after Tartaglia, tells us, in chap. -I, that serpentine powder, (which he opposes to corn, or grained-powder) should be -as fine as sand, and as soft as flour: and in his third chapter he says that two pounds -of corn-powder will go as far as three pounds of serpentine-powder.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Tartaglia on -the proportions.</p> - -<p>We learn from Tartaglia, that the cannon-powder was made of four parts saltpetre, -one part sulphur, and one part charcoal; and the musket-powder of forty-eight -parts saltpetre, seven parts sulphur, and eight parts charcoal; or of eighteen parts -saltpetre, two parts sulphur, and three parts charcoal. These compositions for musket -powder are very near the present standard; the first having, in one hundred pounds -of powder, about one pound of saltpetre more than is at present allowed, and the -second three pounds more.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Nye’s treatise -on the proportions.</p> - -<p>Nye, in his treatise on fireworks, gives the proportions of the ingredients, and the -dates when they are used, thus in 1380 equal parts of each were employed. This -would be about as efficient as a common squib of the present time. In 1410, three -parts saltpetre, two sulphur, and two charcoal. In 1520, for the best powder, four -parts saltpetre, one sulphur, and one charcoal, and afterwards, five saltpetre, one -sulphur, and one charcoal.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Early gunpowder -mere -mixture.</p> - -<p>In fact, Gunpowder was merely those substances, combined, with little or no -purification. It was not at first corned or grained, as at present, but remained in its -mealed state, and was called “serpentine powder,” in several accounts of stores in -the time of Edward VI., and Elizabeth.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Two kinds.</p> - -<p>Soon after this two kinds of powder were used for the same gun, one in its -mealed state (for priming only) as being more readily ignited by the match, the -other, corned or grained, for the charge in the gun barrel.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Powder first -used to explode -mines in -15th century.</p> - -<p>The application of powder to mines, and to the destruction of fortifications, does -not appear to have been in practice before the end of the fifteenth century.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Elizabeth had -powder made, -1558 to 1603.</p> - -<p>Camden, in his life of Queen Elizabeth, says that she was the first who procured -Gunpowder to be made in England, that she might not pray and pay for it also to -her neighbours; but it has been stated that it was previously made in the reign of -Richard II.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Charles I. from -A. D. 1625 to -1649.</p> - -<p>Sir Henry Manwayring, in his Seaman’s Dictionary, presented to the Duke of -Buckingham, in the time of Charles 1st, under the word powder, tells us, “There -are two kinds of powder, the one serpentine-powder, which powder is dust (as it -were) without corning. The other is “corn-powder;” though he informs us the -serpentine-powder was not used at sea. Indeed, when that book was written, it is -believed powder was usually corned, for the foreign writers on artillery had long -before recommended its general use.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Causes which -checked the -progress of -Fire-Arms.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page4">[4]</span></p> - -<p>Various circumstances tended to check the progress of fire-arms, and the improvement -of artillery, for a long period after the invention of gunpowder. Custom -made most people prefer the ancient engines of war. The construction of artillery -was very awkward and imperfect; and the bad quality and manufacture of gunpowder, -so that it could produce but little effect; <span class="sidenote">Fire-Arms -supposed to -extinguish -bravery, and -to be contrary -to humanity.</span>and there was a general aversion -to the newly invented arms, as calculated to extinguish military bravery, and as being -contrary to humanity; but above all, the knights (whose science was rendered -completely useless by the introduction of fire-arms) opposed, with all their might, -this invention, <span class="sidenote">Fire-Arms -expensive and -powder difficult -to procure.</span>to which may be added the great cost and difficulty of procuring -gunpowder.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Rockets in -India.</p> - -<p>It is known that iron rockets have been used in India as military weapons, time -out of mind. (See <a href="#Plate4">plate 4</a>, fig. 3.)</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h3>GREEK FIRE.</h3> - -<p class="sidenote">Discovered -by Callinicus. -A. D., 617.</p> - -<p>The Greek Fire has been highly extolled for its wonderful effects, but it owed -much of its effect to the terrors and imagination of the beholders. It is said by the -Oriental Greeks, to have been discovered by Callinicus, an architect of Heliopolis or -Balbeck, in the reign of the Emperor Constantine Pogonatus, who, it is said, forbad -the art of making it to be communicated to foreigners, but it was at length known, -and in common use, among the nations confederated with the Byzantines.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Known in -China, 917.</p> - -<p>It is also said to have been known in China in 917, being 300 years after -Constantine Pogonatus, under the name of “The oil of the cruelfire,” and was -carried thither by the Kitan Tartars, who had it from the King of Ou.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Wild fire -from the -Saracens.</p> - -<p>It was thrown by machines, by the hand, and by cross bows, fastened to the -heads of arrows. The Crusaders obtained a knowledge of a sort of wild fire from the -Saracens, which could only be extinguished by dust or vinegar. It was composed of -the gum of resinous trees, reduced to powder with sulphur, to which was added -naptha, and other bitumens, and probably nitre.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Wild fire in -the Holy -Wars.</p> - - - -<p>It is much spoken of in all the Holy Wars, as being frequently employed by -the Saracens against the Christians. Procopius, in his history of the Goths, calls -it Media’s oil, considering it an infernal composition prepared by that sorceress. -<span class="sidenote">Geoffrey de -Vinesauf’s -account.</span>Geoffrey de Vinesauf, who accompanied Richard I. to the Crusades, says that it -could not be extinguished by water, but that sand thrown upon it abated its virulence, -and vinegar poured upon it put it out. <span class="sidenote">Father -Daniel’s -account.</span>Father Daniel says this wild fire was -not only used in sieges, but even in battles, and that Philip Augustus, King of -France, having found a quantity of it ready prepared at Acre, brought it with him to -France, <span class="sidenote">Used at the -siege of -Dieppe.</span>and used it at the siege of Dieppe, for burning the English vessels in that -harbour.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Greek fire and -gunpowder, -both used at -the siege of -Ypres, 1383.</p> - -<p>The Greek fire was used long after the invention of firearms; when the Bishop -of Norwich besieged Ypres, 1383, the garrison is said by Walsingham to have -defended itself so well, with stones, arrows, lances, and certain engines called guns,<span class="pagenum" id="Page5">[5]</span> -that they obliged the English to raise the siege with such precipitation, that they left -behind them their great guns, which were of inestimable value.</p> - -<p>Greek fire was probably a more recent invention than Gunpowder.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p class="sidenote">Powder used -by Arabs, -14th century.</p> - -<p>It is ascertained that Gunpowder was employed by the Arabs as an agent -for throwing bolts and stones, about the commencement of the fourteenth century, -and that the Moors first availed themselves of its advantages in their wars with the -Spaniards. From Spain, the use of Gunpowder and Artillery gradually extended -itself to France, and thence over the other States of Europe.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Some idea of the importance of Gunpowder may be formed by the estimate of -the enormous quantity employed in sieges, and warfare generally.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Quantity used -in sieges.</p> - -<p>At the siege of Ciudad Rodrigo, January, 1812, 74,978lbs. were consumed in -30<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub> hours; at Badajos, March, 1812, 228,830lbs. in 104 hours, and this from the -great guns only.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">San Sebastian -and Zaragoza.</p> - -<p>At the two sieges of San Sebastian, 502,110lbs. At Zaragoza, the French -exploded 45,000lbs. in the mines, and threw 16,000 shells.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Sebastopol.</p> - -<p>During the siege of Sebastopol, extending over a period of eleven months, the -enormous quantity of 2,775,360lbs., or 1,239 tons of gunpowder, were expended by -ourselves alone; 9,076 tons of shot and shell having been launched by us on that -memorable occasion, from 476 pieces of heavy ordnance; of which only 11 actually -burst, though 269 were rendered unserviceable.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Quantity -made.</p> - -<p>Some of our private manufactories make from 8 to 10,000 barrels of powder -a year in time of peace, and from 10 to 14,000 during war.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Quantity -proved by -Government.</p> - -<p>The quantity of powder received and proved from Faversham, at the Royal -Magazines, and from the several powder makers contracting with Government, -amounted, during the several years from 1776 to 1782 inclusive, to 244,349 barrels -of 100 lbs. each, being equal, on an average, to 3,490,700lbs. annually. <span class="sidenote">Quantity in -store in 1783.</span>The quantity -of powder in store in Great Britain, Guernsey, Jersey, and the Isle of Man, in 1783, -was about 80,000 barrels.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Gunpowder -used for works -of peace.</p> - -<p>Sir George Staunton observes, that gunpowder in India and China seems coeval -with the most distant historic events, and that the Chinese have at all times applied -it to useful purposes, as the blasting of rocks, and also in the preparation of fireworks, -in which they greatly excel other nations.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Powder used -at Woodhead -tunnel.</p> - -<p>In blasting the Woodhead tunnel, in the county of Chester, not less than three -thousand five hundred barrels of gunpowder, weighing about one hundred and sixty -tons, were used in its formation. The average number of men employed was about -a thousand; and during the six years the works were in progress, twenty-six men -were killed. There were about 400 minor accidents, many of them attended with -loss of limb, and the sum total of the casualties, in proportion to the men employed, -was greater, according to Mr. Edwin Chadwick, than was suffered by the British -army in the battles of Talavera, Salamanca, Vittoria, and Waterloo.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Powder used -on S. Eastern -Railway.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page6">[6]</span></p> - -<p>In the formation of the South-Eastern Railway, the blasts of the cliffs between -Dover and Folkestone have astonished even scientific men. On one occasion 18,500 -pounds of gunpowder were ignited by galvanic action at the same instant, which -severed from the Round-down cliff, the height of which is 375 feet above the level of -the sea, more than 1,000,000 tons of chalk. The fallen mass extended 1200 feet -into the ocean, and covered a space of 18 acres. By another statement, the quantity -of earth moved by the explosion was 400,000 cubic yards, and was a saving to the -Company of £7,000.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">No. of men -employed at -Waltham -Abbey.</p> - -<p>There are 134 men employed in the Government works at Waltham Abbey -in the manufacture of gunpowder, <span class="sidenote">Quantity -made.</span>who make about 9,000 barrels a year. The premises -are near two miles long, consisting of detached mills, &c., on a small stream, -which runs through the whole length of the premises and communicates with the -Thames, whereby there is water-carriage to the Government Powder Magazines at -Purfleet. The barges conveying powder are not allowed to anchor in the river off -London during the night. Where two buildings are adjacent, there are frequently -heavy buttresses of masonry between them, and lightning conductors are placed in -great numbers.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Saving to -Government.</p> - -<p>There is a great saving, amounting to upwards of £300,000, in the cost of powder, -when compared to the price paid to the merchants in seven years of the war -from 1809 to 1815, from the Government having Waltham Abbey, Faversham, and -Ballincollig.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Improved -Quality.</p> - -<p>At Waltham Abbey, in a very few years after it was constructed, the powder -was so improved, that the charge of powder to the weight of shot was reduced from -one-half to one-third; therefore two barrels were used instead of three—an advantage -in stowing on board ship as well as in the field.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Made by -Contract.</p> - -<p>A great part of the powder for H. M. Government has at present to be supplied -by merchants. The contracts are made out sometimes for them to supply their own -saltpetre, and at others for the Government to furnish it pure, at the rate of 77·5 lbs. -per barrel of 100 lbs., they finding the other materials and manufacture, a corresponding -reduction in price being made: as, however, it has to come up in nearly all -respects to the sample, the requirements of which we shall state, certain -proofs have to be undergone before being received for the different services.</p> - -<hr class="full" /> - -<p class="note"><span class="smcap">Note.</span>—The foregoing is mainly compiled from Robins’s -<i>New Principles of Gunnery</i>, by Hutton; <i>Engines of -War</i>, by Wilkinson; and <i>Projectile Weapons of War</i>, by J. Scoffern, M.B.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page7">[7]</span></p> - -<h2>ON THE MANUFACTURE OF GUNPOWDER.</h2> - -<hr class="chapline top" /> -<hr class="chapline bot" /> - -<p class="sidenote">Composition -of powder.</p> - -<p>Gunpowder is an explosive propellant agent; a mechanical combination and intimate -mixture of saltpetre, charcoal, and sulphur, in certain fixed proportions, the -result of successive experiments.</p> - -<p>To be effective, Gunpowder should,</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Ought to keep -without -deterioration.</p> - -<p>1st.—Preserve itself in a good state, whether in magazine or in carriage.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Leave no -residue.</p> - -<p>2nd.—Leave as little residue as possible after ignition.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Combine -quickness and -power.</p> - -<p>3rd.—Should combine a certain quickness of combustion with great explosive -force.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h3>SALTPETRE, OR NITRE.</h3> - -<p class="sidenote">Nitre.</p> - -<p>The principal ingredient in Gunpowder is an abundant production of Nature, -and is a combination of nitric acid with the vegetable alkali. It is never found pure, -being always contaminated with other salts and earthy matter. <span class="sidenote">Where found.</span>It is principally found -in the East Indies, Ceylon, and South America, and is sometimes produced from -decayed animal and vegetable matter. <span class="sidenote">Unfit in natural -state.</span>It is totally unfit for Gunpowder until it has -been refined; for, being combined with muriates of soda, lime, magnesia, and other -salts, which absorb moisture, the close contact of the ingredients would be deranged -by their presence, the strength of the powder weakened, and the power of resisting -the action of the atmosphere greatly lessened. As for the efflorescent salts it may -contain, they are noxious only inasmuch as, possessing no particular useful property, -they interpose their atoms between the more combustible ingredients, and impede the -rapidity of deflagration.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Two methods -of refining.</p> - -<p>There are two methods of refining saltpetre at Waltham Abbey:—1st, the Old -Method, of re-crystallizing three times; and 2nd, the New Method, which has only -just been adopted, both of which we shall here briefly describe.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h4>OLD METHOD.</h4> - -<p class="sidenote">Old method.</p> - -<p>About 35 cwt. of the grough saltpetre, as it is termed, viz., as it is imported in -its impure state, is put into a copper capable of holding 500 gallons, with 270 gallons -of water, in the proportion of about 1<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub>lbs. of nitre to 1lb. of water, (which proportion -varies with the quality of the saltpetre). This is allowed to boil, and the<span class="pagenum" id="Page8">[8]</span> -impurities are skimmed off as they appear on the surface. Cold water is occasionally -thrown in to precipitate portions of the chloride, which otherwise would remain on the -top by the action of boiling. After being allowed to boil from three and a half to -four hours, the furnace doors are thrown open, when the chlorides and salts fall to -the bottom. In about two hours, a copper pump is lowered into the liquor, which is -pumped out into a wooden trough, having four or five brass cocks, under which are -suspended canvas filtering bags in the shape of a V. The solution is then filtered, -and run off into pans, containing about 36 gallons, and allowed to remain for twenty-four -hours, to crystallize, when they are set up on edge, to drain off the liquor which -remains uncrystallized, and which is called mother liquor. The saltpetre thus -obtained is called once-refined, and undergoes the same process twice again, the only -difference being that there is a greater proportion to the water each time, viz. 1<sup>3</sup>⁄<sub>4</sub>lb. -to 1lb. of water the second time, and 2lb. to 1lb. of water the third time: moreover, -the third time, a small quantity of ground charcoal is put into the solution, and it -passes through double filters, which brings it to a very fine pure white colour when -melted. The mother water which remains in the pans after each crystallization is -conveyed away by gutters to cisterns under the building; it is then evaporated in -iron pots to one quarter of its original bulk, filtered, and allowed to crystallize. The -saltpetre obtained from the first mother water is considered one stage inferior to -grough; that from the second, equal to grough; that from the treble-refined, equal -to once-refined saltpetre. The water left from every stage is treated in the same -way, so that actually nothing is lost of the pure material. Saltpetre treble-refined by -this process is perfectly pure, and fit for the manufacture of Gunpowder; and in -order to free it from moisture, as well as for the convenience of storage and transport, -it is melted in iron pots holding about 4 cwt., <span class="sidenote">Saltpetre -fuzes at 600°.</span>by raising it to a temperature of 600° -Fahrenheit, and cast into gun-metal circular moulds holding about 38lbs. each. It -must be observed that it requires about two hours to bring the saltpetre into a liquid -state, and that, after this, the furnace doors are thrown open, to lower the heat to the -proper temperature for casting into the moulds. When the cakes are cold, they are -packed away in barrels containing 1 cwt., 1 qr. each, and put into store. Care must -be taken, in melting the saltpetre, not to raise it to too high a temperature, as this -would reduce the quantity of oxygen, and form nitrite of potash, which would render -it unfit as an ingredient in the composition of Gunpowder.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">A neutral -salt.</p> - -<p>Saltpetre is a neutral salt, the constituents of which are 46.55 potash, and 53.45 -nitric acid; the latter consisting of two volumes nitrogen and five of oxygen. It is -white, and of a fresh, sharp, and slightly bitter taste. It crystallizes in six-sided -prisms. Exposed to the air, it remains permanent unless impure, or that the atmosphere -is very moist.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h4>NEW METHOD.</h4> - -<p class="sidenote">New method.</p> - -<p>Forty cwt. of the grough saltpetre is put into a copper with 270 gallons of water, -and treated in precisely the same way as we have before described for the first<span class="pagenum" id="Page9">[9]</span> -refining; it is then filtered and run off into large troughs, about 10 feet long by 6 feet -wide, and 9 inches deep, lined with sheet copper; this liquor is then kept in a state -of agitation by a wooden rake, until nearly cold. By this process a large quantity -of very minute crystals are formed, which are collected as they form by a wooden -hoe, and shovelled with a spade on to a framework covered with copper sieving -resting on the opposite sides of the trough, and allowed to drain. These fine white -crystals, which have exactly the appearance of snow, when they have drained -sufficiently, are raked over in a washing cistern adjoining, which is about 6 feet long, -4 feet wide, and 3ft. 6in. deep, and fitted with a false wooden bottom that can be -removed at pleasure. Cold water is allowed to run on to the saltpetre in this cistern -till it is nearly level with the top. After remaining for an hour it is drained off, and -filled again with fresh water, which is drained off after about another hour. The -saltpetre thus obtained is perfectly pure, and equal in every respect to the treble-refined -by the old method. The water remaining in the cisterns after agitation, is -left till the next morning, when a quantity of larger crystals are formed on the -bottom and sides; these are equal to once-refined by the old method, and are used -with grough; the mother-liquor is then drained off, and evaporated in the usual way. -The water from each washing is conveyed into cisterns, and used with grough saltpetre -instead of water; but, as it contains a small portion of saltpetre in solution, a -lesser quantity of grough is used to make the proportions correct.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Drying.</p> - -<p>The saltpetre flour, however, contains a certain degree of moisture, which has to -be dried off in the following way: two large copper trays, about 10 feet by 6 feet, -with a 3-inch rim, are fixed over flues heated by a furnace, 4 inches of sand being -between the flues and the bottom of the trays; the saltpetre is spread about 2 inches -deep all over, and raked about till dry; it is then barrelled up for use. It takes -about two hours to dry 5 cwt.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Comparison -of the two -methods.</p> - -<p>On comparing the two systems, there cannot for one moment be a doubt as to -the immense advantages of the latter over the former. As an example, in the refinery -where this new process is carried on, the result (that is to say, pure saltpetre) -is obtained in one day instead of six, with less than one half the amount of labour -and coals.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Why new -method best.</p> - -<p>On reflection, the reason of the great gain of time by this process will suggest -itself. In the former method, when allowed to remain quiet, the crystals formed are -very large, and the spaces left in them always contain a certain amount of mother-water, -which necessitates its being crystallized three times to perfectly free it from -the liquor. In the latter, the crystals are so minute that there is practically no space -for the mother-water to collect; consequently, by careful washing, the saltpetre is obtained -perfectly pure.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h3>CHARCOAL.</h3> - -<p class="sidenote">Charcoal.</p> - -<p>Wood charcoal is the woody fibre that remains after the liquid and more volatile -parts have been driven off by the fire in the process of charring. The temperature<span class="pagenum" id="Page10">[10]</span> -resulting from the combustion of charcoal is much higher than that from burning -wood, in consequence of the absence of the large quantity of water which wood -contains, amounting to between 50 and 60 per cent.; <span class="sidenote">Object of -charring.</span>the object, therefore, of charring -wood is the removal of moisture, and also, what is of great importance, the expulsion -of those matters contained in it which become volatile before they are burned, thus -rendering a large amount of heat latent. <span class="sidenote">Best wood for -charcoal.</span>The woods generally used in this country -in making charcoal for gunpowder are the alder, willow, and dogwood. There are -about 60 acres of wood grown for charcoal at Waltham Abbey. The alder is cut -every eight years, and the willow in six years. It is used after one year. Other -woods are sometimes used by English and foreign manufacturers, but none produce a -powder of such quality as obtained from the above. It is usually considered that -better charcoal is distilled when the wood is allowed to season for a time; but -recent experience has shown that wood only lately cut and peeled, after being desiccated -in a hot chamber, will make equally good charcoal with that which has been -seasoning for three or four years.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">First process.</p> - -<p>All the wood which is cut in the Government grounds or purchased from merchants, -is stripped of the bark, on account of its being impregnated with salts and -gummy substances, cut into lengths of 3 feet for the convenience of loading the iron -slips, which are a little above this length, and stacked in the wood-yard.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Cylinder -charcoal.</p> - -<p>Cylindrical cases of the required size, fitted with lids, are filled with wood. -These cases are made to fit easily, and slide horizontally into iron retorts built in the -wall, which admit of the accurate regulation of heat (communicated to them by furnaces -underneath) throughout the operation of charring. A great saving of time and -heat is effected by their use, as when the wood has been properly charred the case -or slip containing it may be easily withdrawn, and another containing a fresh charge -at once introduced into the retort, without allowing the latter to cool down, as -would otherwise be necessary. When it has been sufficiently charred (which is -known by experience, in watching the burning of the gas that is produced and is -conducted into the fire), the slip is withdrawn by tackling, and at once lowered down -into iron coolers or cases, which are immediately covered up with close-fitting lids, -and then allowed to remain until all fire is extinguished. The goodness of charcoal -is an essential point in the manufacture of gunpowder. <span class="sidenote">Quantity -produced.</span>About twenty-five to thirty -per cent. is obtained; and one cord will produce about four cwt. of charcoal. <span class="sidenote">Qualities.</span>If -properly charred, it should have a jet black appearance, and when powdered a lustre -resembling velvet; it should be light and sonorous when gently dropped, and its -fracture should exhibit the same appearance throughout; it should be so soft as not -to scratch polished copper, and ought not to exhibit any alkali when treated with -pure distilled water. Charcoal is very porous, and absorbs very greedily gases and -moisture from the atmosphere; no large store therefore is ever kept, and particular -care is taken to prepare it only in proportion as it is required for use. <span class="sidenote">Kept dry.</span>At all times -it must be kept exceedingly dry; <span class="sidenote">Absorbs.</span>when whole it will absorb about eight per cent. its -weight of moisture, and when in powder 15 per cent., so that the fresher the -charcoal is the better for the powder.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page11">[11]</span></p> - -<h3>SULPHUR.</h3> - -<p class="sidenote">Sulphur.</p> - -<p>Sulphur is a simple, combustible, solid, non-metallic, elementary body. It is -found generally in great quantities in the neighbourhood of volcanoes. It is also -obtainable from metallic ores, and readily fuzes. At 170° Fahrenheit it begins to -evaporate; at 185° to 190° it melts; at 220° it is perfectly fluid; and at 600° it -sublimes. <span class="sidenote">How purified.</span>Sulphur is purified simply by melting: that which is supplied to Waltham -Abbey has been once refined, and the following is a description of the apparatus and -method for purifying and rendering it fit as an ingredient in Gunpowder. A large -iron pot is set about three feet off the ground, or about the height that an ordinary -boiling copper is placed, having a furnace underneath. This pot has a movable lid, -which is fixed into the top of the pot with clay, and in which lid is an iron conical -plug that can be removed at pleasure. From the pot lead two pipes, one to a large -circular dome, and another to an iron retort, rather below its level. The last-mentioned -pipe has a casing, or jacket, round it, which can be filled with cold water. -The communication of these pipes with the melting pot can be shut off or opened, as -occasion requires, by a mechanical arrangement. About 5<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub> to 6 cwt. of the once-refined -sulphur is broken up into small pieces, placed in the iron melting pot, and -subjected to the action of the furnace. The plug in the lid, and the pipe leading to -the dome are now left open, but the pipe to the retort closed. After from two to -three hours a pale yellow vapour rises, when the plug is put in, and the vapour conducted -into the dome, where it condenses in the form of an impalpable powder, -commonly called flowers of sulphur. A small pipe leads from the bottom of the -dome, on the opposite side, into water, to allow the escape of the air, and sulphuric -acid is taken up by this water. In about one and a half to two hours after, the -vapour becomes of a deep iodine colour, when the communication with the dome is -shut, and the one to the retort opened; at the same time, cold water from a tank -above is allowed to pass into the jacket we have before mentioned, surrounding this -pipe. The vapour then which distils over is condensed in the pipe, and runs into the -retort below in the form of a thick yellow fluid. When nearly all has distilled, which -can be known by the jacket getting cold, the communication is again closed with the -retort, and the fluid sulphur left an hour, to get sufficiently cool to ladle out into -moulds, the furnace door and the communication with the dome at the same time are -again thrown open, that the rest of the vapour may pass into the latter. <span class="sidenote">Flowers of -sulphur -unsuitable.</span>The flowers -of sulphur thus obtained are used for laboratory purposes, being unfit for the manufacture -of Gunpowder, from the acid they contain, and the crystalline sulphur, after -being allowed to cool in the moulds, is barrelled up and used as the third ingredient -in Gunpowder.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h3>PULVERIZING THE INGREDIENTS.</h3> - -<p class="sidenote">Grinding.</p> - -<p>The three ingredients are now ground separately to a very fine powder. The -mills (vide <a href="#Plate1">plate 1</a>) which effect this, and incorporate, are so similar, that a description -will be given under the head of “Incorporation.” -<span class="sidenote">Screening.</span>After being ground in this<span class="pagenum" id="Page12">[12]</span> -way, the saltpetre is passed through a slope cylindrical reel, covered with copper -sieving wire of 60 meshes to the inch, which, as it revolves, sifts it to the required -fineness, being then received in a box or bin underneath. The charcoal and sulphur -are likewise passed through similar reels of 32 and 60-mesh wire respectively, and -that which remains without passing through, is ground again under the runners. A -very excellent machine has been invented by Mr. Hall, the engineer, of Dartford, for -grinding charcoal, which makes a most useful addition to the Gunpowder factory. It -consists of a conical drum, working in a conical box, on the same principle as a -coffee-grinding machine, the axis being vertical. The mill is fed with charcoal by a -hopper, and, as it passes through in fine powder, falls into a revolving reel, which -sifts it in the same manner as before described, the whole being covered in, to prevent -the great annoyance of dust, which was felt until lately, from the old charcoal mill. -The three ingredients having been pulverized, are now fit for the mixing process.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h3>MIXING THE INGREDIENTS.</h3> - -<p class="sidenote">Mixing and -proportions.</p> - -<p>The ingredients are now weighed out very accurately, in the proportion of 75 -nitre, 15 charcoal, and 10 sulphur, in 42lb. charges, viz., nitre, 31lbs. 8oz., charcoal, -6lbs. 4oz. 13drs., sulphur, 4lbs. 3oz. 3drs., and thoroughly mixed in a machine, which -consists of a cylindrical gun-metal or copper drum, about two feet in diameter, with -an axle passing through its centre, on which there are metal flyers, like forks. The -machinery is so arranged that the flyers and drum revolve in opposite directions when -in motion, at a rate of about one hundred revolutions per minute. Five minutes is -sufficient for a thorough mixture. The composition is then drawn off by a slip into -canvas bags the proper size to hold the 42lb. charges, which are tightly tied, and -taken to small magazines. <span class="sidenote">Green -charges.</span>These are called green charges, and are now ready for the -next process, incorporation.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h3>THE INCORPORATING MILL.</h3> - -<p class="sidenote">Incorporation.</p> - -<p>The Incorporating Mill consists of an iron or stone circular flat bed, about seven -feet in diameter, fixed very firmly in the floor of the building which covers it, whereon -two iron or stone cylindrical runners, from five to seven feet in diameter, fourteen to -eighteen inches wide, and each weighing from 3 to 4<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub> tons, revolve. They have a -common axle, and a vertical shaft passing through the centre of the bed is connected -with this axle, and to machinery above or below, which communicates the motion. -These runners are not equidistant from the centre, by which arrangement in their -revolution every part of the composition on the bed is subjected to their action, which -is threefold, viz., crushing, grinding, and mixing; crushing, from the weight of the -cylinders; grinding, from the twisting motion which they are forced into from so -large a diameter revolving in so small a circle; and mixing, from a combination of -the two former motions. To prevent the powder from falling over the side of the -bed, a wooden rim, about two feet in height, is placed at an angle of forty-five -degrees with it, like the side of a funnel, and fitted closely all round its circumference.<span class="pagenum" id="Page13">[13]</span> -This is called the “curb;” and in the centre of the bed a gun-metal ring, or -“cheese,” as it is termed, about two feet in diameter, and five inches high, concentric -with the bed, prevents the powder working beyond in that direction. Moreover, -two scrapers, or “ploughs,” connected by stays with the horizontal axle, revolve with -the runners, one rubbing against the inner, and the other the outer circle. These -ploughs are made of hard wood, shod with leather and felt, and their use is continually -to disturb and rout about the composition, and keep it under the path of the -runners, so that every part should get its share of incorporation. The houses or sheds -which cover these buildings have hitherto been constructed of wood, with either -corrugated iron or wooden roofing. The new incorporating mills in this factory, -which are just completed, are built with three sides of strong three-foot brickwork, -and the fourth side and roof of corrugated iron and glass. They are also placed in a -line contiguous to each other, the alternate ones only facing the same way, so that an -explosion from one would probably communicate no further, and the lighter parts of -the building would blow away, leaving the rest entire. Most of the machinery in the -factory is driven by water-wheels; the motive power of these mills is steam. A -horizontal shaft, worked by the engine, passes underneath the entire length of the -building in a cast-iron tank, and a bevel wheel on this shaft is geared into another one -on the vertical shaft under the centre of each bed, which, communicating with the -runners, gives the necessary motion.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Water-tanks -to prevent -explosions.</p> - -<p>In order, as much as possible, to guard against any explosion spreading, above -each bed, placed so as just to clear the runners, is suspended or balanced a copper -tank, holding about forty gallons of water. On one side of the tank is fixed a small -shaft, which communicates with similar cisterns over the beds of the mills on either -side. The other end of the tank rests on a flat board, which is subjected to a great -part of the force of an explosion. This consequently lifts, disengaging the support of -the tank, the contents of which drench the bed which has just exploded, thereby -putting out all fire, and cooling the machinery, besides having a similar effect on the -mills right and left, preventing, by this means, any extension of fire.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h3>INCORPORATING THE INGREDIENTS.</h3> - -<p class="sidenote">Incorporation.</p> - -<p>The charge is spread pretty evenly over the surface of the bed, and moistened -with from four to six pints of distilled water; the quantity varying according to the -state of the atmosphere; the runners are then set in motion, and run from seven to -eight revolutions per minute for three and a half hours, during which time the powder -is often routed up by a copper-shod spud, and watered slightly with a fine rose -watering pot, according to the experience of the millman; at the end of this time the -mixture is thoroughly incorporated, possesses all the chemical properties of Gunpowder, -and is taken off the bed in the form of a cake, varying from a quarter to -half an inch in thickness, and of a blackish-grey colour. <span class="sidenote">Mill cake.</span>This is called “Mill Cake,” -and when broken, the fracture should exhibit the same uniform appearance, without -presenting any sparkling or yellow specks; should this, however, be the case, it is a<span class="pagenum" id="Page14">[14]</span> -sign of the ingredients not being sufficiently incorporated. <span class="sidenote">Proof of mill -cake.</span>In this stage it undergoes -certain proofs; samples of the cake are taken from every charge that is worked, dried -in an oven, and granulated; half a drachm of this is fired in a vertical eprouvette, -which it ought to raise 3.5 inches; and half an ounce is flashed on a glass plate. If -very little residue or ash is left, it is an additional proof of its being well incorporated, -and that the millman has done his work properly.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Importance of -incorporation.</p> - -<p>Incorporation is by far the most important process in the manufacture of Gunpowder; -for, however carefully the other part of the fabrication is carried on, should -there be a failing in this, the powder will be worth nothing.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Object of -manufacture.</p> - -<p>The great and ultimate object to be attained in the manufacture of Gunpowder -is, to produce that which shall give equal results with equal charges; the greatest -regularity should therefore be observed in this stage. The millman should have great -experience; the runners and beds should be, as nearly as possible, the same size and -weight, and driven at the same speed throughout the factory; at any rate, each charge -should be worked to the same number of revolutions; the motion of the runners -should also be as uniform as possible, which is very satisfactorily accomplished by -each water-wheel being regulated by a governor.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h3>BREAKING DOWN THE MILL CAKE.</h3> - -<p class="sidenote">Breaking -down the mill -cake.</p> - -<p>The mill cake, after it comes off the bed of the incorporating mill, is placed in -wooden tubs, and taken to small-expense magazines, and from there, in about twelve -hours, to the breaking-down house; <span class="sidenote">Object of -mealing.</span>the object of the machine from which this takes -its name, is to reduce the cake to a convenient size for the hydraulic-press box, and -also that, by being crushed again to meal, it may get a more even pressure. It consists -of a strong gun-metal framework, in which are fixed two pairs of fine-toothed -or plain rollers, which revolve towards each other, working in spring collars, so that -on any hard substance getting in by mistake, they would open, and allow it to pass -through, thereby preventing the dangerous friction which would otherwise result. A -hopper, or upright wooden funnel, capable of holding about 500 lbs. is fixed at one -end of the machine, and an endless canvass band 2ft. 6in. wide, having strips of -leather sewn across at intervals of four inches, passes over one roller at the bottom of -the hopper, and one at the top of the machine. When set in motion, this conveys the -cake from the hopper to the highest point of the band; it then falls through the first -pair of rollers, and from thence through the second, passing in the form of meal into -small wooden carriages underneath, which, as they are filled, move forward by a self-acting -motion, making room for others. The mill cake thus broken down, is fit for -the press.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h3>PRESSING THE MEAL BY THE HYDRAULIC PRESS.</h3> - -<p class="sidenote">Hydraulic -Pressure.</p> - -<p>The meal is now subjected to very powerful pressure; and, in order to explain -the way in which this is effected, a short description of the apparatus must be given.<span class="pagenum" id="Page15">[15]</span> -The principle of the hydraulic press is so familiar to most, that it will be unnecessary -to do more than show how the power is applied (vide <a href="#Plate2">plate 2</a>).</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Description of -box.</p> - -<p>A very strong oak box, 2 feet 6 inches square, and 2 feet 9 inches deep, is constructed -so that two of the sides of the lid will fall back on hinges, or form a compact -solid box when screwed firmly together. Forty-six copper plates, 2 feet 5<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub> inches -square, slide vertically into this box, and are kept five-eighths of an inch apart by -two metal slips with corresponding grooves, which can be removed when necessary.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Quantity -pressed.</p> - -<p>About 800 lbs. of the meal is put into this box while the plates are in the position -we have described. When full, the slips are withdrawn, the plates being then -only separated by the powder between them: the lid is now firmly screwed down, -and the box turned over by an arrangement of pulleys, so that the plates which were -vertical will now be horizontal. The present upper side is then unscrewed, and a -travelling crane, moving on a rail overhead, is lowered till the claws attached -to it hook on to two trunnions fixed on the sides of the box; it is now hoisted by -means of a handwheel windlass, and the box being suspended, is pushed easily by -means of the rail, and deposited in this position on to the table of the ram under the -press block. <span class="sidenote">Amount of -pressure.</span>The pumps are now set in motion by a water-wheel, and are allowed -to work up to the required pressure, which is about seventy tons to the square foot; -it is then conveyed from under the block in the same manner, and very easily unloaded. -The press cake is then taken out in layers between each plate, resembling -dark pieces of slate, about half an inch in thickness. After a day or so, this hardens -so much as to be difficult to break, and the appearance of the fracture resembles that -of the finest earthenware. Many important advantages are gained by this pressure, -of which the following are the <span class="nowrap">principal:—</span></p> - -<p class="sidenote">Reasons for -pressure.</p> - -<p>First, the density of the powder is increased, which prevents it falling to dust in -transport, or by rough usage. Secondly, its keeping qualities are improved, for it -withstands the action of the atmosphere, and absorbs less moisture than a porous -light powder. Thirdly, it produces more grain in the manufacture than mill cake; -and a less proportion, consequently, is lost in dust. Fourthly, a closer connection of -the ingredients is obtained. Fifthly, a greater volume of inflammable gas is produced -from a certain bulk, than from a corresponding bulk of lighter powder.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Disadvantages -of pressure.</p> - -<p>The range, however, is lessened, from a greater quantity being blown out of a gun -unignited; but this small loss is more than counterbalanced by the former advantages, -and actually it is only perceptible in newly-made powder; for a light, porous powder -soon loses its superior range from its absorption of moisture, while that of the dense -powder remains unaltered.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h3>GRANULATING THE PRESS CAKE.</h3> - -<p class="sidenote">Mode of -granulation.</p> - -<p>The next process is granulation, or reducing this press cake into the proper sized -grain for cannon, musket, or rifle powder. The machine which effects this is very -beautifully contrived, and is entirely self-acting, obviating the necessity of any one -being in the building while it is in motion. It resembles, in appearance and action,<span class="pagenum" id="Page16">[16]</span> -the breaking-down machine, except that it is larger, and is fitted with three pairs of -toothed rollers, of different degrees of fineness, working in the same kind of collars -already mentioned, so that, on any hard substance passing through, they would open -accordingly, and thus prevent friction. At one end of the machine is a wooden -hopper, or funnel, which is filled with the press cake. This is contrived so as to rise -gradually by the motion of the machine, and constantly to supply an endless band, -similar to the one described in the breaking-down house. When the cake arrives at -the highest point of this band, it falls over, and is granulated between the first pair -of gun-metal rollers. <span class="sidenote">Screening.</span>Under each pair is a screen, covered with 8-mesh wire. All -that is not sufficiently small to pass through, is carried on to the next pair of rollers; -and, in like manner, that which does not pass through the second screen is carried to -the third pair. In addition to these screens, there are three oblong sieves covered -with 8- and 16-mesh wire, and 56 cloth respectively, fixed under, and parallel to, -each other, each being separated by about four inches of space, running at an incline -just below the three pairs of rollers; these all lead to little wooden carriages placed -on the opposite side of the machine, which are divided so as to collect the different -sized grain as it passes down. To facilitate the separation and sifting of the powder, -and to prevent masses of it forming and clogging up the wire, a shaking motion is -imparted by a circular wheel attached to the framework of these sieves revolving -against an octagonal one fixed to the machine. The grains which pass through each -screen below the rollers fall on the upper one of these three last-mentioned sieves. -That portion which passes through this, and is retained on the 16-mesh wire, is -cannon powder; that passing through the 16-mesh sieve, and retained on the -56-cloth, is fine grain; and a board, running also parallel underneath, retains the dust -that passes through the cloth.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Chucks -regranulated.</p> - -<p>The “chucks,” as they are called, or those grains that are too large to pass -through these different sieves, are collected in the same way as the grain, and -undergo the process of granulation again.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h3>DUSTING LARGE-GRAIN POWDER.</h3> - -<p class="sidenote">Object of -dusting.</p> - -<p>The keeping qualities of powder are very much improved by removing the dust, -which quickly absorbs moisture from the atmosphere. <span class="sidenote">How performed -for -large-grain.</span>This operation, for large-grain, -is performed by cylindrical reels, about 8ft. 6in. long, and 3ft. 8in. in diameter, -clothed with 28-mesh canvas, which revolve at the rate of thirty-eight times per -minute. Those for large-grain are called horizontal reels, in contradistinction to those -for fine-grain, that are called slope reels. Each is enclosed by a wooden case, to -prevent the dust flying about the house. When the powder has run its time, one -end of the reel is lowered. It then runs out into barrels placed to receive it. <span class="sidenote">Glazed at -same time.</span>This -entirely separates the dust, and imparts a fine black gloss, which is sufficient glazing -for the large-grained powder.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page17">[17]</span></p> - -<h3>DUSTING FINE-GRAIN POWDER.</h3> - -<p class="sidenote">Dusting fine-grain.</p> - -<p>The fine-grain powder has a much greater proportion of dust when it leaves the -granulating house than the large-grain, and it is found necessary, on this account, to -use a different kind of reel. They resemble those for the former powder, except that -they are covered with 44-mesh canvas instead of 28, and are placed at an incline -which prevents their being choked up with the quantity of dust; each end is also -open, and a continuous stream of powder, fed by a hopper, passes through while they -revolve, and pours out at the lower end into barrels. This process is repeated a second -time, which sufficiently frees it from dust.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h3>GLAZING FINE-GRAIN POWDER.</h3> - -<p class="sidenote">Glazing fine-grain.</p> - -<p>The fine-grain powder thus dusted, is then glazed for three hours in barrels -capable of holding 300lbs. which are 3ft. 6-in. in length, and 2ft. 8-in. in diameter, -revolving at the rate of thirty two times in a minute. By the mere friction of the -grains against each other and the inside of the barrel, a glaze is imparted, presenting -a fine polished surface to the grain.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Object of -glazing.</p> - -<p>Powder glazed in this way withstands the action of moisture to a far greater -extent than unglazed powder, and in transport very little dust is formed.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h3>STOVING OR DRYING POWDER.</h3> - -<p class="sidenote">Drying.</p> - -<p>A drying-room, heated by steam pipes, is fitted with open framework shelves, on -which rests small wooden trays about 3ft. long, 1ft. 6-in. in breadth, and 2<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub>in. deep, -having canvas bottoms; on each is spread 8lbs. of powder. This room holds about -40 barrels, or 4,000lbs., which remains in it for twenty four hours, and is subjected to -a heat of 130° Fahrenheit for sixteen hours, communicated by steam passing through -pipes arranged horizontally on the floor of the room. The temperature is raised and -lowered gradually, otherwise the too sudden change would be likely to destroy the -texture of the grain. The ceiling and roof are fitted with ventilators, through which -all the moisture escapes, so that there is a constant current of hot air circulating -through the room. It is of the greatest importance that the vapour should be carried -off; for, if this is not effectually done, on the decrease of temperature, it would return -to its liquid state, and form again on the powder.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h3>FINISHING DUSTING.</h3> - -<p class="sidenote">Final dusting.</p> - -<p>The action of heat however produces a small portion of dust; both these powders, -therefore, when they leave the stove, are reeled in horizontal reels, clothed with 28 -and 44-mesh canvas respectively, for one hour and a half. This perfectly separates -any remaining dust, and gives the finishing glaze to the large-grain powder. <span class="sidenote">Barrelling.</span>This is -the final process, and the powder thus finished is taken to the barrelling-up house; -weighed out into barrels holding 100lbs. each; marked L. G. (large-grain), and F. G. -(fine-grain), as the case may be; and stored in magazines.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page18">[18]</span></p> - -<h3>EXAMINATION AND PROOF OF GUNPOWDER.</h3> - -<p class="sidenote">Desired -properties of -gunpowder.</p> - -<p>The great and ultimate object to be attained in the manufacture of Gunpowder -is, not so much to produce that which ranges the highest, as one that shall be durable -in its texture, not easily deteriorated by atmospheric influence or transport, and one -with which equal charges shall produce equal effects. It should present uniformity -in the appearance of its grains, which should be angular, crisp and sharp to the touch, -not easily reduced to dust by pressure between the fingers, or dusty in handling; <span class="sidenote">Specific -gravity.</span>its -specific gravity should not be under 55lbs. to the cubic foot, (that of Waltham Abbey -is generally 58lbs.) taking water at 1000ozs.; <span class="sidenote">Strength.</span>its strength is tested by firing three -rounds from an 8 inch mortar, throwing a 68-pounder solid shot with a charge of 2oz. -this should give a range of from 270 to 300 feet. The distance however, varies -considerably, according to the state of the atmosphere, and the density of the powder: -for, the greater the density, the less the range in small charges. <span class="sidenote">Purity.</span>Half an ounce -flashed on a glass plate should leave little or no residuum; should white beads or -globules appear, it is a sign of imperfect incorporation.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h3>PROOF OF MERCHANT’S POWDER.</h3> - -<p>The following are the different proofs merchant’s powder is subjected <span class="nowrap">to:—</span></p> - -<p>Lots of 100 barrels are sent in, marked with the number of the lot and the -maker’s name on the head of each barrel. 25 per cent. of these are unheaded in the -examining house; the Proof Officer <span class="nowrap">then—</span></p> - -<p class="sidenote">If dusty.</p> - -<p>First, takes a bowl out of each barrel, and holding it about three feet above, -pours it out quickly; should there be a good deal of dust, it is satisfactorily shown by -this means.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Firmness.</p> - -<p>Secondly, it is handled and pressed between the fingers, to test the firmness of -its grain; <span class="sidenote">Size of grain.</span>and should there appear to be any great difference in the proportions of -different sizes to that laid down as a standard, it is sifted and compared accordingly, -being rejected should the quantities fall short or exceed the sample in any great -degree.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Density.</p> - -<p>Thirdly, a barrel or two are selected, and the powder poured into a hopper, -under which is placed a box very carefully constructed, so as to hold exactly a cubic -foot. A slide is now withdrawn at the bottom of the hopper, and the powder allowed -to run into the box in a continuous even stream until it is piled up; the hopper is -then removed, and the powder struck off with a straight edge, level with the top of -the box. The weight is now carefully taken, that of the latter being subtracted; -should this not amount to 55lbs. it is rejected, as not being of sufficient density.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Strength by -range.</p> - -<p>Fourthly, samples are taken from every barrel, and lot for the firing proof.</p> - -<p>Firing Proof.—An average of nine rounds of sample Waltham Abbey powder is -taken, three rounds being respectively fired at the beginning, middle, and end of the -proof, from the same kind of mortar before mentioned, with a charge of 2oz. An -average of three rounds of each lot of the merchant’s powder is also taken; should it -fall short by more than 1 in 20, it is rejected.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Purity by -flashing.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page19">[19]</span></p> - -<p>Fifthly, to ascertain if any residuum or ash is left after ignition, about half an -ounce is burned on a clean glass plate, and fired with a hot iron. The explosion -should be sharp, and produce a sudden concussion in the air; and the force and -power of this concussion should be judged by that of known good quality. Few -sparks should fly off, nor should white beads or globules appear, as it would be a sure -indication, as we have before explained, of insufficient incorporation. It is also subjected -to a second proof.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Purity by -weight after -exposure to -damp.</p> - -<p>Second proof.—A sample of 1lb. from each lot, carefully weighed up, and a -similar sample of the comparison powder, is exposed for three weeks in a box perforated -with holes (called a damp chest), to the action of the atmosphere. This box -is placed under cover, so that it is sheltered from the wet, but that the moisture can -get to it. If, at the end of this time, there is a greater proportion of difference in -range between them than one-twentieth, it is rejected. The pounds are also very -carefully weighed up again, to ascertain the comparative absorption of moisture. This -is called the hygrometric test.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h3>REMARKS ON THE PROOF OF POWDER BY THE EPROUVETTES.</h3> - -<p class="sidenote">By eprouvettes -or -pendulum.</p> - -<p>By comparing the results of the proofs by the eprouvettes with those furnished -by the cannon pendulum (vide <a href="#Plate1">plate 1</a>, fig. 2 and 3), it will appear that the eprouvettes -are entirely useless as instruments for testing the relative projectile force of -different kinds of powder, when employed in large charges in a cannon. Powders of -little density, or of fine grain, which burn most rapidly, give the highest proof with -the eprouvettes, whilst the reverse is nearly true with the cannon.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Real use of -eprouvettes.</p> - -<p>The only real use of these eprouvettes is to check and verify the uniformity of a -current manufacture of powder, where a certain course of operations is intended to be -regularly pursued, and where the strength, tested by means of any instrument, should -therefore be uniform.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Best proof, by -service -charges.</p> - -<p>The only reliable mode of proving the strength of Gunpowder is, to test it with -service charges in the arms for which it is designed; for which purpose the balistic -pendulums (vide <a href="#Plate3">plate 3</a>), are perfectly adapted.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Best proof for -small arms.</p> - -<p>For the proof of powder for small arms, the small balistic pendulum is a simple, -convenient, and accurate instrument.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Common -eprouvette.</p> - -<p>The common eprouvettes are of no value as instruments for determining the -relative force of different kinds of Gunpowder.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h3>OF THE SIZE OF GRAIN FOR GUNPOWDER.</h3> - -<p class="sidenote">On size of -grain.</p> - -<p>With regard to the particular size of grain for Gunpowder, I am confident great -improvements might be made, both in obtaining greater regularity of effect and propelling -force, by the adoption of a more uniform even grain. There are at present -half-a-dozen different sizes in our cannon and musket powder; and I think it stands<span class="pagenum" id="Page20">[20]</span> -to reason, that the more equal the size, the more uniform will be the ignition of all -the grains, and consequently the effect of the same charges will be much more regular.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h3>OBSERVATIONS ON THE MANUFACTURE OF GUNPOWDER -ON THE CONTINENT AND AMERICA.</h3> - -<p>It may not be uninteresting to have a slight knowledge of the method employed -on the Continent, &c., for the production of Gunpowder.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Proportion of -the ingredients.</p> - -<p>The proportions of the three ingredients vary slightly all over the Continent -and America, being as <span class="nowrap">follows:—</span></p> - -<table class="ingredients" summary="Ingredients"> - -<tr> -<th colspan="3"> </th> -<th><span class="smcapall">SALTPETRE.</span></th> -<th><span class="smcapall">CHARCOAL.</span></th> -<th><span class="smcapall">SULPHUR.</span></th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="country">France</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="brace bt br bb"> </td> -<td rowspan="2" class="brace padl0">-</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="proportion">75   </td> -<td rowspan="2" class="proportion">12.5 </td> -<td rowspan="2" class="proportion">12.5 </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="country">Belgium</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="country">Russia</td> -<td class="proportion">73.78</td> -<td class="proportion">13.59</td> -<td class="proportion">12.63</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="country">Prussia</td> -<td class="proportion">75   </td> -<td class="proportion">13.5 </td> -<td class="proportion">11.5 </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="country">Austria</td> -<td class="proportion">75.5 </td> -<td class="proportion">13.2 </td> -<td class="proportion">11.3 </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="country">Spain</td> -<td class="proportion">76.47</td> -<td class="proportion">10.78</td> -<td class="proportion">12.75</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="country">United States</td> -<td class="proportion">76   </td> -<td class="proportion">14   </td> -<td class="proportion">10   </td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h4>PRODUCTION AND PURIFICATION OF THE INGREDIENTS.</h4> - -<p class="sidenote">Production -and purification -of the -ingredients.</p> - -<p>The nitre is purified in a similar way to the new method employed at Waltham -Abbey, though it is seldom obtained with so faint a trace of chlorides, owing probably -to its being of an inferior quality, and of higher refraction when it is imported.</p> - -<p>The sulphur is supplied to the manufactories in France in the form of roll -sulphur, from Marseilles and Bordeaux, where there are very large refineries.</p> - -<p>The charcoal is prepared from dogwood, alder, willow, hazel, and poplar, sometimes -in pits, and occasionally in cylinders, as at Waltham Abbey. At Wetteren, -and in some parts of France, it is distilled by the action of steam. The “charbon -roux” taking its name from its brownish-red tinge, from being only partially burned, -was used formerly more than now, as the powder made from it was found to injure -and exert very pernicious effects upon fire-arms.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h4>PULVERIZING AND MIXING THE INGREDIENTS.</h4> - -<p class="sidenote">Pulverizing -and mixing -the ingredients.</p> - -<p>The ingredients are generally pulverized in copper drums, capable of holding -224 kilogrammes. Part of the charcoal is mixed with the sulphur, and part of the -sulphur with the saltpetre. They are then put into separate drums, which revolve -about twenty-five times per minute for three hours, and in which are about 500 gun-metal -or bronze balls, the size of good large marbles. The ingredients are brought -to the most minute state of division by these means, and are then mixed all together, -for one hour, in similar drums covered with leather, containing wooden balls.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page21">[21]</span></p> - -<h4>INCORPORATING PROCESS.</h4> - -<p class="sidenote">Incorporation.</p> - -<p>The fine powder thus obtained is sometimes merely moistened, so as to form a stiff -paste, and passed through rollers, the cake formed, being dried and granulated. -The incorporating cylinders are used occasionally, but the more usual plan adopted on -the Continent to effect this operation is the stamping-mill, which requires a short description. -It is nothing more nor less than the pestle-and-mortar principle, each mill -consisting of from six to twelve bronze or wooden mortars bedded in the floor of the -building; they are the shape of the frustum of a cone, the mouth being much -narrower than the base; the pestles, or stampers as they are called, are made of wood, -shod with either very hard wood or bronze, on which project wooden teeth about -twelve inches long; a vertical movement is imparted to them by a shaft worked by -the water-wheel having similar teeth attached; in its revolution it raises the stamper -about eighteen inches, which falls again as the projection is disengaged, twenty five -times in a minute. This operation is carried on for twelve hours, during which period -the charge (about 15lbs.) is moistened at intervals, and routed up with a copper-shod -spud; at the end of this time the cake is taken out, and left to dry and harden; it -seldom receives any pressure—although, in some manufactories, presses are being -erected.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h4>GRANULATING.</h4> - -<p class="sidenote">Granulation.</p> - -<p>The cake is then granulated in sets of sieves fitting one into the other, having -perforated zinc bottoms of different degrees of fineness, which are suspended from the -ceiling of the room by ropes, an ash spring being attached to each box holding the -sieves, the cake is put into the uppermost one with some gun-metal balls, and shaken -backwards and forwards, which motion the spring facilitates; it is thus broken up into -different sized grains, which are separated by passing through the several meshes.</p> - -<p>The grain formed is then dusted in bags or shaking-frames covered with canvas, -and then glazed in barrels.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h4>STOVING OR DRYING.</h4> - -<p class="sidenote">Drying.</p> - -<p>In summer the process of drying is often performed in the sun, and in winter by -the steam stove, in the following way. The powder is spread about three or four -inches thick on a large canvas tray, under which is an arrangement of pipes, which -convey the hot air forced by a fan through a cylinder heated by steam: it is considered -to be sufficiently dried in from three to four hours, during which time it is -occasionally raked about. In some manufactories it undergoes a further operation of -being dusted, and is then barrelled up for use. Generally the great failure in the -foreign manufacture is the neglect of the principal stage of the fabrication, viz. incorporation; -with the old stamping-mill, it is quite impossible that the process can be -carried out to the necessary extent. <span class="sidenote">Comparative -merits of -foreign and -English gunpowder.</span>The Continental powder is usually very soft in<span class="pagenum" id="Page22">[22]</span> -its grain, dusty, and quickly absorbs moisture from the atmosphere; its density is -below the English powder, on account of its never being subjected to pressure; consequently -it is not so durable, and forms a good deal of dust in transport; a great -amount of residue is generally left in the gun, and its strength, as a propelling agent, -is far inferior to our powders. On being flashed on a glass plate, instead of producing -a sudden concussion, like the sharp rap of a hammer, it burns more like composition, -throwing off a quantity of sparks.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h3>NEW RIFLE POWDER.</h3> - -<p>The following mode of manufacturing rifle powder, appeared in Garrison Orders -at Woolwich, 31st December, 1859:</p> - -<p class="center blankbefore1">Composition in 100 <span class="nowrap">parts:—</span></p> - -<table class="dontwrap" summary="Composition"> - -<tr> -<td class="left padr3">Saltpetre</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">75</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left padr3">Charcoal</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">15</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left padr3">Sulphur</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">10</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1"><span class="bt">100</span></td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p>The charcoal to be prepared from dogwood, burned slowly in cylinders three -hours. The composition to be worked under the runners for five and a half hours, -and submitted to a pressure of about 50 tons to the square foot. The size of the -grain to be that collected between sieves of 16 and 24 meshes. The grain to be -glazed for five hours.</p> - -<hr class="full" /> - -<p class="note"><span class="smcap">Note.</span>—The foregoing, on the manufacture of -gunpowder, is principally taken from an article in the Aide -Memoire (1860), by Major Baddeley, Royal Artillery; Captain Instructor, Waltham Abbey.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -</div><!--sidenotetext--> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page23">[23]</span></p> - -<h2>ON MAGAZINES.</h2> - -<hr class="chapline top" /> -<hr class="chapline bot" /> - -<p>It is impossible to make powder magazines too dry, and every care should be -taken to ventilate them as much as possible during dry weather, by opening all doors, -windows, loopholes, &c. Magazines are generally made bomb-proof, and are -furnished with lightning conductors. They are divided into chambers, and these -again divided by uprights into bays. At Purfleet, which is the grand depôt for gunpowder -in England, there are five magazines capable of containing 9,600 whole barrels -each. Each magazine is divided into two chambers, and each chamber into 24 bays, -and in each bay is placed 200 whole, 400 half, or 800 quarter barrels of powder. -Total in the five Magazines, 48,000 barrels, equal to 4,800,000 pounds.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page24">[24]</span></p> - -<h2>LIGHTNING CONDUCTORS.</h2> - -<hr class="chapline top" /> -<hr class="chapline bot" /> - -<p class="note center"><i>Principles and Instructions relative to their application to Powder Magazines, by</i> <span class="smcap">Sir -W. Snow Harris</span>, F.R.S. <i>Extracted from Army List for July, 1859.</i></p> - -<p class="blankbefore1">1.—Thunder and lightning result from the operation of a peculiar natural agency -through an interval of the atmosphere contained between the surface of a certain area -of clouds, and a corresponding area of the earth’s surface directly opposed to the -clouds. It is always to be remembered that the earth’s surface and the clouds are the -terminating planes of the action, and that buildings are only assailed by Lightning -because they are points, as it were, in, or form part of, the earth’s surface, in which -the whole action below finally vanishes. Hence buildings, under any circumstances, -will be always open to strokes of Lightning, and no human power can prevent it, -whether having Conductors or not, or whether having metals about them or not, as -experience shows.</p> - -<p>2.—Whenever the peculiar agency, (whatever it may be), active in this operation -of nature, and characterized by the general term Electricity, or Electric Fluid, is -confined to substances which are found to resist its progress, such, for example, as -air, glass, resinous bodies, dry wood, stones, &c., then an explosive form of action -is the result, attended by such an evolution of light and heat, and by such an enormous -expansive force, that the most compact and massive bodies are rent in pieces, -and inflammable matter ignited. Nothing appears to stand against it. Granite rocks -are split open, oak and other trees, of enormous size, rent in shivers, and masonry -of every kind frequently laid in ruins. The lower masts of ships of the line, 3 feet in -diameter, and 110 feet long, bound with hoops of iron half an inch thick and 5 inches -wide, the whole weighing about 18 tons, have been, in many instances, torn asunder, -and the hoops of iron burst open and scattered on the decks. It is, in fact, this -terrible expansive power which we have to dread in cases of buildings struck by -Lightning, rather than the actual heat attendant on the discharge itself.</p> - -<p>3.—When, however, the electrical agency is confined to bodies, such as the -metals, which are found to oppose but small resistance to its progress, then this violent -expansive or disruptive action is either greatly reduced, or avoided altogether. The -explosive form of action we term Lightning, vanishes, and becomes, as it were, transformed -into a sort of continuous current action, of a comparatively quiescent kind,<span class="pagenum" id="Page25">[25]</span> -which, if the metallic substance it traverses be of certain known dimensions, will not -be productive of any damage to the metal. If, however, it be of small capacity, as -in the case of a small wire, it may become heated and fused. In this case, the electrical -agency, as before, is so resisted in its course as to admit of its taking on a -greater or less degree of explosive and heating effect, as in the former case. It is to -be here observed, that all kinds of matter oppose some resistance to the progress of -what is termed the Electrical Discharge, but the resistance through capacious metallic -bodies is comparatively so small, as to admit of being neglected under ordinary circumstances; -hence it is that such bodies have been termed Conductors of Electricity, -whilst bodies such as air, glass, &c., which are found to oppose very considerable -resistance to electrical action, are placed at the opposite extremity of the scale, and -termed Non-conductors or Insulators.</p> - -<p>The resistance of a metallic copper wire to an ordinary electrical discharge from -a battery, was found so small, that the shock traversed the wire at the rate of 576,000 -miles in a second. The resistance however, through a metallic line of Conduction, small -as it be, increases with the length, and diminishes with the area of the section of the -Conductor, or as the quantity of metal increases.</p> - -<p>4.—It follows from these established facts, that if a building were metallic in all -its parts, an iron magazine for example, then no damage could possibly arise to it -from any stroke of Lightning which has come within the experience of mankind; e.g., -a man in armour is safe from damage by Lightning; in fact, from the instant the -electrical discharge in breaking with disruptive and explosive violence through the -resisting air, seizes upon the mass in any point of it, from that instant the explosive -action vanishes, and the forces in operation are neutralized upon the terminating planes -of action, viz., the surface of the earth, and opposed clouds.</p> - -<p>5.—All this plainly teaches us, that in order to guard a building effectually -against damage by Lightning, we must endeavour to bring the general structure as -nearly as may be, into that passive or non-resisting state it would assume, supposing -the whole were a mass of metal.</p> - -<p>6.—To this end, one or more conducting channels of copper depending upon -the magnitude and extent of the building should be systematically applied to the walls; -these conducting channels should consist either of double copper plates united in series -one over the other, as in the method of fixing such Conductors to the masts of Her -Majesty’s Ships, the plates being not less than 3<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub> -inches wide, and of <sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>16</sub>th and <sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>8</sub>th of -an inch in thickness, or the Conductors may with advantage be constructed of stout -copper pipe not less than <sup>3</sup>⁄<sub>16</sub>ths of an inch thick, and -1<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub> to 2 inches in diameter: in -either case the Conductors should be securely fixed to the walls of the building, either -by braces, or copper nails, or clamps; they should terminate in solid metal rods above, -projecting freely into the air, at a moderate and convenient height above the point to -which they are fixed, and below they should terminate in one or two branches leading -outward about a foot under the surface of the earth; if possible, they should be connected -with a spring of water or other moist ground.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page26">[26]</span></p> - -<p>It would be proper in certain dry situations, to lead out in several directions -under the ground, old iron or other metallic chains, so as to expose a large extent of -metallic contact in the surface of the earth.</p> - -<p>7.—All the metals in the roof and other parts of the building of whatever kind, -should so far as possible have metallic communication with these Alarm Conductors, -and in case of any prominent elevated chimney, it would be desirable to lead a pointed -conducting tube along it to the metals of the roof; all of which satisfies the conditions -above specified.</p> - -<p>8.—Remark 1.—It is now proved beyond all questions, that the electrical -discharge never leaves perfect conducting lines of small resistance, in order to pass out -upon bad conducting circuits, in which the resistance is very great, that is an established -law of nature; hence a stroke of Lightning upon such conducting lines will be -confined to the Conductors as constituting a line of discharge of less resistance than -any other line of discharge through the building, which can be assigned. The -apprehension of “Lateral Discharge” therefore, from the Conductor, is quite absurd; -and is not countenanced by any fact whatever; if any doubt could possibly exist, it would -be now most completely set at rest by the experience of the permanent Conductors, -applied to the masts of Her Majesty’s ships. In very many instances furious discharges -of Lightning have fallen on the masts with a crash as if the ship’s broadside -had been fired, and the solid point aloft has been found melted; in all these cases -electrical discharge robbed by the Conductor of its explosive violence, has traversed -the line of action to the sea, through the ship, and through the copper bolts, driven -through the ship’s solid timbers, without the least damage to the surrounding masses, -whether metallic, as in the case of the massive iron hoops on the lower masts, or not. -Persons have either been close by or actually leaning against the Conductors at the -time, without experiencing any ill consequence.</p> - -<p>9.—Remark 2.—It has also been incontestably shown, that metallic bodies have -not any specific attractive force or affinity for the matter of Lightning; metals are as -little attractive of lightning as wood or stone. All matter is equally indifferent to -Electricity so far as regards a specific attraction, hence the idea that metals attract or -invite Lightning is a popular but very unlearned error contradicted by the most satisfactory -evidence, and the whole course of experience; in short, we find that Lightning -falls indiscriminately upon trees, rocks, and buildings, whether the buildings have -metals about them or not.</p> - -<p>10.—Remark 3.—A building that is hence clear, may be struck and damaged by -Lightning without having a particle of metal in its construction; if there be metals in -it, however, and they happen to be in such situations as will enable them to facilitate -the progress of the electrical discharge, so far as they go, then the discharge will fall -on them in preference to other bodies offering more resistance, but not otherwise; if -metallic substances be not present, or if present, they happen to occupy places in which -they cannot be of any use in helping on the discharge in the course it wants to go, then -the electricity seizes upon other bodies, which lie in that course, or which can help it, -however small their power of doing so, and in this attempt such bodies are commonly,<span class="pagenum" id="Page27">[27]</span> -but not always, shattered in pieces. The great law of the discharge is,—progress -between the terminating planes of action, viz:—the clouds and earth, and in such line -or lines as upon the whole, offer the least mechanical impediment or resistance to this -operation, just as water falling over the side of a hill in a rain storm, picks out or -selects as it were by the force of gravity, all the little furrows or channels which lie -convenient to its course, and avoids those which do not. If in the case of Lightning -you provide through the instrumentality of efficient Conductors, a free and uninterrupted -course for the electrical discharge, then it will follow that course without -damage to the general structure; if you do not, then this irresistible agency will find -a course for itself through the edifice in some line or lines of least resistance to it, and -will shake all imperfect conducting matter in pieces in doing so; moreover it is to be -specially remarked in this case, that the damage ensues, not where the metals are, but -where they cease to be continued, the more metal in a building therefore the better, -more especially when connected by an uninterrupted circuit with any medium of communication -with the earth.</p> - -<p>Such is, in fact, the great condition to be satisfied in the application of Lightning -Conductors, which is virtually nothing more than the perfecting a line or lines of small -resistance in given directions, less than the resistance in any other lines in the building, -which can be assigned in any other direction, and in which by a law of nature the -electrical agency will move in preference to any others.</p> - -<p>11.—It follows from the foregoing principles, that a magazine constructed entirely -of iron or other metal, would be infinitely more safe in Lightning storms than if built -with masonry in the usual way; metallic roofs for magazines, with capacious metallic -Conductors to the earth, would be unobjectionable, and a source of security.</p> - -<p>Metallic gutters and ridges having continuous metallic connection with the earth -are also unobjectionable.</p> - -<p>A good method of Conductors for magazines built of masonry, would be such as -already described, regard being had to the position of the building, its extent, and -most prominent points, also to the nature, state, and condition of the soil, whether it -be moist or dry, alluvial calcareous, or of hard rock; we must also consider the extent, -disposition, and peculiar position of the metallic bodies entering into the general -structure of the building, whether the roof be flat, pointed, or angular in various parts.</p> - -<p>The pointed projecting extremities of the two Conductors, one or more as the -case may be, will be commonly sufficient; but, in buildings having tall chimneys or -other elevated prominent points, at a distance from the Main Conductor, it will be -requisite to guard such chimneys or other parts, by a pointed rod, led along them to -the metals of the roof, or directly connected with the Main Conductors, by metallic -connections.</p> - -<p>12.—Pointed terminations of the Conductors in the air, are so far important that -they tend to break the force of a discharge of Lightning when it falls on them. In -fact, before the great shock actually takes place, under the form of a dense explosion, -a very large amount of the discharge, which otherwise would be concentrated, runs off, -as it were, through the pointed Conductor; but they have no other influence.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page28">[28]</span></p> - -<p>With respect to these pointed terminations, no great care need be taken about -them, except that they should consist of solid copper rod, of about three-quarters of an -inch in diameter, and about a foot in length, and be united by brazing to the conducting -tube, elevated at such convenient height above the walls of the building as the -case may suggest.</p> - -<p>As a support to the Conductor, when raised above the wall, we may employ a -small staff or spar of wood fixed to the masonry.</p> - -<p>13.—Copper linings to the doors and window shutters of magazines are not -objectionable, if requisite, as a precaution against fire; but they are useless as a means -of keeping out Lightning; on the other hand, it is not easy to conceive a case in which -the explosion of the gunpowder is to be apprehended from the action of Lightning on -the doors or windows. Supposing, however, such metallic linings desirable as a precaution -against common cases of fire, then the masses of metal should, according to the -principles already laid down, have metallic communication with the general system of -conduction in the building and the Main Conductor.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page29">[29]</span></p> - -<div class="sidenotetext"> - -<h2>ON THE EXPLOSIVE FORCE OF -GUNPOWDER.</h2> - -<hr class="chapline top" /> -<hr class="chapline bot" /> - -<p class="sidenote">Advantages -of Gunpowder</p> - -<p>The advantages of Gunpowder, as a propelling agent, over any other explosive -material are, the comparative safety attending its manufacture and transport, and the -gradual nature of its decomposition when compared with those materials, such as fulminating -gold, silver, mercury, &c. &c. In gunpowder, the force resulting from the -rapid evolution of gas in a confined space has sufficient time to overcome the inertia of -the projectile, which is not the case with other explosive materials, the conversion of -which gaseous products is so instantaneous that nothing can resist the intensity of their -explosive action. Other advantages suggest themselves in the use of Gunpowder, such -as the comparative cheapness of the ingredients composing it, and the ease with which -they may be obtained; for the sulphur and saltpetre are very abundant productions of -nature, and the charcoal can be manufactured cheaply and with great facility, and if -care is taken in the process of the fabrication of powder, little deterioration will take -place on its exposure to heat or moisture.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Air & Steam -as propellants</p> - -<p>Condensed air and steam have been used as propelling agents; but the great -inconvenience attending their use quite preclude the possibility of adapting them to -war purposes.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Force of Gunpowder.</p> - -<p>As the force and effect obtained from Gunpowder is the foundation of all other -particulars relating to Gunnery, we will briefly consider these points.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Upon what -the action of -powder depends.</p> - -<p>The action of Gunpowder is dependent upon a purely chemical process. Mr. -Robins proved that the force generated by the combustion of gunpowder, was owing -to an elastic gas which was suddenly disengaged from the powder, when it was brought -to a certain temperature, and further that this disengaged gas had its elastic force -greatly augmented by the heat evolved by the chemical action.</p> - - -<p class="sidenote">Ingredients -are charged -with a large -volume of -heated gas.</p> - -<p>The propelling power of Gunpowder is dependent on the rapid decomposition of -the nitre into its component parts; the oxygen forms carbonic acid with the carbon in -the charcoal, and the heat thus generated by ignition changes both this and the nitrogen -into a large volume of heated gas. In a mixture of nitre and charcoal alone, the -oxidation proceeds with comparative slowness; by the addition of sulphur, an augmentation -of combustibility is gained, in consequence of its igniting at a very low -temperature; the sulphur, also, by its presence, renders available for the oxidation of -the carbon an additional amount of oxygen, viz: that which is united with the potassium, -the latter being at once converted into sulphite upon ignition of the powder.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Weight of gas -evolved.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page30">[30]</span></p> - -<p>It appears that the weight of gas generated is equal to three tenths of the weight -of the powder which yielded it, <span class="sidenote">Volume of gas -evolved.</span>and that its bulk when cold, and expanded to the -rarity of Common air was 240 times that of the powder; the barometer standing at -about 30 inches. From this Robins concluded that if the fluid occupied a space equal -to the volume of the gunpowder, its elastic force, when cold, would be 240 times the -pressure of the atmosphere, when the barometer stands as above. <span class="sidenote">Heat of gas -evolved.</span>Mr. Robins also -considered that the heat evolved was at least equal to that of red hot iron, and he -found by experiments that air heated to this temperature had its elasticity quadrupled, -and therefore, that the force of gas from powder is at least four times 240 = 960, or in -round numbers 1,000 times as great as the elasticity of the air measured by its pressure -on an equal extent of surface. <span class="sidenote">Pressure of -gas generated.</span>From the height of the barometer it is known that the -pressure of the atmosphere is about 14<sup>3</sup>⁄<sub>4</sub>lbs. upon the square inch, so that the pressure -of the elastic gas generated by the combustion of the gunpowder upon the same area -would be 14.75 by 1,000 or 14,750lbs. at the moment of explosion. <span class="sidenote">Strength of -powder not -affected by -density of air, -but by damp.</span>He found that -the strength of Gunpowder was the same whatever might be the density of the atmosphere, -but that the moisture of the air effected it considerably, in fact that the same -quantity of powder which would give a bullet an initial velocity of 1,700 feet per -second on a day when the atmosphere was comparatively dry, would upon a damp -day give no more than 1,200 or 1,300 feet.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Velocity of gas</p> - -<p>The velocity of the expansion of the gas is a most important point, upon which -depends, chiefly, the peculiar value of the substance as a propelling agent. Many of -the warlike machines of the Ancients produced a momentum far surpassing that of -our heaviest cannon, but the great celerity given to the bodies projected from guns by -gunpowder cannot be in the least approached by any other means than by the sudden -production of an elastic gas. Mr. Robins found that the flame of gunpowder expanded -itself when at the muzzle of the gun with a velocity of 7,000 feet per second.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Dr. Hutton’s -calculation as -to:—<i>Volume, -Temperature, -Pressure</i>.</p> - -<p>It has been calculated that one cubic inch of powder is converted into 250 cubic -inches of gas at the temperature of the atmosphere, and Dr. Hutton states that the -increase of volume at the moment of ignition cannot be less than eight times; therefore -one inch of gunpowder, if confined, at the time of explosion exerts a pressure of about -30,000lbs. being 250 by 8 by 15 = 30,000lbs. on the cubic inch, or 5,000lbs. on the -square inch; and which at once accounts for its extraordinary power. <span class="sidenote">Temperature</span>The value of -the temperature to which the gases are raised, on the explosion of the powder, has been -variously estimated and it may be concluded to rise as high as will melt copper, or -4,000° Fahrenheit. <span class="sidenote">Expansion.</span>All gases expand uniformly by heat, the expansion having been -calculated with great precision, to be <sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>480</sub>th for each degree of Fahrenheit. If therefore -we take Dr. Hutton’s calculations of one volume of powder expanding into 250 -volumes of gas at the temperature of the atmosphere, and if we suppose 4,000° Fahrenheit -to be the heat to which they are raised on ignition, the expansion of -gunpowder would be calculated. <span class="sidenote">How to calculate -expansion</span>Thus, suppose the gas to be at 60°, the temperature -of the atmosphere, we must deduct 60° from 4,000°, which will give -3,940, being the number of degrees remaining to which it is raised, hence -<span class="horsplit"><span class="top fsize80">temp.</span><span class="bot">1°</span></span> : -<span class="horsplit"><span class="top fsize80">vol.</span><span class="bot fsize80"><span -class="horsplit"><span class="top">1</span><span class="bot bt">480</span></span></span></span> -<span class="horsplit"><span class="top fsize80">temp.</span><span class="bot">3,940°</span></span> : -<span class="horsplit"><span class="top fsize80">vol.</span><span class="bot fsize80"><span -class="horsplit"><span class="top bb">3940</span><span class="bot">480</span></span></span></span> -= -<span class="horsplit"><span class="top fsize80">vol.</span><span class="bot">8·2</span></span> -that is, each volume of gas would at a temperature of 4000° be<span class="pagenum" id="Page31">[31]</span> -increased 8·2 in volume. Gunpowder when at the temperature of the air being expanded -250 times in volume; therefore 250 by 8·2 = 2,050 as the increased -expansion for each volume of gas generated by the explosion of gunpowder at the -temperature of 4,000° Fahrenheit. Lieut-Colonel Boxer calculates that the heat -generated by good dry powder is not under 3,000° Fahrenheit. <span class="sidenote">Absolute -force of gunpowder -cannot -be determined.</span>It appears with our -present knowledge, the absolute value of the force of gunpowder cannot be determined. -Still by careful and extensive experiments no doubt a near approximation to the truth -may ultimately be arrived at, so that although much has already been done by various -eminent philosophers, there is still more to be accomplished; and the importance of -the subject ought to act as a stimulus to the exertions of those belonging to a profession -the most interested in the question.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Loss of velocity -by windage.</p> - -<p>It has been found by experiments that in calculating the initial velocity of a projectile, -one third of the whole force was lost with a windage of <sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>10</sub>th inch with a shot -of 1·96-in. and 1·86-in. in diameter. The bore of the gun being 2·02-in.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Definition of -ignition and -combustion.</p> - -<p>By ignition we understand the act of setting fire to a single grain, or to a charge of -gunpowder, and by combustion we mean the entire consumption of a grain or of a charge.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Quickness of -combustion.</p> - -<p>Upon the quickness of combustion mainly depends the applicability of gunpowder -for Military purposes.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Ignition by -heat.</p> - -<p>Gunpowder may be inflamed in a variety of ways, but whatever be the method, -one portion of the substance must in the first instance be raised to a temperature a -little above that necessary to sublime the sulphur, which can be removed from the -other ingredients, by gradually raising the compound to a heat sufficient to drive it off -in a state of vapour. The heat required for this purpose is between 600° and 680° -Fahrenheit.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Progressive -combustion.</p> - -<p>When a charge of powder is exploded in the bore of a gun, to all appearance -there would seem to be an instantaneous generation of the whole force. But in fact -it is not so, a certain time being necessary to the complete combustion of the substance. -This gradual firing is of the utmost importance, for were it otherwise, the gun, unless -of enormous strength, must be shattered in pieces, as well as the projectile; for in such -a case, this great force being suddenly exerted upon one part only of the material, -there would not be time for the action to be distributed over the particles, at any great -distance, before those in the immediate vicinity of the explosion, were forced out of -the sphere of action of the cohesive force, and consequently rupture must take place.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Substances -which have -a more violent -action than -powder.</p> - -<p>The effect of such an action may be observed by exploding detonating powders, -in which are contained chlorate of potash or fulminating mercury. The action of that -peculiar substance the chlorite of nitrogen is still more remarkable. There is also -another compound, containing three parts of saltpetre, one part of carbonate of potash -and one part of sulphur, which when brought to a certain heat will explode with great -violence, its destructive force being very considerable; and this is principally due to -the rapidity of the evolution of the gas, for its amount is less than that produced from -gunpowder, but the complete decomposition occurs in a much shorter time.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">In a damp -state less -quickly fired, -and why.</p> - -<p>If gunpowder be in a damp state, the velocity of combustion will be less than -when dry, and also a longer time will be necessary to ignite it, since the moisture<span class="pagenum" id="Page32">[32]</span> -upon its conversion into vapour, absorbs a certain amount of heat which remains latent, -and of which the useful effects so far as igniting the powder is concerned, is entirely -lost.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Ignition by -percussion.</p> - -<p>Gunpowder may be ignited by the percussion of copper against copper, copper -against iron, lead against lead, and even with lead against wood, when the shock is -very great. It is more difficult to ignite gunpowder between copper and -bronze,<a id="FNanchor1"></a><a href="#Footnote1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> -or bronze and wood than between the other substances. Again, out of ten -samples which were wrapt in paper and struck upon an anvil with a heavy hammer, -seven of grained powder exploded and nine of mealed.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote1"></a><a href="#FNanchor1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> -Bronze consists of 78 parts copper to 20 of tin. Bell metal—78 copper and 22 tin. Gun metal—100 copper -to 8 to 10 tin. Brass—2 copper, 1 zinc and calamine stone, to harden and colour.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<p class="sidenote">Influence of -shape of grain -on ignition.</p> - -<p>If the part to which the heat is applied be of an angular shape, the inflammation -will take place quicker than if it be of a round or flat form, on account of the greater -surface that is exposed to the increased temperature.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">The form of -the grain influences -the -velocity of the -transmission -of flame.</p> - -<p>If the grains are of a rounded form, there would be larger interstices, and a -greater facility will be afforded to the passage of the heated gas, and therefore this -shape is most favourable to the rapid and complete inflammation of each grain in the -whole charge. On the other hand, particles of an angular or flat form, fitting into -each other as it were, offer greater obstruction to this motion, and the velocity of the -transmission of inflammation is thereby diminished.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Effect of size -on the velocity -of transmission -of inflammation.</p> - -<p>If the grains be small, the interstices will be small also, and the facility to the -expansion of the gas thereby diminished. In the experiments with trains of powder, -the increased surface exposed to the heated gas was found to more than compensate for -the diminished facility to its expansion, and generally a train of small-grained powder -laid upon a surface without being enclosed, will be consumed more quickly than a train -of large-grained powder.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Large grain -best suited for -heavy ordnance.</p> - -<p>But this is not the case in a piece of ordnance, a circumstance which amongst -others will account for the diminished initial velocity given to the shot by a charge of -small-grained musket powder, below that produced by the large-grained usually -adopted for this service.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Velocity of the -transmission -of inflammation -of the -charge.</p> - -<p>When a number of grains of powder are placed together as in the charge of a -gun, and a few of them are ignited at one end of the cartridge, a certain quantity of gas -is developed of a temperature sufficiently high to ignite those in their immediate -vicinity. This has also such elasticity as to enable it to expand itself with considerable -velocity. Again, the grains which are so ignited continue the inflammation to others in -the same manner. The absolute velocity of expansion of this gas is very considerable; -but the grains of gunpowder in the charge offer an obstruction to this motion, the gas -having to wind its way through the interstices, and consequently the velocity is considerably -diminished, but it is quite clear that it must be very much greater than the -velocity of combustion. <span class="sidenote">Estimate of -Mr. Piobert.</span>Mr. Piobert estimates the velocity of transmission of inflammation -of a charge in a gun at about 38 feet per second, and in all probability even this -is much under the mark.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Experiments -made on this -subject.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page33">[33]</span></p> - -<p>Many experiments have been made by observing the velocity of transmission of -inflammation of trains of powder under various circumstances, but they do not show us -what would be the velocity in a confined charge. The velocity increased with the -section of the train, and further when at the end first lighted, there was an obstruction -to the escape of gas, as in the case of a gun, a much shorter time was required for complete -inflammation.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Time of decomposition -depends upon -form of grain.</p> - -<p>When the charge of powder in a gun is ignited the grains being enveloped by the -heated gas, we may consider that each grain is ignited over its whole surface at once. -If the grains of powder were of equal or regular form, the time each would be consuming, -might be easily calculated, but since in ordinary cases they are irregular in -form, although the grains may be of the same weight, the time necessary for their -complete decomposition will be very different.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Circumstances -affecting -combustion.</p> - -<p>The quickness of combustion will depend upon the dryness of the powder, the -density of the composition, the proportion of the ingredients, the mode of manufacture, -and the quality of the ingredients.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Combustion -of cubical -grains considered.</p> - -<p>Were a cubical grain to be ignited upon its whole surface, the decomposition may -be supposed to take place gradually from the surface to the centre, and the original -cubical form to remain until the whole is consumed, the cube becoming smaller and -smaller. If, then, the rate of burning be the same throughout, the quantity of gas -generated in the first half portion of the time will evidently be considerably more than -in the latter half, as in the latter case there will be a much lesser surface under the -influence of flame.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Elongated -and cylindrical -grains.</p> - -<p>If the form of the grain be elongated, then will the quantity of gas generated in -a given time from a grain of similar weight to that of the cube or sphere, be increased, -on account of the greater ignited surface, and consequently the time necessary for its -combustion will be diminished. If it be of a cylindrical form for example, this time -must be reckoned from the diameter of the cylinder, its length not influencing it in the -least, although as we have seen, it enters into the consideration of the quantity of the -gas generated in a given time.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Large grain.</p> - -<p>In the ordinary large-grain powder, the majority of the grains are of the elongated -or flat form, from whence considerable advantage is derived, particularly in short guns, -since it causes the greatest portion of the charge to be decomposed before the projectile -is moved sensibly from its original position.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Mealed powder.</p> - -<p>If the charge be composed of mealed powder a longer time is found to be -necessary for the complete combustion of the whole than in the case where the substance -is granulated, and the initial velocity of a shot is reduced about one third by -employing the substance in that state.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">The effect of -granulating -gunpowder.</p> - -<p>A piece of pressed cake weighing 1·06oz., was put into a mortar, and a globe of -some light substance, placed upon it, and the powder being consumed after ignition -without ejecting the ball from the bore of the piece. When an equal quantity was -divided into seven or eight pieces, the globe was thrown out of the mortar; breaking -the cake into twelve pieces; the ball ranged 3·3 yards; being further increased to fifty -grains, it ranged 10·77 yards; and when the ordinary powder was used, the ball was -projected 56·86 yards.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Action depends -upon -size and form -of grain.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page34">[34]</span></p> - -<p>It will appear from the above remarks, that the force generated from the charge -of powder in a gun, will be greatly influenced by the size and form of the grains -composing it.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Density of -gunpowder.</p> - -<p>In order to obtain a gunpowder which shall possess a proper amount of force, it -is necessary that the ingredients should be thoroughly incorporated, and the process -of incorporation will in great measure affect the density of the grains. After going -through the process, it is subjected to a certain pressure, in order that the substance -in travelling may not be reduced to a fine powder, which would cause the velocity of -transmission of inflammation to be diminished. But there is a certain point beyond -which it would not be advantageous to increase the density, and this seems to vary -with the size of the grain. With large-grain powder the action in a musket, or in -guns with small charges, is greatest with a low density; while with very small grain, -the highest velocities are obtained generally with the gunpowder of great density; but -in heavy guns with ordinary charges, the large-grained powder should be of considerable -density in order to obtain the greatest effect, though still it must not be too -great.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Advantages -of glazing.</p> - -<p>The principal advantages of glazing are; first, that the powder so prepared, will in -travelling, owing to the smaller amount of destructive force consequent on friction, -produce less mealed powder; and secondly, that in a damp country like England, -the glazing imparts a preserving power to the powder, as the polished surface is less -likely to imbibe moisture than the rough.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Disadvantages -of glazing.</p> - -<p>The disadvantages of glazing consists in its polishing the surface, and thus depriving -it of those angular projections which cause the ignition and combustion to be -carried on with greater rapidity, by rendering the interstices smaller, the consequence -of which is, that there is not so much gas produced previously to the projectile leaving -the gun, and in large charges a portion will be blown out unfired. There must be a -limit then to glazing, which it would not be proper to exceed. <span class="sidenote">Experiments -as to glazing.</span>At an experiment -with glazed and unglazed powder, the ranges on the eprouvette were 75 for glazed, -and 98 for unglazed. This loss of power, consequent on glazing, has caused it to be -done away with in France and Russia. <span class="sidenote">Glazing less -hurtful to fine -grains.</span>With fine grain powder it is not of so much -consequence, as it is, to a certain degree, corrected by the size of the grain.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Size of grain -determined -by size of -charge.</p> - -<p>The rapidity with which a charge of gunpowder is consumed will depend not -only in a certain degree upon the size of the grain, but on the manner in which the -charge is put together, for if a charge is closely pressed, the gases meeting resistance -in their endeavours to escape between the interstices, will not propagate the ignition -so rapidly. With large charges, there exists a positive advantage for the grains to be -rather large, so that the most distant parts of the charge should be reached by the -gases as quickly as possible; whilst with that of a rifle, the charge being small, the -fineness of the grain does not interfere with the quantity of the gas developed. -Whence it may rationally be concluded that the dimensions of the grains should -increase in proportion to the quantity of the charges into which they are to enter, that -is to say, in proportion to the interstices. <span class="sidenote">Tight ramming -bad.</span>Ramming down a charge tightly must -therefore interfere with the velocity of combustion.</p> - -<hr class="full" /> - -<p class="note noindent"><span class="smcap">Note</span>—The foregoing on the explosive force of -gunpowder was taken from Lieut-Colonel E. M. Boxer’s Treatise on Artillery.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page35">[35]</span></p> - -<h3>FOULING.</h3> - -<p class="sidenote">Produce of -decomposed -gunpowder.</p> - -<p>The produce obtained by the decomposition of gunpowder are the gaseous and -the solid. The gaseous is chiefly nitrogen and carbonic acid. The solid is sulphur -and potassium, mixed with a little charcoal, but the solid produce is nearly entirely -volatilized at the moment of explosion through the high temperature.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Fouling.</p> - -<p>Fouling is occasioned by the deposition inside the barrel of the solid residue -proceeding from the combustion of the powder.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Conditions of -fouling depend -on state -of atmosphere</p> - -<p>One of the principal of these, namely, the sulphide of Potassa, is deliquescent, -or attracts water from the atmosphere. Hence, on a clear day, when the air holds -little moisture, the fouling does not attain that semi-fluid state it so speedily attains in -a damp day, and it is not so easily removed, and tends to accumulate inside the -barrel. Fouling may also be increased or diminished, according to the quality of the -powder.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Effects of -Fouling.</p> - -<p>Fouling occasions loss of power from the increased friction, and causes inaccuracy -in direction and elevation, by filling the grooves, and thus preventing the proper spiral -motion being imparted to the projectile.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h3>EFFECTS OF GUNPOWDER ON METALS.</h3> - -<p class="sidenote">Difference of -effect on brass -and iron guns.</p> - -<p>The effect produced by Gunpowder on metals, in long continued and rapid -firing, is very extraordinary. Several of the guns employed at the siege of San -Sebastian were cut open, and the interior of some of the vent holes, which were originally -cylindrical, and only two-tenths of an inch in diameter, were enlarged in a -curious and irregular manner, from three to five inches in one direction, and from two -to three inches in another, but the brass guns were much more affected than the iron. -In December, 1855, there were lying in the arsenal at Woolwich several of the -heaviest sea mortars, which had recently been used at the bombardment of Sweaborg, -and the continuous firing on that occasion had split them into two nearly equal portions -from muzzle to breech, a trunnion being with each half.</p> - -<p>Heavy guns for garrisons, sieges, &c., are made of cast iron; guns for field -purposes, where lightness is required, are made of gun metal.</p> - - -<p class="sidenote">Difference of -effect of brass -and iron guns</p> - -<p>These guns are generally denominated brass guns. They can be loaded, properly -pointed at an object, and fired about four times in three minutes, but they will not -stand long continued rapid firing, or more than 120 rounds a day, as the metal, when -heated, softens, and the shot then injures the bore. Heavy iron guns may be loaded, -fired, &c., once in two minutes. They suffer more from the total number of rounds -that have been fired from them, without reference to the intervals between each -round, than from the rapidity of the firing. Four hundred and five hundred rounds -per day have not rendered an iron gun unserviceable.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -</div><!--sidenotetext--> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page36">[36]</span></p> - -<h3>MISCELLANEOUS EXPERIMENTS.</h3> - -<p>The following experiments, extracted from Mr. Wilkinson’s “Engines of War,” -serve to illustrate the capability of metals to resist the force of gunpowder, and may -be of some practical utility, as well as prove interesting merely as matter of curiosity.</p> - -<p>Experiment 1.—A piece about 5 inches long was cut off the breech-end of a -common musket barrel. It was screwed at the part cut, and another plug fitted, so -as to have two plugs, one at each end, leaving an internal space of about 3 inches. A -percussion nipple was screwed into the end of one of these plugs. This being arranged, -one of the plugs was turned out, and one drachm of gunpowder introduced. The -plug was replaced, and the powder fired by putting a copper cap on the nipple, and -striking it with a hammer. The whole force of the powder escaped at the hole in the -nipple. Two, three, four, five, and six drachms were successively introduced, and -fired in the same manner, without bursting or injuring the piece of barrel. At last, -seven drachms forced out one end, in consequence of the screw having been carelessly -fitted. This defect being repaired, Mr. Marsh, of Woolwich, repeatedly fired it with -five drachms, merely holding it with a towel in his left hand, and firing it with a blow -of a hammer. Six drachms of powder is the full service charge for a flint musket, -and four drachms of a percussion musket; yet this immense pressure can be resisted -by a cylinder of iron not more than one quarter of an inch thick, and not iron of the -best quality.</p> - -<p>Experiment 2.—A good musket barrel had a cylinder of brass, three inches long, -turned to fit the muzzle, and soldered in, so as to close it air-tight. The plug, or -breech-screw, was removed, and a felt wad was pushed in with a short piece of wood, -marked to the exact depth the charge would occupy, to prevent the ball rolling forward. -A musket ball was then dropped in, and a cartridge, containing three drachms -of powder, was introduced. The breech being screwed in, left the barrel loaded. It -was fired by a percussion tube, but there was no report. On removing the breech-screw, -the ball was found to be flattened. A repetition of this experiment, with four -drachms, produced a similar result, but the ball was rather more flattened. With five -drachms, the ball was perfectly round and uninjured. Six drachms burst the barrel -close under the bayonet stud; the ball escaped through the opening, disfigured, but -fell close to the barrel. In these experiments the barrel always advanced, instead of -recoiling, as usual.</p> - -<p>Experiment 3.—Made at Woolwich Arsenal, with a Gomer mortar, the chamber being -bored conically, so that the shell, when dropped in, fits closely all round, -instead of being bored cylindrically, with a chamber in the centre. The mortar being -laid at an angle of 45°, one drachm of powder was put into the bottom, and a -68-pounder iron shot over it. When fired, the ball was projected two feet clear of -the mortar. A wooden ball, precisely the same diameter, but weighing only 5lbs., -was scarcely moved by the same charge, and with two drachms of powder it was just<span class="pagenum" id="Page37">[37]</span> -lifted in the mortar, and fell into its place again. Here we find a weight of 68lbs. -thrown to the distance of two feet by the same power which would not lift 5lbs., and -the wooden ball scarcely moved by double the powder.</p> - -<p>This proves that the firing of gunpowder under such circumstances is not instantaneous. -In the first instance, the small quantity of powder had a large space to -fill below the ball, and a heavy weight to move; therefore, could not stir it at all until -the whole was ignited, when the force was sufficient to throw it forward two feet. -In the second case, the first portion of gas that was generated by ignition of the -powder, was sufficient to lift the lighter weight, just enough to allow all the force to -escape round it before it had time to accumulate.</p> - -<p>Experiment 4.—A cannon ball, weighing 24lbs., was placed exactly over the -vent-hole of a loaded 32-pounder cannon, which was fired by a train of gunpowder, -when the rush from the vent projected the 24-pounder ball to a very considerable -height in the air, although the diameter of the hole was only two-tenths of an inch.</p> - -<p>Experiment 5.—A most ingenious method of ascertaining the relative quickness -of ignition of different qualities of gunpowder.</p> - -<p>A gun-barrel mounted on a carriage with wheels, and moving on a perfectly -horizontal railway, is placed at right angles to another short railway, at any convenient -distance (suppose fifty feet, or yards); on the second railway a light carriage moves -freely with any desired velocity, being drawn forward by means of a weight and -pulleys: a cord is attached to the front of this carriage, which passes over a pulley at -the end of the railroad, and is continued up a high pole or staff over another pulley -at the top, at which end the weight is attached. A long rectangular frame covered -with paper is fixed perpendicularly on the carriage, so that when it moves forward it -passes across the direct line of the barrel, and forms a long target. A percussion lock -is attached to the barrel, which is fired by a detent, or hair-trigger, and the wire which -pulls it is disengaged at the same instant to admit of recoil. This wire is carried -straight on to the target railroad, and fixed to a small lever, against which the front -part of the target-carriage strikes as it is carried onwards by the weight. This constitutes -the whole apparatus. When required to be used, the barrel is loaded with -gunpowder accurately weighed, and a brass ball that fits the bore correctly: the -weight is then disengaged, and the target moves quickly along, discharging the barrel -as it passes, and the ball goes through it. With the same powder tried at the same -time, the ball constantly goes through the same hole, or breaks into it. If the next -powder tried be slower of ignition than the preceding, the ball will pass through -another part of the target more in the rear; if quicker, more in advance; thus affording -a means of ascertaining this important quality of gunpowder with considerable accuracy: -the velocity of the target-carriage can be easily regulated by increasing or -diminishing the weight which draws it forward. The differences in the distances -between which the balls strike the target with different kinds of powder was -frequently as much as ten or twelve inches; but it is not an apparatus commonly -used, having been merely constructed for experimental purposes.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page38">[38]</span></p> - -<h3>ON THE TIME REQUIRED FOR IGNITION OF GUNPOWDER.</h3> - -<p>Gunpowder like all other inflammable substances requires to be raised to a -certain temperature, before it will ignite, viz., to a dull red heat, or about 600° -Fahrenheit. If the heat passes with such rapidity through the powder, so as not to -raise the temperature to the necessary degree, then the powder will not ignite, from -the velocity of transit, so that it might be possible to calculate theoretically, the -velocity that must be given to a red hot ball to enable it to pass through a barrel of -gunpowder without causing explosion. The passage of electric fluid through -gunpowder may be adduced in evidence of the ignition being dependent on the -degree of velocity. The flame of all fulminating powders will pass through the centre -of a box filled with gunpowder without igniting one grain of it. If a train of gunpowder -be crossed at right angles by a train of fulminating mercury, laid on a sheet -of paper or a table, and the powder be lighted with a red hot iron wire, the flame -will run on until it meets the cross train of fulminating mercury, when the inflammation -of the latter will be so instantaneous as to cut off all connection with the -continuous train of powder, leaving the remaining portion of the gunpowder unignited. -If on the contrary the fulminating powder be lighted first, it will go straight on and -pass through the train of gunpowder so rapidly, as not to inflame it at all. Were a -gun to be charged with gun-cotton and gunpowder, the latter would be fired out -unignited.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h3>EFFECTS OF ACCIDENTAL EXPLOSIONS OF GUNPOWDER.</h3> - -<p>Considering the combustible nature of the materials, accidents very seldom -occur; when they do, it is more frequently in the process at the Mill while under the -runners.</p> - -<p>On one occasion at Waltham Abbey Mills, when the powder exploded, after -having been two hours under the runners, the doors and windows of the Mills on the -opposite side of the stream, were forced open outwards, and the nails drawn. A -similar effect took place when the Dartford Mills blew up, January 1833, in consequence -of an accident in the packing house. A window which had been recently -fitted up in Dartford Town, about a mile and a half distant from the works, was -blown outwards into the street, and a considerable quantity of paper was carried as -far as Eltham and Lewisham, distances of eight and ten miles. The sudden -rarification of the air may account for this circumstance, the atmospheric pressure -being removed in the vicinity of the doors and windows, they were forced open outwards -by the expansive force of the air contained within the buildings.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page39">[39]</span></p> - -<div class="sidenotetext"> - -<h2>ON ANCIENT ENGINES OF WAR.</h2> - -<hr class="chapline top" /> -<hr class="chapline bot" /> - -<p class="sidenote">War a painful -topic.</p> - -<p>The Utopian may shrink from the contemplation of so painful a subject as War, -the Moralist may raise his voice against the justice of it, but the practical philosopher -can see very little chance of its cessation, and actuated with the very best intentions, -<span class="sidenote">Advantages -of war being -destructive.</span>will endeavour to render War as terrible as possible, well knowing, that as soon as -certain death awaits two rival armies, princes must fight their own battles, or war -must cease.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">First missile -weapons, -sticks and -stones.</p> - -<p>Man’s first rude attempts at missile weapons were doubtless limited to throwing -sticks and stones by the mere aid of his hands; acts in which the monkey, the bear, -and even the seal are very successful emulators. A desire of more successful -aggression, together with increased facilities for the destruction of game and wild -animals, doubtless soon suggested to man the use of projectiles more efficient than -these. <span class="sidenote">Javelin.</span>By a very slight change of form, the simple stick would become a javelin, -capable of being hurled with great force and precision. <span class="sidenote">Sling.</span>An aid would suggest -itself for casting a stone, by means of a fillet or band, subsequently called a sling, <span class="sidenote">Bow.</span>and -next would be invented the bow, which, in process of time by subsequent additions -<span class="sidenote">Arbalest.</span>would become the arbalest or cross-bow.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Axes used as -projectiles.</p> - -<p>It appears that axes have been used as <i>projectiles</i>: for Procopius, describing the -expedition of the Franks into Italy, in the sixth century, tells us:—Among the -hundred thousand men that King Theodobert I. led into Italy, there were but few -horsemen. The cavalry carried spears. The infantry had neither bow nor spear, all -their arms being a sword, an axe, and a shield. The blade of the axe was large, its -handle of wood, and very short. They <i>hurl</i> their axes against the shields of the -enemy, which by this means are broken; and then, springing on the foe, they complete -his destruction with the sword.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Tomahawk -used as a projectile.</p> - -<p>A hatchet or tomahawk is used as a projectile weapon by the North American -Indians. The difficulty of throwing such a weapon with effect, would of course consist -in causing the edge to strike the object aimed at. Now, such a hatchet as they -usually make use of, if thrown by its handle, will revolve in a perpendicular plane -about once in every three yards, irrespective of the force with which it moves. An -Indian judges his enemy to be distant from him any multiple of 3 yards as 15, 18, 21, -and strikes him full with the edge of his weapon accordingly.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">“Chuckur” or -disk used as a -projectile.</p> - -<p>A circular disk or quoit is in use in India amongst the Sikhs, particularly that -sect of them called Akali, as a weapon, and in their warlike exercises; the species<span class="pagenum" id="Page40">[40]</span> -used in war have a triangular section, those thrown for amusement are flat with a sharp -edge. A skilful man will throw one of these chuckers or quoits to a distance of a -hundred and thirty yards, or more, with very considerable accuracy, the quoit being -at no period of its flight above six feet from the ground. The sharpness of edge, -combined with the rotatory motion of these quoits, and the difficulty of avoiding them, -renders them formidable weapons in skilled hands. The Akali wear them on their -turbans, of several different sizes and weights; a small one is often worn as a bracelet -on the arm. Many of these fanatics took part in the last Sikh war, and severe wounds -made with these weapons were by no means uncommon.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Armour and -fortifications.</p> - -<p>By the time portable weapons would have been brought to some degree of perfection, -man’s increasing sciences and civilization would have led him to make armour, -to build cities, and enclose them with walls. Now would arise the necessity for other -projectiles of greater force, inasmuch as in the event of war, the armour should be -penetrated, and walls, &c., would have to be demolished.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Improved -projectiles.</p> - -<p>The transition from portable projectiles to those of a heavier class was obvious -enough. <span class="sidenote">Change to -heavy projectiles.</span>Enormous javelins and darts were hurled by cross-bows of corresponding -size, termed <span class="sidenote">Catapulta.</span>Catapultæ, (<a href="#Plate10">plate x.</a>), and stones, -&c., were thrown by <span class="sidenote">Balistæ.</span>Balistæ (<a href="#Plate9">plate -ix.</a> and <a href="#Plate12">xii</a>); and secondly, <span class="sidenote">Sling -principles.</span>instruments formed on the principle of the sling.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Projectiles -used with -Catapulta.</p> - -<p>These machines threw not only large darts and stones, but also the bodies of men -and horses. Athenæus speaks of a Catapulta which was only one foot long, and threw -an arrow to the distance of half a mile. Other engines, it is said, could throw javelins -from one side of the Danube to the other. Balistæ threw great beams of wood, lances -twelve cubits long, and stones that weighed three hundred pounds.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Millstones, -&c., used in -England.</p> - -<p>Our forefathers used to cast forth mill-stones. Holinshead relates that when -Edward I. besieged Stively Castle, he caused certain engines to be made, which shot -off stones of two or three hundred weight.</p> - -<p>The first intimation of trees being cut down “to build bulwarks against the city -till it be subdued,” occurs in <span class="sidenote">B. C. 1451.</span>Deut. xx., 19, 20, but the earliest precise mention of -Artillery is in <span class="sidenote">B. C. 809.</span>2nd Chron., xxvi, 15, where we are told that Uzziah “made in Jerusalem -engines invented by cunning men, to be upon the towers and upon the bulwarks, -to shoot arrows and great stones withal;” and Josephus relates that Uzziah <span class="sidenote">First mention -of Artillery.</span>“made -many engines of war for besieging cities, such as hurl stones and darts with grapplers, -and other instruments of that sort.” He must therefore be considered the inventor of -them, and from that time they began to be employed in attacking and defending -towns.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Balistæ at Regium, -B. C. 388.</p> - -<p>The earliest instances of projectile machines in profane history appear to be at -the siege of Regium and <span class="sidenote">At Motya -B. C. 370.</span>Motya by Dionysius, where, having battered the walls with -his rams, he advanced towards them towers rolled on wheels, from whence he galled -the besieged with continual volleys of stones and arrows, thrown from his Balistæ and -Catapultæ.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">At Rhodes -B. C. 303.</p> - -<p>The next memorable instance is the siege of Rhodes by Demetrius Polyorcetes, -who brought forward a newly invented machine, called Helepolis, (taker of Cities), -with a variety of other engines, and employed 30,000 men in the management of them.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Balistæ at -Cremona.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page41">[41]</span></p> - -<p>Tacitus mentions an extraordinary engine, used by the 15th Legion at the battle -of Cremona, against the troops of Vespasian. It was a Balista of enormous size, -which discharged stones of weight sufficient to crush whole ranks at once. Inevitable -ruin would have been the consequence, had not two soldiers, undiscovered, cut the -ropes and springs. At length, after a vigorous assault from Antonius, the Vittelians, -unable to resist the shock, rolled down the engine, and crushed numbers of their -assailants, but the machine, in falling, drew after it a neighbouring tower, the parapet, -and part of the wall, which afforded the besiegers easier access to the city.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Balistæ at -siege of Jotapata.</p> - -<p>Josephus relates that at the siege of Jotapata, “a stone from one of the Roman -engines carried the head of a soldier, who was standing by him, three furlongs off;” -that “lances were thrown with great noise, and stones, weighing 114lbs. troy, -“together with fire and a multitude of arrows.” <span class="sidenote">Dead men and -horses projected.</span>The dead bodies of men and horses -were also thrown at this siege, and at that of Jerusalem, <span class="smcapall">A. D.</span> 70, to inspire terror.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Form of Balistæ.</p> - -<p>The earliest form of Balistæ appears to have been a very long beam, suspended -in a frame on a centre of motion, one end being considerably longer than the other. -To the short end was attached a great weight, such as a chest filled with earth or -stones. To the longer end a sling was affixed, in which, after being drawn down, a -stone was placed, and on being suddenly let go, the long end flew up, and discharged -the stone with great violence.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Form of Catapultæ.</p> - -<p>Catapultæ were sometimes constructed to discharge a flight of arrows at once, by -placing them on a rack, and causing a strong plank, previously drawn back, to strike -against their ends. The more perfect engines of the Romans were all dependent on -the elasticity of twisted cords made of flax, hemp, the sinews or tendons of animals, -from the neck of the bull, or legs of the deer species, and ropes formed of human -hair were preferred to all others, as possessing greater strength and elasticity. Catapultæ -were immensely powerful bows, drawn back by capstans, levers, or pulleys, -having only a single cord for the arrow, (<a href="#Plate10">plate x.</a>), but the Balistæ had a broad band, -formed of several ropes to project the stone, which was placed in a kind of cradle, -like a cross-bow. (<a href="#Plate12">plate xii.</a>)</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Balistæ at -battle of -Hastings 1066</p> - -<p>The Normans appear to have introduced a kind of Field-Artillery, consisting of -instruments or machines, from which darts and stones were thrown to a considerable -distance, as they occur at the battle of Hastings. They also employed arrows, headed -with combustible matter, for firing towns and shipping.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Fiery darts, -A. D. 64.</p> - -<p>We read in the Scriptures of “Fiery Darts.” Ephns. vi., 16.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Fire from Balistæ.</p> - -<p>Our ancestors derived the knowledge of some composition from the Saracens, -which resembled Greek-fire, and was often thrown in pots from the Balistæ.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Fire by Arabs -commencement -of 13th -century.</p> - -<p>From a treatise on the “Art of Fighting,” by Hassan Abrammah, we learn that -the Arabs of the 13th century employed their incendiary compositions in four different -ways. They cast them by hand; they fixed them to staves, with which they -attacked their enemies; they poured forth fire through tubes; and they projected -burning mixtures of various kinds by means of arrows, javelins, and the missiles of -great engines.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Bombs of -glass, &c.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page42">[42]</span></p> - -<p>Vessels of glass or pottery, discharged by hand or by machines, were so contrived, -that on striking the object at which they were aimed, their contents spread -around, and the fire, already communicated by a fusee, enveloped everything within -its reach. <span class="sidenote">Fire-mace.</span>A soldier, on whose head was broken a fire-mace, became suddenly soaked -with a diabolic fluid, which covered him from head to foot with flame.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Bombs from -Balistæ.</p> - -<p>Bombs were also thrown from Balistæ. An engine was constructed at Gibraltar, -under the direction of General Melville, at the desire of Lord Heathfield, for the -purpose of throwing stones just over the edge of the rock, in a place where the -Spaniards used to resort, and where shells thrown from mortars could not injure or -annoy them.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Onager.</p> - -<p>Of machines formed on the sling principle, that called Onager (<a href="#Plate7">plates vii.</a> and -<a href="#Plate8">viii.</a>) may be regarded as typical of all the rest. Its force entirely depended upon the -torsion of a short thick rope, acting upon a lever which described an arc of a vertical -circle. The lever had attached to its free extremity a sling, or sometimes it merely -terminated in a spoon-shaped cavity. When bent back, it was secured by a catch or -trigger, and charged with a stone. On starting the catch by a blow with a mallet, -the lever described its arc of a circle with great velocity, and projected the stone to a -considerable distance.</p> - -<p>I shall now briefly describe some of the portable missive weapons which have -been used by different nations.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Javelin.</p> - -<p>The Javelin, or dart, variously modified, is known under several names. The -ancients were well acquainted with it. In the Scriptures, we have frequent notice of -it; and the ancients instituted javelin matches. It would appear that the javelin used -on horseback was about five feet and a half long, and headed with steel, usually three-sided, -but sometimes round. <span class="sidenote">Arms of the -early Romans.</span>The Roman Cavalry, after the conquest of Greece, -were armed much like the Infantry, carrying swords, shields, and javelins with points -at both ends. <span class="sidenote">Aid to projection.</span>Sometimes, in order to launch it with greater force, it was not propelled -by the unaided arm, but by the assistance of a thong fastened to its butt end; -and we are informed that the Greeks and Romans projected darts and javelins by the -assistance of a sling or strap, girt round their middle.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Djereed.</p> - -<p>At the present time, a javelin, termed Djereed, is used with considerable effect -by certain oriental nations, who invariably employ it on horseback. <span class="sidenote">Pilum.</span>The Roman -infantry possessed a weapon of the javelin kind, termed Pilum, every man of the -legionary soldiers carrying two. The point of this weapon being very long and small, -was usually so bent at the first discharge as to be rendered useless afterwards. With -every improvement that the javelin was susceptible of, it never could acquire a long -range; hence we find, that as Archery became developed, the use of the weapon -declined. Amongst savage nations, the use of the javelin is very common, <span class="sidenote">Australian -mode.</span>but the -inhabitants of Australia have a manner of throwing it altogether peculiar to themselves, -not throwing it while poised at the balance, but projecting it by means of a -stick applied at the butt end. This contrivance accomplishes a great increase of -range, but does not contribute to accuracy of direction. At short distances, the -penetrating force of the javelin is considerable, as is learned from the act of harpooning -a whale, <span class="sidenote">Harpoon.</span>a harpoon being merely a javelin.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page43">[43]</span></p> - -<h3>THE SLING.</h3> - -<p>Means by which stones would be thrown by greater force than the hand, would -naturally be resorted to; accordingly we find the sling ranks amongst the first of -ancient offensive weapons. <span class="sidenote">Slings mentioned -in -Judges. B. C. -1406.</span>Numerous examples are mentioned in Scripture, as in -Judges xx., 16, <span class="sidenote">Slings used -B. C. 1406.</span>“Among all this people, there were seven hundred chosen men left-handed; -every one could sling stones at a hair breadth and not miss;” and also that -of David and Goliath, &c.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Siege of Troy -between 800 -and 900 B. C.</p> - -<p>At the siege of Troy, the masses were organized into two kinds of infantry: one -light and irregular, carrying horn bows, short darts, and slings; the other regular and -heavy, armed with spears. <span class="sidenote">Battle of the -Granicus B. C. -334.</span>At the battle of the Granicus, <span class="smcapall">B. C.</span> 334, Alexander the -Great had in his army light infantry, consisting of slingers, bow-men, and javelin-men. -<span class="sidenote">First Punic -war 241 to -263 B. C.</span>The Carthagenians had slingers in their pay before the first Punic War.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Slings common -in Greece.</p> - -<p>The Sling was very common in Greece, and used by the light armed soldiers. -Arrows, stones, and leaden plummets, were thrown from them, some of which weighed -no less than an Attic pound. Seneca reports that its motion was so vehement that the -leaden plummets were frequently melted!!! <span class="sidenote">Slingers in -Roman armies.</span>The Romans had slingers in their armies, -for the most part inhabitants of the Islands of Majorca, Minorca and Ivica.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Invention ascribed -to -Phœnicians -and also to -inhabitants of -Balearic -islands.</p> - -<p>Pliny ascribes the invention of slings to the Phœnicians, but Vegetius to the -inhabitants of the Balearic Islands, who were famous in antiquity for using them. It -is said, those people bore three kinds of slings, some longer and others shorter, to be -used as their enemies were nearer or more remote; the first served them for a head -band, the second for a girdle, and the third they always carried in their hands. In -fight they threw large stones with such violence, that they seemed to be projected from -some machine, and with such exactness, as rarely to miss their aim; being constantly -exercised from their infancy, their mothers not allowing them to have any food, until -they struck it down from the top of a pole with stones thrown from their slings.</p> - -<p>The Latin for our English word farm is <i>fundus</i>, which originally signifies a -“stone’s-throw of land,” or as much land as could be included within the range of a -stone thrown from a sling. <span class="sidenote">Materials of -slings.</span>The materials of which slings were composed, were either -flax, hair or leather, woven into bands or cut into thongs, broad in the centre to -receive the load, and tapering off to the extremities. <span class="sidenote">Slings with -cup.</span>Slings have been made with -three strings, with a cup let into the leather to hold the bullet or stone, and were called -“Fronde à culôt.” In <a href="#Plate13">plate xiii</a>, fig. 3, there is a representation of a slinger of the -early part of the thirteenth century, whose weapon differs from that of the Anglo-Saxon -or common sling, in having a cup for the reception of the projectile. Slings -were sometimes attached to sticks to increase their power, as, besides the ancient cord -sling, there appears in the manuscripts of the thirteenth century a variety of this arm; -the <span class="sidenote">Staff-sling.</span>“Staff Sling.” -(<a href="#Plate13">plate xiii</a>, fig. 2.) It seems to have been in vogue for naval warfare, -or in the conflicts of siege operations.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Force of slings.</p> - -<p>The slings projected their missiles with such force that no armour could resist -their stroke. Slings never appear to have been much used by the English, -<span class="sidenote">Used for the -English, A. D. -1342.</span>although<span class="pagenum" id="Page44">[44]</span> -Froissart mentions an instance of their having been used for them by the people of -Brittany, in a battle fought in that province during the reign of Philip de Valois, -between the troops of Walter de Manin, an English knight, and Louis d’Espagne, -who commanded six thousand men on behalf of Charles de Blois, then competitor -with the Earl of Montford for the Duchy of Brittany. Froissart says, that what -made Louis lose the battle was, <span class="sidenote">Bullets out of -slings.</span>that during the engagement the country people came -unexpectedly and assaulted his army with <i>bullets</i> and slings.</p> - -<p>According to the same author, slings were used in naval combats, when stones -were also sometimes thrown by hand.<a id="FNanchor2"></a><a href="#Footnote2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> -<span class="sidenote">Slings at the -siege of Sancere, -1572.</span>Slings were used in 1572, at the siege of -Sancere by the Huguenots, in order to save their powder. They were also used by -the people of Brittany to such an extent against the Roman Catholic party, that the -war was called “Guerre de Fronde.” <span class="sidenote">Range.</span>With respect to the range of this projectile, -it is said, that a good slinger could project a stone 600 yards. This seems doubtful. -<span class="sidenote">Slings last -used, 1814.</span>The most recent instance of slings being used in war, occurs in “Straith on Fortification,” -page 121, and which contains an extract from the siege journal of Serjeant -St. Jacques of the French Corps de Genie, who was most successfully employed with a -small French garrison in the defence of the Castles of Monzowin, Arragon, against the -Spaniards, 1814.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote2"></a><a href="#FNanchor2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> -It is stated by Sir Robert Wilson that at the battle of Alexandria the French and English threw -stones at each other, during a temporary want of ammunition, with such effect that a Serjeant of the 28th Regiment -was killed, and several of the men were wounded. Stones were thrown by the English Guards at the battle of -Inkerman.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h3>THE BOW.</h3> - -<p class="sidenote">The bow -almost -universal.</p> - -<p>This weapon under some shape or other was employed by most nations of -antiquity, but not always as a warlike instrument. Scarcely any two nations made -their bows exactly alike. The Scythian bow we are told, was very much curved, -as are the Turkish, Persian, and Chinese bows (<a href="#Plate4">plate iv.</a> figs. 1 & 2) at the present -day, whilst the celebrated weapon of our ancestors when unstrung was nearly straight.</p> - -<p>It is now used among those savage tribes of Africa and America, to which fire-arms -have not yet reached.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Bows in -Scripture.</p> - -<p>We frequently read of the bow in Scripture, and the first passage in which the -use of the bow is inferred, is in Gen. xxi. 20, where it is said of Ishmael, “And -God was with the lad, and he grew, and dwelt in the wilderness and became an -archer.” <span class="sidenote">Bows B. C. -1892.</span>But in the 16th verse it is said that Hagar his mother, “sat her down over -against him, a good way off, as it were a <i>bow shot</i>; for she said let me not see the -death of the child”:—this verse implies an earlier practice with the bow than can -be adduced by any profane historian. <span class="sidenote">B. C. 1760.</span>In Gen. xxvii. 3, Isaac directs his son Esau: -“Now therefore take I pray thee thy weapons, thy quiver and thy bow, and go out to -the field, and take me some venison; and make me savory meat, such as I love, and -bring it to me that I may eat, and that my soul may bless thee before I die.” The -overthrow of Saul was particularly owing to the Philistine archers; and “David<span class="pagenum" id="Page45">[45]</span> -bade them teach the children of Judah the use of the bow.” The companies that -came to David at Ziklag were armed with bows, and “could use the right hand and -the left in hurling stones and shooting arrows.” (I. Chron. xii. 2.) <span class="sidenote">B. C. 1058.</span>The bow is of -very high antiquity among the Greeks, whose bows were usually made of wood, but -sometimes of horn, and frequently in either case beautifully ornamented with gold and -silver; the string generally made of twisted hair, but sometimes of hide. <span class="sidenote">Manner of -drawing the -bow.</span>The ancient -Persians drew the strings towards their ears, as is the practice still with the English. -The ancient Greeks, however, drew the bowstring towards their breast, and represented -the fabled Amazons as doing the same, and hence the tradition of these -people cutting off their right breasts, in order to give facility for drawing the bow. -<span class="sidenote">First used by -Romans.</span>Until the second Punic war, the Romans had no archers in their armies, except those -who came with their auxiliary forces. Subsequently they became more employed, -although as far as we can learn, not by native troops, but by Orientals in their pay.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Bows of -Britons.</p> - -<p>The early Britons had merely bows and arrows of reed, with flint or bone heads. -<span class="sidenote">Bows of -Welsh.</span>Arrows were used by the Welch in Norman reigns, who were famous archers; their -bows were made of wild elm, but stout, and not calculated to shoot a great distance, -but their arrows would inflict very severe wounds in close fight. Their arrows would -pierce oaken boards four inches thick. <span class="sidenote">Bows of -Anglo-Saxons.</span>The bow was also a weapon of war among -the Anglo-Saxons. The Salic law shows that both the sling and the bow were used -by the contemporary Franks; and they even used poisoned arrows. The Anglo-Saxon -bow was of the form of the Grecian, but it was only under the Normans that the bow -became a master weapon; the Saxons principally using it, like the people of Tahiti of -the present day, for killing birds.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">No bows in -France A. D. -514.</p> - -<p>During the reign of Clovis, the French made no use of the bow in their armies, -but it was employed during the reign of Charlemagne, who flourished in the end of -the eighth century; as a Count is mentioned, who was directed on conducting -soldiers to the army, to see they had their proper arms; that is a lance, a buckler, a -bow, two strings, and twelve arrows.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">A. D. 1066. -Harold shot -with an arrow</p> - -<p>William the Conqueror was a skilful archer, and the battle of Hastings was -decided by the bow, and we hear that Harold was shot with an arrow. <span class="sidenote">Known by -Danes and -Saxons.</span>Although -the Anglo-Saxons and Danes were well acquainted with the bow from the earliest -period, it appears to have been only employed for obtaining food, or for pastime, and -we are perhaps indebted to the Norman Conquest for its introduction as a military -weapon. <span class="sidenote">As a military -weapon at the -battle of -Hastings.</span>The Normans at the battle of Hastings are said to have used the -arbalest or cross-bow as well as the long bow. Ever after this, the bow became -a favourite weapon. During the reign of Henry II., archery was much -cultivated, and great numbers of bowmen were constantly brought into the field; <span class="sidenote">Archery -encouraged -by statute.</span>and -to encourage its practice, a law was passed, which freed from the charge of murder -any one who in practising with arrows or darts, should kill a person standing near. -This appears to be the first regulation to be found in our annals, and was probably -founded on the old law of Rome. <span class="sidenote">Long bow in -conquest of -Ireland 1172.</span>The English conquests in Ireland during the reign -of Henry II. were principally owing to the use of the long bow in battle, which the -Irish wanted. The Invasion of Ireland was headed by Richard de Clare, Earl of Pembroke,<span class="pagenum" id="Page46">[46]</span> -surnamed “Strong-bow.” His force was numerically very small, consisting -chiefly of archers, and it is stated that such was the advantage their superior arms -and military skill gave the invaders, that 10 knights and 70 archers defeated a body -of 3000 Irish opposed to them, on their landing near Waterford.</p> - -<p>The exact time when shooting with the long-bow began in England is unsettled, -<span class="sidenote">A. D. 1199.</span>our chroniclers do not mention archery till the death of Richard I.</p> - -<p>During the reign of Henry III. there were among the English infantry, slingers, -archers, and cross-bow men.</p> - -<p>It seems that the long-bow was at its zenith in the reign of Edward III., who -appears to have taken great pains to increase its efficacy, and to extend its use. <span class="sidenote">Cressy 1346.</span>The -terrible execution effected by the English archers at Cressy, <span class="sidenote">Poictiers 1356.</span>and at Poictiers ten years -after, was occasioned by British archers.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Homelden -1403.</p> - -<p>The decisive victory over the Scots at Homelden was entirely achieved by them, -and the Earl of Douglas found the English arrows were so swift and strong, that no -armour could repel them; though his own was of the most perfect temper, he was -wounded in five places. The English men-at-arms, knights and squires, never drew -sword or couched lance, the whole affair being decided by the archers.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Shrewsbury -1403.</p> - -<p>They again did terrible execution at the battle of Shrewsbury, in 1403, where -Hotspur was slain, <span class="sidenote">Agincourt -1415.</span>and the battle of Agincourt was their undivided conquest.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">20,000 bow-men -1455.</p> - -<p>During the reign of Henry VI., the Parliament voted an army of 20,000 bow-men -for service in France. The battle of St. Albans, 1455, seems to have been -entirely won by the archers. <span class="sidenote">Bow preferred -to fire-arms.</span>Although fire-arms had attained no inconsiderable -degree of perfection in the reign of Henry VIII., yet the long-bow was still the -favourite weapon. Indeed, in the reign of Elizabeth, the musket was so unwieldy, -and slow to charge and discharge, that the bow was considered superior by many. -We find that Queen Elizabeth, 1572, engaged to furnish Charles IX. of France with -6,000 men, part to be armed with long, and part with cross-bows; <span class="sidenote">Bows at Isle -of Ré, 1627.</span>and in the attack -made by the English on the Isle of Ré, 1627, it is said some cross-bow-men were in -the army. In 1643 a company of archers was raised for the service of Charles -I.; <span class="sidenote">Bows against -Scots, 1644 -to 1647.</span>and in a pamphlet printed in 1664, there is an account of the successes of the -Marquis of Montrose against the Scots; and bow-men are repeatedly mentioned as in -the battle. <span class="sidenote">Bows in -William 3rd’s -time.</span>The Grenadiers of the Highland Regiments, in the time of William III., -when recruiting, wore the old red bonnet, and carried bows and arrows with them.</p> - -<p>The Highland bow was very short, and by no means powerful.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h3>MERITS OF THE LONG BOW.</h3> - -<p class="sidenote">Range of -long-bow.</p> - -<p>The English could not accomplish more than 600 yards, except on a few extraordinary -occasions; our modern archers not more than from 300 to 500 yards. The -Turkish ambassador when in England in 1795, sent an arrow upwards of 480 yards; -and there are two or three instances on record since archery has been merely a -pastime, which have exceeded it by twenty or thirty yards. <span class="sidenote">Accuracy of -long-bow.</span>It is said of Domitian, -that he would cause one of his slaves to stand at a great distance with his hands<span class="pagenum" id="Page47">[47]</span> -spread as a mark, and would shoot his arrows so correctly as to drive them between -his fingers. Commodus, with an arrow headed with a semi-circular cutting edge, -could cut or sever the neck of a bird. The story of William Tell, who struck an -apple placed upon his child’s head, is well known, and generally regarded in the -light of an historical fact. It is stated that Robin Hood could split a hazel wand.</p> - -<p>In a journal of Edward VI., His Majesty relates that 100 archers of his guard -shot before him two arrows each, and afterwards altogether. The object aimed at -was a well-seasoned deal board, one inch thick. <span class="sidenote">Penetration -of long-bow.</span>Many pierced it quite through, and -some struck in a board on the other side. The distance is not mentioned, but we -know that Henry VIII. prohibited any one above the age of 25 to shoot at a mark -at a less distance than 200 yards.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Advantages -of the long-bow.</p> - -<p>The long-bow was light, inexpensive, and unaffected by weather, as the strings -could be removed. Moreover, 12 arrows could be fired with accuracy in one minute. -Two feathers in an arrow were to be white, and one brown or grey, and this difference -in colour informed the archer in an instant how to place the arrow.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Disadvantages -of the -long-bow.</p> - -<p>Although arrows could be shot from a bow with far greater rapidity and precision -than balls from a musket, yet in damp weather the bow and string might -become so much relaxed that the efficacy of the instrument became much impaired. -A side wind deflected the arrow exceedingly in its flight, and even against a moderate -wind, it was difficult to shoot at all.</p> - -<hr class="chapline top" /> -<hr class="chapline bot" /> - -<h3 class="forefathers"><i>Our Forefathers encouraged to acquire skill in archery by legal enactments, and by the -founders of our public schools.</i></h3> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h4>1<span class="fsize70">ST.</span> BY LEGAL ENACTMENTS.</h4> - -<p class="sidenote">Henry 2nd -from 1154 to -1189.</p> - -<p>We have previously stated that the first law encouraging the practice of archery -was passed in the reign of Henry II.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Richard 2nd -from 1377 to -1399.</p> - -<p>An Act of Parliament was passed in the reign of Richard II., to compel all -servants to shoot on Sundays and holidays.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Edward 4th -from 1461 to -1483.</p> - -<p>In the reign of Edward IV., an act was passed, <span class="sidenote">Every man to -have a bow.</span>ordaining every Englishman to -have a bow of his own height, and during the same reign butts were ordered to be -put up in every township for the inhabitants to shoot at on feast days, and if any -neglected, the penalty of one halfpenny was incurred. The same monarch also passed -an act, that bows were to be sold for 5s. 4d.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Cross-bows -prohibited by -Henry 7th & -Henry 8th.</p> - -<p>Henry VII. prohibited the use of the cross-bow, and Henry VIII., less than -twenty years after, renewed the prohibition. He forbad the use of cross-bows and -hand guns, and passed a statute which inflicted a fine of £10 for keeping a cross-bow -in the house. Every man, being the King’s subject, was obliged to exercise himself -in shooting with the long bow, and also to keep a bow with arrows continually in his -house. Fathers and guardians were also commanded to teach their male children the -use of the long bow.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Encouraged -by Philip and -Mary.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page48">[48]</span></p> - -<p>A statute of Philip and Mary mentions the quantity and kind of armour and -weapons, to be kept by persons of different estates, viz:—“Temporal persons having -£5 and under £10 per annum, one coat of plate furnished, one black bill or halbert, -one long bow, one sheaf of arrows, and one steel cap or skull.”</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Prices fixed -by Elizabeth.</p> - -<p>An act of Elizabeth, fixed the prices for long bows, at 6s. 8d., 3s. 4d., and a -third sort at 2s. each bow.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Encouraged -by monarchs -from Henry -8th to Charles -1st.</p> - -<p>Numerous statutes were passed to encourage archery in the reigns of Henry VIII., -Elizabeth, James I. and Charles I. in whose reign the legislature interfered for the -last time in 1633, when Charles I. issued a commission for preventing the fields near -London being so enclosed, “as to interrupt the necessary and profitable exercise of -“shooting,” and also a proclamation for the use of the bow and pike together:—<span class="sidenote">Proclamation -by Charles -1st.</span>“A. -D. 1633.—Whereas in former tyme bowes and arrowes have been found serviceable -weapons for wars, whereby great victories and conquests have been gotten, and -by sundry statutes the use thereof hath been enjoined, &c. &c.—and we expect that -our loving subjects should conform themselves thereunto, knowing the exercise of -shooting to be a means to preserve health, strength and agility of body, and to avoid -idleness, unlawfull disports, drunkenness, and such like enormities and disorders, -which are too frequent among our people.”</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h4>2<span class="fsize70">ND.</span>—BY THE FOUNDERS OF OUR PUBLIC SCHOOLS.</h4> - -<p class="sidenote">Estimation of -archery by -founders of -schools.</p> - -<p>The founders of our Grammar Schools appear to have considered that the -acquirement of skill in archery by their scholars was no less worthy of attention than -their moral and intellectual improvement. They provided by their statutes sound -learning and a religious education for all, but secured the removal of such as shewed -no aptitude or disposition to learn. They also prescribed the amusements and -exercises of the scholars, and prohibited such as were calculated to lead to idle and -vicious habits. In fact, as true patriots, they understood how the sons of free men -ought to be educated in youth, and that “a complete and generous education is that -which fits a man to perform justly, skilfully, and magnanimously, all the offices, -both private and public, of peace and war.”</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Harrow -School, -founded 1571.</p> - -<p>The founder of Harrow School, Mr. John Lyon, prepared a body of statutes to -be observed in the management of the School. By one of these he limited the amusements -of the Scholars “to driving a top, tossing a hand-ball, running, shooting, and -no other.” By another he ordered:—“You shall allow your child at all times, -bow-shafts, bow-strings, and a bracer, to exercise shooting.” On the entrance-porch -to the Master’s house are two shields, the one bearing the Lion rampant, -the other, two arrows crossed, an ancient device which had its origin in the design of -the founder. This device is also impressed on the exterior of all books which are -presented by the Head-Master as prizes to those scholars, whose improvement entitled -them to such rewards. The practice of archery was coeval with the foundation of the -School, and was continued for nearly two centuries. Every year there was a public -exhibition of archery, when the scholars shot for a silver arrow. The last silver arrow -was contended for in 1771.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">St. Albans -School.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page49">[49]</span></p> - -<p>At St. Alban’s Grammar School, one of the articles to be recited to such as offered -their children to be taught in the School was,—“Ye shall allow your child at all -times, a bow, three arrows, bow-strings, a shooting glove, and a bracer, to exercise -shooting.”</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Wilton -School.</p> - -<p>Sir John Dean, who founded, in 1558, the Grammar School of Wilton, in -Cheshire, framed a body of statutes for the School. One of them provides:—“That -upon Thursdays and Saturdays, in the afternoons, and upon holidays, the scholars -refresh themselves, and that as well in the vacations as in the days aforesaid, they -use their bows and arrows only, and eschew all bowling, carding, dicing, cocking, -and all other unlawful games, upon pain of extreme punishment to be done by the -Schoolmaster.”</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Dedham -School in -Essex.</p> - -<p>The Free Grammar School of Dedham, in Essex, was endowed in 1571, and confirmed -by a Charter of Queen Elizabeth in 1574. Her Majesty’s injunctions to the -parents of the boys who should attend the school at Dedham were:—“That they -should furnish their sons with bows, shafts, bracers and gloves, in order to train -them to arms.”</p> - -<p class="sidenote">St. Saviour’s -School in -Southwark.</p> - -<p>One of the statutes at the Grammar School of St. Saviour, in Southwark, decrees -that “the plays of the scholars shall be shooting in long-bows, chess, running, wrestling, -and leaping:—players for money, or betters, shall be severely punished and -expulsed.”</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Camberwell -School.</p> - -<p>A statute in the same words is found in the rules and orders framed for the -government of Camberwell Grammar School, which was founded in 1615, by letters -patent.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h3>MEANS BY WHICH SKILL IN ARCHERY WAS ACQUIRED.</h3> - -<p class="sidenote">An archer -made by long -training, &c.</p> - -<p>A successful archer could only be constituted by long training, strength, and -address, we need not therefore wonder that the practice of the long-bow was not more -copied by our neighbours, as the French pertinaciously adhered to the use of the -cross-bow.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Every man -had arms.</p> - -<p>Etienne di Perlin, a Frenchman who wrote an account of a tour in England in -1558, says:—“The husbandmen leave their bucklers and swords, or sometimes their -bow, in the corner of the field, so that every one in this land bears arms;” and it is -also stated that all the youth and manhood of the yeomanry of England were engaged -in the practice of the long-bow.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Public -matches.</p> - -<p>Public exhibitions of shooting with the bow continued during the reigns of -Charles II. and James II., and an archer’s division, at least till within these few years, -formed a branch of the Artillery Company. The most important society of this kind -now existing is “The Royal Company of Archers, the King’s body-guard of Scotland.” -The exact time of its institution is unknown, but it is referred by the Scottish antiquarians -to the reign of their James I.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Causes of bad -shooting.</p> - -<p>Roger Ascham, in “Toxophilos,” states that the main difficulty in learning to -shoot, arises from having acquired and become confirmed in previous bad habits; so<span class="pagenum" id="Page50">[50]</span> -that, “use is the onlye cause of all faultes in it, and therefore children more easelye -and soner may be taught to shoote excellently then men, because children may be -taught to shoote well at the first, menne have more paine to unlearne their ill uses -than they have labour afterwarde to come to good shootinge;” and after having -enumerated a long list of faults ordinarily committed, he thus proceeds to describe the -secret of shooting straight with the long-bow.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Shooting depends -on the -eye.</p> - -<p>“For having a man’s eye alwaye on his marke, is the onlye waye to shoote -straighte, yea, and I suppose so redye and easye a waye, if it be learned in youth -and confirmed with use, that a man shall never misse therein. Men doubt yet in -loking at the marke what way is best, whether betwixt the bow and the stringe, -above or beneath his hande, and manye wayes moo. Yet it maketh no greate -matter which waye a man loke at his marke, if it be joined with comlye shooting. -The diversitye of mens standing and drawing causeth divers men loke at their marke -divers wayes; yet they all had a mans hand to shoote straighte if nothinge els -stoppe. So that cumlynesse is the onlye judge of best lokinge at the marke. Some -men wonder whye in castinge a man’s eye at the mark, the hande should go streight. -Surely if he considered the nature of a man’s eye, hee woulde not wonder at it. <span class="sidenote">The hand -obeys the eye.</span>For -this I am certaine of, that no servaunt to his maister, no child to his father, is so -obedient as everye joynte and peece of the bodye is to do whatsoever the eye -biddes. The eye is the guide, the ruler, and the succourer of all the other parts. -The hande, the foote, and other members dare do nothinge withoute the eye, as -doth appear on the night and darcke corners. The eye is the very tongue wherewith -witte and reason doth speake to everye parte of the bodye, and the witte doth -not so soone signifye a thinge by the eye, as every part is redye to followe, or rather -prevent the bidding of the eye. This is plaine in manye thinges, but most evident -in fence and feighting, as I have heard men saye. There every parte standing in feare -to have a blowe, runnes to the eye for help, as younge children do to the mother; -the foote, the hande, and all wayteth upon the eye. If the eye bid the hand eyther -beare of or smite, or the foote eyther go forward or backeward, it doth so. And -that which is most wonder of al, the one man lokinge stedfastlye at the other mans -eye and not at his hand, wil, even as it were, rede in his eye wher he purposeth to -smyte next, for the eye is nothing els but a certain windowe for wit to shoote out -her heade at. This wonderfull worke of God in making all the members so obedient -to the eye, is a pleasant thing to remember and loke upon: therefore an archer may -be sure in learninge to loke at his marke when hee is younge alwayes to shoote -streight.”</p> - -<p>The following description of the English archer is from an ancient treatise on -Martial <span class="nowrap">Discipline:—</span></p> - -<p class="sidenote">Archer to -wear easy -dress.</p> - -<p>“The yeoman hadde, at those dayes, their lymmes at libertye, for their hoseyn -were then fastened with one point, and their jackes were long, and easy to shote in, -so that they mighte draw bowes of great strength, and shote arrowes of a yarde long. -Captens and officers should be skilful of that most noble weapon, <span class="sidenote">Captains to -see that bows -&c., were in -good order.</span>and to see that -their soldiers according to their draught and strength have good bows, well nocked,<span class="pagenum" id="Page51">[51]</span> -well strynged, everie stringe whippe in their nocke, and in the myddes rubbed with -wax, braser and shuting glove, some spare strings trymed as aforesaid, everie man -one shefe of arrows, with a case of leather defensible against the rayne, <span class="sidenote">Twenty-four -arrows to each -man.</span>and in the -same shefe fower and twentie arrows, whereof eight of them should be lighter than -the residue, to gall and astoyne the enemy with the hailshot of light arrows, before -they shall come within range of their harquebuss shot.”</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Encouraged -from the -pulpit.</p> - -<p>The subject of archery was not deemed, in those days, an unsuitable theme for -the pulpit, as may be seen by the following extract from one of the seven sermons (the -sixth) preached before Edward VI., within the preaching place in the palace of Westminster, -on the 12th of April, 1549, by that patriotic reformer, Bishop Latimer. -With honest, plain spoken words, in the midst of his discourse he breaks <span class="nowrap">off—</span></p> - -<p>“Men of England, in times past, when they would exercise themselves, (for we -must needs have some recreation, our bodies can not endure without some exercise), -they were wont to goe abroad in the fieldes a shooting; but now it is turned into -glossing, gulling, and whooring within the house. The arte of shooting hath bene -in times past much esteemed in this realme, it is a gift of God that He hath geven -us to excell all other nations withall, it hath been God’s instrument whereby He -hath geven us many victories against our enemies. But now we have taken up -whooring in townes, instead of shooting in the fieldes. A wonderous thing that so -excellent a gift of God should be so little esteemed. I desire you, my Lordes, even -as ye love the honour and glory of God, and entend to remove his indignation, let -there be sent forth some proclamation, some sharpe proclamation to the justices of -peace, for they doe not thier dutie, justices now be no justices, there be many good -actes made for this matter already. Charge them upon their allegiance that this -singular benefite of God may be practised, and that it be not turned into bolling, -glossing, and whooring within the townes: for they be negligent in executing these -laws of shooting. <span class="sidenote">Training of -Bishop Latimer.</span>In my time my poore father was as diligent to teach me to shoote -as to learne me any other thing, and so I think other men did their children. He -taught me how to draw, how to lay my body in my bow, and not to draw with -strength of armes as other nations doe, but with strength of the body. I had my -bowes bought me according to my age and strength, as I encreased in them, so my -bowes were made bigger and bigger: for men shall never shoot well except they be -brought up in it. It is a goodly arte, a wholesome kinde of exercise, and much -commended in phisicke.”</p> - -<p>The following is another extract from the same <span class="nowrap">sermon:—</span></p> - -<p class="sidenote">How estimated -by the -people.</p> - -<p>“I came once myself to a place, riding on a journey homeward from London, -and I sent word over night into the towne that I would preach there in the morning, -because it was a holiday, and methought it was an holidayes work. The -church stood in my way, and I took my horse and my company, and went thither, -(I thought I should have found a great company in the church,) and when I came -there, the church door was fast locked. I tarryed there halfe an houre and more, -at last the key was found, and one of the parish comes to me and said: ‘Sir, this -is a busie day with us, we cannot heare you, it is Robin Hood’s day. The parish<span class="pagenum" id="Page52">[52]</span> -are gone abroad to gather for Robin Hood. I pray you let them not.’ I thought -my rochet should have been regarded, though I were not: but it would not serve, -it was faine to give place to Robin Hood’s men.”</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h3>PROOFS OF THE IMPORTANCE OF ARCHERY.</h3> - -<p>There is little at the present day in England to afford any adequate idea of the -high importance, the great skill, and the distinguished renown of the English archers. -<span class="sidenote">By names of -places.</span>Some few places still retain names which tell where the bowmen used to assemble for -practice, as “Shooter’s Hill,” in Kent; “Newington Butts,” near London; and “St. -Augustine’s Butts,” near Bristol. The Butts will be found applied to spots of land in -the vicinity of schools, as for instance, the College School of Warwick.</p> - -<p>The fields situated to the east of the playing-fields at Eton, and known by the -name of “The Upper and Lower Shooting-fields,” were probably so named from the -ancient exercise of archery on these grounds.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Armorial -Bearings.</p> - -<p>Many of the noble and county families of Great Britain and Ireland have the -symbols of archery charged on their escutcheons; as, for instance, the Duke of Norfolk, -the Marquis of Salisbury, Lord Grey de Wilton, the Earl of Aberdeen, the Earl of -Besborough, the Earl of Portarlington, the Baronetal family of Hales, Sir Martin -Bowes, and also on the arms of Sydney Sussex College, in Cambridge, and the seal of -the Sheffield Grammar School.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Government -brand.</p> - -<p>The mark or brand used by the Government of the present day, to identify -public property, is an arrow-head, commonly called “The King’s broad arrow.”</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Surnames of -families.</p> - -<p>There are also existing families which have derived their surnames from the -names of the different crafts formerly engaged in the manufacture of the bow and its -accompaniments; as, for instance, the names of Bowyer, Fletcher, Stringer, Arrowsmith, -Arrow, Bowman, Bowwater, &c.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">National -proverbs.</p> - -<p>If reference be made to our language, there will be found many phrases and -proverbial expressions drawn from or connected with archery; some suggesting forethought -and caution, as “Always have two strings to your bow;” “Get the shaft-hand -of your adversaries;” “Draw not thy bow before thy arrow be fixed;” “Kill two -birds with one shaft.” To make an enemy’s machination recoil upon himself, they -expressed by saying, “To outshoot a man in his own bow.” In reference to a vague -foolish guess, they used to say, “He shoots wide of the mark;” and of unprofitable -silly conversation, “A fool’s bolt is soon shot;” and as a proof of exaggeration, -“He draws a long bow.” The unready and unskilful archer did not escape the -censure and warning of his fellows, although he might be a great man and boast that -he had “A famous bow, but it was up at the castle.” Of such they satirically used -to remark, that “Many talked of Robin Hood, who never shot in his bow.” Our -ancestors also expressed liberality of sentiment, and their opinion that merit belonged -exclusively to no particular class or locality, by the following pithy expressions, -“Many a good bow besides one in Chester,” and “An archer is known by his aim, -and not by his arrows.” To these may be added, “Testimony is like the shot of a<span class="pagenum" id="Page53">[53]</span> -long-bow, which owes its efficacy to the force of the shooter; argument is like the shot -of a cross-bow, equally forcible, whether discharged by a dwarf or a giant.”</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h3>MILITARY AND POLITICAL CONSEQUENCES OF SKILL IN THE -USE OF THE BOW.</h3> - -<p class="sidenote">Commenced -at the battle -of Hastings.</p> - -<p>From the time of the battle of Hastings the English archers began to rise in -repute, and in course of time proved themselves, by their achievements in war, both -the admiration and terror of their foes, and excelled the exploits of other nations. -<span class="sidenote">Achievement -lasted -through a -period of 500 -years.</span>The great achievements of the English bowmen which shed lustre upon the annals of -the nation, extended over a period of more than five centuries, many years after -the invention and use of fire-arms. <span class="sidenote">England had -a voluntary -army.</span>England, therefore, in those times, possessed a -national voluntary militia, of no charge to the Government, ready for the field on a -short notice, and well skilled in the use of weapons. Hence sprung the large -bodies of efficient troops which at different periods of English history, in an incredibly -short time, were found ready for the service of their country. These men were not a -rude, undisciplined rabble, but were trained, disciplined men, every one sufficiently -master of his weapon to riddle a steel corslet at five or six score paces, or in a body, -to act with terrible effect against masses of cavalry; while most of them could bring -down a falcon on the wing by a bird-bolt, or with a broad arrow transfix the wild -deer in the chase.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Archers -defeated men-at-arms.</p> - -<p>Before the simple weapon of the British archer, itself but a larger form of the -simplest plaything of a child, all the gorgeous display of knighthood, the elaborated -panoply of steel, the magnificent war-horse, the serried ranks, the ingenious devices of -tacticians and strategists, at once gave way; nothing can withstand the biting storm of -the “cloth-yard shaft.” <span class="sidenote">Value in -sieges.</span>It was equally efficacious in the field and in the siege. The -defender of town or castle could not peep beyond his bretèche or parapet, but an -English arrow nailed his cap to his head. In a field, provided the archers were, by -marsh, wood or mountain, secured from a flank attack, they would bid defiance to any -number of mounted men-at-arms. Their shafts, falling thick as hail among the -horses, soon brought them to the ground, or threw them into utter disorder; then the -armed footmen advanced and commenced a slaughter which was scarcely stayed but -by weariness of slaying; the archers meantime continuing their ravages on the rear of -the enemy’s cavalry by a vertical attack, prolonged, when the ordinary supply of their -quivers had been exhausted, by withdrawing them arrows from their slain enemies, to -be sent forth on new missions of death:—here is encouragement for our modern -marksmen who are armed with a far more deadly weapon.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Opinion on -English -archers by -Napoleon III.</p> - -<p>The most complete and philosophic digest, which relates to the system of -British archery, considered from a military point of view, is that given by the present -Emperor of the French in his treatise “<i>Sur le Passé et l’Avenir de l’Artillerie</i>.” That -the British victory at Cressy was wholly attributable to the prowess of British archers, -is well known; not so well, a circumstance pointed out by the Emperor of the French, -that thenceforward, and in consequence of that victory, <span class="sidenote">Destroyed the -prestige of -cavalry.</span>the prestige of cavalry<span class="pagenum" id="Page54">[54]</span> -declined. Now, there is a political, no less than military significance in this lowering -of the esteem in which cavalry had previously been held. Horsemen were gentlemen, -and infantry men of inferior degree. Whenever and wherever British archery were -<i>not</i> brought to bear, horsemen were omnipotent, and infantry of little avail. <span class="sidenote">Estimation of -infantry by -continental -nations.</span>During -the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries—the golden age of archery in this land, when -yeomen or archers were in such high repute,—France and continental nations generally, -treated foot soldiers with disdain. The Emperor of the French, in his -systematic book just adverted to, mentions several examples where foot soldiers were -ruthlessly cut down and ridden over by their own cavalry—the men-at-arms; not -that the infantry fought ill, but that they fought too well. They were slaughtered -lest the men-at-arms should have no scope for the exercise of their skill.</p> - -<p>English men-at-arms never sullied their fame by cruel acts like these; not that -they were better at heart: seeing that human nature is everywhere, and under all circumstances, -pretty much alike. English infantry, mainly composed of archers, were -far too valuable to be thus used. They bore the first brunt of battle, and not unfrequently -decided it. At the time when every other foot soldier in Europe was the -merest serf, <span class="sidenote">Archer a -yeoman.</span>the British archer was a yeoman. He had a fixed heraldic rank; the first -of low degree. He was above the handicraftsman, however skilful,—above the -merchant—taking his rank immediately after the gentry. <span class="sidenote">Political -results.</span>The excellence of British -archery, then tended to bring about a political result; helping to establish that middle-class -which, ever since its consolidation, has been one of the sheet-anchors of our -glorious constitution.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h3>THE ARBALEST, OR CROSS-BOW.</h3> - -<p class="sidenote">Cross-bow, -modification -of long.</p> - -<p>In process of time a modification of the bow was invented. In place of the -original instrument, a much shorter and stiffer bow, usually of steel, was placed -transversely in a stock, bent by a lever, and discharged by a trigger, after the manner -since used for a gun.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Invented in -Crete or -Sicily.</p> - -<p>The cross-bow, or arbalest, called in Latin, arcus balistarius, or balista manualis, -and in French arbalèt, is said by some to be of Sicilian origin; others ascribe its -invention to the Cretans. It is supposed to have been introduced into France by the -first crusaders, and is mentioned by the Abbé Suger in his life of Louis le Gros, as -being used by that Prince, in the beginning of his reign, which commenced in the -year 1108.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">To England -by Saxons.</p> - -<p>Verstigan seems to attribute the introduction of this weapon into England to the -Saxons, under Hengist and Horsa, but cites no authority in support of that supposition. -In a print representing the landing of those generals, the foremost of them is -delineated with a cross-bow on his shoulder, and others are seen in the hands of the -distant figures of their followers, landed and landing from their ships.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">The Normans -got cross-bows -from -Italy.</p> - -<p>It would appear that the Normans derived the cross-bow, with its name, from -Italy. In Domesday Book mention is made of Odo, the arbalester, as a tenant in -capite of the king of lands in Yorkshire; and the manor of Worstead, Norfolk, was<span class="pagenum" id="Page55">[55]</span> -at the time of Domesday survey, held of the Abbot of St. Benet at Holme, by -Robert the cross-bow man. The names show them to have been Normans, and these -instances are sufficient to prove the introduction of the weapon, though the few that -may have been used at the battle of Hastings might occasion its not being represented -in the Bayeux tapestry.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">No cross-bow -among -Romans.</p> - -<p>The absence of the cross-bow in early Roman monuments leaves it a matter of -doubt, whether an arbalester would not simply mean the engineer of a catapult. -There is no mention made of the hand cross-bow in very ancient authorities.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">William II -surnamed -Rufus, from -1087 to 1100</p> - -<p>The cross-bow has been used in England (at least, on hunting excursions) in the -time of Rufus, for Wace tells us, that “Prince Henry, going the same day to New -Forest, found the string of his cross-bow broken, and taking it to a villain to be -mended, saw an old woman there, who told him he should be king.”</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Henry I, 1100 -to 1135.</p> - -<p>During the reign of Henry I. the cross-bow seems to have been principally used -in the chase. The projectile was in form of a short arrow, with a pyramidical head, -called a quarrel, (<a href="#Plate14">plate 14</a>, fig. 2 and 4). <span class="sidenote">Cross-bow in -war.</span>Simeon of Durham speaks of it in the -time of Henry I. thus:—“He raised a machine from whence the archers and cross-bowmen -might shoot.”</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Genoese -celebrated for -the use of.</p> - -<p>The Genoese were at all times most celebrated for the skilful management of the -cross-bow. The success which attended the Christians at the siege of Jerusalem, -1100, is attributed principally to the mechanical talents of this people.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Use of forbad.</p> - -<p>The use of the cross-bows was general in Italy in 1139, for at that time Pope -Innocent II. particularly forbad them. The German Emperor Conrad did the same, -as we learn from William de Dole, who lived in the latter part of the 12th century, -they not being looked upon as a fair weapon.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Richard I -from 1189 to -1199.</p> - -<p>It is said of Richard I.:—“Truly he revived the use of this kind of shooting, -called cross-bow shooting, which had long since been laid aside, whence he became -so skilful in its management, that he killed many people with his own hand.” <span class="sidenote">Siege of Acre</span>It is -supposed that Richard I. first used the cross-bow as a weapon of war at the siege of -Acre. <span class="sidenote">Universal in -Crusades.</span>In every action, however, of which we read in the history of the second -crusade, as well as the third, in which Richard participated, cross-bows, as well as -other bows, are repeatedly noticed. <span class="sidenote">Richard -killed by.</span>It is stated that he was killed by an arrow, said -to have been shot from a cross-bow at the Castle of Chaluz.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Genoese -cross-bow -men.</p> - -<p>From the beginning of the 13th, and until the middle of the 15th century, cross-bow -men are uniformly mentioned as part of the Genoese troops. From Justinius we -learn, that in 1225 <span class="sidenote">Mounted -Arbalists -1225.</span>“Twenty Arbalestes mounted, and one hundred on foot, with -cross-bows of horn, were then employed in the army of the state.”</p> - -<p>The cross-bow man was an essential component of the host during all this period. -He was in the van of the battle.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Battle near -Damietta -1237.</p> - -<p>In the battle near Damietta, in 1237, “more than a hundred knights of the -Temple fell, and three hundred cross-bow men, &c., &c.”</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Campaign in -Italy 1239.</p> - -<p>The Emperor Frederic, in 1239, giving an account of his Italian campaign to the -king of England, writes: “After we had, by our knights and cross-bow men, reduced -all the province of Liguria,” &c.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Genoese 1245.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page56">[56]</span></p> - -<p>Five hundred Genoese cross-bow men were sent against the Milanese in 1245, -and these unfortunate men being placed in front of the line, were taken prisoners by -the enemy, who, to revenge themselves for the havoc done by their bows, <span class="sidenote">Treatment of.</span>cruelly -punished each with the loss of an eye, and amputation of an arm.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Cross-bows at -Cressy 1346.</p> - -<p>There were 15,000 Genoese cross-bow men in the front rank of the French army -at the battle of Cressy, 1346.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">At siege of -Le Roche de -Rién.</p> - -<p>The next year we find that Charles, Earl of Blois, had at the siege of Le Roche -de Rién no less than 2,000 in his army.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Corporation -of Arbalisters -1359.</p> - -<p>The “Corporation des Arbalestriers de Paris,” in 1359, consisted of two hundred -members. In 1373, their number, as fixed by a royal ordinance, was eight hundred. -They were not bound to serve beyond the limits of their district without the consent -of the Provost of Paris. There were both foot and mounted cross-bowmen in this -body.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Cross-bow -encouraged -by Edward -III.</p> - - - - - -<p>Edward III., though he wished principally to encourage the long-bow, could not -help seeing the advantages which might be derived from the cross-bow, from the -accuracy of its shot, and its convenience on horseback. <span class="sidenote">No English -in wars of -Edward III.</span>It does not appear that, in -the long wars of Edward with the French in this century, cross-bowmen were raised -in England, <span class="sidenote">Genoese -mercenaries.</span>though they were supplied by Genoese contractors on various occasions -for service at sea. In 1363 the king caused public proclamation to be made, in order -to encourage its use.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Matches.</p> - -<p>There were also matches made in different parts of Europe, at which prizes were -given to the most skilful cross-bowmen.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Mounted -cross-bow -men in France -1373.</p> - -<p>In the list of the Grand Masters of the Arbalesters of France under Charles V., -in 1373, appears “Marc de Grimant, Baron d’Antibes, Captain-General of Arbalesters, -both foot and horse, in the service of the king.” And a similar notice occurs in the -reign of King John, Baudoin de Lence being Grand Master; but it would appear -that the mounted cross-bowmen were retained in much smaller numbers than the foot.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">“Pavisers.”</p> - -<p>During the reign of Edward III. cross-bowmen seem first to have been protected -by “Pavisers,” (<a href="#Plate15">plate 15</a>), or men who held before them a large shield called a -“Pavise.”</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Pavisers by -English 1404.</p> - -<p>On the attack by the French and Spaniards upon the Isle of Portland in 1404, -the English formed pavisers to protect themselves from the cross-bow bolts, by taking -the doors from their houses, and fixing them upright by props. Under this cover the -archers plied their arrows.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Cross-bow -not esteemed -by English.</p> - -<p>The English never had much esteem for the cross-bow in the field. Among the -10,500 men led out of England by Henry VI., in 1415, there were only ninety-eight -Arbalesters, of whom eighteen were horsemen; <span class="sidenote">Forbad by -Henry VII -1508 & 1515.</span>nevertheless, Henry VII. found it -necessary to prohibit the use of the cross-bow in 1508, and, seven years after, another -statute was passed, renewing the prohibition. This interference, however, of the -legislature does not seem to have produced the intended effect, for in less than twenty -years later the use of the cross-bow had become so prevalent, <span class="sidenote">Forbad by -Henry VIII -1535.</span>that a new statute was -judged requisite, which inflicted on every person that kept one in his house, the -penalty of twenty pounds. It is from this period, therefore, that we may date the<span class="pagenum" id="Page57">[57]</span> -decline of the arbalest in this country, as these statutes produced by degrees the -reformation sought for. <span class="sidenote">Decline of -cross-bow.</span>Not a single cross-bow man is to be seen in the paintings -belonging to the Society of Antiquaries, nor at Cowdray House, representing the -battles of Henry VIII., and painted at the period; and, to give a finishing blow, -another statute soon followed, still more decisive.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h3>DESCRIPTION OF CROSS-BOW.</h3> - -<p class="sidenote">Description.</p> - -<p>The ancient cross-bow, which differed in many particulars from those of late -times, is thus described by Father Daniel, who formed his description from one or -more then before him.</p> - -<p>The cross-bow was an offensive weapon, which consisted of a bow fixed to the -top of a sort of staff, or stock of wood, which the string of the bow, when unbent, -crossed at right angles.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Stock.</p> - -<p>The handle or bed, which was called the stock of the cross-bow, had towards the -middle a small opening or slit, of the length of two fingers, in which was a little -moveable wheel of solid steel; through the centre of it passed a screw that served for -an axis; this wheel projected a little beyond the surface of the stock, and had a notch, -or catch, which stopped and held the string of the bow when bent. <span class="sidenote">Trigger.</span>In the opposite -side of the circumference was a much smaller notch, by the means of which the spring -of the trigger kept the wheel firmer, and in its place; this wheel is called the nut of -the cross-bow. Under the stock, near the handle, was the key of the trigger, like that -of the serpentine of a musket; by pressing this key with the hand, to the -handle of the cross-bow, the spring released the wheel that held the string, and the -string by its motion drove forward the dart.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Back-sight.</p> - -<p>Upon the stock below the little wheel was a small plate of copper, which lifted -up and shut down, and was fixed by its two legs, with two screws to the two sides of -the stock; this was a back-sight; it was pierced above by two little holes, one over -the other, and when the plate was raised, these two holes answered to a <span class="sidenote">Fore-sight.</span>globule, which -was a small bead, no bigger than that of a chaplet, that was suspended at the end of -the cross-bow by a fine wire, and fastened to two perpendicular columns of iron, one on -the right, the other on the left, and this little globule, answering to the holes in the -plate, served to direct the aim, whether for shooting horizontally, upwards, or -downwards.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Cord.</p> - -<p>The cord or string of the bow was double, each string separated by two little -cylinders of iron, equi-distant from the extremities of the bow and the centre; to these -two strings in the middle was fixed a ring of cord, which served to confine it in the -notch previously mentioned when the bow was bent. Between the two cords in the centre -of the string, and immediately before the ring, was a little square of cord, against -which was placed the extremity of the arrow or dart, to be pushed forward by -the cord.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Bent by hand.</p> - -<p>The smaller cross-bows were bent with the hand; <span class="sidenote">By foot</span>the larger ones were at first -bent by the soldier placing his foot in a stirrup, attached to the end of the bow; a cord<span class="pagenum" id="Page58">[58]</span> -was then fixed by one end to the butt of the stock, the other end being fastened to a -waistbelt. <span class="sidenote">By pulley.</span>A pulley, running upon the cord, was hooked to the bowstring, and the -bow was then bent by raising the body and keeping the leg firm.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">By moulinet.</p> - -<p>The cross-bow was afterwards furnished with the moulinet and pulleys, (<a href="#Plate13">plate 13</a>) -which after the bow had been bent, could be removed for the discharge; these consisted -of an iron cylinder in a frame of the same metal, made to turn by two moveable -handles in opposite directions, and having a cap likewise of iron to fit on the butt end -of the stock. On each side of this cap was a small pulley, the wheel of which was one -inch and a half in diameter, having attached to one of its arms a strong cord that -passed thence round an equal sized wheel, returned over the first, and then went round -one double in diameter, situated beyond the second, and so passed to the cylinder of -the moulinet, by winding which, the power required to bend the bow was lessened to -one fourth. Attached to the arms of the greater wheels was a double claw, made to -slide on the plane of the stock, which, catching hold of the bowstring, drew it up to -the nut. An improvement of the moulinet was, that the handles of the cylinder were -both made in the same line, instead of being one up and the other down.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">By windlass.</p> - -<p>At a later period the cross-bow was bent by a windlass, which consisted of a bar -of iron, shaped at its end into a claw, and having teeth the whole length of one edge. -This slipped through an iron box, containing a wheel, the cogs of which fitted the -teeth of the bar, and as a handle was fixed to the axle, on turning it the string was -wound up. This apparatus was attached by a loop, which slipped over the stock, -and was kept in its place by two iron pins, that projected from the side, and then, -when bent, it could be easily removed.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">By steel lever.</p> - -<p>Another mode of bending the cross-bow was by means of a steel lever, called -the goat’s-foot lever, which was moveable. This was formed of two legs, a catch -and a handle, all acting on one pivot. The legs were applied to the projecting pieces -of iron on each side the stock, and then the purchase was very great.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Latch.</p> - -<p>There were two principal varieties of cross-bows, viz., the “Latch,” with grooved -stock, for “quarrels,” <span class="sidenote">Prodd.</span>and the “Prodd,” for bullets. -(<a href="#Plate14">Plate 14</a>, fig. 1 and 2.)</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Dimensions -and form of -latch.</p> - -<p>In the reign of Henry VI. the stocks of cross-bows were made of hard wood, -ornamented with ivory. They were about three feet three inches long, the bow of -steel, about two feet eight inches from end to end, weighing in all about fifteen -pounds. The length of the groove for the quarrel about one foot four inches. <span class="sidenote">Quarrels viretons.</span>The -arrows discharged were called both quarrels and viretons, (<a href="#Plate14">plate 14</a>, fig. 2 and 4,) -some with feathers, others without. The vireton is a French name; the feathers -being set on a little curved, made it spin round as it passed through the air.</p> - -<p>It is stated by Captain Panôt, that the Arquebus was in use before the invention -of powder, and was but an improvement on the arbalest, or cross-bow. <span class="sidenote">Arquebus or -barrelled -cross-bow.</span>The -Arquebus, like the cross-bow, had a stock, upon which was fixed a tube, intended -to receive the projectile. <span class="sidenote">Slit in tube.</span>This tube was split, for the passage of a cord, which was -held back by a kind of sheave or pulley, which communicated motion to the projectile, -on the trigger being pulled. <span class="sidenote">Fired leaden -balls.</span>In general, leaden balls were fired from the -arquebus. The barrelled cross-bow was suggested by the “balista grossa de arganellis,” -which was furnished with tubes for ejecting Greek fire.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Repeating -cross-bow.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page59">[59]</span></p> - -<p>In the United Service Museum, Whitehall, there is a cross-bow of Cingalese -manufacture. It strings itself, and discharges two arrows each time in rapid succession, -until the magazine is exhausted, which contains twelve arrows, and may be -replenished in a moment.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Range in -Henry V.</p> - -<p>It is evident that the different sizes and various powers of cross-bows occasioned -a great diversity in the distance of their range. Thus, in Henry 5th’s time the range -of the cross-bow is stated to have been forty rods (220 yards), and it never appears -to have been more powerful than at that period.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Range in -Elizabeth’s.</p> - -<p>M. de Bellay says that the cross-bowman will kill at 100 or 200 paces, which -gives a great range to the arbalests of Elizabeth’s time.</p> - -<p>Sir John Smith, however, in his observations, not long after this, very much -contracts the distance of their shot, for he says that “a cross-bow will kill point-blank -between 40 and 60 yards, and, if elevated, 120, 140, or 160 yards, or further.”</p> - -<p>The former probably alluded to the prod, the latter to the latch.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h3>COMPARATIVE MERITS OF THE LONG AND CROSS BOW.</h3> - -<p>How inefficient the cross-bow was found, when opposed by English archery, -appears in every page of the histories of the fourteenth century.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Why long-bow -superior.</p> - -<p>The superiority of the long-bow mainly depended upon the strength and skill of -the archer, while a greater amount of accuracy at shorter ranges could be had out of -the cross-bow, with much less training; and the success of the English archers when -opposed to cross-bowmen may be mainly ascribed to the more “rapid” fire of the -former.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Celerity the -great advantage -of the -long-bow.</p> - -<p>It is generally conceded that the long-bow could deliver at least six shafts while -the cross-bow discharged one; and, “with such odds against them, it became impossible -for the bravest and most expert troops, whether at Cressy or elsewhere, to make -a stand against their opponents”.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Cross-bow -best on horseback.</p> - -<p>On the other hand, the cross-bow was decidedly a more convenient weapon on -horseback than the long-bow.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h3>COMPARATIVE MERITS BETWEEN BOWS AND EARLY -FIRE-ARMS.</h3> - -<p>The invention of gunpowder, and its application to artillery and small arms, did -not produce that sudden change in the art of war, or in weapons, that might, on a -first consideration, have been expected. Many of the old soldiers were much divided -in their opinion of the superiority of fire-arms, nor does it appear that the government -of those days were decided upon it, as the strongest statutes for enforcing the practice -of archery were enacted after their introduction.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Long-bow -preferred in -Edward III.</p> - -<p>Joshua Barnes, in his life of Edward III., observes, that “without all question, -the guns which are used now-a-days, are neither so terrible in battle nor do such execution -nor work such confusion as arrows can do; for bullets, being not seen, only hurt<span class="pagenum" id="Page60">[60]</span> -where they hit, but arrows enrage the horse, and break the array, and terrify all that -behold them in the bodies of their neighbours. Not to say that every archer can shoot -thrice to a gunner’s once, and that whole squadrons of bows may let fly at one time, -when only one or two files of musqueteers can discharge at once. Also, that whereas -guns are useless when your pikes join, because they only do execution point-blank, the -arrows which will kill at random may do good service even behind your men of arms.”</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Long-bow the -favourite in -Henry VIII.</p> - -<p>Although fire-arms had attained no inconsiderable degree of perfection in the -reign of Henry VIII., yet the long-bow was still the favourite weapon.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Merits balanced -in Queen -Mary’s reign.</p> - -<p>So indifferent were the ministers of Queen Mary respecting them, that in her -ordinance respecting armour and weapons, the alternative is left to the choice of the -people, whether they should find a long-bow and sheaf of arrows, or a haquebutt, in -every case where they were by law charged with the latter.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">The lighter -ammunition -of the harquebus -an advantage.</p> - -<p>In the reign of Elizabeth, the musket was so slow to charge and discharge that -the bow was considered superior by many; and Mons. de Bellay states that if archers -and cross-bowmen could carry their arrows, &c., as easy as harquebusiers do their -ammunition, he would prefer the former weapon over the latter.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Arrows make -more severe -wounds than -bullets.</p> - -<p>The effects of arrows sticking in horses, are said to have been frightful. This -can be easily imagined. A fire-arm bullet can be shot quite through a horse without -causing the animal to show one sign of anguish. He goes steadily on his previous -course, and makes no sign. However fatal of necessity, a fire-arm bullet gives no -immediate pain. Not so the arrow. Planted never so lightly in a horse’s neck or flank, -the animal grew furious. Starting off into a wild gallop to escape the barbed sting, -the animal had no respite for his agony. The wilder the pace, the greater the pain. -Far from the serried squadrons where he fain would be, sore against his will, rushed -the mail-clad knight. Plunging and rearing, the steed would throw him at last, -amidst the dead and dying; himself to die.</p> - -<p>Though comparatively few men or horses were killed by arrow wounds at once, -few, nevertheless, recovered. The barbed arrow-head was immeasurably more dangerous, -imbedded in the flesh, than a mere lump of lead. Hundreds of men, hale and -well to-day, have had fire-arm bullets imbedded in their flesh for years. Not so in the -time of archery. The arrow-head must be extracted, or mortification came on, and -soon a cruel death. Neither was the surgical process of extraction often happy in the -results. It would not be easy to extract a barbed arrow-head even now, with all the -appliances of modern surgery at hand.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Arrow -wounds more -fatal.</p> - -<p>Another fatal consequence of arrow wounds on the field of battle was this: men -wounded thus were rarely taken prisoners. Arrows were expensive ammunition. -The battle over, detachments were sent out to collect them; and the collection was -not done too tenderly. To regain an arrow seemed a far more meritorious act than -to save the life of an enemy. The throat of many a wounded wretch was mercilessly -cut, that he might be quiet whilst the arrow was being extracted.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Bows useless -in wind.</p> - -<p>The defects of archery were these:—the ammunition was expensive, and when -lost, not easily replaced. The flight of arrows is never correct on a windy day, from -whatever direction the wind may blow. <span class="sidenote">In rain.</span>Rain -relaxes the bow and bowstring, so that<span class="pagenum" id="Page61">[61]</span> -archery then is of little use. All these are serious defects; but there was another of -more importance still. When the archer’s ammunition was all expended, he was -nearly powerless. A sword, indeed, he carried, for close fighting; and each archer -stuck into the ground before him a sharp pointed stake as a protection against cavalry.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Hand-gun -most penetration.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Silent discharge -in -favor of bows.</p> - -<p>The great advantage of the hand-gun was from its penetration, as no armour could -keep out balls, but the <i>silent</i> discharge of the cross-bow rendered it superior in the -pursuit of timid animals, and the prodd has continued in use to the present day, for -the purpose of killing deer, rooks, and rabbits.</p> - -<hr class="full" /> - -<p class="note"><span class="smcap">Note.</span>—The articles on ancient -Engines of War, and upon the Bow, are principally taken from the following -works, viz:—“Military Antiquities,” by F. Grose, Esq.; -“A Critical Inquiry into Ancient Armour,” by Sir S. R. -Meyrick; “Ancient Armour and Weapons in Europe,” by John Hewitt; “Projectile Weapons of War,” and “Report -of the Rifle Match at Wimbledon Common,” by J. Scoffern, M. B.; “Engines of War,” by H. Wilkinson, and “The -Long-Bow of the Past and the Rifle for the Future,” by H. Britannicus.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page62">[62]</span></p> - -<h2>HISTORY OF ARTILLERY.</h2> - -<hr class="chapline top" /> -<hr class="chapline bot" /> - -<p>There is no subject more intimately connected with the history of the world, from -the remotest antiquity than the history of Arms, <span class="sidenote">Fate of nations -depends -on arms.</span>the fate of nations having always -depended either on the superiority of the Arms employed, or on the superior discipline -or dexterity of those who used them, wholly independent of the numbers by which -they were opposed.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Artillery includes -all war-engines.</p> - -<p>Before the introduction of gunpowder, all kinds of weapons, both offensive and -defensive, were included in the term “Artillery,” which has since become restricted -to the larger kinds of fire-arms, such as guns, mortars, howitzers, rockets, &c. Thus -we find in the I. Saml. xx., 40, “And Jonathan gave his artillery to his lad,” when -speaking of bows and arrows. Again, in the 20th, Henry VIII., a patent was granted -to Anthony Knevt and Peter Mentas, “to be overseers of the science of Artillery;” -and in an enumeration of the different species of Artillery, printed in 1594, are -reckoned “long-bows, cross-bows, slur-bows, stone-bows, scorpions, and catapultas.”</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Definition of -Artillery.</p> - -<p>The root of the word “artillery,” is the Latin word “<i>ars</i>,” an “art.” It has -been fantastically derived from the Italian <i>arte di tirare</i>, the art of firing. In the -fourteenth century the science of war-engines was called <i>artemonie</i>, and its productions -<i>artillerie</i>, from the old French word <i>artiller</i>, “to employ art.” Some writers state that -the word “artillery,” is derived from <i>arcus</i> “a bow,” the earlier species of artillery -being termed <i>arcualia</i>.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">First invention -unknown.</p> - -<p>It is difficult to determine with any degree of accuracy the epoch at which gunpowder -and its resultants, fire-arms, were first employed for the purposes of war in any -part of the world; and this difficulty is increased, at least, as far as regards Europe, -from the fact, <span class="sidenote">Names of gun—from -old machines.</span>that the first engines of war, depending on the use of gunpowder, were -named after the old machines for throwing darts, stones, &c.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">First mention -of guns.</p> - -<p>The earliest account which we have of gunpowder, where it is mentioned as -applied to fire-arms, exists in a code of Gentoo Laws, and is thought by many to be -coeval with the time of Moses. The notice occurs in the Sanscrit preface to the Code -of Gentoo Laws, translated by Halhed, at page 53, viz:—“The Magistrate shall not -make war with any deceitful machine, or with poisoned weapons, or with <i>cannon or -guns</i>, &c.” Halhed observes: “It will no doubt strike the reader with wonder to -find a prohibition of fire-arms in records of such unfathomable antiquity, and he will -probably hence renew the suspicion, which has long been deemed absurd, that -Alexander the Great did absolutely meet with some weapons of this kind in India, -as a passage in Quintus Curtius seems to ascertain.”</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Greek fire, -earliest European -combustible.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page63">[63]</span></p> - -<p>The Greek fire seems to have been one of the earliest attempts in Europe at the -manufacture of a military combustible; <span class="sidenote">Gunpowder -known before -in China.</span>but there is some reason to believe that the -Chinese had become acquainted with the nature of gunpowder long before the introduction -or invention of the aforenamed substance; and they appear to have been the -first who took any steps in its manufacture, or in that of weapons of war resulting -from its use. Amongst the machines constructed by this extraordinary people, was -one called “the thunder of the earth,” which is thus described by M. Reinaud; and -M. Favé: <span class="sidenote">Chinese explosive -shell.</span>“A hollow globe of iron was filled with a bucket of gunpowder, mixed -with fragments of metal, and was so arranged, that it exploded on the approach of -an enemy, so as to cause great destruction in his ranks.” <span class="sidenote">Early Chinese -cannon.</span>The “impetuous” dart of the -Chinese, was a round bamboo, about two and a half feet in length, lashed with hempen -cords to prevent its splitting, and having a strong wooden handle fixed to one end, -thus making its entire length about five feet. This was then charged with powder -of different kinds, arranged in layers, over which were placed fire balls, which being -thrown to a distance of thirty or forty yards by the discharge, consumed any combustible -materials they might come in contact with.</p> - -<p>A late writer, M. Paravey, has in a great measure established the fact, that gunpowder -and fire-arms were known to the Chinese long before the Christian era; and -it is mentioned in Chinese writings, <span class="sidenote">Guns in China, -618 B. C.</span>that in the year 618 <span class="smcapall">B. C.</span>, a gun was in use, -bearing this inscription, “I hurl death to the traitor, and extermination to the rebel.”</p> - -<p class="sidenote">A. D. 757.</p> - -<p>Guns are said to have been constructed in China, in 757 <span class="smcapall">A. D.</span>, for the purpose of -throwing stones of the weight of from ten to fourteen pounds to a distance of 300 -paces. Whatever doubts may exist as to the earlier history of artillery among the -Chinese, it is almost beyond question, that cannon were extensively used by them in -the beginning of the 13th century, as we have access to various reliable accounts, -establishing this fact.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Artillery at -Saragossa, -A. D., 1118.</p> - -<p>Condé, in his history of the Moors in Spain, states that artillery was used by -them against Saragossa in 1118 <span class="smcapall">A. D.</span>, <span class="sidenote">At Niebla, -A. D., 1157.</span>and that in 1157, <span class="smcapall">A. D.</span> they defended themselves -in Niebla, against the Spaniards, by means of machines, which threw darts and -stones, through the agency of fire.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Used against -the Moguls, -A. D. 1232.</p> - -<p>In 1232 <span class="smcapall">A. D.</span> cannon throwing stone shot were used against the Moguls, and -during this war, certain machines were also employed, which being filled with powder, -and ignited at the proper time, burst with a noise like thunder, and whose effect -extended for the space of half an acre round the spot where they exploded.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Cannon bearing -date 1258 -found in -France.</p> - -<p>A small brass cannon is said to have been found at the bottom of a deep well of -the Castle de Clucy, in France, with the date 1258 upon it.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Cannon used -against Cordova, -A. D. -1280.</p> - -<p>In 1280 <span class="smcapall">A. D.</span>, cannon were used against Cordova, after which period, they are -frequently mentioned in the records of Spain. <span class="sidenote">Iron shot, 14th -century.</span>Iron shot appear to have been first -used in that country in the beginning of the 14th century.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Cannon used -by Arabians, -1312.</p> - -<p>Cannon are described by Arabian authors as early as 1312.</p> - -<p>The first mention we have of the use of fire arms, after this period, is in the life -of Robert Bruce, by John Barbour, Archdeacon of Aberdeen, in which certain engines -termed, “crakeys of war,” are spoken of, as having been used by Edward III., in his -campaign against the Scots, in 1327.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Cannon in -France, 1338.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page64">[64]</span></p> - -<p>It is generally believed that cannon were commonly employed in Europe since -1338, as they were used by the French in that year to demolish some castles.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Siege of -Algesiras, -1342 to 1344.</p> - -<p>Gunpowder is said to have been used at the siege of Algesiras by Alphonse of -Castile against the Moors, 1342 to 1344.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Cannon at -Cressy, 1346.</p> - -<p>Edward III. had four guns at the battle of Cressy, 1346. Froissart mentions -these guns in one of his manuscripts, now preserved in the library of Amiens. A free -translation of the passage referred to would run as follows: “And the English caused -to fire suddenly certain guns which they had in the battle, to astonish (or confound) -the Genoese.” Vilani, a Florentine historian, also confirms this statement, as well -as a passage in the chronicles of St. Denis, which speaks of the use of cannon by the -English at Cressy. An ancient manuscript also mentions the existence of gunners and -artillerymen, whom Edward III. employed when he landed before Calais in 1346, -and the several stipends each soldier received. The sentence runs thus: “Masons, -carpenters, engineers, gunners, and artillerymen, the sum of 12, 10, 6, and 3 -pence per diem.”</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Cannon of two -kinds.</p> - -<p>The first fire-arms appear to have consisted of two kinds; a larger one for discharging -stones, called a bombard, (<a href="#Plate18">plate 18</a>, fig. 3) and a smaller for propelling -darts and leaden balls, <span class="sidenote">Used by the -Black Prince, -1356.</span>both of which were used in 1356, by the Black Prince, to -reduce the castle of Romozantin; <span class="sidenote">At St. Valery, -1358.</span>and two years later, the artillery of St. Valery did -great execution among its besiegers.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Cannon made -in England, -1377</p> - -<p>Cannon were made in England in the fourteenth century, and Richard II. commissioned -Sir Thomas Norwich to buy two great and two small cannon in London, or -in any other place; and also 600 balls of stone for cannon and for other engines, to -be sent to the Castle of Bristol.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Cannon at St. -Malo.</p> - -<p>When the English unsuccessfully besieged St. Malo, 400 cannon are said to have -been used, but these are supposed to have been of the smaller kind, called hand -cannon, or culverins, which were carried by two men, and fired from a kind of -tripod or rest fixed in the ground.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Cannon -general.</p> - -<p>From this period, cannon were used in all the offensive and defensive operations -of war; though a considerable time elapsed before it became a really serviceable arm -for field operations. The earlier kinds of cannon were called bombards or bombardæ. -Those first employed were clumsy, (<a href="#Plate16">plate 16</a>) and ill contrived, wider at the mouth -than at the chamber. <span class="sidenote">Bombards -made of iron.</span>They merely consisted of bars of iron, arranged in such a -manner that their internal aspects should form a tube. The bars were not welded -together, but merely confined by hoops. They were also made of iron bars over a -cylinder of copper, strengthened by iron hoops, driven on red hot, and others were -entirely composed of copper. <span class="sidenote">Bronze.</span>Bronze was also employed in the manufacture of -artillery, as well as thin sheets of iron rolled together; <span class="sidenote">Leather, rope, -&c.</span>and guns made of leather, and -coiled rope, over a cylinder of copper or gun metal, were also introduced, and continued -in use for a considerable time. <span class="sidenote">Wood.</span>Guns also appear to have been made of wood.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Rope mortar -at Venice.</p> - -<p>In the arsenal at Venice there is an ancient mortar, constructed of leather and -rope, used in the siege of the island of Chioggia, near Venice, against the Genoese, -1380. The shot is of stone, 14in. in diameter.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Cannon of -paper.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page65">[65]</span></p> - -<p>It has been heard recently, that the Chinese constructed their cannon of prepared -paper, lined with copper.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Field cannon -to keep up -with army, -1380.</p> - -<p>As early as 1380 it is said the French were able to procure for the invasion of -Italy, a great number of brass cannon, mounted on carriages, and drawn by horses, -instead of oxen; these pieces threw balls of from 40lbs. to 60lbs. in weight and could -always keep pace with the army. (<a href="#Plate18">Plate 18</a>, fig. 1, 3, and 4.)</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Large cannon -1400.</p> - -<p>A cannon taken at the siege of Dien in 1546, by John de Castro, and now in -Lisbon, is 20 feet 7in. in length, 6 feet 3in. in diameter in the middle, and threw a -ball of 100lbs. A Hindostani inscription on it states that it was cast in 1400.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Bolts and -quarrels shot, -1413.</p> - -<p>Bolts and quarrels were shot from cannon in the reign of Henry V.; these were -succeeded by stones, as he ordered in 1418, “labourers to make 7,000 stones for the -guns of different sorts from the quarries of Maidstone.” <span class="sidenote">Red-hot iron -balls used at -Cherbourg, -1418.</span>We learn from Elam’s life of -Henry V., that when an English army, commanded by the Duke of Gloucester, -besieged Cherbourg in 1418, the besieged discharged <i>red-hot</i> balls of <i>iron</i> from their -cannon into the English camp, to burn the huts. <span class="sidenote">Slow to discharge.</span>So much time elapsed between the -loading and discharging the great guns, that the besieged had sufficient time to repair -at their leisure, the breaches made by the enormous stones, &c., thrown from them.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Cannon at -Meaux, 1422.</p> - -<p>Five wrought-iron bombards are preserved in the “Musée de l’Artillerie,” at Paris; -which were, it is said, abandoned by the English, at the town of Meaux, in 1422.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Cannon cast, -1450.</p> - -<p>About the middle of the fifteenth century, the ancient method of constructing -cannon was exchanged for that of casting. A hard or mixed metal was invented -called “font metal” or bronze, and cannon were then cast in one piece, and instead of -fanciful names, they began to be indicated by the weight of their ball, as at present.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Siege of Constantinople, -1453.</p> - - - - - -<p>At the siege of Constantinople, by Mahomet II., stones were thrown weighing -1,200lbs.! The cannon employed could not be discharged more than three or four -times a day. This siege was distinguished by the re-union of ancient and modern -artillery; <span class="sidenote">Small guns -with several -barrels.</span>the small arms of the Christians discharged five, or even ten balls at the -same time, as large as walnuts; and one piece made for the Turks, by Urban, a Dane, -cast a stone bullet weighing 600lbs., which could be discharged seven times a day, -but it ultimately burst. <span class="sidenote">Large brass -gun, cast at -Adrianople.</span>This gun was cast of brass at Adrianople, of stupendous and -almost incredible magnitude; twelve palms is assigned to the bore. A vacant space -before the palace was chosen for the first experiment, but to prevent the sudden and -mischievous effects of astonishment and fear, a proclamation was issued that the cannon -would be discharged on the following day. The explosion was felt or heard in a -circuit of 100 furlongs, the ball was driven above a mile and buried itself a fathom in -the ground. A carriage of thirty waggons was linked together to carry the gun along, and -drawn by a team of sixty oxen; 200 men on both sides were stationed to poise or -sustain the rolling weight, 250 workmen marched before it to smooth the way, and -repair the bridges, and near two months were employed in a laborious journey of 150 -miles. This enormous gun was flanked by two of almost equal magnitude, and fourteen -batteries, mounting 130 guns, were brought to bear upon the place. The cannon -were intermingled with machines for throwing stones and darts.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Artillery of -Scots 1496.</p> - -<p>The Scots had a kind of artillery peculiar to themselves, called -“Carts of War.<span class="pagenum" id="Page66">[66]</span>” -They are described in an Act of Parliament, thus “ilk Cart twa gunnis and ilk ane -to have twa Chalmers and an Cumrand man to shute theme.” <span class="sidenote">Breech-loaders.</span>These were breech-loaders, -and in 1471, the Barons were commanded to provide such “Carts of War” -against their old enemies the English. (<a href="#Plate18">Plate 18</a>, fig. 1.)</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Cannon -named.</p> - -<p>It was not uncommon to give strange names to early cannon; thus Louis XII. -had twelve brass ones cast in 1503, of enormous size, which he named after the twelve -Peers of France; the Spaniards and Portugese christened theirs after their Saints, -and the Emperor Charles V. had twelve when he went against Tunis, which he named -after the Twelve Apostles.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Cause of improvements.</p> - -<p>As a knowledge of the art of gunnery increased, great improvements took place -with regard to projectiles; <span class="sidenote">Iron balls in -England, 15th -century.</span>and balls of iron were substituted in the place of those -formed of stone, being introduced into England in the sixteenth century.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Iron guns cast.</p> - -<p>Iron guns were not cast in this country until the year 1547, foreigners being -generally employed to manufacture them. Both Henry VII. and Henry VIII. took -great pains to introduce the art of gunnery into the kingdom; and to this end, had a -number of Flemish gunners in their daily pay; in fact, it is said, that the latter -monarch himself, invented small pieces of artillery to defend his waggons. <span class="sidenote">Hand-culverines.</span>The earlier -species of field artillery, embraced among others, a small kind of ordnance called, -“hand cannon,” or culverins, which were so light and portable, that they could be carried -and served by two men; they were fired from a rest, placed on the ground; <span class="sidenote">Organ-guns.</span>also -“ribandequins” or organ guns; these latter consisted of a number of tubes, placed in -a row, like those of an organ, and appear to have been of French origin, as were many -of the improvements which took place about that period, including the invention of -wall pieces, throwing leaden balls of ten to the pound.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Mortars, -Henry VIII.</p> - -<p>For mortars we are indebted to workmen of Henry VIII. as “one Peter Bawd -and one Peter Vancollen, both the king’s feed men, devised and caused to be made -certain mortar pieces, being at the mouth from eleven to nineteen inches wide, <span class="sidenote">Shells.</span>and -also certain hollow shot of cast iron, to be stuffed with fire-work or wild-fire, for to -break in pieces the same hollow shot.” <span class="sidenote">Varieties of -cannon.</span>And in the first year of Edward VI. the said -Peter Bawd did make ordnance of iron of divers forms, as fawconet, fawkons, minions, -sakers, &c. His servant, J. Johnson, did like make and cast iron ordnance cleaner and -to better perfection, to the great use of this land. His son Thomas Johnson, in 1593, -made forty two cast pieces of great ordnance for the Earl of Cumberland, demi cannon, -weighing 5,000lbs. or three tons the piece. <span class="sidenote">Queen Elizabeth’s -Pocket-pistol.</span>At Dover there is a culverine, presented -to Queen Elizabeth, by the States General of Holland, and called Queen Elizabeth’s -Pocket-pistol. It is 24 feet long, diameter of bore 4<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub> inches, weight of shot 12lbs.; -it was manufactured in 1544, and is mounted on an ornamented iron carriage made in -1827, at the Royal Carriage Department, Woolwich Arsenal. (<a href="#Plate17">Plate 17</a>, fig. 2.)</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Mons Meg.</p> - -<p>There is a large gun at Edinburgh Castle, called Mons Meg; it measures about -13 feet 4 inches in length, the diameter of the bore is about 1 foot 6 inches; it has a -chamber about 4 feet long and 6 inches in diameter. (<a href="#Plate17">Plate 17</a>, fig. 3.)</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Field-guns, -1554.</p> - -<p>The battle of Remi, in 1554, was the first action in which light field guns, having -limbers, were used,—these guns accompanied the cavalry.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Red-hot shot, -1580.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page67">[67]</span></p> - -<p>Pere Daniel says that red-hot iron shot were used by Marshal Matignan, during -the siege of la Fère, in 1580.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Calibre, time -of Queen -Elizabeth.</p> - -<p>In a table of ordnance, given by Fosbrooke, as being a list of the guns used in -the time of Elizabeth, and immediately preceding her, we find how little the calibres -of iron guns have altered during the last two or three centuries, as these guns have all -their antitypes among those of the present day.</p> - -<p>The beginning of the seventeenth century was an important epoch in the history -of artillery; and much attention was given to this branch of the military profession, -by Henry IV., of France, Maurice, of Nassau, and Gustavus Adolphus of -Sweden. <span class="sidenote">Origin of -canister and -grape.</span>The former of these distinguished leaders, introduced new and improved -forms and kinds of missiles; such as tin cases, filled with steel bolts or darts; canvas -cartridges, containing small balls, and hollow shot or shells, filled with combustible -materials. <span class="sidenote">Improved -mode of loading, -by Gustavus -Adolphus.</span>Gustavus Adolphus, introduced really serviceable field guns, of a lighter -construction than had hitherto been made use of, and he also adopted the use of -cartridges, with shot attached, so that these pieces might be discharged eight times -before the musket could be fired six. It is said that he chiefly owed his victory at -Leipzig, in 1631, to guns made of leather and coiled rope, over a cylinder of copper -or gun metal. On the whole, the artillery of Gustavus was admirably organized; and -he was the first who appreciated the importance of causing artillery to act in concentrated -masses, a principle, now so fully recognized by all artillerists.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Bombs at sea.</p> - -<p>Bombs were first used at sea, by the French, in the bombardment of Algiers, -Oct. 28th, 1681, in the reign of Louis XIV.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">The largest -gun.</p> - -<p>One of the largest cannon now existing is a brass one at Bejapoor, called -“Moolik-i-Meidan,” or “The Lord of the Plain.” It was cast in commemoration of -the capture of that place by the Emperor Alum Geer, in 1685. Its length is 14ft. -1in., diameter about 5ft. 8in., diameter of bore, 2ft. 4in., interior length of bore, -10ft.; length of chamber unknown; shape of gun nearly “cylindrical;” description -of shot, <i>stone</i>. An iron shot for this gun, of proper size, would weigh 1600lbs. It -is now lying in a dilapidated circular bastion on the left of the principal gateway of -the city. The trunnions are broken off, and there is a ring on each side of it, as well -as two Persian inscriptions on the top. It is placed on three heavy beams of wood, -packed round with large stones. A number of <i>stone</i> shot, of 2ft. 2in. in diameter, are -scattered about. This gun is said to be the heaviest piece of ordnance in the world. -It weighs about forty-two tons. An Italian of Otranto, who served in the Mogul -armies under the title of Renni Khan, had it in his park of artillery, and used it at -several battles, occasionally firing sacks of copper coins out of it. (<a href="#Plate18">Plate 18</a>, fig. 2.)</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Gun at Moorshedabad.</p> - -<p>There is a remarkable gun near the palace of the Nawab of Moorshedabad, -which measures 17ft. 8in. in length, 5ft. in circumference at the smallest part near -the muzzle, while it is only 6in. in the diameter of the bore, and the foresight is at -least four or five inches above the muzzle. After the battle of Khallissie, which was -fought about 25 miles from here, it is supposed to have been buried under a tree. -The tree, having grown since then, has forced the gun above the ground about three -feet, where it now remains, partly encircled by the roots and trunk. It has no name;<span class="pagenum" id="Page68">[68]</span> -the natives call it “the gun in the tree.” It is made of cast iron, and is evidently of -Indian manufacture, having Hindostanee inscriptions engraved on it, but no date.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Size and expense -of cannon, -1688.</p> - -<p>Bishop Wilkins says, “These Gunpowder instruments are extremely expensive, -as a whole cannon commonly weighs 8000lbs., requiring 90 men, or 16 horses, with -a charge of 40lbs. of powder, and a ball weighing 64lbs”.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Length and -weight -gradually -reduced.</p> - -<p>The length and diameter of cannon became gradually much reduced, experience -having determined how much they might be diminished in weight without injury to -their safety, or to the effects they were intended to produce.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Horse -artillery by -Frederick the -Great.</p> - -<p>Frederick the Great of Prussia made some improvements with regard to the -calibre of field guns, and to him may be given the credit of the introduction of Horse -Artillery.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Guns bored.</p> - -<p>Guns, at this period, were cast hollow by means of a core, which was kept -suspended in the centre of the mould, while the metal was being run in. Owing, -however, to the great difficulty experienced in keeping this core in a perfectly true -position, several artillerists deliberated whether guns, cast hollow or solid, had the -preference, and investigations took place as to the possibility of boring the latter, the -result of which was, that Maritz, who had a foundry at Geneva, informed the Court -of France, in 1739, that he had discovered a method of boring guns and mortars -which had been cast solid. He was at once invited to France, where, first at Lyons, -and afterwards at Strasbourg, he secretly worked at boring pieces of ordnance, which, -on trial, proved perfectly satisfactory.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Guns of ice.</p> - -<p>In the year 1740, a curious experiment in artillery was made at St. Petersburgh, -where guns were cut out of solid ice, from which balls of the same substance were -fired repeatedly, without bursting.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Improvements.</p> - -<p>From this period, the science of artillery progressed rapidly, and various improvements -were made in this arm of the service, <span class="sidenote">Axle-trees.</span>such as the introduction of iron -axle-trees, <span class="sidenote">High limbers.</span>and high -limbers for the carriages of field guns. <span class="sidenote">Reduction of -windage.</span>The reduction of windage, -(mainly owing to the invention of carronades), and the use of cartridges and -elevating screws, which latter served to render the fire of artillery much more rapid -and regular.</p> - -<p>The invention of rifled ordnance is claimed by a Dr. Lind and a Capt. A. Blair, -late 69th regt. <span class="sidenote">Rifled ordnance -1774.</span>Experiments were made at Landguard Fort, 26th August, 1774, by -which it was intended to prove that shot weighing 42lbs., in the shape of a pear, -would do as much execution, fired out of an 18 pounder, with a third of the quantity -of powder, as could be effected by round balls of the same weight, fired from a 42 -pounder.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Perforated -and fluted -shot.</p> - -<p>Sundry trials were also made with shot perforated through the centre, and -spirally fluted on the surface, suggested by Professor Anderson, of Glasgow, in order -to prevent the common aberration in the flight of shot.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Leaden projectiles.</p> - -<p>There were different modes of charging the rifled guns; one was, after the -powder was put in, to take a leaden bullet something larger than the bore of the gun, -and grease it well; in ramming it down with an iron rammer hollow at one end, the -spiral threads of the rifle entered and cut into the bullet, and caused it to turn round<span class="pagenum" id="Page69">[69]</span> -in going down, and on being shot out, it would rotate on an axis coincident with its -flight. <span class="sidenote">Breech-loading -Rifled -cannon.</span>Another mode was to charge them at the breech, where an opening for the -reception of the powder and ball was afterwards closed up by a screw; but some -barrels were screwed off at the breech-end to be charged, where they were made -stronger than common.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Congreve’s -rockets.</p> - -<p>The adaptation of the rocket to the purposes of war, by Sir William Congreve, -in 1806, introduced a new feature into the artillery of this and other countries.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Mr. Monk’s -improvements.</p> - -<p>Recently, at the suggestion of a Mr. Monk, of Woolwich Arsenal, a quantity of -useless metal has been removed from before the trunnions, and the thickness increased -considerably at the breech end, where alone it was wanted.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Mallet’s -monster -mortar.</p> - -<p>The monster mortars recently constructed by Mr. Mallet, of separate compound -hoops, must be regarded as a triumph of constructive skill. The shell is 30 inches in -diameter, holding a bursting charge of 480 lbs., and weighing when charged 1<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub> tons -(3,360 lbs.). Value of shell charged, £25. Weight, without bed, 42 tons. Weight -of bed, 8 tons. Total, 50 tons.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Cavalli’s and -Wahrendorff’s</p> - -<p>In 1846, two rifled cannon were invented, one by Major Cavalli, of the Sardinian -Artillery; and the other by Baron Wahrendorff, a Swedish nobleman. Both -of these were iron breech-loading guns, having two grooves in order to give the requisite -rifle motion to their projectiles.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Experiments -to test.</p> - -<p>Experiments were carried on at Shoeburyness, in 1850, with these guns. The -deviations were always in the direction of the rotation of the projectiles; but they -were so variable in amount that no allowance could be made for them in laying the -gun with respect to the object. The Cavalli gun became unserviceable after having -fired four rounds, by the copper ring or bouche imbedded in the metal of the gun at -the bottom of the bore being damaged. The Wahrendorff gun stood well, the wedge -resisting more effectually the force of the discharge than that of the Cavalli gun.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Lancaster’s -rifle gun.</p> - -<p>Mr. Lancaster’s novel invention of applying the rifle principle to cannon, may be -described as “a two-grooved rifle in disguise,” having a “gaining twist,” the bore -being an ellipse.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Defects of.</p> - -<p>The chief defect in the Lancaster gun is the liability of the projectile to jam in -the bore, both in loading and firing, the former rendering the loading difficult, while -the latter endangers the safety of the gun. In consequence of several of these guns -bursting, and also from the anticipated large range with great precision not being -obtained from them, the Lancaster guns were removed from the service after the -Crimean war.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Sir W. Armstrong.</p> - -<p>Sir W. Armstrong submitted a proposal for his breech-loading gun to the Duke -of Newcastle, then Minister at War, towards the end of 1854; his proposal being -accepted, and a gun accordingly constructed, it was submitted to numerous trials, -both at Shoeburyness, and near Sir W. Armstrong’s private factory at Newcastle. -This gun is now made entirely of wrought iron, although the original one had a steel -bore. It is a built-up gun, that is to say, it is composed of separate pieces, each -piece being of such moderate size as to admit of being forged without risk of flaw or -failure. By this mode of construction, great strength, and consequently, great lightness,<span class="pagenum" id="Page70">[70]</span> -are secured. The shell used combines the principle of the shrapnel and percussion -shell, i.e., it may be made to explode either as it approaches the object, or as it -strikes it. Moreover, it may be made to explode at the instant of leaving the gun, -in which case, the pieces spread out like a fan, and produce the usual effect of grape -or canister. Armstrong’s guns are now (1860) being employed in China.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Whitworth.</p> - -<p>Mr. Whitworth’s rifled gun, with which experiments were lately made near -Liverpool, is also a breech-loading piece, and of the following construction. The -form of the bore is that of a hexagonal spiral, the corners of which are rounded off. -The inclination of the spiral varies with the diameter of the bore, but is in all these -guns very great, the projectiles being comparatively long.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">French rifled -ordnance.</p> - -<p>Rifled ordnance were introduced into the French service just previous to the -commencement of the late Italian war of 1859, and aiming at the greatest practical -simplicity, the French government adopted only one nature of gun for field service, -and one for siege purposes, both made of bronze. The French rifled cannon are -muzzle loading, and those first introduced had two or three grooves, but the field -pieces used in Italy had six grooves, their inclination being about one turn in 59 -inches. A number of heavy cast-iron guns are rifled with two grooves, and have -been placed on board French ships of war; and these, unless strengthened, could be -used but with very small charges.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Advantages of -rifled guns.</p> - -<p>The advantages obtained by the successful employment of rifled <span class="nowrap">guns—</span></p> - -<ul class="advantages"> - -<li>Great accuracy of fire,</li> - -<li>Long range,</li> - -<li>Penetration,</li> - -<li>Small charge,</li> - -<li>Simplicity of equipment and ammunition,</li> - -<li>Lightness of gun.</li> - -</ul> - -<p class="sidenote">Classification -of artillery.</p> - -<p>Artillery may be classed under the several heads of field artillery (including -artillery of position), siege artillery and artillery for the armament of garrisons, -fortresses, and coast defences; its equipment is a combination of men, materiel, and -horses necessary for these services.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Three kinds -of guns.</p> - -<p>All ordnance employed in the service, may be divided into three classes, viz., -Guns, Mortars, and Howitzers.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Carronades -discontinued.</p> - -<p>Carronades may be considered obsolete, although a certain number are still -supplied to the navy, and a few will be found mounted in some garrisons and coast -batteries.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Classification -of guns and -their uses.</p> - -<p>Guns are used for projecting shot and shell, horizontally or at very low angles, -and as they are fired with large charges of powder, which are fixed for each nature of -gun, very great strength and considerable weight are required in their construction. -Guns are of two kinds, viz., (solid) shot guns, and shell guns. Some guns are also -classed as heavy, medium, and light. Those generally employed for field service, are -made of bronze or gun-metal; all guns of higher calibre, of cast-iron.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Mortars.</p> - -<p>Mortars are short pieces of ordnance, used to throw shells at high angles (vertical -fire), generally 45°, the charge varying with the range required; they are distinguished<span class="pagenum" id="Page71">[71]</span> -by the diameters of their bores. Mortars are made of cast-iron or bronze; the former -being principally intended for garrisons, battering trains, the navy, &c., and the latter, -which are of small calibre, and very light, are chiefly employed in sieges.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Howitzers.</p> - -<p>Howitzers resemble guns in form, but are much shorter and lighter in proportion -to their calibre, and are, consequently, fired with less charges of powder; shells and -case are fired from them, but not solid shot.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Use of -Howitzers.</p> - -<p>These pieces were originally introduced for the purpose of firing shells at low -angles, and have constantly been found most useful both in the field and in siege -operations during the wars of the last and present centuries. <span class="sidenote">Superseded -by shell guns.</span>Since, however, the -introduction of shell guns their utility has greatly decreased, for the shell gun possesses -greater accuracy and range than the howitzer, those being in the present day of -greater importance than small weight.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Artillery from -the East.</p> - -<p>The Germans claim the invention of cannon for their countryman, Bartholdus -Schwartz, who is said to have discovered it in 1336, but seeing that fire-arms first -became prevalent in Europe in those countries which mixed with the Saracens, we -are constrained to lean to the opinion that fire-arms were not re-invented in Europe, -but introduced from the East.</p> - -<p>This part of our subject might be much enlarged, but we have merely attempted -to give heads of information, which can be pursued by those who desire to do so. -We must now leave it, in order to treat upon that more immediately interesting to -officers of infantry, viz., the history of portable fire-arms.</p> - -</div><!--sidenotetext--> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>The following extract from an account of the furniture of the ship, called the -“Harry Grace de Dieu,” will give a good idea of the state of the ordnance at the -time of Henry <span class="nowrap">VIII.:—</span></p> - -<table class="inventory" summary="Inventory"> - -<tr> -<th><i>Gonnes of Brasse.</i></th> -<th><i>Gonnes of Yron.</i></th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="weapon">Cannons,</td> -<td class="weapon">Port pecys,</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="weapon">Di. cannons,</td> -<td class="weapon">Slyngs,</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="weapon">Culveryns,</td> -<td class="weapon">Di. slyngs,</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="weapon">D. culveryns,</td> -<td class="weapon">Fowlers,</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="weapon">Sakers,</td> -<td class="weapon">Baessys,</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="weapon">Cannon perers,</td> -<td class="weapon">Toppe peces,</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="weapon">Fawcons,</td> -<td class="weapon">Hayle shotte pecys,</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="center">Hand gonnes complete.</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p>Another account of ancient English ordnance in Queen Elizabeth’s time, mentions -the <span class="nowrap">following:—</span></p> - -<table class="inventory" summary="Inventory"> - -<tr> -<td class="weapon">Bombards,</td> -<td class="weapon">Demi cannon,</td> -<td class="weapon">Sacar,</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="weapon">Bombardilles,</td> -<td class="weapon">Cannon petre,</td> -<td class="weapon">Minion,</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="weapon">Cannon royal,</td> -<td class="weapon">Culverin,</td> -<td class="weapon">Faulcon,</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="weapon">Cannon,</td> -<td class="weapon">Basilisk,</td> -<td class="weapon">Falconet,</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="weapon">Cannon serpentine,</td> -<td class="weapon">Demi culverin,</td> -<td class="weapon">Serpentine,</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="weapon">Bastard cannon,</td> -<td class="weapon">Bastard culverin,</td> -<td class="weapon">Rabinet.</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page72">[72]</span></p> - -<h3>ETYMOLOGIES.</h3> - -<p><span class="smcap">Cannon.</span>—From the Latin word <i>canna</i>, signifying a tube or cane.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Howitzer.</span>—From the German word <i>haubitz</i>, (derived from <i>haube</i>, top of a -furnace), in French, <i>obus</i>, or <i>obusier</i>.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Carronade.</span>—From <i>Carron Ironworks</i>, near Stirling, where it was invented in -the year 1774.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Bombard.</span>—From the Greek word <i>bombos</i>, or noise.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Bombardille.</span>—A smaller kind of bombards.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Basilisk.</span>—The name of a snake.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Culverin.</span>—From the French <i>couleuvrine</i>, from <i>couleuvre</i>, a snake.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Saker.</span>—From <i>Saker</i>, or <i>Sacre</i>, a bird of the falcon species.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Falcon.</span>—From the <i>bird</i> of that name.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Cannon Perers.</span>—<i>Stone-throwers</i>, from the French word <i>pierre</i>, a stone.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Toppe Peces.</span>—To be used in the tops, <i>i.e.</i>, the stands on the ship’s masts.</p> - -<hr class="full" /> - -<p class="note"><span class="smcap">Note.</span>—The History of Artillery is mainly -compiled from the following:—“Engines of War,” by Wilkinson; -“Ancient Armour and Weapons in Europe,” by John Hewitt; “Military Antiquities,” by F. Grose; “Critical -Inquiry into Ancient Armour,” by Meyrick; “Elementary Lectures on Artillery,” by Major C. H. Owen and Capt. -T. L. Dames, R.A.; and “Our Engines of War,” by Capt. Jarvis, M.P., Royal Artillery.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page73">[73]</span></p> - -<h2>HISTORY OF PORTABLE FIRE-ARMS.</h2> - -<hr class="chapline top" /> -<hr class="chapline bot" /> - -<div class="sidenotetext"> - -<p class="sidenote">Form of early -hand-guns.</p> - -<p>The earliest hand-guns differed in nothing but in size from the small cannon of -the day: they consisted of a metal tube fixed in a straight stock of wood; the vent -was at the top of the barrel; there was no lock of any kind. The barrels were short -and made of iron or brass; they were occasionally furnished with moveable chambers. -(<a href="#Plate19">Plate 19</a>, fig. 1.)</p> - -<p class="sidenote">With trunnions.</p> - -<p>A specimen of hand-cannon of the early part of the reign of Henry VI., is made -of iron, and furnished with trunnions, which from this specimen, appear to have been -appropriated to small fire-arms before they were adopted for artillery. <span class="sidenote">Breech-loader.</span>The breech is -made of a separate piece and screwed on to the tube, on the further end of which is a -sight. It was placed on a stock or club, and fired by hand with a match. -(<a href="#Plate19">Plate 19</a>, fig. 2.)</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Invented -14th century.</p> - -<p>That hand-guns were invented, though but rarely appearing, in the fourteenth -century, seems very probable from several cotemporary evidences. An inquisition -taken in 1375, at Huntercombe, (a place belonging to the Abbey of Dorchester) and -now preserved among the records at the Chapterhouse, Westminster, states that one -Nicholas Huntercombe, with others, to the number of forty men, armed with “haubergeons, -plates, bacenettes, cum aventayles, paletes, lanceis, scutis, arcubus, sagittis, -balistis, <i>et gonnes</i>, venerunt ad Manerium de Huntercombe, and there made assault,” -&c. It appears very improbable that a body of men making a sudden attack upon an -abbey manor-house, would be armed with any kind of “gonnes” except hand-guns.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Bohemia 1340.</p> - -<p>Mons. Mangeot states that “canons de fusil” were said to have been first invented -in Bohemia, 1340, but that it is safer to fix the date at 1378, when mention is made -of the “arquebuse à mèche” in Germany. In the year 1381, the inhabitants of -Augsburg had thirty six arquebusiers, and in the following year they had portable -fire-arms at the battle of Rosabecque. <span class="sidenote">Lithuanians -1383.</span>In 1383 the Lithuanians were acquainted with -hand fire-arms, and used them at the siege of Froski. All these arms had straight -stocks.</p> - -<p>In the excavations of the Castle of Tannenberg, dismantled in 1399, there was -found a hand-gun of brass, with part of the wooden stock remaining, and the iron -rammer belonging to it.</p> - -<p>An early mention of the hand-gun is that of Juvenal des Ursins, who tells us, -under the year 1414, that they were used at the siege of Arras.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Siege of Lucca -1430.</p> - -<p>Billius, a learned and noble Milanese, who lived at the time, says that hand-guns<span class="pagenum" id="Page74">[74]</span> -were first used at the siege of Lucca, in 1430. The Florentines were provided with -artillery, which, by the force of gunpowder, discharged large stones, but the Luccquese -perceiving that they did very little execution, came at last to despise them, and every -day renewed their sallies to the great slaughter of their enemies, by the help of <i>small -fire-arms</i>, to which the Florentines were strangers, and which before this time were -not known in Italy. Billius explains this by saying, <span class="sidenote">Said to have -been invented -in Italy.</span>“That besides darts and balistas -for arrows, they invented a new kind of weapon. They carried in their hand a club, -a cubit and a half long, to which were affixed iron barrels. These they filled with -sulphur and nitre, and by the power of fire, iron balls were thus ejected.” -(<a href="#Plate19">Plate 19</a>, fig. 1 and 10).</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Scorpion.</p> - -<p>About this time the scorpion (afterwards a piece of ordnance) was a tube for -firing gunpowder, held in the hand, and called by the English, hand-cannon, and also -hand-culverines.</p> - -<p>From a roll of purchases for Holy Island 1446 is,—“bought 11 hand gunnes de -ere,” <span class="sidenote">Made of brass.</span>from whence we learn that they were made of brass.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Edward IV.</p> - -<p>Hand-guns, or hand-cannons were used in the early part of the reign of -Edward IV., and towards the close of it, we learn from Philip de Comines, <span class="sidenote">Harquebus -invented.</span>that the -harquebus was invented; this seems to have been an improvement on the hand-gun. -The Latin word used for this weapon was arcusbusus, evidently derived from the -Italian, arca-bouza, a bow with a tube or hole; to that people, therefore, <span class="sidenote">Stock, &c., -from cross-bow.</span>are we to -ascribe the application of the stock and trigger in imitation of the cross-bow. <span class="sidenote">Match-lock. -1478.</span>Hitherto -the match had been applied by the hand to the touch-hole, but the trigger of the -arbalest suggested the idea of one to catch into a cock, which having a slit in it, might -hold the match, and by the motion of the trigger be brought down on a pan which -held the priming, the touch-hole being no longer at the top but at the side. -(<a href="#Plate19">Plate 19</a>, fig. 9).</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Hand-gun improvements.</p> - -<p>The hand-gun was <i>cast</i> in brass, and, as a tube, was of greater length than the -hand cannon; a flat piece of brass, made to turn upon a pin, covered the pan which -contained the powder; <span class="sidenote">Sighted.</span>it had also a piece of brass fixed on the breech, and -perforated to ensure the aim.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Hand-guns in -England 1471.</p> - -<p>The first introduction of hand-guns into England, we find, was soon after their -invention in Italy; in the year 1471, King Edward IV., landed at Ravenspurg, in -Yorkshire, and brought with him, among other forces, three hundred Flemings, armed -with “hange-gunnes.” <span class="sidenote">Made in England, -1474.</span>In 1474, he directed “all the bombs, cannon, culverines, -fowlers, surpentines, and all other cannon whatsoever, as also powder, sulphur, saltpetre, -stones, iron, lead and other materials, fit and necessary for the same cannon, -wherever found, to be taken and provided for his use, paying a reasonable price for -the same.”</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Harquebusiers.</p> - -<p>Arquebusiers, or harquebusiers, are mentioned as troops, by Philip de Comines, -in these words, <span class="sidenote">Morat 1476.</span>where he speaks of the battle of Morat, fought on the 22nd of June, -1476. “The said towns had in their army, as some that were in the battle informed -me, 35,000 men, whereof fower thousand were horsemen, the rest footmen, well -chosen and well armed, that is to say, 10,000 pikes, 10,000 halberds, and 10,000 -harquebusiers.”</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Improvements.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page75">[75]</span></p> - -<p>Hitherto the harquebuss had only a straight stock, but now it had a wide butt -end, <span class="sidenote">Held to breast.</span>which might be placed against the right breast, and thus held more steadily. -Many ancient pieces were held to the breast instead of the shoulder, which will -account for their being so short in the stock. A notch was made in the butt for the -thumb of the right hand, in order to hold the piece more firmly. <span class="sidenote">Bent butt.</span>When the butt was -bent down or hooked as it was at a later period, it was called, from the German word -Hake, <span class="sidenote">Hackbutt.</span>a hackbutt, haggebut or hagbut, the small sort being denominated demi-hags.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Mounted Harquebussiers.</p> - -<p>Philip de Commines mentions that there were at the battle of Fourniée, in 1495, -German harquebusiers, on foot and on horseback. (<a href="#Plate19">Plate 19</a>, fig. 6.)</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Arms in time -of Henry VIII.</p> - -<p>The small arms in the time of Henry VIII., were hand-guns, haguebuts, demi-hagues -and the pistol, and it was enacted, “that no hand-gun should be used, of less -than one yard, gun and stock included, and the haguebut was not to be under three-quarters -of a yard.” The demi-hagues were still smaller, and gave occasion for the -origin of pistols, which were invented in the latter part of this reign, at Pistoria in -Tuscany. The dag, dagger, or tache, differed from the pistol merely in the shape of -its handle.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Inconveniences -of match.</p> - -<p>The match was a constant source of trouble to the soldier, both from the -difficulty of keeping it alight in bad weather, and from the length of time it sometimes -took to ignite the charge. <span class="sidenote">Objections to -fire-arms.</span>It was therefore not without justice that many persons -clamoured about this time against the introduction of fire-arms. They contended that -upon no point, save that of penetration, was the harquebuss superior or equal to the -long-bow; <span class="sidenote">Rest.</span>its great weight 16 or 18lbs. (seldom less than 12lbs.) obliged it to be -supported by a rest, which had a kind of fork to receive the musket, and at the bottom -a sharp metal spike, to strike into the ground; (<a href="#Plate19">Plate 19</a>, fig. 5, 7, and 8). When -the harquebuss was shouldered the rest was carried in the right hand, and subsequently -hung upon it, by means of a string or loop. The difficulty of keeping the powder and -match dry, the time taken to load, and its comparative inaccuracy, rendered it of low -reputation. Nevertheless it held its ground, <span class="sidenote">Wheel-lock, -1517.</span>and the next improvement was the -wheel-lock, by which a more instantaneous ignition of the charge was secured; it was -invented at Nuremberg, 1517. It consisted of a little solid wheel of steel, fixed -against the plate of the lock of the harquebuss or pistol; it had an axis that pierced it -in its centre; at the interior end of this axis which went into the lock, a chain was -fastened, which twisted round it on the wheel being turned, and bent the spring by -which it was held; to bend this spring a key was made use of, into which the exterior -end of the axis was inserted. By turning this key from left to right, the wheel was -made to revolve, and by this movement a little slider of copper, which covered the -pan with the priming, retired from over it; and by the same movement the cock, -armed with a flint like the cock of a fusil, was in a state to be discharged on pulling -the trigger with the finger; the cock then falling on the wheel, produced fire, and -communicated it to the priming. <span class="sidenote">Used at Parma, -1521.</span>The wheel-lock was first used at the siege of Parma, -1521, <span class="sidenote">In England, -1530.</span>and was brought to England 1530. It was however complicated and difficult -to repair, for which reason it could not always be depended upon, as is proved by -some fire-arms of this description at the Tower, <span class="sidenote">Serpentine -and wheel.</span>which are made with a serpentine, as -well as with a wheel, both acted upon by the same trigger.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Musket in -Spain.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page76">[76]</span></p> - -<p>The inconsiderable execution done by pieces of small calibre probably caused -the introduction of the muskets or mosquet, which originated in Spain about the time -of Francis I. <span class="sidenote">At Pavia, -1525.</span>They are said to have been first employed extensively at the battle of -Pavia, 1525; but, if we believe Brantome, it was the Duke d’Alva who first brought -them into use in the armies, when during the reign of Philip II., <span class="sidenote">Low Countries, -1567.</span>he went to take upon -him the government of the Low Countries in the year 1567; but that only means, he -brought them more into fashion than they were till that time, and that till then they -were rarely used, at least in the field, on account of their cumbrous nature. A -Spanish army of 10,000 men sailed from Carthagena, 27th April, 1567, <i>en route</i> for -the Netherlands, to do which they had to cross the Alps. It was a picked body of -troops, of whom about 1,300 were cavalry. The Duke d’Alva formed them into three -divisions, and dispensed with artillery, not wishing to embarrass his movements. -Each company of foot was flanked by a body of soldiers, carrying heavy muskets -with rests attached to them.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Lephanto, -1571.</p> - -<p>At the battle of Lephanto 1571, fought between the Venetians and Turks, it is -stated by the historian, that one chief reason why so few Christians were killed in -comparison, was because the Turks used for the most part bows and arrows, whereas -the former were supplied with muskets.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Caliver.</p> - -<p>A lighter kind of musket was called a caliver or calliver, which was only a -corruption of calibre, denoting that they were all of one guage, as the original -harquebuses were not of any particular length or bore; the caliver was fired without -a rest.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Dimensions, -1621.</p> - -<p>Sir Thomas Kellie in his “Art Militaire,” published in 1621, says, “The barrel -of a musket should be four feet in length, the bore capable of receiving bullets twelve -whereof weigh a pound, previous to this some had carried ten to the pound.”</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Hand-mortar, -1594.</p> - -<p>The hand-mortar for throwing grenades are said to have been first used in 1594, -and gave origin at a later date to the troops thence denominated, <i>grenadiers</i>. They -appear to have been fired from the shoulder. (<a href="#Plate19">Plate 19</a>, fig. 3.) In the reign of -James II., <span class="sidenote">From butt of -musket.</span>a flint-lock-musket was adapted to fire grenades from the butt, the small of -which was made to resemble a chambered mortar; the heel of the butt formed a -cover, which opened with a spring on a hinge; the priming was put into the usual -pan, and a small piece of metal moved so as to open a communication with the powder -in the chamber. A rest was formed by a slender iron rod, about three feet long, and -when not required let into the stock, in the place usually occupied by the ramrod, -and turning upon a pivot placed a few inches in front of the guard-brass. The -scouring rod is run through metal loops on one side of the stock. <span class="sidenote">By hand.</span>Afterwards -grenades were thrown by hand, the musket being slung over the soldier’s back, and -more recently experiments were made with an iron tube about four inches long, <span class="sidenote">From muzzle.</span>placed -on the muzzle in the same manner as the bayonets.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Match-locks -and rest, -James I.</p> - -<p>In the time of James I., part of the infantry were armed with calivers or muskets -and rests, both of which were fired with match-locks, the soldier carrying the match -lighted at both ends.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Trickerlock, -1629.</p> - -<p>“A match trickerlock compleat,” occurs in a schedule of 1629. This was the<span class="pagenum" id="Page77">[77]</span> -adoption of what is now called a hair trigger, which was added to the former one, and -gives a more instantaneous discharge. A tricker wheel lock of Charles I., a tricker -match-lock of Charles II., and a tricker fire-lock of James II., are preserved in Sir S. -Meyrick’s collection.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Fowling -pieces.</p> - -<p>The Earl of Albermarle in 1646, says, “It is very fit likewise that you have in -each company six good fowling pieces, of such a length that the soldier may well be -able to take aim and shoot off at ease; being placed six on each flank of a division of -foot to skirmish with an enemy. These soldiers ought to have command, when they -come within distance, that they shoot at officers only.” We have here plainly the -origin of riflemen.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Tin tube for -match.</p> - -<p>Each musketeer formerly carried a tin tube, pierced full of holes, to contain the -match, and prevent his being discovered; in wet weather it was necessary to carry it -in the crown of his cap, to prevent it from being extinguished. <span class="sidenote">First fire-lock.</span>One of the earliest -attempts to overcome this difficulty is in the Arsenal, at Dresden, where there is an -old <i>buchse</i>, with a piece of pyrites fixed opposite to the touch-hole, and which requires -to be rubbed with a file, chained to it, until sparks are elicited sufficient to fire -the powder.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Snaphaunce.</p> - -<p>The next improvement upon the wheel-lock was the snaphaunce; a flat piece of -steel, furrowed in imitation of the wheel, was placed on a steel post, which being -screwed beyond the pan, was made moveable; the pan had a cover which required to -be pushed off by the thumb, and the furrowed piece being then brought to stand over -it, on pulling the trigger, the flint, which was substituted for pyrites, struck against it, -and gave the spark.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Flint lock.</p> - -<p>The next step in the improvement of the musket was the introduction of the -flint-lock, now so well known, that I need not enter into the details of its -mechanism.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">In France, -1630.</p> - -<p>It was used in France as early as 1630, but was not employed in the army until -1670 or 80, when it took the name of “fusil.” <span class="sidenote">In England, -1677.</span>It was not employed in England -until about 1677, and its advantages over the matchlock are thus described in a work -addressed to King Charles II., in 1677, <span class="sidenote">Earl Orrery’s -opinion.</span>by the Earl of Orrery:—“First it is -exceedingly more ready, for with the fire-lock you have only to cock, and you are -prepared to shoot, but with the matchlock, you have several motions, besides if you -fire not the matchlock as soon as you have blown your match, (which often, -particularly in hedgefights and sieges, you cannot do) you must a second time blow -your match. The match is very dangerous, either when bandoliers are used, or -when soldiers run hastily in fight to the budge barrel, to refill their bandoliers. I -have often seen sad instances thereof. Marching in the nights to avoid an enemy -or to surprise one, or to assault a fortress, the matches often discover you, whereby -you suffer much, and he obtains much. In wet weather, the rain deads the powder -and the match too, and the wind sometimes blows away the powder, ere the match -can touch the pan; nay, in very high winds, I have seen the sparks blown from the -match, fire the musket ere the soldier meant it, and either thereby lose his shot, -or kill some one before him. Whereas in the firelock, the motion is so sudden,<span class="pagenum" id="Page78">[78]</span> -that what makes the cock fall on the hammer, strikes the fire and opens the pan at -once. Lastly, the quantity of match does much add to the baggage, it naturally -draws the moisture of the air, which makes it less fit, and if you march without -close waggons, it is the more exposed, and without being dried again in ovens is but -of half the use which otherwise it would be of, and which is full as bad as the skeans -you give the corporals, and the sinks you give the private soldiers, being rendered -useless if damp; nothing of all which can be said of the flint, but much of it to the -contrary.”</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Bows to be -replaced by -muskets, 1596.</p> - -<p>In a proclamation of Queen Elizabeth dated 1596, it is stated, “You shall bring -with you all such furniture and weapon for footmen as you stand charged withall by -statute, or have formerly shewed at other musters heretofore, changinge your billes -into pikes, and your bowes into muskettes accordinge to our sayde former letters.”</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Muskets with -two locks.</p> - -<p>In France, as late as 1702, when the flint had wholly superseded the pyrites, and -the structure differed very little from our present musket-locks, an additional cock was -attached to the end of the lock-plate, and a sliding cover placed over a hole in the -hammer-seat, for the purpose of lighting the powder by a match, if the flint failed. -<span class="sidenote">Match-lock -preferred.</span>The match was therefore from its simplicity, preferred from all others for a considerable -period, and is still used by the Chinese, Tartars, Persians, and Turks, in some -provinces either wholly, or partially. <span class="sidenote">Match made -of.</span>The match itself was made of cotton or hemp, -spun slack, and boiled in a strong solution of saltpetre, or in the lees of wine.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Iron ramrod -1740.</p> - -<p>In the time of Frederick the Great, (1740 to 1786), the invention of the iron -ramrod by the Prince of Dessau, trifling matter as it seems, doubled the value of the -fire of infantry. Prior to this the rammer had been made of wood, and was called -the scouring stick.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Dimensions, -&c. of English -musket, in -1800.</p> - -<p>At the commencement of this (19th) century, the weight of the English musket -and bayonet was, 11lbs. 4ozs., bayonet 1lb. 2ozs., length of barrel 3ft. 3-in., bore -·753-in., bullets 14<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub> to the pound. -<span class="sidenote">Charge.</span>Charges of powder 6 drs., F.G. Every soldier -was furnished with three flints for 60 rounds. <span class="sidenote">Priming, 1st. -mode.</span>Originally it had been necessary to put -the priming into the pan from a flask, containing a finer grained powder, called -“Serpentine powder,” but in the early flint-lock musket this was rendered unnecessary, -as in loading, a portion of the charge passed through the communication -hole into the pan, where it was prevented from escaping by the hammer. <span class="sidenote">Priming, 2nd -mode.</span>Latterly a -portion of the cartridge was bitten off, and the pan filled with priming before -loading.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Objections to -flint-lock.</p> - -<p>The objections to the flint-lock were, that it did not entirely preserve the priming -from wet. Sometimes the flint failed to ignite the charge, and it was necessary to -change it frequently. Owing to these imperfections, in 1807, the Rev. Mr. Forsyth -obtained a patent for priming with fulminating powder. The composition consisted -of sulphate of potash, sulphur, and charcoal, <span class="sidenote">Priming by -detonation, -1807.</span>and exploded when struck by any metal -or hard substance. This composition was considered too corrosive, but was subsequently -improved, and finally applied to the musket, in the form of the present -percussion cap, which consists of chlorate of potash, three parts; fulminating mercury -two parts; and ground glass one part. <span class="sidenote">Experiments, -1834.</span>The experiments for Mr. Forsyth’s invention,<span class="pagenum" id="Page79">[79]</span> -commenced in 1834. Six thousand rounds were fired from each description of arm, -and the experiments conducted in all weathers, six of each kind of arm being used. -<span class="sidenote">Advantages -of percussion.</span>The result proved exceedingly favourable to the percussion principle, and may be briefly -summed up as follows:—1st, out of 6,000 rounds from the flint-lock, there were 922 -missfires, being 1 in 6<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub>, whereas in the percussion musket there were only 36 misses -in 6,000 rounds, or 1 in 166. With the flint-lock there were 3,680 hits out of the -6,000, and with the percussion 4,047 hits, being 7 per cent. in favour of the latter. -To fire 100 rounds with the flint required 32 minutes 31 seconds, whereas the -percussion occupied only 30 minutes 24 seconds. Another advantage of the percussion -musket, was that it was capped <i>after</i> being loaded. Hitherto a certain amount of -powder had been allowed for priming, but as this vestige of the hand-gun could be -dispensed with, <span class="sidenote">Reduced -charge.</span>a reduction of charge could be made; a total reduction however was -made from 6 to 4<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub> drs., which caused a diminution of recoil. The 4<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub> drs. then -recommended was known to be more than was necessary for the projection of the -bullet, but an extra <sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub> dr. was retained to allow for the effect of damp or waste on -service. In the course of these experiments, <span class="sidenote">Reduced pull -of trigger.</span>it was found that the considerable force -required to pull the trigger might be advantageously reduced, and that increased -accuracy would ensue, therefore the pull of the trigger was lessened to 7lbs.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">New model -musket.</p> - -<p>The advantages of the percussion system having been satisfactorily shown, it was -decided to convert a portion of the old flint-locks into percussions, and to establish a -new model percussion musket for the English army.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Percussion at -Canton.</p> - -<p>The following anecdote illustrates the weak points of the flint-lock. During the -Chinese war, a company of the 37th Madras Native Infantry had been detached to -the left, when, the evening closing, the order was given to rejoin, and the whole were -to retire upon Canton, and just as it was being carried into execution, a tremendous -storm of wind and rain arose, making the air so dark, that no one could see 20 yards. -The detached company retired sounding bugles and beating drums, which were -drowned by the tempest, and they could not find the battalion. In a few minutes -the enemy got between this company and the retreating force. The muskets would -not go off, and several attempts of the enemy to close were with difficulty repulsed -with the bayonet. In the meantime, the enemy contrived to fire off their own -matchlocks, and some of the sepoys’ muskets of men who had dropped in the retreat, -by applying matches to them. The square into which the company was formed, was -thus being diminished, while the only return that could be made, was an occasional -shot from a solitary musket, which the three officers of the company managed to -clean out, under cover of great coats held over the muzzle. A company of Marines -was dispatched for the 37th party, armed with percussion muskets, scarcely one of -which missed at the first fire, and a few volleys sufficed to clear the way, and both -detachments reached the camp in safety, with but little loss. This happened in the -early part of 1841.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Percussion -introduced, -1842.</p> - -<p>After a “hang-fire” of about 200 years, a new pattern percussion musket was issued -in 1842. Its weight was greater than that of the old flint-lock, being with the bayonet about -11-lbs., 6-oz., bayonet 1-lb., 0-oz., 8-drs., bore ·753, barrel 3-ft. -3-in., length, with bayonet<span class="pagenum" id="Page80">[80]</span> -6 feet, length without 4-ft. 6<sup>3</sup>⁄<sub>4</sub>-in., <span class="sidenote">Sighted for -150 yards.</span>a block sight for 150 yards, and a percussion lock. -For many years prior to 1839 no sight at all was thought necessary for the musket, -the bayonet stud being sufficient, but which was totally obscured when fired with -fixed bayonets. This arm continued as the approved weapon for our infantry without -improvement until 1851, when the Minié rifle was partially introduced.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Comparison -with foreign -muskets.</p> - -<p>The English musket (1842) differed from all those in use on the Continent, in -having, 1st, the least accuracy, 2nd, reduced range, 3rd, heavier, 4th, shorter, 5th, -larger bore, 6th, greater windage, 7th, double the charge of powder, 8th, the greatest -recoil, and 9th, the most expensive! <i>i. e.</i>, as compared with those of France and Belgium, -Prussia, Austria, or even with the old Sikh matchlock!! And yet a “stand -up fight” was stoutly maintained for this most inefficient arm, by many military men, -as may be seen from the following extract from a note in Part II., Vol. II., of the “Aide -Memoire to the military sciences:”—“<span class="sidenote">Brown Bess -advocated.</span>Erroneous ideas prevail as to the precise wants -of the service with regard to the musket, and its proper qualities and utility in the -field, as well as much exaggeration as to the defects of the new percussion musket -of 1842, for the infantry of the line. It is stated that it is too heavy and of imperfect -construction. Some prefer the French pattern, and others would lessen the -weight and calibre still more, reducing also the windage: as, however, the new regulation -has brought into use some hundreds of thousands of new muskets, and has been -approved by the highest authorities, some considerations are necessary before a -radical change can be effected beyond range and a nice accuracy of fire. 1st, -What are the essentials for a musket for the infantry of the line? 2nd, The application -of the musket to the infantry soldier. It is evident that the most essential -points are strength, and facility of pouring into your enemies’ ranks a powerful fire. -Troops do not halt to play at long bowls; a field of battle presents a series of movements -for the purpose of outflanking or closing in upon your enemy, and when -within two hundred yards, to deliver your fire with effect. Firing at 500 or 600 -yards is the business of artillery, and, therefore, to fire at 300 or 400 yards is -a misapplication of the musket, a loss of time, a waste of ammunition, and tends to -make men unsteady in the ranks.”</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Brown Bess -tried at -Chatham.</p> - -<p>The shooting powers of the musket (1842) are stated in the report on Experimental -Musketry firing carried on by Captain (now Lieut.-Colonel) McKerlie, Royal -Engineers, at Chatham, in 1846, which concludes as follows: “It appears by these -experiments, that as a general rule, musketry fire should never be opened beyond -150 yards, and certainly not exceeding 200 yards. At this distance, half the number -of shots missed a target 11-ft. 6-in., and at 150 yards a very large proportion -also missed. At 75 and 100 yards every shot struck the target, only 2-ft. wide, and -had the deviation increased simply as the distance every shot ought to have struck -the target 6-ft. wide at 200 yards, instead of this, however, some were observed to -pass several yards to the right and left, some to fall 30 yards short, and others to -pass as much beyond, and this deviation increased in a still greater degree as the -range increased. It is only then under peculiar circumstances, such as when it may -be desirable to bring a fire on Field Artillery when there are no other means of<span class="pagenum" id="Page81">[81]</span> -replying to it, that it ought ever to be thought of using the musket at such distances -as 400 yards.” <span class="sidenote">Merits of -“Brown Bess” -illustrated.</span>In fact, it has been stated that the probability of hitting one man -with a musket ball at 500 yards would be as one farthing to the National Debt! On -a recent occasion, at the Cape, 80,000 rounds were fired to kill 25 men!! To put a -man “<i>hors de combat</i>” requires his weight in lead, and six times his weight in iron!!!</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Price.</p> - -<p>Our musket cost £3, the French and Belgian £1 8s. 6<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub>d. <span class="sidenote">Fastened by -bands.</span>In foreign arms the -barrel is fastened to the stock by bands, binding the two together, and thus adding -greatly to their strength. This mode, although acknowledged to be infinitely superior -for military purposes, by our Inspector of small arms, <span class="sidenote">Bands -unsightly!!</span>was condemned as unsightly!! -The French musket, although three inches longer, is beautifully poised, being lightened -forward. <span class="sidenote">Supposed -profit of large -bore.</span>Our bore being larger was considered an advantage, as their balls -could be fired out of our barrels, while our balls could not out of their muskets. It -was generally thought that the greater weight of the English ball produced an -increased range and momentum, but this was counteracted by the excess of windage.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p class="sidenote">Various forms -of early fire-arms.</p> - -<p>In former days small arms were made of various shapes and devices, and also -combined with other weapons of attack and defence.</p> - -<p>There is in the arsenal at Venice a matchlock containing twenty barrels, ten -gun barrels, about 2<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub> feet long, and ten pistol barrels half that length. The match -exploded a gun and pistol barrel together.</p> - -<p>The Chinese of the present day make use of a species of matchlock revolvers, -and also of another matchlock, consisting of several barrels, placed on a common -stock, diverging from each other, and fired simultaneously. (<a href="#Plate4">Plate 4</a>, fig. 4 and 5.)</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Shield fire-arms.</p> - -<p>Soon after the invention of fire-arms, the boss, or spike, issuing from the centre -of the targets or shields, was superseded by one or more short barrels, fired by a -matchlock, and having an aperture covered with a grating above, for the purpose of -taking aim. <span class="sidenote">Breech-loaders.</span>These barrels were loaded at the breech, the charge being put into an -iron tube, or short barrel, which was pushed in at the end, and retained there by -shutting down a lid or spring.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Cross-bow -and pistol -united.</p> - -<p>There were cross-bows, which combined a pistol and cross-bow, the wheel-lock -being placed about the centre of the handle on one side, whilst on the other was the -string of the bow, and the windlass for drawing it up.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Pike and -pistol.</p> - -<p>Pistols were frequently introduced into the butt-end of pikes, and also, in the -reign of Edward VI., in the handle of the battle-axe, the spiked club, the martlet, -and other weapons, even the dagger.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Carabines -with joint.</p> - -<p>In the time of Charles I. there were esclopette carbines, made with the butt to -double back on a hinge, in order to get them into a holster; <span class="sidenote">Heel plate to -draw out.</span>and a little later the -butt was lengthened by drawing out the steel cap which formed its cover, now called -heel plate.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Revolvers in -Charles I.</p> - -<p>In the reign of Charles I. there were also revolvers, with eight chambers to hold -the charges; and in the time of Cromwell and Charles II. we find self-loading and -self-priming guns. <span class="sidenote">Double-barrelled -pistols.</span>Pistols were made both double-barrelled and revolving.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Arrows fired -out of muskets, -1591.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page82">[82]</span></p> - -<p>In Sir Richard Hawkins’ account of his voyage in the South Sea, 1591, mention -is made of his shooting arrows from muskets with great success at shipping: “for the -upper works of their ships being musket proof, they passed through both sides with -facilitie, and wrought extraordinary disasters, which caused admiration to see themselves -wounded with small shot when they thought themselves secure.” These -wooden arrows were called sprites or sprightes. Lord Verulam says, “it is certain -that we had in use at one time for sea fight short arrows which they call sprights, -without any other head save wood sharpened, which were discharged out of -muskets, and would pierce through the sides of ships, when a bullet would not -pierce.”</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Sprites required -wads.</p> - -<p>Sir Richard Hawkins informs us, that in a discourse which he held with the -Spanish General, Michael Angell, the latter demanded, “for what purpose served the -little short arrowes which we had in our shippe, and those in great quantity. I -satisfied him that they were for our muskets. Hereof they prooved to profit themselves -after; but for that they wanted the tampkins, which are first to be driven -home, before the arrow be put in, and as they understood not the secret, they rejected -them as uncertaine, and therefore not to be used; but of all the shot used now -adayes, for the annoying of an ennemie in fight by sea, few are of greater moment -for many respects, which I hold not convenient to treat of in public.”</p> - -<p>Thus it appears that bullets of metal, have been fired out of bows and slings, -stone balls out of guns, and arrows from muskets.</p> - -<p>The following are the names of different descriptions of small arms, <span class="nowrap">viz:—</span></p> - -<table class="inventory" summary="Weapons"> - -<tr> -<td class="weapon">Hand-cannon</td> -<td class="weapon">Musketoon</td> -<td class="weapon">Hand-mortar</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="weapon">Hand-gun</td> -<td class="weapon">Hague</td> -<td class="weapon">Blunderbuss</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="weapon">Arquebus</td> -<td class="weapon">Demi-hague</td> -<td class="weapon">Musket</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="weapon">Caliver</td> -<td class="weapon">Esclopette</td> -<td class="weapon">Pistol</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="weapon">Petronel</td> -<td class="weapon">Currier</td> -<td class="weapon">Dag</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="weapon">Scorpion</td> -<td class="weapon">Fusil</td> -<td class="weapon">Tack</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="weapon">Dragon</td> -<td colspan="2"> </td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page83">[83]</span></p> - -<h2>THE BAYONET.</h2> - -<hr class="chapline top" /> -<hr class="chapline bot" /> - -<p class="sidenote">Pointed stake.</p> - -<p>It was common with archers to place a long pointed stake in the ground to -protect themselves against cavalry. On the arquebus replacing the bow the same -practice was continued.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Pike.</p> - -<p>From the earliest ages it had been customary to arm some of the infantry with -pikes, and in the middle ages when cavalry was so much employed in armies, it was -found impossible to dispense with this weapon; for some time after the introduction -of fire-arms, only a portion of the infantry were armed with them, and the remainder -were pikemen. The proportion of each varied at different times, from one half to two -thirds, but as the proportion of musketeers increased it became necessary to contrive -some method, by which they could defend themselves.</p> - -<p>In the latter part of the reign of James I., some attempts were made to convert -the musketeer’s rest into a defence against cavalry. <span class="sidenote"><i>Marlets-de-fer</i> -with touch.</span><i>Marlets-de-fer</i> and small pole-axes -had a touch enclosed in them, which by touching a spring opened a small valve -and sprung out. <span class="sidenote">Rest, with -touch.</span>The musket rest, instead of having a wooden shaft, was now made -of a thin tube of iron, like these pole-axes covered with leather, and armed with the -touch. <span class="sidenote">Swines’ -feathers.</span>Rests thus armed were said to contain Swedish or Swines’ feathers. It was -found however that the musketeer could not do his duty when armed with musket, -sword, and rest, (especially if he had a Swedish feather to manage with them) which -led to the abandonment of the rest during the Protectorate.</p> - -<p>To remedy the inconvenience of a Musketeer being compelled to draw his -sword and defend himself after the discharge of his piece, and to render him more -competent to act against the pikemen, a long thin rapier blade fixed into a handle, -and carried in a sheath called a Swine’s feather, was drawn out of its scabbard, <span class="sidenote">Sword stuck -in muzzle.</span>and -fixed into the muzzle of his gun, which gave him a weapon of great length. -(<a href="#Plate19">Plate 19</a>, fig. 11.). And this dagger or sword, stuck into the muzzle of the gun, gave -origin to the bayonet, <span class="sidenote">Bayonets in -France, 1671.</span>which was first made at Bayonne, and introduced into the -French army in 1671.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Swords discontinued, -1745.</p> - -<p>Swords in general were left off in the battalion companies ever since the year -1745, and about 1762 by the grenadiers. <span class="sidenote">Improved -bayonet.</span>As a still further improvement the bayonet -was made to fit on to the side of the barrel, so as to leave it clear. <span class="sidenote">Bayonet in -Flanders, -William III.</span>An early -application of the improved bayonet took place in the campaigns of William III., in -Flanders. Three French regiments thus armed, marched with fixed bayonets, and -one of them against the 25th regiment. Lieut-Colonel Maxwell ordered his men to<span class="pagenum" id="Page84">[84]</span> -screw their bayonets into their muzzles to receive them; but to his great surprise -when they came within the proper distance, the French threw in such a heavy fire, as -for the moment to stagger his people, who by no means expected such a greeting, not -conscious how it was possible to fire with fixed bayonets. Macaulay in the 3rd -volume of his History, <span class="sidenote">Bayonet at -Killicrankie.</span>states “That at the battle of Killicrankie, the King’s army being -drawn up in position, the Highlanders advanced to the attack, and immediately after -having delivered their fire, threw away their muskets and rushed on to the charge -with Claymores. It took the regular musketeer two or three minutes to alter his -missile weapon into one with which he could encounter an enemy hand to hand, -and during this time the battle of Killicrankie had been decided.” Mackay therefore -ordered all his bayonets to be so made that they might be screwed upon the -barrel.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Bayonets, -Marsaglia, -1693, and -Spiers, 1703.</p> - -<p>Bayonets were employed by Marshal Catinat at the battle of Marsaglia, when -the slaughter was immense. Also at the battle of Spiers, in 1703. Thus improved, -the bayonet came into general use, <span class="sidenote">Pike -abolished, -1703.</span>and the pike was abolished in France by Royal -Ordinance 1703, with the advice of Marshal Vauban. Before the introduction of the -improved bayonet, Lord Orrery, in 1677, thus speaks in favour of the pike:—<span class="sidenote">Earl Orrery in -favour of pike -versus musket, -1677.</span>“But -what need I more say of the usefulness of the pike above the musket, than that all -persons of quality carry the pike which they would not do unless it had adjudgedly -the honour to be the noblest weapon, since the bravest choose and fight with it. I -wish our companies consisted of fewer shots and more pikes, for they are not only -always in readiness but need no ammunition, which cannot be said of the musket -which requires powder, bullet, and match, and in wet or windy weather often disappoints -the service.”</p> - -<p class="sidenote">M. Mallet, -pike versus -musket, 1684.</p> - -<p>Mons. Mallet in his “Travaux de Mars,” speaks lightly of the “mousquetaires,” -without pikemen; he says, “A horse wounded by a fire-arm is only more animated, -but when he finds himself pierced by a pike, all the spurs in the world will not make -him advance.”</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Gen. Loyd, -pike versus -bayonet, 1766.</p> - - - -<p>Even so recently as about ninety-two years ago, and ninety-five years after the -introduction of the improved bayonet, General Loyd in his history of the war in -Germany, recommends the abandonment of the system of arming the whole of the -infantry with fire-arms, “which he says are useful only in <i>defensive</i> warfare, and even -then not more than one shot in four hundred takes effect.” For many years after -pikes were discontinued by our infantry, the officers carried a short one, and the -sergeants only gave up their halberts within the last thirty years. The soldiers of -artillery when in Holland under the late Duke of York, <span class="sidenote">Pike recently -discontinued.</span>carried short pikes for the -defence of their field guns.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<h2>ACCOUTREMENTS AND AMMUNITION.</h2> - -<hr class="chapline top" /> -<hr class="chapline bot" /> - -<p class="sidenote">Armament of -infantry soldier.</p> - -<p>Besides his matchlock, the soldier carried a powder horn or flask, a ball bag, -slow match, a rest, and a sword. The two last changed for a bayonet. In order to -accelerate the loading, <span class="sidenote">Bandolier.</span>a -large leather belt, called bandolier, was worn over the<span class="pagenum" id="Page85">[85]</span> -shoulder. To this were hung twelve wooden cases, each of which contained one -charge, with a case of finer powder for priming, and at the lower end a bag for balls. -This system was soon found to be inconvenient, as the cases were apt to get entangled -in passing through woods, &c. <span class="sidenote">Bandolier -abandoned in -France, 1684.</span>It was therefore abandoned in France in 1684, <span class="sidenote">Flask -resumed.</span>and -the flask resumed. Sir James Turner, speaking of the pistol, says, <span class="sidenote">Patrons.</span>“All horsemen -should always have the charges of their pistols ready in patrons, the powder made -up compactly in paper, and the ball tied to it with a piece of pack thread.” <span class="sidenote">Cartridges.</span>In this -description we have evidently the cartridge, though not expressed by name. It is a -curious fact that these were first confined to the cavalry, and that the general adoption -of the cartridge was not earlier than the common use of the modern firelock. -The Patron was an upright semi-cylindrical box of steel, with a cover moving on a -hinge, filled with a block of wood with five perforations, to hold as many pistol -cartridges.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Earl of Orrery -in favour -of pouches.</p> - -<p>The Earl of Orrery, in 1677, writes, “I am, on long experience, an enemy to -bandoliers, but a great approver of boxes of cartridges for them, as by biting off -the bottom of the cartridge, you charge your musket for service with one ramming. -I would have these boxes of tin, because they are not so apt to break as the -wooden ones are, and do not, in wet weather, or lying in the tents, relax. Besides, -I have often seen much prejudice in the use of bandoliers, which are often apt to -take fire. They commonly wound, and often kill he that wears them, and those -near him, for likely if one take fire, all the rest do in that collar. They often -tangle when they have fired, and are falling off by the flanks of the files of the -intervals to get into the rear to load again. Their rattling in the night often -discovers the designs; and if the weather be windy, their rattling also often hinders -the soldier from hearing, and, consequently, obeying the word of command. -Whereas the cartridge boxes exempt those who use them from all these dangers -and prejudices. They enable the soldier to fire more expeditiously. They are also -usually worn about the waist of the soldier, the skirts of whose doublet and whose -coat doubly defend them from all rain, that does not pierce both, and being worn -close to his body, the heat thereof keeps the powder dryer. Besides all this, whoever -loads his musket with cartridges, is sure the bullet will not drop out, though -he takes his aim under breast high; whereas those soldiers on service who take the -bullets out of their mouths, which is the nimblest way, or out of their pouches, -seldom put any paper, tow, or grass, to ram the bullet in, whereby if they fire -above breast high the bullet passes over the head of the enemy, and if they aim low -the bullet drops out, ere the musket is fired, and it is to this that I attribute the -little execution I have seen musketeers do in time of fight, though they fired at -great battalions, and those also reasonably near.”</p> - -<hr class="full" /> - -<p class="note">The preceding article on Portable Fire-Arms is principally compiled from “Military Antiquities,” by Francis -Grose; “Ancient Armour and Weapons of War,” by John Hewitt; “Engraved Illustrations of Ancient Armour,” -by Joseph Skelton, F.S.A.; “A Critical Enquiry into Ancient Armour,” by Sir R. S. Meyrick, Knt.; and “Deane’s -Manual of Fire-arms.”</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page86">[86]</span></p> - -<h2>HISTORY OF THE RIFLE.</h2> - -<hr class="chapline top" /> -<hr class="chapline bot" /> - -<p class="sidenote">Invention of -the rifle.</p> - -<p>We shall now direct our attention to the rifle,—its invention is ascribed to Gaspard -Zollner, of Vienna, towards the end of the fifteenth century.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">1466.</p> - -<p>The first society for firing with the arquebuss was founded at Bâle, in Switzerland.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Rifles at Leipsic, -1498.</p> - -<p>In the practice of firing at a mark, at Leipsic, 1498, the greater part of the Sharpshooters -or Marksmen, were armed with the Rifles.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Rifles used -first for -amusement.</p> - -<p>At first, Rifle arms were used only for amusement, and sometimes for the defence -of places, but very rarely as weapons of war in the field.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Rifles used in -war.</p> - -<p>Their employment in a campaign only dates from a little before the middle of -the seventeenth century.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Landgrave of -Hesse, 1631.</p> - -<p>In 1631, the Landgrave William of Hesse had three companies of Chasseurs, -armed with rifles.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Elector Maximilian, -1645.</p> - -<p>In 1645, the Elector Maximilian of Bavaria formed three regiments of Chasseurs, -armed with rifles which he intended to employ principally in the minor operations -of war.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Frederick -William of -Prussia, 1674.</p> - -<p>In 1647, Frederick William of Prussia, in his campaign on the Rhine, distributed -in each company of infantry, some light infantry and Riflemen.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Frederick the -Great in -Seven Years’ -War.</p> - -<span class="sidenote">By Austrians -ditto.</span> - -<p>Frederick the Great, in order to counterbalance the Austrian Light Troops, more -particularly the Tyrolese Marksmen, whose fire was exceedingly deadly, felt obliged -during the seven years’ war to add a company of trained light infantry to the effective -strength of each battalion.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Rifles in -France, 1674.</p> - -<p>In France the Cavalry were supplied with rifles before the Infantry. Towards -1674 Louis XIV. created some squadrons of Cavalry armed with “Carabines rayées.” -The name was given in France to all arms which were grooved, and it also served for -the name of the corps which were first armed with them, viz., “Carabins.”</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Rifles in English -Life -Guards.</p> - -<p>In 1680 eight rifle carbines were carried in each troop of English Life Guards.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Rifles in -Sweden, 1691.</p> - -<p>In 1691 the Non-Commissioned Officers of the Swedish Dragoons received the rifled -carabin, and in 1700 those of the Prussian Cavalry received the same rifled arms.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Experiments -in England, -1776.</p> - -<p>Experiments were tried with rifled small arms in England in the year 1776.</p> - -<p>We read in the Scots’ Magazine, vol. 36, that “the Guards are every day practising -the use of the Rifle Gun in Hyde Park. On Saturday, April 27th, 1776, -their Majesties attended a Review of the Rifle-men yesterday, and were much -pleased with the dexterity of the officer, who loaded and fired several times in a -minute, and hit the mark each time. He lies upon his back when he discharges -his piece.”</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Rifles in Austria, -1778.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page87">[87]</span></p> - -<p>Austria kept 2000 Sharpshooters, having double carbines, which were supplied -with a crotch to rest them upon while shooting. Only one of the barrels was rifled.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Rifles in -French infantry, -1793.</p> - -<p>In 1793 the first model carbine for French Infantry was made at Versailles; at -the same time the model for Cavalry was also fixed. Rifles were soon abandoned in -the French Army; they deemed them of more trouble than profit.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Rifles, English, -1794.</p> - -<p>In 1794 the English adopted the Rifle, which, I fancy, was first used by a -Battalion of the 60th, or Royal American Regiment.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Rifles numerous -in Austria, -1796.</p> - -<p>In 1796 there were in the Austrian Army 15 Battalions of Light Infantry, the -greater part of whom were armed with Rifles.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Rifles for the -95th regt., -1800.</p> - -<p>In 1800, Rifles were placed in the hands of the 95th Regiment, now the Rifle -Brigade of four Battalions. These Rifles weighed about 10<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub>lbs. each, with the sword. -They were sighted for 100 and 200 yards, with seven grooves, having a quarter turn -in the length of the barrel, which was about 2 feet 6 inches, the length of the Rifle -3 feet 10 inches, weight of sword 1lb., diameter of bore ·623. The locks were -excellent, and had a detent, to prevent the nose of the sear catching at half cock, -and it had a bolt, to prevent its going off at half cock. The ball was spherical, and -driven in with a mallet, which was afterwards dispensed with, and a greased -patch substituted.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Rifle ball in -two sizes.</p> - -<p>During the Peninsular War, our Riflemen were supplied with balls of two sizes, -the easiest fitting being designed for use where celerity of loading was required. -Baker, who made these Rifles, says in his Work, 1825, <span class="sidenote">Range of English -rifle.</span>“I have found 200 yards the -greatest range I could fire to any certainty. At 300 yards I have fired very well at -times, when the wind has been calm. At 400 yards, and at 500 yards, I have -frequently fired, and have sometimes struck the object, though I have found it to -vary much.”</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Rifles in 7th -and 10th -Dragoons.</p> - -<p>Colonel Dickson, R.A., says, “In the early part of the present century, there was -also introduced a rifle-arm for cavalry. The barrel 20 inches, calibre 20 bore, -grooves 7, having the same pitch as those for the infantry; the 7th and 10th light -cavalry were the only regiments armed with them, but they were soon discontinued -from being considered as unfit for cavalry service.”</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Brunswick -rifle.</p> - -<p>The Brunswick rifle was introduced in 1836. Weight with bayonet 11lbs. 5oz., -length of barrel 2ft. 6-in., bore ·704. Two deep spiral grooves with one turn in the -length of the barrel. Sighted for 100, 200, and 300 yards. Bullet spherical and -belted, diameter ·696. Weight of bullet 557 grains. The shooting of this arm was -superior to our first rifle, although the loading was not so easy as was desired, and a -great disadvantage existed in the bullet and cartridge being separate in the soldier’s -pouch, the grooves were deeper and rounder than those of the ordinary rifle, the -projecting zone of the ball was made to fit the grooves, the ball was wrapped in a -linen patch dipped in grease. It was found that, although the rifle loaded easily at -first, after constant firing the barrel became very foul, rendering loading nearly as -difficult as under the old system of the indented ball. The belt on the ball caused -considerable friction while passing through the air. (<a href="#Plate20">Plate 20</a>, fig. 1).</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Merits of the -Brunswick -rifle.</p> - -<p>By a committee of officers assembled at Enfield, it was determined that all firing<span class="pagenum" id="Page88">[88]</span> -with the Brunswick beyond 400 yards was too wild to give a correct angle of elevation. -It was tested at Antwerp in 1844, in an experiment extending to 44,000 rounds, and -declared to be the worst tried.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Improvements -from -France.</p> - -<p>From France chiefly have proceeded most of the modern improvements in -fire-arms.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">French at discount -without -rifles.</p> - -<p>The original French rifle (like our own) was loaded by force with a strong -ramrod and mallet, and they found that it gave precision with diminution of range. -For these reasons during the early campaigns of the French Revolution, the rifle was -given up in the French army; but as their Chasseurs were found to be unequally -matched against those of other armies, who surpassed them in accuracy as marksmen, -a series of experiments were carried on at different times, with a view to its reintroduction -into their service. No satisfactory result was obtained until the occupation -of Algeria, <span class="sidenote">Captain Delvigne’s -first -step to restore -rifles in -France.</span>when Mons. Delvigne, of the Guarde Royale, took the first step in its -restoration. In the flying wars kept up against them by Abd-el-Kader, they found -that masses of their men were struck by Arab balls at distances where the French -muskets were apparently powerless, and this they afterwards found arose from the -long matchlocks of their enemies being fired at a much greater elevation than was -ever thought of by European troops. <span class="sidenote">The French -desired to be -on an equality -with Arabs.</span>In order to put themselves on an equality with -their enemies, Mons. Delvigne showed in 1828 how the rifle bullet could be made to -enter the piece easily, and quit it in a forced state; a method of loading as easy and -simple as that of a smooth-bore arm. <span class="sidenote">Expansion by -chamber.</span>Expansion was obtained by the introduction of -a chamber in the bore, which furnished an annular surface to receive the bullet, and -on its being struck a small blow with the rammer it was expanded into the grooves. -(<a href="#Plate20">Plate 20</a>, fig. 2). <span class="sidenote">Defects of -chambered -rifle.</span>The objection to the chambered rifle, was that after frequently -firing, a residuum collected which eventually left the powder less room in the chamber, -and of necessity it then reached above the shoulder of the latter, so that the ball -resting upon the powder instead of upon the shoulder of the chamber, was not so -readily dilated by the strokes of the ramrod into the grooves. To remedy this defect -the wooden sabot and greased patch (<a href="#Plate20">plate 20</a>, fig. 3) were suggested by Colonel -Poncharra, in 1833, <span class="sidenote">Poncharra -Delvigne rifle -1833.</span>introduced into the French army 1839, and employed in Algeria, -1840, but several inconveniences attended its use.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Carabine à -Tige, 1842.</p> - -<p>Colonel Thouvenin endeavoured to overcome these difficulties by fixing at the -bottom of the bore an iron shank, around which was placed the powder. This stem, -(<a href="#Plate20">plate 20</a>, fig. 4) stopping the bullet, allowed it to be struck in such a manner as to -cause the lead to penetrate into the grooves. <span class="sidenote">Defects of -Tige.</span>There is much fouling at the breech, -and around the pillar of these rifles. They are difficult to clean, the soldier having to -carry an instrument for this purpose. <span class="sidenote">Tige introduced, -1846.</span>The Chasseurs and Zouaves of the African -Army were armed with the tige in 1846.</p> - -<p>At first a spherical ball had been used, and then a solid cylindro-conical bullet -was resorted to; (<a href="#Plate20">Plate 20</a>, fig. 6.) Messrs. Delvigne and Minié having long previously -experimented with hollow cylindro-conical projectiles.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Minié iron -cup.</p> - -<p>Some years after these experiments, Captain Minié proposed the adoption of a -bullet which should receive its expansion by placing an iron cup in the hollow of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page89">[89]</span> -base, which should be driven up by the gas, and force the walls of the cavity outwards, -thus making them enter the grooves. (<a href="#Plate20">Plate 20</a>, fig. 7.) <span class="sidenote">French army -1850.</span>In 1850 the Fusil -rayé with balle à culot was put into the hands of some French regiments of the line, -and since then the French Imperial Guard have been armed with the old musket -rifled, and a hollow bullet without a cup.</p> - -<p>At present it is understood that the French are rifling all their smooth bore -arms, and the Russians are doing the same.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Prussian. -army.</p> - -<p>The Prussians have many thousands of their infantry armed with a breech-loading -long range Rifle. <span class="sidenote">Russian -riflemen.</span>The Russian Army is to have fifty-four rifle regiments, with a -rifle company to each other regiment of Infantry. <span class="sidenote">Austrian -riflemen.</span>The Austrians are busy at work, -according to their means. The Tyrol has always supplied them with a large number -of marksmen. <span class="sidenote">Belgium.</span>The Belgians are, I believe, universally armed with rifles, -<span class="sidenote">Portugal.</span>and even -the little Kingdom of Portugal has ordered 28,000 rifles from Belgium.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Conoidal -bullet, with -Brunswick.</p> - -<p>Subsequent to the French experiments with the conoidal bullet, and the great -results obtained over the spherical from it, it was proposed to adapt a conoidal bullet -to the Brunswick Rifle. (<a href="#Plate20">Plate 20</a>, fig 5.) This was done as an experiment, and -succeeded very well, but at the same time the new arm, <span class="sidenote">Minié rifle, -introduced, -1851.</span>called the Minié pattern, -1851, was also tried, and the shooting exhibited greater accuracy with this latter arm. -Nothing further was done with the Brunswick rifle and conoidal bullet; and the -(then called) “new regulation Minié,” was introduced into the service by the late -Marquis of Anglesea, Master-General of Ordnance, with the approval of the late Duke -of Wellington. Its weight with bayonet, was 10lbs. 8<sup>3</sup>⁄<sub>4</sub>ozs., bore ·702, four -spiral grooves, with one turn in 6 feet 6-in., powder, 2<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub> drs., bullet, 680 grs., with iron -cup, diameter of bullet, ·690, windage, ·012. <span class="sidenote">Performance -and angle of -Minié.</span>When the axis is parallel to the ground -at 4 feet 6-in. above it, the first graze is about 177 yards, and the angle of elevation -at 800 yards, is 3° 25.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Consequences -of improvements -in military -rifles.</p> - -<p>A few years previous to the Russian war, rifles had attained to a degree of improvement -in structure and adaptability to the general purpose of war, which -threatened subversion to the established notions of the military world.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Probable -effect on -artillery.</p> - -<p>The artillery arm was menaced in its long rested monopoly of range and precision, -with an equilibrium in hands it had never dreamed to find it; one which not alone -would curb the wonted dash of field batteries to within the “shortest range,” <span class="sidenote">On cavalry.</span>but -also impress a more than wonted respect upon the best led and most daring cavalry, -for even the thinnest formation of that arm, which it had hitherto been taught to -despise. <span class="sidenote">Minié in -Kaffir war.</span>The Minié was first used in the Kaffir war, and next at Alma and Inkerman, -when it proved that the gallant Marquis had advanced a step in the right direction; -who had ordered 28,000, but quarrels taking place among the contractors this order -was never completed. <span class="sidenote">Bullet improved.</span>The accuracy of firing from the Minié was improved by -altering the form of the bullet from conoidal to cylindro-conoidal, (<a href="#Plate20">plate 20</a>, fig. 8.) -and the iron cup from hemispherical to a conical shape with a hole in the apex.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Lord Hardinge’s -desire -for improvement.</p> - -<p>Lord Hardinge, succeeding to the post of Master-General, and after to that of -Commander-in-Chief, zealously followed out the prosecution of the now becoming -fixed idea, the general adoption for British infantry, of a pattern rifle-musket, which<span class="pagenum" id="Page90">[90]</span> -should combine lightness with solidity, precision, and superior range. Lord Hardinge -opened competition to the leading British gun makers, when the following sent in -muskets for trial, viz:—Purdy, Westley Richards, Lancaster, Wilkinson, and Greener. -<span class="sidenote">Experiments -at Enfield.</span>The Minié pattern, (51), and Brunswick, (36), were also subjected to a course of trial -before the committee assembled at Enfield, in 1852, for the purpose of determining the -best description of fire-arm for military service.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Merits of the -Brunswick.</p> - -<p>The Brunswick rifle showed itself to be very much inferior in point of range to -every arm hitherto tried. The loading was so difficult, that it is wonderful how the -rifle regiments can have continued to use it so long, the force required to ram down the -ball was so great as to render a man’s hand much too unsteady for accurate shooting. -Colonel Gordon, says, “It should be noticed here with the exception of Mr. -Wilkinson, every one of the makers changed either his musket or projectile during -the trials, thereby causing them to be protracted much beyond the time originally -intended.”</p> - -<p class="sidenote">All had reduced -bores.</p> - -<p>The diameter of the bore of all the new muskets was less than that hitherto in -use, <span class="sidenote">Elongated -bullets.</span>all the bullets were elongated and had auxiliaries for expansion, being metallic, or -in one case a horn plug, one pattern had cannelures <span class="sidenote">Reversed -cartridge.</span>and the whole required the -cartridge to be reversed in loading. <span class="sidenote">Best shooting -from short -rifle.</span>It is worthy of remark that the best shooting at -these trials was from a short rifle made at Enfield, which was named the artillery -carbine, but not the one now used by the Royal Artillery. The barrel was only 2 feet -6-in. long, and the projectile cylindro-conoidal, with an iron cup weighing 620 grains; -thus proving that great length of barrel is not absolutely necessary in a rifle; but a -certain length of barrel is required to fire in double ranks, and so that the weapon may -be effectually used as a pike. <span class="sidenote">Advantage of -small bore.</span>With a small bore, a greater number of rounds of ammunition -may be carried, greater penetration, velocity, lower trajectory, and more -accuracy, than with larger projectiles of equal weight. <span class="sidenote">Disadvantages -of small -bore.</span>The alleged disadvantages of -small bore are, the slender form of cartridge and the smaller hole made in a man’s -body, as stated to be proved in the case of wild animals, in proof of which it is said -that they are found to run further when wounded with a small ball, than they do with -a large one; but this reasoning does not seem applicable to the human race, for it is -presumed that few men would be found willing to move far when wounded by a -musket ball, whether the hole in their body was ·702 or ·530 of an inch in diameter.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Objection to -reversing the -cartridge.</p> - -<p>An absurd objection was stated as to reversing the cartridge, viz:—that drill with -blank would be performed in a different manner to firing ball, and that in action the -soldier would forget to reverse his cartridge, and put in the ball first. As we now -always perform our drill, and as our present blank cartridges require to be reversed or -will not ignite, this objection is removed. It also was said that mice, rats, &c., &c., -would eat off the lubricating mixture!!</p> - -<p>It was proposed to give the Enfield, (1853,) a back sight to 900 yards, when an -outcry was raised against the monstrous proposition of giving to every common soldier -a delicately made back sight, whether he knew how to use it or not!!! and those -rifles first issued, were only sighted to 300 yards.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">The Enfield -rifle.</p> - -<p>At the conclusion of the trials at Enfield, in August, 1852, two rifles were made<span class="pagenum" id="Page91">[91]</span> -at the Royal Manufactory, in which were embodied the improvements and alterations -suggested by the experience obtained during the course of the trials, and which was -hoped would possess the necessary requirements for a military weapon, and which -proved superior to the Minié, the Brunswick, and all those presented for trial by the -different manufacturers.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Dimensions, -&c., of Enfield.</p> - -<p>This beautiful rifle though 2<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub>lbs. less than the old musket, is fully as strong, and -as capable of rough usage. Weight, including bayonet, 9lbs. 3 ozs., bore, ·577, length -of barrel, 3 feet 3-in., weight of barrel, 4lbs. 6 ozs., three grooves with spiral of one -turn in 6 feet 6-in.; the barrel to be fastened to the stock by bands. The bayonet to -be fixed by means of a locking ring. The lock to have a swivel. The bullet was -of a pattern suggested by Mr. Pritchett. (<a href="#Plate20">Plate 20</a>, fig. 9.)</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Attempts to -improve the -bullet.</p> - -<p>Lord Hardinge, desirous to improve the projectile, and if possible to get rid of -the cup, having requested the leading gun makers to lay any suggestions before the -small arms committee, none were submitted but one by Mr. Wilkinson, which was -not a compound. It was solid with two deep cannelures, but it lost its accuracy when -made up into a cartridge, and made very wild practice beyond 300 yards. (<a href="#Plate20">Plate 20</a>, -fig. 10.) Subsequently a bullet was proposed by Mr. Pritchett, <span class="sidenote">Description of -Pritchett.</span>being cylindro-conoidal -in form, with a small hollow at the base, which was made more to throw the -centre of gravity forward than to obtain expansion thereby. This bullet weighed -520 grains, or 24 guage, and excellent practice was made with it at Enfield, from 100, -to 800 yards, and it was accordingly introduced into the service, to the suppression of -the Minié, with iron cup; and for which Mr. Pritchett, received £1,000.</p> - -<p class="sidenote" id="Ref01">Lancaster -smooth <i>bore</i> -rifles.</p> - -<p>Shortly after the establishment of the School of Musketry, in June, 1853, twenty -Enfield rifles were sent down for trial in competition with the Minié, and also with -“Lancaster’s smooth bore eliptical rifle, with increasing spiral and freed at the breech,” -when the Enfield was found to be superior to both. It is stated that Mr. Lancaster’s -invention is intended to overcome the inconvenience attendant on the wearing out the -rifle ridges, by the ramrod, &c.; these rifles are also easily cleaned, the difference in -width between the major and minor axis of the ellipse was, <sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>100</sub> of an inch.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Engineer -Carbine.</p> - -<p>Carbines on this principle are now carried by the Royal Engineers, and shoot -well, and by some persons are thought to be superior to the Enfield, 1853; they fire -the same ammunition, and there is no question but that their firing is much more -accurate from using the improved wooden plug bullet.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Failure of the -Pritchett.</p> - -<p>In May, 1855, the ammunition was found to be in a most unsatisfactory state -and unfit to be used, there being bullets of various diameters in many of the packages -of the cartridges. The correct size of the Pritchett bullet viz., ·568, was found to -produce accurate shooting, at 600 yards, while bullets of a smaller diameter fired -very badly.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Return to -iron cup.</p> - -<p>To get out of this difficulty, Colonel Hay recommended the application of the -iron cup to the bullet, which was approved, when more uniform expansion resulted -and greater accuracy.</p> - -<p>Thus by using an auxiliary to expansion there is a margin left to cover any trifling -inaccuracy in manufacture, in diameter of either bullet or bore.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page92">[92]</span></p> - -<p class="sidenote">Woolwich -account for -bad <i>ammunition</i>.</p> - -<p>The Woolwich authorities stated that they had seven dies at work making bullets, -and which were made small at first as they gradually wore larger; when any one die -became too large it was destroyed, and replaced by a smaller one. To this cause they -imputed the failure of our Pritchett ammunition. It was afterwards suggested from -the School of Musketry, to procure expansion by using a wooden plug, and after most -extensive experiments, this was found to be superior to any description of bullet yet -tried at Hythe, and the wooden plug has accordingly been established for the British -army. (<a href="#Plate20">Plate 20</a>, fig. 11.)</p> - -<p class="sidenote">On expansion.</p> - -<p>Uniform accuracy mainly results from the bullet continuing to receive a sufficient -and uniform expansion into the grooves, so that the projectiles get such an amount of -rotation as shall last until they have reached the object fired at. The more perfect -the expansion, the less the accumulation of fouling and consequently accuracy is -further increased.</p> - -<p>The Enfield has frequently been fired to 200 rounds and the loading continued -easy.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Progressive -grooving 1858.</p> - -<p>Early in 1858, the regulation rifle, (53), was changed from grooves of uniform, -·014 in depth, to ·005 at muzzle, increasing in depth to ·015 at the breech; while -new, these rifles shoot well, but they require increased elevation at long ranges. How -far these shallow grooves will answer, or how long it will take to convert these aims -into smooth bores at the muzzle, by the continued friction of the ramrod, remains -to be seen.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Origin of -progressive -grooving.</p> - -<p>Captain Panot, of the French service, states, “it is but a few years since all our -smooth bore barrels were reamed so that they would carry the spherical ball of ·669, -instead of ·641. It was afterwards determined to convert these arms into rifles. To -prevent weakening the reamed up barrels, M. Tamisier proposed to vary the depth -of the grooves, making them deeper at the breech than at the muzzle.” <span class="sidenote">Advantages.</span>Grooves -thus made, are said to have a greater accuracy of fire from keeping the ball perfectly -tight as it leaves the bore and destroying all windage at the muzzle. This is called -“progressive grooving.” Rifles upon this principle require to be fired at an increased -elevation, attributed to the greater amount of friction experienced by the bullet while -passing down the barrel.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Short Enfield.</p> - -<p>Rifle regiments and all serjeants of infantry have been furnished with a weapon -requiring the same ammunition as the regulation arm, but six inches shorter, being -mounted in steel, with a sword bayonet.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Royal Navy -rifle.</p> - -<p>A five “grooved progressive” carbine has recently been given to the Royal -Marine Artillery and the Royal Navy, with the same bore as the Enfield.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h3>RIFLED BREECH-LOADERS.</h3> - -<p>It is worthy of notice that, while numerous attempts are now making to perfect -the breech-loader for sporting as well as military purposes, <span class="sidenote">Early guns -loaded at the -breech.</span>our early cannon and first -hand guns were loaded at the breech, and if all mechanical difficulties could be overcome, -the breech-loading principle for portable fire-arms would deserve the preference.<span class="pagenum" id="Page93">[93]</span> -We can easily understand why it did not continue in favour in early days, as this mode -includes a great deal of perfection in mechanical workmanship, and to which the ancient -gun maker was a stranger.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Disadvantages -of breech-loaders.</p> - -<p>The great argument against breech-loaders as military weapons is the expense, -their intricate construction, the escape of gas, and the probable waste of ammunition, -in the hands of an uneducated soldier. It may be briefly answered.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">1st. As to -expense.</p> - -<p>1st.—As to expense, the most destructive weapon, by preventing and curtailing -war, must in the long run be the cheapest.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">2nd. As to -intricacy.</p> - -<p>2nd.—As to intricacy of construction, the soldier is the user, not the maker of his -gun; it matters not how delicate the mechanism of a watch may be, the only question -is, does it continue to go well!! And who dare say that the brains of man shall -never suggest a simple mode of construction. Of course anything fragile would be -totally unfit for military purposes. The escape of gas has been entirely overcome.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">3rd. As to -waste of ammunition.</p> - -<p>3rd.—As to waste of ammunition, is it absolutely necessary that a soldier should -remain uneducated? Are not soldiers men? And men can be taught almost anything, -or are they incapable of being taught? Does a soldier fire how, when and -where he chooses? Is it too high an aspiration that the British army should carry -the best arm that can be made, to be placed in the hands of a taught and skilful -soldier, acting under the guidance and control of intelligent officers?</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Breech-loaders -highly -improved.</p> - -<p>As far as the arm only is concerned, breech-loaders have now (1860) attained a -high degree of perfection, as is proved by the deserved celebrity of that made by -Mr. Westley Richards. <span class="sidenote">Ammunition -the difficulty.</span>The only remaining difficulty is one of ammunition. Loose -powder cannot be employed in loading with a breech as it can with a muzzle-loader. -We are up to this time under the necessity of introducing the whole of the cartridge, -this of course augments fouling and lessens accuracy; there is also increased difficulty -in producing ignition through the fold of the cartridge paper.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Capt. Brown’s -compressed -powder.</p> - -<p>Recently a most ingenious mode of compressing the grains of powder contained -in a charge into one mass, so that every description of rifle may be rapidly loaded -without any paper, has been invented by Captain Brown, R. N., and I have every -hope and confidence that the only remaining breech-loading difficulty may now be -considered overcome.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Advantages -of breech-loaders.<br /> -1st. Celerity.<br /> -2nd. Load -lying down.<br /> -3rd. Easily -cleaned.<br /> -4th. Solid ball.</p> - -<p>The advantages of breech-loaders, are, 1st.—Celerity of fire, about ten rounds a -minute have been attained. 2nd.—The soldier can load while lying flat on the ground. -3rd.—The barrel can be easily cleaned and examined as to its state. 4th.—A solid -ball can be fired, and with less windage.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Self capping.</p> - -<p>Various modes of self capping have been brought forward, but that by Maynard -seems to merit the preference; time is further economized, and the powers of the -breech-loader thereby increased.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Cavalry have -breech-loaders.</p> - -<p>Our cavalry regiments in India, are partially armed with breech-loading rifles, -and all their pistols are rifled, and upon the tige principle.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Rifles universal -in English -army.</p> - -<p>The whole of our Guards, regular Infantry, Royal Marines, Militia, and Royal -Engineers, are armed with rifles, and the Carabine used by the Royal Artillery, is also<span class="pagenum" id="Page94">[94]</span> -rifled. All our Colonial corps are supplied with rifled arms, with the exception of the -Native corps, serving in the East Indies and Ceylon.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">In larger -numbers.</p> - -<p>Thus rifles are introduced in larger numbers and of better quality in the armies -of England, in proportion to their numbers, than amongst any other nation. <span class="sidenote">Taught to use.</span>While -more care and expense is incurred in qualifying our soldiers efficiently to use them. -<span class="sidenote">Prizes.</span>In illustration of which, it is only needful to call attention to the simple fact that -£20,000 per annum is distributed as a stimulus to the marksmen of the British army, -for which boon all honour to our Royal Commander-in-Chief.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Explosive -shells.</p> - -<p>The idea has recently been revived to increase the destructive powers of Infantry, -by furnishing them with shells, with which they may explode ammunition waggons, -artillery limbers, &c., &c., to the distance of 1,000 yards. Captain Norton, Mr. Dyer, -Colonel Jacobs, and Mr. Whitworth, have directed their minds to this most -important subject.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page95">[95]</span></p> - -<h2>ON RIFLING.</h2> - -<hr class="chapline top" /> -<hr class="chapline bot" /> - -<p>It has been stated that amongst the different gun makers who assembled at -Woolwich, for the carrying on of experiments in 1851, no two agreed upon any one -thing; and in 1860, it may still be averred, with almost equal truth, and that it yet -remains an unsettled question as to the form, width, depth, number or degree of -spirality of the grooves, as also the harmony which should subsist between the grooves, -diameter of bore, the form and weight of projectile, and the quality and quantity of -charge.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Description -of Rifles.</p> - -<p>Robins, in 1742, says, “rifles though well known on the continent, being but -little used in England, it is necessary to give a short description of their make. -The rifle has its cylinder cut with a number of spiral channels, so that it is in reality -a female screw, varying from the fabric of common screws, only in this, that its -threads or rifles are less deflected and approach more to a straight line.” <span class="sidenote">Advantages -of a rifle.</span>The -advantage of a rifle (with a round bullet), is that the axis of rotation not being in any -accidental position, as in a smooth bore, but coincident with the line of its flight, it -follows that the resistance on the fore part of the bullet is equally distributed round -the centre of gravity, and acts with an equal force on every side of the line of direction, -and also should the resistance be greater on one side of the bullet than the other from -irregularities on its surface, as this part continually shifts its position round the line in -which it is proceeding, the deflections which this irregularity would occasion are -neutralized. With an elongated projectile rifling also prevents it from rotating round -its shorter axis.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Rifling invented -in Germany.</p> - -<p>It is to the artizans of Germany, that the rifle owes its origin, as at the close of -the fifteenth century barrels with straight grooves were used by the citizens of Leipsic, -at target practice, <span class="sidenote">Rifles used -1498.</span>in 1498, and the invention of grooving or rifling fire-arms is generally -supposed to be the result more of accident than theory. In Dean’s Manual of fire-arms, -it is stated that, “the idea of grooving arms in the direction of the axis of the -barrel to receive the residium of the powder, and thereby, not only facilitate the -loading, but increase both the bite or forcing of the ball, by impressing upon it the -grooves, and thus maintain it during its passage through the barrel in a direction -more in harmony with the line of fire, was doubtless a conception based upon no -previous theory or practice now to be traced, but was formed in that suggestiveness -which in the individual founds for itself a theory based upon the likelihood of -possible result. <span class="sidenote">Straight -grooves.</span>Upon trial also of the straight grooves a greater precision for<span class="pagenum" id="Page96">[96]</span> -short distances would have been observed than with the smooth bore.” This must -of itself therefore have led to the establishment of a certain grade of theory which it -was endeavoured to amplify by various means, such as increasing the number of -grooves, then of changing the inclination of grooves from the straight line to the spiral.</p> - -<p>To deem that the practised crack “shots and armourers of a time when target -practice was the constant recreation of the citizen, and his pride to excel in, were so -brainless as to conceive no theory, unelaborated though it may have been, and that -all their even now admired efforts in Germany, were the products of mere accident, is -therefore scarcely a rational supposition.”</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Spiral -grooves, by -Koster, of -Nuremberg in -1522.</p> - -<p>It is stated that Koster, of Nuremburg, in 1522, first suggested giving a spiral form -to the grooves, and experience proved that much greater accuracy of shooting was -the result.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Damer of -Nuremberg, -1552.</p> - -<p>In 1552, Damer, of Nuremburg, made some great improvements in rifles, but we -are not aware of their precise nature.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Koster of -Nuremberg, -1620.</p> - -<p>Koster, of Nuremburg, who died 1630, by some authorities is said to have discovered -that straight grooves did not fulfil the intentions of their inventor, and to have -been the first who suggested spiral grooves in 1620.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Robins first -explained -action of -grooves.</p> - -<p>The important stage next arrived at was the scientific explanation of the true -value of spiral grooves. The honor of this entirely belongs to our countryman, -Benjamin Robins, who in his Principles of Gunnery, gives a complete and satisfactory -explanation of the action of the grooves in determining the flight of the bullet. -<span class="sidenote">Robins structure -of rifles.</span>Robins states that “the degree of spirality, the number of threads, the depth the -channel are cut down to, are not regulated according to any invariable rule, but -differ according to the country where the work is performed, and the caprice of the -artificer. <span class="sidenote">Modes of -loading.</span>The most usual mode of charging rifles is by forcing the ball with a strong -rammer and mallet. But in some parts of Germany and Switzerland, an improvement -is made by cutting a piece of very thin leather or fustian in a circular shape, -somewhat larger than the bore, which being greased on one side is laid upon the -muzzle with its greasy part downwards, and the bullet being placed upon it, is then -forced down the barrel with it. When this is practised the rifles are generally -shallow, and the bullet ought not to be too large.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Early rifles, -breech-loaders.</p> - -<p>As both these methods of charging rifles take up a good deal of time; the rifled -barrels which have been made in England, (for I remember not to have seen it in -any foreign piece,) are contrived to be charged at the breech, where the piece is -made larger, and the powder and bullet are put in through an opening in the side -of the barrel, which, when the piece is loaded is fitted up with a screw. And -perhaps somewhat of this kind, though not in the manner now practised, would -be of all others the most perfect method for the construction of these sorts of -barrels.”</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h3>ON THE NUMBER, FORM &c., &c., &c., OF THE GROOVES.</h3> - -<p class="sidenote">Number of -grooves.</p> - -<p>Almost every description of twist, number, &c., &c., of grooves have been tried, -according to the individual tastes and theories of the manufacturers. It is absolutely<span class="pagenum" id="Page97">[97]</span> -necessary to have two grooves, as a single one would give a wrong direction. Rifles -have been made with, from two to one hundred and thirty three grooves, and in the -majority of cases, an odd seems to have been preferred to an even number. In Dean’s -Manual it is stated, <span class="sidenote">Degree of -spirality.</span>that “in the numerous collections of arms that have at various times -come under our personal notice, some were rifled with straight, but the -majority with grooves in a spiral line, sometimes with a half, sometimes a three -quarter, and seldom more than a whole turn in a length of two, two and a half and -three feet; deviations based upon no principle transmitted to us, but requiring -nevertheless a decided research for principles upon which to establish a theory; we -have also met with every one of those configurations of the spiral and form of groove, -&c., &c., which have been arrogated as modern conceits and discoveries.”</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Spirality.</p> - -<p>Some rifles have sharp muzzle twist decreasing to the breech;—sharp breech -twist decreasing to the muzzle; an increase of twist in the middle of the barrel decreasing -at both extremities.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Modification -in France. -1740.</p> - -<p>In France a modification of the Carabine took place in 1740;—the grooves were -made to begin at eight inches from the muzzle, the unrifled part being of the same -calibre as the bottom of the grooves, so that the bullet might pass easily; thus also -facilitating the loading of the weapon.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Rifled only at -muzzle.</p> - -<p>There is an old rifle in the United Service Institution, and also a barrel brought -from Lucknow, (in the Model Room of the School of Musketry,) grooved only for -about one foot from the muzzle, the remainder of the barrels are smooth bored.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Degree of -spirality.</p> - -<p>The degree of spirality is found to vary from a whole turn in 1 foot 5-in., to a -whole turn in 11 feet.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Depth of -spiral.</p> - -<p>The depth of grooves vary from ·005 of an inch, to about ·125; and some rifles -have been made with an alternate deep and shallow groove.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Form of -grooves.</p> - -<p>Grooves have been made round, circular, triangular, rectangular, and indefinite, -alternate round and angular, elliptical, polygonal; and some cut deep only on one side.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Proportion of -groove to land.</p> - -<p>Some gun makers are of opinion that there should be a greater proportion of -groove or furrow than of land or plain surface, because they say the ball is thus more -firmly held, while others maintain that by diminishing the number of the grooves, the -accuracy and range would be increased, and this has led to the opposite theory, that -perhaps if anything, the plain surface of the bore should predominate over the grooved.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Form of early -grooves -straight.</p> - -<p>The earliest rifles had two straight deep creases opposite to each other, the bullet -being spherical, and furnished with small circular knots of lead, large enough to fill -the creases.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Form &c., of -ancient rifles.</p> - -<p>The greater number of ancient rifles have a whole turn, with an odd number of -deep and rounded grooves; hence we may infer these were considered the best forms.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Objects of -rifling.</p> - -<p>As accuracy of direction is the result of a spiral motion round an axis coincident -with the flight of the bullet, communicated to it by the grooves, it is clear that the -depth, number, and form of the grooves should be such as will hold the bullet firmly, -and prevent all tendency to strip.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">On the degree -of spirality.</p> - -<p>The degree of spirality should be sufficient to retain the projectile point foremost -during the whole of its flight. It was at one time supposed that if the spiral turn was<span class="pagenum" id="Page98">[98]</span> -great, and the charge strong, the bullet would not conform, but strip, and that the -same results would occur even with grooves but little curved. Unquestionably this -would prove true if certain limits were to be exceeded. A false conclusion was built -upon this theory, viz., that the greater the spiral turn the less the charge should be; -and that therefore in rifles intended for war, the greatest initial velocity being required -to produce the greatest range, the groove should have as little turn as possible; -for extreme ranges have been obtained with Jacob’s, Whitworth’s, and Lancaster’s -rifles; the first has a full turn in 24in. the second in 20in. <span class="sidenote">Sharp twist -and large -charge not -cause stripping.</span>These rifles perform well -with 90 grains of powder, and both Whitworth’s and Lancaster’s might even fire -better were the charge of powder increased to 100 grains, the recoil might be -objectionable while there would be no symptoms of stripping.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">On depth of -groove.</p> - -<p>Great depth of groove can only be hurtful, owing to the difficulty of closing up -all passage to the gas, which should not be allowed to escape round the bullet, as this -would cause deviation and shorten range. Deep grooves become a receptacle for -fouling, are difficult to clean; and high projections must offer great resistance to the -atmosphere, and particularly to a side wind.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Patches.</p> - -<p>When fustian or leather are used as patches, they receive and communicate the -spiral motion to the bullet, without the zone of the projectile being at all indented, -but in this case the spiral must be diminished, otherwise the bullet would not turn -with the grooves. If the patches be made of a thick material, the grooves should be -many, broad, and not too shallow, in order to receive the folds of the patch.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Shallow -grooves best.</p> - -<p>From our present amount of experience it seems safe to conclude that the -shallower the grooves are the better, so that they perform their intended functions.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Proportion of -groove to land.</p> - -<p>It is now generally recommended that the grooves be made broader than the -lands, <i>i.e.</i>, that the rifling surface should predominate over the unrifled part of the -bore. Shallow grooves with rounded edges, have the advantage of not leaving any -angular traces on the surface of the bullet, besides they afford a greater facility for -cleaning.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Circular -grooving.</p> - -<p>Circular grooving is composed of segments of circles, leaving no sharp edges on -the bullet, and is no doubt a very good form.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Gaining twist.</p> - -<p>An American gentleman named Chapman, who has written a very clever book -upon the rifle, is a strong advocate for the “gaining twist,” which form prevails -generally in American rifles. He states, “In a rifled barrel, it is obvious that a bullet -instantaneously started from a state of rest, with a velocity of 5,000ft. a second, -must exert at the moment of starting, a tendency to move along the bore in a -straight line. <span class="sidenote">Cause of -canting.</span>However, meeting with the resistance that the lands employ to keep -it to the twist, it communicates to the rifle itself a certain amount of motion in the -direction of the twist of the creases, and this as the angle of the twist increases, -combined with the size of the calibre, and the weight of the ball.”</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Remedy for -canting.</p> - -<p>“If the angle of the twist at the breech end can be reduced, the bullet at the -same time leaving the muzzle with sufficient spin to last throughout its flight, it is -certain we shall have less twisting of the rifle in the marksman’s hands, less friction -of the bullet against the lands, less tendency for the bullet to upset, (or be destroyed,)<span class="pagenum" id="Page99">[99]</span> -and consequently, from obtaining a higher velocity, (because enabled to -use a greater quantity of powder,) less time for the action of regular or irregular -currents of air.”</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Uniform -spiral by -American -Government.</p> - -<p>After careful experiments by the American Government, preparatory to the -establishing the model for their Military Rifle, it was decided that the turn for the -grooves should be uniform; and that those with an increasing twist did not give any -superiority of accuracy. The “gaining twist,” although adopted by Mr. Lancaster, -is opposed by Mr. Whitworth, and all other Rifle manufacturers, and our increased -experience does not prove it to possess any advantages over uniform spirality. Theory -would indicate that it must occasion increased friction.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Decreasing -spiral.</p> - -<p>Mr. Greener advocates decreasing spirality. It is to be hoped he is the only -advocate for so seemingly absurd an idea. To give a certain measure of spiral turn at -the breech, to be withdrawn gradually as the bullet reaches the muzzle, is simply -ridiculous, and which, with other conceits previously referred to, it is to be hoped -are no more to be repeated.</p> - -<p>By the desire of our first Patron, the late Lord Hardinge, Mr. Whitworth was -induced to turn his mechanical genius to the Soldier’s Gun, <span class="sidenote">Polygonal -rifling.</span>which resulted in his -adopting the polygonal form of bore. His barrel is hexagonal, and thus, instead of -consisting of non-effective lands, and partly of grooves, consists entirely of effective -rifling surfaces. The angular corners of the hexagon are always rounded. Supposing -a bullet of a cylindrical shape to be fired, when it begins to expand it is driven into -the recesses of the hexagon. It thus adapts itself to the curves of the spiral, and the -inclined sides of the hexagon offering no direct resistance, expansion is easily effected.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Westley -Richards -octagonal.</p> - -<p>Mr. Westley Richards has followed Mr. Whitworth, by using a polygonal bore, -having applied his highly meritorious system of breech-loading to a barrel upon the -Whitworth principle, of an octagonal form.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Eliptic rifling.</p> - -<p>The cardinal feature of this structure is, that the bore of the barrel is smooth, -and instead of being circular, is cut into the form of an ellipse, i.e., it has a major -and minor axis. Upon being expanded by the force of the powder, the bullet is -forced into the greater axis of the ellipse, which performs the office of the grooves, -rifling the projectile, and imparting to it the spiral or normal movement round its -own axis. <span class="sidenote">By Captain -Berner, 1835.</span>In 1835 a Captain Berner submitted his elliptical bore musket to the -inspection and trial of the Royal Hanoverian Commission, appointed for that purpose, -and which gave results so satisfactory, that it was considered admirably adapted for -the Jäger and Light Infantry Battalions. <span class="sidenote">By Mr. -Lancaster.</span>This principle has been patented by Mr. -Lancaster, and the advantages of this form have been <a href="#Ref01">previously</a> adverted to.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Odd number -of grooves.</p> - -<p>It is supposed by some persons that if the number of grooves be even, so that -they will be opposite to one another, the bullet would then require more force -to enlarge it, so as to fill them properly. If the number be unequal, the lands will -be opposite to the grooves, and the lead, in forcing, spreading on all sides, will -encounter a land opposite to each groove, which will in some measure repel it, and -render its introduction into the opposite groove more complete.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page100">[100]</span></p> - -<p>This ingenious theory is set at nought by Whitworth, Jacobs, Lancaster, W. -Richards, &c., &c., who all recommended an even number of grooves, while the -Government arms have an odd number.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Drift or cant.</p> - -<p>If the grooves twist or turn over from left to right, the balls will be carried to -the right; and if from right to left, they will group to the left; and this result will -be great in proportion to the degree of spirality. The causes of Drift or “Derivation” -will be treated of <a href="#Ref02">hereafter</a>. We know from observation that the majority of -balls strike to the right of the mark. The recoil and <i>pulling</i> the trigger throw -back the right shoulder, which tend to increase the “derivation” to the right. If the -twist were, then, from <i>right</i> to <i>left</i>, the drift, error from <i>pulling</i>, and from recoil, would -tend to neutralize each other; the twist of the grooves should therefore be from right -to left, instead of the present universal practice of from <i>left</i> to right.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">On length of -barrel.</p> - -<p>The barrel of a gun may be looked upon as a machine in which force is generated -for the propulsion of the bullet. It is well known that the continued action of a lesser -force, will produce a much greater effect, than a greater amount of power applied -suddenly; hence mild gunpowder is more suitable for rifle shooting than strong, or -that which evolves the whole of its gas instantaneously. Time is necessary for the -entire combustion of a charge of gunpowder, consequently more mild gunpowder can -be fired out of a long, than out of a short barrel, as if fired out of a short barrel, some -of the grains might be ejected unconsumed. All extra length, after the last volume -of gas is evolved, can only be injurious, by causing loss of velocity from friction. A -billiard ball would travel none the further nor straighter, were it to be propelled -through a hollow tube, neither would a barrel to a cross bow aid in killing rooks. <span class="sidenote">Favors -expansion.</span>A -barrel favours expansion of the bullet, which is produced by the force of the generated -gas, opposed by the column of air in the hollow tube and by the motion of the projectile. -<span class="sidenote">Assists -aiming, firing -two deep: -when using -bayonet.</span>Facility in aiming is promoted by the sights being distant from each other. -In a military arm a certain length is necessary in order to fire when two deep in the -ranks, and length is also advantageous, should the rifle be used as a pike.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Advantages -of short rifle.</p> - -<p>The short rifle can be held steadier when standing, by a weak man, and during -wind, it is handy when passing through a wood or thicket, and a very short man has -more command of his gun when loading; <span class="sidenote">Disadvantages -of short -rifles.</span>but with the sword bayonet, it is heavier -than the long Enfield and bayonet; while the sword is very inconvenient when -running, firing kneeling, or lying down.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Thickness of -barrel.</p> - -<p>Great substance was at one time considered necessary for accurate firing, it being -supposed necessary to prevent vibrations in the barrel; this is true within certain limits, -and the heavier the charge, the heavier the metal ought to be, especially at the breech, -but diminishing the thickness, has been proved in no wise to lessen the accuracy. A -heavy barrel also lessens recoil, but it would be folly to carry more weight than would -neutralize the recoil which could be produced by a greater charge of powder than -could be consumed in a given length of barrel.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Size of bore.</p> - -<p>The two grand requirements of a soldier’s gun are, celerity of loading, combined -with accuracy at long ranges; and the distance at which he should have the power of -firing, should be limited by the strength of his eye. The weight of the projectile<span class="pagenum" id="Page101">[101]</span> -being fixed (·530 grs.), good shooting at extreme distances can only be obtained by -reducing the diameter of the bore, which, lessening the frontage of the bullet, causes -it to experience less resistance from the air; it therefore retains a higher degree of -velocity than a larger bullet of the same form and weight, and therefore travels further -and faster. Gravity has less time to act upon it, in a given distance, and therefore -it can be fired at a lower angle, or has what we call a lower trajectory, and its -accuracy is increased in direct proportion to the lowness of its flight, all other things -being equal.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Best form of -rifling still -undetermined.</p> - -<p>While the best form, &c., &c., for rifles is not yet determined, there are many -points upon which the generality of persons seem more agreed, viz., reduction of bore -to about <sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub>-in. in diameter, fewer grooves, shorter barrel, and with increased spirality; -at least, one may safely say that ideas seem to travel in this direction.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h3>ON RIFLE PROJECTILES.</h3> - -<p class="sidenote">Projectiles -used in early -guns.</p> - -<p>We have learned that out of early Artillery were fired bolts, darts, bombs, stones -and (more recently) iron shot. From the harquebus and musket: arrows, darts, -quarrels, sprites, iron, and lastly leaden spherical balls. <span class="sidenote">Elliptical iron -bullets 1729.</span>Some assert that the idea of -lengthened eliptical bullets was enunciated so far back as 1729, and that good results -followed their employment, but it is doubtful whether such really did take place.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Leutman.</p> - -<p>Leutman, in his “History of St. Petersburgh,” says that “it is very profitable -to fire elliptical balls out of rifled arms, particularly when they are made to enter -by force.”</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Robins 1742.</p> - -<p>Robins, in 1742, recommended the use of projectiles of an egg like form, (see -<a href="#Plate20">plate 20</a>, fig. 12), they were to be fired with the heavy end in front, to keep the -centre of gravity forward.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Beaufoy 1812.</p> - -<p>Colonel Beaufoy, in a work called “Scloppetaria,” 1812, remarks that several -experiments have been tried with egg-shaped bullets, recommended by Robins. It -was found, however, that these bullets were subject to such occasional random ranges, -as completely baffled the judgment of the shooters to counteract their irregularity. -Their deviations to windward most likely arose from the effect of the wind on the -after part, which, as being the lightest of the two, was driven more to leeward, and -consequently acted as a rudder to throw the foremost end up to the wind.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Turpin 1770.</p> - -<p>In 1770 Messrs. Turpin tried elongated bullets, at La Fiere, and at Metz.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Rifled guns -&c., 1776.</p> - -<p>We are informed, in the Annual Register for 1776, and also in the Scots Magazine -for the same year, that rifled Ordnance were experimented with at Languard -Fort, &c., &c., in 1774. Dr. Lind, one of the inventors, states that to remedy the -deflection of shot, “One way is to use bullets that are not round but oblong. But in -our common guns that are not rifled, I know no way to prevent deflection, except -you choose to shoot with a rifled bullet.”</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Elongated -projectiles -1789.</p> - -<p>Elongated Projectiles were tried in the years 2, 6, and 9 of the Revolution, by -Mons. Guitton de Moreau. They were proposed by Mons. Bodeau. -<span class="sidenote">1800 and 1815.</span>In 1800 and<span class="pagenum" id="Page102">[102]</span> -1815 the Prussians tried ellipsodical bullets. Colonel Miller, Colonel Carron, Captain -Blois, and others, also experimented with the cylindro-conical form.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Captain -Norton 1824.</p> - -<p>Captain Norton (late 34th Regt.), the original inventor of the application of the -percussion principle to shells for small arms, in 1824, completed an elongated rifle -shot and shell, the former precisely of the form of the Minié bullet, with projections -to fit the grooves of the barrel.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Mr. Greener -1836.</p> - -<p>Mr. Greener, in 1836, presented an expanding bullet to the Government for -experiment, (<a href="#Plate20">plate 20</a>, fig. 13). It is oval, with a flat end, and with a perforation -extending nearly through. A taper plug, with a head like a round-topped button, is -also cast of a composition of lead and zinc. The end of the plug being slightly -inserted in the perforation, the ball is inserted either end foremost. When the explosion -takes place, the plug is driven home into the lead, expanding the outer surface, -and thus either filling up the grooves of the rifle, or destroying the windage of the -musket. The result was favourable beyond calculation. Of about 120 shots by way -of experiment, a man was able to load three times to one of the old musket, and -accuracy of range at 350 yards was as three to one.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Mr Greener’s -invention -rejected.</p> - -<p>Mr. Greener’s invention was rejected, and the only notice he received from the -Board was, it being “a compound,” rendered it objectionable!!!</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Mr. Greener -rewarded.</p> - -<p>The following extract appears in the Estimates of Army Service for 1857-8. -“To William Greener, for the first Public Suggestion of the principle of expansion, -commonly called the Minié principle for bullets in 1836, £1,000.”</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Wilkinson -1837.</p> - -<p>Many experiments were made by Mr. Wilkinson in 1837, with balls precisely -similar in shape to the Minié, with a conical hole in them, using a wooden plug; <span class="sidenote">Cork plug -1851.</span>and -in 1851 experiments were tried at Woolwich with a soft elastic cork, fitting the -aperture in the projectile very closely, the compression of which it was conceived -would sufficiently expand the cylindrical part, and make it fit the grooves, &c. In -some instances it succeeded perfectly, but in many the cork was driven through the -lead.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Gen. Jacobs.</p> - -<p>Major-General Jacobs for many years carried on a series of experiments with -rifles, and in 1846 submitted a military rifle, with an elongated projectile, for experiments, -to the Government at home, and also to that in India. It did not meet with -approval in England, and the Company cut the matter short by stating, that what -was good enough for the Royal Army was good enough for theirs. There is nothing -peculiar in General Jacob’s rifle. He recommends an elongated projectile (<a href="#Plate20">plate 20</a>, -fig. 14) solid at the base, cast with four raised flanges to fit into the grooves. General -Jacobs states, that the desired initial velocity could not be produced with a projectile -made entirely of lead, <span class="sidenote">Form of -leaden bullet -destroyed.</span>as a slight increase of charge had the effect of destroying the -form of the projectile. He also states that the limit of the powers of leaden balls -having been attained, it became necessary to find a method of constructing rifle balls, -so that the fore part should be capable of sustaining the pressure of large charges of -fired gunpowder, without change of form, and retain that shape best adapted for -overcoming the resistance of the air, on which all accurate distant practice depends; -and at the same time having the part of the ball next the powder sufficiently soft and<span class="pagenum" id="Page103">[103]</span> -yielding to spread out under its pressure, so as to fill the barrel and grooves perfectly -air tight. <span class="sidenote">Zinc point to -bullets.</span>And he professes to have solved the problem, by having the fore part of -the bullet cast of zinc, in a separate mould.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Expansion by -hollow bore.</p> - -<p>Captain Delvigne, who had been experimenting since 1828, proposed the -adoption of lengthened bullets, consisting of a cylinder terminated by a cone, which -was subsequently replaced by an ogive. He obtained a patent dated 21st June, 1841, -“For having hollowed out the base of my cylindro-conical bullet, to obtain its -expansion by the effect of the gases produced through the ignition of the powder.”</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Hollow in -case to throw -centre of -gravity -forward.</p> - -<p>The main object of Captain Delvigne in hollowing the base was, to throw the -centre of gravity forward; but a Captain Blois, in France, had previously tried this -important suggestion. Captain Delvigne states, if the hollow is too deep, the -expansion is too great, and the consequent friction enormous; or the gas may pass -through the bullet, and leave a hollow cylinder of lead within the barrel. Sometimes -the gas will traverse the sides of the bullet, and consequently the projectile is -deprived of a proportionate amount of velocity; if too small, the expansion does not -take place.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Capt. Minié -iron cup.</p> - -<p>Captain Minié, an instructor of the School at Vincennes, merely fitted into this -hollow an iron cup, hoping to prevent the gas forcing its way through the bullet, and -that the iron pressing upon the lead should increase the expansion. (<a href="#Plate20">Plate 20</a>, fig. 7).</p> - -<p>A perfect bullet was now supposed to have been discovered, of a cylindro-ogival -form, (no part was a true cylinder), having a groove originally intended to fasten on -a greased patch, and in some cases the cartridge, but the patch being dispensed with, -and the cartridge reversed, <span class="sidenote">Groove -suppressed.</span>the groove, supposed to be useless, was suppressed.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Results.</p> - -<p>People were then surprised to find that firing lost much of its accuracy, and the -groove was replaced; when it was observed that any variation in its shape and in its -position, materially affected the practice. Not only variations in the grooves caused -great alteration in the accuracy of fire, but any modification bearing on the trunk in -rear, or on the fore-ogive, altered the conditions of the firing, so that the groove -became lost in the midst of so many other principles, the functions of which were so -much unknown. These theoretical considerations served, however, as a point of -departure for further investigations.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Tamisier -lengthened -bullets.</p> - -<p>Captain Tamisier had not ceased for several years, concentrating his attention on -the subject. He varied the length of the cylindrical part and the angle of the cone, -and tried experiments with bullets of 5-in. in length, and obtained considerable range, -and great accuracy with them; the recoil however was excessive, and to use such -bullets heavier arms, a smaller bore, and other modifications would be necessary.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Centre of -gravity -formed by -blunting tips.</p> - -<p>He endeavoured to carry the centre of gravity to the furthest possible point -forward, (which Robins suggested 100 years before), but to effect this he was compelled -to flatten the fore end of the bullet, which had the disadvantage of increasing -the resistance of the air to the movement of projection.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Path rectified -by resistance -in rear.</p> - -<p>He was then led to another plan for rectifying the path of the bullet through -each instant of projection, and which was by creating at the posterior end, resistances, -which should act in case the axis of the bullet did not coincide with the direction of<span class="pagenum" id="Page104">[104]</span> -motion, <span class="sidenote">Many -cannelures.</span>and this was carried out by cutting upon the cylindrical part, instead of one, -as many circular grooves of ·28 in depth, as that cylindrical, or rather, slightly -conical, part could contain. An increased precision in firing was the immediate -result. (<a href="#Plate20">Plate 20</a>, fig 15.)</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Shape of -cannelures.</p> - -<p>Feeling his way most carefully, Captain Tamisier then made a great number of -experiments in this direction, and perceived that it was important to render the -posterior surface of the grooves as sharp as possible, so as to augment the action of -the air; for these grooves lose their shape, owing to the lead, from its malleable -nature, yielding under the strokes of the ramrod.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Elongated -Projectiles, -whose Centres -of Gravity do -not correspond -with -Centre of -Figure.</p> - -<p>Elongated projectiles, whose centres of gravity do not exactly coincide with the -centre of figure, when they do not turn over, tend to preserve their axis in the -primary direction which was imparted to them, in the same manner as an imperfectly -feathered arrow flying with little velocity, the point of the moving body being constantly -above the trajectory, and its axis making a certain angle (<a href="#Plate21">plate 21</a>, fig 1) with -the target to the curve. <span class="sidenote">Action of the -air.</span>Therefore the part <span class="smcapall">A.B.</span> of the bullet being exposed to the -direct action of the air’s resistance, the atmospherical fluid is compressed on the -surface <span class="smcapall">A.B.</span>, and rarified upon that of -<span class="smcapall">A.C.</span> Hence it will be perceived that the compressed -fluid supports the moving body, and prevents its descending as rapidly as -would a spherical bullet, which is constructed to meet the same direct resistance from -the air. This trajectory will therefore be more elongated than that of the spherical -bullet in question.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Remedied by -the grooves.</p> - -<p>But the resistance of the air, acting upon the groove of the projectile, produces, -on the lower part of this groove, an action which tends to bring back its point upon -the trajectory, yet with so little force, that often, in its descent, the projectile turns -over, and moves breadthways at ranges of 1000 and 1200 yards. The lower side of -the projectile, therefore, moving in the compressed air, and the upper in the rarified -air, deviation must ensue, for, as the upper part of the bullet moves from left to right, -the bottom must move from right to left. <span class="sidenote" id="Ref02">Cause of -deviation.</span>But the lower resistance to the motion of -rotation being produced by the friction of the compressed air, is greater than the -upper resistance, which depends on the friction of the rarified air. By combining -these two resistances, there results a single force, acting from left to right, which -produces what Captain Tamisier termed “derivation,” <span class="sidenote">Remedy.</span>and it was to overcome this -derivation that this officer proposed the circular grooves to the bullet, which he considered -would act, like the feathers of the arrow, to maintain the moving body in its -trajectory.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">How to obtain -knowledge of -the bullet’s -rotation.</p> - - - - - -<p>If, however, we would wish to obtain some idea of the rotatory motion of a -bullet in its path through the air, <span class="sidenote">By the arrow.</span>let us consider the action of the arrow, and see how -it is constructed, so that the resistance of the air should not act in an unfavourable -manner. First, nearly all its weight is concentrated at the point, so that its centre of -gravity is close to it. <span class="sidenote">Use of -feathers on -arrows.</span>At the opposite end feathers are placed, the heaviest of which -does not affect the centre of gravity, but gives rise to an amount of resistance in rear -of the projectile, and which prevents its ever taking a motion of rotation perpendicular -to its longer axis, and keeps it in the direction of its projection. This difficulty which<span class="pagenum" id="Page105">[105]</span> -the arrow finds in changing its direction must concur in preventing its descending so -rapidly as it would do were it only to obey the law of gravity, and must therefore -render its trajectory more uniform.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Similar effects -on bullet with -grooves.</p> - -<p>Let us, however, now come back to the grooves of Mons. Tamisier, and we shall -find that they concur in giving to the bullet the two actions of the resistance of the -air, which we have demonstrated with respect to the arrow.</p> - -<p>Suppose that such a bullet describes the trajectory <span class="smcapall">M</span>, -and <span class="smcapall">A.B.</span> be the position of -its axis, it will be seen that the lower part of the bullet re-establishes the air compressed, -whilst the upper part finds itself in the rarified air. That, consequently -the lower parts of the cannelures are submitted to the direct action of the air’s -resistance, whilst their upper parts totally escape this action. (<a href="#Plate21">Plate 21</a>, fig. 2). -<span class="sidenote">Effect of -grooves.</span>The resultant of the air’s resistance evidently tends to bring back the point of the -moving body, according to the trajectory; but as this action is produced by the -pressure of an elastic fluid, it results that the point <span class="smcapall">B</span>, after having been an instant -upon the trajectory, will fall below, in virtue of the velocity acquired; but then the -upper grooves finding themselves acted on by the action of the air’s resistance, this -action, joined to its weight, will force the point of the projectile upwards, which will -descend to come up again, so that the projectile will have throughout its flight a -vertical swing, which is seen distinctly enough in arrows.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Union of -Robins and -Tamisier.</p> - -<p>Let us connect the suggestion of Robins, with the experiments of Captain -Tamisier, to cause the posterior end to act as a rudder to guide the projectile in its -true path, as undoubtedly during the descent of a bullet there is a tendency for the -centre of gravity to fall first, as the ball of the shuttlecock. In the first Prussian balls, -and in those used in the Tige, the centre of gravity being nearer the base, the rear -end of these balls have a tendency to fall before the foremost, but this is most -undoubtedly counteracted by grooves, while it would be impossible to fire an -elongated projectile with its centre of gravity backwards, with any accuracy out of a -smooth-bored gun.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Cannelures -improved -shooting.</p> - -<p>Captain Jervis says that these grooves have the effect of improving the accuracy -of firing when the bullets are not perfectly homogeneous, is certain, <span class="sidenote">Why none in -English bullet.</span>but the British -Committee on small arms justly considered that owing to the careful way in which the -bullets are made in England by compression, these grooves might be dispensed with.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Variety of -forms.</p> - -<p>Almost every conceivable form of projectile, internal and external, have been -made and experimented upon. <span class="sidenote">Auxiliaries to -expansion, -various.</span>Auxiliaries to expansion have been used, made of -metal, horn, wood, and leather, with plugs, screws, or cups of divers shapes. Cannelures -are used, of varying forms, depth and number.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Rotation from -smooth bores.</p> - -<p>It has even been attempted to construct bullets upon the screw principle, so that -the projectile should receive spirality from the action of the air upon its outer or -inner surface, when fired out of a smooth bore musket.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">General characteristics -of -modern rifles.</p> - -<p>The general characteristics of the European rifles, up to 1850, are a very large -calibre, a comparatively light short barrel, with a quick twist, <i>i.e.</i>, about one turn in -three feet, sometimes using a patch, and sometimes not, the bullet circular, and its -front part flattened by starting and ramming down.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">American -alterations.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page106">[106]</span></p> - -<p>It appears that the introduction of additional weight in the barrel, reduction in -the size of the calibre, the constant use of the patch, a slower twist, generally one turn -in 6ft., combined with (what is now known to be a detriment) great length of barrel, -are exclusively American.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Picket bullet.</p> - -<p>A round ended picket (<a href="#Plate20">plate 20</a>, fig. 16), was occasionally used in some parts of -the States, until the invention of Mr. Allen Clarke, of the flat ended picket, which -allows a much greater charge of powder, producing greater velocity, and consequently -less variation in a side wind.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">On the comparative -merits of rifles.</p> - -<p>A rifle may perform first rate at short ranges, and fail entirely at long, while a -rifle which will fire well at extreme ranges can never fail of good shooting at short. -In fact certain calibres, &c., &c., &c., perform best at certain distances, <span class="sidenote">Points in a -perfect rifle.</span>and in the -combinations of a perfect rifle there are certain points to be attended to, or the weapon -will be deficient and inferior.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Velocity.</p> - -<p>It is desirable to give a bullet as much velocity as it can safely be started with, -and the limit is the recoil of the gun, and the liability of the bullets to be upset or -destroyed, for as soon as this upsetting takes place, the performance becomes inferior, -and the circle of error enlarged.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Degree of -twist.</p> - -<p>It is clear that a bullet projected with sufficient twist to keep it steady in -boisterous and windy weather, must of necessity have more twist than is actually -necessary in a still favourable time; hence a rifle for general purposes, should always -have too much twist rather than too little.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Weight of -bullet.</p> - -<p>The weight of the bullet must be proportioned to the distance it is intended to be -projected with the greatest accuracy; for it is a law, that with bodies of the same -densities, small ones lose their momentum sooner than large ones. It would be -madness to use a bullet ninety to the pound at nine hundred yards, merely because -it performed first rate at two hundred yards; or a forty to the pound at two hundred -yards, because it performed well at nine hundred yards. The reason is that a forty -to the pound cannot be projected with as much velocity at two hundred yards, as the -ninety to the pound can, because the ninety uses more powder in proportion to the -weight of the bullet than the forty does. Again, the heavier bullet performs better -than the lighter one at nine hundred yards, simply because the momentum of the light -ball is nearly expended at so long a range as nine hundred yards, and its rotatory -motion is not enough to keep it in the true line of its flight, whereas a heavy bullet, -having from its weight more momentum, preserves for a longer distance the twist and -velocity with which it started.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Calibre.</p> - -<p>As weight of projectile is a leading element in obtaining accuracy at long ranges, -and as the weight cannot be increased beyond a certain limit in small arm ammunition, -hence a small bore is an indispensable requisite for a perfect rifle.</p> - -<p>In the foregoing brief summary of the most important properties which should be -possessed by a first class rifle, we have dealt in generalities, <span class="sidenote">Result of Mr. -Whitworth’s -experiments.</span>but we shall now record -the experience of Mr. Whitworth, who has entered into the most minute details, and -has pointed out the harmony which should subsist between the twist, bore, &c., and -the projectile, in the combinations of a perfect rifle.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Bore and -weight -limited.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page107">[107]</span></p> - -<p>Premising, that when Mr. Whitworth was solicited by the late honored Lord -Hardinge to render the aid of his mechanical genius to the improvement or perfecting -a military weapon, he was restricted as to length of barrel, viz., 3 feet 3-in., and -weight of bullet, ·530 grains. We shall now proceed and use Mr. Whitworth’s -words.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Consideration -for curve.</p> - -<p>“Having noticed the form (hexagonal) of the interior which provides the best -rifling surfaces, the next thing to be considered is the proper curve which rifled -barrels ought to possess, in order to give the projectile the necessary degree of -rotation.”</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Hexagonal -form admits -of quick turn.</p> - -<p>“With the hexagonal barrel, I use much quicker turn and can fire projectiles of -any required length, as with the quickest that may be desirable they do not ‘strip.’ -I made a short barrel with one turn in the inch (simply to try the effect of an extreme -velocity of rotation) and found that I could fire from it mechanically—fitting projectiles -made of an alloy of lead and tin, with a charge of 35 grains of powder they -penetrated through seven inches of elm planks.”</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Degree of -spiral fixed.</p> - -<p>After many experiments, in order to determine the diameter for the bore and -degree of spirality, Mr. Whitworth adds: “For an ordinary military barrel, 39 inches -long, <span class="sidenote">Diameter of -bore determined.</span>I proposed a ·45-inch bore, with one turn in 20 inches, which is in my opinion -the best for this length. The rotation is sufficient with a bullet of the requisite -specific gravity, for a range of 2000 yards.” Under these conditions the projectiles -on leaving the gun would be about two and a half diameters of the bore in length. -“The gun responds to every increase of charge, by firing with lower elevation, from -the service charge of 70 grains up to 120 grains; this latter charge is the largest -that can be effectively consumed, and the recoil then becomes more than the shoulder -can conveniently bear with the weight of the service musket.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Advocates of -slow turn.</p> - -<p>“The advocates of the slow turn of one in 6 feet 6 inches, consider that a quick -turn causes so much friction as to impede the progress of the ball to an injurious -and sometimes dangerous degree, and to produce loss of elevation and range; but -my experiments show the contrary to be the case. <span class="sidenote">Effects of -quick turn.</span>The effect of too quick a turn, -as to friction, is felt in the greatest degree when the projectile has attained its -highest velocity in the barrel, that is at the muzzle, and is felt in the least degree -when the projectile is beginning to move, at the breech. The great strain put upon -a gun at the instant of explosion is due, not to the resistance of friction, but to the -<i>vis inertiæ</i> of the projectile which has to be overcome. In a long barrel, with an -extremely quick turn, the resistance offered to the progress of the projectile is very -great at the muzzle, and although moderate charges give good results, the rifle will -not respond to increased charges by giving a better elevation. If the barrel be cut -shorter, an increase of charge then lowers the elevation.”</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Objections to -increasing -spiral.</p> - -<p>“The use of an increasing or varying turn is obviously injurious, for besides -altering the shape of the bullet, it causes increased resistance at the muzzle, the very -place where relief is wanted.”</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Length and -spiral -increased.</p> - -<p>“Finding that all difficulty arising from length of projectiles, is overcome by<span class="pagenum" id="Page108">[108]</span> -giving sufficient rotation, and that any weight that may be necessary can be obtained -by adding to the length, I adopted for the bullet of the service weight, an increased -length, <span class="sidenote">Diameter -decreased.</span>and a reduced diameter, <span class="sidenote">Trajectory -lowered.</span>and obtained a comparatively low trajectory; less -elevation is required, and the path of the projectile lies more nearly in a straight -line, making it more likely to hit any object of moderate height within range, and -rendering mistakes in judging distances of less moment. The time of flight being -shortened, the projectile is very much less deflected by the action of the wind.”</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Proper powder -for expanding -bullets.</p> - -<p>“It is most important to observe that with all expanding bullets proper powder -must be employed. In many cases this kind of bullet has failed, owing to the use of -a slowly igniting powder, <span class="sidenote">Powder for -hardened -bullets.</span>which is desirable for a hard metal projectile, as it causes -less strain upon the piece, but is unsuitable with a soft metal expanding projectile, -for which a quickly igniting powder is absolutely requisite to insure a complete -expansion, which will fill the bore. <span class="sidenote">Consequences -of imperfect -expansion.</span>Unless this is done the gases rush past the -bullet between it and the barrel, the latter becomes foul, the bullet is distorted, and -the shooting must be bad. <span class="sidenote">Advantages -of hexagonal -form.</span>If the projectiles used be made of the same hexagonal -shape externally as the bore of the barrel internally, that is, with a mechanical fit, -metals of all degrees of hardness, from lead, or lead and tin, up to hardened steel -may be employed, and slowly igniting powder, like that of the service may be -employed.”</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Mr. Whitworth’s -claims.</p> - -<p>Mr. Whitworth does not lay claim to any originality as inventor of the polygonal -system, but merely brings it forward, as the most certain mode of securing spiral -motion, but he deserves to be honored by all Riflemen, as having established the -degree of spirality, the diameter of bore, to ensure the best results from a given weight -of lead, and length of barrel.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h3>CONCLUSION.</h3> - -<p>In achieving the important position obtained by the rifle in the present day, it has -nevertheless effected no more than was predicted of it by Leutman, the Academician -of St. Petersburg, in 1728, by Euler, Borda, and Gassendi, and by our eminent but -hitherto forgotten countryman Robins, who in 1747, urgently called the attention of -the Government and the public to the importance of this description of fire-arm as a -military weapon.</p> - -<p>In the War of American Independence, the rifle, there long established as the -national arm for the chase, exhibited its superiority as a <i>war</i> arm also, in so sensible a -manner, that we were constrained to oppose to the American hunters the subsidised -Riflemen of Hesse, Hanover, and Denmark.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Robins’ -prophecy.</p> - -<p>We shall close by quoting the last words in “Robins’ Tracts of Gunnery.”</p> - -<p>“Whatever State shall thoroughly comprehend the nature and advantages of rifled -barrel pieces, and having facilitated and completed their construction, shall introduce -into their armies their <i>general</i> use with a <i>dexterity</i> in the -<i>management</i> of them; they<span class="pagenum" id="Page109">[109]</span> -will by this means acquire a superiority, which will almost equal anything that has -been done at any time by the particular excellence of any one kind of arms; and -will perhaps fall but little short of the wonderful effects which histories relate to -have been formerly produced by the first inventors of fire-arms.”</p> - -<hr class="full" /> - -<p class="note"><span class="smcap">Note.</span>—The preceding articles on the Rifle, -Rifling, and Rifle Projectiles are mainly compiled from: “New -Principles of Gunnery, by Robins,” “Scloppetaria,” “Remarks on -National Defence, by Col. the Hon. A. Gordon,” -“Dean’s Manual of Fire Arms,” “Rifle Ammunition, by Capt. A. -Hawes,” “Rifles and Rifle Practice, by C. M. -Wilcox,” “Papers on Mechanical Subjects, by Whitworth,” “The -Rifle Musket, by Capt. Jarvis, Royal Artillery,” -“Des Armes Rayees, by H. Mangeot,” “Cours Elementaire sur les Armes Portatives, by F. Gillion,” and “Cours -sur les Armes a feu Portatives, by L. Panot.”</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page110">[110]</span></p> - -<h2>THEORETICAL PRINCIPLES.</h2> - -<hr class="chapline top" /> -<hr class="chapline bot" /> - -<h3>DEFINITIONS.</h3> - -<p class="sidenote">Matter.</p> - -<p>Matter,—everything which has weight.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Body.</p> - -<p>Body,—a portion of matter limited in every direction.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Mass.</p> - -<p>Mass,—the quantity of matter in any body.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Particle.</p> - -<p>Particle,—or material point, is a body of evanescent magnitude, and bodies of -finite magnitude are said to be made up of an indefinite number of particles, or material -points.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Inertia.</p> - -<p>Inertia,—passiveness or inactivity.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Attraction.</p> - -<p>Attraction,—a fundamental law of nature, that every particle of matter has a -tendency to be attracted towards another particle.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Density.</p> - -<p>Density,—is in proportion to the closeness of the particles to each other.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Volume.</p> - -<p>Volume,—the space bounded by the exterior surface of a body, is its apparent -volume or size.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Elasticity.</p> - -<p>Elasticity,—a body that yields to pressure, and recovers its figure again; hence -air and gasses are elastic bodies; lead a non-elastic body.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Motion.</p> - -<p>Motion,—is the changing of place, or the opposite to a state of rest.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Velocity.</p> - -<p>Velocity,—is the rate of motion; there are four rates of motion, viz., Uniform, -Variable, Accelerated, and Retarded.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">1st. Uniform.</p> - -<p>1st. Uniform,—when a particle traverses equal distances, in any equal successive -portion of time.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">2nd. Variable.</p> - -<p>2nd. Variable,—when the spaces passed over in equal times, are unequal.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">3rd. Accelerated.</p> - -<p>3rd. Accelerated,—when the distances traversed in equal times are successively -greater and greater.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">4th. Retarded.</p> - -<p>4th. Retarded,—when the distances traversed in equal times are successively -less and less.</p> - -<p>Acceleration or Retardation, may also be equal or unequal, that is uniform or -variable.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Friction.</p> - -<p>Friction,—arises from the irregularities of the surfaces which act upon one another.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Force.</p> - -<p>Force,—any cause which produces, or tends to produce a change in the state of -rest, or of motion of a particle of matter.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Measure of -force.</p> - -<p>Forces are measured by comparison with weights. Thus any forces which will -bend a spring into the same positions as weights of 1lb., 2lbs., 3lbs., &c., are called -respectively forces of 1lb., 2lbs., 3lbs., &c., &c.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Momentum.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page111">[111]</span></p> - -<p>Momentum,—or quantity of motion. If a body moving at first with a certain -velocity is afterwards observed to move with double or triple this velocity, the quantity -of motion of the body is conceived to be doubled or tripled, hence the momentum of -a body, depends upon its velocity, as the quantity of motion of a body is the product -of the velocity by the mass or weight.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Laws of -motion.</p> - -<p>The elementary principles upon which are based all our reasonings respecting the -motions of bodies, are called the “Laws of Motion,” and as arranged by Sir Isaac -Newton, are three in number.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">1st Law.</p> - -<p>1st. A particle at rest will continue for ever at rest, and a particle in motion -will continue in motion uniformly forward in a straight line, until it be acted upon by -some extraneous force.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">2nd Law.</p> - -<p>2nd. When any force acts upon a body in motion, the change of motion which -it produces is proportional to the force impressed, and in the direction of that force.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">3rd Law.</p> - -<p>3rd. Action and reaction are equal, and in contrary directions. In all cases the -quantity of motion gained by one body is always equal to that lost by the other in the -same direction. Thus, if a ball in motion, strikes another at rest, the motion communicated -to the latter will be taken from the former, and the velocity of the former be -proportionately diminished.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Centre of -Gravity.</p> - -<p>Centre of Gravity,—is that point at which the whole weight of the body may be -considered to act, and about which consequently, the body, when subjected to the -force of gravity only, will balance in all positions.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Specific -Gravity.</p> - -<p>Specific Gravity,—the weight belonging to an equal bulk of every different -substance, and is estimated by the quantities of matter when the bulks are the same; -or in other words, it is the density that constitutes the specific gravity. It is agreed -to make pure rain-water the standard, to which they refer the comparative weights -of all other bodies. Lead is about eleven times the weight of the same bulk of water.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Initial -Velocity.</p> - -<p>Initial Velocity is the velocity which a bullet possesses on leaving the muzzle of a -gun; and in the speaking of the velocity of bullets fired from the musket now used, -you understand 1200 feet per second, for the Initial Velocity.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Angular -Velocity.</p> - -<p>Angular Velocity is the velocity with which the circular arc is described; and -depends upon the perpendicular distance of the point from the axis of rotation.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Terminal -Velocity.</p> - -<p>Terminal Velocity: if a cannon ball were to be let fall from a very great height, -it would by the law of gravity, descend with accelerated motion towards the earth, -but as the resistance of the air increases as the squares of velocities, a point would be -reached when the resistance would be equal to the force of gravity, from whence it -would fall to the earth in uniform motion.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Eccentric -Body.</p> - -<p>An Eccentric Body, is one whose centre of figure does not correspond with the -centre of gravity.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h3>MOTION OF A PROJECTILE.</h3> - -<p class="sidenote">Modified by -Gravity and -air.</p> - -<p>If no force were acting upon the projectile, except the explosive force of gunpowder, -it would by the first law of motion, move on for ever in the line in which it was<span class="pagenum" id="Page112">[112]</span> -discharged; this motion is modified by the action of two forces, viz., gravity and the -resistance of the air.</p> - -<p>As the early cannons were of the rudest construction, and were used only to force -open barriers, or to be employed against troops at a very short range, it was a matter -of secondary consideration what course the bullet took, indeed it was generally -believed, that it flew for some distance in a straight line, and then dropped suddenly. -Acting upon this opinion we find that most of the early cannon had a large metal -ring at the muzzle, so as to render it the same size as at the breech, and with such as -were not of this construction they made use of a wooden foresight which tied on to -the muzzle, so as to make the line of sight parallel to the axis, by which they conceived -that they might aim more directly at the object which the bullet was -designed to hit.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Leonardo da -Vinci, 1452.</p> - -<p>The first author who wrote professedly on the flight of a cannon shot was a -celebrated Italian Mathematician, named Leonardo da Vinci, who explains his manner -of studying phenomena, in order to arrive at safe conclusions, thus: “I will treat of -the subject, but first of all I will make some experiments, because my intention is to -quote experience, and then to show why bodies are found to act in a certain -manner;” and taking as his motto, “Science belongs to the Captain, practice to -the Soldier,” he boldly asks: “If a bombard throws various distances with various -elevations, I ask in what part of its range will be the greatest angle of elevation?” -The sole answer is a small drawing of three curves, (<a href="#Plate20">plate 20</a>, fig. 3.), the greatest -range being the curve about midway between the perpendicular and the horizontal. -Yet this small drawing is very remarkable when we come to examine it. In the first -place, we see that he recognises the fact that the trajectory is a curve throughout its -length; secondly, that a shot fired perpendicularly will not fall again on the spot -whence it was fired. Simple as they may seem, these two propositions recognise the -force of gravity, resistance of the air, and the rotary motion of the earth.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Tartaglia, -1537.</p> - -<p>The next author who wrote on the flight of cannon shot was another celebrated -Italian Mathematician, named Tartaglia. In the year 1537, and afterwards in 1546, he -published several works relating to the theory of those motions, and although the then -imperfect state of mechanics furnished him with very fallacious principles to proceed on, -yet he was not altogether unsuccessful in his enquiries, for he determined (contrary to -the opinion of practitioners) that no part of the track of a bullet was in a straight line, -although he considered that the curvature in some cases was so little, as not to be -attended to, comparing it to the surface of the sea, which, although it appears to be -a plain, when practically considered, is yet undoubtedly incurvated round the centre -of the earth. It was only by an accident he nearly stumbled upon one truth in the -theory of projectiles, when he stated that the greatest range obtained by equal forces -is at 45°. Calculating that at the angle 0° the trajectory was null, that by raising -the trajectory, the range increased up to a certain point, afterwards diminished, and -finally became null again when the projective force acted perpendicularly, he concluded -that the greatest range must be a medium between these two points, and -consequently at 45°.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page113">[113]</span></p> - -<p>Others thought that a shot, on leaving the muzzle, described a straight line; -that after a certain period its motion grew slower, and then that it described a curve, -caused by the forces of projection and gravity; finally, that it fell perpendicularly. -Tartaglia seems to have originated the notion that the part of the curve which joined -the oblique line to the perpendicular, was the arc of a circle tangent to one and -the other.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Galileo, 1638.</p> - -<p>In the year 1638, Galileo, also an Italian, printed his dialogues, in which he -was the first to describe the real effect of gravity on falling bodies; on these -principles he determined, that the flight of a cannon shot, or of any other projectile, -would be in the curve of a parabola, unless it was deviated from this track by the -resistance of the air. A parabola is a figure formed by cutting a cone, with a plain -parallel to the side of the cone.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h3>GRAVITY.</h3> - -<p class="sidenote">Bullet as -influenced by -powder and -gravity only.</p> - -<p>We will now proceed to consider the course of a bullet, as affected by <i>two</i> forces -only, viz., 1st. The velocity communicated to it by the explosion of the powder; -and 2nd. By the force of Gravity.</p> - -<p>The attraction of the earth acts on all bodies in proportion to their quantities of -matter.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">If no air, all -bodies would -fall in same -time.</p> - -<p>The difference of time observable in the fall of bodies through the air, is due to -the resistance of that medium, whence we may fairly conclude, that if the air was -altogether absent, and no other resisting medium occupied its place, all bodies of -whatever size, and of whatever weight, must descend with the same speed. Under -such circumstances, a balloon and the smoke of the fire would descend, instead of -ascending as they do, by the pressure of the air, which, bulk for bulk, is heavier than -themselves. <span class="sidenote">Gold and dry -leaf in same -time.</span>A dry leaf falls very slowly, and a piece of gold very rapidly, but if the -gold be beaten into a thin leaf, the time of its descent is greatly prolonged. If a -piece of metal and a feather are let fall at the same instant from the top of a tall -exhausted receiver, it will be found that these two bodies, so dissimilar in weight, -will strike the table of the air-pump, on which the receiver stands, at the same -instant. Supposing the air did not offer any resistance to the onward course of a -projectile, and that the instantaneous force communicated to a bullet, from the explosion -of the gunpowder, were to project it in the line <span class="smcapall">A.B.</span> (<a href="#Plate21">plate 21</a>, fig. 4.) from the -point <span class="smcapall">A.</span>, with a velocity that will send it in the first second of time as far as <span class="smcapall">C.</span>, then -if there were no other force to affect it, it would continue to move in the same direction <span class="smcapall">B.</span>, -and with the same velocity, and at the next second it would have passed over -another space, <span class="smcapall">C.D.</span>, equal to <span class="smcapall">A.C.</span>, so that in the third second it would have reached -<span class="smcapall">E.</span>, keeping constantly in the same straight line.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Bullet under -two forces, -powder and -gravity.</p> - -<p>But no sooner does the bullet quit the muzzle, than it immediately comes under -the influence of another force, called the force of gravity, which differs from the force -caused by the explosion of the powder, which ceases to influence the bullet, after it -has once communicated to it its velocity.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">An accelerating -force.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page114">[114]</span></p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Effect of gravity.</span>Gravity is an accelerating force, acting constantly upon, and causing the bullet -to move towards the earth, with a velocity increasing with the length of time the -bullet is exposed to its influence. It has been found from experiment that this -increase of velocity will cause a body to move through spaces, in proportion to the -squares of the time taken to pass over the distance. Thus, if a body falls a given -space in one second, in two it will have fallen over a space equal to four times what it -fell through in the first second, and in the three first seconds it will have fallen -through a space equal to nine times that which it fell through in the first second.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Result of gravity.</p> - -<p>The consequence of this principle is, that all bodies of similar figure, and equal -density, at equal distances from the earth, fall with equal velocity; <span class="sidenote">Course of the -bullet.</span>and if a body -describes a space of 16ft. in the first second of time, it will, in the next second of -time, fall <i>three</i> times 16, or 48 feet, and thus will have fallen, from the time it first -dropped, four times 16 feet, or 64 feet, because 4 is the square of 2, the time the -body was falling. In the third second, it will fall 5 times 16 feet, or 80 feet, and -these sums collectively, viz., 16 + 48 + 80 = 144 feet, the whole distance described -by the falling body in three seconds of time.</p> - -<p>From this it is evident, that instead of moving in a straight line <span class="smcapall">A. B.</span>, -(<a href="#Plate21">plate 21</a>, -fig. 5.), the bullet will be drawn from that course.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Parabolic -theory.</p> - -<p>From the point <span class="smcapall">C.</span>, draw <span class="smcapall">C. F.</span>, -equal to the space that the bullet may be supposed -to fall in one second of time, then at the end of the first second of time the bullet will be -at <span class="smcapall">F.</span>, instead of at <span class="smcapall">C.</span>, and will -have moved in the direction <span class="smcapall">A. F.</span>, instead of <span class="smcapall">A. C.</span>; at -the end of the next second it will have fallen a total distance <span class="smcapall">D. G.</span>, equal to four times -<span class="smcapall">C. F.</span>, thus the bullet will have fallen at the end of the third -second a distance <span class="smcapall">E. H.</span>, equal -to nine times <span class="smcapall">C. F.</span>, and it will have moved in the line -<span class="smcapall">A. F. G. H.</span> instead of the straight -line <span class="smcapall">A. B.</span>, in which it would have moved, had it not been affected by the force of gravity. -The curve <span class="smcapall">A. H.</span>, is of the form called a Parabola, and hence the theory is called the -“Parabolic Theory.” It is founded on the principle that the velocity given to the -bullet by the explosion of the gunpowder is continued throughout its course, but -this would only be true in vacuo, and is therefore of little value in calculating the -real course of the bullet in the air.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h3>ON THE TIME TAKEN TO DRAW A BALL TO THE GROUND BY -THE FORCE OF GRAVITY.</h3> - -<p class="sidenote">If fired with -axis parallel -to the ground.</p> - -<p>1st Case. Supposing a ball to be fired when the axis of the piece is parallel to -the ground and 16 feet above it, then the projectile will strike the earth in the same -length of time that it would have done, had it been rolled out of the muzzle, quite -irrespective of the velocity with which it may have been propelled, or the consequent -extent of range; that is to say the ball will have reached the point -<span class="smcapall">B.</span>, (<a href="#Plate22">plate 22</a>, fig. 1.), -in the same length of time that it would require to fall from the muzzle <span class="smcapall">A.</span>, to the earth -<span class="smcapall">C.</span>; <i>i. e.</i>, in one second.</p> - -<p>2nd Case. Were three guns to be fired at the same instant, with their three -axes parallel to the horizon as before, and loaded respectively with <sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub> drm., 1 drm., and -1<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub> drm. of powder of the same strength, then, -although the three initial velocities and<span class="pagenum" id="Page115">[115]</span> -three ranges would consequently all be different, yet the three balls would strike the -ground at the same time, <i>i. e.</i> at the points <span class="smcapall">B. B. B.</span> -in one second. (<a href="#Plate22">Plate 22</a>, fig. 2.)</p> - -<p class="sidenote">If axis at an -angle to the -ground.</p> - -<p>3rd Case. When a ball is fired at an angle of elevation it will reach the earth -in the same length of time which it would occupy in falling the length of the tangent of the -angle of projection; hence supposing <span class="smcapall">F. G.</span> (<a href="#Plate22">plate 22</a>, fig. 3.) to be 16 feet, the ball -would reach the point <span class="smcapall">G.</span> in one second, irrespective of the distance from -<span class="smcapall">D.</span> to <span class="smcapall">G.</span></p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h3>ATMOSPHERE.</h3> - -<p>Let us now take into our consideration the course of a projectile while under the -influence of <i>three</i> forces, viz., powder, gravity, and air.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Why named.</p> - -<p>The atmosphere, or sphere of gases, is the general name applied to the whole -gaseous portion of this planet, as the term ocean is applied to its liquid, and land to -its solid portions.</p> - -<p>Being much lighter than either land or water, it necessarily floats or rests upon -them, and is in sufficient quantity to cover the highest mountains, and to rise nine or -ten times their height, to about 45 miles above the sea level, so as to form a layer over -the whole surface, averaging probably between forty and fifty miles in thickness, which -is about as thick, in proportion to the globe, as the liquid layer adhering to the surface -of an orange, after it had been dipped in water.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Composition -of air.</p> - -<p>It consists essentially of two gases, called oxygen and nitrogen, and also contains -a variable quantity of aqueous vapour.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Qualities of -air.</p> - -<p>In common with matter in every state, the air possesses impenetrability. It can -be compressed, but cannot be annihilated. It has weight, inertia, momentum, and -elasticity.</p> - -<p>In consequence of its weight is its pressure, which acts uniformly on all bodies, -and is equal to between 14lbs. and 15lbs. on every square inch of surface at the -sea-level.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Early idea of -air’s resistance.</p> - -<p>The first experiments that were made on projectiles, were carried out on the idea -that the resistance of the air would not materially affect the track of a bullet which -had great velocity. <span class="sidenote">How air acts.</span>But the moment a body is launched into space, it meets with -particles of the air at every instant of its movement, to which it yields part of its -velocity, and the air being a constant force, the velocity of the body decreases at every -instant from the commencement of its motion.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h3>RESULT OF THE AIR’S RESISTANCE.</h3> - -<p class="sidenote">Robins, 1742, -showed effect -of air’s resistance.</p> - -<p>It remained for Robins, 1742, in a work then published, to show the real effect -of the atmosphere upon moving bodies. He proved by actual experiment, <span class="sidenote">Course of ball -was not a -parabola.</span>that a -24lb. shot did not range the fifth part of the distance it should have done according -to the parabolic theory. If a cannon shot moved in a parabolic curve, then from the<span class="pagenum" id="Page116">[116]</span> -known properties of that curve, it was evident that when fired with elevation, the -angle of descent of the bullet should have been the same as the angle at which it was -projected, and this he showed was not the case in practice. Now Robins acknowledged -the opinion of Galileo, as regards the force of gravity, to be correct; he could not -therefore attribute to him any miscalculation on the score of gravity. <span class="sidenote">Why not a -parabola.</span>He therefore -concluded, that the error of the “parabolic theory” arose from the supposition that -the bullet continued to move at the same velocity throughout its course.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Ballistic -pendulum.</p> - -<p>Robins tried a series of experiments by firing at a ballistic pendulum at different -distances; the oscillation of this pendulum enabled him to calculate the velocity of the -bullet, at the time it struck the pendulum, and by this means he ascertained, that -according to his expectations, the bullet moved slower in proportion as it became -more distant from the point at which it was fired. This diminution he attributed to -the resistance of the air.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Trajectory -more curved -than a parabola.</p> - -<p>From these considerations it is evident that instead of moving over equal spaces -<span class="smcapall">A. C.</span>, <span class="smcapall">C. D.</span>, -<span class="smcapall">D. E.</span>, (<a href="#Plate22">plate 22</a>, fig. 4), at each succeeding second of time, it will require -considerably longer to traverse each succeeding distance, and the force of gravity will -consequently have longer time to act upon it, and will have the effect of lowering the -bullet much more than it would do according to the “parabolic theory;” moreover -it is evident, that as the velocity of the bullet diminishes, the trajectory or path -followed by the bullet, will become still more incurvated.</p> - -<p>Having now proved the error of the “parabolic theory,” Robins began his -endeavours to calculate the actual course of the bullet, according to this new theory -which he had demonstrated, but this calculation was necessarily attended with great -difficulties, for in so doing a number of circumstances had to be considered.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Resultant.</p> - -<p>The resultant of the three forces acting on a projectile, (<a href="#Plate23">plate 23</a>, fig. 1), viz., -gunpowder, gravity, and the resistance of the air, is a motal force, diminishing in -velocity at every instant, causing the projectile to describe a curved line in its flight, -the incipient point of the curve lying in the axis of the bore of the piece, and its -continuation diverging in the direction of the attraction of gravity, till the projectile -obeys the latter force alone.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h3>EXPERIMENTS IN FRANCE.</h3> - -<p>It is stated by Captain Jervis, R.A., in the “Rifle Musket,” that “From -experiments made in France, <span class="sidenote">Angle for -greatest -range.</span>it has been found that the greatest range of the -common percussion musket, with spherical bullet fired with the regulation charge, was -at 25°; yet, by theoretical calculation, it should be 45°; <span class="sidenote">Velocity.</span>also that the usual velocity -was some 500 yards per second, whilst in vacuum it would be 19,792 yards per -second.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Elevation -giving certain -range.</p> - -<p>“At an angle of from 4° to 5°, the real range was about 640 yards; without the -resistance of the air, and at an angle of 4<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub>°, it would be 3,674, or six times -greater.”</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page117">[117]</span></p> - -<h3>ON THE EFFECT OF THE RESISTANCE OF THE AIR UPON THE -MOTION OF A PROJECTILE.</h3> - -<p class="sidenote">The effect of -the air’s resistance -upon -the motion of -a projectile.</p> - -<p>The effect of the resistance of the atmosphere to the motion of a projectile, is a -subject of the greatest importance in gunnery. It has engaged the attention of the -most eminent philosophers, and on account of the great difficulty of determining by -experiment, the correctness of any particular hypothesis, much difference of opinion is -entertained as to the absolute effect of this retarding force upon bodies moving in the -atmosphere with great velocities; and although sufficient is known to guide the -practical artillerist in that art to which he is devoted, still as a scientific question, it is -one of considerable interest, but more on account of the difficulty of its solution, than -from its practical importance.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Mr. Robins’ -discoveries.</p> - -<p>To our distinguished countryman, Mr. Benjamin Robins, is due the credit of not -only being the first practically to determine the enormous effect of the resistance of -the air in retarding the motions of military projectiles, but also of pointing out and -experimentally proving other facts with regard to this resistance, which will be noticed -when considering the subject of the deviation of shot from the intended direction.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Result of Dr. -Hutton’s experiments.</p> - -<p>After him, Dr. Hutton made a great number of experiments upon the same point, -viz., the effect of the resistance of the air upon bodies moving in that medium, both -with great and small velocities; and the inferences which he drew from these experiments, -although not absolutely true, are sufficiently correct for all practical purposes.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h3>ON THE RESISTANCE OF A FLUID TO A BODY IN MOTION.</h3> - -<p class="sidenote">Circumstances -affecting -the resistance -which a -body meets -with in its -motion in a -fluid.</p> - -<p>The resistance which a body meets with in its motion through a fluid will depend -upon three principal causes, <span class="nowrap">viz:—</span></p> - -<p>1st. Its velocity, and the form and magnitude of the surface opposed to -the fluid.</p> - -<p>2nd. Upon the density and tenacity of the fluid or cohesion of its particles, -and also upon the friction which will be caused by the roughness of the surface of -the body.</p> - -<p>3rd. Upon the degree of compression to which this fluid, supposed to be perfectly -elastic, is subjected, upon which will depend the rapidity with which it will -close in and fill the space behind the body in motion.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">The resistance -of a fluid to a -body as the -squares of the -velocities.</p> - -<p>Firstly, with regard to the velocity of the body. It is evident that a plane -moving through a fluid in a direction perpendicular to its surface, must impart to the -particles of the fluid with which it comes in contact, a velocity equal to its own; and, -consequently, from this cause alone, the resistances would be as the velocities; but -the number of particles struck in a certain time being also as the velocities, from -these two causes combined, the resistance of a fluid to a body in motion, arising from -the inertia of the particles of the fluid, will be as the square of the velocity.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Cohesion of -the particles -of a fluid, and -friction.</p> - -<p>Secondly, a body moving in a fluid must overcome the force of cohesion of those -parts which are separated, and the friction, both which are independent of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page118">[118]</span> -velocity. The total resistance then, from cohesion, friction, and inertia, will be -partly constant and partly as the square of the velocity.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Result.</p> - -<p>The resistances therefore are as the squares of the velocities in the same fluid, -and as the squares of the velocities multiplied by the densities in different fluids.</p> - -<p>Hitherto, however, we have imagined a fluid which does not exist in nature; -that is to say, a <i>discontinued</i> fluid, or one which has its particles separated and <i>unconnected</i>, -and also perfectly non-elastic.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Atmosphere, -and its properties -bearing -on the -question of its -resistance.</p> - -<p>Now, in the atmosphere, no one particle that is contiguous to the body can be -moved without moving a great number of others, some of which will be distant from -it. If the fluid be much compressed, and the velocity of the moving body much less -than that with which the particles of the fluid will rush into vacuum in consequence -of the compression, it is clear that the space left by the moving body will be almost -instantaneously filled up, (<a href="#Plate23">plate 23</a>, fig. 2); and the resistance of such a medium -would be less the greater the compression, provided the density were the same, -because the velocity of rushing into a vacuum will be greater the greater the compression. -Also, in a greatly compressed fluid, the form of the fore part of the body -influences the amount of the retarding force but very slightly, while in a non-compressed -fluid this force would be considerably affected by the peculiar shape which -might be given to the projectile.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Resistance increased -when -the body -moves so fast -that a vacuum -is formed behind -it.</p> - -<p>Thirdly. If the body can be moved so rapidly that the fluid cannot instantaneously -press in behind it, as is found to be the case in the atmosphere, the resisting -power of the medium must be considerably increased, for the projectile being deprived -of the pressure of the fluid on its hind part, must support on its fore part the whole -weight of a column of the fluid, over and above the force employed in moving the -portion of the fluid in contact with it, which force is the sole source of resistance in -the discontinued fluid. Also, the condensation of the air in front of the body will -influence considerably the relation between the resistances and the velocities of an -oblique surface: and it is highly probable that although the resistances to a globe -may for slow motions be nearly proportional to the squares of the velocities, they will -for great velocities increase in a much higher ratio.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h3>ON THE VELOCITY WITH WHICH AIR WILL RUSH INTO A VACUUM.</h3> - -<p class="sidenote">The velocity -of the rush of -air into a -vacuum.</p> - -<p>When considering the resistance of the air to a body in motion, it is important -that the velocity with which air will rush into a vacuum should be determined; and -this will depend upon its pressure or elasticity.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Result.</p> - -<p>It has been calculated, that air will rush into a vacuum at the rate of about 1,344 -feet per second when the barometer stands at 30 inches, so that should a projectile be -moving through the atmosphere at a greater velocity than this, say 1,600 feet per -second, then would there be a vacuum formed behind the ball, and instead of having -merely the resistance due to the inertia of the particles of the air, it would, in addition, -suffer that from the whole pressure of a column of the medium, equal to that indicated -by the barometer.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page119">[119]</span></p> - -<h2>UPON THE RESISTANCE OF THE AIR TO -BODIES OF DIFFERENT FORMS.</h2> - -<hr class="chapline top" /> -<hr class="chapline bot" /> - -<p class="sidenote">Difficulties of -the question.</p> - -<p>The influence of the form of a body upon the resistance offered to it by a fluid, -is a problem of the greatest difficulty; and although the most celebrated mathematicians -have turned their attention to the subject, still, even for slow motions, they -have only been able to frame strictly empirical formula, founded upon the data derived -from practice; while with regard to the resistance at very high velocities, such as we -have to deal with, very little light has hitherto been thrown upon the subject.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Compressed -fluid.</p> - -<p>When a body moves in the atmosphere, the particles which are set in motion by -the projectile, act upon those in proximity to them, and these again upon others; and -also from the elasticity of the fluid, it would be compressed before the body in a -degree dependant upon the motion and form of the body. Moreover, the atmosphere -itself partakes so much of the nature of an infinitely compressed fluid, as to constantly -follow the body without loss of density when the motion is slow, but not when the -velocity is great, so that the same law will not hold good for both. In an infinitely -compressed fluid (that is, one which would fill up the space left behind the body instantaneously) -the parts of the fluid which the body presses against in its motion -would instantaneously communicate the pressure received by them throughout the -whole mass, so that the density of the fluid would not undergo any change, either in -front of the body or behind it, consequently the resistance to the body would be much -less than in a fluid partially compressed like the atmosphere; and the form of the -body would not have the same effect in diminishing or increasing the amount of -resistance.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">When a -vacuum is -formed behind -the ball.</p> - -<p>When the velocity of a body moving in the atmosphere is so great that a vacuum is -formed behind it, the action of the fluid approaches to that of the discontinued fluid.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h3>RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTS WITH SLOW MOTIONS.</h3> - -<p class="sidenote">Resistance in -proportion to -surface.</p> - -<p>1st. It appears from the various experiments that have been made upon bodies -moving in the atmosphere, that the resistance is nearly as the surface, increasing a very -little above that proportion in the greater surfaces.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Resistance as -squares of -velocity.</p> - -<p>2nd. That the resistance to the same surface with <i>different</i> velocities, is in <i>slow</i> -motions nearly as the squares of the velocity, but gradually increasing more and more -in proportion as the velocities increase.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Rounded and -pointed ends -suffer less resistance.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page120">[120]</span></p> - -<p>3rd. The round ends, and sharp ends of solids, suffer less resistance than the -flat or plane ends of the same diameter. Hence the flat end of the cylinder and of a -hemisphere, or of a cone, suffer more resistance than the round or sharp ends of the same.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Sharp ends -not always -least resistance.</p> - -<p>4th. The sharper ends have not always the smaller resistances; for instance, the -round end of a hemisphere has less resistance than the pointed end of a cone, whose -angle with the axis is 25° 42′.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Form of base -affects resistance.</p> - -<p>5th. When the hinder parts of bodies are of different forms, the resistances are -different, though the fore parts are the same. Hence the resistance to the fore part -of a cylinder is less than that on the equally flat surface of the cone or hemisphere, -owing to the shape of the <i>base</i> of the cylinder. The base of the hemisphere has less -resistance than the cone, and the round side of the hemisphere less than that of the -whole sphere.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Only proved -for slow motions.</p> - -<p>The above refers only to <i>slow</i> motions, and the results given, from experiments -with very small velocities; and it is to be expected, that with very rapid motions the -form of the fore, as well as the hind part, of the projectile, will influence the amount -of resistance in a much higher degree.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Form of hind -part.</p> - -<p>That form for the hind part will be best which has the greatest pressure upon it, -when moving with a certain velocity.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Best shape for -fore and hind -part.</p> - -<p>The ogivale form seems, from experiment, to fulfil the former condition. The -best form for the <i>hind</i> part, for <i>rapid</i> motions, has not been determined; it may, -however, be considered to be of much less importance than the shape of the fore part.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Form determined -by extent -of range.</p> - -<p>Of course the best form can be determined by extent of range, but deductions -from this will depend upon such a variety of circumstances, the effects of some of -which must be entirely hypothetical, that the correctness of any formulæ obtained in -this manner must be very uncertain.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Form suggested -by Sir -I. Newton.</p> - -<p>Sir Isaac Newton, in his “Principia,” has given an indication of that form of -body, which, in passing through a fluid, would experience less resistance than a solid -body of equal magnitude of any other form. It is elongated.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Axis of elongated -bodies -must be fixed.</p> - -<p>It is plain, however, that the minimum of resistance would not be obtained with -a shot of an elongated form, unless the axis can be kept in the direction of the trajectory; -as not only will the axis perpetually deviate from the true direction, but the -projectile will turn over and rotate round its shorter axis, that is, if fired out of a -smooth bore.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Advantages of -conical bullets.</p> - -<p>Conical bullets have an advantage, from their pointed end, which enables them -to pass through the air with greater facility; and for the same reason they are better -calculated to penetrate into any matter than spherical ones.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Disadvantages -of conical -bullets.</p> - -<p>A <i>solid</i> bullet cannot be pointed without sending backward the centre of gravity. -The sharper the point, the more it is liable to injury, and if the apex of the cone -does not lie true, in the axis of the projectile, then such an imperfection of figure is -calculated to cause greater deflections in the flight than any injury which a round -surface is likely to sustain. In penetrating into solid bodies, it is also important that -the centre of gravity should be near its work.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page121">[121]</span></p> - -<h3>RESISTANCE OF THE AIR, AS AFFECTED BY THE WEIGHT OF -PROJECTILES.</h3> - -<p class="sidenote">Resistance -overcome by -weight.</p> - -<p>Bodies of similar volume and figure overcome the resistance of the air in proportion -to their densities. The amount of the air’s resistance is in proportion to the -magnitude of the surface.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Contents of -circles.</p> - -<p>The superficial contents of circles are as the <i>squares</i> of their diameters. Hence -if the ball <span class="smcapall">A.</span> (<a href="#Plate23">plate 23</a>, fig. 3) be -2in. in diameter, and the ball <span class="smcapall">B.</span> 4in., the amount of -resistance experienced would be as four to sixteen.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Contents of -spheres.</p> - -<p>The cubical contents, or weights of spheres, are in proportion to the <i>cubes</i> of -their diameters. Hence the power to overcome resistance in the balls <span class="smcapall">A</span> -and <span class="smcapall">B</span> would -be as <i>eight</i> to <i>sixty-four</i>. Thus the power to overcome resistance increases in much -greater proportion than the resistance elicited by increasing the surface.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Advantages of -elongated bullets.</p> - -<p>Suppose an elongated body to have the diameter of its cylindrical portion equal to -that of the ball <span class="smcapall">A.</span>, <i>i.e.</i>, <span class="smcapall">E.F.</span> = -<span class="smcapall">C.D.</span>, (<a href="#Plate23">plate 23</a>, fig. 4), and elongated so that its -weight should be equal to that of the spherical shot <span class="smcapall">B.</span>, it is evident that it would -meet equal resistance from the air, to the ball <span class="smcapall">A.</span>, having, at the same time, as much -power to overcome resistance as the body <span class="smcapall">B.</span></p> - -<p>Elongated balls, by offering a larger surface to the sides of the barrel, are less -liable to be affected by any imperfections in the bore; whereas the spherical ball, -pressing only on its tangential point, will give to any little hollows, or undulations, -wherever they occur.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Balls cannot -be expanded.</p> - -<p>A spherical ball cannot be expanded into the grooves, unless there be very little -windage, except by blows from the ramrod, the gas escaping round the circumference -of the ball, and giving it an irregular motion while passing down the barrel; <span class="sidenote">Elongated -projectiles -easily expanded.</span>but an -elongated projectile can be readily expanded, and the facility of doing so is in proportion -to the difference of length between its major and minor axis.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h3>DEVIATIONS OF PROJECTILES FROM SMOOTH-BORED GUNS.</h3> - -<p class="sidenote">Causes of deviation -of -shot.</p> - -<p>Very great irregularities occur in the paths described by projectiles fired from -smooth-bored guns. It is a fact well known to all practical artillerists, that if a -number of solid shot or any other projectile be fired from the same gun, with equal -charges and elevations, and with gunpowder of the same quality, the gun carriage -resting on a platform, and the piece being laid with the greatest care before each -round, very few of the shot will range to the same distance; and moreover, the -greater part will be found to deflect considerably (unless the range be very short) to -the right or left of the line in which the gun is pointed.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Four causes of -deviation.</p> - -<p>The causes of these deviations may be stated as follows:—1st, Windage; 2nd, -Rotation; 3rd, Wind; 4th, from Rotation of the Earth.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h4>1st CAUSE, WINDAGE.</h4> - -<p class="sidenote">Action from -windage.</p> - - - - - -<p>Windage causes irregularity in the flight of a projectile, from the fact of the elastic<span class="pagenum" id="Page122">[122]</span> -gas acting in the first instance on its upper portion, and driving it against the bottom -of the bore; the shot re-acts at the same time that it is impelled forward by the -charge, and strikes the upper surface of the bore some distance down, and so on by a -succession of rebounds, <span class="sidenote">False direction.</span>until it leaves the bore in an accidental direction, and with a -rotatory motion, depending chiefly on the position of the last impact against the bore. -Thus should the last impact of a (concentric) shot when fired from a gun be upon the -right hand side of the bore, as represented, (<a href="#Plate23">plate 23</a>, fig. 5); the shot will have a -tendency to deflect to the left in the direction. <span class="sidenote">Gives rotation.</span>While at the same time a rotation -will be given to it in the direction indicated by the arrows.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h4>2nd CAUSE, ROTATION.</h4> - -<span class="sidenote">Rotation -without translation.</span> - -<p>Every body may have a twofold motion, one by which it is carried forward, and -the other by which it may turn round on an axis passing through its centre, called a -motion of rotation.</p> - -<p>When a body has only a motion of translation all the particles of which it is -composed move with equal swiftness, and also in parallel directions; and by the first -law of motion, every particle put in such motion will constantly move with the same -velocity in the same direction, unless it be prevented by some external cause.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Rotation.</p> - -<p>By a motion of rotation, a body without changing its place, turns round on an -axis passing through its centre of gravity. <span class="sidenote">Rotation and -translation -combined.</span>A body may have at the same time both -a progressive and rotatory motion, without either disturbing the other, and one may -suffer a change from the action of some external force, while the other continues the -same as before.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Force through -centre of -gravity, -causes progressive -motion -only.</p> - -<p>If the direction of the force be through the centre of gravity, it causes a progressive -motion only, that is, if the body was at rest before, it will move forward in -the direction of the impressed force.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Effect of force -on a body in -motion.</p> - -<p>If a body had a progressive motion before, then impressed force will cause it to -move faster or slower, or to change its direction, according as the direction of this -second force conspires with or opposes its former motion, or acts obliquely on its -direction.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Rotation not -disturbed by -second force -in direction of -centre of gravity.</p> - -<p>If a body, besides its progressive motion had a motion of rotation also, this last -will not be changed by the action of a new force passing through the centre of gravity.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Rotation of -force does not -pass through -the centre of -gravity.</p> - -<p>If the direction of the force does not pass through the centre of gravity, the -progressive motion will be altered, and the body will then also acquire a rotatory -motion round an axis passing through the centre of gravity, and perpendicular to a -plane passing through the direction of the force and this centre.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h3>CASES BEARING UPON THE FOREGOING THEORY.</h3> - -<p class="sidenote">When ball is -perfectly -round, centre -of gravity -coincides with -figure, and no -windage.</p> - -<p>1st Case. Suppose the ball to be perfectly round, its centre of gravity and -figure to coincide, and let there be no windage. In this case the force of the powder -not only passes through the centre of gravity of the shot, but proceeds in a direction -parallel to the axis of the bore, and there would be but small friction due to the -weight of the shot.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">If windage -then rotation.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page123">[123]</span></p> - -<p>2nd Case. But as there is a considerable amount of friction between the bore -and the projectile in the case where there is windage, the direction of this force being -opposite to that of the gunpowder, and upon the surface of the ball, it will therefore -give rotation to the shot.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Eccentricity -causes rotation.</p> - -<p>3rd Case. Suppose the ball to be perfectly round, but its centre of gravity not -to coincide with the centre of figure. In this case the impelling force passes through -the centre of the ball, or nearly so, and acts in a direction parallel to the axis of the -piece; but if the centre of gravity of the ball lie out of the line of direction of the -force of the powder, the shot will be urged to turn round its centre of gravity.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Angular velocity.</p> - -<p>The angular velocity communicated to the body will depend, firstly, upon the -length of the perpendicular from the centre of gravity upon the direction of the impelling -force, and secondly, upon the law of density of the material or the manner -in which the metal is distributed. The direction of rotations will depend upon the -position of the centre of figure with regard to that of gravity. (<a href="#Plate23">Plate 23</a>, fig. 6.)</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Robins’ -remarks.</p> - -<p>Robins remarks, bullets are not only depressed beneath their original direction by -the action of gravity, but are also frequently driven to the right or left of that direction -by the action of some other force. If it were true that bullets varied their direction -by the action of gravity only, then it ought to happen that the errors in their flight to -the right or left of the mark, should increase in proportion to the distance of the mark -from the firer only.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Deflection not -in proportion -to distance.</p> - -<p>But this is contrary to all experience, for the same piece which will carry its -bullet within an inch at ten yards, cannot be relied upon to ten inches in one hundred -yards, much less to thirty inches in three hundred.</p> - -<p>Now this irregularity can only arise from the track of the bullet being incurvated -sideways as well as downwards. The reality of this doubly incurvated track being -demonstrated, it may be asked what can be the cause of a motion so different from -what has been hitherto supposed.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">1st cause of -increase, deflection.</p> - -<p>1st Cause. Is owing to the resistance of the air acting obliquely to the progressive -motion of the body, and sometimes arises from inequalities in the resisted -surface.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">2nd cause, -from whirling -motion.</p> - -<p>2nd Cause. From a whirling motion acquired by the bullet round its axis, for -by this motion of rotation, combined with the progressive motion, each part of the -bullet’s surface will strike the air in a direction very different from what it would do -if there was no such whirl; and the obliquity of the action of the air arising from this -cause will be greater, according as the rotatory motion of the bullet is greater in proportion -to its progressive motion; and as this whirl will in one part of the revolution -conspire in some degree with the progressive, and in another part be equally opposed -to it, the resistance of the air on the fore part of the bullet will be hereby affected, -and will be increased in that part where the whirling motion conspires with the -progressive; and diminished where it is opposed to it. <span class="sidenote">Direction of a -shot influenced -by -position of -axis round -which it -whirls.</span>And by this means the whole -effort of resistance, instead of being in a direction opposite to the direction of the -body, will become oblique thereto, and will produce those effects we have already -mentioned. For instance, if the axis of the whirl was perpendicular to the horizon,<span class="pagenum" id="Page124">[124]</span> -then the incurvation would be to the right or left. If that axis were horizontal to -the direction of the bullet, then the incurvation would be upwards or downwards. -But as the first position of the axis is uncertain, and as it may perpetually shift in the -course of the bullet’s flight, the deviation of the bullet is not necessarily either in one -certain direction, nor tending to the same side in one part of its flight that it does in -another, but it more usually is continually changing the tendency of its deflection, as -the axis round which it whirls must frequently shift its position during the progressive -motion.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Doubly incurvated -track.</p> - -<p>It is constantly found in practice that a shot will deviate in a curved line, either -right or left, the curve rapidly increasing towards the end of the range. This most -probably occurs from the velocity of rotation decreasing but slightly, compared with -the initial velocity of the shot, or, if a strong wind is blowing across the range during -the whole time of flight, the curve would manifestly be increased according as the -velocity of the ball decreased.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h3>ILLUSTRATIONS OF ROBINS’ THEORY OF ROTATION.</h3> - -<p class="sidenote">With ball and -double string.</p> - -<p>1st Illustration. A wooden ball 4<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub> inches in diameter suspended by a double -string, nine feet long. It will be found that if this ball receive a spinning motion by -the untwisting of the string it will remain stationary. If it be made to vibrate, it will -continue to do so in the same vertical plane. But if it be made to spin while it -vibrates it will be deflected to that side on which the whirl combines with the progressive -motion.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">By firing -through screens.</p> - -<p>2nd Illustration. By firing through screens of thin paper placed parallel to each -other, at equal distances, the deflection or track of bullets can easily be investigated. -It will be found that the amount of deflection is wholly disproportioned to the increased -distance of the screens.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Bent muzzle.</p> - -<p>3rd Illustration. To give further light upon this subject, Mr. Robins took a barrel -and bent it at about three or four inches from the muzzle to the left, the bend making -an angle of 3° or 4° with the axis of the piece.</p> - -<p>By firing at screens it was found that although the ball passed through the first -screens to the left, it struck the butt to the right of the vertical plane on which aim -was taken in line of the axis of the unbent portion of the barrel. This was caused by -the friction of the ball on the right side of the bent part of the muzzle, causing the -ball to spin from left to right.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h3>ON ECCENTRIC PROJECTILES.</h3> - -<p class="sidenote">How to find -centre of gravity.</p> - -<p>Sir Howard Douglas, in his “Naval Gunnery,” states:—“The position of the -centre of gravity can be found by floating the projectile in mercury, and marking -its vertex. Then mark a point upon the shot diametrically opposite to that point, -which will give the direction of the axis in which the two centres lie. Thus the -shot can be placed in the gun with its centre of gravity in any desired position.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page125">[125]</span></p> - -<p>“On making experiments, it appeared that not one shot in a hundred, when -floated in mercury, was indifferent as to the position in which it was so floated, but -turned immediately, until the centre of gravity arrived at the lowest point, and -consequently that not one shot in a hundred was perfect in sphericity, and homogeneity. -Shells can be made eccentric by being cast with a solid segment in the -interior sphere, left in the shell, or by boring two holes in each shell, diametrically -opposite to one another, stopping up one with 5lbs. of lead, and the other with -wood. <span class="sidenote">Effect of -eccentricity.</span>When the centre of gravity was above the centre of the figure, the ranges -were the longest, and when below, the shortest. When to the right or left hand, -the deviations were also to the right or left. The mean range which, with the usual -shot, was 1640 yards, was, with the shot whose centres of gravity and of figure -were not coincident, the centre of gravity being upwards, equal to 2140 yards, -being an increase of 500 yards.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Ricochet of -eccentric shot.</p> - -<p>“With respect to the ricochet of eccentric spherical projectiles, the rotation -which causes deflection in the flight, must act in the same manner to impede a -straight forward graze. When an ordinary well formed homogenous spherical -projectile, upon which probably very little rotation is impressed, makes a graze, the -bottom of the vertical diameter first touches the plane, and immediately acquires, by -the reaction, a rotation upon its horizontal axis, by which the shot rolls onwards -throughout the graze, probably for a straight forward second flight. But in the case -of an eccentric spherical projectile, placed with its centre of gravity to the right or -to the left, its rotation upon its vertical axis during the graze must occasion a fresh -deflection in its second flight, and it is only when the centre of gravity is placed in -a vertical plane passing through the axis of the gun, that the rotation by touching -the ground will not disturb the direction of the graze, though the extent of range -to the first graze will be affected more or less according as the centre of gravity may -have been placed upwards or downwards. Whether the rebounds take place from -water, as in the experiments made on board the “Excellent,” or on land, as those -carried on at Shoeburyness, the shot, when revolving on a vertical axis, instead of -making a straight forward graze, suffered deflection which were invariably towards -the same side of the line of fire as the centre of gravity; and at every graze up to -the fourth, a new deflection took place.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Knowledge -derived from -experiments -with eccentric -shot.</p> - -<p>“The results of these very curious and instructive experiments fully explain the -extraordinary anomalies, as they have heretofore been considered, in length of range -and in the lateral deviations: these have been attributed to changes in the state of -the air, or the direction of the wind, to differences in the strength of the gunpowder, -and to inequalities in the degrees of windage. All these causes are, no doubt, productive -of errors in practice, but it is now clear that those errors are chiefly -occasioned by the eccentricity and nonhomogeneity of the shot, and the accidental -positions of the centre of gravity of the projectile with respect to the axis of the -bore. The whole of these experiments furnish decisive proof of the necessity of -paying the most scrupulous attention to the figure and homogeneity of solid shot, and -concentricity of shells, and they exhibit the remarkable fact that a very considerable<span class="pagenum" id="Page126">[126]</span> -increase of range may be obtained without an increase in the charge, or elevation -of the gun.”</p> - -<p class="sidenote">No advantage -in using -eccentric projectiles.</p> - -<p>It is not to be expected that eccentric projectiles would be applicable for general -purposes, on account of the degree of attention and care required in their service, nor -would much advantage be gained by their use, as the momentum is not altered, and -it is only necessary to give the ordinary shot a little more elevation in order to strike -the same object.</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Range of elongated -projectiles -at certain -low elevations -greater -in air than in -vacuo.</p> - -<p>There is another point of great importance with regard to the range of elongated -projectiles. It is asserted by Sir W. Armstrong and others, that at certain low -elevations the range of an elongated projectile is greater in the atmosphere than in -vacuo, and the following is the explanation given by the former of this apparent -paradox. “In a vacuum, the trajectory would be the same, whether the projectile -were elongated or spherical, so long as the angle of elevation, and the initial -velocity were constant; but the presence of a resisting atmosphere makes this -remarkable difference, that while it greatly shortens the range of the round shot, it -actually prolongs that of the elongated projectile, provided the angle of elevation -do not exceed a certain limit, which, in my experiments, I have found to be about -6°. This appears, at first, very paradoxical, but it may be easily explained. The -elongated shot, if properly formed, and having a sufficient rotation, retains the same -inclination to the horizontal plane throughout its flight, and consequently acquires -a continually increasing obliquity to the curve of its flight. Now the effect of this -obliquity is, that the projectile is in a measure sustained upon the air, just as a kite -is supported by the current of air meeting the inclined surface, and the result is -that its descent is retarded, so that it has time to reach to a greater distance.”</p> - -<p class="sidenote">Charge.</p> - -<p>The form and weight of the projectile being determined as well as the inclination -of the grooves, the charge can be so arranged as to give the necessary initial velocity, -and velocity of rotation; or if the nature of projectile and charge be fixed, the -inclination of the grooves must be such as will give the required results. The most -important consideration is the weight and form of projectile; the inclination of the -grooves, the charge, weight of metal in the gun, &c., are regulated almost entirely by -it. The charges used with rifle pieces are much less than those with which smooth-bored -guns are fired, for little or none of the gas is allowed to escape by windage, -there being therefore no loss of force; and it is found by experience that, with -comparatively low initial velocities, the elongated projectiles maintain their velocity, -and attain very long ranges.</p> - -<hr class="full" /> - -<p class="note"><span class="smcap">Note.</span>—The foregoing articles on “Theory,” -are principally extracted from “New Principles of Gunnery by -Robins,” “Treatise on Artillery, by Lieut.-Colonel Boxer, R.A.” “The Rifle Musket, by Captain Jervis, M.P., -Royal Artillery.” “Elementary Lecturers on Artillery, by Major H. C. Owen and -Captain T. Dames, Royal Artillery.”</p> - -<p class="center blankbefore2 highline4 fsize80">THE END.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -</div><!--sidenotetext--> - -<div class="plate" id="Plate1"> - -<p class="plateno">PLATE 1.</p> - -<p class="caption sstype">FIG. 1.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo01a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="469" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption main">Powder Mill.</p> - -<p class="caption blankbefore1 sstype">FIG. 2.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo01b.jpg" alt="" width="450" height="377" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption main">Old Eprouvette Pendulum</p> - -<p class="caption blankbefore1 sstype">FIG. 3.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo01c.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="340" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption main">New Pattern Eprouvette</p> - -<p class="noindent platemaker"><i>Harry Vernon delt.</i></p> - -<p class="center platemaker">Day & Son Lith<sup>rs</sup>. to the Queen.</p> - -</div><!--plate--> - -<div class="plate" id="Plate2"> - -<p class="plateno">PLATE 2.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo02.jpg" alt="" width="363" height="600" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption"><i>Enlarged section of Valve</i></p> - -<p class="caption main blankbefore1">Hydraulic Press</p> - -<p class="noindent platemaker"><i>Harry Vernon delt.</i></p> - -<p class="center platemaker">Day & Son Lith<sup>rs</sup>. to the Queen.</p> - -</div><!--plate--> - -<div class="plate" id="Plate3"> - -<p class="plateno">PLATE 3.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo03.jpg" alt="" width="355" height="600" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption main">Robins’ Balistic Pendulum</p> - -<p class="noindent platemaker"><i>Harry Vernon delt.</i></p> - -<p class="center platemaker">Day & Son Lith<sup>rs</sup>. to the Queen.</p> - -</div><!--plate--> - -<div class="plate" id="Plate4"> - -<p class="plateno">PLATE 4.</p> - -<p class="caption sstype">FIG. 1.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo04a.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="186" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption main">Bow unstrung</p> - -<p class="caption sstype blankbefore1">FIG. 2.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo04b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="151" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption main">Bow strung</p> - -<p class="caption sstype blankbefore1">FIG. 3.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo04c.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="102" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption main">Hand or Arrow Rocket</p> - -<p class="caption sstype blankbefore1">FIG. 4.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo04d.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="305" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption main">Five barrelled Matchlock</p> - -<p class="caption sstype blankbefore1">FIG. 5.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo04e.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="253" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption main">Revolving Barrelled Matchlock</p> - -<p class="caption main blankbefore1">CHINESE EXPLOSIVE <span class="smcapall">AND</span> OTHER WEAPONS.</p> - -<p class="caption sstype blankbefore1">FIG. 6.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo04f.jpg" alt="" width="450" height="92" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption main">Asiatic Bow</p> - -<p class="noindent platemaker"><i>Harry Vernon delt.</i></p> - -<p class="center platemaker">Day & Son Lith<sup>rs</sup>. to the Queen</p> - -</div><!--plate--> - -<div class="plate" id="Plate5"> - -<p class="plateno">PLATE 5.</p> - -<p class="caption sstype">FIG. 1.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo05a.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="158" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption main">Matchlock</p> - -<p class="caption sstype blankbefore1">FIG. 2.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo05b.jpg" alt="" width="550" height="183" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption main">Breech loading Gingal (Chamber in)</p> - -<p class="caption sstype blankbefore1">FIG. 3.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo05c.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="199" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption main">Breech loading Gingal (Chamber out)</p> - -<p class="caption main blankbefore1">CHINESE EXPLOSIVE ARMS.</p> - -<p class="noindent platemaker"><i>Harry Vernon delt.</i></p> - -<p class="center platemaker">Day & Son Lith<sup>rs</sup>. to the Queen.</p> - -</div><!--plate--> - -<div class="plate" id="Plate6"> - -<p class="plateno">PLATE 6.</p> - -<p class="caption sstype">FIG. 1.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo06a.jpg" alt="" width="416" height="600" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption sstype blankbefore1">FIG. 2.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo06b.jpg" alt="" width="394" height="600" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption sstype blankbefore1">FIG. 3.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo06c.jpg" alt="" width="497" height="600" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption sstype blankbefore1">FIG. 4.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo06d.jpg" alt="" width="470" height="600" /> -</div> - -<p class="noindent platemaker"><i>Harry Vernon dele.</i></p> - -<p class="caption fsize100 sstype">MACHINES FOR THROWING DARTS AND STONES.</p> - -<p class="center platemaker">Day & Son Lith<sup>rs</sup>. to the Queen.</p> - -</div><!--plate--> - -<div class="plate" id="Plate7"> - -<p class="plateno">PLATE 7.</p> - -<p class="caption fsize100 sstype"><span class="gesp2">ONAGER</span> (SLUNG).</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo07.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="397" /> -</div> - -<p class="noindent platemaker"><i>Harry Vernon delt.</i></p> - -<p class="center platemaker">Day & Son, Lith<sup>rs</sup>. to the Queen.</p> - -</div><!--plate--> - -<div class="plate" id="Plate8"> - -<p class="plateno">PLATE 8.</p> - -<p class="caption main">Onager <span class="fsize90">(unslung)</span>.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo08.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="431" /> -</div> - -<p class="noindent platemaker"><i>Harry Vernon delt.</i></p> - -<p class="center platemaker">Day & Son Lith<sup>rs</sup>. to the Queen.</p> - -</div><!--plate--> - -<p class="largeillo"><a href="images/illo08lg.jpg">Larger illustration</a></p> - -<div class="plate" id="Plate9"> - -<p class="plateno">PLATE 9.</p> - -<p class="caption main">Balista</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo09.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="350" /> -</div> - -<p class="noindent platemaker"><i>Arthur Walker C.<sup>t</sup> 79.<sup>th</sup> delt.</i></p> - -<p class="center platemaker">Day & Son Lith<sup>rs</sup>. to the Queen.</p> - -</div><!--plate--> - -<div class="plate" id="Plate10"> - -<p class="plateno">PLATE 10.</p> - -<p class="caption main">Catapulta.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo10.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="219" /> -</div> - -<p class="noindent platemaker"><i>Dessiné par Arthur Walker.</i></p> - -<p class="center platemaker">Day & Son Lith<sup>rs</sup>. to the Queen.</p> - -</div><!--plate--> - -<div class="plate" id="Plate11"> - -<p class="plateno">PLATE 11.</p> - -<p class="caption sstype">FIG. 1.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo11a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="393" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption main">Staff slings, Longbows, Crossbows and Flail.</p> - -<p class="caption sstype blankbefore1">FIG. 2.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo11b.jpg" alt="" width="527" height="500" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption main">Onager.</p> - -<p class="caption sstype blankbefore1">FIG. 3.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo11c.jpg" alt="" width="371" height="600" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption main">Trepied.</p> - -<p class="noindent platemaker"><i>Harry Vernon delt.</i></p> - -<p class="center platemaker">Day & Son Lith<sup>rs</sup>. to the Queen.</p> - -</div><!--plate--> - -<div class="plate" id="Plate12"> - -<p class="plateno">PLATE 12.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo12a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="184" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption main">Detail of Springs.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo12b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="435" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption main">Balista.</p> - -<p class="noindent platemaker"><i>Harry Vernon Staff Serj<sup>t</sup>. del.</i></p> - -<p class="center platemaker">Day & Son Lith<sup>rs</sup>. to the Queen.</p> - -</div><!--plate--> - -<div class="plate" id="Plate13"> - -<p class="plateno">PLATE 13.</p> - -<p class="caption sstype">FIG. 1.<span class="pad40pc"> </span>FIG. 2.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo13b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="562" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption main">A Cross bow man and Slinger.</p> - -<p class="caption sstype blankbefore1">FIG. 3.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo13a.jpg" alt="" width="250" height="309" /> -</div> - -<p class="noindent platemaker"><i>Harry Vernon delt.</i></p> - -<p class="center platemaker" >Day & Son Lith<sup>rs</sup>. to the Queen.</p> - -</div><!--plate--> - -<div class="plate" id="Plate14"> - -<p class="plateno">PLATE 14.</p> - -<p class="caption sstype">FIG. 1.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo14a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="226" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption sstype blankbefore1">FIG. 2.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo14b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="216" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption sstype blankbefore1">FIG. 3.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo14c.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="214" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption sstype blankbefore1">FIG. 4.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo14d.jpg" alt="" width="450" height="41" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption main">Cross-bows and Quarrels.</p> - -<p class="noindent platemaker"><i>Harry Vernon delt.</i></p> - -<p class="center platemaker">Day & Son Lith<sup>rs</sup>. to the Queen.</p> - -</div><!--plate--> - -<p class="largeillo"><a href="images/illo14alg.jpg">Larger Fig. 1.</a><br /> -<a href="images/illo14clg.jpg">Larger Fig. 3.</a></p> - -<div class="plate" id="Plate15"> - -<p class="plateno">PLATE 15.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo15.jpg" alt="" width="487" height="600" /> -</div> - -<p class="noindent platemaker"><i>Harry Vernon delt.</i></p> - -<p class="caption main">A Cross bow man and his Paviser.</p> - -<p class="center platemaker">Day & Son Lith<sup>rs</sup>. to the Queen.</p> - -</div><!--plate--> - -<div class="plate" id="Plate16"> - -<p class="plateno">PLATE 16.</p> - -<p class="caption sstype">FIG. 1.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo16a.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="59" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption main">Gun and Querrel Temp:<br /> -Edward 3<sup>rd</sup>. Sloane M<sup>ss</sup>.</p> - -<p class="caption sstype blankbefore1">FIG. 2.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo16b.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="100" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption main">Small chambered Cannon<br /> -from the Santini M<sup>ss</sup>.</p> - -<p class="caption sstype blankbefore1">FIG. 3.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo16c.jpg" alt="" width="250" height="248" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption main">Santini M<sup>ss</sup>.<br />Early part of 15<sup>th</sup> Cent<sup>y</sup>.</p> - -<p class="caption sstype blankbefore1">FIG. 4.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo16d.jpg" alt="" width="450" height="256" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption main">Mode of mounting<br /> -from Froissart.</p> - -<p class="caption sstype blankbefore1">FIG. 5.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo16e.jpg" alt="" width="450" height="273" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption main">Method of obtaining elevation.</p> - -<p class="caption sstype blankbefore1">FIG. 6.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo16f.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="365" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption main">Mode of Mounting<br /> -from Valturius.</p> - -<p class="caption sstype blankbefore1">FIG. 7.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo16g.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="138" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption main">From the wreck of the “Mary Rose” Temp: Henry 8<sup>th</sup>.</p> - -<p class="caption sstype blankbefore1">FIG. 8.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo16h.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="174" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption main">Hooped Cannon in wooden bed.</p> - -<p class="caption sstype blankbefore1">FIG. 9.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo16i.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="122" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption main">Ancient Screw piece.</p> - -<p class="caption sstype blankbefore1">FIG. 10.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo16j.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="134" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption main">Ancient Screw Breech loader.</p> - -<p class="caption sstype blankbefore1">FIG. 11.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo16k.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="105" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption main">Chinese Field piece Peiho 1860.</p> - -<p class="caption sstype blankbefore1">FIG. 12.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo16l.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="176" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption main">Ancient howitzer Cannon for<br /> -throwing balls Filled with powder</p> - -<p class="noindent platemaker"><i>Arthur Walker delt.</i></p> - -<p class="center platemaker">Day & Son Lith<sup>rs</sup>. to the Queen.</p> - -</div><!--plate--> - -<div class="plate" id="Plate17"> - -<p class="plateno">PLATE 17.</p> - -<p class="caption sstype blankbefore1">FIG. 1.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo17a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="77" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption main">Giorgio Martini, 15<sup>th</sup>. Century, latter part.</p> - -<p class="caption sstype blankbefore1">FIG. 2.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo17b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="64" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption main blankbelow1">Queen Elizabeth’s Pocket Pistol.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo17c.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="122" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption main blankbelow1">Mons Meg.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo17d.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="74" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption main noindent blankbelow1"><span class="padl2">Chamber.</span> -<span class="padl18">Pierrier or Paterera__16<sup>th</sup>. Century.</span></p> - -<p class="noindent platemaker"><i>H. Cautly del.</i></p> - -<p class="center platemaker">Day & Son Lith<sup>rs</sup>. to the Queen.</p> - -</div><!--plate--> - -<div class="plate" id="Plate18"> - -<p class="plateno">PLATE 18.</p> - -<p class="caption sstype blankbefore1">FIG. 1.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo18a.jpg" alt="" width="450" height="157" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption main">Cart of War.__Temp: Henry 8<sup>th</sup>.</p> - -<p class="caption sstype blankbefore1">FIG. 2.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo18b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="230" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption main">“Moolik i Meidan.”</p> - -<p class="caption sstype blankbefore1">FIG. 3.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo18c.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="181" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption main">Bombard and Carriage.__15<sup>th</sup>. Cent<sup>y</sup>.</p> - -<p class="caption sstype blankbefore1">FIG. 4.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo18d.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="197" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption main">Long Serpentine of Wrought Iron.__15<sup>th</sup>. Cent<sup>y</sup>.</p> - -<p class="noindent platemaker"><i>R.G. Coles del.<sup>t</sup></i></p> - -<p class="center platemaker">Day & Son Lith<sup>rs</sup>. to the Queen.</p> - -</div><!--plate--> - -<div class="plate" id="Plate19"> - -<p class="plateno">PLATE 19.</p> - -<p class="caption sstype blankbefore1">FIG. 1.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo19a.jpg" alt="" width="450" height="105" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption sstype blankbefore1">FIG. 2.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo19b.jpg" alt="" width="550" height="40" /> -</div> - -<table class="illolegend" summary="Legend"> - -<tr> -<td rowspan="2" class="side w45 caption sstype">FIG. 7.</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="side w20 caption sstype">FIG. 11.</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="side w50 caption sstype">FIG. 12.</td> -<td class="caption sstype">FIG. 3.</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="side w40 caption sstype">FIG. 4.</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="side w28 caption sstype">FIG. 5.</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="side w55 caption sstype">FIG. 8.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="caption sstype">FIG. 6.</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<div class="figcenter illoborder"> -<img src="images/illo19c.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="449" /> -</div> - -<p class="largeillo"><a href="images/illo19clg.jpg">Larger Figs. 3-8, 11, 12</a></p> - -<p class="caption sstype blankbefore1">FIG. 9.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo19d.jpg" alt="" width="450" height="531" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption main">Musketeer 16<sup>th</sup>. Cent<sup>y</sup>.</p> - -<p class="caption sstype blankbefore1">FIG. 10.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo19e.jpg" alt="" width="450" height="593" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption main">Earliest form of Hand Gun.</p> - -<p class="noindent platemaker"><i>Arthur Walker, delt.</i></p> - -<p class="center platemaker">Day & Son Lith<sup>rs</sup>. to the Queen.</p> - -</div><!--plate--> - -<div class="plate" id="Plate20"> - -<p class="plateno">PLATE 20.</p> - -<table class="illolegend" summary="Legend"> - -<tr> -<td class="side w200 caption sstype">2</td> -<td class="caption sstype">4</td> -<td class="side w200 caption sstype"><span class="padr2">3</span></td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<div class="figcenter illoborder"> -<img src="images/illo20a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="181" /> -</div> - -<table class="illolegend" summary="Legend"> - -<tr> -<td class="side caption sstype">1</td> -<td class="side caption sstype">5</td> -<td class="caption sstype">6</td> -<td class="side caption sstype">7</td> -<td class="side caption sstype">8</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<div class="figcenter illoborder"> -<img src="images/illo20b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="110" /> -</div> - -<table class="illolegend" summary="Legend"> - -<tr> -<td class="side w100 caption sstype">9</td> -<td class="side caption sstype">10</td> -<td class="caption sstype">11</td> -<td class="side caption sstype">12</td> -<td class="side w100 caption sstype"><span class="padr2">13</span></td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<div class="figcenter illoborder"> -<img src="images/illo20c.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="125" /> -</div> - -<table class="illolegend" summary="Legend"> - -<tr> -<td rowspan="2" class="side caption sstype">14</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="side caption sstype">15</td> -<td class="caption sstype">16</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="side caption sstype">18</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="side caption sstype">19</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="caption sstype">17</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<div class="figcenter illoborder"> -<img src="images/illo20d.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="173" /> -</div> - -<p class="center platemaker">Day & Son Lith<sup>rs</sup>. to the Queen.</p> - -</div><!--plate--> - -<p class="largeillo"><a href="images/illo20lg.jpg">Larger Figs. 1-19</a></p> - -<div class="plate" id="Plate21"> - -<p class="plateno">PLATE 21.</p> - -<p class="caption sstype blankbefore1">FIG. 1.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo21a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="142" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption sstype blankbefore1">FIG. 2.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo21b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="118" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption sstype blankbefore1">FIG. 3.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo21c.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="142" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption sstype blankbefore1">FIG. 4.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo21d.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="29" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption sstype blankbefore1">FIG. 5.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo21e.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="115" /> -</div> - -<p class="noindent platemaker"><i>Arthur Walker del.</i></p> - -<p class="center platemaker">Day & Son Lith<sup>rs</sup>. to the Queen.</p> - -</div><!--plate--> - -<p class="largeillo"><a href="images/illo21lg.jpg">Larger Figs. 1-5</a></p> - -<div class="plate" id="Plate22"> - -<p class="plateno">PLATE 22.</p> - -<p class="caption sstype blankbefore1">FIG. 1.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo22a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="105" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption sstype blankbefore1">FIG. 2.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo22b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="106" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption sstype blankbefore1">FIG. 3.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo22c.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="131" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption sstype blankbefore1">FIG. 4.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo22d.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="158" /> -</div> - -<p class="noindent platemaker"><i>Arthur Walker L<sup>t</sup>. 79<sup>th</sup>. del.</i></p> - -<p class="center platemaker">Day & Son Lith<sup>rs</sup>. to the Queen.</p> - -</div><!--plate--> - -<p class="largeillo"><a href="images/illo22lg.jpg">Larger Figs. 1-4</a></p> - -<div class="plate" id="Plate23"> - -<p class="plateno">PLATE 23.</p> - -<p class="caption sstype blankbefore1">FIG. 1.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo23a.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="101" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption sstype blankbefore1">FIG. 2.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo23b.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="113" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption sstype blankbefore1">FIG. 3.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo23c.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="173" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption sstype blankbefore1">FIG. 4.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo23d.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="107" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption sstype blankbefore1">FIG. 5.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo23e.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="87" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption sstype blankbefore1">FIG. 6.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo23f.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="108" /> -</div> - -<p class="noindent platemaker"><i>Harry Vernon Staff Serj<sup>t</sup>. del.</i></p> - -<p class="center platemaker">Day & Son Lith<sup>rs</sup>. to the Queen.</p> - -</div><!--plate--> - -<p class="largeillo"><a href="images/illo23lg.jpg">Larger Figs. 1-6</a></p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -</div><!--bodycenter--> - -<h2 id="BetterToC">Extended Table of Contents</h2> - -<table class="toc" summary="Improved ToC"> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="right fsize80">PAGE</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle">INTRODUCTION.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Pagei">i</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle">CONTENTS</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Pageiii">iii</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle">ERRATA.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Pageiv">iv</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle">HISTORY OF GUNPOWDER.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page1">1</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">GREEK FIRE.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page4">4</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle">ON THE MANUFACTURE OF GUNPOWDER.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page7">7</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">SALTPETRE, OR NITRE.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page7">7</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle subsection">OLD METHOD.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page7">7</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle subsection">NEW METHOD.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page8">8</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">CHARCOAL.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page9">9</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">SULPHUR.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page11">11</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">PULVERIZING THE INGREDIENTS.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page11">11</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">MIXING THE INGREDIENTS.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page12">12</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">THE INCORPORATING MILL.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page12">12</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">INCORPORATING THE INGREDIENTS.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page13">13</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">BREAKING DOWN THE MILL CAKE.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page14">14</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">PRESSING THE MEAL BY THE HYDRAULIC PRESS.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page14">14</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">GRANULATING THE PRESS CAKE.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page15">15</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">DUSTING LARGE-GRAIN POWDER.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page16">16</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">DUSTING FINE-GRAIN POWDER.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page17">17</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">GLAZING FINE-GRAIN POWDER.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page17">17</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">STOVING OR DRYING POWDER.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page17">17</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">FINISHING DUSTING.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page17">17</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">EXAMINATION AND PROOF OF GUNPOWDER.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page18">18</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">PROOF OF MERCHANT’S POWDER.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page18">18</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">REMARKS ON THE PROOF OF POWDER BY THE EPROUVETTES.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page19">19</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">OF THE SIZE OF GRAIN FOR GUNPOWDER.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page19">19</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">OBSERVATIONS ON THE MANUFACTURE OF GUNPOWDER ON THE CONTINENT AND AMERICA.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page20">20</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle subsection">PRODUCTION AND PURIFICATION OF THE INGREDIENTS.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page20">20</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle subsection">PULVERIZING AND MIXING THE INGREDIENTS.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page20">20</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle subsection">INCORPORATING PROCESS.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page21">21</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle subsection">GRANULATING.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page21">21</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle subsection">STOVING OR DRYING.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page21">21</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">NEW RIFLE POWDER.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page22">22</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle">ON MAGAZINES.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page23">23</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle">LIGHTNING CONDUCTORS.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page24">24</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle">ON THE EXPLOSIVE FORCE OF GUNPOWDER.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page29">29</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">FOULING.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page35">35</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">EFFECTS OF GUNPOWDER ON METALS.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page35">35</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">MISCELLANEOUS EXPERIMENTS.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page36">36</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">ON THE TIME REQUIRED FOR IGNITION OF GUNPOWDER.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page38">38</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">EFFECTS OF ACCIDENTAL EXPLOSIONS OF GUNPOWDER.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page38">38</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle">ON ANCIENT ENGINES OF WAR.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page39">39</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">THE SLING.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page43">43</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">THE BOW.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page44">44</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">MERITS OF THE LONG BOW.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page45">45</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">Our Forefathers encouraged to acquire skill in archery by legal enactments, -and by the founders of our public schools.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page47">47</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle subsection">1ST. BY LEGAL ENACTMENTS.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page47">47</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle subsection">2ND.—BY THE FOUNDERS OF OUR PUBLIC SCHOOLS.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page48">48</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">MEANS BY WHICH SKILL IN ARCHERY WAS ACQUIRED.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page49">49</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">PROOFS OF THE IMPORTANCE OF ARCHERY.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page52">52</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">MILITARY AND POLITICAL CONSEQUENCES OF SKILL IN THE USE OF THE BOW.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page53">53</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">THE ARBALEST, OR CROSS-BOW.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page54">54</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">DESCRIPTION OF CROSS-BOW.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page57">57</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">COMPARATIVE MERITS OF THE LONG AND CROSS BOW.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page59">59</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">COMPARATIVE MERITS BETWEEN BOWS AND EARLY FIRE-ARMS.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page59">59</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle">HISTORY OF ARTILLERY.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page62">62</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">ETYMOLOGIES.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page72">72</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle">HISTORY OF PORTABLE FIRE-ARMS.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page73">73</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle">THE BAYONET.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page83">83</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle">ACCOUTREMENTS AND AMMUNITION.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page84">84</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle">HISTORY OF THE RIFLE.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page86">86</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">RIFLED BREECH-LOADERS.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page92">92</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle">ON RIFLING.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page95">95</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">ON THE NUMBER, FORM &c., &c., &c., OF THE GROOVES.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page96">96</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">ON RIFLE PROJECTILES.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page101">101</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">CONCLUSION.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page108">108</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle">THEORETICAL PRINCIPLES.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page110">110</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">DEFINITIONS.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page110">110</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">MOTION OF A PROJECTILE.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page111">111</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">GRAVITY.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page113">113</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">ON THE TIME TAKEN TO DRAW A BALL TO THE GROUND BY THE FORCE OF GRAVITY.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page114">114</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">ATMOSPHERE.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page115">115</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">RESULT OF THE AIR’S RESISTANCE.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page115">115</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">EXPERIMENTS IN FRANCE.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page116">116</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">ON THE EFFECT OF THE RESISTANCE OF THE AIR UPON THE MOTION OF A PROJECTILE.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page117">117</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">ON THE RESISTANCE OF A FLUID TO A BODY IN MOTION.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page117">117</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">ON THE VELOCITY WITH WHICH AIR WILL RUSH INTO A VACUUM.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page118">118</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle">UPON THE RESISTANCE OF THE AIR TO BODIES OF DIFFERENT FORMS.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page119">119</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTS WITH SLOW MOTIONS.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page119">119</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">RESISTANCE OF THE AIR, AS AFFECTED BY THE WEIGHT OF PROJECTILES.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page121">121</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">DEVIATIONS OF PROJECTILES FROM SMOOTH-BORED GUNS.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page121">121</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle subsection">1st CAUSE, WINDAGE.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page121">121</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle subsection">2nd CAUSE, ROTATION.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page122">122</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">CASES BEARING UPON THE FOREGOING THEORY.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page122">122</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">ILLUSTRATIONS OF ROBINS’ THEORY OF ROTATION.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page124">124</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chaptitle section">ON ECCENTRIC PROJECTILES.</td> -<td class="pageno"><a href="#Page124">124</a></td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p class="right fsize80"><a href="#Pageiii">Original Table of Contents</a></p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="tnbot" id="TN"> - -<h2>Transcriber’s Notes</h2> - -<p>The original language has been retained, including inconsistencies and errors in spelling, hyphenation, capitalisation, -etc., except as mentioned below.</p> - -<p>Depending on the hard- and software used and their settings, not all elements may display as intended.</p> - -<p>Original Table of Contents: as present in the source document. The reason for the order of entries is not clear, and some chapters -are not listed, nor are the sections. The structure of the text has been determined based on what seemed the most logical -interpretation of (the lay-out of) the chapter and section headings in the text. -The Extended Table of Contents in the back of the book has been created for this text on the basis of this assumed structure; -the page numbers i through iv have been inserted for this Table of Contents.</p> - -<p>The text refers to the plates by both Roman and Arabic numbers. This has not been standardised. The numbering of the actual -plates has been standardised.</p> - -<p>The illustrations in the plates in the back of the book have been individually scaled for better visibility. Where relevant, -links to larger versions of the illustrations have been provided (not available in all formats).</p> - -<p>Page 29, great inconvenience ... quite preclude: as printed in the source document.</p> - -<p>Page 29 and 35 (and Errata), sulphite and sulphide: as printed in the source document.</p> - -<p>Page 30 and 31, calculations: as printed in the source document.</p> - -<p>Page 44, Slings were used in 1572, at the siege of Sancere by the Huguenots, in order to save their powder: there should be a -comma after Sancere, the Huguenots were the besieged party.</p> - -<p>Page 47, Our forefathers ... public schools: considered to be a section heading.</p> - -<p>Page 66, both the king’s feed men: other sources mention Peter Bawd and Peter Vancollen / Van Collen as freed men.</p> - -<p>Page 107, weight of bullet, ·530 grains: as printed in the source document, but unlikely to be correct.</p> - -<p>Page 114, paragraph on Parabolic theory: even with the corrections mentioned in the errata, some of the reference letters are -missing; <span class="smcapall">F</span>, <span class="smcapall">G</span> and <span class="smcapall">H</span> are presumably the -ends of the vertical lines through <span class="smcapall">C</span>, <span class="smcapall">D</span> and <span class="smcapall">E</span> -respectively.</p> - -<p>Page 119, strictly empirical formula: should probably have been a plural.</p> - - -<p class="blankbefore1">Changes made:</p> - -<p>Footnotes have been moved to directly after the paragraph to which they refer.</p> - -<p>Some minor obvious punctuation and typographical errors have been corrected silently.</p> - -<p><span class="smcapall">B.C.</span>/<span class="smcapall">B. C.</span> and -<span class="smcapall">A.D.</span>/<span class="smcapall">A. D.</span> have been standardised to <span class="smcapall">B. C.</span> -and <span class="smcapall">A. D.</span>, respectively. Minie, Miniè (the spelling used most commonly in this book) and -Minié have been standardised to Minié.</p> - -<p>The (corrected, see below) Errata have already been applied to the text.</p> - -<p>Errata: Page 32, para. 6, line 10 changed to Page 32, para.7, line 10; IX and XII changed to ix and xii; Page 84, para. 2, -line 1 (2nd entry) changed to Page 84, para. 3, line 1. Subalterns changed to subaltern officers; Page 91, para. 5 changed to Page -91, para. 4; sign changed to sine.</p> - -<p>Page 4: Poganatus changed to Pogonatus as elsewhere</p> - -<p>Page 5: Talavara changed to Talavera</p> - -<p>Page 21: frustrum changed to frustum</p> - -<p>Page 30: 3490 changed to 3940</p> - -<p>Page 32, sidenote: Robert changed to Piobert (as in text and Errata)</p> - -<p>Page 35: deliquescient changed to deliquescent</p> - -<p>Page 38: dull read heat changed to dull red heat</p> - -<p>Page 52: closing quote mark inserted after Shooting-fields</p> - -<p>Page 54: yeoman or archers changed to yeomen or archers</p> - -<p>Page 61: opening quote mark inserted before Report of the Rifle Match</p> - -<p>Page 65: opening quote marks inserted before Musée</p> - -<p>Page 74, sidenote: 1491 changed to 1471</p> - -<p>Page 86, Bàle changed to Bâle</p> - -<p>Page 88, sidenote: Carabine a Tige changed to Carabine à Tige</p> - -<p>Page 105: cups divers shapes changed to cups of divers shapes</p> - -<p>Page 115: Plate 21, fig. 2 changed to Plate 22, fig. 2</p> - -<p>Plate 18: opening quote marks inserted before Moolik.</p> - -</div><!--tnbot--> - - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Class Book for The School of Musketry -Hythe, by E. 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