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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..2fff1fc --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #60434 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/60434) diff --git a/old/60434-h.zip b/old/60434-h.zip Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index aa051f1..0000000 --- a/old/60434-h.zip +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/60434-h/60434-h.htm b/old/60434-h/60434-h.htm deleted file mode 100644 index ed31288..0000000 --- a/old/60434-h/60434-h.htm +++ /dev/null @@ -1,1079 +0,0 @@ -<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" - "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> -<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en"> - <head> - <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=us-ascii" /> - <meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css" /> - <title> - The Project Gutenberg eBook of Learning Theory, by James Mc Connell. - </title> - <link rel="coverpage" href="images/cover.jpg" /> - - <style type="text/css"> - -body { - margin-left: 10%; - margin-right: 10%; -} - - h1,h2 { - text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ - clear: both; -} - -p { - margin-top: .51em; - text-align: justify; - margin-bottom: .49em; -} - -hr { - width: 33%; - margin-top: 2em; - margin-bottom: 2em; - margin-left: 33.5%; - margin-right: 33.5%; - clear: both; -} - -hr.chap {width: 65%; margin-left: 17.5%; margin-right: 17.5%;} -hr.tb {width: 45%; margin-left: 27.5%; margin-right: 27.5%;} - -.center {text-align: center;} - -.right {text-align: right;} - -.caption {font-weight: bold;} - -/* Images */ -.figcenter { - margin: auto; - text-align: center; -} - -div.titlepage { - text-align: center; - page-break-before: always; - page-break-after: always; -} - -div.titlepage p { - text-align: center; - text-indent: 0em; - font-weight: bold; - line-height: 1.5; - margin-top: 3em; -} - -.ph1 { text-align: center; text-indent: 0em; font-weight: bold; } -.ph1 { font-size: large; margin: .83em auto; } - -.ph2 { text-align: right; text-indent: 0em; } -.ph2 { font-size: medium; margin: .83em auto; } - - - </style> - </head> -<body> - - -<pre> - -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Learning Theory, by James McConnell - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Learning Theory - -Author: James McConnell - -Release Date: October 5, 2019 [EBook #60434] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ASCII - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LEARNING THEORY *** - - - - -Produced by Greg Weeks, Mary Meehan and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - -</pre> - - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/cover.jpg" width="355" height="500" alt=""/> -</div> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="titlepage"> -<h1>LEARNING THEORY</h1> - -<h2>BY JAMES MC CONNELL</h2> - -<p class="ph1"><i>Destiny's tricks can be pretty weird<br /> -sometimes. And this was one to be proud<br /> -of. A cosmic joke, a witch that could<br /> -make a nightmare seem tame!</i></p> - -<p>[Transcriber's Note: This etext was produced from<br /> -Worlds of If Science Fiction, December 1957.<br /> -Extensive research did not uncover any evidence that<br /> -the U.S. copyright on this publication was renewed.]</p> - -</div> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p>I am writing this because I presume He wants me to. Otherwise He would -not have left paper and pencil handy for me to use. And I put the -word "He" in capitals because it seems the only thing to do. If I am -dead and in hell, then this is only proper. However, if I am merely a -captive somewhere, then surely a little flattery won't hurt matters.</p> - -<p>As I sit here in this small room and think about it, I am impressed -most of all by the suddenness of the whole thing. At one moment I was -out walking in the woods near my suburban home. The next thing I knew, -here I was in a small, featureless room, naked as a jaybird, with only -my powers of rationalization to stand between me and insanity. When -the "change" was made (whatever the change was), I was not conscious -of so much as a momentary flicker between walking in the woods and -being here in this room. Whoever is responsible for all of this is to -be complimented—either He has developed an instantaneous anesthetic -or He has solved the problem of instantaneous transportation of matter. -I would prefer to think it the former, for the latter leads to too much -anxiety.</p> - -<p>As I recall, I was immersed in the problem of how to teach my class -in beginning psychology some of the more abstruse points of Learning -Theory when the transition came. How far away life at the University -seems at the moment: I must be forgiven if now I am much more concerned -about where I am and how to get out of here than about how freshmen can -be cajoled into understanding Hull or Tolman.</p> - -<p>Problem #1: Where am I? For an answer, I can only describe this room. -It is about twenty feet square, some twelve feet high, with no windows, -but with what might be a door in the middle of one of the walls. -Everything is of a uniform gray color, and the walls and ceiling emit -a fairly pleasant achromatic light. The walls themselves are of some -hard material which might be metal since it feels slightly cool to -the touch. The floor is of a softer, rubbery material that yields a -little when I walk on it. Also, it has a rather "tingly" feel to it, -suggesting that it may be in constant vibration. It is somewhat warmer -than the walls, which is all to the good since it appears I must sleep -on the floor.</p> - -<p>The only furniture in the room consists of what might be a table and -what passes for a chair. They are not quite that, but they can be made -to serve this purpose. On the table I found the paper and the pencil. -No, let me correct myself. What I call paper is a good deal rougher and -thicker than I am used to, and what I call a pencil is nothing more -than a thin round stick of graphite which I have sharpened by rubbing -one end of it on the table.</p> - -<p>And that is the sum of my surroundings. I wish I knew what He has -done with my clothes. The suit was an old one, but I am worried about -the walking boots. I was very fond of those boots—they were quite -expensive and I would hate to lose them.</p> - -<p>The problem still remains to be answered, however, as to just where in -the hell I am—if not in hell itself!</p> - -<p>Problem #2 is a knottier one—Why am I here? Were I subject to -paranoid tendencies, I would doubtless come to the conclusion that -my enemies had kidnapped me. Or perhaps that the Russians had taken -such an interest in my research that they had spirited me away to some -Siberian hideout and would soon appear to demand either cooperation or -death. Sadly enough, I am too reality oriented. My research was highly -interesting to me, and perhaps to a few other psychologists who like -to dabble in esoteric problems of animal learning, but it was scarcely -startling enough to warrant such attention as kidnapping.</p> - -<p>So I am left as baffled as before. Where am I, and why?</p> - -<p>And who is He?</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>I have decided to forego all attempts at keeping this diary according -to "days" or "hours." Such units of time have no meaning in my present -circumstances, for the light remains constant all the time I am awake. -The human organism is not possessed of as neat an internal clock as -some of the lower species. Far too many studies have shown that a human -being who is isolated from all external stimulation soon loses his -sense of time. So I will merely indicate breaks in the narrative and -hope that He will understand that if He wasn't bright enough to leave -me with my wristwatch, He couldn't expect me to keep an accurate record.</p> - -<p>Nothing much has happened. I have slept, been fed and watered, and have -emptied my bladder and bowels. The food was waiting on the table when I -awoke last time. I must say that He has little of the gourmet in Him. -Protein balls are not my idea of a feast royal. However, they will -serve to keep body and soul together (presuming, of course, that they -<i>are</i> together at the moment). But I must object to my source of liquid -refreshment. The meal made me very thirsty, and I was in the process -of cursing Him and everybody else when I noticed a small nipple which -had appeared in the wall while I was asleep. At first I thought that -perhaps Freud was right after all, and that my libido had taken over -control of my imagery. Experimentation convinced me, however, that the -thing was real, and that it is my present source of water. If one sucks -on the thing, it delivers a slightly cool and somewhat sweetish flow of -liquid. But really, it's a most undignified procedure. It's bad enough -to have to sit around all day in my birthday suit. But for a full -professor to have to stand on his tip-toes and suck on an artificial -nipple in order to obtain water is asking a little too much. I'd -complain to the Management if only I knew to whom to complain!</p> - -<p>Following eating and drinking, the call to nature became a little too -strong to ignore. Now, I was adequately toilet-trained with indoor -plumbing, and the absence of same is most annoying. However, there was -nothing much to do but choose a corner of the room and make the best -of a none too pleasant situation. (As a side-thought, I wonder if the -choosing of a corner was in any way instinctive?). However, the upshot -of the whole thing was my learning what is probably the purpose of the -vibration of the floor. For the excreted material disappeared through -the floor not too many minutes later. The process was a gradual one. -Now I will be faced with all kinds of uncomfortable thoughts concerning -what might possibly happen to me if I slept too long:</p> - -<p>Perhaps this is to be expected, but I find myself becoming a little -paranoid after all. In attempting to solve my Problem #2, why I am -here, I have begun to wonder if perhaps some of my colleagues at the -University are not using me as a subject in some kind of experiment. -It would be just like McCleary to dream up some fantastic kind of -"human-in-isolation" experiment and use me as a pilot observer. -You would think that he'd have asked my permission first. However, -perhaps it's important that the subject not know what's happening -to him. If so, I have one happy thought to console me. If McCleary -<i>is</i> responsible for this, he'll have to take over the teaching of my -classes for the time being. And how he hates teaching Learning Theory -to freshmen:</p> - -<p>You know, this place seems dreadfully quiet to me.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Suddenly I have solved two of my problems. I know both where I am and -who He is. And I bless the day that I got interested in the perception -of motion.</p> - -<p>I should say to begin with that the air in this room seems to have -more than the usual concentration of dust particles. This didn't seem -particularly noteworthy until I noticed that most of them seemed to -pile up along the floor against one wall in particular. For a while I -was sure that this was due to the ventilation system—perhaps there was -an out-going airduct there where this particular wall was joined to the -floor. However, when I went over and put my hand to the floor there, I -could feel no breeze whatsoever. Yet even as I held my hand along the -dividing line between the wall and the floor, dust motes covered my -hand with a thin coating. I tried this same experiment everywhere else -in the room to no avail. This was the only spot where the phenomenon -occurred, and it occurred along the entire length of this one wall.</p> - -<p>But if ventilation was not responsible for the phenomenon, what was? -All at once there popped into my mind some calculations I had made -when the rocket boys had first proposed a manned satellite station. -Engineers are notoriously naive when it comes to the performance of a -human being in most situations, and I remembered that the problem of -the perception of the satellite's rotation seemingly had been ignored -by the slip-stick crowd. They had planned to rotate the doughnut-shaped -satellite in order to substitute centrifugal force for the force of -gravity. Thus the outer shell of the doughnut would appear to be "down" -to anyone inside the thing. Apparently they had not realized that man -is at least as sensitive to angular rotation as he is to variations in -the pull of gravity. As I figured the problem then, if a man aboard the -doughnut moved his head as much as three or four feet outwards from -the center of the doughnut, he would have become fairly dizzy! Rather -annoying it would have been, too, to have been hit by a wave of nausea -every time one sat down in a chair. Also, as I pondered the problem, it -became apparent that dust particles and the like would probably show -a tendency to move in a direction opposite to the direction of the -rotation, and hence pile up against any wall or such that impeded their -flight.</p> - -<p>Using the behavior of the dust particles as a clue, I then climbed -atop the table and leapt off. Sure enough, my head felt like a mule -had kicked it by the time I landed on the floor. My hypothesis was -confirmed.</p> - -<p>So I am aboard a spaceship:</p> - -<p>The thought is incredible, but in a strange way comforting. At least -now I can postpone worrying about heaven and hell—and somehow I find -the idea of being in a spaceship much more to the liking of a confirmed -agnostic. I suppose I owe McCleary an apology—I should have known he -would never have put himself in a position where he would have to teach -freshmen all about learning:</p> - -<p>And, of course, I know who "He" is. Or rather, I know who He <i>isn't</i>, -which is something else again. Surely, though, I can no longer think of -Him as being human. Whether I should be consoled at this or not, I have -no way of telling.</p> - -<p>I still have no notion of <i>why</i> I am here, however, nor why this alien -chose to pick me of all people to pay a visit to His spaceship. What -possible use could I be? Surely if He were interested in making contact -with the human race, He would have spirited away a politician. After -all, that's what politicians are for! Since there has been no effort -made to communicate with me, however, I must reluctantly give up any -cherished hopes that His purpose is that of making contact with <i>genus -homo</i>.</p> - -<p>Or perhaps He's a galactic scientist of some kind, a biologist of -sorts, out gathering specimens. Now, that's a particularly nasty -thought. What if He turned out to be a physiologist, interested in -cutting me open eventually, to see what makes me tick? Will my innards -be smeared over a glass slide for scores of youthful Hims to peer at -under a microscope? Brrrr! I don't mind giving my life to Science, but -I'd rather do it a little at a time.</p> - -<p>If you don't mind, I think I'll go do a little repressing for a while.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Good God! I should have known it! Destiny will play her little tricks, -and all jokes have their cosmic angles. He is a <i>psychologist</i>! Had I -given it due consideration, I would have realized that whenever you -come across a new species, you worry about behavior first, physiology -second. So I have received the ultimate insult—or the ultimate -compliment. I don't know which. I have become a specimen for an alien -psychologist!</p> - -<p>This thought first occurred to me when I awoke after my latest sleep -(which was filled, I must admit, with most frightening dreams). It was -immediately obvious that something about the room had changed. Almost -at once I noticed that one of the walls now had a lever of some kind -protruding from it, and to one side of the lever, a small hole in the -wall with a container beneath the hole. I wandered over to the lever, -inspected it a few moments, then accidentally depressed the thing. At -once there came a loud clicking noise, and a protein ball popped out of -the hole and fell into the container.</p> - -<p>For just a moment a frown crossed my brow. This seemed somehow so -strangely familiar. Then, all at once, I burst into wild laughter. -The room had been changed into a gigantic Skinner Box! For years I -had been studying animal learning by putting white rats in a Skinner -Box and following the changes in the rats' behavior. The rats had to -learn to press the lever in order to get a pellet of food, which was -delivered to them through just such an apparatus as is now affixed to -the wall of my cell. And now, after all of these years, and after all -of the learning studies I had done, to find myself trapped like a rat -in a Skinner Box! Perhaps this was hell after all, I told myself, and -the Lord High Executioner's admonition to "let the punishment fit the -crime" was being followed.</p> - -<p>Frankly, this sudden turn of events has left me more than a little -shaken.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>I seem to be performing according to theory. It didn't take me long to -discover that pressing the lever would give me food some of the time, -while at other times all I got was the click and no protein ball. It -appears that approximately every twelve hours the thing delivers me -a random number of protein balls—the number has varied from five to -fifteen so far. I never know ahead of time how many pellets—I mean -protein balls—the apparatus will deliver, and it spews them out -intermittently. Sometimes I have to press the lever a dozen times or -so before it will give me anything, while at other times it gives me -one ball for each press. Since I don't have a watch on me, I am never -quite sure when the twelve hours have passed, so I stomp over to the -lever and press it every few minutes when I think it's getting close -to time to be fed. Just like my rats always did. And since the pellets -are small and I never get enough of them, occassionally I find myself -banging away on the lever with all the compulsion of a stupid animal. -But I missed the feeding time once and almost starved to death (so it -seemed) before the lever delivered food the next time. About the only -consolation to my wounded pride is that at this rate of starvation, -I'll lose my bay window in short order.</p> - -<p>At least He doesn't seem to be fattening me up for the kill. Or maybe -he just likes lean meat!</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>I have been promoted. Apparently He in His infinite alien wisdom -has decided that I'm intelligent enough to handle the Skinner-type -apparatus, so I've been promoted to solving a maze. Can you picture the -irony of the situation? All of the classic Learning Theory methodology -is practically being thrown in my face. If only I could communicate -with Him! I don't mind being subjected to tests nearly as much as I -mind being underestimated. Why, I can solve puzzles hundreds of times -more complex than what He's throwing at me. But how can I tell Him?</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/illus.jpg" width="437" height="500" alt=""/> -</div> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p>As it turns out, the maze is much like our standard T-mazes, and is -not too difficult to learn. It's a rather long one, true, with some -23 choice points along the way. I spent the better part of half an -hour wandering through the thing the first time I found myself in it. -Surprisingly enough, I didn't realize the first time out what I was in, -so I made no conscious attempt to memorize the correct turns. It wasn't -until I reached the final turn and found food waiting for me that I -recognized what I was expected to do. The next time through the maze my -performance was a good deal better, and I was able to turn in a perfect -performance in not too long a time. However, it does not do my ego any -good to realize that my own white rats could have learned the maze a -little sooner than I did.</p> - -<p>My "home cage," so to speak, still has the Skinner apparatus in it, but -the lever delivers food only occasionally now. I still give it a whirl -now and again, but since I'm getting a fairly good supply of food at -the end of the maze each time, I don't pay the lever much attention.</p> - -<p>Now that I am very sure of what is happening to me, quite naturally my -thoughts have turned to how I can get out of this situation. Mazes I -can solve without too much difficulty, but how to escape apparently is -beyond my intellectual capacity. But then, come to think of it, there -was precious little chance for my own experimental animals to get out -of my clutches. And assuming that I am unable to escape, what then? -After He has finished putting me through as many paces as He wishes, -where do we go from there? Will He treat me as I treated most of my -non-human subjects—that is, will I get tossed into a jar containing -chloroform? "Following the experiment, the animals were sacrificed," as -we so euphemistically report in the scientific literature. This doesn't -appeal to me much, as you can imagine. Or maybe if I seem particularly -bright to Him, He may use me for breeding purposes, to establish a -colony of His own. Now, that might have possibilities....</p> - -<p>Oh, damn Freud anyhow!</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>And damn Him too! I had just gotten the maze well learned when He upped -and changed things on me. I stumbled about like a bat in the sunlight -for quite some time before I finally got to the goal box. I'm afraid my -performance was pretty poor. What He did was just to reverse the whole -maze so that it was a mirror image of what it used to be. Took me only -two trials to discover the solution. Let Him figure that one out if -He's so smart!</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>My performance on the maze reversal must have pleased Him, because -now He's added a new complication. And again I suppose I could have -predicted the next step if I had been thinking along the right -direction. I woke up a few hours ago to find myself in a totally -different room. There was nothing whatsoever in the room, but opposite -me were two doors in the wall—one door a pure white, the other jet -black. Between me and the doors was a deep pit, filled with water. I -didn't like the looks of the situation, for it occured to me right away -that He had devised a kind of jumping stand for me. I had to choose -which of the doors was open and led to food. The other door would be -locked. If I jumped at the wrong door, and found it locked, I'd fall -in the water. I needed a bath, that was for sure, but I didn't relish -getting it in this fashion.</p> - -<p>While I stood there watching, I got the shock of my life. I meant it -quite literally. The bastard had thought of everything. When I used -to run rats on jumping stands, to overcome their reluctance to jump, I -used to shock them. He's following exactly the same pattern. The floor -in this room is wired but good. I howled and jumped about and showed -all the usual anxiety behavior. It took me less than two seconds to -come to my senses and make a flying leap at the white door, however.</p> - -<p>You know something? That water is ice-cold!</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>I have now, by my own calculations, solved no fewer than 87 different -problems on the jumping stand, and I'm getting sick and tired of it. -Once I got angry and just pointed at the correct door—and got shocked -for not going ahead and jumping. I shouted bloody murder, cursing Him -at the top of my voice, telling Him if He didn't like my performance, -He could damn well lump it. All He did, of course, was to increase the -shock.</p> - -<p>Frankly, I don't know how much longer I can put up with this. It's -not that the work is difficult. If He were giving me half a chance to -show my capabilities, I wouldn't mind it. I suppose I've contemplated -a thousand different means of escaping, but none of them is worth -mentioning. But if I don't get out of here soon, I shall go stark -raving mad!</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>For almost an hour after it happened, I sat in this room and just wept. -I realize that it is not the style in our culture for a grown man -to weep, but there are times when cultural taboos must be forgotten. -Again, had I thought much about the sort of experiments He must have -had in mind, I most probably could have predicted the next step. Even -so, I most likely would have repressed the knowledge.</p> - -<p>One of the standard problems which any learning psychologist is -interested in is this one—will an animal learn something if you fail -to reward him for his performance? There are many theorists, such -as Hull and Spence, who believe that reward (or "reinforcement," as -they call it) is absolutely necessary for learning to occur. This -is mere stuff and nonsense, as anyone with a grain of sense knows, -but nonetheless the "reinforcement" theory has been dominant in the -field for years now. We fought a hard battle with Spence and Hull, -and actually had them with their backs to the wall at one point, when -suddenly they came up with the concept of "secondary reinforcement." -That is, anything associated with a reward takes on the ability to act -as a reward itself. For example, the mere sight of food would become a -reward in and of itself—almost as much a reward, in fact, as is the -eating of the food. The <i>sight</i> of food, indeed! But nonetheless, it -saved their theories for the moment.</p> - -<p>For the past five years now, I have been trying to design an experiment -that would show beyond a shadow of a doubt that the <i>sight</i> of a reward -was not sufficient for learning to take place. And now look at what has -happened to me!</p> - -<p>I'm sure that He must lean towards Hull and Spence in His theorizing, -for earlier today, when I found myself in the jumping stand room, -instead of being rewarded with my usual protein balls when I made -the correct jump, I—I'm sorry, but it is difficult to write about -even now. For when I made the correct jump and the door opened and I -started towards the food trough, I found it had been replaced with a -photograph. A calendar photograph. You know the one. Her name, I think, -is Monroe.</p> - -<p>I sat on the floor and cried. For five whole years I have been -attacking the validity of the secondary reinforcement theory, and now -I find myself giving Him evidence that the theory is correct! For I -cannot help "learning" which of the doors is the correct one to jump -through. I refuse to stand on the apparatus and have the life shocked -out of me, and I refuse to pick the wrong door all the time and get -an icy bath time after time. It isn't fair! For He will doubtless put -it all down to the fact that the mere <i>sight</i> of the photograph is -functioning as a reward, and that I am learning the problems merely to -be able to see Miss What's-her-name in her bare skin!</p> - -<p>I can just see Him now, sitting somewhere else in this spaceship, -gathering in all the data I am giving Him, plotting all kinds of -learning curves, chortling to Himself because I am confirming all of -His pet theories. I just wish....</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Almost an hour has gone by since I wrote the above section. It seems -longer than that, but surely it's been only an hour. And I have spent -the time deep in thought. For I have discovered a way out of this -place, I think. The question is, dare I do it?</p> - -<p>I was in the midst of writing that paragraph about His sitting and -chortling and confirming His theories, when it suddenly struck me that -theories are born of the equipment that one uses. This has probably -been true throughout the history of all science, but perhaps most -true of all in psychology. If Skinner had never invented his blasted -box, if the maze and the jumping stand had not been developed, we -probably would have entirely different theories of learning today than -we now have. For if nothing else, the type of equipment that one uses -drastically reduces the type of behavior that one's subjects can show, -and one's theories have to account only for the type of behavior that -appears in the laboratories.</p> - -<p>It follows from this also that any two cultures that devise the same -sort of experimental procedures will come up with almost identical -theories.</p> - -<p>Keeping all of this in mind, it's not hard for me to believe that He -is an iron-clad reinforcement theorist, for He uses all of the various -paraphernalia that they use, and uses it in exactly the same way.</p> - -<p>My means of escape is therefore obvious. He expects from me -confirmation of all His pet theories. Well, he won't get it any more! I -know all of His theories backwards and forwards, and this means I know -how to give Him results that will tear His theories right smack in -half!</p> - -<p>I can almost predict the results. What does any learning theorist do -with an animal that won't behave properly, that refuses to give the -results that are predicted? One gets rid of the beast, quite naturally. -For one wishes to use only healthy, normal animals in one's work, and -any animal that gives "unusual" results is removed from the study but -quickly. After all, if it doesn't perform as expected, it must be sick, -abnormal, or aberrant in one way or another....</p> - -<p>There is no guarantee, of course, what method He will employ to dispose -of my now annoying presence. Will He "sacrifice" me? Or will He just -return me to the "permanent colony"? I cannot say. I know only that I -will be free from what is now an intolerable situation.</p> - -<p>Just wait until He looks at His results from now on!</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>FROM: Experimenter-in-Chief, Interstellar Labship PSYCH-145</p> - -<p>TO: Director, Bureau of Science</p> - -<p>Thlan, my friend, this will be an informal missive. I will send the -official report along later, but I wanted to give you my subjective -impressions first.</p> - -<p>The work with the newly discovered species is, for the moment, at a -standstill. Things went exceedingly well at first. We picked what -seemed to be a normal, healthy animal and smattered it into our -standard test apparatus. I may have told you that this new species -seemed quite identical to our usual laboratory animals, so we included -a couple of the "toys" that our home animals seem so fond of—thin -pieces of material made from wood-pulp and a tiny stick of graphite. -Imagine our surprise, and our pleasure, when this new specimen made -exactly the same use of the materials as have all of our home colony -specimens. Could it be that there are certain innate behavior patterns -to be found throughout the universe in the lower species?</p> - -<p>Well, I merely pose the question. The answer is of little importance -to a Learning Theorist. Your friend Verpk keeps insisting that the use -of these "toys" may have some deeper meaning to it, and that perhaps -we should investigate further. At his insistence, then, I include with -this informal missive the materials used by our first subject. In my -opinion, Verpk is guilty of gross anthropomorphism, and I wish to have -nothing further to do with the question. However, this behavior did -give us hope that our newly discovered colony would yield subjects -whose performances would be exactly in accordance with standard theory.</p> - -<p>And, in truth, this is exactly what seemed to be the case. The animal -solved the Bfian Box problem in short order, yielding as beautiful -data has I have ever seen. We then shifted it to maze, maze-reversal -and jumping stand problems, and the results could not have confirmed -our theories better had we rigged the data. However, when we switched -the animal to secondary reinforcement problems, it seemed to undergo -a strange sort of change. No longer was its performance up to par. -In fact, at times it seemed to go quite berserk. For part of the -experiment, it would perform superbly. But then, just as it seemed to -be solving whatever problem we set it to, its behavior would subtly -change into patterns that obviously could not come from a normal -specimen. It got worse and worse, until its behavior departed radically -from that which our theories predicted. Naturally, we knew then that -something had happened to the animal, for our theories are based upon -thousands of experiments with similar subjects, and hence our theories -must be right. But our theories hold only for normal subjects, and for -normal species, so it soon became apparent to us that we had stumbled -upon some abnormal type of animal.</p> - -<p>Upon due consideration, we returned the subject to its home colony. -However, we also voted almost unanimously to request from you -permission to take steps to destroy the complete colony. It is -obviously of little scientific use to us, and stands as a potential -danger that we must take adequate steps against. Since all colonies are -under your protection, we therefore request permission to destroy it.</p> - -<p>I must report, by the way, that Verpk's vote was the only one which was -cast against this procedure. He has some silly notion that one should -study behavior as one finds it. Frankly, I cannot understand why you -have seen fit to saddle me with him on this expedition, but perhaps you -have your reasons.</p> - -<p>Verpk's vote notwithstanding, however, the rest of us are of the -considered opinion that this whole new colony must be destroyed, and -quickly. For it is obviously diseased or some such—as reference to our -theories has proven. And should it by some chance come in contact with -our other colonies, and infect our other animals with whatever disease -or aberration it has, we would never be able to predict their behavior -again. I need not carry the argument further, I think.</p> - -<p>May we have your permission to destroy the colony as soon as possible, -then, so that we may search out yet other colonies and test our -theories against other healthy animals? For it is only in this fashion -that science progresses.</p> - -<p class="ph2">Respectfully yours,<br /> -Iowyy</p> - - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Learning Theory, by James McConnell - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LEARNING THEORY *** - -***** This file should be named 60434-h.htm or 60434-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/6/0/4/3/60434/ - -Produced by Greg Weeks, Mary Meehan and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Learning Theory - -Author: James McConnell - -Release Date: October 5, 2019 [EBook #60434] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ASCII - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LEARNING THEORY *** - - - - -Produced by Greg Weeks, Mary Meehan and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - - - - - LEARNING THEORY - - BY JAMES MC CONNELL - - _Destiny's tricks can be pretty weird - sometimes. And this was one to be proud - of. A cosmic joke, a witch that could - make a nightmare seem tame!_ - - [Transcriber's Note: This etext was produced from - Worlds of If Science Fiction, December 1957. - Extensive research did not uncover any evidence that - the U.S. copyright on this publication was renewed.] - - -I am writing this because I presume He wants me to. Otherwise He would -not have left paper and pencil handy for me to use. And I put the -word "He" in capitals because it seems the only thing to do. If I am -dead and in hell, then this is only proper. However, if I am merely a -captive somewhere, then surely a little flattery won't hurt matters. - -As I sit here in this small room and think about it, I am impressed -most of all by the suddenness of the whole thing. At one moment I was -out walking in the woods near my suburban home. The next thing I knew, -here I was in a small, featureless room, naked as a jaybird, with only -my powers of rationalization to stand between me and insanity. When -the "change" was made (whatever the change was), I was not conscious -of so much as a momentary flicker between walking in the woods and -being here in this room. Whoever is responsible for all of this is to -be complimented--either He has developed an instantaneous anesthetic -or He has solved the problem of instantaneous transportation of matter. -I would prefer to think it the former, for the latter leads to too much -anxiety. - -As I recall, I was immersed in the problem of how to teach my class -in beginning psychology some of the more abstruse points of Learning -Theory when the transition came. How far away life at the University -seems at the moment: I must be forgiven if now I am much more concerned -about where I am and how to get out of here than about how freshmen can -be cajoled into understanding Hull or Tolman. - -Problem #1: Where am I? For an answer, I can only describe this room. -It is about twenty feet square, some twelve feet high, with no windows, -but with what might be a door in the middle of one of the walls. -Everything is of a uniform gray color, and the walls and ceiling emit -a fairly pleasant achromatic light. The walls themselves are of some -hard material which might be metal since it feels slightly cool to -the touch. The floor is of a softer, rubbery material that yields a -little when I walk on it. Also, it has a rather "tingly" feel to it, -suggesting that it may be in constant vibration. It is somewhat warmer -than the walls, which is all to the good since it appears I must sleep -on the floor. - -The only furniture in the room consists of what might be a table and -what passes for a chair. They are not quite that, but they can be made -to serve this purpose. On the table I found the paper and the pencil. -No, let me correct myself. What I call paper is a good deal rougher and -thicker than I am used to, and what I call a pencil is nothing more -than a thin round stick of graphite which I have sharpened by rubbing -one end of it on the table. - -And that is the sum of my surroundings. I wish I knew what He has -done with my clothes. The suit was an old one, but I am worried about -the walking boots. I was very fond of those boots--they were quite -expensive and I would hate to lose them. - -The problem still remains to be answered, however, as to just where in -the hell I am--if not in hell itself! - -Problem #2 is a knottier one--Why am I here? Were I subject to -paranoid tendencies, I would doubtless come to the conclusion that -my enemies had kidnapped me. Or perhaps that the Russians had taken -such an interest in my research that they had spirited me away to some -Siberian hideout and would soon appear to demand either cooperation or -death. Sadly enough, I am too reality oriented. My research was highly -interesting to me, and perhaps to a few other psychologists who like -to dabble in esoteric problems of animal learning, but it was scarcely -startling enough to warrant such attention as kidnapping. - -So I am left as baffled as before. Where am I, and why? - -And who is He? - - * * * * * - -I have decided to forego all attempts at keeping this diary according -to "days" or "hours." Such units of time have no meaning in my present -circumstances, for the light remains constant all the time I am awake. -The human organism is not possessed of as neat an internal clock as -some of the lower species. Far too many studies have shown that a human -being who is isolated from all external stimulation soon loses his -sense of time. So I will merely indicate breaks in the narrative and -hope that He will understand that if He wasn't bright enough to leave -me with my wristwatch, He couldn't expect me to keep an accurate record. - -Nothing much has happened. I have slept, been fed and watered, and have -emptied my bladder and bowels. The food was waiting on the table when I -awoke last time. I must say that He has little of the gourmet in Him. -Protein balls are not my idea of a feast royal. However, they will -serve to keep body and soul together (presuming, of course, that they -_are_ together at the moment). But I must object to my source of liquid -refreshment. The meal made me very thirsty, and I was in the process -of cursing Him and everybody else when I noticed a small nipple which -had appeared in the wall while I was asleep. At first I thought that -perhaps Freud was right after all, and that my libido had taken over -control of my imagery. Experimentation convinced me, however, that the -thing was real, and that it is my present source of water. If one sucks -on the thing, it delivers a slightly cool and somewhat sweetish flow of -liquid. But really, it's a most undignified procedure. It's bad enough -to have to sit around all day in my birthday suit. But for a full -professor to have to stand on his tip-toes and suck on an artificial -nipple in order to obtain water is asking a little too much. I'd -complain to the Management if only I knew to whom to complain! - -Following eating and drinking, the call to nature became a little too -strong to ignore. Now, I was adequately toilet-trained with indoor -plumbing, and the absence of same is most annoying. However, there was -nothing much to do but choose a corner of the room and make the best -of a none too pleasant situation. (As a side-thought, I wonder if the -choosing of a corner was in any way instinctive?). However, the upshot -of the whole thing was my learning what is probably the purpose of the -vibration of the floor. For the excreted material disappeared through -the floor not too many minutes later. The process was a gradual one. -Now I will be faced with all kinds of uncomfortable thoughts concerning -what might possibly happen to me if I slept too long: - -Perhaps this is to be expected, but I find myself becoming a little -paranoid after all. In attempting to solve my Problem #2, why I am -here, I have begun to wonder if perhaps some of my colleagues at the -University are not using me as a subject in some kind of experiment. -It would be just like McCleary to dream up some fantastic kind of -"human-in-isolation" experiment and use me as a pilot observer. -You would think that he'd have asked my permission first. However, -perhaps it's important that the subject not know what's happening -to him. If so, I have one happy thought to console me. If McCleary -_is_ responsible for this, he'll have to take over the teaching of my -classes for the time being. And how he hates teaching Learning Theory -to freshmen: - -You know, this place seems dreadfully quiet to me. - - * * * * * - -Suddenly I have solved two of my problems. I know both where I am and -who He is. And I bless the day that I got interested in the perception -of motion. - -I should say to begin with that the air in this room seems to have -more than the usual concentration of dust particles. This didn't seem -particularly noteworthy until I noticed that most of them seemed to -pile up along the floor against one wall in particular. For a while I -was sure that this was due to the ventilation system--perhaps there was -an out-going airduct there where this particular wall was joined to the -floor. However, when I went over and put my hand to the floor there, I -could feel no breeze whatsoever. Yet even as I held my hand along the -dividing line between the wall and the floor, dust motes covered my -hand with a thin coating. I tried this same experiment everywhere else -in the room to no avail. This was the only spot where the phenomenon -occurred, and it occurred along the entire length of this one wall. - -But if ventilation was not responsible for the phenomenon, what was? -All at once there popped into my mind some calculations I had made -when the rocket boys had first proposed a manned satellite station. -Engineers are notoriously naive when it comes to the performance of a -human being in most situations, and I remembered that the problem of -the perception of the satellite's rotation seemingly had been ignored -by the slip-stick crowd. They had planned to rotate the doughnut-shaped -satellite in order to substitute centrifugal force for the force of -gravity. Thus the outer shell of the doughnut would appear to be "down" -to anyone inside the thing. Apparently they had not realized that man -is at least as sensitive to angular rotation as he is to variations in -the pull of gravity. As I figured the problem then, if a man aboard the -doughnut moved his head as much as three or four feet outwards from -the center of the doughnut, he would have become fairly dizzy! Rather -annoying it would have been, too, to have been hit by a wave of nausea -every time one sat down in a chair. Also, as I pondered the problem, it -became apparent that dust particles and the like would probably show -a tendency to move in a direction opposite to the direction of the -rotation, and hence pile up against any wall or such that impeded their -flight. - -Using the behavior of the dust particles as a clue, I then climbed -atop the table and leapt off. Sure enough, my head felt like a mule -had kicked it by the time I landed on the floor. My hypothesis was -confirmed. - -So I am aboard a spaceship: - -The thought is incredible, but in a strange way comforting. At least -now I can postpone worrying about heaven and hell--and somehow I find -the idea of being in a spaceship much more to the liking of a confirmed -agnostic. I suppose I owe McCleary an apology--I should have known he -would never have put himself in a position where he would have to teach -freshmen all about learning: - -And, of course, I know who "He" is. Or rather, I know who He _isn't_, -which is something else again. Surely, though, I can no longer think of -Him as being human. Whether I should be consoled at this or not, I have -no way of telling. - -I still have no notion of _why_ I am here, however, nor why this alien -chose to pick me of all people to pay a visit to His spaceship. What -possible use could I be? Surely if He were interested in making contact -with the human race, He would have spirited away a politician. After -all, that's what politicians are for! Since there has been no effort -made to communicate with me, however, I must reluctantly give up any -cherished hopes that His purpose is that of making contact with _genus -homo_. - -Or perhaps He's a galactic scientist of some kind, a biologist of -sorts, out gathering specimens. Now, that's a particularly nasty -thought. What if He turned out to be a physiologist, interested in -cutting me open eventually, to see what makes me tick? Will my innards -be smeared over a glass slide for scores of youthful Hims to peer at -under a microscope? Brrrr! I don't mind giving my life to Science, but -I'd rather do it a little at a time. - -If you don't mind, I think I'll go do a little repressing for a while. - - * * * * * - -Good God! I should have known it! Destiny will play her little tricks, -and all jokes have their cosmic angles. He is a _psychologist_! Had I -given it due consideration, I would have realized that whenever you -come across a new species, you worry about behavior first, physiology -second. So I have received the ultimate insult--or the ultimate -compliment. I don't know which. I have become a specimen for an alien -psychologist! - -This thought first occurred to me when I awoke after my latest sleep -(which was filled, I must admit, with most frightening dreams). It was -immediately obvious that something about the room had changed. Almost -at once I noticed that one of the walls now had a lever of some kind -protruding from it, and to one side of the lever, a small hole in the -wall with a container beneath the hole. I wandered over to the lever, -inspected it a few moments, then accidentally depressed the thing. At -once there came a loud clicking noise, and a protein ball popped out of -the hole and fell into the container. - -For just a moment a frown crossed my brow. This seemed somehow so -strangely familiar. Then, all at once, I burst into wild laughter. -The room had been changed into a gigantic Skinner Box! For years I -had been studying animal learning by putting white rats in a Skinner -Box and following the changes in the rats' behavior. The rats had to -learn to press the lever in order to get a pellet of food, which was -delivered to them through just such an apparatus as is now affixed to -the wall of my cell. And now, after all of these years, and after all -of the learning studies I had done, to find myself trapped like a rat -in a Skinner Box! Perhaps this was hell after all, I told myself, and -the Lord High Executioner's admonition to "let the punishment fit the -crime" was being followed. - -Frankly, this sudden turn of events has left me more than a little -shaken. - - * * * * * - -I seem to be performing according to theory. It didn't take me long to -discover that pressing the lever would give me food some of the time, -while at other times all I got was the click and no protein ball. It -appears that approximately every twelve hours the thing delivers me -a random number of protein balls--the number has varied from five to -fifteen so far. I never know ahead of time how many pellets--I mean -protein balls--the apparatus will deliver, and it spews them out -intermittently. Sometimes I have to press the lever a dozen times or -so before it will give me anything, while at other times it gives me -one ball for each press. Since I don't have a watch on me, I am never -quite sure when the twelve hours have passed, so I stomp over to the -lever and press it every few minutes when I think it's getting close -to time to be fed. Just like my rats always did. And since the pellets -are small and I never get enough of them, occassionally I find myself -banging away on the lever with all the compulsion of a stupid animal. -But I missed the feeding time once and almost starved to death (so it -seemed) before the lever delivered food the next time. About the only -consolation to my wounded pride is that at this rate of starvation, -I'll lose my bay window in short order. - -At least He doesn't seem to be fattening me up for the kill. Or maybe -he just likes lean meat! - - * * * * * - -I have been promoted. Apparently He in His infinite alien wisdom -has decided that I'm intelligent enough to handle the Skinner-type -apparatus, so I've been promoted to solving a maze. Can you picture the -irony of the situation? All of the classic Learning Theory methodology -is practically being thrown in my face. If only I could communicate -with Him! I don't mind being subjected to tests nearly as much as I -mind being underestimated. Why, I can solve puzzles hundreds of times -more complex than what He's throwing at me. But how can I tell Him? - -As it turns out, the maze is much like our standard T-mazes, and is -not too difficult to learn. It's a rather long one, true, with some -23 choice points along the way. I spent the better part of half an -hour wandering through the thing the first time I found myself in it. -Surprisingly enough, I didn't realize the first time out what I was in, -so I made no conscious attempt to memorize the correct turns. It wasn't -until I reached the final turn and found food waiting for me that I -recognized what I was expected to do. The next time through the maze my -performance was a good deal better, and I was able to turn in a perfect -performance in not too long a time. However, it does not do my ego any -good to realize that my own white rats could have learned the maze a -little sooner than I did. - -My "home cage," so to speak, still has the Skinner apparatus in it, but -the lever delivers food only occasionally now. I still give it a whirl -now and again, but since I'm getting a fairly good supply of food at -the end of the maze each time, I don't pay the lever much attention. - -Now that I am very sure of what is happening to me, quite naturally my -thoughts have turned to how I can get out of this situation. Mazes I -can solve without too much difficulty, but how to escape apparently is -beyond my intellectual capacity. But then, come to think of it, there -was precious little chance for my own experimental animals to get out -of my clutches. And assuming that I am unable to escape, what then? -After He has finished putting me through as many paces as He wishes, -where do we go from there? Will He treat me as I treated most of my -non-human subjects--that is, will I get tossed into a jar containing -chloroform? "Following the experiment, the animals were sacrificed," as -we so euphemistically report in the scientific literature. This doesn't -appeal to me much, as you can imagine. Or maybe if I seem particularly -bright to Him, He may use me for breeding purposes, to establish a -colony of His own. Now, that might have possibilities.... - -Oh, damn Freud anyhow! - - * * * * * - -And damn Him too! I had just gotten the maze well learned when He upped -and changed things on me. I stumbled about like a bat in the sunlight -for quite some time before I finally got to the goal box. I'm afraid my -performance was pretty poor. What He did was just to reverse the whole -maze so that it was a mirror image of what it used to be. Took me only -two trials to discover the solution. Let Him figure that one out if -He's so smart! - - * * * * * - -My performance on the maze reversal must have pleased Him, because -now He's added a new complication. And again I suppose I could have -predicted the next step if I had been thinking along the right -direction. I woke up a few hours ago to find myself in a totally -different room. There was nothing whatsoever in the room, but opposite -me were two doors in the wall--one door a pure white, the other jet -black. Between me and the doors was a deep pit, filled with water. I -didn't like the looks of the situation, for it occured to me right away -that He had devised a kind of jumping stand for me. I had to choose -which of the doors was open and led to food. The other door would be -locked. If I jumped at the wrong door, and found it locked, I'd fall -in the water. I needed a bath, that was for sure, but I didn't relish -getting it in this fashion. - -While I stood there watching, I got the shock of my life. I meant it -quite literally. The bastard had thought of everything. When I used -to run rats on jumping stands, to overcome their reluctance to jump, I -used to shock them. He's following exactly the same pattern. The floor -in this room is wired but good. I howled and jumped about and showed -all the usual anxiety behavior. It took me less than two seconds to -come to my senses and make a flying leap at the white door, however. - -You know something? That water is ice-cold! - - * * * * * - -I have now, by my own calculations, solved no fewer than 87 different -problems on the jumping stand, and I'm getting sick and tired of it. -Once I got angry and just pointed at the correct door--and got shocked -for not going ahead and jumping. I shouted bloody murder, cursing Him -at the top of my voice, telling Him if He didn't like my performance, -He could damn well lump it. All He did, of course, was to increase the -shock. - -Frankly, I don't know how much longer I can put up with this. It's -not that the work is difficult. If He were giving me half a chance to -show my capabilities, I wouldn't mind it. I suppose I've contemplated -a thousand different means of escaping, but none of them is worth -mentioning. But if I don't get out of here soon, I shall go stark -raving mad! - - * * * * * - -For almost an hour after it happened, I sat in this room and just wept. -I realize that it is not the style in our culture for a grown man -to weep, but there are times when cultural taboos must be forgotten. -Again, had I thought much about the sort of experiments He must have -had in mind, I most probably could have predicted the next step. Even -so, I most likely would have repressed the knowledge. - -One of the standard problems which any learning psychologist is -interested in is this one--will an animal learn something if you fail -to reward him for his performance? There are many theorists, such -as Hull and Spence, who believe that reward (or "reinforcement," as -they call it) is absolutely necessary for learning to occur. This -is mere stuff and nonsense, as anyone with a grain of sense knows, -but nonetheless the "reinforcement" theory has been dominant in the -field for years now. We fought a hard battle with Spence and Hull, -and actually had them with their backs to the wall at one point, when -suddenly they came up with the concept of "secondary reinforcement." -That is, anything associated with a reward takes on the ability to act -as a reward itself. For example, the mere sight of food would become a -reward in and of itself--almost as much a reward, in fact, as is the -eating of the food. The _sight_ of food, indeed! But nonetheless, it -saved their theories for the moment. - -For the past five years now, I have been trying to design an experiment -that would show beyond a shadow of a doubt that the _sight_ of a reward -was not sufficient for learning to take place. And now look at what has -happened to me! - -I'm sure that He must lean towards Hull and Spence in His theorizing, -for earlier today, when I found myself in the jumping stand room, -instead of being rewarded with my usual protein balls when I made -the correct jump, I--I'm sorry, but it is difficult to write about -even now. For when I made the correct jump and the door opened and I -started towards the food trough, I found it had been replaced with a -photograph. A calendar photograph. You know the one. Her name, I think, -is Monroe. - -I sat on the floor and cried. For five whole years I have been -attacking the validity of the secondary reinforcement theory, and now -I find myself giving Him evidence that the theory is correct! For I -cannot help "learning" which of the doors is the correct one to jump -through. I refuse to stand on the apparatus and have the life shocked -out of me, and I refuse to pick the wrong door all the time and get -an icy bath time after time. It isn't fair! For He will doubtless put -it all down to the fact that the mere _sight_ of the photograph is -functioning as a reward, and that I am learning the problems merely to -be able to see Miss What's-her-name in her bare skin! - -I can just see Him now, sitting somewhere else in this spaceship, -gathering in all the data I am giving Him, plotting all kinds of -learning curves, chortling to Himself because I am confirming all of -His pet theories. I just wish.... - - * * * * * - -Almost an hour has gone by since I wrote the above section. It seems -longer than that, but surely it's been only an hour. And I have spent -the time deep in thought. For I have discovered a way out of this -place, I think. The question is, dare I do it? - -I was in the midst of writing that paragraph about His sitting and -chortling and confirming His theories, when it suddenly struck me that -theories are born of the equipment that one uses. This has probably -been true throughout the history of all science, but perhaps most -true of all in psychology. If Skinner had never invented his blasted -box, if the maze and the jumping stand had not been developed, we -probably would have entirely different theories of learning today than -we now have. For if nothing else, the type of equipment that one uses -drastically reduces the type of behavior that one's subjects can show, -and one's theories have to account only for the type of behavior that -appears in the laboratories. - -It follows from this also that any two cultures that devise the same -sort of experimental procedures will come up with almost identical -theories. - -Keeping all of this in mind, it's not hard for me to believe that He -is an iron-clad reinforcement theorist, for He uses all of the various -paraphernalia that they use, and uses it in exactly the same way. - -My means of escape is therefore obvious. He expects from me -confirmation of all His pet theories. Well, he won't get it any more! I -know all of His theories backwards and forwards, and this means I know -how to give Him results that will tear His theories right smack in -half! - -I can almost predict the results. What does any learning theorist do -with an animal that won't behave properly, that refuses to give the -results that are predicted? One gets rid of the beast, quite naturally. -For one wishes to use only healthy, normal animals in one's work, and -any animal that gives "unusual" results is removed from the study but -quickly. After all, if it doesn't perform as expected, it must be sick, -abnormal, or aberrant in one way or another.... - -There is no guarantee, of course, what method He will employ to dispose -of my now annoying presence. Will He "sacrifice" me? Or will He just -return me to the "permanent colony"? I cannot say. I know only that I -will be free from what is now an intolerable situation. - -Just wait until He looks at His results from now on! - - * * * * * - -FROM: Experimenter-in-Chief, Interstellar Labship PSYCH-145 - -TO: Director, Bureau of Science - -Thlan, my friend, this will be an informal missive. I will send the -official report along later, but I wanted to give you my subjective -impressions first. - -The work with the newly discovered species is, for the moment, at a -standstill. Things went exceedingly well at first. We picked what -seemed to be a normal, healthy animal and smattered it into our -standard test apparatus. I may have told you that this new species -seemed quite identical to our usual laboratory animals, so we included -a couple of the "toys" that our home animals seem so fond of--thin -pieces of material made from wood-pulp and a tiny stick of graphite. -Imagine our surprise, and our pleasure, when this new specimen made -exactly the same use of the materials as have all of our home colony -specimens. Could it be that there are certain innate behavior patterns -to be found throughout the universe in the lower species? - -Well, I merely pose the question. The answer is of little importance -to a Learning Theorist. Your friend Verpk keeps insisting that the use -of these "toys" may have some deeper meaning to it, and that perhaps -we should investigate further. At his insistence, then, I include with -this informal missive the materials used by our first subject. In my -opinion, Verpk is guilty of gross anthropomorphism, and I wish to have -nothing further to do with the question. However, this behavior did -give us hope that our newly discovered colony would yield subjects -whose performances would be exactly in accordance with standard theory. - -And, in truth, this is exactly what seemed to be the case. The animal -solved the Bfian Box problem in short order, yielding as beautiful -data has I have ever seen. We then shifted it to maze, maze-reversal -and jumping stand problems, and the results could not have confirmed -our theories better had we rigged the data. However, when we switched -the animal to secondary reinforcement problems, it seemed to undergo -a strange sort of change. No longer was its performance up to par. -In fact, at times it seemed to go quite berserk. For part of the -experiment, it would perform superbly. But then, just as it seemed to -be solving whatever problem we set it to, its behavior would subtly -change into patterns that obviously could not come from a normal -specimen. It got worse and worse, until its behavior departed radically -from that which our theories predicted. Naturally, we knew then that -something had happened to the animal, for our theories are based upon -thousands of experiments with similar subjects, and hence our theories -must be right. But our theories hold only for normal subjects, and for -normal species, so it soon became apparent to us that we had stumbled -upon some abnormal type of animal. - -Upon due consideration, we returned the subject to its home colony. -However, we also voted almost unanimously to request from you -permission to take steps to destroy the complete colony. It is -obviously of little scientific use to us, and stands as a potential -danger that we must take adequate steps against. Since all colonies are -under your protection, we therefore request permission to destroy it. - -I must report, by the way, that Verpk's vote was the only one which was -cast against this procedure. He has some silly notion that one should -study behavior as one finds it. Frankly, I cannot understand why you -have seen fit to saddle me with him on this expedition, but perhaps you -have your reasons. - -Verpk's vote notwithstanding, however, the rest of us are of the -considered opinion that this whole new colony must be destroyed, and -quickly. For it is obviously diseased or some such--as reference to our -theories has proven. And should it by some chance come in contact with -our other colonies, and infect our other animals with whatever disease -or aberration it has, we would never be able to predict their behavior -again. I need not carry the argument further, I think. - -May we have your permission to destroy the colony as soon as possible, -then, so that we may search out yet other colonies and test our -theories against other healthy animals? For it is only in this fashion -that science progresses. - -Respectfully yours, - -Iowyy - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Learning Theory, by James McConnell - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LEARNING THEORY *** - -***** This file should be named 60434.txt or 60434.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/6/0/4/3/60434/ - -Produced by Greg Weeks, Mary Meehan and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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