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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..c41a205 --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #60219 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/60219) diff --git a/old/60219-0.txt b/old/60219-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 37b767d..0000000 --- a/old/60219-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,11024 +0,0 @@ -Project Gutenberg's The Sexes in Science and History, by Eliza Burt Gamble - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: The Sexes in Science and History - An inquiry into the dogma of woman's inferiority to man - -Author: Eliza Burt Gamble - -Release Date: September 1, 2019 [EBook #60219] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE SEXES IN SCIENCE AND HISTORY *** - - - - -Produced by MWS, Les Galloway and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive) - - - - - - - Transcriber’s Notes - -Obvious typographical errors have been silently corrected. Variations -in hyphenation and accents have been standardised but all other -spelling and punctuation remains unchanged. - -The precise location of footnote 256 is speculative since it is not -indicated in the original. - -Italics are represented thus _italic_. - - - - - The Sexes in Science - and - History - - An Inquiry into the Dogma of Woman’s - Inferiority to Man - - By - - Eliza Burt Gamble - - _A revised edition of “The Evolution of Woman”_ - - - G. P. Putnam’s Sons - New York and London - The Knickerbocker Press - 1916 - - - - - COPYRIGHT, 1893 - Under the title _The Evolution of Woman_, by - G. P. PUTNAM’S SONS - - COPYRIGHT, 1916 - for the revised edition, by - G. P. PUTNAM’S SONS - - The Knickerbocker Press, New York - - - - -PREFACE TO NEW EDITION - - -This volume is a revised edition of _The Evolution of Woman_ published -by G. P. Putnam’s Sons in 1894. - -In this later work much added evidence appears going to prove the -correctness of the theory advanced in the former work. In it the -subject of sex-development has been brought down to the present time -and in this later investigation it is found that each and every fact -connected with the biological and sociological development of the last -twenty years is in strict accord not only with the facts set forth in -_The Evolution of Woman_ but with the conclusions therein arrived at. - -In the concluding chapters of this volume the results of the separate -development of the two diverging lines of sex demarcation are set -forth. I have endeavoured to show that present conditions are the -legitimate outcome of the ascendency gained during the later ages of -human history by the egoistic or destructive agencies over the higher -or constructive forces developed in human nature. - - E. B. G. - - - - -PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION - - -After a somewhat careful study of written history, and after an -investigation extending over several years of all the accessible facts -relative to extant tribes representing the various stages of human -development, I had reached the conclusion, as early as the year 1882, -that the female organism is in no wise inferior to that of the male. -For some time, however, I was unable to find any detailed proof that -could consistently be employed to substantiate the correctness of this -hypothesis. - -In the year 1885, with no special object in view other than a desire -for information, I began a systematized investigation of the facts -which at that time had been established by naturalists relative to the -development of mankind from lower orders of life. It was not, however, -until the year 1886, after a careful reading of _The Descent of Man_, -by Mr. Darwin, that I first became impressed with the belief that -the theory of evolution, as enunciated by scientists, furnishes much -evidence going to show that the female among all the orders of life, -man included, represents a higher stage of development than the male. -Although at the time indicated, the belief that man has descended from -lower orders in the scale of being had been accepted by the leading -minds both in Europe and America, for reasons which have not been -explained, scientists, generally, seemed inclined to ignore certain -facts connected with this theory which tend to prove the superiority of -the female organism. - -Scarcely considering at the outset whether my task would eventually -take the form of a magazine article, or whether it would be extended to -the dimensions of a book, I set myself to work to show that some of the -conclusions of the savants regarding the subject of sex-development are -not in accord with their premises. - -While writing the first part of this volume, and while reasoning on the -facts established by scientists in connection with the observations -which have been made in these later years relative to the growth of -human society and the development of human institutions, it seemed -clear to me that the history of life on the earth presents an unbroken -chain of evidence going to prove the importance of the female; and, -so struck was I by the manner in which the facts of science and those -of history harmonize, that I decided to embrace within my work some -of the results of my former research. I therefore set about the task -of tracing, in a brief manner, the growth of the primary characters -observed in the two diverging sex-columns, according to the facts and -principles enunciated in the theory of natural development. - -It is not perhaps singular, during an age dominated by theological -dogmatism, and in which no definite knowledge relative to the -development of life on the earth had been gained, that man should -have regarded himself as an infinitely superior being. Neither is it -remarkable that woman, who was supposed to have appeared later on the -scene of action than did her male mate, and who owed her existence to -a surgical operation performed upon him, should have been regarded -simply as an appendage, a creature brought forth in response to the -requirements of the masculine nature. - -The above doctrines when enunciated by theologians need cause little -surprise, but with the dawn of a scientific age it might have been -expected that the prejudices resulting from those doctrines might -disappear. When, however, we turn to the most advanced scientific -writings of the present century, we find that the prejudices which -throughout thousands of years have been gathering strength are by no -means eradicated, and any discussion of the sex question is still -rare in which the effects of these prejudices may not be traced. Even -Mr. Darwin, notwithstanding his great breadth of mental vision and -the important work which he accomplished in the direction of original -inquiry, whenever he had occasion to touch on the mental capacities -of women, or more particularly on the relative capacities of the -sexes, manifested the same spirit which characterizes the efforts -of an earlier age; and throughout his entire investigation of the -human species, his ability to ignore certain facts which he himself -adduced, and which all along the line of development tend to prove the -superiority of the female, is truly remarkable. - -We usually judge of a man’s fitness to assume the rôle of an original -investigator in any branch of human knowledge, by noting his powers -of observation and generalization, and by observing his capacity to -perceive connections between closely related facts; also, by tracing -the various processes by which he arrives at his conclusions. The -ability, however, to collect facts, and the power to generalize and -draw conclusions from them, avail little, when brought into direct -opposition to deeply rooted prejudices. - -The indications are strong that the time has at length arrived when -the current opinions concerning sex capacity and endowment demand a -revision, and when nothing short of scientific deductions, untainted by -the prejudices and dogmatic assumptions of the past, will be accepted. - -As has been stated, the object of this volume is to set forth the -principal data brought forward by naturalists bearing on the subject -of the origin and development of the two lines of sexual demarcation, -and by means of the facts observed by explorers among peoples in the -various stages of development, to trace, so far as possible, the -effect of such differentiation upon the individual, and upon the -subsequent growth of human society. - - E. B. G. - - - - -CONTENTS - - - PAGE - - PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION iii - - PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION v - - - PART I - - _THE THEORY OF EVOLUTION_ - - CHAPTER - - I.—DEVELOPMENT OF THE ORGANISM 3 - - II.—THE ORIGIN OF SEX DIFFERENCES 14 - - III.—MALE ORGANIC DEFECTS 35 - - IV.—THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE SOCIAL INSTINCTS AND THE MORAL SENSE 63 - - V.—THE SUPREMACY OF THE MALE 74 - - - PART II - - _PREHISTORIC SOCIETY_ - - I.—METHOD OF INVESTIGATION 95 - - II.—THE RELATIONS OF THE SEXES AMONG EARLY MANKIND 104 - - III.—THE GENS WOMEN UNDER GENTILE INSTITUTIONS 123 - - IV.—THE ORIGIN OF MARRIAGE 159 - - V.—THE MOTHER-RIGHT 203 - - VI.—THEORIES TO EXPLAIN WIFE-CAPTURE 215 - - - PART III - - _EARLY HISTORIC SOCIETY_ - - I.—EARLY HISTORIC SOCIETY FOUNDED ON THE GENS 243 - - II.—WOMEN IN EARLY HISTORIC TIMES 269 - - III.—ANCIENT SPARTA 285 - - IV.—ATHENIAN WOMEN 318 - - V.—ROMAN LAW, ROMAN WOMEN, AND CHRISTIANITY 347 - - VI.—THE RENAISSANCE 367 - - VII.—CONCLUSION 380 - - INDEX 403 - - - - - The Sexes in Science and History - - - - - PART I - - The Theory of Evolution - - - - -CHAPTER I - -DEVELOPMENT OF THE ORGANISM - - -Sex is not only the basic fact underlying physical life but it is also -the fundamental principle involved in the origin and development of -religion. Throughout the history of mankind, the God-idea has ever -been, male or female, according to the relative importance of the two -sex principles in human affairs. - -Scientists declare that they are now able to trace the development -of the two diverging lines of sex-demarcation from the time of their -separation, or from the time when these principles were confined within -one and the same individual. In order to understand the origin of sex, -it becomes necessary to recall, briefly, the theory of the development -of life on the earth as set forth by the savants. - -As science deals only with matter, a mechanical theory of the universe -is inevitable. As science is wholly materialistic, it is perfectly -consistent in its declaration that the senses and the intellect -constitute the only means whereby truth may be discovered. Modern -philosophy, on the other hand, which deals less with matter itself -than with the causes which underlie the development of matter, affirms -that a character has been developed in human beings which in its -capacity to discern truth, far transcends the intellect. That character -is intuition. But as we are dealing only with scientific observations, -philosophical speculations do not here concern us. - - The fundamental idea, which must necessarily lie at the bottom of all - natural theories of development, is that of a gradual development of - all (even the most perfect) organisms out of a single, or out of a - very few, quite simple, and quite imperfect original beings, which - came into existence, not by supernatural creation, but by spontaneous - generation.[1] - -[1] Haeckel, _History of Creation_, 1884, vol. i., p. 75. - -According to the theory of evolution as elaborated by scientists, the -history of man begins with small animated particles, or Monera, which -appeared in the primeval sea. These marine specks were albuminous -compounds of carbon, generated by the sun’s heat, which made their -appearance as soon as the mists which enveloped the earth were -sufficiently cleared away to permit the rays of the sun to penetrate -them and reach the surface of the globe. Concerning the origin of -the principle of life which these particles contained, or regarding -the development of organic bodies from inorganic substances, the -more timid among naturalists declare that in the present state of -human knowledge it is impossible to know anything, while others of -them, more bold, or more confident of the latent powers of the human -intellect, after having elaborated a natural or mechanical explanation -for the development of all organic forms, are not disposed to accept -a supernatural theory for the beginning of life. For example, since -organic structures represent the development of matter according to -laws governing the chemical, molecular, and physical forces inherent -in it, it is believed that the gulf separating organic and inorganic -substances is not so difficult to span as has hitherto been supposed. -Among those who hold this view may be ranked the celebrated naturalist, -Ernst Haeckel. - -Regarding the phenomena of life this writer observes: “We can -demonstrate the infinitely manifold and complicated physical and -chemical properties of the albuminous bodies to be the real cause -of organic or vital phenomena.”[2] Indeed, in whatever manner the -vital force within them originated, naturalists agree that from these -particles have been derived all the forms, both animal and vegetable, -which have ever existed upon the earth. - -[2] _History of Creation_, vol. i., p. 331. - -As speculations concerning the origin of matter lie without the -domain of natural or scientific inquiry, they form no part of the -investigations of the naturalist. So far as is known, matter is -eternal, and all that may be learned concerning it must be gleaned -by observing the changes, chemical and molecular, through which it -is manifested. By those who have observed the laws which govern the -manifold changes in matter, the fact is declared that the various -manifestations in form and substance constitute the only creation -of which we may have any knowledge; and, moreover, that the genesis -of existence is going on as actively in our time as at any previous -period in the history of matter. So far as human knowledge extends, no -particle of matter has ever been created and none ever destroyed. This -continuous process of transmutation of substance and change of form, in -other words the phenomena designated Life, may have been in operation -during all the past, and may continue forever. - -As all speculations concerning the origin of matter have been -unavailing, so all attempts to solve the problem of the origin of -life have proved futile. The experiments recently carried on in -the Rockefeller Institute, in which by means of chemical processes -detached organs from the bodies of animals have been made to perform -their normal functions, are interesting and instructive, but these -experiments furnish no clue to the origin of the force which animates -living organic matter. Why the nucleated cells which we call a heart -should pulsate whilst those which we call a liver should secrete bile, -nobody knows. - -That all life on the earth has been derived from one, or at most from a -few original forms, is said to be proved by ontogeny, or the history -of the germ, which in its development passes through a number of the -forms which mark the ascending scale of life. - -Through the study of comparative anatomy, the fact has been discovered -that the individuals composing the various orders of the great -vertebrate series are all moulded “on the same general plan”; that up -to a certain stage in the development of the several germs—for instance -those of the man, the ape, the horse, the dog, etc.,—they are not -distinguishable the one from the other, and that it is only at a later -stage of development that they take on the peculiarities belonging to -their own special kind. The number and variety of forms which appear -in the animal and vegetable world make it difficult to conceive of the -idea that all have sprung from one, or at most from a few original -types, yet the chain of evidence in support of this theory seems quite -complete. - -Natural Selection, by which it is demonstrated that organized matter -must move forward simply through the chemical and physical forces -inherent in it, furnishes a key to all the phenomena of life, both -animal and vegetable, which have ever appeared on the earth. Natural -Selection, we are told, depends for its operation on the interaction of -two processes or agencies, namely, Inheritance and Adaptation. Through -Inheritance germs receive from their parents a plastic form which, as -all development is a function of external physical conditions, is -itself nothing more than a “manifestation of the remains of antecedent -physical impressions.” This inherited form causes them to go forward -in a predestined course, while through Adaptation there is a constant -tendency to change that predestined form imposed upon them by their -parents to one better suited to their changing physical conditions. - -According to the theory of Natural Selection, organic structures vary -to meet the requirements of changed conditions; or, when existing -circumstances are such that they are forced into new and unusual modes -of life, they branch off into different directions; thus new varieties -are formed, or possibly new species. Such portions of a group, however, -as remain sheltered from conditions unsuited to their present line -of development, retain their ancient forms. This change of structure -by which organisms or portions of organic bodies are modified so as -to perform more complicated functions, or those better suited to -their environment, is denominated differentiation; hence the degree -of differentiation attained by a structure determines the stage of -development which it has reached. - -But to return to our single-celled animal—the simplest form of life -on the earth. Except that by the action of the surrounding forces its -surface has become somewhat hardened, this little animal is the same -throughout, in other words, it is homogeneous. The hardening of the -outer portion constitutes the first process of differentiation, and -therefore the first step in the order of progress. - -Comparing the simplest form of life, the little carbon-sac found in the -sea, with the germ from which animals and plants are derived, Haeckel -says: - - Originally every organic cell is only a single globule of mucus, like - a Moneron, but differing from it in the fact that the homogeneous - albuminous substance has separated itself into two different parts, a - firmer albuminous body, the cell-kernel (nucleus), and an external, - softer albuminous body, the cell-substance or body (protoplasma).[3] - -[3] _History of Creation_, 1884, vol. i., p. 187. - -From its body, which, when at rest, is nearly spherical, it is almost -constantly casting forth certain “finger-like processes” which are -as quickly withdrawn, only to reappear on some other portion of its -surface. The small particles of albuminous matter with which it -comes in contact adhere to it, or are drawn into its semi-fluid body -by displacement of the several albuminous particles of which it is -composed, and are there digested, being “absorbed by simple diffusion.” -Its only activity consists in supplying itself with nourishment, and -even during this process it is said to display a negative or passive -quality rather than real action. The particles absorbed that are not -assimilated, are expelled through the surface of the body in the same -manner as they are taken into it. - -At first, we are told, our animal is only a simple cell, in fact that -it is not a perfect cell, for as yet the cell-kernel or nucleus has -not been separated from the cell-substance or protoplasm. When its -limit of size has been reached it multiplies by self-division, or by -simply breaking into parts, each part performing the same functions -of nutrition and propagation as its predecessor. Later, however, when -a parent cell bursts, the newly developed cells no longer separate -from it, but, by cohering to it and to each other, form a cluster of -nucleated cells, while around this aggregation of units is formed a -wall. Still its food is absorbed. Subsequently, however, a mouth and -prehensile organs for seizing its food are developed, and the divisions -between the cells are converted into channels or pipes through which -nourishment is conveyed to every part of the body. In process of time, -limbs for locomotion appear, together with bones for levers, and -muscles for moving them. Finally, a brain and a heart are evolved, and -although at first the heart appears as only a simple pulsating vessel, -later this animal finds itself the possessor of a perfect system of -digestion, circulation, and excretion, by which food, after having been -changed into blood and aërated or purified by processes carried on in -the system, is pumped to every part of the body. With the formation -of different chemical combinations, and the development, through -increasing specialization of the various kinds of tissues, and finally -of the various organs, that intimate relationship observed between -the parts in homogeneous and less differentiated structures no longer -exists; hence, in response to the demand for communication between -the various organs, numberless threads or fibres begin to stretch -themselves through the muscles, and collecting in knots or centres in -the brain and spine, establish instantaneous communication between the -different parts, and convey sensation and feeling throughout the entire -organism. - -A division of labour has now been established, and each organ, being -in working order and fashioned for its own special use, performs its -separate functions independently, although its activity is co-ordinated -with that of all other organs in the structure. - -This far in the history of life on the earth sex has not been -developed, or, more correctly stated, as the two sexes have not been -separated, our animal is still androgynous or hermaphrodite—the -reproductive functions being confined in one and the same individual. -Within this little primeval animal, the progenitor of the human race, -lay not only all the possibilities which have thus far been realized by -mankind, but within it were embodied also the “promise and potency” of -all that progress which is yet to come, and of which man himself, in -his present undeveloped state, may have only a dim foreshadowing. - -From the time of the appearance of life on the earth to that of the -separation of the sexes, myriads of centuries may have intervened. -Only when through a division of labour these elements became detached, -and the special functions of each were confided to two distinct and -separate individuals, did the independent history of the female and -male sexes begin. - -No fact is more patent, at the present time, than that sex constitutes -the underlying principle throughout nature. Although it may not be -said of the simplest forms of life that sexual difference has been -established, yet we are assured that among the ciliated Infusorians -“male and female nuclear elements have been distinguished.” This -primitive condition, however, is supposed to be rather a state -antecedent to sex than a union of sexes in one organism. Among all the -higher orders of life, whether animal or vegetable, the sex elements, -female and male, are recognized as the two great factors in creation. - -As, among all the animals in which there has been a separation of -sexes, there has been established a division of labour, the consequent -specialization of organs and the differentiation of parts form the -true line of demarcation in the march of the two diverging columns. -Doubtless in the future, when our knowledge of the history of life on -the earth has become more extended, it will be found that it is only -by tracing the processes of differentiation throughout the two entire -lines of development that we may hope to unravel all the mysteries -bound up in the problem of sex, or to understand the fundamental -differences in character and constitution caused by this early division -of labour. - - - - -CHAPTER II - -THE ORIGIN OF SEX DIFFERENCES - - -We have observed that, according to naturalists, the earliest forms of -life which appeared on the earth were androgynous or hermaphrodite, -that the two elements necessary for reproduction were originally -confined within one and the same individual within which were carried -on all the functions of reproduction. Later, however, a division of -labour arose, and these two original functions became detached, after -which time the reproductive processes were carried on only through the -commingling of elements prepared by, or developed within, two separate -and distinct individuals. - -As the belief is entertained by our guides in this matter that -greater differentiation, or specialization of parts, denotes higher -organization, it is believed that the division of labour by which the -germ is prepared by one individual and the sperm by another individual, -as is the case at the present time with all the higher orders of life, -constitutes an important step in the line of progress. Here this line -of argument ceases, and, until very recent times, concerning the -course of development followed by each sex little has been heard. This -silence on a subject of such vital importance to the student of biology -is not perhaps difficult to understand; the conclusion, however, -is unavoidable that the individual which must nourish and protect -the germ, and by processes carried on within her own body provide -nourishment for the young during its prenatal existence, and sometimes -for years after birth, must have the more highly specialized organism, -and must, therefore, represent the higher stage of development. Indeed, -it is admitted by scientists that the advance from the egg-layers to -the milk-givers indicates one of the most important steps in the entire -line of development; and yet the peculiar specialization of structure -necessary for its accomplishment was for the most part carried on -within the female organism. - -Concerning the origin of sex in the individual organism little seems -to be known; as a result, however, of observations on the development -of the reproductive organs in the higher vertebrates, and especially -in birds, it is believed that there exists a “strict parallelism -between the individual and the racial history,”—that the three main -stages in the development of the chick, viz.: (1) germi-parity, (2) -hermaphroditism, and (3) differentiated unisexuality, correspond to the -three great steps of historic evolution. - -By a careful investigation of the facts connected with the development -of unisexual forms, we are enabled to discover the early beginnings of -the characteristics which distinguish the two sexes throughout their -entire course. We are told that with animals which have their sexes -separate, in addition to strictly sexual difference - - the male possesses certain organs of sense or locomotion, of which the - female is quite destitute, or has them more highly developed, in order - that he may readily find or reach her; or again the male has special - organs of prehension for holding her securely. These latter organs, of - infinitely diversified kinds, graduate into those which are commonly - ranked as primary.[4] - -[4] Darwin, _The Descent of Man_, 1877, p. 207. - -The female, on the other hand, in addition to those sexual characters -which are strictly primary, has “organs for the nourishment or -protection of her young, such as the mammary glands of mammals, and -the abdominal sacks of the marsupials.” In addition to these she is -frequently provided with organs for the defence of the community; -for instance, “the females of most bees are provided with a special -apparatus for collecting and carrying pollen, and their ovipositor is -modified into a sting for the defence of the larvæ and the community.” -We are assured by Mr. Darwin that many similar cases could be given.[5] - -[5] _Ibid._, p. 208. - -Here, then, with almost the first or primary step toward sexual -differentiation, may be observed the establishment of that peculiar -bias which upon investigation will be seen to extend all along the two -lines of sexual demarcation, and which (to anticipate the conclusions -of our argument), as soon as mankind is reached, appears in the male as -extreme egoism or selfishness, and in the female as altruism or care -for other individuals outside of self. - -We are assured, however, that it is not alone to the reproductive -organs and their functions that we are to look for the chief -differences in the constitution and character of the sexes. Neither is -it entirely to Natural Selection that we are to seek for the causes -which underlie the specialization peculiar to the two diverging lines -of sexual demarcation; in addition to primary sexual divergences, there -are also “secondary sexual characters” which are of great importance to -their possessor. Indeed, from the prominence given to Sexual Selection -by Mr. Darwin, it would seem that it played a part in the development -of males quite equal to that of Natural Selection itself. - -Now the difference between Natural Selection and Sexual Selection is -that, whereas, in the former, characters are developed and preserved -which are of use to the individual in overcoming the unfavourable -conditions of environment, by the latter, only those characters are -acquired and preserved which assist the individual in overcoming the -obstacles to reproduction; or, to use Mr. Darwin’s own language: - - [Sexual Selection] depends on the advantage which certain individuals - have over others of the same sex and species solely in respect of - reproduction.... [Where] the males have acquired their present - structure, not from being better fitted to survive in the struggle - of existence, but from having gained an advantage over other males, - and from having transmitted this advantage to their male offspring - alone, sexual selection must here have come into action.... A slight - degree of variability leading to some advantage, however slight, - in reiterated deadly contests would suffice for the work of sexual - selection; and it is certain that secondary sexual characters are - eminently variable. Just as man can give beauty, according to his - standard of taste, to his male poultry, or more strictly can modify - the beauty originally acquired by the parent species, can give to - the Sebright bantam a new and elegant plumage, an erect and peculiar - carriage—so it appears the female birds in a state of nature, have by - a long selection of the more attractive males, added to their beauty - or other attractive qualities.[6] - -[6] _The Descent of Man_, 1877, pp. 209-211. - -Thus, according to Mr. Darwin, it is through a long selection by -females of the more attractive males that the present structure of the -latter has been acquired. If, in a short time, a man can give elegant -carriage and beauty to his bantams, according to his standard of -beauty, he can see no reason to doubt that female birds, by selecting -during thousands of generations the most melodious or beautiful males, -according to their standard of beauty, might produce a marked effect. -He says: - - To sum up on the means through which, as far as we can judge, sexual - selection has led to the development of secondary sexual characters. - It has been shown that the largest number of vigorous offspring will - be reared from the pairing of the strongest and best armed males, - victorious in contests over other males, with the most vigorous and - best-nourished females, which are the first to breed in the spring. If - such females select the more attractive, and at the same time vigorous - males, they will rear a larger number of offspring than the retarded - females, which must pair with the less vigorous and less attractive - males.... The advantage thus gained by the more vigorous pairs in - rearing a larger number of offspring has apparently sufficed to render - sexual selection efficient.[7] - -[7] _The Descent of Man_, 1877, p. 220. - -Although the belief is common among naturalists that the appearance of -secondary sexual characters belonging to males is greatly influenced -by female choice, a majority of writers upon this subject are not -in sympathy with Mr. Darwin’s theory concerning the origin of these -variations. It is believed by them that Sexual Selection “may account -for the perfecting, but not for the origin, of these characters.” - -It is useless, however, to rehearse the opinions of the various writers -who have dealt with this subject. It is perhaps sufficient to state -that the great beauty of males has usually been accepted as evidence -of their superiority over the females. - -In his chapter, “The Male generally more Modified than the Female,” -Mr. Darwin remarks: “Appearances would indicate that not the male -which is most attractive to the female is chosen, but the one which -is least distasteful.” He says that the aversion of female birds for -certain males renders the season of courtship one of great anxiety and -discomfiture, not only to many of the more poorly endowed aspirants, -but to those also which are more magnificently attired—that the pairing -ground becomes a field of battle, upon which, while parading their -charms to the best advantage, is sacrificed much of the gorgeous -plumage of the contestants. On the wooing ground are displayed -for the admiration and approval of the females, all the physical -attractions of the males, as well as the mental characters correlated -with them, namely, courage, and pugnacity or perseverance. According -to Mr. Darwin, with the exception of vanity, no other quality is in -any considerable degree manifested by male birds, but to such an -extent has love of display been developed in many of them, notably -the pea-fowl, that, “in the absence of females of his own species, -he will show off his finery before poultry and even pigs.” We are -assured that the higher we ascend in the animal kingdom the more -frequent and more violent become two desires in the male: “the desire -of appearing beautiful, and that of driving away rivals.” According -to Mr. Darwin’s theory of development, because of the indifference -of the female among the lower orders of life to the processes of -courtship, it has been necessary for the male to expend much energy -or vital force in searching for her—in contending with his rivals for -possession of her person, and in performing various acts to please -her and secure her favours. While excessive eagerness in courtship is -the one all-absorbing character of male fishes, birds, and mammals, -we are assured that with the females, pairing is not only a matter of -indifference, but that courtship is actually distasteful to them, and, -therefore, that the former must resort to the various means referred to -in order to induce the latter to submit to their advances. - -We are informed that the female is sometimes charmed through the power -of song; that at other times she is captivated by the diversified -means which have been acquired by male insects and birds for producing -various sounds resembling those proceeding from certain kinds of -musical instruments; and not unfrequently she is won by means of -antics or love dances performed on the ground or in the air. On the -pairing-ground, combs, wattles, elongated plumes, top-knots, and -fancy-coloured feathers are paraded for the admiration and approval of -the females. Led by the all-absorbing instinct of desire, - - the males display their charms with elaborate care and to the best - effect; and this is done in the presence of the females.... To suppose - that the females do not appreciate the beauty of the males, is to - admit that their splendid decorations, and all their pomp and display, - are useless; and this is incredible.[8] - -[8] _The Descent of Man_, 1877, p. 496. - -Topknots, gaudy feathers, elongated plumes among birds, huge tusks, -horns, etc., among mammals, the mane of the lion, and the beard of -man, may be noticed among the many characters which have been acquired -through Sexual Selection. - -Although the immense teeth, tusks, horns, and various other weapons or -appendages which ornament the males of many species of mammals, have -all been developed through Sexual Selection for contending with their -rivals for the favours of the females, it is observed that the “most -pugnacious and best armed males seldom depend for success on their -ability to drive away or kill their rivals,” but that their special aim -is to “charm the female.” Mr. Darwin quotes from a “good observer,” who -believes that the battles of male birds “are all a sham, performed to -show themselves to the greatest advantage before the admiring females -who assemble around.”[9] - -[9] _Ibid._, p. 367. - -In _The Descent of Man_ is quoted the following from Mr. Belt, who, -after describing the beauty of the _Florisuga mellivora_, says: - - I have seen the female sitting on a branch, and two males displaying - their charms in front of her. One would shoot up like a rocket, then - suddenly expanding the snow-white tail, like an inverted parachute, - slowly descend in front of her, turning round gradually to show off - back and front.... The expanded white tail covered more space than - all the rest of the bird, and was evidently the grand feature in the - performance. Whilst one male was descending, the other would shoot up - and come slowly down expanded. The entertainment would end in a fight - between the two performers; but whether the most beautiful or the most - pugnacious was the accepted suitor, I know not.[10] - -[10] _The Descent of Man_, 1877, p. 443. - -Audubon, who spent a long life in observing birds, has no doubt that -the female deliberately chooses her mate. Of the woodpecker he says -the hen is followed by half a dozen suitors, who continue performing -strange antics “until a marked preference is shown for one.” Of the -red-winged starling it is said that she is pursued by several males -“until, becoming fatigued, she alights, receives their addresses, and -soon makes a choice.”[11] Mr. Darwin quotes further from Audubon, who -says that among the Virginia goat-suckers, no sooner has the female -“made her choice than her approved gives chase to all intruders, and -drives them beyond his dominions.” - -[11] _Ibid._, p. 416. - -It is said that among mammals the male depends almost entirely upon -his strength and courage to “charm the female.” With reference to the -struggles between animals for the possession of the females, Mr. Darwin -says: - - This fact is so notorious that it would be superfluous to give - instances. Hence the females have the opportunity of selecting one - out of several males, on the supposition that their mental capacity - suffices for the exertion of a choice.[12] - -[12] _The Descent of Man_, 1877, p. 212. - -We are assured that among nearly all the lower orders of life the -female exhibits a marked preference for certain individuals, and that -an equal degree of repugnance is manifested towards others, but that -the male, whose predominant character is desire, “is ready to pair -with any female.” On this subject Mr. Darwin remarks: “The general -impression seems to be that the male accepts any female.” He says it -frequently occurs that while two males are fighting together to win -the favours of a female, she goes away with a third for whom she has -a preference. Mr. Darwin quotes from Captain Bryant, who says of a -certain species of seals: - - Many of the females on their arrival at the island where they breed, - appear desirous of returning to some particular male, and frequently - climb the outlying rock to overlook the rookeries, calling out and - listening as if for a familiar voice. Then changing to another place - they do the same again.[13] - -[13] _Ibid._, p. 523. - -Little seems to be known of the courtship of animals in a state of -nature. Among domesticated species, however, many observations have -been made by breeders going to prove that the female exerts a choice -in pairing. Concerning dogs, Mr. Darwin quotes from Mr. Mayhew, who -says: “The females are able to bestow their affections; and tender -recollections are as potent over them as they are known to be in other -cases where higher animals are concerned.” Of the affection of female -dogs for certain males the same writer says it “becomes of more than -romantic endurance,” that they manifest a “devotion which no time can -afterwards subdue.” - -On concluding his chapter on choice in pairing among quadrupeds, Mr. -Darwin remarks: - - It is improbable that the unions of quadrupeds in a state of nature - should be left to mere chance. It is much more probable that the - females are allured or excited by particular males, who possess - certain characters in a higher degree than other males.[14] - -[14] _The Descent of Man_, 1877, p. 525. - -As the female among birds selects her partner, he thinks it would be a -strange anomaly if among quadrupeds, which stand higher in the scale -and have higher mental powers, she did not also exert a choice.[15] - -[15] It should be noted, in passing, that, according to this reasoning, -the female of the human species would also be likely to exercise her -will power in the selection of a mate. Evidences are indeed at hand -going to prove that until a comparatively recent time in the history -of the human race women controlled the sexual relation. As will be -shown in Part II., during the primitive ages of human existence the -position of woman was much higher than was that occupied by man. During -the earlier ages, and under more natural conditions, women selected -their mates, and among the human species, as among the lower orders, it -became necessary for the male to please the female if he would win her -favours; hence, through Sexual Selection, it is believed, was acquired -the greater size of man. - -Because of the indifference of the female to the attentions of the -male, in order to carry on the processes of reproduction, it was -necessary among the lower orders that the male become eager in his -pursuit of her, and as a result of this eagerness excessive passion -was developed in him. As the most eager would be the most successful -in propagating, they would leave the greatest number of offspring -to inherit their characters—namely, in males, passion and pugnacity -correlated with the physical qualities acquired through Sexual -Selection. - -On the subject of the acquirement of secondary sexual characters, Mr. -Darwin says: “The great eagerness of the males has thus indirectly led -to their much more frequently developing secondary sexual characters.” -Indeed, by all naturalists, the fact is recognized that the appearance -of these characters is closely connected with the reproductive function. - -Later experiments have confirmed the observations of Mr. Darwin -concerning the intelligence of the female among the lower orders of -life. Among these experiments are those recently made by Professor -Harper, of the Department of Biology, in the Northwestern University. -Professor Harper announces that in all the experiments conducted by -him, the female animal showed a greater degree of perception, or -intelligence, than the male. He says: “In all my experiments, I found -that the female displayed a remarkable quickness in grasping ideas -which the male after numerous sluggish efforts finally accomplished.” -Professor Harper declared that these facts regarding animals apply with -equal force to human beings. - -Regarding the power of the female to appreciate the beauty of the -males, Mr. Darwin says: - - No doubt this implies powers of discrimination and taste on the part - of the female which will at first appear extremely improbable; but by - the facts to be adduced hereafter, I hope to be able to show that the - females actually have these powers.[16] - -[16] _The Descent of Man_, 1877, p. 211. - -In commenting on the fact that the female Argus pheasant appreciates -the exquisite shading of the ball-and-socket ornaments, and the elegant -patterns on the wing-feathers of the male, Mr. Darwin writes: - - He who thinks that the male was created as he now exists, must admit - that the great plumes which prevent the wings from being used for - flight, and which are displayed at courtship and at no other time, - in a manner quite peculiar to this species, were given to him as - ornaments. If so he must likewise admit that the female was created - and endowed with the capacity for appreciating such ornaments. Every - one who admits the principle of evolution, and yet feels great - difficulty in believing the high taste implied by the beauty of the - males, and which generally coincides with our own standard, should - reflect that the nerve cells of the brain in the highest as in the - lowest members of the vertebrate series are derived from those of the - common progenitor of this great kingdom. - -In referring to the remarkable patterns displayed on the male Argus -pheasant, designs which have been developed through Sexual Selection, -Mr. Darwin says: - - Many will declare that it is utterly incredible that a female bird - should be able to appreciate fine shading and exquisite patterns. It - is undoubtedly a marvellous fact that she should possess this almost - human degree of taste. He who thinks that he can safely gauge the - discrimination and taste of the lower animals may deny that the female - Argus pheasant can appreciate such refined beauty; but he will then - be compelled to admit that the extraordinary attitudes assumed by the - male during the act of courtship, by which the wonderful beauty of his - plumage is fully displayed, are purposeless; and this is a conclusion - which I, for one, will never admit.[17] - -[17] _The Descent of Man_, 1877, p. 400. - -Here, then, in the female bird we see developed in a remarkable degree -the power of discrimination, the exercise of taste, a sense of beauty, -and the ability to choose—qualities which the facts brought forward by -scientists show conclusively to have been acquired by the female and by -her transmitted to her offspring. Regarding males, outside the instinct -for self-preservation, which, by the way, is often overshadowed by -their great sexual eagerness, no distinguishing characters have -been acquired and transmitted, other than those which have been the -result of passion, namely, pugnacity and perseverance. This excessive -eagerness which prompts them to parade their charms whenever such -display is likely to aid them in the gratification of their desires is -developed only in the male line. - -According to the law of heredity, those modifications of the male -which have been the result of Sexual Selection appear only in the sex -in which they originated. It will be well for us to remember that -according to Mr. Darwin’s theory of pangenesis, sexes do not differ -much in constitution before the power of reproduction is reached, but -that after this time the undeveloped atoms or - - gemmules which are cast off from each varying part in the one sex - would be much more likely to possess the proper affinities for uniting - with the tissues of the same sex, and thus becoming developed, than - with those of the opposite sex.[18] - -[18] _The Descent of Man_, 1877, p. 232. - -We are given to understand that secondary sexual characters are -extremely variable, also that variability denotes low organization; -secondary sexual characters indicate that the various organs of the -structure have not become specialized for the performance of their -legitimate functions. Highly specialized forms are not variable. - -To sum up the argument thus far: It has been observed that through -the separation of the sexes, and the consequent division of labour, -there have been established two diverging lines of development. While -the male pheasant has been inheriting from his male progenitors -fantastic ball-and-socket ornaments, and huge wings which are utterly -useless for their legitimate purpose, the female, in the meantime, -has been receiving as her inheritance only those peculiarities of -structure which tend toward uninterrupted development. Within her -have been stored or conserved all the gain which has been effected -through Natural Selection, and as a result of greater specialization -of parts, there have been developed certain peculiarities in her brain -nerve-cells, by which she is enabled to exercise functions requiring a -considerable degree of intelligence. - -Although this power of choice, which we are given to understand -is exercised by the female throughout the various departments of -the vertebrate kingdom (evidences of it having been observed among -creatures even as low in the organic scale as fishes), implies a degree -of intelligence far in advance of that manifested by males, it is -admitted that the qualities which bespeak this superiority, namely, the -power to exercise taste and discrimination, constitute a “law almost as -general as the eagerness of the male.”[19] - -[19] _The Descent of Man_, 1877, p. 222. - -We are assured by Mr. Darwin that in the economy of nature those -ornaments of the male Argus pheasant which serve no other purpose -than to please the female and secure her favours, and which have -been acquired at great expense of vital force, are of the “highest -importance to him,” and that his success in captivating the female -“has more than compensated him for his greatly impeded power of -flight and his lessened capacity for running.” Yet it is plain that -his compensation for this immense expenditure of vital force has not -lain in the direction of higher specialization, but that while by the -acquirement of these characters the processes of reproduction have -doubtless been aided, the injury to the male constitution has been deep -and lasting. - -Upon this subject Mr. Darwin himself says: - - The development, however, of certain structures—of the horns, for - instance, in certain stags—has been carried to a wonderful extreme; - and in some cases to an extreme which, as far as the general - conditions of life are concerned, must be slightly injurious to the - male.[20] - -[20] _Ibid._, p. 227. - -He thinks, however, that - - Natural Selection will determine that such characters shall not be - acquired by the victorious males if they would be highly injurious, - either by expending too much of their vital powers or by exposing them - to any great danger. - -According to Mr. Darwin, as these characters enable them to leave a -more numerous progeny, their advantages are in the long run greater -than those derived from more perfect adaptation to their conditions of -life. It is plain, however, that this advantage, although it enables -them to gratify their desires, and at the same time to perpetuate their -species, does not imply higher development for the male organism. - -We have been assured by our guides in these matters that in the -processes of evolution there is no continuous or unbroken chain of -progress, that growth or change does not necessarily imply development, -but, on the contrary, only as a structure becomes better fitted for -its conditions, and only as its organs become more highly specialized -for the performance of all the duties involved in its environment, may -it be said to be in the line of progress. If this be true, particular -attention should be directed to the fact that as secondary sexual -characters do not assist their possessor in overcoming the unfavourable -conditions of his environment, they are not within the line of true -development, but, on the contrary, as their growth requires a great -expenditure of vital force, and, as is the case among birds, they often -hinder the free use of the legs in running and walking, and entirely -destroy the use of the wings for flight, they must be detrimental to -the entire structure. For the reason that females have managed to do -without them, the plea that the great tusks, horns, teeth, etc., of -mammals have been acquired for self-defence, is scarcely tenable. - -On the subject of the relative expenditure of vital force in the two -lines of sexual demarcation, Mr. Darwin remarks: - - The female has to expend much organic matter in the formation of her - ova, whereas the male expends much force in fierce contests with his - rivals, in wandering about in search of the female, in exerting his - voice, pouring out odoriferous secretions, etc.... In mankind, and - even as low down in the organic scale as in the Lepidoptera, the - temperature of the body is higher in the male than in the female, - accompanied in the case of man by a slower pulse.[21] - -Yet he concludes: “On the whole the expenditure of matter and force -by the two sexes is probably nearly equal, though effected in very -different ways and at different rates.”[21] - -[21] _The Descent of Man_, p. 224. - -However, as has been observed, the force expended by the male in fierce -contests with his rivals, in wandering about in search of the female, -and in his exertions to please her when found, does not constitute -the only outlay of vitality to which he is subjected; but in addition -to all this, there still remains to be considered that force which has -been expended in the acquirement of characters which, so far as his own -development is concerned, are useless and worse than useless; namely, -in birds, combs, wattles, elongated plumes, great wings, etc., and in -mammals great horns, tusks, and teeth—appendages which lie outside -the line of true development, and, as we have seen, are of no avail -except to aid in the processes of reproduction and to assist him in the -gratification of his desires; in fact, as these excrescences hinder -him in the performance of the ordinary functions of life, they may be -regarded in the light of actual hindrances to higher development. - - - - -CHAPTER III - -MALE ORGANIC DEFECTS - - -We have observed that through the great sexual ardour developed at -puberty within the male of the lower species, numberless variations -of structure have been acquired, characters which, as they are the -result of undeveloped atoms cast off from the varying parts in his -progenitors, denote low organization. We have seen also that these -characters require for their growth an immense amount of vital force, -which, had the development of the male been normal, would have been -expended in perfecting the organism, or would have been utilized in -fitting it to overcome the adverse conditions of his environment. -Secondary sexual characters, being so far as males are concerned, -wholly the result of eagerness in courtship, cannot appear before -the time for reproduction arrives, and as it is a law of heredity -that peculiarities of structure which are developed late in life, -when transmitted to offspring, appear only in the sex in which they -originated, these variations of structure are confined to males. - -According to Mr. Darwin’s theory little difference exists between the -sexes until the age of reproduction arrives. It is at this time, the -time when the secondary sexual characters begin to assert themselves, -that the preponderating superiority of the male begins to manifest -itself. - -Although, according to Mr. Darwin, variability denotes low organization -and shows that the various organs of the body have not become -specialized to perform properly their legitimate functions, it is to -characters correlated with and dependent upon these varying parts -that the male has ultimately become superior to the female. If these -characters, namely, pugnacity, perseverance, and courage have been -such important factors in establishing male superiority, too much care -may not be exercised in analyzing them and in tracing their origin and -subsequent development. - -Sexual Selection resembles artificial selection save that the female -takes the part of the human breeder. She represents the intelligent -factor or cause in the operations involved. If this be true, if it is -through her will, or through some agency or tendency latent in her -constitution that Sexual Selection comes into play, then she is the -primary cause of the very characters through which man’s superiority -over woman has been gained. As a stream may not rise higher than its -source, or as the creature may not surpass its creator in excellence, -it is difficult to understand the processes by which man, through -Sexual Selection, has become superior to woman. - - He who admits the principle of Sexual Selection will be led to the - remarkable conclusion that the nervous system not only regulates most - of the existing functions of the body, but has indirectly influenced - the progressive development of various bodily structures and certain - mental qualities. Courage, pugnacity, perseverance, strength and - size of body, weapons of all kinds, musical organs, both vocal and - instrumental, bright colours, and ornamental appendages have all been - indirectly gained by the one sex or the other, through the exertion of - choice, the influence of love and jealousy, and the appreciation of - the beautiful in sound, colour, or form; and these powers of the mind - manifestly depend on the development of the brain.[22] - -[22] _The Descent of Man_, 1877, p. 617. - -While the female has been performing the higher functions in the -processes of reproduction, through her force of will, or through her -power of choice, she has also been the directing and controlling agency -in the development of those characters in the male through which, when -the human species was reached, he was enabled to attain a limited -degree of progress. - -Since the origin of secondary sexual characters is so clearly manifest, -perhaps it will be well for us at this point to examine also their -actual significance, that we may be enabled to note the foundation upon -which the dogma of male superiority rests. - -Although the gay colouring of male birds and fishes has usually -been regarded as an indication of their superiority over their -sombre-coloured mates, later investigations are proving that these -pigments represent simply unspecialized material, and an effort of -the system to cast out the waste products which have accumulated as a -result of excessive ardour in courtship. The same is true of combs, -wattles, and other skin excrescences; they show a feverish condition of -the skin in the over-excited males, whose temperature is usually much -higher than is that of females. We are assured that the skin eruptions -of male fishes at the spawning season “seem more pathological than -decorative.”[23] In the processes of reproduction, the undeveloped -atoms given off from each varying part are reproduced only in the male -line. - -[23] Geddes and Thomson, _The Evolution of Sex_, 1890, p. 24. - -The beautiful colouring of male birds and fishes, and the various -appendages acquired by males throughout the various orders below -man, and which, so far as they themselves are concerned, serve no -other useful purpose than to aid them in securing the favours of the -females, have by the latter been turned to account in the processes of -reproduction. The female made the male beautiful that she might endure -his caresses. - -From the facts elaborated by our guides in this matter, it would seem -that the female is the primary unit of creation, and that the male -functions are simply supplemental or complementary. Parthenogenesis -among many of the lower forms of life would seem to favour this view. -We are given to understand that under conditions favouring katabolism, -the males among Rotifera wear themselves out, under which conditions -the females become katabolic enough to do without them. - - Among the common Rotifera, the males are almost always very different - from the females, and much smaller. Sometimes they seem to have - dwindled out of existence altogether, for only the females are known. - In other cases, though present, they entirely fail to accomplish their - proper function of fertilization, and, as parthenogenesis obtains, are - not only minute, but useless.[24] - -[24] _The Evolution of Sex_, 1890, p. 20. - -So long as food is plentiful, the females continue to raise -parthenogenetic offspring, but with the advent of hard times, when -food is scarce or of a poor quality, the parthenogenetic series is -interrupted by the appearance of males. Although, unaided by the male, -the female of certain species is able to reproduce, he has never been -able to propagate without her co-operation. - -Concerning the conditions which underlie the production of females and -males we have the following from _The Evolution of Sex_, by Geddes and -Thomson: - - Such conditions as deficient or abnormal food, high temperature, - deficient light, moisture, and the like, are obviously such as would - tend to induce a preponderance of waste over repair—a katabolic habit - of body,—and these conditions tend to result in the production of - males. Similarly, the opposed set of factors, such as abundant and - rich nutrition, abundant light and moisture, favour constructive - processes, _i.e._, make for an anabolic habit, and these conditions - result in the production of females.[25] - -[25] _The Evolution of Sex_, p. 50. - -Among the lower orders of animal life, notably insects, we are -assured that an excess of females denotes an excess of formative -force, and that an excess of males indicates a deficiency on the -part of the parents. In the case of bees, the queen, which is the -highest development, is produced only under the best circumstances of -nutrition, while the birth of the drone, which is the lowest result of -propagation, is preceded by extremely low conditions. - -The working bee which, being an imperfect female, may not be -impregnated, will, however, give birth to parthenogenetic offspring, -such offspring always being male. In the case of Aphides, the sex -depends on the conditions of nutrition. During the summer months while -food is plentiful and nutritious, females are parthenogenetically -produced, but with the return of autumn and the attendant scarcity of -food, together with the low temperature, only males are brought forth. -In seasons in which food is abundant, Cladocera and Aphides lose the -power to copulate; they nevertheless multiply parthenogenetically at a -marvellous rate of increase, - - giving birth to generation after generation of parthenogenetic - females, so long as the environment remains favourable, but giving - birth, as soon as the conditions of life become less favourable, to - males and to females which require fertilization.[26] - -[26] Prof. W. K. Brooks, _Pop. Science Monthly_, vol. xxvi., p. 327. - -It is stated also that if caterpillars are shut up and starved before -entering the chrysalis stage, the butterflies which make their -appearance are males, while the highly nourished caterpillars are sure -to come out females. In the case of moths unnutritious food produces -only males. - -Experiments show that when tadpoles are left to themselves the average -number of females is about fifty-seven in the hundred, but that under -favourable conditions the percentage of females is greatly increased. -The following is the result of one series of observations by Yung. -In the first brood, by feeding one set with beef, the percentage of -females was raised from fifty-four to seventy-eight; in the second, -with fish, the percentage rose from sixty-one to eighty-one, which in -the third set, when the nutritious flesh of frogs was supplied, only -eight males were produced to ninety-two females.[27] - -[27] Geddes and Thomson, _The Evolution of Sex_, 1890, p. 42. - -It is stated that although scarcity of food is an important factor -in determining the appearance of males, temperature also plays an -important part in their production. Kurg having found a few males in -midsummer in pools which were nearly dried up was induced to attempt -their artificial production. So successful was he, that “he obtained -the males of forty species, in all of which the males had previously -been unknown.” He proved that - - any unfavourable change in the water causes the production of males, - which appear as it dries up, as its chemical constitution changes, - when it acquires an unfavourable temperature, or, in general, when - there is a decrease in prosperity. - -From which observations and many others quoted from Düring, Professor -Brooks concludes that “among animals and plants, as well as in mankind, -a favourable environment causes an excess of female births, and an -unfavourable environment an excess of male births.”[28] According to -Rolph, also, the percentage of females increases with the increase of -favourable conditions of temperature and food. - -[28] _Popular Science Monthly_, vol. xxvi., p. 328. - -Among insects the males appear first, thus showing that less time is -required to develop them from the larval state. Of this Mr. Darwin -says: “Throughout the great class of insects the males almost always -are the first to emerge from the pupal state, so that they generally -abound for a time before any female can be seen.”[29] - -[29] _The Descent of Man_, 1877, p. 212. - -Recent observations show that among the human species nutrition -plays a significant part in determining sex. Statistics prove that in -towns and in well-to-do families there is a preponderance of girls, -while in the country, and among the poor, more boys are born; also, -that immediately following epidemics, wars, and famines, there is an -excess of male births. On examination, it was found that in Saxony “the -ratio of boy-births rose and fell with the price of food, and that the -variation was most marked in the country.”[30] - -[30] W. K. Brooks, _Popular Science Monthly_, vol. xxvi., p. 326. - -That the female represents a higher development than the male is -proved throughout all the various departments of nature. Among plants, -staminate flowers open before pistillate, and are much more abundant, -and less differentiated from the leaves, showing that they are less -developed, and that slighter effort, a less expenditure of force, is -necessary to form the male than the female. A male flower represents -an intermediate stage between a leaf and a perfect, or we might say, a -female flower, and the germ which produces the male would, in a higher -stage, produce the female.[31] In reference to the subject of the -relative positions of the female and male flowers in the Sedges, Mr. -Meehan observes: - -[31] Thomas Meehan, _Native Flowers and Ferns_, vol. i., p. 47. - - In some cases the spike of the male flowers terminates the scape; in - others the male flowers occupy the lower place; in others, again they - have various places on the same spike. It will be generally noted that - this is associated together with lines of nutrition,—those evidently - favoured by comparative abundance sustaining the female flowers. - -To this Mr. Meehan adds: - - And this is indeed a natural consequence, for, as vitality exists so - much longer in the female than the male flowers, which generally die - when the pollen has matured, it is essential that they should have - every advantage in this respect.[32] - -[32] _Native Flowers and Ferns_, vol. i., p. 39. - -The most perfect and vigorous specimens of coniferous trees are of the -female kind. In its highest and most luxuriant stage the larch bears -only female blossoms, but so soon as its vigour is lost male flowers -appear, after which death soon ensues. - -In _The Evolution of Sex_, by Geddes and Thomson, is the following: - - In phraseology which will presently become more intelligible and - concrete, the males live at a loss, are more katabolic,—disruptive - changes tending to preponderate in the sum of changes in their living - matter or protoplasm. The females, on the other hand, live at a - profit, are more anabolic,—constructive processes predominating in - their life, whence indeed the capacity of bearing offspring.[33] - -[33] _The Evolution of Sex_, 1890, p. 26. - -Among the lower orders of animals, there appears an excess of males, -and among the higher forms of life, man included, the fact that the -male is the result of the cruder, less developed germ, has been clearly -shown, not alone by the facts brought forward by Mr. Darwin, but by -those enunciated by all reliable writers on this subject. As a result -of the excessive eagerness in males, and the consequent expenditure -of vital force among the lower orders of life to find the female and -secure her favours, they are generally smaller in size, with a higher -body temperature and shorter life. Among the higher orders, the human -species, for instance, although man is larger than woman, he is still -shorter lived, has less endurance, is more predisposed to organic -diseases, and is more given to reversion to former types, facts which -show that his greater size is not the result of higher development. It -is noted that the liability to assume characters proper to lower orders -belongs in a marked degree to males of all the higher species—man -included. - -Doubtless man’s greater size (a modification which has been acquired -through Sexual Selection) has been of considerable value to him in -the struggle for existence to which he has been subjected, but the -indications are already strong that after a certain stage of progress -has been reached, even this modification of structure will prove -useless, if not an actual hindrance to him. On mechanical principles, -every increase of size requires more than a corresponding increase of -strength and endurance to balance the activities and carry on the vital -processes, yet such have been the conditions of man’s development, that -his excess of strength does not compensate for his greater size and -weight, while his powers of endurance fall below those of women. - -Although the conditions of the past have required a vast expenditure -of physical energy, the activities of the future will make no such -demand. Nature’s forces directed by the human will and intellect are -already lessening the necessity for an excessive outlay of bodily -strength. It may be truly said that electricity and the innumerable -mechanical devices now in use have well nigh supplanted the necessity -for great physical exertion. Even war, should it be continued, which -is not likely, will be conducted without it. Destructive weapons based -upon high-power explosives require little physical effort for their -manipulation. The pugilist represents the departing glory of male -physical strength. - -We are informed by Mr. Darwin that by a vast number of measurements -taken of various parts of the human body in different races, during -his Novara Expedition, it was found that the men in almost every case -presented a greater range of variations than women, and, as Mr. Wood -has carefully attended to the variations of the muscles of man, Mr. -Darwin quotes from him that “the greatest number of abnormalities -in each subject is found in males.” He adduces also the testimony of -several others who have practically investigated this subject, all of -whom agree in their statements that variations in the muscles are more -frequent in males than in females. These variations usually consist in -a reversion to lower types—a reversion in which muscles proper to lower -forms of life make their appearance. - -In an examination of forty male subjects, there was in nineteen of them -a rudimentary muscle found which is designated as the ischio-pubic, and -in three others of the forty was observed a ligament which represents -this muscle; but, in an examination by the same person of thirty female -subjects, in only two of them was this muscle developed on both sides, -whilst in three others the rudimentary ligament was present. Thus while -we observe that about fifty-five per cent. of the males examined were -possessed of muscles proper to lower orders, in only about seventeen -per cent. of the females under observation did this reversion appear. -In a single male subject, seven muscular variations proper to apes were -indicated. - -Numberless cases might be cited in which reversions and abnormalities -have been developed only in the male line. Of the porcupine men of the -Lambert family who lived in London last century, Haeckel says: - - Edward Lambert, born in 1717, was remarkable for a most unusual and - monstrous formation of the skin. His whole body was covered with - a horny substance, about an inch thick, which rose in the form of - numerous thorn-shaped and scale-like processes, more than an inch - long. This monstrous formation on the outer skin, or epidermis, was - transmitted by Lambert to his sons and grandsons, but not to his - granddaughters.[34] - -[34] _History of Creation_, 1884, vol. i., p. 178. - -According to the testimony of those who have made a study of the -various abnormalities in the human organism, the ears of men present -a greater range of variations than do those of women, and the cases -in which supernumerary digits appear in males are as two to one, -compared with females presenting the same structural defect. Of one -hundred and fifty-two cases of this kind tabulated by Burt Wilder, -eighty-six were males and thirty-nine females, the sex of the remaining -twenty-seven being unknown. Mr. Darwin wishes us to remember, however, -that “women would more frequently endeavour to conceal a deformity of -this kind than men.” Although it is quite natural for women to abhor -abnormalities and deformities, it is to be doubted if they would -succeed for any considerable length of time in concealing the deformity -of an organ which, like the hand, is usually uncovered, and which in -waking hours, is in almost constant use. - -One of the principal characters which distinguishes the human animal -from the lower orders is the absence of a natural covering for the -skin. That mankind have descended from hair-covered progenitors is -the inevitable conclusion of all those who accept the theory of the -evolution of species, the straggling hairs which are scattered over the -body of man being the rudiments of a uniform hairy coat which enveloped -his ancestors. - -We are informed that a hairy covering for the body, pointed ears which -were capable of movement, and a tail provided with the proper muscles, -were among the undoubted characters of the antecedents of the human -race. In addition to these, among the males, were developed great -canine teeth which were used as weapons against their rivals. - -As the lack of a hairy coat for the body constitutes one of the -principal characteristics which distinguishes man from the lower -animals, it would seem that a knowledge of the order of time in which -the two sexes became divested of their natural covering would serve as -a hint to indicate their relative stages of development. In a paper -read some years ago at a meeting of the Anthropological Institute -in London, Miss Bird (Mrs. Bishop) the well-known traveller, gave a -description of the Ainos, a race of people found chiefly in the island -of Yezo, and who, it is thought probable, were the original inhabitants -of Japan. The peculiarity of this people is, that the men are covered -with a thick coat of black hair. The women, we are told, “are not -hairy like the men,” but “have soft brown skins.” Upon this subject of -hairiness, Mr. Darwin says: - - As the body of woman is less hairy than that of man, and as this - character is common to all races, we may conclude that it was our - female semi-human ancestors who were first divested of hair, and that - this occurred at an extremely remote period before the several races - had diverged from a common stock. - -After our female ancestors had acquired the new character, nudity, they -must have transmitted it to their own sex, and by continually selecting -their mates from among the least hairy, in process of time males too -would become divested of their animal covering. Whether or not our -semi-human ancestors were subjected to the scorching heat of the torrid -zone, nudity must have been better suited to their improved condition, -not wholly, however, because of its greater beauty and comfort, but -because it was a condition better suited to cleanliness; and, as the -hairy coat had become a useless appendage, or was not necessary to -their changed conditions, it disappeared from the bodies of females, -while doubtless for ages it was retained upon the bodies of males. That -hairiness denotes a low stage of development, Mr. Darwin incautiously -admits, yet in dealing with this subject he is not disposed to -carry his admission to its legitimate conclusion by treating its -appearance on the body of man as a test in determining the comparative -development of the female and male organisms. - -Idiots, who, by the way, are more numerous among males than among -females, are frequently covered with hair, and by the acquirement of -other characters more often revert to lower animal types. Mr. Darwin -assures us that around sores of long standing stiff hairs are liable to -appear, thus showing that hair on the body is indicative of undeveloped -tissues and low constitutional conditions. The same writer, however, -does not neglect to inform us that the loss of man’s hairy covering -was rather an injury to him than otherwise; but whether or not the -diminution in the quality of prehension in his toes, the loss of -his canines, and the disappearance of his tail have likewise proved -detrimental to him, Mr. Darwin fails to state. - -The fact that throughout the vertebrate kingdom males possess -rudiments of the various parts appertaining to the reproductive system -which properly belong to females, is regarded as evidence that some -remote progenitor of this kingdom must have been hermaphrodite, or -androgynous, especially as it has been ascertained that at a very early -embryonic period both sexes possess true male and female glands. As -high in the scale of life as the mammalian class, males are said to -possess rudiments of a uterus, while at the same time mammary glands -are plainly manifest; which fact would seem to show that in the high -state of development indicated by this great class, male organs have -not through the processes of differentiation become specialized for the -performance of their legitimate functions. In reference to the subject -of atavism Mr. Darwin cites as a case of reversion to a former type, an -instance in which a man was the possessor of two pairs of mammæ. - -It is true that instances have been observed in which characters -peculiar to males have been developed in females. This phenomenon, -however, seldom appears among individuals of the higher orders, and -among the lower forms of life where it occurs, it is always manifested -under low circumstances of nutrition or in cases of old age, disease, -or loss of vitality. Instances are cited in which hens, after they have -become old or diseased, have taken on characters peculiar to males. - -In all “old-settled” countries women are in excess of men, and this -is true, notwithstanding the fact that more boys are born than girls. -Regarding the excess of the male over female births, Mr. Darwin quotes -from Professor Faye, who says: - - A still greater preponderance of males would be met with, if death - struck both sexes in equal proportion in the womb and during birth. - But the fact is, that for every one hundred still-born females, we - have in several countries from 134.6 to 144.9 still-born males.[35] #/ - Statistics show that during the first four or five years of life, more - male children die than female. - -[35] _The Descent of Man_, 1887, p. 243. - -Although whenever throughout Mr. Darwin’s _Descent of Man_ he has been -pleased to deal with the subject of structural variations, he has -given us to understand that they are injurious to the constitution, -and although he has shown that their appearance is much more frequent -in men than in women, yet he does not seem to realize whither his -admissions are leading him. He has proved by seemingly well-established -facts that the female organism is freer from imperfections than the -male, and therefore that it is less liable to derangements; also, that -being more highly specialized, it is less susceptible to injury under -unfavourable conditions; yet, in attempting to explain the reason -why so many more male than female infants succumb to the exigencies -of birth, he expresses the opinion that the size of the body and -“especially of the head” being greater in males, they would be “more -liable to be injured during parturition.” - -Among the reasons urged by Mr. Darwin to account for the excess of -women over men in all “old-settled” countries, is that of the exposure -of grown men to various dangers, and their tendency to emigrate. -Doubtless there is more emigration among men than among women, still -men do not usually emigrate to a wilderness and rarely to sparsely -settled countries. When men emigrate from one civilized country, they -usually go to another civilized country; yet in all old-settled -countries women are in excess of men. While the dangers to which men -are exposed because of their greater physical activity have been many, -and the accidents liable to occur from their harder struggle for -existence more numerous than those to which women have been subjected, -still it would seem that the danger to female life, incident to the -artificial relations of the sexes under our present semi-civilized -conditions, is more than an offset for that to which men are liable. - -The fact must be borne in mind, however, that the diseases and -physical disabilities of women, at the present time, although -dangerous to health and life, are not organic, and will therefore -disappear as soon as through higher conditions they are allowed the -free expression of their own will in matters pertaining to the sexual -relation. As the diseases peculiar to the female constitution are not -caused by structural defects, but, on the contrary, are due to the -overstimulation of the animal instincts in her male mate, or, to the -disparity between her stage of development and his, they have not -materially injured her constitution nor shortened her average duration -of life, neither have they lessened her capacity for improvement. - -With reference to the women of Greenland, Cranz says that while they - - remain with their parents they are well off; but from twenty years of - age till death, their life is one series of anxieties, wretchedness, - and toil, yet, in spite of all their cares, toils, and vexations the - women commonly arrive at a greater age than the men.[36] - -[36] _History of Greenland_, vol. i., p. 152. - -That the imperfections of the male organism are already beginning -to interpose themselves between man and many of the occupations and -activities of advancing civilization, is only too apparent. - -Sight, far more than any other sense, is the most intellectual, -yet in the development of the visual organs it has been proved -that men are especially deficient. Dr. Andrew Willson assures us -that “colour-blindness is a condition which is certainly capable -of transmission to the progeny. In one family the males alone were -affected through seven generations.” - -In an examination which was carried on some years ago under the -supervision of Dr. Jeffries, among the pupils of the Boston schools, in -which were 14,469 boys and young men, and 13,458 girls and young women, -it was found that about one male in every twenty-five was colour-blind, -while the same defect among the girls and young women was extremely -rare, only 0.066 per cent. of them being thus affected.[37] - -[37] _Pop. Science Monthly_, vol. xix., p. 567. - -At a convention held in the city of Chicago for the purpose of -organizing an association for educational reform, the teacher of -drawing in the St. Paul schools made a statement that “four per cent. -of all male pupils were colour-blind, while only one-tenth of one per -cent. of female pupils were so affected.” No explanation was offered -for this strange fact; indeed, it was pronounced a mystery, “even -oculists and surgeons having given it up as impenetrable.” - -That defective vision is beginning to interfere with the activities -of men, is shown by the fact that in many instances, in later times, -colour tests have been required to determine fitness of applicants for -positions in various departments of commercial enterprise. In this -country, during the last fifty years, much attention has been given -to the subject of visual defects in seamen, railroadmen, and other -persons occupying positions of responsibility in which unimpaired -vision is an important qualification. In response to a request sent by -the German Government through its minister to the Surgeon-General of -the United States Army, for statistical and other information on the -subject of colour-blindness, Mr. Charles E. Pugh, General Manager of -the Pennsylvania Railroad, in September, 1884, sent to William Thomson, -M.D., surgical expert for the same company, the following statement: - - Total number examined on lines east of Erie 25,158 - Colour-blind 481 - Defective vision 661 - -Of this report Dr. Thomson says: - - The apparently small percentage of colour-blind in this table may be - ascribed to the non-application of men who knew their deficiency, - and to the fact that men in the service, knowing their defect, would - leave the road before examination, and thus escape detection, and be - enabled to gain employment on other roads where no examinations are - required.[38] - -[38] _Pop. Science Monthly_, vol. xxxi., p. 796. - -In several departments of the national government, attempts have been -made to guard against the dangers resulting from imperfect sight. In -the examination of recruits, the War Department at Washington, some -years ago, issued orders that bits of coloured pasteboard, or “test -cards” be used for determining the power of individuals to distinguish -objects at a distance, while worsteds of various hues were employed -to ascertain their ability to distinguish colour. In the Treasury and -Naval Departments were ordered similar examinations, in which the power -to distinguish colour was a necessary qualification in the case of all -persons seeking employment therein. - -In the examinations ordered by navigation and railroad companies to -protect themselves and the public against disaster resulting from -imperfect vision in their employees, tests have been made. Among -the requirements imposed by law, applying to engineers, brakemen, -and firemen, in the State of Connecticut, are the following: -“Unobstructed visual field, normal visual acuteness, and freedom from -colour-blindness.” - -If Dr. Jeffries’s investigation in the Boston public schools and the -report of the officers of the Pennsylvania Railroad are to serve -as a criterion in judging of the extent to which impaired vision -is developed in men, or if among them one in every twenty-five is -defective in the colour sense, the inference seems unavoidable that the -proportion of them unfitted for railroad and steamboat service, for -military duty, and for various important government positions, must be -large. Hence, by these tests alone may be observed something of the -extent to which, under the higher conditions which are approaching, the -imperfect development in men of this one organ (the eye) may cripple -their energies and check those activities which, in many instances, are -best suited to their tastes and inclinations. - -Nor is this defective vision developed in men a peculiarity which -is confined within the limits of our own country. In Europe, -investigations analogous to those instituted in America have been -followed by the same or similar results. Until a comparatively recent -time this subject has received little or no attention, for the reason -that the processes of civilization and the various activities of life -have not, hitherto, demanded a correct or highly developed colour -sense; but with the requirements of more highly civilized conditions, -in vocations demanding more diversified and complicated physical -and mental activities, it is plain that man, because of this organic -imperfection, must labour under continuous disadvantages. Then add -to defective vision his lack of physical endurance, his liability -to various organic affections caused by structural defects, and -his abnormal appetites which are constantly demanding for their -gratification the things which are injurious to his mental and physical -constitution, and we are enabled to judge, to some extent, of the -obstacles against which, in the struggle for existence, the future man -will find himself obliged to contend. - -Not only is man’s sense of sight less perfectly developed than is -woman’s, but his sense of touch is less acute. The hand, directed as it -is by the brain, is the most completely differentiated member of the -human structure. It may almost be said of the hand, that it assists the -brain in performing its functions. The female hand, however, is capable -of delicate distinctions which the male has no means of determining. A -dispatch from Washington says of the women of the Treasury Department: - - So superior is their skill in handling paper money that they - accomplish results that would be utterly unattainable without them. It - has been found by long experience that a counterfeit may go through - half the banks in the country without being detected, until it comes - back, often torn and mutilated, into the hands of the Treasury women. - Then it is certain of detection. They shut their eyes and feel of a - note if they suspect it. If it feels wrong, in half a minute they - point out the incongruities of the counterfeit. - -Although throughout the ascending scale of life, the female has -been expending all her energy in the performance of her legitimate -functions—functions which, as we have seen, are of a higher order than -those performed by the male, through causes which will be discussed -farther on in these pages, within the later centuries of human -existence—she has been temporarily overcome by the destructive forces -developed in the opposite sex, forces which are without the line of -true development, and which through overstimulation and encouragement -have overleaped the bounds of normal activity, and have therefore -become disruptive and injurious. - -During the past five thousand years, woman’s reproductive functions -have been turned into means of subsistence, and under the peculiar -circumstances of her environment, her “struggle for existence” has -involved physical processes far more disastrous to life and health -than are those to which man has been subjected. Owing to the peculiar -condition of woman’s environment, there has been developed within her -more delicate and sensitive organism an alarming degree of functional -nervousness; yet, with the gradual broadening of her sphere of -activity, and the greater exercise of personal rights, this tendency -to nervous derangement is gradually becoming lessened. That there is -reserve force in woman sufficient to overcome the evil results of the -supremacy of the animal instincts during the last five thousand or six -thousand years of human existence, from present indications seems more -than likely. - -Commenting on the subject of nervousness, and the degree in which it -is manifested in civilized countries, and especially among civilized -women, Dr. Beard says: - - Women, with all their nervousness—and, in civilized lands, women are - more nervous, immeasurably, than men, and suffer more from general - and special nervous diseases—yet live quite as long as men, if not - somewhat longer; their greater nervousness and far greater liability - to functional diseases of the nervous system being compensated for - by their smaller liability to acute and inflammatory disorders, and - various organic nervous diseases, likewise, such as the general - paralysis of insanity.[39] - -[39] _American Nervousness_, p. 207. - -According to Maudsley women “seldom suffer from general paralysis.” -This disease is frequently inherited, and is sometimes the result of -alcoholic and other excesses.[40] - -[40] Maudsley, _Physiology and Pathology of the Mind_, p. 360. - -Regarding the dangers to which women are exposed by excessive and -useless maternity, Dr. Beard remarks: - - The large number of cases of laceration at childbirth and the - prolonged and sometimes even life-enduring illness resulting - from them, are good reasons for the terror which the processes of - parturition inspires in the minds of American women today. - -However, that the dangers incident to parturition, and the excessive -nervousness which characterizes civilized women, are not necessary -adjuncts of civilization, but, on the contrary, are a result of the -unchecked disruptive forces developed in man, and the consequent drain -on the vital energies of woman, will be seen, so soon as through the -cultivation of the higher faculties developed in and transmitted -through females, the lower nature of males has finally been brought -within its legitimate bounds. - - - - -CHAPTER IV - -THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE SOCIAL INSTINCTS AND THE MORAL SENSE - - -Man is pre-eminently a social animal. He seeks companionship and -depends largely upon his fellows for security and happiness. Nor is -this dependence upon others confined to the human species. Association, -or combination of interests, is manifested throughout the entire -organic scale. - -From Mr. Darwin’s reasoning it is evident that he regards association -as the basic principle underlying progress. He also thinks that -combination is impossible without sympathy or a desire for the welfare -of others outside of self. He is certain that associated animals have a -feeling of affection for the group and that “they sympathize with one -another in times of distress and danger.”[41] - -[41] _The Descent of Man_, 1877, p. 102. - -This writer thinks that an animal like the gorilla, which possessing -great size and strength is able to defend itself against all its -enemies, would not become social and therefore would be unable to -advance. And this too, notwithstanding the fact that such an animal has -already developed pugnacity, courage, and perseverance, the characters -which are regarded as the source of the remarkable mental endowment of -man. - -We have seen that the greater size of the male is the result of Sexual -Selection and is therefore a secondary sexual character. “All the -secondary sexual characters of man are highly variable.”[42] In dealing -with this subject we must not lose sight of the fact that variability -denotes low organization. It shows that the organs of the body have not -become specialized to perform their legitimate functions. - -[42] _The Descent of Man_, 1877, p. 559. - -Among monogamous animals difference in size between the sexes is -slight, but among polygamous species the male is considerably larger -than the female, this difference being correlated with numerous -variations of structure. - -Among early races males were considerably in excess of females so it -was customary for the former to fight desperately to win the favour -of the latter in much the same manner as their animal progenitors had -fought to secure their mates. These struggles were enacted in the -presence of the females, they always choosing the strongest and best -endowed leaving the weaker and uglier members of the group unmated -and therefore unable to propagate their misfortunes. This exercise of -choice by the female in pairing is the primary fact in the history of -human progress. The appalling effects of the withdrawal from women of -this fundamental prerogative will be referred to later in these pages. - -That pugnacity, courage, and perseverance are the result of man’s -strong sexual nature is shown wherever this subject is touched upon in -_The Descent of Man_. Special attention is directed to the fact that -eunuchs are deficient in these qualities. - -That the greater size and strength of the male, together with courage, -pugnacity, and perseverance, have been of great value to him in -deciding the contests between rivals in courtship is quite true. It is -clear, however, that these characters are in no wise responsible for -the origin and development of the higher faculties. Even Mr. Darwin’s -premises, when carried to their legitimate conclusions, furnish -sufficient evidence to prove that the social instincts and the moral -sense have been developed quite independently of these characters. - -According to the reasoning of the savants it is only through that -specialization of organs which has resulted in the separation of the -sex elements, and the consequent division of functions, that the social -instincts have originated, and that it is to processes involved in such -specialization, or differentiation, that the higher faculties and the -moral sense have arisen. It is indeed plain from their reasoning that -matter, or perhaps I should say the force inherent in matter, had to be -raised to a certain dynamic order before the peculiar quality of brain -and nerve necessary for the development of these faculties could be -manifested through it. - - As there are different kinds of matter, so there are different modes - of force, in the universe; and as we rise from the common physical - matter in which physical laws hold sway up to chemical matter and - chemical forces, and from chemical matter again up to living matter - and its modes of force, so do we rise in the scale of life from - the lowest kind of living matter with its corresponding force or - energy, through different kinds of histological elements, with their - corresponding energies or functions, up to the highest kind of living - matter and corresponding mode of force with which we are acquainted, - viz., nerve element and nerve force. But, when we have got to nerve - element and nerve force, it behooves us not to rest content with the - general idea, but to trace, with attentive discrimination, through - the nervous system the different kinds of nervous cells, and their - different manifestations of energy. So also shall we obtain the - groundwork for a true conception of the relations of mind and the - nervous system.[43] - -[43] Maudsley, _Physiology and Pathology of the Mind_, p. 60. - -We have seen that the nervous system not only regulates most of the -existing functions of the body, but that it has indirectly influenced -the development of various bodily structures and certain mental -qualities, and that these powers of mind depend on the development of -the brain. - -By our guides in this matter, we are assured that the most important -difference observed between man and the lower animals is the -conscience; hence, if we would understand how it has been possible for -man to rise to his present position, we must know something of the -processes involved in the development of the social instincts, through -which have originated conscience and a desire for the welfare of others -outside of self. The importance of these instincts in the development -of conscience is thus set forth by Mr. Darwin: - - Any animal whatever, endowed with well-marked social instincts, the - parental and filial affections being here included, would inevitably - acquire a moral sense or conscience, as soon as its intellectual - faculties had become as well, or nearly as well, developed as in man. - -Sympathy, we are told, is the foundation-stone of the social instincts. -From facts which are everywhere presented among the forms of life -below man, it is evident that sympathy was developed at an early stage -of animal life. It is doubtless strongly manifested in our ape-like -progenitors, and it was probably this instinct which subsequently led -to a community of interest and the coherence of the tribe. - -In a consideration, therefore, of this question of sex development -and the origin of the progressive principle, if, as we are assured, -sympathy constitutes the foundation-stone of the social instincts, -and if it is to these instincts that we are to look for the origin -of the moral sense, or conscience— a faculty which constitutes the -fundamental difference between the human species and the lower orders -of life—the question naturally arises: In which of the two diverging -lines of sexual demarcation has arisen sympathy, or an interest in -the well-being of others? For an answer to our question we must look -carefully to the facts connected with the development of the sexes -within one of which have been acquired characters tending toward the -welfare of society, or of individuals outside of self; within the -other, characters looking only toward selfish gratification. Within the -former, the maternal instinct predominates; within the latter, passion. - -Mr. Darwin admits that “parental and filial affection lies at the base -of the social instincts,” and gives as his opinion that this quality is -the result of Natural Selection—that those individuals which bestowed -upon their offspring the greatest care and attention, would survive -and multiply at the expense of others in which this instinct was less -developed. Therefore, in pursuing the inquiry of sex-function and -sex-development, a question of considerable significance is at this -point suggested: Within which parent is observed the greater tendency -to bestow care and attention upon offspring? - -We are assured that “the animal family is especially maternal.” So -soon as a female bird has laid her eggs, she is animated only by one -desire; neither the promise of abundant food nor the fear of bullets -is able to divert her purpose. Although the males among the more highly -developed birds assist in rearing the family, amongst various species -it is only the female which cares for the young. The male duck has -no interest in his progeny, neither has the male eider. Of the male -turkeys Mr. Letourneau says that they - - do much worse: they often devour the eggs of their females, and - thus oblige the latter to hide them. Female turkeys join each other - with their young ones for greater security, and thus form troops of - from sixty to eighty individuals, led by the mothers, and carefully - avoiding the old males, who rush on the young ones and kill them by - violent blows on the head with their beaks.[44] - -[44] _The Evolution of Marriage and the Family_, p. 29. - -The males of various other species, jealous of the attentions of the -mothers during the time that their efforts are directed toward the -maintenance of their brood, often kill their young. Regarding the -subject of paternal care, Mr. Letourneau observes: “It is important to -notice that amongst birds, the fathers devoid of affection generally -belong to the less intelligent, and are most often polygamous.” - -By observing the habits of cuckoos the fact has been ascertained -that among them the maternal instinct is almost entirely lacking. -Of the cuckoo it has been remarked that it is a “discontented, -ill-conditioned, passionate, in short, decidedly unamiable bird.” Its -note is typical of its habits and character. - - The same abruptness, insatiability, eagerness, the same rage, - are noticeable in its whole conduct. The cuckoos are notoriously - unsociable, even in migration individualistic. They jealously guard - their territorial “preserves,” and verify in many ways the old myth - that they are sparrow-hawks in disguise. The parasitic habit is - consonant with their general character. - - The species consist predominantly of males. The preponderance is - probably about five to one; though one observer makes it five times - greater. In so male a species, it is not surprising to find degenerate - maternal instincts.[45] - -[45] Geddes and Thomson, _The Evolution of Sex_, p. 276. - -Regarding spiders and the greater number of insects, we are told that -the males entirely neglect their young; it is - - in the female that the care for offspring first awakens. And this is - natural, for the eggs have been formed in her body; she has laid them, - and has been conscious of them; they form, in a way, an integral part - of her individuality.... With insects maternal forethought sometimes - amounts to a sort of divining prescience which the doctrine of - evolution alone can explain.[46] - -[46] Letourneau, _The Evolution of Marriage and the Family_, p. 22. - -Among the males of mammals below man the love of offspring seems to be -almost entirely wanting. - - We must here remark, that whatever the form of sexual association - among mammals, the male has always much less affection for his young - than the female. Even in monogamous species, when the male keeps with - the female, he does so more as chief than as father. At times he is - inclined to commit infanticide and to destroy the offspring, which, by - absorbing all the attention of his female, thwart his amours. Thus, - among the large felines, the mother is obliged to hide her young ones - from the male during the first few days after birth, to prevent his - devouring them.[47] - -[47] _The Evolution of Marriage and the Family_, p. 34. - -The fact is obvious that among the orders of life below man but little -paternal affection has been developed, and with a more extended -knowledge of the past history of the human race comes the assurance -that under earlier conditions of society, and in fact, until a -comparatively recent time, little notice was taken of the paternal -relation—that kinship and all the rights of succession were reckoned -through the mother. In other words, motherhood was the primary bond by -which society was bound together. - -Although under higher conditions of civilized life, males have at -length come to manifest much interest in the well-being of their -offspring, yet that paternal affection is not a primary instinct -is shown by the fact that such interest, even at the present time, -extends only to those individuals born in wedlock. Men are solicitous -only for the welfare of those who are to succeed to their names and -fortunes; hence, although in later times the paternal instinct has been -considerably re-enforced, it is plain that the interest of fathers for -their offspring has in the past been largely the result of custom, -association, pride, desire for self-perpetuation or duplication, or -some other form of self-aggrandizement. - -Mr. Darwin says: “The feeling of pleasure from society is probably -an extension of the parental or filial affections, since the social -instinct seems to be developed by the young remaining for a long time -with their parents.”[48] Although Mr. Darwin does not admit it, from -his reasoning it is plain that the maternal instinct is the root -whence sympathy has sprung, and that it is the source whence the -cohesive quality in the tribe originated. Regarding the importance of -association or combination in early groups Mr. Darwin remarks: - -[48] _The Descent of Man_, p. 105. - - When two tribes of primeval man, living in the same country, came - into competition, if (other circumstances being equal) the one tribe - included a great number of courageous, sympathetic, and faithful - members, who were always ready to warn each other of danger, to aid - and defend each other, this tribe would succeed better and conquer the - other.... Selfish and contentious people will not cohere, and without - coherence nothing can be effected. A tribe rich in the above qualities - would spread and be victorious over other tribes.... Thus the social - and moral qualities would tend slowly to advance and be diffused - throughout the world.[49] - -[49] _The Descent of Man_, p. 130. - -Since, then, it has been proved by scientists that without an -association of interests and the coherence of the tribe the social -instincts must have remained weak, and since it has been shown by them -that without concerted action the higher faculties, including the moral -sense, could not have been developed; and since, furthermore, the -influences which have led to this development are those growing out of -the maternal instincts, may we not conclude that all of those qualities -which make man pre-eminently a social animal—his love of society, his -desire for the good-will of his kind, his perception of right and -wrong, and, finally, that sympathy which at last gradually extending -beyond the limits of race and country proclaims the brotherhood of man -and the unity of life on the earth—all these characteristics, are but -an extension of maternal affection, an outgrowth of that early bond -between mother and child, which, while affecting the entire line of -development, still remains unchanged and unchangeable. - - - - -CHAPTER V - -THE SUPREMACY OF THE MALE - - -An unprejudiced review of the facts relative to the differentiation -of the two sexes, as set forth by naturalists, reveals not only the -primary principles involved in human progress, but shows also the -source whence these principles originated. These facts serve also to -explain that “mental superiority” of man over woman observed by Mr. -Darwin and others in the present stage of human growth. - -Notwithstanding the superior degree of development which, according -to the facts elaborated by scientists, must belong to the female in -all the orders of life below mankind, Mr. Darwin would have us believe -that so soon as the human species appeared on the earth the processes -which for untold ages had been in operation were reversed, and that -through courage and perseverance, or patience, qualities which were -the result of extreme selfishness, or which were acquired while in -pursuit of animal gratification, man finally became superior to woman. -The following furnishes an example of Mr. Darwin’s reasoning upon this -subject. He says: - - The chief distinction in the intellectual powers of the two sexes - is shown by man’s attaining to a higher eminence, in whatever he - takes up, than can woman—whether requiring deep thought, reason, or - imagination, or merely the use of the senses and the hands. If two - lists were made of the most eminent men and women in poetry, painting, - sculpture, music (inclusive both of composition and performance), - history, and philosophy, with half-a-dozen names under each subject, - the two lists would not bear comparison.... - - Now, when two men are put into competition, or a man with a woman, - both possessed of every mental quality in equal perfection, save - that one has higher energy, perseverance, and courage, the latter - will generally become more eminent in every pursuit, and will gain - the ascendency. He may be said to possess genius—for genius has been - declared by a great authority to be patience; and patience, in this - sense, means unflinching, undaunted perseverance.[50] - -[50] _The Descent of Man_, p. 564. - -Doubtless, for the purpose of strengthening his position, Mr. Darwin -quotes the following from John Stuart Mill: “The things in which man -most excels woman are those which require most plodding and long -hammering at single thoughts.” And in summing up the processes by which -man has finally gained the ascendency over woman he concludes: - - Thus man has ultimately become superior to woman. It is, indeed, - fortunate that the law of the equal transmission of characters to both - sexes prevails with mammals; otherwise it is probable that man would - have become as superior in mental endowment to woman, as the peacock - is in ornamental plumage to the peahen.[51] - -[51] _The Descent of Man_, p. 565. - -Notwithstanding this conclusion of Mr. Darwin, in view of the facts -elaborated by himself, we cannot help thinking that it is indeed -fortunate that the law of the equal transmission of characters to -both sexes prevails with mammals, otherwise it is probable that man -would never have had any higher ambition than the gratification of his -animal instincts, and would never have risen above those conditions in -which he struggled desperately for the possession of the female. All -the facts which have been observed relative to the acquirement of the -social instincts and the moral sense prove them to have originated in -the female constitution, and as progress is not possible without these -characters, it is not difficult to determine within which of the sexes -the progressive principle first arose. Even courage, perseverance, -and energy, characters which are denominated as thoroughly masculine, -since they are the result of Sexual Selection, have been and still are -largely dependent on the will or choice of the female. - -In his zeal to prove the superiority of man over woman, and while -emphasizing energy, perseverance, and courage as factors in -development, Mr. Darwin seems to have overlooked the importance of -the distinctive characters belonging to the female organism, viz., -perception and intuition, combined with greater powers of endurance, -the first two of which, under the low conditions occasioned by the -supremacy of the animal instincts, have thus far had little opportunity -to manifest themselves. A fairer statement relative to the capacities -of the two sexes and their ability to succeed might have been set forth -as follows: - -When a man and a woman are put in competition, both possessed of -every mental quality in equal perfection, save that one has higher -energy, more patience, and a somewhat greater degree of physical -courage, while the other has superior powers of intuition, finer and -more rapid perceptions, and a greater degree of endurance (the result -of an organism freer from imperfections), the chances of the latter -for gaining the ascendency will doubtless be equal to those of the -former as soon as the animal conditions of life are outgrown, and the -characters peculiar to the female constitution are allowed expression. -Mr. Darwin’s quotation from J. Stuart Mill, that the things in which -man excels woman are those which require most plodding and long -hammering at single thoughts, is evidently true, and corresponds with -the fundamental premises in the theory of development as set forth -by all naturalists. The female organism is not a plodding machine, -neither is the telephone nor the telegraph, yet these latter devices -accomplish the work formerly done by the stagecoach much more rapidly, -and in a manner better suited to civilized conditions. So soon as women -are freed from the unnatural restrictions placed upon them through the -temporary predominance of the animal instincts in man, their greater -powers of endurance, together with a keener insight and an organism -comparatively free from imperfections, will doubtless give them a -decided advantage in the struggle for existence. While patience is -doubtless a virtue, and while during the past ages of human experience -it has been of incalculable value to man, it will not, under higher -conditions, be required in competing for the prizes of life. - -Woman’s rapid perceptions, and her intuitions which in many instances -amount almost to second sight, indicate undeveloped genius, and -partake largely of the nature of deductive reasoning; it is reasonable -to suppose therefore that as soon as she is free, and has for a few -generations enjoyed the advantages of more natural methods of education -and training, and those better suited to the female constitution, she -will be able to trace the various processes of induction by which she -reaches her conclusions. She will then be able to reason inductively up -to her deductive conceptions. - -The worthlessness of Mr. Darwin’s comparison between men and women in -performing the various activities of life is already clearly apparent. -Although less than half a century has elapsed since _The Descent -of Man_ was written women are already successfully competing with -men in nearly all the walks of life both high and low, and this too -notwithstanding the fact that these occupations have heretofore been -regarded as belonging exclusively to men. We have seen that Mr. Darwin -mentions music as a vocation in which man’s superiority over woman is -manifested, yet already in the United States, there is not one male -musician who would be willing to match his skill against that of any -one of the four best woman performers. - -It is a well understood fact that neither individuals nor classes -which upon every hand have been thwarted and restrained, either by -unjust and oppressive laws, or by the tyranny of custom, prejudice, or -physical force, have ever made any considerable progress in the actual -acquirement of knowledge or in the arts of life. Mr. Darwin’s capacity -for collecting and formulating facts seems not to have materially aided -him in discerning the close connection existing at this stage of human -progress between the masculinized conditions of human society and the -necessary opportunities to succeed in the higher walks of life; in -fact, he seems to have forgotten that all the avenues to success have -for thousands of years been controlled and wholly manipulated by men, -while the activities of women have been distorted and repressed in -order that the “necessities” of the male nature might be provided for. -Besides, it seems never to have occurred to him that as man has still -not outgrown the animal in his nature, and as the intellectual and -moral age is only just beginning to dawn, the time is not yet ripe for -the direct expression of the more refined instincts and ideas peculiar -to the female organism, and, as thus far, only that advancement -has been made which is compatible with the supremacy of the lower -instincts, woman’s time has not yet come. - -Although women are still in possession of their natural inheritance, a -finer and more complex organism comparatively free from imperfections, -and although, as a result of this inheritance, their intuitions -are still quicker, their perceptions keener, and their endurance -greater, the drain on their physical energies, caused by the abnormal -development of the reproductive energies in the opposite sex, has, -during the ages of man’s dominion over her, been sufficient to preclude -the idea of success in competing with men for the prizes of life. -Although an era of progress has begun, ages will doubtless be required -to eradicate abuses which are the result of constitutional defects, and -especially so as the prejudices and feelings of mankind are for the -most part in harmony with such abuses. - -If we examine the subject of female apparel, at the present time, we -shall observe how difficult it is to uproot long-established prejudices -which are deeply rooted in sensuality and superstition; and this is -true notwithstanding the fact that such prejudices may involve the -comfort and even the health of half the people, and seriously affect -the welfare of unborn generations. An examination of the influences -which have determined the course of modern fashions in woman’s clothing -will show the truth of this observation. - -Of all the senses which have been developed, that of sight is -undoubtedly the most refined, and when in the human species it is -cultivated to a degree which enables its possessor to appreciate the -beautiful in Nature and in Art, we are perhaps justified in designating -it as the intellectual sense. In point of refinement, the sense of -hearing comes next in order, yet among creatures as low in the scale of -being as birds, we find that females not only appreciate the beautiful, -but that they are charmed by pleasing and harmonious sounds, and that -if males would win their favour it must be accomplished by appeals -through these senses to the higher qualities developed within them. - -Although the female of the human species, like the female among the -lower orders of life, is capable of appreciating fine colouring, and -to a considerable extent the beautiful in form, the style of dress -adopted by women is not an expression of their natural ideas of taste -and harmony. On the contrary, it is to Sexual Selection that we must -look for an explanation of the incongruities and absurdities presented -by the so-called female fashions of the past and present. The processes -of Sexual Selection, which, so long as the female was the controlling -agency in courtship, worked on the male, have in these later ages been -reversed. For the reason that the female of the human species has so -long been under subjection to the male, the styles of female dress and -adornment which have been adopted, and which are still in vogue, are -largely the result of masculine taste. Woman’s business in life has -been to marry, or, at least, it has been necessary for her, in order -to gain her support, to win the favour of the opposite sex. She must, -therefore, by her charms, captivate the male. - -With the progress of civilization and since women as economic and -sexual slaves have become dependent upon men for their support, no male -biped has been too stupid, too ugly, or too vicious to take to himself -a mate and perpetuate his imperfections. This unchecked freedom of the -male to multiply his defects is responsible for present conditions. - -As for thousands of years women have been dependent on men not only -for food and clothing but for the luxuries of life as well, it is -not singular that in the struggle for life to which they have been -subjected they should have adopted the styles of dress which would -be likely to secure to them the greatest amount of success. When we -remember that the present ideas of becomingness or propriety in woman’s -apparel are the result of ages of sensuality and servitude, it is not -remarkable that they are difficult to uproot, and especially so as many -of the most pernicious and health-destroying styles involve questions -of female decorum as understood by a sensualized age. - -Mr. Darwin calls attention to the fact that women “all over the world” -adorn themselves with the gay feathers of male birds. Since the -beautiful plumage of male birds has been produced according to female -standards of taste, and since it is wholly the result of innate female -ideas of harmony in colour and design, it is not perhaps remarkable -that women, recognizing the original female standards of beauty, should -desire to utilize those effects which have been obtained at so great -an expenditure of vital force to the opposite sex, especially as men -are pleased with such display, and, as under present conditions of male -supremacy, the female of the human species is obliged to captivate the -male in order to secure her support. - -Ever since the dominion of man over woman began a strict censorship -over her dress has been maintained. Although in very recent times women -are beginning to exercise a slight degree of independence in the matter -of clothes, still, because of existing prejudices and customs they have -not yet been able to adopt a style of dress which admits of the free -and unrestricted use of the body and limbs. It is believed that woman, -the natural tempter of man, if left to her own sinful devices, would -again as of old attempt to destroy that inherent purity of heart and -cleanliness of life which characterize the male constitution. Woman’s -ankles and throat seem to be the most formidable foes against which -innocent man has to contend, so the concealment of these offending -members is deemed absolutely necessary for his protection and safety. -Ecclesiastics, a class whose duty it has ever been to regulate and -control the movements of women, seem to think that the ankles and -throats of women were intended not for the use and convenience of their -possessors but as snares to entrap holy men. - -It would thus appear that the present fashions for female apparel have -a deeper significance than we have been in the habit of ascribing -to them. We are still living under conditions peculiar to a sensual -age, and have not yet outgrown the requirements which condemn women -to a style of dress which hinders the free movements of the body and -which checks all the activities of life. In one way the woman of the -present time may be said to resemble the male Argus pheasant, whose -decorations, although they serve to please his mate, greatly hinder his -power of motion and the free use of his body and limbs. - -When we consider that apparel is but one, and a minor one, of the -strictures under which women have laboured during the later era of -human existence and when we consider all the ignoble and degrading uses -to which womanhood has been subjected, the wonder is not that women -have failed in the past to distinguish themselves in the various fields -of intellectual labour in which men have achieved a limited degree of -success, but that they have had sufficient energy and courage left to -enable them even to attempt anything so far outside the boundary of -their prescribed “sphere,” or that they have been able to transmit to -their male offspring those powers through which they have gained their -present stage of progress. - -With regard to Mr. Darwin’s comparison of the intellectual powers of -the two sexes, and his assertion that man attains to a higher eminence -in whatever he takes up than woman—that, for instance, he surpasses her -in the production of poetry, music, philosophy, etc., the facts at hand -suggest that if within mankind no higher motives and tastes had been -developed than those derived from selfishness and passion, there would -never have arisen a desire for poetry, music, philosophy, or science, -or, in fact, for any of the achievements which have been the result of -the more exalted activities of the human intellect. However, because -of the subjection of the higher faculties developed in mankind, the -poetry, music, and painting of the past betray their sensuous origin -and plainly reveal the stage of advancement which has been reached, -while history, philosophy, and even science, judging from Mr. Darwin’s -methods, have not yet wholly emerged from the murky atmosphere of a -sensuous age. - -It will be well for us to remember that the doctrine of the Survival -of the Fittest does not imply that the best endowed, physically or -otherwise, have always succeeded in the struggle for existence. -By the term Survival of the Fittest we are to understand a natural -law by means of which those best able to overcome the unfavourable -conditions of their environment survive and are able to propagate their -successful qualities. We must bear in mind that neither the growth of -the individual nor that of society has proceeded in an unbroken or -uninterrupted line; on the contrary, during a certain portion of human -existence on the earth, the forces which tend toward degeneration have -been stronger than whose which lie along the line of true development. - -We are assured that the principles of construction and destruction are -mutually employed in the reproductive processes, that continuous death -means continuous life,—the katabolic or disruptive tendencies of the -male being necessary to the anabolic or constructive habits of the -female. As it is in reproduction, so has it been through the entire -course of development. Side by side, all along the line, these two -tendencies have been in operation; the grinding, rending, and devouring -processes which we denominate Natural Selection, alongside those which -unite, assimilate, and protect. As a result of the separation of the -sexes there have been developed on the one side extreme egoism, or -the desire for selfish gratification; on the other, altruism, or a -desire for the welfare of others outside of self. Hence, throughout -the later ages of human existence, since the egoistic principles -have gained the ascendency, may be observed the unequal struggle for -liberty and justice, against tyranny, and the oppressors of the masses -of the human race. From present appearances it would seem, that the -disruptive or devouring forces have always been in the ascendency. -The philosophy of history however, teaches the contrary. With a -broader view of the origin and development of the human race, and the -unexpected light which within the last few years has been thrown upon -prehistoric society and the grandeur of past achievement, a close -student of the past is able to discern a faint glimmering of a more -natural age of human existence, and is able to observe in the present -intense struggles for freedom and equality, an attempt to return to -the earlier and more natural principles of justice and liberty, and so -to advance to a stage of society in which selfishness, sensuality, and -superstition no longer reign supreme. - -The status of women always furnishes an index to the true condition -of society, one or two superficial writers to the contrary -notwithstanding. For this phenomenon there is a scientific reason, -namely: society advances just in proportion as women are able to -convey to their offspring the progressive tendencies transmissible -only through the female organism. It is plain, therefore, that mankind -will never advance to a higher plane of thinking and living until the -restrictions upon the liberties of women have been entirely removed, -and until within every department of human activity, their natural -instincts, and the methods of thought peculiar to them be allowed -free expression. The following is from Mr. Buckle’s lecture on “The -Influence of Women on the Progress of Knowledge”: - - I believe and I hope before we separate to convince you, that so far - from women exercising little or no influence over the progress of - knowledge, they are capable of exercising, and have actually exercised - an enormous influence; that this influence, is, in fact, so great that - it is hardly possible to assign limits to it; and that great as it is, - it may with advantage be still further increased. I hope, moreover, - to convince you that this influence has been exhibited not merely - from time to time in rare, sudden, and transitory ebullitions, but - that it acts by virtue of certain laws inherent in human nature; and - that, although it works as an undercurrent below the surface, and is - therefore invisible to hasty observers, it has already produced the - most important results, and has affected the shape, the character, and - the amount of our knowledge. - -Through the processes involved in the differentiation of sex and the -consequent division of functions, it has been possible during the past -six thousand or seven thousand years (a mere tithe of the time spent -by mankind upon the earth) for women to become enslaved, or subjected -to the lower impulses of the male nature. Through the capture of women -for wives, through the exigencies of warfare, the individual ownership -of land, and the various changes incident to a certain stage of human -existence, the finer sensibilities which characterize women have been -overshadowed, and the higher forces which originated within them -and which are transmitted in the female line, have been temporarily -subdued by the great sexual ardour inherent in the opposite sex; it is -not, therefore, singular that the degree of progress attained should -appear to be wholly the result of male activity and acumen. Yet, -notwithstanding the degradation to which women in the position assigned -them by physical force have been obliged to submit, their capacity for -improvement has suffered less from the influences and circumstances of -their environment than has that of men. As the higher faculties are -transmitted through women equally to both sexes, in the impoverishment -of their inheritance on the female side, men have suffered equally -with women, while, through their male progenitors, they have inherited -appetites and habits (the result of a ruder and less developed -structure) which weaken and degrade the entire constitution. - -Doubtless, so soon as women have gained sufficient strength to enable -them to maintain their independence, and after the higher faculties -rather than the animal propensities rule supreme, men, through the -imperfections in their organism, and the appetites acquired through -these imperfections, will, for a considerable length of time, find -themselves weighted in the struggle for supremacy, and this, too, by -the very characters which under lower conditions are now believed to -have determined their success. - -It is not unlikely, however, that through Sexual Selection the -characters or qualities unfavourable to the higher development of man -will in time be eliminated. The mother is the natural guardian and -protector of offspring; therefore, so soon as women are free they will -doubtless select for husbands only those men who, by their mental, -moral, and physical endowments are fitted to become the fathers of -their children. Only those women will become mothers who hope to secure -to their offspring immunity from the giant evils with which society -is afflicted. In this way, and this way only, may these evils be -eradicated. - -Under purer conditions of life, when by the higher powers developed -in the race the animal propensities have become somewhat subdued by -man, we may reasonably hope that the “struggle for existence,” which -is still so relentlessly waged, will cease, that man will no longer -struggle with man for place or power, and that the bounties of earth -will no longer be hoarded by the few, while the many are suffering for -the necessities of life; for are we not all members of one family, and -dependent for all that we have on the same beneficent parent—Nature? - -Although the two principles, the constructive and destructive, are -closely allied, the higher faculties have been acquired only through -the former—the highest degree of progress is possible only through -union or co-operation, or, through the uniting and binding force, -maternal love from which has been developed, first, sympathy among -related groups, and later an interest which is capable of extending -itself not only to all members of the human race, but to every sentient -creature. There is, therefore, little wonder that for thousands of -years of human existence, the female principle was worshipped over the -entire habitable globe as the source of all light and life—the Creator -and Preserver of the Universe. - -We are only on the threshold of civilization. Mankind may as yet have -no just conception of their possibilities, but so soon as, through -the agencies now in operation for the advancement of the race, the -“necessities” of the male nature no longer demand and secure the -subjection of women and the consequent drain on the very fountain -whence spring the higher faculties, a great and unexpected impetus will -be given to progress. - -The fact that a majority of women have not yet gained that freedom of -action necessary to the absolute control of their own persons, nor -acquired a sufficient degree of independence to enable them to adopt -a course of action in their daily life which they know to be right, -shows the extent to which selfishness, twin brother to sensuality, -has clouded the conscience and warped the judgment in all matters -pertaining to human justice. So closely has women’s environment been -guarded that in addition to all the restrictions placed upon their -liberties, a majority of them are still dependent for food and clothing -on pleasing the men, who still hold the purse-strings. Yet Mr. Darwin, -the apostle of original scientific investigation, concludes: - -“If men are capable of decided prominence over women in many subjects, -the average mental powers in men must be above those of women.” - - - - - PART II - - Prehistoric Society - - - - -CHAPTER I - -METHOD OF INVESTIGATION - - -If the theory of the development of the human race, or more -particularly that of the two diverging lines of sex demarcation as set -forth in the foregoing chapters be correct, it is plain that by it a -new foundation is laid for the study of mankind. - -If, contrary to the generally accepted idea, within the female organism -have been developed those elements which form the basis of human -progress, or, if the higher faculties are transmitted through the -mother, henceforth all examinations into primitive conditions and all -research into the causes which underlie existing institutions must -be carried on with reference to this particular fact. Only through -a thorough understanding of the principles or forces which govern -human development, and a just appreciation of the source whence these -principles have sprung, may we hope to gain a clear understanding -of the past history of the race, or to perceive the true course to -be pursued toward further development. Through the investigation of -facts revealed in the records of Geology, and through the study of -comparative Embryology and Anatomy, or through an understanding of -Zoölogy and Anthropology, man has well-nigh solved the problem of his -origin, or has almost proved his connection with and development from -the lower orders of life, but of the countless ages which intervened -between the era of our ape-like progenitors and the dawn of organized -society, little may be known without a correct knowledge of the -inheritance received by mankind from creatures lower in the scale of -being. Only by a careful study of the constitutional bias acquired -throughout the entire line of development, are we enabled to note the -motives or forces by which primitive society was controlled, or to form -a just conclusion relative to the early conditions of human society and -its subsequent progress. - -Through the attention which in these later years has been directed -toward surviving tribes in the so-called middle and later stages of -savagery, and in the three successive periods of barbarism, have -doubtless been revealed many of the processes by which mankind have -reached their present condition. Much of the information, however, -which has been obtained by these inquiries still lacks that accuracy in -detail demanded by exact science; but, so soon as the array of facts -which the last half-century has brought to bear upon this subject shall -have been correctly interpreted, logically arranged, intelligently -classified, and without prejudice brought into line with the truths -involved in the theory of natural development, there will doubtless -be approximated a system of truth which will furnish a safe and -trustworthy foundation for a more thorough research into the history of -the human race. - -Although the facts relative to existing undeveloped races, which -have been laid before the reading public through the patience and -industry of investigators in this particular branch of inquiry, have -been of incalculable value as furnishing a foundation for a correct -understanding of the origin of the customs, manners, ceremonies, -governments, languages, and systems of consanguinity and affinity of -a primitive race, and although without these efforts little knowledge -of the early history of mankind could be obtained, yet, as a majority -of the theories built upon these observations have been based on -long-established prejudices relative to the earliest conditions -surrounding human society and the forces by which it was controlled, -many false conclusions have been the inevitable result. - -We have seen that owing to the ascendency which the masculine element -in human society gained during the period designated as the Latter -Status of barbarism, the popular ideas evolved since that time -concerning the origin and development of government, social usages, -religion, and law, have been in accordance with the then established -assumption that within the male organism lies not only the active, -aggressive element, but the progressive principle as well. It is -not, therefore, singular that at the present time all the lines of -investigation which are being directed toward man in a primitive state, -or which are being conducted for the avowed purpose of ascertaining the -successive steps by which our social, civil, and religious institutions -have been reared, should continue to be carried on under the _a priori_ -assumption that the male organism is by nature superior to that of the -female. - -As in all the theories relative to the development of species the -male is the principal factor, so in the theories brought forward to -explain the development of human institutions the female has played -only an insignificant part; but, as all later facts bearing upon this -subject furnish indisputable evidence of the early importance of the -female element, not only among the lower orders of life but under -earlier human conditions as well, we may reasonably expect from these -data the establishment, in the not distant future, of a complete chain -of evidence in support of a more rational and consistent theory of -development than has yet been put forth, not only of the origin of the -higher faculties, but of the organization of human society and the -growth of its various institutions. - -As, hitherto, all the theories advanced relative to the evolution of -the human race and the establishment of society on a political and -territorial basis have been founded on preconceived notions of the -superiority of the characters peculiar to the male, it is believed, or -at least assumed, that the ascendency gained by man over woman during -the Latter Status of barbarism constitutes a regular, orderly, and -necessary step in the direct line of progress; and, as under masculine -supremacy, a certain degree of advancement has been possible, it is -assumed that the nobler animal, man, having gained the ascendency over -the weaker animal, woman, his progress in the future is to increase -in a sort of geometrical ratio, while she, still bound by physical -disabilities and weighted by the baneful effects of past limitations -and restrictions, must continue far in the rear of her better endowed -and more thoroughly equipped male mate. However, in this conception of -the facts of biology, woman is not left without a crumb of comfort; -for, in the forlorn and helpless condition to which it condemns her, -she is given to understand that if for many successive generations -girls be constantly trained in masculine methods, they may eventually -be able to admire, and possibly in a measure to comprehend, some of the -less stupendous mental achievements of their brothers; but, according -to the savants, any attempt on the part of women to compete with men in -the higher walks of life must result in increased physical weakness, in -the immediate degeneration of the female sex, and in disaster and ruin -to the entire race. - -When we remember that investigations into the conditions surrounding -primitive society have for the most part been conducted under the -influence of prejudices similar to those which have prompted the -above assumptions, it is not singular that in a majority of cases in -which the early status of women has been discussed, and in which the -organization of society, the fundamental principles of government, the -origin of the institution of marriage, the monogamic family, and the -growth of the god-idea, have been the topics under discussion, the -conclusions arrived at have been not wholly warranted by the facts at -hand. - -In an investigation of the subject of human development, we must -bear in mind the fact that all the principal existing institutions -have sprung from germs of thought which originated under primitive -conditions of the race. Government, language, marriage, the modern -family, and our present system of the accumulation and distribution -of wealth, have all been evolved from the necessities of early human -existence, or from primitive ideas conceived according to the peculiar -bias which had been given to the female and male organisms prior to -the appearance of mankind upon the earth, and which have since been -developed in accordance with the laws which govern human growth. - -With their reasoning faculties still undeveloped, and, according to our -guides, wholly destitute of a moral sense, human beings at the outset -of their career could have had no guiding principle other than those -instincts which they inherited from their mute progenitors. Therefore, -in order fully to understand the status of the human race as it emerged -from its animal conditions, we must bear in mind the nature of the -inheritance which it had received during its passage from a formless -lump of carbon, or an infinitesimal jelly dot in the primeval sea, to a -creature endowed with sympathy, affection, courage, and perseverance. -We must not lose sight of the fact that passion, the all-absorbing -quality developed in males belonging to the orders lower in the scale -of being, must have been conveyed without diminution or material change -to man. Neither must we forget that those qualities in the female which -had been developed for the protection of the germ, and by which she -was enabled to hold in check the abnormally developed appetites of the -male, were still in operation. - -That Nature disdains arbitrary rules, and that she pays little heed to -the proprieties established by man, are facts everywhere to be observed -among the lower orders of life. She nevertheless jealously guards the -germ and the young of the species. The mother is the natural guardian -of prenatal and infant life, and as such, under natural conditions, is -usually able to control the sexual relation. - -Failing to note the fact that among the orders of life below mankind -the female chooses her mate, and failing also to observe that through -the natural adjustment of the sexual relations his instincts are -checked by her will, nearly if not all the writers upon this subject -have declared that women and men at the outset of the human career -lived in a state of “lawlessness” or “promiscuity,” similar no doubt to -that which at the present time would prevail in a community in which -women were utterly devoid of influence, and in which there were no laws -regulating the intercourse of the sexes. - -By the most trustworthy writers on the subject of the primitive -conditions of the human race, it is believed that the most archaic -organization of society was that founded on the basis of sex, but, as -in the infancy of the race, prior to the inauguration of the system -based on sex, and during the long ages which were spent merely in -gaining a subsistence, no organized form of society existed, it is held -that the order which is observed among creatures lower in the scale -of life was suspended, and that the universal law which had hitherto -regulated the relations of the sexes, and which throughout the ages of -life on the earth had held in check the lower instincts of the male, -became immediately inoperative. - -Here the common ground of belief ceases, and each writer branches off -upon his own peculiar line of argument, appropriating and arranging the -facts observed by explorers and investigators in the various lines of -inquiry according to his own preconceived notions, or as best suits the -particular scheme of development which he essays to establish. - -In the following pages the attempt will be made to show that the facts -which in these later years have been brought to light concerning the -development of the human race are in strict accord with the facts as -enunciated by scientists relative to the development of the orders -of life below man, and that together they form a connected chain of -evidence going to prove not only that the higher faculties had their -origin in the female but that the progressive principle has also been -confided to her. - - - - -CHAPTER II - -THE RELATIONS OF THE SEXES AMONG EARLY MANKIND - - -We have seen that an investigation of the instincts and habits of -creatures lower in the scale is necessary to an understanding of the -relations which must have existed between the sexes among primitive -races. - - Among birds and mammals, the greater differentiation of the nervous - system and the higher pitch of the whole life is associated with - the development of what pedantry alone can refuse to call love. Not - only is there often partnership, co-operation, and evident affection - beyond the limits of the breeding period, but there are abundant - illustrations of a high standard of morality, of all the familiar - sexual crimes of mankind, and every shade of flirtation, courtship, - jealousy, and the like. There is no doubt that in the two highest - classes of animals at least, the physical sympathies of sexuality have - been enhanced by the emotional, if not also intellectual, sympathies - of love.[52] - -[52] Geddes and Thomson, _The Evolution of Sex_, p. 266. - -It has been observed that among the orders of life below mankind, -except among polygamous species, the female chooses the individual -which is best endowed—the one whose beauty appeals to her æsthetic -taste, or which through his stronger development is best fitted to -assist her in the office of reproduction. - -Among the more intelligent species of birds, genuine affection has been -observed, strict monogamy and life-long unions having been established -between mated pairs. Among others, although the conjugal bond is not -life-lasting, so long as the mother-bird is caring for her brood, -constancy to one another is the undeviating rule. We are assured that -with the female Illinois parrot, “widowhood and death are synonymous,” -and that “when a wheatear dies, his companion survives him scarcely a -month.”[53] - -[53] Letourneau, _The Evolution of Marriage and the Family_, p. 27. - -All eagles are monogamous. Golden eagles live in couples and remain -attached to one another for a hundred or more years, without even -changing their domicile.[54] The conjugal unions of bald-headed eagles, -although they are under no “legal restrictions,” last until the death -of one of the partners. Among birds, although incubation rests with -the mother, the father usually assists his companion. He not only -takes her place if she desires to leave the nest for a moment, but -also provides her with food.[55] So perfect is the bird family life -that Brehm declares that “real genuine marriage can only be found -among birds.”[56] Upon this subject we are informed that “examples -of wandering fancy are for the most part rare among the birds, the -majority of whom are monogamous, and even superior to most men in the -matter of conjugal fidelity.”[57] - -[54] J. G. Wood, _Natural History_, p. 262. - -[55] Westermarck, _The History of Human Marriage_, p. 11. - -[56] Brehm, _Bird-Life_. - -[57] Letourneau, _The Evolution of Marriage and the Family_, p. 27. - -Concerning mammals, it is observed that although polygamy is frequent -“it is far from being the conjugal regime universally adopted; monogamy -is common, and is sometimes accompanied by so much devotion that it -would serve as an example to human monogamists.”[58] Bears, weasels, -whales, and many other animals choose their mates and go in pairs. -Several kinds of monkeys are strictly monogamous.[59] Chimpanzees are -sometimes polygamous and sometimes monogamous. It is stated what when a -strong male has succeeded in driving away the other males of the group, -the females, although in a position to subjugate him, are nevertheless -kind and even tender toward him. They are doubtless too much occupied -with their legitimate functions to rebel, but so soon as the young -of the horde are grown, the usurper is driven from their midst. A -little observation will show us that even among polygamous species, -it is affection rather than strength which keeps the members of a -group together. Although among most of the lower orders the female -exercises a choice in the selection of her mate, still among animals of -polygamous habits the female is said to manifest genuine affection for -the father of her offspring. - -[58] _Ibid._, p. 35. - -[59] Darwin, _The Descent of Man_, p. 590. - - The polygamic regime of animals is far from extinguishing affectionate - sentiments in the females towards their husband and master. The - females of the guanaco lamas, for example, are very faithful to - their male. If the latter happens to be wounded or killed, instead - of running away, they hasten to his side, bleating and offering - themselves to the shots of the hunter in order to shield him, while, - on the contrary, if a female is killed, the male makes off with all - his troop; he only thinks of himself.[60] - -[60] Letourneau, _The Evolution of Marriage and the Family_, p. 32. - -Although among animals a stray male will sometimes drive away or kill -all the other males of the group, and himself become the common mate of -all the females, they peaceably accepting the situation, so far as I -can find, female insects, birds, and mammals, although they generally -control the sexual relation, have never been given to polyandry; the -reason for this can be explained only through a careful analysis of -the fundamental bias of the female constitution. We must bear in mind -that although among the orders of life below mankind the male is ready -to pair with any female, she, on the other hand, when free to choose, -can be induced to accept the attentions only of the one which by his -courage, bravery, or personal beauty has won her favours. We have noted -the fact that in the earliest ages of the human race this choice was -exercised by women, but we have no reason to believe that anything -resembling “promiscuity” ever prevailed among primitive races. It is -true that under earlier conditions the institution of marriage as it -exists at the present time had not appeared; yet the law which had -been impressed on the higher organism of the female, until overcome by -males through means which will be treated of later in these pages, had -sufficed to keep the animal instincts under subjection, or at least on -a level with those of the lower species which structurally had been -left behind. - -From facts to be gathered, not alone from among the lower orders, but -from observations among human beings as well, it would seem that any -degree of affection for more than one individual at the same time is -contrary to the female nature. A female insect, or bird, which feels a -preference for a particular mate will pair with no other, hence, among -orders where the female instincts control the relations between the -sexes, “lawlessness” or promiscuity would not prevail. - -A little observation and reflection, I think, will show us that the -affection of the female is a character differing widely from the sex -instinct of the male—that, while selfishness constitutes the underlying -principle of the latter, the former involves not only care for the -young and the unity of the group, but, when human conditions are -reached, it involves also country, civilization, and the ultimate -brotherhood of mankind. - -If we bear in mind the conditions surrounding the orders of life from -which the human race has sprung, and if we remember the nature of -the characters inherited by mankind from these orders, together with -the important fact that the lower instincts among them were under -subjection to the higher faculties, we shall be enabled to see that -the more degraded of the extant savage tribes cannot represent the -primitive race as it emerged from the animal type. - -Mr. Tylor must have been mindful of the altruistic character of early -races when he remarked: “Without some control beyond the mere right -of the stronger, the tribe would break up in a week, whereas in fact -savage tribes last on for ages.”[61] - -[61] _Anthropology_, p. 405. - -Concerning the relations of the sexes under unorganized society nothing -may be known from actual observation, as, at the present time, no tribe -or race is to be found under absolutely primitive conditions. Perhaps -from no extant people is there so little information in reference to -the earliest human state to be gleaned as from the lowest existing -races. Among many of these tribes the rules which it has been necessary -to establish for the regulation of the relations between the sexes -are rigorously enforced, while among others a laxity prevails which -would seem to indicate an almost total lack of those higher instincts -which are observed among nearly all the lower orders of beings. The -following fact, however, in regard to these races, has been observed: -the more primitive they are, or the less they have come in contact with -civilization, the more strictly do they observe the rules which have -been established for the governance of the sexual relation. On this -subject Mr. Parkyns says: - - I don’t believe that there exists a nation, however high in the scale - of civilization, that can pick a hole in the character of the lowest, - without being in danger of finding one nearly, if not quite, as big - in its own. The vices of the savage are, like his person, very much - exposed to view. Our own nakedness is not less unseemly than his, - but is carefully concealed under the convenient cloak which we call - “civilization,” but which I fear he, in his ignorance, poor fellow, - might, on some occasions, be led to look upon as hypocrisy.[62] - -[62] _Life in Abyssinia_, vol. ii., p. 152. - -In the West Indian Islands where Columbus landed, lived tribes which -are represented as having been “the most gentle and benevolent of the -human race.” Regarding these Mr. Tylor remarks: - - Schomburgk, the traveller, who knew the warlike Caribs well in their - home life, draws a paradise-like picture of their ways, where they - have not been corrupted by the vices of the white men; he saw among - them peace and cheerfulness and simple family affection, unvarnished - friendship, and gratitude not less true for not being spoken in - sounding words; the civilized world, he says, has not to teach them - morality, for, though they do not talk about it, they live in it.[63] - -[63] Tylor, _Anthropology_, p. 406. - -The men who with Captain Cook first visited the Sandwich Islands -reported the natives as modest and chaste in their habits; but, later, -after coming in contact with the influences of civilization, modesty -and chastity among them were virtues almost entirely unknown. The same -is true of the people of Patagonia. - -Barrow says of the Kaffir woman that she is “chaste and extremely -modest,” and we are told that among this people banishment is the -penalty for incontinence for both women and men. Of the reports which -from time to time come from the aborigines of certain portions of -Australia relative to the lewdness of the women, Mr. Brough Smyth says -that they are irreconcilable with the severe penalties imposed for -unchastity in former times amongst the natives of Victoria.[64] This -writer is of the opinion that the lewd practices reported are modern, -and that they are the result of communication with the poor whites. We -are assured that the women of Nubia are virtuous, that public women -are not tolerated in the country.[65] Also that in Fiji adultery is one -of the crimes generally punished with death.[66] - -[64] Quoted by Westermarck, _History of Human Marriage_, p. 61. - -[65] Burckhardt’s _Travels in Nubia_, p. 146. - -[66] Seeman, _A Mission to Viti_, p. 191. - -Marsden observes that in Sumatra “the old women are very attentive to -the conduct of the girls, and the male relations are highly jealous -of any insults that may be shown them.”[67] The same writer says that -prostitution for hire is unknown in the country; adultery is punishable -by fine, but the crime is rare. Regarding the conduct of men toward -women he remarks: “They preserve a degree of delicacy and respect -toward the sex which might justify their retorting on many of the -polished nations of antiquity the epithet of barbarism.”[68] - -[67] _History of Sumatra_, p. 230. - -[68] _Ibid._, p. 226. - -Crantz says that among the Greenlanders single persons have rarely -any connection.[69] According to the testimony of St. Boniface, the -punishment for unchastity among the early Germans was death to the man, -while the woman was driven naked through the streets.[70] - -[69] _History of Greenland_, vol. i., p. 145. - -[70] _Epistle of St. Boniface to Ethelbald._ - -Among the Central Asian Turks we are assured that a fallen girl is -unknown. Mr. Westermarck, quoting from Klemm, states that although -among the Kalmucks and gypsies the girls take pride in having gallant -affairs, they are “dishonoured if they have children previous to -marriage.” The same writer quotes also from Winwood Reade, who says -that among the Equatorial Africans “a girl who disgraces her family by -wantonness is banished from her clan; and, in cases of seduction, the -man is severely flogged.”[71] - -[71] _History of Human Marriage_, p. 62. - -Mr. Westermarck adduces much testimony going to show that the -“lawlessness” of lower races is due not to inherent vicious tendencies, -but to the evil associations of civilized peoples. He is of the opinion -that the licentiousness among many of the South Sea Islanders owes its -origin to the intercourse of the natives with Europeans; and of the -tribes who once inhabited the Adelaide Plains, quoting from Mr. Edward -Stephens who went to Australia half a century ago, he says: - - Those who speak of the natives as a naturally degraded race, either do - not speak from experience, or they judge them by what they have become - when the abuse of intoxicants and contact with the most wicked of the - white race have begun their deadly work. As a rule, to which there - are no exceptions, if a tribe of blacks is found away from the white - settlement, the more vicious of the white men are most anxious to make - the acquaintance of the natives, and that, too, solely for purposes of - immorality.... I saw the natives and was much with them before those - deadly immoralities were well known ... and I say it fearlessly, that - nearly all their evils they owed to the white man’s immorality and to - the white man’s drink.[72] - -[72] _The History of Human Marriage_, p. 68. - -We are informed that wherever certain vices prevail among the lower -races in America, Africa, or Asia, they have been carried to them by -the whites. Were it necessary to do so, scores of examples could be -adduced going to show that among primitive tribes, until corrupted by -our later civilization, chastity is the universal rule. - -Although many of the writers who have dealt with this subject have -discoursed freely on the laxity of the conjugal bond among so-called -primitive tribes, and the lawlessness which characterizes lower races -in their sexual relations, they have failed to account satisfactorily -for some of the customs and usages which appear connected with many -of the early forms of marriage,—forms which would seem to indicate a -degree of modest reserve on the part of these peoples which fail to -comport with the popular theory concerning their lawlessness and innate -indecency. - -We have seen that although among the orders of life below mankind there -are no arbitrary laws governing the relations of the sexes, there -nevertheless exists a system of natural marriage which in no wise -resembles promiscuity. Now it was under this natural system controlled -by the higher instincts developed within the female organism, that the -extreme “lawlessness” indicated by the savants prevailed—lawlessness -seeming to denote that state of female independence in which women were -personally free, or in which they were not held in actual bondage as -captive wives. In the reasoning of many of our guides in this matter it -is implied, if not actually asserted, that the freedom of women which -is now known to have prevailed in earlier times denotes a state of -laxity in morals, a condition of society directly contrary to the facts -which they themselves have recorded relative to existing tribes under -less advanced conditions of life, and which would seem to argue for -these peoples a sense of decency which among the masses in civilized -countries is almost entirely wanting. At the dawn of human existence, -had no higher instincts been developed than passion, or the desire for -selfish gratification, whence could have arisen this reserve, and these -ideas of chastity and modesty which are observed among many of the less -developed peoples, notably those which have not come in contact with -the higher races? Upon this subject Mr. Tylor remarks: “Yet even among -the rudest clans of men, unless depraved by vice or misery and falling -to pieces, a standard of family morals is known and lived by.”[73] - -[73] _Anthropology_, chap, xvi., p. 405. - -Observing the habits of the lower animals, Mr. Darwin cannot believe -that promiscuous intercourse prevailed among the early races of -mankind. - - At a very early period, before man attained to his present rank in the - scale, many of his conditions would be different from what now obtains - amongst savages. Judging from the analogy of the lower animals he - would then either live with a single female, or be a polygamist.[74] - -[74] _The Descent of Man_, p. 594. - -We have much evidence going to prove that the marriage contracts among -the lower races are well kept. According to Cook, in Tahiti, although -nothing more is necessary for the consummation of a valid marriage than -an agreement between the parties, these contracts are usually well -kept. In case of the disaffection of either party, a divorce is easily -obtained. We are assured, however, that although the Tahiti women have -the undisputed right to dissolve the marriage contract at will, they -are nevertheless “as faithful to their husbands as in any part of the -world.” The Veddahs, who are ranked among the most primitive races, are -a strictly monogamous people.[75] Of the extreme modesty of married -pairs among many of the lower races we have much proof. Among the -Fijians, husbands and wives do not usually spend the night together, -except as it were by stealth, and it is said to be contrary to their -ideas of delicacy that they should sleep under the same roof.[76] -Wholly from a sense of reserve or modesty, the Arab wife remains for -months, possibly for a whole year, with her mother before taking up -her abode in her husband’s tent. The extreme delicacy of the customs -regulating the behaviour of married pairs in ancient Sparta are well -understood. According to Xenophon and Strabo, it was the custom, not -only among the Spartans but among the Cretans also, for married pairs -to meet clandestinely. The same custom prevailed in ancient Lycia. -Lafitau says that among the North American Indians the husband visits -his wife only by stealth.[77] - -[75] _Ibid._, p. 591. - -[76] Seeman, _A Mission to Viti_, p. 191. - -[77] Quoted by Sir John Lubbock, _Origin of Civilization_, p. 82. - -It is stated by trustworthy authorities that among various tribes, -during the period of gestation and lactation, the person of the wife -is sacred; that the rule of chastity, or continence, between married -pairs, during this season, is absolutely inviolate. In Fiji, women -furnish natural nourishment to their children for three or four years, -during which time their persons are respected. - - The relatives of the women take it as a public insult if any child - should be born before the customary three or four years have elapsed, - and they consider themselves in duty bound to avenge it in an equally - public manner. - -Mr. Seeman says: - - I heard of a white man, who, being asked how many brothers and sisters - he had, frankly replied, “ten.” “But that could not be,” was the - rejoinder of the natives, “one mother could scarcely have so many - children.” - -When told that these children were born at annual intervals, and that -such occurrences were common in Europe, they were very much shocked, -and thought it explained sufficiently why so many white people were -“mere shrimps.” After childbirth, among the Fijians, husband and -wife separate and live apart for three and even four years, “so that -no other baby may interfere with the time considered necessary for -suckling the children, in order to make them strong and healthy.”[78] - -[78] Seeman, _A Mission to Viti_, p. 191. - -Through such wise regulations as these, governing the sexual relations, -the drain on the vital forces observed among the women of civilized -countries is avoided, and it was doubtless to these rules and others -of a similar character that women, throughout untold ages of human -existence, were enabled to maintain a position of independence and -supremacy. We are informed that among the Fijians the birth of a child -is cause for a perfect jubilee; that parental and filial affection -is among the manifest virtues of this people. After referring to the -truthfulness and honesty of the Dyaks of Borneo, Mr. Wallace says that -“in several matters of morality they rank above most uncivilized, and -even above many civilized, nations. They are temperate in food and -drink, and the gross sensuality of the Chinese and Malays is unknown -among them.”[79] Although the usual checks to population are absent -among the Dyaks—namely, starvation, disease, war, infanticide, and -vice,—still the women in the Dyak tribe rarely had more than three or -four children. In a village in which there were one hundred and fifty -families, in only one of them were there six children, and only six -with five children. - -[79] _The Malay Archipelago._ - -In whatever direction we turn, evidences are abundant going to prove -that under simpler and more natural conditions, and before corrupted by -our later civilization, mankind were governed largely by the instincts -developed within the female constitution, and that long after her -supremacy over the male was lost, the effects of these purer conditions -were manifest in the customs, forms, and usages of the people. - -From the evidence at hand it seems more than likely that many of the -extant tribes have at some remote period been civilized, and that -through some natural catastrophe, the unfavourable conditions of -climate and soil, or some other equally disadvantageous cause, they -have again sunk to a low plane of existence from which they have been -unable to rise. From available facts one is almost led to believe -that at a period in the remote past, and while living under purer -conditions, a high stage of civilization was reached, a civilization -which in many respects was equal if not superior to that of the -present. Be this as it may, whenever the environment of a people is -such that after having reached a certain stage it is unable to advance, -it does not remain stationary, but on the contrary follows a line of -retrogression; or, whenever the conditions of a race or tribe are such -that the higher faculties which tend towards progress lie dormant, -the lower forces which incline toward retrogression and which are -peculiarly active in low organisms still continue in operation. - -Although the social arrangement of the native Australians seems to be -founded on classes based on sex—the earliest form of society—still we -find them practising polygamy and monogamy side by side, at the same -time securing their wives by capture in exactly the same fashion as did -the early Greeks and Romans. It is apparent, therefore, that although -this people have not been able to advance in the arts of life, as far -as the relations of the sexes are concerned they have taken about -the same course as have all the other tribes and races in which the -supremacy of the male has been gained. For unknown reasons, during -thousands of years, the developing agencies have been quiescent, hence -no check to the animal instincts has been interposed; the Australians -have therefore departed widely from the conditions which surrounded -early human society—conditions under which the maternal instincts -developed in the lower orders of life were still sufficiently strong -to guard the constructive processes and to continue the chain of -uninterrupted progress. - -As among the lowest existing tribes—peoples which during countless -ages have been unable to advance—only the ruder elements in the human -composition have been developed, it is plain that from these tribes -little if any information concerning an earlier or more natural age, -when the animal instincts were controlled by the higher characters -developed in human nature, may be obtained; but from those peoples -within the several successive stages of development whose environment -has been such as to admit of some degree of improvement in the arts of -life, and in whom therefore the higher characters developed in their -mute progenitors have not been in a state of retrogression, may be -obtained a clue to many of the processes by which our present social -fabric has been raised. Among such peoples will be retained certain -symbols, habits, and traditions representing former modes of life, -from which may be reconstructed much of the previous history of the -race. For instance, by means of the symbol of wife-capture, a form -of marriage which is universal among tribes in a certain stage of -development, has been furnished much trustworthy information relative -to the institution of marriage and the development of the modern -family. It matters not that the origin of these symbols is so remote -that their true significance is lost by the peoples who practise them, -they nevertheless repeat with unerring fidelity the past experiences -of the race and reveal the origin of later institutions. - -As the various tribes and races of mankind have probably sprung from a -common progenitor, and as the “nerve cells in the brain of all classes -and orders have had the same origin,” their development, although not -identical as to time and manner of detail, has been similar in outline -and in general results; so it is thought that a correct knowledge of -the development of any tribe or race from savagery to civilization must -necessarily involve the general history of all the tribes and races of -mankind. - - - - -CHAPTER III - -THE GENS—WOMEN UNDER GENTILE INSTITUTIONS - - -The earliest form of organized society was that into classes founded -on the basis of sex,[80] under which the right of individuals to -intermarry was restricted to one-fourth of the group. This division -of the early race, and the regulations prohibiting conjugal relations -with three-fourths the members of the related community, is thought -to represent the first coercive abridgment or formal restriction of -the then existing conjugal rights, and was inaugurated for the purpose -of averting the evil effects arising from intercourse between near -relations. Of this early form of society, however, and of the ages -during which no organized form existed, little may be known except that -which is suggested by the instincts and habits of the highest animals, -and that which may be inferred from an investigation of the next -higher organization, that into gentes on the basis of kin. Although -untold ages intervened between the ancient division of society into -classes founded on the basis of sex, and the higher and more important -organization into gentes on the basis of kin, this last-named plan for -the further development of mankind became universal at a comparatively -early stage of human history. - -[80] Morgan, _Ancient Society_, p. 52. - -By an investigation of the fundamental principles of the gens, we -shall be enabled to observe the similarity existing between the -instincts which governed early human action and those which controlled -the highest orders of life below mankind. All facts bearing on the -primitive conditions of the human race, which in these later times -have been brought to light through the investigations directed -toward peoples in the various stages of development, only serve to -emphasize the importance of the altruistic principle in the formation -of organized society and in the establishment of human institutions. -Although the gens is the earliest form of organized society of which we -have any accurate knowledge, still as within it were encysted the germs -of all the principles of justice and equality which our better human -nature is beginning again to recognize, and which must characterize a -higher stage of progress, a knowledge of its underlying principles is -necessary to a correct understanding, not only of the past development -of the race and all the existing human institutions, but of the course -to be pursued toward the future advancement of mankind. Of the gens, -Mr. Morgan says: - - The gentile organization opens to us one of the oldest and most widely - prevalent institutions of mankind. It furnished the nearly universal - plan of government of ancient society, Asiatic, European, African, - American, and Australian. It was the instrumentality by means of which - society was organized and held together. Commencing in savagery, and - continuing through the three sub-periods of barbarism, it remained - until the establishment of political society, which did not occur - until after civilization had commenced. The Grecian gens, phratry, - and tribe, the Roman gens, _curia_, and tribe find their analogues - in the gens, phratry, and tribe of the American aborigines. In like - manner, the Irish _sept_, the Scottish _clan_, the _phrara_ of the - Albanians, and the Sanskrit _ganas_, without extending the comparison - further are the same as the American-Indian gens, which has usually - been called a clan. As far as our knowledge extends, this organization - runs through the entire ancient world upon all the continents, and it - was brought down to the historical period by such tribes as attained - to civilization.... Gentile society wherever found is the same in - structural organization and in principles of action; but changing from - lower to higher forms with the progressive advancement of the people. - These changes give the history of the development of the same original - conceptions.[81] - -[81] _Ancient Society_, pp. 62, 63. - -Early society, as observed under gentile institutions, was established -on purely personal and social relations, or, on the basis of the -relations of the individual to the rest of the community, a community -in which each member could trace her or his origin back to the head of -the gens who was a woman. Under gentile institutions, or until the -latter stage of barbarism was reached, each individual, female and -male, constituted a unit in an aggregation or community whose interests -were identical, and as such, to a certain extent, was held responsible -for the safety and general welfare of every member composing the group. - -Extreme egoism, as it is the outgrowth of a later age, was unknown; -and sympathy, the chief promoter of the well-being of mankind, a -sprout from the well-established root, maternal affection, was the -predominant characteristic of these primitive groups and the bond -which held society together. Although the manner of reckoning descent -had been changed from the female to the male line, the purely social -organization of the gens, on the basis of kin, was, as has been -observed, in operation at the beginning of our present civilization, at -which time political society supervened, and individuals were no longer -recognized through their relations to a gens or tribe, but through -their relations to the state, county, township, or deme, to which -institutions they must henceforward look for protection and for the -redress of injuries done either to person or property. - -Although, until a comparatively recent time, the writers who have dealt -with the subject of primitive society have been of the opinion that the -tribe constituted the earliest organization of society, and that the -gens and the family followed, later investigations show conclusively -that the gens, next to the remote and obscure division into classes, -represents the oldest and most widely spread form of organized society, -and that it was through segmentation or division of this archaic group -that the tribe was formed. - - The natural way in which a tribe is formed is from a family or group, - which in time increases and divides into many households, still - recognizing one another as kindred, and this kinship is so thoroughly - felt to be the tie of the whole tribe, that even when there has been - a mixture of tribes, a common ancestor is often invented to make an - imaginary bond of union.[82] - -[82] Tylor, _Anthropology_, p. 405. - -The gens, until a comparatively recent time in the history of the human -race, was composed of a female ancestor, all her children and all the -children of her daughters, but not of her sons. The sons’ children and -their descendants belonged to the gens of their respective mothers. The -family, as it appears at the present time, was unknown. The gens was -founded on thoroughly democratic principles, each individual composing -the group, both female and male, having a voice in the regulation and -management of all matters pertaining to the general government of the -community. Any injury done to a gentilis was a wrong committed against -the entire gens of which she or he was a member, hence to her or his -kinsmen each individual looked for protection and for redress of -personal wrongs. - -The fundamental doctrine of tribal life is unity of blood. Although the -early groups, under the system of female descent, were united by the -actual bond of kinship as traced through mothers, later, when descent -came to be traced through fathers, kinship was to a considerable extent -feigned. Kinship, under the system of male descent, meant not that -the blood of the great father actually flowed in the veins of all the -members of the group, but that under a pretence of unity of blood, they -were bound together by common duties and responsibilities from which -no one of them could escape. By the terms of the compact, every member -must stand by her or his own clan. In fact, in all their movements, -they must act as one individual; their interests were identical and the -quarrel of any member of the group became the quarrel of all counted -within the bond of kinship. If homicide were committed, they judged -and punished the culprit, but if one of their number was slain by an -outsider, the law of blood-feud, which demanded blood in return, was -immediately put into execution. Of the gens Mr. Morgan says: - - Within its membership the bond of kin was a powerful element for - mutual support. To wrong a person was to wrong his gens; and to - support a person was to stand behind him with the entire array of this - gentile kindred.[83] - -[83] _Ancient Society_, p. 76. - -Although in the later ages of gentile government, all the members of -a group were not necessarily bound by blood, from the nature of the -rights conferred, and the obligations imposed, the bond uniting them -was doubtless stronger than that which now unites mere kindred. Of this -tie uniting early groups J. G. Frazer says: - - All the members of a totem clan regard each other as kinsmen or - brothers and sisters, and are bound to help and protect each other. - The totem bond is stronger than the bond of blood or family in the - modern sense.[84] - -[84] _Totemism_, p. 57. - -As Arabia, at the time of Mohammed, was still under gentile -organization, there is perhaps at the present day no country which -affords a better opportunity for the study of several of the successive -stages of human development. At the time indicated, the entire -Arabian peninsula was composed of a multitude of groups varying -in civilization, which were bound together by common privileges, -obligations, and responsibilities and by a real or pretended bond of -kinship traced through males. - -In early Arabia a group bound together by a real or feigned unity of -blood was the type or unit of society. Sometimes a confederation of -these smaller groups was formed, but so strong was the bond between -the more closely related groups that they soon broke up into their -original units. The genealogists assert that these groups which were -patriarchal tribes founded on male descent are subdivisions of an -original stock. - -At the time of the Prophet the Arabians claimed to trace their descent -from two brothers the sons of Wâil. Prof. W. Robertson Smith informs -us, however, that the name of one of these “brothers” is a feminine -appellation and that it is the designation of a tribe and not of a -person. He says: “The gender shows that the tribal name existed before -the mythical ancestor was invented,” and adds: “The older facts down -to the time of Al-Farazdac personify Taghlib as the daughter not the -son of Wâil. It is not unlikely that the mythical legend of Taghlib and -Bakr originated at a time when the female principle in human affairs -and in the Deity was beginning to give place to the male.”[85] - -[85] _Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia_, p. 14. - -Within the traditions of the oldest races of which we have any account, -are evidences of a desperate struggle between two races or between the -followers of two opposing principles. In all parts of Arabia “these two -races maintained their ancestral traditions of bitter and persistent -feud.” - -Although in Arabia, in the time of the Prophet, descent was traced in -the male line, the evidence is almost unlimited, going to show that -it was not always so, but, on the contrary, that at an earlier age, -relationships were reckoned through women, mothers being the recognized -heads of families and tribal groups. In his work on _Kinship and -Marriage in Early Arabia_, Prof. W. R. Smith says: - - If a kinship tribe derives its origin from a great father, we may - argue with confidence that it had the rule that children were of - their father’s tribe and kin; while on the other hand if we find, in - a nation organized on the principle of unity of tribal blood, tribes - which trace their origin to a great mother instead of a great father, - we can feel sure that at some time the tribe followed the rule that - the children belong to the mother and are of her kin. Now among the - Arabs the doctrine of the unity of tribal blood is universal, as - appears from the universal prevalence of the blood-feud. And yet among - the Arab tribes we find no small number that refer their origin to a - female eponym. Hence it follows that in many parts of Arabia kinship - was once reckoned not in the male but in the female line. - -In reply to the suggestion that the several families of polygamous -fathers might be designated by the names of their several mothers, -Professor Smith observes: - - The point before us, however, is not the use of the mother’s name by - individuals for purposes of distinction, but the existence of kindred - groups whose members conceive that the tie of blood which unites them - into a tribe is derived from and limited by descent from a common - ancestress. That the existence of such a group proves kinship through - women to have been once the rule is as certain as that the existence - of patronymic groups is evidence of male kinship. In most cases of the - kind the female eponym is mythical, no doubt, and the belief in her - existence is a mere inference from the rule of female kinship within - the tribe, just as mythical male ancestors are inferred from a rule of - male kinship. But even if we suppose the ancestress to be historical, - the argument is much the same, for where the bond of maternity is so - strong that it binds together the children of the same mother as a - distinct kindred group against the other children of their father, - there also we may be sure that the children of one mother by different - fathers will hold together and not follow their father. And this is - the principle of female kinship.[86] - -[86] _Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia_, pp. 26, 27. - -It is stated that the designation of tribal unity by a feminine -appellation “is not an arbitrary fiction of later facts,” but that it -is “one of the old standing figures of Semitic speech.” In Hebrew, -_em_, which means mother, means also stock, race, or community. - -The name for a tribal group in Arabia was _hayy_, a term which -indicates life. It is observed that in Hebrew and Arabic _hayy_ is used -in the same sense. “_Hawwa_ is simply a phonetic variation of _hayy_ -with a feminine termination,” and “Eve, or _Hawwa_, is so called -because she is the mother of all living, or, more literally, of every -_hayy_.” We are given to understand that, originally, there was no rule -of reckoning kinship in Arabia except by the female line, and that the -change in descent from the female to the male line affected society to -its very roots. - -There seems to be little, if any, doubt that a system of reckoning -descent through women once prevailed throughout all the tribes and -races of mankind. In Greece, as late as the beginning of the historic -period, traces of this early custom are to be observed, and, indeed, at -the present time, among many peoples, evidences of it are still extant. -The fact that throughout an earlier age of human existence descent -and all the rights of succession were traced through women, is at the -present time so well established as to require no detailed proofs to -substantiate it. Noting this custom among early races, and observing -also the natural conclusions to be drawn from such a state of society, -a few writers who have dealt with the subject of primitive races have -taken much pains to show that it does not naturally follow that under -these usages the influence of women was supreme; and their theories to -explain this (to them) no doubt singular phenomenon show the extent to -which prejudice and long-established habits of thought have influenced -their investigations. On this subject C. Staniland Wake remarks: - - There is strong reason for believing that the practice of tracing - kinship in the female line was very widely observed from a very early - period, but this is very different from the establishment of the - supremacy of women. Where this was found it was due to the development - of the gentile institution and the female kinship which accompanied - it, on which, indeed, that institution was founded.[87] - -[87] _Marriage and Kinship_, p. 16. - -If, however, during the earlier ages of human existence a system of -kinship through women had been established which was able to produce -the gentile institution, or, if this institution, which was “founded” -on female kinship and dependent upon it, was able through untold ages -to direct all the processes of evolution, even though no other evidence -were at hand to prove it, then women’s influence must have been -well-nigh supreme. - -So deeply intrenched has become the idea of woman’s subjection that it -is impossible for many male writers to contemplate a state of society -in which women are not dominated and controlled by men. - -Mr. Herbert Spencer’s theory to explain the universal system of kinship -traced through woman involves the same idea of woman’s subserviency to -man, especially in the sexual relation, and is an illustration of the -reasoning usually employed in dealing with this subject. - -Although “the very lowest races now existing, Fuegians, Australians, -and Andamanese, show us that, however informally they have originated, -sexual relations of a more or less enduring kind exist,” he is certain -that among the earliest races a state of “lawlessness” must have -prevailed and that “promiscuity” must have been the rule among them; -and this too notwithstanding the fact that among the lower orders -of life from which man has descended, and among the earliest races -of mankind the female chooses her mate and refuses to pair with any -individual except the one of her choice. To account for the universal -system of reckoning descent through the female, Mr. Spencer says that -as the connection between mother and child is more “obvious” than -that existing between the father and his offspring the custom arose -of reckoning descent through females.[88] The fact is observed that -maternal affection without which organized society would have been -impossible, and which alone can explain the system of kinship traced -through women, is entirely ignored by Mr. Spencer. - -[88] _Sociology_ vol. i., p. 665. - -Noting the reasoning employed by many writers to prove that in the -earliest ages of human existence, the maternal bond was ignored, and -that the child was accounted as being related only to the group, Mr. -Darwin remarks: - - But it seems almost incredible that the relationship of the child - to its mother should ever be completely ignored, especially as the - women in most savage tribes nurse their infants for a long time, and - as the lines of descent are traced through the mother alone, to the - exclusion of the father.[89] - -[89] _Descent of Man_, p. 588. - -We must bear in mind that under archaic usages not only did mothers -nurse their infants two, three, and even four years, but that maternity -was the bond which held together related groups and the source whence -proceeded all property rights and tribal honours; also, that under -the system of female kinship, male parentage was known but habitually -disregarded. Notwithstanding all this, Mr. Spencer can see no reason -for concluding that in the most primitive groups there were no -“individual possessions of women by men.”[90] - -[90] _Sociology_, vol. i., p. 665. - -The late Sir A. Smith, who had travelled widely in South Africa and was -acquainted with the habits of savages there and elsewhere, expressed -the strongest opinion that “no race exists in which woman is considered -as the property of the community.”[91] The reasoning employed by Mr. -Spencer to disprove the early supremacy of women seems scarcely to -justify his lofty pretensions to intellectual greatness. - -[91] Quoted by Darwin, _Descent of Man_, p. 588. - -In a state of society in which women were the recognized heads of -families and eponymous groups where children took the mother’s name, -and in which all rights of succession were traced through them, it is -reasonable to suppose that female influence was in the ascendency over -that of the male, and especially so as primitive human beings were -largely controlled by instincts inherited from the orders of life in -which the female chooses her mate and controls the sex-functions. - -A knowledge of the customs and tribal usages of the Iroquois Indians -throws much light on the early position of women. When this tribe first -came under the observation of Europeans it was in the first stage of -barbarism, and as the manner and order of development of the various -races of mankind are said to be substantially the same, and as many of -the facts connected with the history of this truly interesting people -through nearly three ethnical periods are accessible, it is thought -that by it, as well as by the Arabians, is afforded an excellent -opportunity for the study of the general history of mankind during -these periods. To Mr. Morgan we are indebted for the results of a -thorough research into the customs, manners, and laws of this people. - -Through a knowledge of the rights, privileges, and obligations which -were conferred and imposed on the members of the Iroquois gens while -in the second state of barbarism, we are enabled to perceive the -principles of true democracy upon which gentile institutions are based; -and this is important, for the reason that later in this work I intend -to trace the decline of those principles of liberty and equality -established under female influence and to show the reasons for the -subsequent rise of monarchy, aristocracy, and slavery. - -The rights, privileges, and obligations of the Iroquois tribe of -Indians, as enunciated by Mr. Morgan, are as follows: - - The right of electing its sachem and chiefs. The right of deposing its - sachem and chiefs. The obligation not to marry in the gens. Mutual - rights of inheritance of the property of deceased members. Reciprocal - obligations of help, defence, and redress of injuries. The right of - bestowing names upon its members. The right of adopting strangers into - the gens. Common religious rites. A common burial place. A council of - the gens.[92] - -[92] _Ancient Society_, p. 71. - -As this writer truly remarks: “These functions and attributes gave -vitality as well as individuality to the organization, and protected -the personal rights of its members.” - -Eligibility to the office of chief was based on personal merit, and -continuance in office depended on the acknowledged fitness of the -individual occupying it. The qualifications required for this office -were personal bravery, ability to lead, and eloquence in council. -The chief exercised no kingly authority over the tribe by which he -was appointed; on the contrary, his personality was respected and -his counsels heeded, not because of his official prerogatives, but -on account of the qualities by which his character was dignified; -therefore so soon as he proved himself unworthy of the trust confided -to him he was deposed by the same agency which had elected him. Hence -may be observed the truly democratic character of the gens. - -Concerning the position occupied by women, and the influence which -they exerted in the management of the clan, Ashur Wright, who was for -many years missionary to the Senecas, in 1873, wrote to Mr. Morgan the -following: - - As to their family system when occupying the old long houses, it - is probable that some one clan predominated, the women taking in - husbands, however, from the other clans; and sometimes, for a novelty, - some of their sons bringing in their young wives until they felt brave - enough to leave their mothers. Usually the female portion ruled the - house, and were doubtless clannish enough about it. The stores were in - common; but woe to the luckless husband or lover who was too shiftless - to do his share of the providing. No matter how many children or - whatever goods he might have in the house, he might at any time be - ordered to pick up his blanket and budge; and after such orders it - would not be healthful for him to attempt to disobey. The house would - be too hot for him; and, unless saved by intercession of some aunt or - grandmother, he must retreat to his own clan; or, as was often done, - go and start a new matrimonial alliance in some other. The women were - the great power among the clans, as everywhere else. They did not - hesitate, when occasion required, “to knock off the horns,” as it was - technically called, from the head of a chief, and send him back to - the ranks of the warriors. The original nomination of the chiefs also - always rested with them.[93] - -[93] _Ancient Society_, p. 455. - -In the Lower Status of barbarism we find intermarriage within the gens -prohibited, and the obligation not to marry those accounted as kin as -strong as a religious duty. - -Although during the latter ages of savagery the idea of property was -slightly developed, it is thought that it lay nascent until the latter -part of the first period of barbarism. Indeed, until the first stage -of barbarism was reached, the idea of personal possession had gained -only a slight foothold in the mental constitution of mankind. Egoism, -selfishness, or the desire to better one’s individual condition at the -expense of the rest of the gens was unknown. All lands were controlled -by the group, and as the property of early society consisted for the -most part of personal effects and proprietary rights in communal houses -and gardens, one of the most fruitful causes for dissensions in more -advanced stages of society was avoided. Under primitive conditions, -quarrels arising over disputed ownership within the gens were unknown, -and liberty, equality, and fraternity, the cardinal virtues and -principles of early society were able to flourish undisturbed by the as -yet unheard of vices inherent in the excessive desire for property. - -In reference to some of the small uncivilized communities which he -visited, Mr. Wallace says that each man respects the rights of his -fellow, - - and any infraction of these rights rarely or never takes place. In - such a community all are nearly equal. There are none of those wide - distinctions of education and ignorance, wealth and poverty, master - and servant, which are the product of our civilization; there is none - of that widespread division of labour, which, while it increases - wealth, produces also conflicting interests; there is not that severe - competition and struggle for existence or for wealth which the dense - population of civilized countries inevitably creates.[94] - -[94] _The Malay Archipelago._ - -Under the archaic rule of the gens, at the death of a male, whether -married or single, his possessions descended to his sister’s children; -while at the death of a female, her property, including her personal -effects, was distributed among her sisters and her children and the -children of her daughters, but the children of her sons were not -included among her heirs. The sons’ children belonged to the gentes -of their respective mothers, and as descent and all the relationships -to which rights of succession were attached were traced only in the -female line, and as property until the middle of the Second Status of -barbarism was strictly confined to the gens in which it originated, -children could receive nothing from their fathers. Wives and husbands, -as they belonged to separate gentes, received nothing from one another. -In later times, when tribal honours were confined within certain -families or groups, as descent and property rights were all traced -in the female line, each male was dependent upon his female blood -relations, not only for his common inherited privileges in the gens, -but for any civil or military distinction to which he might attain. - -Where female kinship prevails, a Rajah’s son may become a hodman, -taking the state of his mother—while the son of the Rajah’s sister -mounts the throne.[95] - -[95] McLennan, _Studies in Ancient History_, p. 103. - -Among the Rocch tribe, a people among which descent is traced in the -female line, a man goes on marriage to live with his wife and her -mother, of whose family he is a subordinate member.[96] - -[96] C. Staniland Wake, _Marriage and Kinship_, p. 306. - - A Rocch man goes, on his marriage, like the _beena_ husband of Ceylon, - to live with his wife and her mother; on his marriage, all his - property is made over to his wife, and on her death her heirs are her - daughters.[97] - -[97] _Studies in Ancient History_, p. 103. - -For the same reason that wives and husbands were debarred from sharing -in each other’s property, their bodies, or more properly speaking, -their bones, were separated at death, as were also the bones of father -and child. The bones of the children always rested beside those of the -mother. It was impious to mix the bones of unrelated persons. To such -an extent was the Motherright recognized under archaic usages that the -child belonged exclusively to the mother and her relations, the father -having no recognized proprietary right to his offspring. Indeed, so -lightly was the paternal relation regarded that the father was supposed -to have little if any interest in his own children. - -Although the bond between a man and his offspring was weak, toward his -sister’s children, as they belonged to the same gens with himself, a -considerable degree of manly interest was manifested; indeed, it has -been stated that about the same solicitude was evinced by him for their -welfare, as was shown at a later time by fathers for the members of -their own household. - -Observing the care manifested for a sister’s children among various -tribes, certain writers have declared that the relationship existing -between a child and its mother’s brother is more important than any -other—that the brother is practically the head of his sister’s family. -However, if we bear in mind the relative positions of the sexes in -primitive groups, that women controlled their homes, and that all the -rights of succession were traced through them, we shall doubtless be -led to the conclusion that mothers themselves were the real heads -of their own families, and that although they may have delegated to -their brothers, who until marriage were permitted to reside with them, -certain manly offices, they nevertheless reserved to themselves the -exclusive right to the control and management of their own households. -As the land belonged to the gens, and as the gentes were controlled by -women, mothers were absolutely independent. - -Each child received a name soon after birth, but at the age of sixteen -or eighteen this name was discarded and another adopted. Special -rights were thus conferred and specified obligations were imposed. On -receipt of this name, the incumbent took upon himself all the duties -and responsibilities devolving upon a member of the group and by it was -entitled to all its rights and privileges. The greatest precautions -were taken with respect to the adoption of names. The office of naming -the different members belonged to the female relations and the chiefs. -We are informed that the mother might, if she chose, transfer her child -to another gens. This was accomplished by simply giving it the name of -the gens in which she desired its adoption. It is claimed that among -the Shawnees and Delawares the mother claimed the right to transfer -her child to another gens than her own.[98] It would seem from this, -that among certain tribes, the mother, if she desires, may transfer -her child to the gens of its father. It is observed, however, that the -transference of a child from its mother’s gens is a “wide departure -from archaic usages, and exceptional in practice.” - -[98] Morgan, _Ancient Society_, p. 79. - -It has been shown that under early usages wealth was never transferred -from the gens in which it originated; but later, when property began -to be claimed by individuals, and wealth was amassed in the hands of -males, it is not unlikely that mothers, considering only the future -welfare of their children, in case the father was rich and powerful, -would occasionally take advantage of their established privileges to -remove their children to his gens, in order that they might share in -his possessions. - -Something of the humanity practised in early groups may be observed in -the custom of adoption, which, at a certain stage in their development, -prevailed among them. In the earlier ages of gentile institutions, -women and children taken prisoners in war, were usually adopted into -some gens. Adoption not only conferred gentile rights, but also the -nationality of the tribe. A person adopted into a gens was treated ever -afterwards as though born within the group. “Slavery which in the Upper -Status of barbarism became the fate of the captive, was unknown among -tribes in the Lower Status in the aboriginal period.”[99] - -[99] Morgan, _Ancient Society_, p. 80. - -According to Mariner: - - It is customary in the Tonga Islands for women to be what they call - mothers to children or grown-up young persons who are not their own, - for the purpose of providing them, or seeing that they are provided, - with all the conveniences of life.[100] - -[100] Quoted by Lubbock, _Origin of Civilization_, p. 96. - -According to Mr. E. J. Wood, among the Kaffirs, although the men -inherit the property, their influences being in the ascendency, every -woman has someone who acts as her father whether her own father be -living or not. Kaffir law provides for the protection of all women, -and so long as a male relation lives a girl has a protector. It goes -even farther than this, and protects women who have been bereft of all -their male relations. For such as these provision is made for their -adoption into other groups, in which case, although they are received -as dependents, they are protected as daughters.[101] - -[101] _Uncivilized Races of the World_, vol. i., p. 78. - -This practice of adoption is observed among various peoples. Among -certain tribes in which descent is traced through women, a woman offers -her breast to the person she is adopting, this being the strongest -symbol of the unity of blood. Thus may be noted the fact that the -fundamental idea, or principle, of tribal life is maternity, or the -maternal instinct—that the uniting force which binds a child to its -mother is the one which is supposed to unite the various members of a -primitive group. So strongly has the maternal instinct as a binding -principle taken root, that among certain peoples even where the manner -of reckoning descent and the rights of succession have been changed -from the female to the male line, whenever an individual wishes to -be adopted into a gens he takes the hand of the leader of the group -and sucking one of his fingers, declares himself to be his child by -adoption; henceforth the new father is bound to assist him as far as he -can.[102] Adoption “by the imitation of nature” was practised by the -Romans down to the time of Augustus. - -[102] Parkyns, _Life in Abyssinia_, vol. i., p. 174. - -It has been observed that under the matriarchal system the mother was -the only recognized parent, hence, when the father began to assume -the rights and prerogatives which had hitherto belonged only to her, -in order to make valid his claim, it was thought proper for him to go -through various of the preliminaries attendant on childbirth. - -Of all the forms practised among lower races there is none, perhaps, -which is more singular than is that of putting the father instead of -the mother to bed in the event of the birth of a child. Concerning this -custom, Mr. Tylor quotes from Klemm the following: - - Among the Arawaks of Surinam, for some time after the birth of his - child the father must fell no tree, fire no gun, hunt no large game; - he may stay near home, shoot little birds with a bow and arrow, and - angle for little fish; but his time hanging heavy on his hands, the - most comfortable thing he can do is to lounge in his hammock.[103] - -[103] _Early History of Mankind_, p. 296. - -Mr. Tylor quotes also from the Jesuit missionary, Dobrizhoffer, who -gives the following account of the Abipones: - - No sooner do you hear that the wife has borne a child, than you will - see the Abipone husband lying in bed, huddled up with mats and skins, - lest some ruder breath of air should touch him, fasting, kept in - private, and for a number of days abstaining religiously from certain - viands; you would swear it was he who had had the child. - -The custom of putting the father to bed when a child is born is called -_la couvade_, and traces of it are yet to be found in France. It is -also practised among the Basques, and according to C. Staniland Wake, -was anciently observed in Corsica, among the Iberians of Spain, and in -the country south of the Black Sea. It is still practised in Southern -India, in Yunnan, in Borneo, in Kamchatka, and in Greenland. It is said -also to be in use among the various tribes in South America.[104] The -persistency of this practice shows the importance formerly attached -to the maternal functions, and, as has been suggested, was doubtless -inaugurated at a time when descent was being changed from the female to -the male line. - -[104] _Marriage and Kinship_, p. 262. - -It was perhaps in the latter part of the Middle Status of barbarism -that descent and the rights of succession began to be traced through -males. When, through causes which will be noticed later in this work, -property began to accumulate in the hands of men, children became the -recognized heirs of their fathers and the foundation for the present -form of the family was laid. However, long after descent began to -be reckoned through males, absolute paternity was not necessary to -fatherhood. During the earlier ages of male supremacy, fatherhood, like -brotherhood, was a loose term and signified simply the head of a house, -or the “lord” or owner of the mother. It mattered little whether a man -had previously lent his wife to a friend, or whether he had shared -her favours with several brothers, all the children “born on his bed” -belonged to him and were of his family. - -Later in these pages will be observed the fact that the change in -reckoning descent, which occurred at a comparatively late period in -the history of the human race, is directly connected with the means of -subsistence. So long as land was held in common by the members of the -gens, and so long as women were able to manage the means of support, -their independence was secure, and they were able to exercise absolute -control over their own persons, their homes, and their offspring. Under -these conditions men were obliged to please the women if they would win -their favours. - -From facts which have been demonstrated by various writers on the -subject of the early conditions of the human race, it is more than -probable that women were the original tillers of the soil, and that, -during the first period of barbarism, while the hunters and warriors -were engaged in war and the chase, occupations best suited to their -taste, women first discovered the art of producing farinaceous food -through cultivation, and through this discovery a hitherto exclusive -diet of fish and game was changed for a subsistence in part vegetable. - -It is conjectured also that the first domestication of animals was -brought about through a probable “freak of fancy.” That individuals -among these animals were first caught by hunters, conveyed by them to -their homes, and there tamed through the tenderness and sympathy of -women, is considered more than likely. There are, however, so far as I -know, no actual facts upon which to base such a conclusion. - -The increase of subsistence through horticulture and the domestication -of animals marks an important era in the history of mankind. By this -means the human race was enabled to spread itself over distant areas, -and through the improved condition of nutrition alone, by which the -physical conditions were improved and the mental energies strengthened, -the arts of life were multiplied and the course of human activities -directed into higher and more important channels. Indeed, through the -numerous benefits derived from the one source of increased and improved -subsistence, the entire mode of life was changed or materially modified. - -The religious idea, which subsequently comprehended a complicated -system of mythology based on phallic worship, at this early age, -consisted simply of a recognition of the bounties of earth. The -principal office connected with the religious ceremonies of the -Iroquois tribe of Indians, at the stage of development in which it was -first known to Europeans, seems to have been “Keeper of the Faith,” -a position occupied alike by both sexes. The Keepers of the Faith -were chosen by the wise members of the group; they were censors of -the people, with power to report the evil deeds of persons to the -council. “With no official head, and none of the marks of a priesthood, -their functions were equal.”[105] For the most part, their religious -services consisted of festivals held at stated seasons to celebrate -the return of the bounties of Nature. A notable fact in connection -with this subject is, that during the earlier ages of barbarism the -religious idea was thoroughly monotheistic, and idolatry was unknown, -religious worship, for the most part, consisting of a ceremony of -thanksgiving, with invocations to the Great Mother-Nature to continue -to them the blessings of life. As altruism waned and egoism advanced, -however, supernaturalism, or a belief in unseen forces, became more -and more pronounced, until, in the Latter Status of barbarism, when -the supremacy of man had become complete, the gens became merely the -“centre of religious influence and the source of religious development.” - -[105] Morgan, _Ancient Society_, p. 82. - -The earlier governmental functions were administered through a council -of chiefs elected by the gentes. The thoroughly democratic character -of the gens may be observed in the fact that any member, female or -male, who desired to communicate with the council on matters of public -interest, might express her or his opinion either in person or through -an orator of her or his own selection.[106] Hence, we observe that -government originated in the gens, which was a pure democracy. - -[106] Morgan, _Ancient Society_, p. 117. - -Regarding the council of the gens, Mr. Morgan remarks: - - It was a democratic assembly because every adult male and female - member had a voice upon all questions brought before it. It elected - and deposed its sachem and chiefs, it elected Keepers of the Faith, it - condoned or avenged the murder of a gentilis, and it adopted persons - into the gens. It was the germ of the higher council of the tribe, and - of that still higher of the confederacy, each of which was composed - exclusively of chiefs as representatives of the gentes.... - - All the members of an Iroquois gens were personally free, and they - were bound to defend each other’s freedom; they were equal in - privileges and in personal rights, the sachem and chiefs claiming no - superiority; and they were a brotherhood bound together by the ties of - kin. Liberty, equality, and fraternity, though never formulated, were - cardinal principles of the gens. These facts are material because the - gens was the unit of a social and governmental system, the foundation - upon which Indian society was organized.... At the epoch of European - discovery the American Indian tribes generally were organized in - gentes with descent in the female line. The gens was the basis of the - phratry, of the tribe, and of the confederacy of tribes.[107] - -[107] Morgan, _Ancient Society_, p. 85. - -From the foregoing it would seem that the gens—the earliest -organization of society of which we have any accurate knowledge—was -founded on the “mother-right” or on the supremacy of women. We are -assured that the gentile organization is not confined to the Latin, -Grecian, and Sanskrit-speaking tribes, but that it has been found “in -other branches of the Aryan family of nations, in the Semitic, Uralian, -and Turanian families, among the tribes of Africa and Australia, and of -the American aborigines.”[108] - -[108] _Ibid._, p. 64. - -A tribe was composed of several gentes, the chiefs of which formed the -council. This council was invested with the power to declare war and to -regulate terms of peace, to receive embassies and make alliances; it -was in fact authorized to perform all the governmental functions of the -tribe. The duties performed by the council of chiefs may be regarded -as the first attempt at representative government. In process of time, -as the affairs of the tribe became more complicated, a need arose for -a recognized head, one who when the council was not in session could -lead in the adjustment of matters pertaining to the general interest -of the group. In response to this demand, one of the sachems was -invested with a slight degree of authority over the other chiefs. Hence -arose the military chieftain of the Latter Status of barbarism. That -the powers delegated to the incumbent of this office differed widely -from those of a modern monarch, is shown in the fact that as he had -been elected by the members of the group he could by them be deposed. -We have seen that the powers exercised by sachem and chief were alike -transmitted through women. The mother is the natural guardian of the -family; so soon therefore as the actions of the leaders of the group -were not in accord with those principles of equality and justice which -had characterized society since its organization, they were deposed, -or, as in the case of the Senecas described by Ashur Wright, they had -their “horns knocked off” through the influence of women. - -At the head of the family, or gens, producing and controlling the -principal means of subsistence, and forming the line of descent and -inheritance, women, until the closing ages of the Middle Status of -barbarism, were without doubt the leading spirits, and thus far the -progress of mankind had been in strict accord with those principles -which since the separation of the sexes had governed development. - -In process of time, however, the simple form of government which -has been described was found inadequate to meet the demands arising -from the more complicated requirements of increasing numbers and -the general growth of society; therefore, during the opening ages -of the Latter Status of barbarism, a form of government was evolved -which was better suited to their changed conditions. When the idea -of a coalescence of tribes, or of a combination of forces for common -defence had taken root, and when under such confederation the council -of chiefs had become co-ordinated with a military leader for the -general management and defence of the community, it was thought that an -important step had been taken in progressive governmental functions. -Yet, along with the higher development of the governmental idea is to -be observed also a growing tendency toward the usurpation of power. -Scarcely was the office of military chieftain created, than we find the -people inaugurating measures with which to protect themselves against -encroachments upon their liberties, and devising means whereby they -might be enabled to check the personal ambition of their leaders. - -The extreme egoism developed within the male constitution was already -manifesting itself in the excessive greed for gain, and in the -inordinate thirst for military glory; hence, as a safeguard against -usurpation, in the earliest stages of the Latter Status of barbarism, -we find the tribe electing two military chieftains instead of one, -two leaders invested with equal powers and responsibilities and -subjected to the same restrictions and limitations in the exercise -of authority. The Spartan government upon its first appearance in -history is characterized by the existence of two war-chieftains, who, -by historians of later ages, have been designated as kings; a closer -investigation, however, of the functions performed by them shows that -they were lacking in nearly all the prerogatives which characterize a -modern sovereign. - -So jealously had the rights of the people been guarded that the -_basileus_ or war-chief of the Latter Status of barbarism, who is said -to represent the germ of our present king, emperor, and president, had -not succeeded in drawing to himself the powers exercised by a monarch -of modern times. The selection of a military leader, during the Latter -Status of barbarism, doubtless represents the first differentiation -of the civil from the military functions of government, and indicates -a virtual acknowledgment of the fact that society had outgrown the -primary and more simple form of government administered by the council -of chiefs. - -The third stage in the development of the idea of government was -represented by a council of chiefs, a military commander, and an -assembly of the people. In this further growth of the administrative -functions may be discovered the same solicitude for individual liberty -and the rights of the community which had characterized the former -stage of development, and also the fact that still greater precautions -were deemed necessary to insure the people against tyranny and -the usurpation of their established rights. The council of chiefs, -although representing a pure democracy, and co-ordinated with two -military chieftains, between whom was an equal division of power and -responsibility, was found to be an insufficient safeguard against -despotism; hence the measures devised for the management of the -confederacy must henceforth be subjected to an Assembly of the People, -which, although of itself unable to originate or propound any plan -of government, was invested with the power to accept or reject any -measures offered for adoption by the council. - -The gens was able to carry mankind through to the opening ages of -civilization, at which time the council of chiefs was transformed -into a senate, and the Assembly of the People assumed the form of the -popular assembly, from which have been derived our present Congress and -the two houses of the English Parliament. - -By a careful study of the growth of government, it is discerned that -liberty, fraternity, and equality were the original and natural -inheritance of the human family, and that tyranny, injustice, and -oppression are excrescences which subsequently fastened themselves upon -human institutions through the gradual rise of the egoistic principle -developed in human nature. We have seen that until the beginning of the -Latter Status of barbarism, the gens constituted a sovereign power in -the tribe; women controlled the gens, and sachem and chief were alike -invested with the authority necessary for leadership because they could -trace their descent to some female ancestor who was the acknowledged -head of the people, and whose influence and patronage must have -extended over all the individuals included within the recognized bond -of kinship. - -With the deposing power in the hands of women, and with the precautions -which were taken by them against injustice or usurpation of rights, it -is plain that unless some unusual or unprecedented circumstances had -come into play, they never could have lost that supremacy which, as the -natural result of their development, had been maintained by females -since the separation of the sexes. - - - - -CHAPTER IV - -THE ORIGIN OF MARRIAGE - - I will be master of what is mine own; - She is my goods, my chattels; she’s my house, - My household stuff, my field, my barn, - My horse, my ox, my ass, my everything. - - _The Taming of the Shrew._ - - -It is an obvious fact that so far as her sex relations are concerned -the position of civilized woman is lower than that of the female animal. - -The question which presents itself at this stage of our inquiry is: -What were the causes which led to the overthrow of female supremacy or -what were the processes by which man gained the undisputed right to the -control of woman’s person? By contrasting the industrial position of -women under gentile institutions with that of later times, after they -had become the sexual slaves of men, it will be seen that the question -of economics is deeply involved in this change. Although the early -independence of women is now recognized, the fact of their industrial -supremacy is for the most part ignored. Indeed the part performed by -woman in originating and developing human industries is seldom referred -to by those dealing with this subject. - -As the activities best suited to the tastes of primitive man were -confined to war and the chase, those occupations and pursuits which -were necessary for the preservation of the group were carried on by -women. The reason for this is obvious. Fathers were not regarded as -being related to their offspring. The mother was the only recognized -parent. As the land was held in common, women were economically free. -They were absolutely independent of men for their support. Under these -conditions the importance of women’s position may be easily perceived. - -Not only did women establish the first industries, but they invented -and constructed the tools and implements by which these industries -were carried on. Women were the first tillers of the soil. It was they -who conceived the idea of preserving seeds whereby farinaceous food -might be produced. Corn was not only raised by them but by them it -was ground and further prepared for use. They built clay granaries in -which to store their food products and tamed the cat to protect them. -Implements for tilling the soil, and devices for grinding the grain -were invented by women. They were the first architects and the first -builders. They first conceived the idea of making cloth with which to -protect the body. They were the first spinners and the first weavers. -They invented the first spindles and the first looms. Their attempts -at decoration were the beginning of art. - -As these pioneers in industry were without means of transportation -other than their backs, some of the difficulties which they encountered -may be readily perceived. It must be borne in mind that for primitive -women there was no accumulated store of knowledge and no previous -race-experiences; neither were there any established rules or -precedents to guide them. All methods and utilities had to be worked -out by woman’s unaided brain. When the conditions under which these -pioneers in industry laboured are considered, and when one reflects -on the obstacles which must have presented themselves at every step -along their untried pathway, it would almost seem that their early -achievements were quite as remarkable as are those which have since -been accomplished by men. - -The fact is observed that woman assumed the rôle of protector and -provider, not as is commonly asserted because she was compelled by -man to become a beast of burden, but because she was the recognized -guardian not only of infant life but of the public welfare. Later, -after the primitive groups began to coalesce to form the tribe, after -wife-capture became prevalent and men thereby secured the right to the -control and ownership of individual women, a right which they still -claim, then and not till then did women become beasts of burden. Then -and not till then did man gain the right to the control of woman’s -person. - -It is now known that wife-capture is the origin of our present form -of marriage, and that the establishment of the family with man at its -head rests on the same basis. It is also known that through forcible -marriage and the economic conditions which it entailed, woman became -a dependent, a mere appendage to her male mate. The dominion of man -and the assumed inferiority of woman are the direct results of the -authority which he was able to exercise over her in the marital -relation. - -We have seen that prior to the decline of female influence women taken -prisoners in war were not regarded as the legitimate property of their -captors. On the contrary, female captives were adopted into the gens -and invested with the same status of personal independence enjoyed by -the original members of the group. Later, however, female prisoners -began to be regarded as the special booty of their captors, and as -belonging exclusively to them; and although in primitive times marriage -outside the limits of related groups was prohibited, owing to the -esteem in which military chieftains came to be held, this claim was at -length allowed them. Any courageous young warrior, conscious of his -popularity, might gather about him a band of his clansmen and march -against a neighbouring tribe, the women taken prisoners during such -expeditions being the special prizes of their captors. - -These prisoners were entitled to none of the privileges of the -community into which they were taken; and as the hostility felt toward -unrelated tribes had become so strong as to be shared by women, the -captive woman could no longer look for pity even from her own sex. - -From this time in the history of the race may be traced the decline -of woman’s power and the subjection of the natural female impulses. -As, at this stage, within the limits of their own tribe, women held -the balance of power in their own hands, and as they still exercised -unqualified control over their own persons, the acknowledged ownership -of one woman, who, being a “stranger,” was without power or influence, -would be an object much to be desired, and one for which a warrior -would not hesitate to brave the dangers of a hostile camp. Hence, -female captives were in demand, and the women of warring tribes were -sought after singly and in groups. In process of time wars for wives -became general and under the new regime women had the fear of captivity -constantly before their view as a condition more to be dreaded than -death. - -In the _Mahabharata_ of India it is stated that formerly “women were -unconfined and roved about at their pleasure, independent.” Finally, -marriage was instituted and a woman was bound to a man for life. One -of the eight forms of legalized marriage in the code of Manu was that -of capture _de facto_ and was called _Racshasa_. This particular form -of conjugal union was practised exclusively by the military classes, -among which, the women taken in battle were the acknowledged booty of -their captors. A definition of this kind of marriage is as follows: -“The seizure of a maiden by force from her house while she weeps and -calls for assistance, after her kinsmen and friends have been slain in -battle or wounded, and their houses broken open, is the marriage called -_Racshasa_.” - -Capture as the prescribed form of marriage for warriors may be traced -through thousands of years and among various peoples. Of the three -legalized forms of marital union in Rome, that by capture was the one -in use among the plebeians, the patricians at the same time practising -_Confarreatio_ and _Usus_. In Arabia, as late as Mohammed’s time, the -carrying off of women was recognized as a legal form of marriage.[109] - -[109] W. Robertson Smith, _Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia_, p. 73. - -That capture constituted a legal form of marriage among the Israelites, -or that women taken captives in war were appropriated as sexual slaves, -is shown by their religious history, in which the instructions given -to the Lord’s chosen people after they had taken a city was to “smite -every male thereof with the edge of the sword: But the women, and the -little ones, and the cattle, and all that is in the city” they were to -take unto themselves. This, it will be noticed, is to be done “unto -the cities which are very far off,” and which “are not of the cities of -these nations.”[110] - -[110] Deuteronomy, chap. xx., 13, 14, 15. - -When the Israelites 12,000 strong marched against the Midianites, they -were commanded by Moses to slay all the males, adults and children, -and all the women except the virgins. These virgins of whom there -were 32,000 were to be spared and utilized as wives by the victorious -Israelites. The fact will be noted that these women had been taken -from their own people, hence they were wholly without influence or -power. They were dependents and therefore subject to the will of their -masters. They were sexual slaves or wives. - -In Australia, among the North American Indians, the tribes of the -Amazon and the Orinoco, in Hindustan and Afghanistan, marriage by -actual capture is still practised, and many of the details connected -with the _modus operandi_ have been given by various writers. The -following from Sir George Gray, relative to this form of marriage as it -exists at the present time among some of the native Australian tribes, -is quoted by Mr. J. F. McLennan. - -Although a woman give no encouragement to her admirers, - - many plots are laid to carry her off, and in the encounters which - result from these, she is almost certain to receive some violent - injury, for each of the combatants orders her to follow him, and in - the event of her refusing, throws a spear at her. The early life of a - young woman at all celebrated for beauty is generally one continued - series of captivity to different masters, of ghastly wounds, of - wanderings in strange families, of rapid flights, of bad treatment - from other females, amongst whom she is brought a stranger by her - captor; and rarely do you see a form of unusual grace and elegance, - but it is marked and scarred by the furrows of old wounds; and many - a female thus wanders several hundred miles from the home of her - infancy, being carried off successively to distant and more distant - points.[111] - -[111] _Studies in Ancient History_, p. 40. - -In an account describing the search for wives by the natives of Sydney, -Collins says: - - The poor wretch is stolen upon in the absence of her protectors. Being - first stupefied with blows, inflicted with clubs or wooden swords, - on the head, back, and shoulders, every one of which is followed by - a stream of blood, she is then dragged through the woods by one arm, - with a perseverance and violence that it might be supposed would - displace it from its socket. This outrage is not resented by the - relations of the female, who only retaliate by a similar outrage when - they find an opportunity. This is so constantly the practice among - them that even the children make it a play game, or exercise.[112] - -[112] Quoted by Sir J. Lubbock, _Origin of Civilization_, p. 108. - -By various travellers and explorers, the fact has been observed that -certain symbols representing force in their marriage ceremonies are in -use among nearly if not all extant tribes which have reached a certain -stage of growth. To such an extent, in an earlier age, has the forcible -carrying-off of women prevailed, that among most of these tribes a -valid marriage may not be consummated without the appearance of force -in the nuptial ceremonies. In reference to these symbols, we have the -following passage from Mr. McLennan: - - Meantime, we observe that, whenever we discover symbolical forms, - we are justified in inferring that in the past life of the people - employing them, there were corresponding realities; and if, among the - primitive races which we examine, we find such realities as might - naturally pass into such forms on an advance taking place in civility, - then we may safely conclude (keeping within the conditions of a sound - inference) that what these now are, those employing the symbols once - were.[113] - -[113] _Studies in Ancient History_, p. 5. - -Among primitive tribes, the area controlled by each was small, -therefore vigilance in maintaining their possessions was one of their -chief duties, and hostility to surrounding tribes a natural condition. -Subsequently, however, when friendly relations began to be established -with hitherto hostile tribes, they are found entering into negotiations -to furnish each other with wives. It was at this time that marriage by -sale or contract was instituted, an arrangement by which the elder men -in the tribe could be accommodated with foreign wives, at the same time -that their own daughters and sisters became to them a source of revenue. - -In Uganda many men obtain wives by exchanging daughters and sisters -with each other. Of this practice C. Staniland Wake says: - - This is not an unusual mode of proceeding in different parts of - the world. The perpetuation of the monopoly of women enjoyed to a - great extent by the older men of the tribe among the Australians - is, according to Mr. Howitt, encouraged by those having sisters or - daughters to exchange with each other for wives.[114] - -[114] _Marriage and Kinship_, p. 207. - -Not unfrequently actual capture is practised side by side with -fiction—violent seizure being in active operation among the same tribes -at the same time with the symbol, the frequency of actual violence -depending partly on the extent to which hostility prevails between the -tribes, and partly on the degree of “uniformity established by usage in -the prices paid for wives.” Among certain tribes, when a dispute arises -concerning the price to be paid for a bride, if the man is able to -seize the woman and carry her off to his tent, the law recognizes her -as his wife and nothing is left for the relations to do in the matter -but to accept his terms as to the price. - -The peoples among which actual capture is at present practised, and -those among which wives are procured by sale or contract, represent two -different stages in the development of the institution of marriage, and -it is owing to this fact that the symbols used among the latter may be -traced to the realities in which they originated. - -Of the Bedouins of Mt. Sinai, Burckhardt says that marriage is a -matter of sale and purchase, in which the inclination of the girl is -disregarded. - - The young maid comes home in the evening with the cattle. At a short - distance from the camp she is met by the future spouse and a couple - of his young friends, and carried off by force to her father’s tent. - If she entertains any suspicion of their designs she defends herself - with stones, and often inflicts wounds on the young men, even though - she does not dislike the lover, for, according to custom, the more she - struggles, bites, kicks, cries, and shrieks, the more she is applauded - ever after by her own companions.[115] - -[115] Quoted by E. J. Wood, _The Wedding Day_, etc., p. 60. - -In reference to the Mezeyne Arabs the same writer observes that a -similar custom prevailed within the limits of the Sinai Peninsula, but -not among the other tribes of that province. - - A girl having been wrapped in the Abba at night, is permitted to - escape from her tent, and fly into the neighbouring mountains. - The bridegroom goes in search of her next day, and remains often - many days before he can find her out, while her female friends are - apprised of her hiding-place, and furnish her with provisions. If - the husband finds her at last (which is sooner or later, according to - the impression that he has made upon the girl’s heart), he is bound - to consummate the marriage in the open country, and to pass the night - with her in the mountains. The next morning the bride goes home to her - tent, that she may have some food; but again runs away in the evening - and repeats these flights several times, till she finally returns to - her tent. She does not go to live in her husband’s tent until she is - far advanced in pregnancy; if she does not become pregnant, she may - not join her husband till a full year from the wedding-day.[116] - -[116] Quoted by E. J. Wood, _The Wedding Day_, etc., p. 60. - -Cranz says that in Greenland “some females, when a husband is proposed -to them will fall into a swoon, elope to a desert place, or cut off -their hair.... In the latter case they are seldom troubled with further -addresses.” The refractory bride is dragged - - forcibly into her suitor’s house, where she sits for several days - disconsolate, with dishevelled hair, and refuses nourishment. When - friendly exhortations are unavailing, she is compelled by force and - even with blows to receive her husband. Should she elope, she is - brought back and treated more harshly than before.[117] - -[117] _History of Greenland_, vol. i., p. 146. - -Wherever friendly relations have been established between the tribe of -the wife and that of the husband, he pays a price to her relatives -for the privilege of removing her to his camp. This purchase price, -together with the simulated hatred of the woman’s friends, signifies a -sacrifice on the part of the wife and her family. In Nubia when a man -marries he presents his wife with a wedding-dress, and gives her also -a pledge for three or four hundred piastres, half of which sum is paid -her in case of a divorce. Divorces, however, are very rare.[118] - -[118] Burckhardt, _Travels in Nubia_, p. 34. - -Among the Circassians, after the preliminaries have been settled by -the parents, the lover meets his bride-elect by night in some secluded -spot, and with the assistance of two or three of his best friends -seizes her and carries her away. Sometimes the pretended capture takes -place in the midst of a noisy feast. The woman is usually conducted -into the presence of a mutual friend, where, on the following day, -her friends, simulating anger, seek her and demand a reason for her -abduction. Although the affair is usually settled at once by the -bridegroom paying the accustomed price for his bride, custom requires -that there shall be still further manifestations of anger on the part -of her friends; so, on the following day, all the relatives of the -bride, armed with sticks, proceed to the place where the bride is in -waiting, there to meet the bridegroom and his friends who have come to -carry off the bride. A sham fight ensues, in which the bridegroom and -his party are always victorious. Among certain of the Arabian tribes -the bridegroom must force his bride to enter his tent, and in France, -as late as the seventeenth century, a similar custom prevailed. - -In describing a wedding dance in Abyssinia, Parkyns observes: - - This dance is performed by men armed with shields and lances, who - with bounds, feints, and springs attack others armed with guns, so as - to approach them, and at the same time avoid their fire, while the - gunners make similar demonstrations, and at last fire off their guns - either in the air or into the earth, and then, drawing their swords, - flourish them about as a finish. - -Finally the bridegroom fires off a gun and immediately rushes across to -where the bride and her female relations are stationed.[119] - -[119] _Life in Abyssinia_, vol. ii., p. 49. - -Tylor informs us that a Scandinavian warrior generally sought to gain -his bride by force, that he conceived it beneath his dignity to win -her by pacific means. That the affair might appear more heroic, he -waited until the object of his choice was about to wed another, and was -actually on her way to the nuptial ceremony, when with his friends he -would surprise the wedding cortege, seize the bride, and carry her off. -It has been said of Scandinavian marriages that they were matters of -deep anxiety to the friends both of the bride and groom, who, until the -wedding was over, remained at home in suspense fearing an attack of -the kind already mentioned. It was customary for a party of young men -to station themselves at the church door, and, as soon as the ceremony -was completed, to carry the news to the homes of the wedded pair. -“Within a few generations the same old practice was kept up in Wales, -where the bridegroom and his friends, mounted and armed as for war, -carried off the bride,” and in Ireland they used even to hurl spears at -the bride’s people, though at such a distance that no one was hurt.[120] - -[120] _Anthropology_, p. 404. - -In the Amazon valley the bride is always carried away by violence. -Among the Zulus, although a purchase price is paid for a woman, custom -requires that a wife, after having been captured, shall make three -attempts to return to her own home. - -Of the marriage customs in ancient Sparta, Plutarch says: “In their -marriages the bridegroom carried off the bride by violence.”[121] -In Rome we have the familiar example of the Sabine women, who were -captured or carried off by force. - -[121] _Lycurgus._ - -A notable fact in connection with the subject of capture is, that the -mother of the bride, or, in case the mother is dead, the nearest female -relative, is the individual who assumes the part of the principal -defender in this ceremony. She it is who attempts to rescue the bride, -and who more than any other mourns the fate of the captured wife. Among -primitive peoples, with the exception of the symbol of wife-capture -in marriage ceremonies, there is perhaps none more significant than -that typifying the hatred of the mother for the captor of her daughter. -Customs indicating estrangement or, actual aversion to sons-in-law, -usually, if not always, accompany marriage by capture. - -The fact that the change in the relative positions of the sexes, as -indicated by the _sadica_ and _ba’al_ forms of marriage in Arabia, -was not easily or speedily accomplished, is apparent not only in the -symbols of wife-capture everywhere practised among peoples in a certain -stage of development, but is strongly suggested also by the aversion -found to exist among these same peoples between mothers-in-law and -sons-in-law, whether appearing as a reality or as a symbol. - - Among the Arawaks of South America, it is unlawful for the son-in-law - to look upon the face of his mother-in-law. If they live in the same - house a partition separates them, and if by chance they must enter the - same boat, she must precede him so as to keep her back toward him. - -Among the Caribs, all the women talk with whom they will, but the -husband dare not converse with his wife’s relations except on -extraordinary occasions.[122] Mr. Tylor refers to the fact that - -[122] Quoted by Tylor, _Early History of Mankind_, p. 290. - - In the account of the Floridian expedition of Alvar Nuñez, commonly - known as Cabeca de Vaca, or Cow’s Head, it is mentioned that the - parents-in-law did not enter the son-in-law’s house, nor he theirs, - nor his brother-in-law’s, and if they met by chance, they went a - buckshot out of their way, with their heads down and eyes fixed on the - ground, for they held it a bad thing to see or speak to one another. - -It is observed by Richardson, an author quoted by Tylor, that among the -Crees, while an Indian lives with his wife’s family, his mother-in-law -must not speak to or look at him. In some portions of Australia, “the -mother-in-law does not allow the son-in-law to see her, but hides -herself if he is near, and if she has to pass him makes a circuit, -keeping carefully concealed within her cloak.” - -Among some of the tribes in Central Africa, from the moment a marriage -is contracted, the lover may not behold the parents of his future -bride. When a young man wishes to marry a girl, he dispatches a -messenger to negotiate with her parents regarding the presents required -and the number of oxen demanded. This being arranged, he may not again -look upon the father and mother of his intended wife; “he takes the -greatest care to avoid them, and if by chance they perceive him they -cover their faces as if all ties of friendship were broken.” We are -told, however, that this indifference is only feigned, that they feel -the same friendship as before, and in conversation extol one another’s -merit. Mr. Caillie says that this custom extends beyond the relations; -if the lover is of a different camp, he must avoid all the inhabitants -of the lady’s camp, except a few intimate friends who are permitted -to assist him in his love-making. A little tent is set up for him in -the neighbourhood, under which he is to remain during the day. If he -has occasion to cross the camp he must cover his face. He may not see -the face of his intended throughout the day, but at nightfall he may -creep silently to her tent and remain with her until the dawn. These -clandestine visits are continued for a month or two when the marriage -is solemnized. At the wedding festival the women collect round the -bride singing her praises and extolling her virtues.[123] - -[123] _Travels through Central Africa_, vol. i., p. 94. - -Gubernatis is authority for the statement that, in many parts of -Italy the bride is compelled to go through the process of weeping on -her wedding-day, also for the fact that one of the marriage customs -prevalent in Sardinia is identical with that which appeared among the -plebeians at Rome, namely, the pretence of tearing the bride from the -arms of her mother.[124] - -[124] See McLennan’s _Studies in Ancient History_, p. 189. - -From the facts which have been obtained relative to the practice of -wife-capture, it is only natural to suppose that the mother of the -captured wife would be her chief ally and defender; that such has been -the case seems to be clearly shown by the symbols of distrust and -aversion everywhere manifested between mothers-in-law and sons-in-law -among the various existing uncivilized races. The practice of -wife-capture exists either as a reality or as a symbol entering into -the marriage ceremonies among the tribes of Central Africa, the Indians -of North and South America, in Australia, in New Zealand, in Arabia, in -the hill tracts of India, among the Fuegians, and in the islands of the -Pacific Ocean, and wherever this system is found the symbol of hatred -between mother-in-law and son-in-law also prevails. - -The simulated anger and sham violence connected with marriage -ceremonies among friendly peoples, which are so far removed from a -time when actual capture was practised as to be ignorant of the true -significance of these symbols, show the extent to which marriage is -based on the idea of force on the one side and unwilling submission on -the other. - -As the numerous Arabian clans in the time of Mohammed represented the -varying stages of advancement from the second period of barbarism to -civilization, the constitution of Arab society at that time affords an -excellent opportunity for observing the growth of the institution of -marriage, and the various processes by which the former supremacy of -women was overthrown. - -One of the principal objects of war at the time of the Prophet is said -to have been the capture of women for wives, a practice which was -recognized as lawful. Under Islam the custom of forcibly carrying off -women for wives was universal and was carried on side by side with the -system of marriage by contract or sale. The position of the captured -woman, however, differed somewhat from that of the purchased wife. -The former, having been forcibly carried away from her home, lost the -protection of her friends, while the purchased wife, although she -relinquished the authority which had formerly been exercised by women -within the gens, and although she surrendered her person to her “lord,” -did not forfeit her right to the protection of her own family in case -of abuse. - -Although in Arabia, under the form of marriage by sale or contract, -the wife lost the right to the control of property belonging to her -own gens, she did not, as in Rome, forfeit her claim to the protection -of her kindred. If she received ill treatment within the home of her -husband, her relatives, who were still her natural protectors, were -bound to redress her wrongs. In Rome, on the contrary, under a system -representing a later stage in the development of marriage, the wife -was adopted into the stock of her husband whose rights over her person -were supreme, at the same time that her kindred renounced the right to -interfere in her behalf. - -It is to the fact, that in early Arabia the wife never relinquished her -hold upon her own relations, that we are to look for an explanation of -the high social position of Arabian women. We are assured that it is -“an old Arab sentiment, and not Moslem,” that women are entitled to -the highest respect, and that as mothers of the tribe they “are its -most sacred trust.” - -According to Professor W. R. Smith in Mohammed’s time, in addition -to the two forms of marriage mentioned, namely, that by capture and -that by sale or contract, there existed also a more ancient form -known as the _sadica_—a form of conjugal union which was a remnant of -the matriarchal system. By observing the facts connected with this -last-named institution, we shall be enabled to understand something -of the position occupied by women during the earlier ages of human -existence before wife-capture became prevalent. - -Among certain tribes just prior to Islam, upon the event of marriage, -the man presented the woman with a sum of money, which offering was -simply an acknowledgment of the favour which she was conferring upon -him. The husband went to live with the wife in her tent, and as the -contract was for no specified length of time, he was at liberty to go -whenever he tired of the conditions imposed on him by his wife and her -relations. Any children, however, that were born as a result of this -union belonged to the mother and became members of her _hayy_. If she -desired him to go, she simply turned the tent around, “so that if the -door had faced east it now faced west, and when the man saw this he -knew that he was dismissed and did not enter.” In relation to these -marriage customs Professor Smith says: “Here, therefore, we have the -proof of a well-established custom of that kind of marriage which -naturally goes with female kinship in the generation immediately before -Islam.” Of this kind of marriage the same writer observes: - - The _motă_ marriage was a purely personal contract, founded on consent - between a man and a woman, without any intervention on the part of - the woman’s kin.... Now the fact that there was no contract with the - woman’s kin—such as was necessary when the wife left her own people - and came under the authority of her husband—and that, indeed, her - kin might know nothing about it, can have only one explanation: in - _motă_ marriage the woman did not leave her home, her people gave up - no rights which they had over her, and the children of the marriage - did not belong to the husband. _Motă_ marriage, in short, is simply - the last remains of that type of marriage which corresponds to a law - of mother-kinship, and Islam condemns it, and makes it “the sister - of harlotry,” because it does not give the husband a legitimate - offspring, _i. e._, an offspring that is reckoned to his own tribe and - has rights of inheritance within it.[125] - -[125] Prof. W. R. Smith, _Kinship and Marriage_, p. 69. - -Before the separation of the Hebrews and Aramæans, the wife remained -within her own tent where she received her husband, the children of -such unions taking her name and becoming her heirs. This kind of -conjugal union is known to have been in existence in many portions of -the world. In Ceylon it is designated as the _beena_ marriage. - -In ancient Arabia, not only did women control their own homes, but -they owned flocks and herds, and were absolutely independent of male -relations. As late as the fourteenth century of our era, although the -women of certain Arabian tribes were willing to marry strangers, they -never followed them to their homes. - -Among the Bedouins it is a rare thing for a woman at marriage to leave -her home and kindred. When a woman marries a man he settles among her -kinsmen, and, as she presents him with a spear and a tent by way of -dowry, it would seem that he is expected to join her relations and -assist in the common defence. The marks of authority under gentile -rule are the possession of a tent and a lance; yet we find that these -are the objects which, under matriarchal usages, the wife tenders her -husband when he enters her family; the first doubtless as a symbol of -her protection, the second as indicating her authority and the services -which he is expected to render her and her people. Until a late period -in Rome it was the custom, during the solemnities of marriage, to pass -a lance over the head of the wife in token of the power which the -husband was about to gain over her.[126] - -[126] Ortolan, _History of Roman Law_, p. 80. - -Under the two types of marriage—namely, _motă_ and _ba’al_—the -positions of women were so diametrically opposed that both could not -continue, hence when under the pressure brought to bear upon them, -women began to accept the _ba’al_ form of marriage within their own -_hayy_, _motă_ unions were doomed. Of the more ancient form of marriage -in Arabia, under which the woman chooses her mate, evidences of which -are still extant in that country, and that by capture under which she -becomes the slave of her lord, Professor Smith says: - - There is then abundant evidence that the ancient Arabs practised - marriage by capture. And we see that the type of marriage so - constituted is altogether different from those unions of which - the _motă_ is a survival, and kinship through women the necessary - accompaniment. In the one case the woman chooses and dismisses her - husband at will, in the other she has lost the right to dispose of her - person and so the right of divorce lies only with the husband; in the - one case the woman receives the husband in her own tent, among her own - people, in the other she is brought home to his tent and people; in - the one case the children are brought up under the protection of the - mother’s kin and are of her blood, in the other they remain with the - father’s kindred and are of his blood. - - All later Arabic marriages under the system of male kinship, whether - constituted by capture or by contract, belong to the same type; in all - cases, as we shall presently see in detail, the wife who follows her - husband and bears children who are of his blood has lost the right - freely to dispose of her person; the husband has authority over her - and he alone has the right of divorce. Accordingly the husband, in - this kind of marriage, is called not in Arabia only, but also among - the Hebrews and Aramæans, the woman’s “lord” or “owner,” and wherever - this name for husband is found we may be sure that marriage is of the - second type, with male kinship, and the wife bound to the husband and - following him to his home.[127] - -[127] _Kinship and Marriage_, p. 75. - -Notwithstanding the humane enactments of Mohammed in the interest of -women, their position steadily declined, such enactments having been -overbalanced by the establishment of marriages of dominion, by the -growing idea that _sadica_ or _motă_ marriages were not respectable, -and that women could not depend upon their relations to take their -part against their husbands. The history of religion shows that -its growth has always followed the same course as have the ideas -concerning the relative importance of the sexes. The god-idea and the -fundamental doctrines of religion are always found to be in harmony -with the established principles and ideas relative to sex domination -and superiority. The religion of Mohammed was essentially masculine, -all its principles being in strict accord with male supremacy; it is -not, therefore, singular that when the weight of religion was added to -the already growing tendency toward _ba’al_ marriages that _sadica_ -marriages were doomed. - -In Arabia, as elsewhere, the duties of the purchased wife were -specific. The present which under the older form of marriage had been -given to the bride as a love-token, or as an acknowledgment of the -husband’s devotion to her, subsequently took the form of a purchase -price, and was claimed by her father and brothers as a compensation for -the loss sustained by the group through the removal of her offspring, -whose services belonged to their mother’s people. In other words, the -husband paid a price to the wife’s relations for the right to raise -children by her which should belong exclusively to his kin—children -which should she remain within her own home would belong to her -kindred. The wife was therefore removed to the husband’s _hayy_, where, -so far as the sexual relation was concerned, his rights over her were -supreme. - -We have observed that wherever the possessions of the gens continued -to be the property of all its members, and were controlled by women, -the man at marriage went to live with the woman; so soon, however, as -men began to claim the soil, and property began to accumulate in their -hands, the wife went to reside with her husband and his family as a -dependent. Among various tribes, the form of marriage in use depends on -the means of the contracting parties; if the man is able to pay to the -woman’s father or brothers the full price charged for her, she goes to -him as his slave—she is his property as much as is his dog or his gun; -if, however, he is unable to pay the amount charged, he goes to live -with her and her family, and becomes their slave. - -In Japan, among the higher classes, upon the marriage of the eldest -son, his bride accompanies him to his paternal home; but, on the other -hand, when the eldest daughter marries, her husband takes up his abode -with her parents. Eldest daughters always retain their own names, which -their husbands are obliged to assume. As the wife of an eldest son -becomes a member of her husband’s family, and the husband of an eldest -daughter joins the family of his wife and assumes her name, the eldest -son of a family may not marry the eldest daughter of another family. -Regarding the younger members of the household, if the husband’s family -provides the house, the wife takes his name, while if the bride’s -family furnishes the home the bridegroom assumes the name of the -wife.[128] - -[128] Quoted by C. S. Wake from Morgan’s _System_, etc., p. 428. - -In the marriage customs of various nations, and in their ideas relative -to the ownership and control of the home, may be observed something -more than a hint of the principal causes underlying the decline of -female power. Wherever women remain within their own homes, or with -their own relations, they are mistresses of the situation; but when -they follow the fathers of their children to their homes, they become -dependents and wholly subject to the will and pleasure of their -husbands. - -It is plain, however, that under a system of marriage by sale or -contract, although a woman might exercise little influence in the home -of her husband, so long as her relations stood ready to defend her she -would enjoy an immunity from abuse. The fact that a woman can count -upon her relations for protection against her husband, shows plainly -that in a certain stage of marriage by contract or sale, women are not -the abject slaves which they have been represented to be. Although in -the Fiji Islands a man may seize a woman and take her to his home, she -does not remain with him unless agreeable to her inclinations.[129] - -[129] Darwin, _The Descent of Man_, p. 598. - - Amongst the Abipones, a man, on choosing a wife bargains with her - parents about the price. But it frequently happens that the girl - rescinds what has been agreed upon between the parents and the - bridegroom, obstinately rejecting the very mention of marriage.[130] - -[130] _Ibid._, p. 598. - -Among the Charruas of South America, divorce is quite optional. In -Sumatra, if a man carries off a virgin against her will, he incurs a -heavy fine, or if a man carries off a woman under pretence of marriage, -“he must lodge her immediately with some reputable family.”[131] - -[131] Marsden, _History of Sumatra_, p. 193. - -Although in the earlier ages of marriage by sale or contract, daughters -were regarded as the property of their fathers, still that stage had -not been reached at which women were accounted simply as sexual -slaves. The Arabs practised marriage by sale or contract, yet they -jealously watched over their women,—they “defended them with their -lives and eagerly redeemed them when they were taken captive.” They -thought it better to bury their daughters than to give them in marriage -to unworthy husbands.[132] According to the testimony of J. G. Wood, -Kaffir women are very tenacious about their relations, probably, it -is thought, for the reason that husbands are more respectful toward -wives who have friends near them, than they are to those who have no -relations at hand to take their part.[133] Usually among the Kaffirs, -according to Mr. Shooter, although a man pays a price to the parents of -the woman whom he wishes to marry, the affair is by no means settled; -on the contrary, he must undergo the closest scrutiny by her before she -will consent to accept him. Bidding him stand, she surveys first one -side of him, then the other, the relations in the meantime standing -about awaiting her decision. Upon this subject Mr. Wood remarks: “This -amusing ceremony has two meanings: the first that the contract of -marriage is a voluntary act on both sides; and the second, that the -intending bridegroom has as yet no authority over her.”[134] - -[132] Professor Smith, _Kinship and Marriage_, p. 79. - -[133] _Uncivilized Races_, etc., p. 78. - -[134] _Ibid._, p. 79. - -Although under the system of marriage by sale or contract a woman -has a voice in the selection of her husband, and although she can -count on her kinsmen to protect her against abuse, still, practically, -the contract brings the wife under the same condition as a captured -wife; she follows her husband to his home, where, as a dependent, he -exercises control over her person and her children. In Arabia prior -to the time of the Prophet the wife could claim the protection of her -kindred against her husband, yet the principle underlying marriage by -contract and that by capture was the same, except that under the former -the husband paid a price for the woman’s sexual subjection, while under -the latter, not only in sexual matters, but in all others as well, he -was her “lord” and master. - -The Prophet says: “I charge you with your women, for they are with -you as captives (_awânî_).” Professor Smith informs us that according -to the lexicons _awânî_ is actually used in the same sense as married -women generally.[135] For long ages after _ba’al_ marriages had been -established, so degrading was the office of wife that women of rank -were considered too great to marry. - -[135] _Kinship and Marriage_, p. 77. - -After relating some interesting accounts of certain practices in common -with the custom of capture among the Brazilian tribes, Sir John Lubbock -says: - - This view also throws some light on the remarkable subordination of - the wife to the husband, which is so characteristic of marriage, - and so curiously inconsistent with all our avowed ideas; moreover it - tends to explain those curious cases in which Hetairæ were held in - greater estimation than those women who were, as we should consider, - properly and respectably married to a single husband. The former were - originally fellow-countrywomen and relations; the latter captives and - slaves.[136] - -[136] _Origin of Civilization_, p. 127. - -With the development of the egoistic principle, or when selfishness -and the love of gain became the rule of action, the protection of -her kindred, which in an earlier age a woman could count on against -her husband, was withdrawn, and daughters came to be looked upon as -a legitimate source of gain to their families. On this subject C. -Staniland Wake remarks: - - Women by marriage became slaves, and it was the universal practice for - a man who parted with his daughter to be a slave to require a valuable - consideration for her. Moreover, as a man can purchase as many slaves - as he likes, so he can take as many wives as he pleases.[137] - -[137] C. Staniland Wake, _Marriage and Kinship_, p. 199. - -Thus arose polygamy. - -In Rome, in the Latter Status of barbarism and the opening ages -of civilization, woman, at marriage, forfeited all the privileges -belonging to her as a member of her own family, while within that -of her husband no compensatory advantages were granted her. Even a -proprietary right in her own children was denied her, and from a legal -point of view the wife became the daughter of her husband, and not -unfrequently the ward of her own son. - -After the power gained by man over woman during the latter ages of -barbarism had reached its height, the family was based not on the -marriage of a woman and a man, but upon the power of a man over a woman -and her offspring, or upon the absolute authority of the male parent. -In Rome a man’s wife and children were members of his family not -because they were related to him but because they were subject to his -control. At this stage in the development of the family, the father had -the power of “uncontrolled corporal chastisement” and of life and death -over his children.[138] If it was his will to do so, he could even sell -them. Indeed, a son’s freedom from paternal tyranny could be gained -only by the actual sale of his person by his father. Relating to the -control exercised by the father over his children, it is observed that -he had the right “during their whole life to imprison, scourge, keep to -rustic labour in chains, to sell or slay, even though they may be in -the enjoyment of high state offices.”[139] If a father granted freedom -to his son, that son was no longer a member of his family. - -[138] Maine, _Ancient Law_, p. 133. - -[139] Ortolan, _History of Roman Law_, p. 107. - -That, with the exception of force, there is no quality in the male -constitution capable of binding together the various individuals born -of the same father, is apparent from the past history of the human -race. Mr. Parkyns, referring to the character of the Abyssinians, -observes that the worst point in the constitution of their society is -the want of affection among relations, “even though they be children of -one father.” He says that the animosities which keep the tribes in a -constant state of warfare do not exist among the offspring of the same -mother and father, but, as the children of polygamous fathers are more -numerous than own brethren, fraternal affection is a rare thing.[140] A -comparison between the family group under archaic usages at a time when -woman’s influence was in the ascendency, and the Roman family under -the older Roman law, will serve to show the wide difference existing -between the altruistic and egoistic principles as controlling agencies -in the home and in society. - -[140] _Life in Abyssinia_, p. 156. - -A significant fact in connection with this subject is here suggested, -that, although for untold ages women were leaders of the gens, so long -as their will was supreme, no human right was ever invaded, and no -legitimate manly prerogative usurped; but, on the contrary, all were -equal, and the principles of a pure democracy were firmly grounded. -Liberty and justice had not at that time been throttled by the extreme -selfishness inherent in human nature. - -Although the processes by which women at a certain stage of human -development lost their independence were gradual, they are by no means -difficult to trace. The history of human marriage as gathered from the -various tribes and races in the several stages of growth shows the -primary idea of the office of wife to have been that of sexual slavery, -and discloses the fact that it was the desire for foreign women who, -shorn of their natural independence, could be controlled, which caused -the overthrow of female supremacy. - -As during the earlier ages of human existence the women of the group -were absolutely independent of men for the means of support, they were -able to so control their own movements. Only foreign women—captives -stolen from their homes and friends—taken singly or in groups could -be subjugated or brought into the wifely relation. Indeed, until -the systematic practice of capturing women from hostile tribes for -sexual purposes had been inaugurated, and the subsequent agency of -repression—namely, ownership of the soil by males, had followed as a -natural consequence, the usurpation by man of the natural rights and -privileges of woman was impossible. The male members of the group had -not at that time the power to sell their sisters and other female -relations, but, on the contrary, defended them manfully against the -assaults of hostile tribes. The foreign captor, the wife-catcher, was -an enemy who was both feared and hated, and upon him were showered the -maledictions of the entire group upon which the assault had been made. -In retaliation for his offence, the men who had been bereft of a sister -must in their turn commit a like depredation; thus, through the removal -of women, the men of early groups gradually gained control of the -common possessions at the same time that they were being supplied with -foreign wives over whom they exercised absolute control. In process of -time, when wealth began to accumulate in the hands of men, and when -friendly relations began to be established between neighbouring tribes, -foreign wives, without influence, were received in exchange for the -free-born women of a man’s own clan; henceforward a resort to capture -was unnecessary. Distant tribes, however, were still liable to attack. -Wars were waged against the men, who were sometimes slain, sometimes -taken prisoners, the invaders taking possession of the lands and -compelling the women to accept the position of wife to them. Finally, -negotiations were entered into whereby women were uniformly taken from -their homes to become wives in alien groups. Later, the _ba’al_ form -of marriage came to prevail within the tribe. Professor Smith, quoting -from the advice given by an Arab to his son, says: “Do not marry in -your own _hayy_, for that leads to ugly family quarrels,” to which he -adds, - - there was a real inconsistency in the position of a woman who was - at once her husband’s free kinswoman and his purchased wife. It was - better to have a wife who had no claims of kin and no brethren near to - take her part.[141] - -[141] _Kinship and Marriage_, p. 105. - -Under earlier conditions of the human race women as bearers and -protectors of the young were regarded as the natural land-owners; -hence, they did not leave their own homes to follow the fathers of -their children. The woman who left her own relations for the _hayy_ of -her husband could no longer exercise control over the possessions of -her own gens, neither could she at a later period inherit property from -her kindred for the reason that her interests were identical with those -of her children and her children belonged to another clan. As property -could not be transferred from the group in which it originated, she was -disinherited. Through marriage women gave up their natural right to -the soil, and consequently to independence. A knowledge of the facts -connected with the origin of the institution of marriage, reveals the -fact that women lost their influence and power, not because of their -weakness, but because they were foreigners and dependents in the homes -of their husbands. - -The statement was made at the beginning of this chapter that the origin -of marriage and the establishment of the family with man at its head -involve the subject of economies. - -When property began to accumulate in the hands of men, when women -were forced to relinquish their right to the soil and thus to become -dependent on men for their support, their slavery was inevitable. -Later, when through the exigencies of the situation, woman went without -protest to the home of her master, there to become a pensioner upon his -bounty, her slavery was complete. - -In process of time, women bound to foreign tribes by the children which -they had borne, began to accommodate themselves to the situation, and -even to claim an interest in the home of their adoption, whereupon -friendly relations began to be established between the tribe of the -mother and that of the father. Hence may be observed the fact that -the maternal instinct was the agency by which the barriers between -unrelated groups were gradually broken down, and by which a spirit -of friendliness was established between hitherto hostile tribes. As -the coherence of the group and the combination of the gentes to form -the tribe had been possible only by means of this instinct, so the -confederacy of tribes to form the nation was accomplished in the same -manner. - -The change from female supremacy to male dominion is among the most -important of the evolutionary processes. From the facts underlying the -development of human society, and especially those underlying the two -diverging lines of sex-demarcation, it is evident that evolution does -not proceed in an undeviating line toward progress. It is perceived, -that seeming retrogressions always involve a gain—a gain which could -have been accomplished in no other way. - -Among the benefits derived from this change in the positions of the -sexes was the development of altruism in man. When fathers began to -take an interest in their own offspring, to care for them and to become -responsible for their welfare, an important step had been taken toward -the establishment of the principle of brotherhood among mankind. -The evolutionary processes indicate a constant tendency toward the -solidarity of the race, they may be said to represent a resistless -force ever drawing the human family together in a closer bond of union -and sympathy. Under female supremacy, combination, or association of -interests, was confined to the gens. The extension of these interests -which resulted from the new order was necessary before humanity could -proceed on its onward course. These changes could not have taken place -under the early system based on the supremacy of women. - -The facts brought out by scientists going to prove that the progressive -principle is confided to the female are accentuated by those -connected with the origin and subsequent development of marriage and -the family. That within the female lie the elements of progress is -clearly indicated, not only in the position which the female occupied -among the orders of life lower in the scale of being, and during the -earlier ages of human history, but also by her career as the slave of -man. Simply by means of the characters developed within the female -constitution, without material resources, and deprived of recognized -influence, women have been able to a certain extent, to dignify the -family and the home. - -It is more than likely that in the not distant future, even the -institution of marriage, through which women have been degraded, will -become so purified and elevated that its results, instead of being a -menace to higher conditions will constitute a continuous source of -progress and a promise of still higher achievement. Before this may be -accomplished, mothers must be absolutely free and wholly independent -of the opposite sex for the means of support. Marriage must be a co -partnership in which neither sex has the right to control the other. - -Although our present system of marriage took its rise in the practice -of forcing women into the marital relation, it must be borne in mind -that it was not inaugurated for the purpose of establishing monogamy. -On the contrary, the privileges of the captor remained the same within -his tribe as before the foreign woman was stolen. The theft was -committed for no other purpose than to augment the hitherto restricted -range of sexual liberties, and to give to the father absolute dominion -over the individuals born in his house. - -The system of marriage in vogue at the present time has never -restricted men to the possession of a single woman. Monogamy, as -established under male supremacy, means one husband for one woman, -while a man may have as many women as he is able or willing to support. -As women are still dependent upon men for the necessities of life, the -supply of the former is regulated by the demands of the latter. - -Marriage still retains its original meaning and significance, namely, -the ownership and control of women. With the exception of physical -force all the ceremonies, customs, ideas, and usages of primitive -marriage have been preserved. When a woman marries she is “given” to -her husband by her father or some other male relative. She promises -to obey her master and accepts a ring as a badge of her dependence -upon him. She relinquishes her own name and family, accepting as her -own the name and family of her husband. She follows him to his home -where, as she is supported by his bounty, she is subject to his will -and pleasure. Until women are economically free they will remain sexual -slaves. - -Of all the forms of human slavery which have ever been devised there -has probably never been one so degrading as is that which has been -practiced within the marital relation, nor one in which the extrication -of the enslaved has been a matter of such utter hopelessness. The -present struggle of women for freedom shows how deeply rooted is the -instinct which demands their subjection. - -The descent of woman has encompassed the lowest depths of human -degradation, but the end of the long and weary road which she has -traversed is nearly reached. Already the evolutionary processes which -are to release her from bondage are in operation. - -From available facts relative to the development of early mankind, -it is certain that it must have required centuries upon centuries of -time to subjugate women and bring them into harmonious relations with -men while occupying a position of sexual slavery; first, physical -force, second, dependence, and third the substitution of masculine -opinions for the instincts and ideas which are peculiar to the female -constitution. This accomplished the processes were begun which were to -rivet the chains by which they were bound and by means of which women -themselves in their weakened condition were to acquiesce in their own -degradation. Religion was the means employed. Apollo, according to -Greek mythology, issued an edict declaring that man is superior to -woman and must rule, and Athene herself finally accepted the edict. -Through religion, women came to regard themselves simply as appendages -to men, as tools or instruments for their pleasure and gratification, -and as possessing no inherent right either to liberty or happiness. - -Religion has its root in sex. As we have already seen the creative -force has ever been regarded as masculine or feminine according to -the relative importance of the two sexes in human society and in the -reproductive processes. So long as woman’s influence and power were in -the ascendency the mother was the only recognized parent. She was the -creator of offspring. Later, the abstract idea of female reproductive -power was manifested in the female deities. It required thousands upon -thousands of years to subdue women. It also required millenniums to -dethrone the female deities. - -When, with the rise of male power, man began to assume the rôle of -parent, he assumed also all the functions which had formerly belonged -to woman. As has been noted in another portion of this work he even -went to bed when a child was born. With this change in the physical -relations of the sexes, the creative principle soon began to assume -a masculine aspect. Male deities began to appear associated with the -goddesses. In process of time, as male power increased, the god-idea -became wholly masculine. The Jewish god is a personified idea of male -power and reproductive energy. This subject will be referred to later -in these pages. - -Thus the ancient plan of government which was the outgrowth of the free -maternal instinct, and which had guided humanity on its course for -thousands of years, finally succumbed to a system based on physical -force. When we remember the conditions surrounding early society we may -well believe that civilization was gained, not because of the fact that -male power succeeded in gaining the ascendency over female influence, -but in spite of it. - -Given a combination of circumstances involving the supremacy of the -lower instincts in mankind, and the individual ownership of land, the -subjection of women, monarchy, and slavery, with all their attendant -evils, namely, poverty, disease, crime, and misery were sure to follow. - -When we consider the fundamental bias of the two diverging lines of -sexual demarcation, it is not perhaps singular that the strong sexual -nature which has prompted males to vigorous physical action should for -a time have gained the ascendency over the higher qualities peculiar to -females; yet the material progress achieved under the inspiration and -direction of agencies like this will not, in a more enlightened stage -of existence, be regarded as embodying the results of the best efforts -of human activity, or as representing the highest capabilities of the -race. - -Probably no one will deny that the accumulation of wealth by -individuals, and the subsequent change in the relative positions of -the sexes, were necessary steps toward the establishment of society -on a political or territorial basis, or toward the breaking up of -kindred groups and the acknowledgment of the idea of the unity of the -entire human family. Neither will the proposition be contradicted -that the evils attending these changes namely, monarchy, slavery, -and the inordinate love of gain have been unavoidable adjuncts to -the development of the race; yet, who will doubt that under higher -conditions, as the animal recedes in the distance, these blots on the -records of human history will be regarded not as regular steps in the -advancement of mankind, but as by-paths which, owing to the peculiar -bias which had been given to the male organism among the lower forms -of life, the human race has been obliged to take in order to reach -civilization? - - - - -CHAPTER V - -THE MOTHER-RIGHT - - -Among the most conspicuous of the writers who have dealt with the -subject of primitive society are Herr Bachofen, Mr. J. F. McLennan, -Sir John Lubbock, and Mr. L. H. Morgan. In 1861, the first-named of -these writers, a Swiss jurist, published an extensive work on the early -condition of society, entitled _Das Mutter-recht_ (The Motherright), -in which was first given to the world the fact that prior to the -establishment of a system of kinship through males, there everywhere -existed a system based on female supremacy, under which descent was -reckoned through women. - -Bachofen was first led to a belief in a former state of society in -which women were the recognized leaders through the evidence which -everywhere underlies the traditions and mythologies of extant nations. -Upon investigation he found indisputable evidence going to prove that -every family of the human race had undergone the same processes of -development or growth, and that among all peoples female influence was -once supreme. - -According to Bachofen’s theory, as there were at this early stage -of human existence no “laws” regulating the intercourse between the -sexes, human beings lived in a state of lawlessness, or hetairism. -Recognizing the difference in the reproductive instinct as manifested -in the two sexes, he says that becoming disgusted with their manner -of living women rebelled, and rising in arms, conquered their male -persecutors by sheer superiority in military skill; and that after they -had overthrown the degrading practices of communal or lawless marriage, -they established monogamy in its stead, under which system woman became -the recognized head of the family. - -Children, although they had hitherto succeeded to the father’s name, -were now called after the mother, and all rights of inheritance were -thereafter established in the female line. Not only did women take upon -themselves the exercise of domestic authority and control, but, acting -under a strong religious impulse, they seized the reins of popular -government and completed their title to absolute dominion by wielding -the political sceptre as well, thus declaring themselves unconditional -masters of the situation. - -At this juncture in human affairs, the belief began to be entertained -that motherhood was divine while the paternal office was regarded only -in the light of a human relation. Thus, through religion, women were -raised from a state of hetairism, or sexual slavery, to a position of -independence and self-respect. But that which was gained through a -supernatural impulse they were destined subsequently to lose through -the same source; for, when in Greece, the doctrine was promulgated that -the spirit of the child is derived from its father, paternity at once -assumed a divine character, and, as under the new order, the functions -of the mother were only to clothe the spirit, or simply to act as -“nurse” to the heaven-born production of the father, women lost their -supremacy, and under the new régime, maternity and womanhood again -trailed in the dust. - -According to Bachofen, however, the cause of mothers did not at once -cease to be the subject of contention and conflict, but ever and -anon fresh battles and renewed struggles proclaimed the discontent -and uneasiness of women and heralded the fact that the contest for -supremacy had not yet ended. But, in process of time, as resistance -proved ineffectual, mothers themselves gradually succumbed to the -new idea of the divine character of the father, and, without further -murmuring or complaint, accepted gracefully the position of nurse to -his children. - -The father now became the recognized head of the family, and men at -once seized the reins of government. Descent was henceforth traced in -the male line, and children took the father’s instead of the mother’s -name; in fact all relationships to which rights of succession were -attached were thereafter traced through fathers only. The complete -and final triumph of males having been established by the all-powerful -authority of Roman jurisprudence, the conflict between the sexes was -ended forever. Thus, according to Bachofen, was the supremacy of women -gained and lost. - -Through a profound study of the traditions, legends, symbols, and -mythologies of antiquity, this writer was enabled to discover the fact -that at an earlier age in human history women were the recognized -leaders of mankind; that their influence and authority were supreme -over both the family and the community, and that all relationships to -which rights of succession were attached were traced through them. -In attempting to account for this early period of gynecocracy (the -existence of which to Bachofen’s mind no doubt presented a singular -and intricate problem) it first became necessary to set forth a theory -concerning a former condition of society out of which such a state -could have been evolved. But as at the time _Das Mutter-recht_ made its -appearance, the theory of the development of the human species from -pre-existing orders had not been adopted by scientists, and as many -of the various means at present employed for obtaining a knowledge of -primitive races had not been brought into requisition, even the vast -learning of Bachofen did not suffice to furnish a satisfactory solution -of the problem. - -We have seen that in addition to the discovery that at an early age -in human experience female influence was supreme, he had arrived at -the conclusion that the natural instincts of women differ from those -of men; yet, notwithstanding this, so accustomed had he become to -the predominance of the masculine instincts in every branch of human -activity as to be unable to conceive of a state of society in which -the characters belonging to females could have controlled the sexual -relations. Evidently he was unable to connect these two facts, or to -perceive that that tendency or quality required for the protection of -the germ and the species, and which so early characterized the female -sex, had constituted the most primitive influence by which the human -race had been governed. As in the earliest ages of human existence no -arbitrary laws regulating marriage and the relations of the sexes had -been in operation, he could discern no condition under which society -could have existed other than that of “lawlessness” or “hetairism”—a -condition under which women were slaves, and men ruled supreme. - -As Herr Bachofen was doubtless unaware of the fact that the human -animal is a descendant from creatures lower in the scale of life, -the idea of connecting his history with theirs had probably by him -never been thought of; therefore, judging primitive society, not by -the instincts and the natural laws governing them which mankind had -inherited from their progenitors, but, on the contrary, measuring them -by the standards of later ages when the grosser or disruptive elements -had gained dominion over the finer or constructive qualities in human -nature, he was unable to discern any way in which the conditions of -female supremacy everywhere indicated in the traditions and mythologies -of antiquity could have originated, except in an uprising of women, and -a resort to arms for the protection of their womanly dignity. - -In referring to the military exploits of the women of Lycia, and, -in fact, of various portions of Africa and Asia, at a comparatively -late stage in human history, Bachofen says that the importance of -Amazonianism as opposed to Hetairism for the elevation of the feminine -sex, and through them of mankind, cannot be doubted. - -There seems to be considerable evidence going to prove that there have -been times in the past history of the race in which women were brave -in war and valiant in defending their rights. Indeed, the accounts -given of the struggles of the Amazons in maintaining their independence -against surrounding nations—notably, the Greeks—are tolerably well -authenticated.[142] - -[142] Concerning one of the encounters of this warlike people, the -following has been recounted by Plutarch (_Theseus_): - -“And it appears to have been no slight or womanish enterprise; for they -could not have encamped in the town, or joined battle on the ground -about the Pynx and the Museum, or fallen in so intrepid a manner upon -the city of Athens, unless they had first reduced the country round -about. It is difficult, indeed, to believe (though Hellanicus has -related it) that they crossed the Cimmerian Bosphorus upon the ice; but -that they encamped almost in the heart of the city is confirmed by the -names of places, and by the tombs of those that fell.” - -Although the fact seems to be well substantiated that in certain -portions of the earth, and at various periods in the history of the -race, women have maintained their independence and protected their -interests by force of arms, it seems quite as certain that actual -warfare carried on by them has been confined to peoples among which -male supremacy had but recently been gained, and among which a resort -to arms represented the last act of desperation to which they were -driven to maintain their dignity and honour. We have reason to believe, -however, that even these cases have been exceptional; at least, from -the facts at hand, we have no reason for thinking that at any stage in -the history of women’s career, armed resistance to masculine authority -has been uniform or protracted among them. - -According to scientists, among the lower orders of life, males are -considerably in the excess of females, and among less developed -races men are more numerous than women. It has been shown in a -former portion of this work that the advancement of civilization is -characterized by a corresponding increase in the number of women -among the adult population; hence their evident lack of numbers among -primitive peoples, to say nothing of their probable aversion to war -and bloodshed, would at once preclude the idea that their dominion -was achieved through armed resistance to a foe so superior in numbers -and in fighting qualities. By a natural law governing propagation— -a law which determines the numerical proportion of the sexes, and -which creates an excess in the number of that sex best suited to its -environment, primitive women, had they relied on physical force, would -have had little chance to maintain their independence. - -In a former portion of this work it has been observed that it was -neither to lack of numbers nor to their want of physical force that -women were divested of their power; that it was not through their -weakness, but through the peculiar course which the development or -growth of males had taken, that under certain conditions women became -enslaved. - -Not merely from the facts laid down by naturalists regarding the -peculiar development of the male, but from later researches into the -conditions and causes which have influenced progress, it is plain that -no restrictions on the range of sexual liberties could have originated -in males. Hence the demand for a more refined state of society must -have begun with females. This fact seems to have been perceived by -Bachofen, but, as according to his reasoning, at an early period of -human existence, women were slaves, exercising none of the powers -necessary to personal control, it is difficult to conceive of any -manner in which it was possible for them to rise to the social position -and moral dignity ascribed to them in _Das Mutter-recht_. - -According to the theory set forth by this writer, however, religion -was the cause of the important change which at this time took place -in the positions of the sexes. Although, according to him, the -religion which prevailed during the ages of “lawlessness” was of a low -“telluric chthonic” type, it was nevertheless the cause, or at least -one of the causes which led to the abandonment of promiscuity and the -establishment of the monogamic family. It will doubtless be remembered, -however, that this age of lawlessness or hetairism which Bachofen -has described, represents a very early stage of human existence, in -which, according to his reasoning, the baser instincts ruled supreme; -nevertheless, within it, he would have us believe that a religious -system had been evolved capable of lifting women from a state of -degradation to which they had been consigned by nature, or at least to -which they had always been committed, to a position of influence and -womanly dignity in which they were able to assume supreme control over -the forces by which they had been enslaved. With sexual desire as the -controlling influence in human affairs, and with women in bondage to -this power, it is difficult to conceive of any manner in which such a -religion could have arisen. - -As all religious systems are believed to represent growths, and to -indicate a result of the degree of progress attained, it is evident -that had a religion appeared at this early age which was capable of -elevating women from a condition of degradation, as indicated by the -early state described by Bachofen it could not have been the result of -natural development, but, on the contrary, must have proceeded directly -from a divine source; in which event it would doubtless have remained -upon the earth still further to aid development and bless the race. -Such, however, was not the outcome of this remarkable but premature -religion; for it is asserted by this writer that what women gained by -religion they afterward lost through the same source—that in Greece, -the loss first came through the oracle of Apollo, which declared the -father to be the real parent of the child. - -Bachofen assures us, also, that through the Bacchanalian excesses which -followed the dominion of males in Greece, hetairism was again restored, -and through this means gynecocracy reappeared. From this it would seem -that although under the earliest stage of hetairism women were without -power and wholly under the control of men, with the return, at a later -age, of a like state of society, the basis was at once laid for female -supremacy. - -It is evident that Herr Bachofen’s confusion arises from a -misconception of the early importance of women. Although perhaps more -than any other writer upon this subject he has been able to recognize -the true bias of the female constitution, yet, as he has mistaken -the relative positions of women and men at the outset of the human -career, and as he has been unable to perceive the previously developed -influences which governed these relations, he has failed to furnish -a satisfactory solution of the problem of the early supremacy of -women, which from the evidence adduced, not only by the traditions and -mythologies of past ages, but by later developments in ethnology, may -not be doubted. - -Prior to the appearance of mankind on the earth, had there been -developed within the female no higher element than that which -characterized the male, and had she appeared on the scene of human -action as the willing and natural tool of her less-developed male mate, -it is plain that she would have been unable to elevate herself to the -position of dignity which Bachofen assigns her, and which, until a -comparatively recent period in the human career, she had occupied. - -As among the orders of creation below mankind the structural organism -of the male has been materially changed through his efforts to please -the female and secure her favours, it is evident that under earlier and -more natural conditions of human life, the appetites developed within -him were still largely controlled by her will. From logical conclusions -to be drawn from the hypotheses of naturalists, it is not likely that -at the outset of human life those restrictions on the nature of the -male imposed by the female throughout the animal kingdom were suddenly -withdrawn, or that the destructive elements which all along the line -of progress had been in abeyance to the higher powers developed in -organized matter, were immediately and without good cause put in -absolute command over the constructive forces of life. - -With a better knowledge of the past history of mankind, comes the -assurance that such was not the case, but, on the contrary, that for -thousands of years women were the ruling spirits in human society; that -the cohesive quality—sympathy, which is the result of the maternal -instinct, and which conserves the highest interests of offspring, was -the underlying principle which governed human groups—in fact, that -it was the principle which made organization possible and progress -attainable. - - - - -CHAPTER VI - -THEORIES TO EXPLAIN WIFE-CAPTURE - - -The prevalence of wife-capture and the extent to which the symbol of -force in marriage ceremonies appears among tribes and races in the -various stages of development, have given rise to numerous speculations -and theories relative to the origin of these “singular phenomena.” -Notable among the works dealing with this subject are _Primitive -Marriage_, by Mr. J. F. McLennan, and the _Origin of Civilization_, by -Sir John Lubbock, both of which works followed closely the publication -of _Das Mutter-recht_ by Herr Bachofen. - -As at the time these works were published the fact of man’s descent -from the lower orders of life had not been established, and as nothing -was then known of the origin and development of organized society it -is not remarkable that theories concerning the early relations of the -sexes should prove worthless except perhaps to show the extent to which -established prejudices may warp the judgment and dwarf the intellectual -faculties even of those who are honestly seeking after truth. - -The avowed object of Mr. McLennan’s volume was to trace the origin -of wife-capture which is found to exist either as a legal symbol in -marriage ceremonies, or as a stern reality among peoples which have not -yet reached civilized conditions. This writer declares: “In the whole -range of legal symbolism there is no symbol more remarkable than that -of capture in marriage ceremonies.” - -After setting forth numerous examples to prove the prevalence of -wife-capture among uncivilized tribes and races, and after denouncing -as absurd the theories relative to the symbol of force entering into -the marriage ceremonies in Sparta and in Rome, Mr. McLennan observes: - - The question now arises, what is the meaning and what the origin of a - ceremony so widely spread that already on the threshold of our inquiry - the reader must be prepared to find it connected with some universal - tendency of mankind? - -Mr. McLennan’s answer to his own query is as follows: - - We believe the restriction on marriage to be connected with the - practice in early times of female infanticide which rendering women - scarce led at once to polyandry within the tribe and the capture of - women from without. - -In another portion of this work it has been shown that although -marriage was restricted within the gens, the earliest form of organized -society, this restriction did not extend to the tribe. Marriage was -forbidden among closely related groups. The gentes coalesced to form -the tribe. Although a man might not marry within his own gens, he was -not forbidden to marry within the tribe. - -In Mr. Morgan’s work on _Primitive Society_, published in 1871, are -to be found the systems of consanguinity and affinity of 139 tribes -and races representing, numerically, four-fifths of the entire human -family. These systems show conclusively that the restrictions on -marriage observed in the gens did not extend to the tribe. The author -of _Primitive Marriage_ has evidently mistaken a rule of the gens for a -binding tribal decree. - -Mr. McLennan’s theory relative to female infanticide is found to be -equally fallacious. Noting the numerical difference in the two sexes -among lower races, he says that as subsistence was scarce, and as war -was the natural and constant condition of primitive groups, only those -of their members would be spared who could contribute to the defence of -the tribe, or who would be able to aid in the supply of subsistence. -Males were possessed of strength, they were by organization and -inclination adapted to war and the chase, and could therefore be -depended upon to assist in defending the tribe against the assaults of -its enemies and in securing the necessary food for its requirements. -On the other hand, women being worthless in war and in the chase were -regarded as useless appendages, and as they constituted a source of -weakness to the tribe, large numbers of them were destroyed at birth. -Through this practice the balance of the sexes was greatly disturbed, -and wives could be obtained only by means of stealth or a resort -to force. Thus in process of time, the stealing of women became a -legitimate practice, and each warrior depended on his skill in this -particular direction to provide himself with a wife. - -Finally the children of these alien women began to intermarry and thus -the necessity for wife-capture no longer existed, and the practice -of stealing women for wives was superseded by a system through which -wives from other tribes were habitually obtained either by gift or -sale. Thereafter the symbol of wife-capture was retained in marriage -ceremonies. - -With a better understanding of peoples in a less developed state of -society, it is found that infanticide has been less prevalent among -them than was formerly supposed; that when through scarcity of food it -has been practised it has not been confined to females, neither has it -been carried on by tribes in the lowest stages of barbarism. - -Regarding this custom in Arabia, Prof. W. R. Smith says that our -authorities “seem to represent the practice of infanticide as having -taken a new development not very long before the time of Mohammed.” -This writer declares that the chief motive for infanticide was -“scarcity of food which must always have been felt in the desert.” - -Much has been written in the attempt to explain the practice of -infanticide which to some extent seems to have prevailed during a -certain stage of human development; but with the exception of those -cases in which children of both sexes were slain because of scarcity -of food, the one cause, namely, the dread of capture, is sufficient to -explain this unnatural practice. - -Although to a considerable extent, men had come to depend on foreign -tribes for their wives, they nevertheless found little pleasure in -furnishing their quota of women in return, and as mothers doubtless -preferred the death of their female children to the degradation and -suffering which was inevitable in case of capture, female infanticide -no doubt seemed the wisest and in fact the only expedient. - -The blood-tie of ancient society which bound together all those born -of the women of the group irrespective of their fathers, must have -emphasized the influence of mothers in the matter of infanticide. It is -not reasonable to suppose that the law of sympathy which had united the -members of a clan by a bond stronger than that which binds together the -members of a modern family was reversed without some deeper cause than -has thus far been assigned for it. It is indeed difficult to believe, -in opposition to all the facts before us, that a practice which -involved the destruction of the female members of the group would have -gained the sanction of the tribe to such an extent that it would have -become an established rule among them. - -Regarding the destruction of female infants among early races, Mr. -Darwin remarks: - - They would not at that period have lost one of the strongest of all - instincts common to all lower animals, namely the love of their young - offspring, and consequently they would not have practised female - infanticide.[143] - -[143] _Descent of Man_, p. 594. - -Another reason why female infanticide could not have prevailed to any -considerable extent is seen in the fact that any diminution in the -number of females, would have involved a scarcity of warriors, thus -weakening their means of defence. From available facts it is quite -evident that the practice of female infanticide throws no light on -wife-capture. - -Mr. McLennan declares that women among rude tribes are usually depraved -and inured to scenes of depravity from their earliest infancy; hence -when property began to amass in the hands of men, in order to assure -paternity, it became necessary, that women be brought under subjection. - -As the female, when free, is unwilling to pair with individuals for -whom she feels no affection, and as under earlier conditions of human -society women chose their mates, and so long as they remained together -were true to them, it is reasonable to suppose that paternity was -known, or at least that it might have been readily determined. - -Mr. Morgan informs us that the “Turanian, Ganowánian, and Malayan -systems of consanguinity show conclusively that kinship through males -was recognized as constantly as kinship through females,” that a man -had brothers and sisters, grandfathers and grandmothers traced through -males as well as through females. Although under gentile institutions -descent and all rights of succession were traced through mothers, -kinship through fathers was easily ascertained. - -Hence it is plain that Mr. McLennan’s assumption that women were -enslaved in order to assure paternity, that they became subject to the -dominion and control of men so that fathers might not be compelled to -support children not their own, is not supported by the evidence at -hand. - -That it was through capture, the forcible carrying away of women at -first singly and later in groups to foreign tribes, in which as aliens -and dependents they were shorn of their right to the soil, that males -were first enabled to arrogate to themselves the individual right to -property is a fact which has been overlooked by Mr. McLennan. - -From the facts at hand relative to the earliest social regulation -of mankind, that into classes on the basis of sex, it is evident -that it was inaugurated for no other purpose than the restriction -of the marital relation—a restriction to prevent the pairing of -near relations. Yet Mr. McLennan would have us believe that “the law -compelling marriage outside the recognized limit of near relationship -originated in no innate or primary feeling against marriage with -kinsfolk.” - -The repugnance of females among the lower orders of life to pairing -with those individuals which were distasteful to them, or for which -they felt no genuine affection, has already been referred to in these -pages. At the earliest dawn of human life there probably existed within -woman a naturally acquired aversion to pairing with near relations, -yet doubtless many ages elapsed before an idea of kinship sufficiently -definite to be incorporated into an arbitrary law for the government of -the group was formulated; but in due course of time, with the further -development of the higher characters, the idea of relationship began -to take shape, whereupon was inaugurated a movement which doubtless -represents one of the most important steps ever taken toward human -advancement. - -As the female among all the orders of life, when free, is unwilling -to pair with individuals for which she feels no affection, and as the -sex-instinct has ever been restricted or held in abeyance by her, and -as according to the savants, it was through the efforts of women that -from time to time during the earlier ages of human existence the range -of conjugal rights was abridged, it is reasonable to suppose that it -was woman who first objected to the pairing with near relations. - -The statement of Mr. McLennan that the women of primitive races were -depraved, that they were inured to scenes of depravity from their -earliest infancy is not borne out by facts. It has been shown in -another portion of this work that the most trustworthy writers, those -who have personally investigated tribes and races in the various stages -of development, agree that chastity was an unvarying rule among them, -that before they were corrupted by civilization, a condition of morals -existed nowhere to be found among the so-called higher races. - -After referring to a state of advanced social existence in which every -person knowing what is right would feel an irresistible impulse toward -right-living, Mr. Wallace remarks that among peoples low in the scale -of development “we find some approaches to such a perfect social -state.” He observes: “It is not too much to say that the mass of our -population have not at all advanced beyond the savage code of morals, -and have in many cases sunk below it.” - -Most of the reports which come to us regarding the immorality of lower -races are brought by missionaries, who, although unacquainted with the -language, customs, and habits of thought of the peoples whose countries -they visit, nevertheless feel called upon to furnish lengthy reports -of those benighted races which are “utterly destitute of Christian -training.” - -As the restrictions on marriage among early peoples were limited to -closely related groups, it is evident that the capture of wives was -not carried on because of any established law of exogamy, neither -was it practised because of the scarcity of women resulting from -female infanticide nor because of a desire for recognized paternity. -Wife-capture arose from a demand for foreign women, aliens, who, torn -from their homes and deprived of the protection of their own kinsfolk, -had no alternative but sexual slavery. These women were much more -desirable than the free-born women of a man’s own tribe. - -After having created a false and wholly unwarrantable hypothesis, an -hypothesis in which exogamy and endogamy, two principles which as -applied to tribes never existed, play a conspicuous part, Mr. McLennan -has thrust nearly all the facts which he has observed relative to -primitive society into false positions and forced them to do duty in -bolstering up his thoroughly imaginative theory to account for the -origin of wife-capture. It is perhaps needless to say that the whole -subject, so far as his contribution is concerned, is as much a mystery -as before he attempted a solution of the problem. - - * * * * * - -Sir John Lubbock, like J. F. McLennan, assumes that the earliest -organization of society was that of the tribe, and that a man was first -regarded as belonging only to a group. Subsequently, as the maternal -bond is stronger than that which unites a father to his offspring, -kinship with his mother and her relations was established. In course of -time he was accounted as a descendant of his father only, and lastly he -became equally related to both parents. - -Numerous illustrations are cited by this writer, going to show that -among certain peoples descent is still reckoned in the female line, and -that all the rights of succession, both as regards property and tribal -honours, are traced through women. - -In his _Origin of Civilization_ the fact is noted that in Guinea, -when a wealthy man dies, his property passes by inheritance, not to -his sons, but to the children of his sister. He quotes also from -Pinkerton’s _Voyages_ to show that the town of Loango is governed by -four chiefs who are sons of the king’s sisters, and from Caillie who -observes that in Central Africa the sovereignty remains always in the -same family, but that the son never succeeds to his father’s position. -These and numerous other instances, similar in character, are cited -from various parts of the world, going to prove that a system of -descent and inheritance through women was once general throughout the -races of mankind. - -With Herr Bachofen and Mr. McLennan, Sir John Lubbock is of the opinion -that the earliest conjugal unions of the human race were communal. -Communal marriage was founded on the supremacy of males, or, was based -on the undisputed right of men to the control of women. According to -this writer, communal marriage was succeeded by individual marriage -through capture. - -Although Lubbock coincides with McLennan in the belief that under -certain circumstances infanticide has been practised by the lower -races, he does not agree with him as to the extent to which it has -prevailed among them; neither is he of the opinion that it was confined -to the female sex. On the contrary, he cites trustworthy authority to -prove that boys were as frequently disposed of as were girls. - -Although with McLennan, Lubbock recognizes the prevalence of -wife-capture and the principle of exogamy, yet, according to the theory -of the former, marriage by capture arose from exogamy, while, according -to the latter, exogamy arose from marriage by capture. - -Lubbock accounts for wife-capture by the following theory: As under the -communal system, women of the tribe were the “common property” of the -men of the group, no individual male among them would have attempted -to appropriate one of these women to himself, for the reason that -such appropriation would have been regarded as an infringement on the -rights of the remaining males in the community. A warrior, however, -upon capturing a woman from a hostile people, might claim her as his -rightful possession, and hold her as against all the other members of -the tribe. Since the women of the group were so emphatically the common -property of the men, the exclusive right to one of them in progressive -tribes which had reached a state of friendliness would involve a symbol -of capture to make valid such a claim. This symbol, according to -Lubbock, has no reference to those from whom the woman has been stolen, -but is intended to bar the rights of other members of the tribe into -which she is brought. He thinks that “the exclusive possession of a -wife could only be legally acquired by a temporary recognition of the -pre-existing communal rights,” and cites the account given by Herodotus -of the custom existing in Babylonia, where every woman once during -her lifetime must present herself at the temple, there to accept the -proposals of the first man who requests her to follow him. - -Although Lubbock declares that the symbol of violence in marriage -ceremonies “can only be explained by the hypothesis that the capture -of wives was once a stern reality,” he claims not to believe that the -early conditions under which men were compelled to capture their wives -by violence, or do without them, were in any degree the result of -feminine will in the matter. - -In referring to the fallacious theory of Mr. McLennan, that the capture -of women for wives arose from the practice of female infanticide, -which, by producing a scarcity of women, created a necessity for -marriage without the limits of the tribe, Sir John Lubbock, although -seemingly unable to recognize the actual force which was in operation -to prevent the “appropriation” of women by men, has nevertheless shown -himself able to perceive the reason why foreign women were captured, -and what the tendency in males was which demanded their presence. - -After referring to the fact that no male could appropriate to himself a -female belonging to the tribe, he says: - - Women taken in war were, on the contrary, in a different position. The - tribe, as a tribe, had no right to them, and men surely would reserve - to themselves exclusively their own prizes. These captives then would - naturally become wives in our own sense of the term. - -Foreign women would become dependents, their captors having the -undisputed right to the control of their persons. - -At the outset, Sir John Lubbock finds himself confronted with the -fact that a system of reckoning descent through women once prevailed -over the habitable globe. According to his own reasoning, this system -presupposes a condition of society under which property rights and -all rights of succession were traced through women, still we find -him offering the following belief concerning the matter. “I believe, -however, that communities in which women have exercised the supreme -power are rare and exceptional, if, indeed, they ever existed at all.” - -Were we not already acquainted with the prejudices of most of the -writers who have thus far dealt with this subject, in view of the facts -everywhere represented going to prove that a system of gynecocracy once -prevailed over the entire earth, this “belief” of Mr. Lubbock would be -truly remarkable, especially when we learn the reason given by him for -his conclusion. He says: - - We do not find in history, as a matter of fact, that women do assert - their rights, and savage women would, I think, be peculiarly unlikely - to uphold their dignity in the manner supposed.[144] - -[144] _Origin of Civilization_, p. 99. - -It is quite true that it is not observed “in history” that women assert -their rights. It has been shown, however, that prior to the historic -age, through capture and the individual ownership of land, women had -become dependent upon men and wholly subject to their control. After -thousands of years of subjection to male influence, the movements of -women, who are still dependent upon men, furnish little satisfactory -information regarding the character of free women at a time before -they had succumbed to the exigencies of brute force, and the unbridled -appetites of their male masters. Slaves seldom assert their rights, or, -if they do, of what avail is it? - -Were we in possession of no other facts in support of the theory of -an early age of female supremacy than that all relationships to which -rights of succession were attached were formerly traced through women, -the evidence in its favour would be sufficient to prove it true, but -this manner of reckoning descent represents only one of the many -indications of such an age which Lubbock himself has been constrained -to record; yet, because—during the historic age—an age throughout which -the masculine element has ruled supreme, women have not asserted their -rights, this writer feels inclined to ignore all the evidence bearing -upon the subject, at the same time declaring that women could not -have “upheld their dignity in the manner supposed”; that the female, -on gaining human conditions, could not have exercised the instincts -inherited by her from her dumb progenitors. - -If the females among insects, birds, and many species of mammals are -able to control the relations between themselves and their male mates, -why should it not be inferred that the female of the human species -would still be able to uphold the natural dignity of the female sex? - -As an argument in support of his theory that the influence of women -was never supreme, Sir John Lubbock alludes to the position of -Australian women as being one of “complete subjection,” and as the -native Australians represent perhaps the lowest existing stage of human -society, he doubtless thinks his argument unassailable. However, that -the position of Australian women cannot be taken as a reliable guide in -estimating primitive womanhood is shown by the writer’s own reasoning -when he says: - - It must not be assumed, however, that the condition of primitive - man is correctly represented by even the lowest of existing races. - The very fact that the latter have remained stationary, that their - manners, habits, and mode of life have continued almost unaltered for - generations, has created a strict, and often complicated, system of - customs, from which the former was necessarily free, but which has in - some cases gradually acquired even more than the force of law.[145] - -[145] _Origin of Civilization_, p. 2. - -Yet we find him comparing primitive women with this race which for -thousands upon thousands of years, because of its environment, or -through some cause which is not understood, has been unable to advance. - -While this writer perceives clearly that foreign women were much more -desirable for wives than those belonging to a man’s own tribe, he has -not been able to discover the reason why this was so, but, continuing -to babble about the “rights” of the men of the group, overlooks the -fact that native-born women were free, and as only those women who had -first been torn from their friends and shorn of their independence -could at this stage of human existence be forced into the position of -wife, it became necessary to secure them by violence from surrounding -tribes. He is not blind to the fact that it was a desire to extend -the limit of conjugal liberties on the part of males which prompted -wife-capture; yet he would have us believe that although women were -absolutely independent of men, and although they were the recognized -heads of families, and the source whence originated all the privileges -of the gens, it was in no degree owing to their influence that the -conjugal liberties of males were restricted within the tribe, but, on -the contrary, that this restriction was enforced out of regard for -the “proprietary rights” of the men of the group. He says: “We must -remember that under the communal system the women of the tribe were -all common property. No one could appropriate one of them to himself -without infringing on the general rights of the tribe.” - -As well might we say of the female bird for whose favours the male -fights until overcome by exhaustion and loss of blood, that she belongs -to him, or that he may appropriate her, as to say that the men of early -groups could “appropriate” women. From all the facts relative to the -condition of early society, it is plain that if either sex could with -propriety be designated as property it must have been the male. It is -evident that women were stolen from distant tribes for the express -purpose of sexual slavery, a position to which free, native-born women -could not be dragged; therefore, when Lubbock assures us that these -foreign women naturally “became wives in our own sense of the term,” -we may be sure that he is neither unmindful of the origin of our -present social system, nor of the true significance attached to the -position of wife. Indeed, he informs us that the “origin of marriage -was independent of all sacred and social conditions,” and proves -the same by actually producing the evidence. He has no hesitancy in -declaring that marriage is a masculine institution, established in the -interest (or supposed interest) of males; that it was “founded not on -the rights of the woman, but of the man,” and that there was not on -the woman’s part even the semblance of consent. In fact he declares -that he regards it as an illustration of the good old plan that “he -should take who has the power, and he should keep who can.” He says -also that it had nothing to do with mutual affection or sympathy, -that it was invalidated by no appearance of consent, and that it was -symbolized not by any demonstration of warm affection on the one side -and tender devotion on the other, but by brutal violence and unwilling -submission. To prove that the connection between force and marriage -is deeply rooted, Sir John Lubbock, like Mr. McLennan, has furnished -numerous examples of peoples among whom marriage by actual capture -still prevails, as well as many among which the system has passed into -a mere symbol. He is quite certain that the complete subjection of -the woman in marriage furnishes an explanation to those examples in -barbarous life in which women are looked upon as being too great to -marry—and cites the case of Sebituane, chief of the Bechuanas, who told -his daughter, Mamochisáne, that all the men were at her disposal—“she -might take any one, but ought to keep none.” - -This instance, together with numberless others which might be cited, -proves that long after the practice of appropriating solitary women for -sexual purposes had become general, the position of wife was considered -too degrading to be occupied by women of rank. - -Attention has been called to Lubbock’s idea concerning the “rights” -of the males of the group. We have seen that it is his opinion that -the exclusive possession of a woman could only be legally acquired by -a temporary recognition of the pre-existing communal rights, and that -the account in Herodotus of the debasement of Babylonian women was -cited by him as evidence to prove his position. He seems, however, to -forget that this custom, which was practised in various nations, is a -religious rite, and was inaugurated at a time when the adoration of the -sun, as the source of all life and light, had degenerated into the most -degrading phallic worship. To those who have given attention to the -growth of the god-idea, the supposed cases of “expiation for marriage,” -cited by Lubbock, are to be explained by the peculiar practices -inaugurated under fire and passion worship at a time long subsequent to -the establishment of _ba’al_ marriages. - -In his chapter on “The Origin of Marriage by Capture,” this writer -says: - - That marriage by capture has not arisen from female modesty, is, I - think, evident, not only because we have no reason to suppose that - such a feeling prevails especially among the lower races of man; but - also, firstly, because it cannot explain the mock resistance of the - relatives; and, secondly, because the very question to be solved - is why it became so generally the custom to win the female not by - persuasion but by force.[146] - -[146] _Origin of Civilization_, p. 106. - -That female modesty may not account for marriage by capture will -scarcely be disputed; it is not impossible, however, that disgust, or -aversion, on the part of women, may, in a measure, serve to explain it. - -Sir John Lubbock should bear in mind that “choice” in the matter of -pairing was an early prerogative of the female; that true affection, a -character differing widely from the sex instinct developed in the male -was necessary before she could be induced to accept the attentions of -the male. While the women among primitive peoples abhorred strangers or -foreigners, it may scarcely be said of them that they were too modest -to accept them as suitors. Evidently, modesty is not the term to be -employed in this connection. - -In seeking a reason to explain why force rather than persuasion was -used in the consummation of early marriages, we have to remember the -wide difference existing between the position of free women and that -of those who were obliged to accept the _ba’al_ form of marriage. If, -as we have reason to believe, as late as the beginning of the second -or Middle Status of barbarism, instead of following the father of her -children to his house as his slave, a woman remained in a home owned, -or at least controlled jointly by herself, her mother, her sisters, and -her daughters, it is plain that a state of female independence existed -which was incompatible with female subjection. Add to this the fact -that a woman’s children belonged exclusively to herself, or to her -family, and that all hereditary honours and rights of succession were -traced through females, and we have a set of circumstances which would -seem sufficient to explain why force was necessary to bring women into -the marital relation. - -That the capture of women for wives arose because the independence -of free women was a bar to the gratification of the lower instincts -in man, can, in the presence of all the facts at hand, scarcely be -doubted; and that women submitted to the position of wife only when -obliged to do so, or when deprived of liberty and dragged from home and -friends, is only too apparent. While modesty as a cause for capture -may not account for the resistance of the relations, the sacrifice of -a daughter may serve to explain even this knotty point. If the capture -of a free and independent girl from her mother by a band of marauders -from a hostile tribe for purposes of the most degrading slavery, cannot -account for the resistance of the mother-in-law, among most of the -so-called lower races, then indeed it is difficult to conjecture any -provocation or any set of circumstances which can account for it. - -This writer’s assertion that it is “contrary to all experience that -female delicacy diminishes with civilization,” proves conclusively that -he regards the slight degree of reserve which he is pleased to accredit -to women in modern times, as a result of civilization—a civilization, -too, which he evidently considers as wholly the result of masculine -achievement; in other words, he doubtless thinks that the degree of -self-respect observed among women at the present time is the result not -of the innate tendencies in the female constitution, but of masculine -tuition and training, an assumption which, when viewed by the light -which in recent years has been thrown upon the development of the two -diverging sex columns, is as absurd as it is arrogant and false. Some -time will doubtless elapse before Sir John Lubbock and the class of -writers which he represents will be willing to admit that civilization -has been possible only because of the checks to the animal nature of -the male, which are the natural result of the maternal instinct. - -With a system, however, under which for six thousand years every -womanly instinct has been smothered, and under which female activity -has been utilized in the service of the strong sex instinct developed -in males, the outward expression of female delicacy has doubtless -diminished; and, in their weakened mental and physical condition, -women, dependent not only for all the luxuries but the necessities -of life as well, upon pleasing the men, have doubtless given them, -blinded as they have become by the conditions of their own peculiar -development, some reason for believing that within the female as within -the male, passion has been the ruling characteristic. - -Sir John Lubbock, as well as other writers who have dealt with this -subject, should bear in mind the fact that female delicacy is a subject -which can be satisfactorily discussed only in relation to free and -independent women; hence the degree of its manifestation at any time -during the past six thousand years may bear little testimony concerning -the natural tendencies of women, or the condition of society under a -system where female influence was in the ascendency. - -To those individuals whose minds are not clouded by prejudice, the fact -will doubtless be apparent, that the valuable information which has -been presented by three of the foremost writers on the subject of the -early relations of the sexes and the origin of marriage, instead of -serving as evidence to substantiate the fallacious theories which they -have propounded, is found to lie in a direct line with the facts and -principles which have been put forward by scientists in the theory of -natural development. - -A review of the theories set forth by these three writers shows -that about the only point on which they agree is the lawlessness, or -promiscuity, of early races. As they have all started out with a false -premise, it is not singular that none of them has succeeded in setting -forth a consistent and reasonable hypothesis to account either for the -symbol of wife-capture, or for the early supremacy of women. - - - - - PART III - - Early Historic Society - - - - -CHAPTER I - -EARLY HISTORIC SOCIETY FOUNDED ON THE GENS - - -The result of recent research into the early organization of society, -the growth of the governmental idea, and the development of the -family, among tribes in the ascending scale, serve to throw new and -unexpected light upon the customs, ideas, institutions, and legends -of early historic peoples. Upon investigation it is observed that the -construction of Greek and Roman society corresponds exactly with that -of existing tribes occupying a lower plane in the scale of development, -and that all the institutions of these nations, although in a higher -state of advancement, involve the same original principles and ideas. - -That the Greek and Roman tribes before reaching civilization had -passed through exactly the same processes of development as have been -witnessed in the ascending scale among the North American Indians, -the Arabians, and all other extant peoples, is shown not alone by -the manner in which early society was organized and held together, -but by the similarity observed in their myths, legends, traditions, -institutions, and social usages. - -Whether or not a more advanced stage of civilization had been attained -by the progenitors of the Greeks and Romans is a question that does not -here concern us; for, if at any time prior to the appearance of these -peoples in history, a higher plane of life had been reached, it is -reasonable to suppose that such a state was gained under gentile forms -of society, especially as their various institutions at the beginning -of the historic period represent them as still to a considerable extent -governed by the ideas peculiar to the gens. - -The earliest authentic accounts which we have of the Greeks represent -them as composed of the Doric tribes, who were Hellenes, and the -Ionians, who were of Pelasgic origin. The Dorians were a conservative -people, exclusive in their tastes and intolerant of innovations, while -the Ionians, who occupied the seacoasts and the adjacent islands, -were restless, fond of novelty, and not averse to intercourse with -surrounding nations. - -Of the original inhabitants of Rome, it is observed that they consisted -of wandering tribes, bands of outlaws, and refugees from various -countries. Concerning the true origin of these peoples, however, and -of the history of their earliest settlements, they themselves were -evidently ignorant, and the fragmentary accounts of them which have -been preserved to us, when viewed independently of the light reflected -upon them by recent investigation, furnish but a dim picture in the -outline of which the most prominent figures appear only as indistinct -shadows or as objects without definite shape. It is true there was no -lack of myths and traditions which had come down to the Greeks and -Romans as genuine history, and which were doubtless regarded by them -as trustworthy accounts of their ancestors. Theseus who united the -Attic tribes, and Romulus who founded Rome, were heroes in whom the -divine and human were so nicely adjusted and so evenly balanced that -the history of their earthly career presents no shade of error either -in public or in private life. Indeed, both had sprung from immortal -sources, and their exploits were such as might be expected from the -mythical heroes of a forgotten age. - -Although Greek society when it first came under our observation was -under gentile organization, the gens had passed out of its archaic -stage. This ancient institution, which had carried humanity through -to civilization, was gradually losing its vitality; it had lost its -efficiency as a governing agency, and was about to give place to -political institutions. - -With the facts at present accessible regarding peoples in the lower -and middle stages of barbarism, the various steps in the growth of -government as administered in the upper or latter stage of barbarism -are clearly observed; also by close attention to the conditions -surrounding extant peoples in the latter stage of barbarism and the -opening ages of civilization, the processes involved in the transfer -of society from gentile to political institutions are easily traced, -together with the principal ideas and motives underlying the growth of -all the institutions belonging to early historic nations. - -Until civilization was reached the gens constituted the unit of -organized society. This fact, however, until a comparatively recent -time, seems to have been overlooked. Without attempting to explain -the origin of the gens and phratry as they existed in Greece, Mr. -Grote observes: “The legislator finds them pre-existing, and adapts or -modifies them to answer some national scheme.” Unacquainted as this -writer evidently was with the construction of primitive society, he -failed to observe that originally, in Greece, all the powers of the -legislator himself were derived from and circumscribed by the gens. -Indeed, that this organization upon which the superstructure of Grecian -society rested was the original source whence proceeded all social -privileges and all military rights and obligations, is a condition -which until a comparatively recent time has been overlooked. While -discussing the relations of the family to the gens, the gens to the -phratry, and the phratry to the tribe, Mr. Grote says: “The basis of -the whole was the house, hearth, or family—a number of which, greater -or less, composed the gens, or genos.”[147] - -[147] _History of Greece_, vol. iii., p. 54. - -Mr. Morgan has shown, however, that the family could not have -constituted the basis of the gens, for the reason that the heads of -families belonged to separate gentes. We are assured that the gens is -much older than the monogamic family, and therefore that the latter -could not have formed the basis of the gentile organization; but even -had the family preceded the gens in order of development, as its -members belonged to different gentes it could not have constituted the -unit of the social series. - -In order to gain a clear understanding of the processes and principles -involved in the early Grecian form of government, it first becomes -necessary briefly to review the various steps in the growth of the -governmental functions through two ethnical periods. - -The tribe is a community of related individuals possessed of equal -rights and privileges, and bound by equal duties and responsibilities. -It has been shown that in the Lower Status of barbarism the government -consisted of only one power—a council of chiefs elected by the people. -During the Middle Status of barbarism two powers appear,—the civil and -military functions have become separated, the duties of a military -commander being co-ordinated with those of a council of chiefs. The -military commander, however, has not succeeded in drawing to himself -the powers of a ruler or king. In the Second Status of barbarism -tribes have not begun to confederate. A single tribe, its members -bound together by the tie of kinship and united by common rights and -responsibilities, owning their lands in common, and each contributing -his share toward the common defence, so long as it was able to maintain -its independence, had little need for an elaborate form of government. -As yet no strifes engendered by envy and extreme selfishness had arisen -to disturb the simplicity of their lives, or to check the development -of those early principles of liberty and fraternity which were the -natural inheritance of the gens. A council of chiefs elected by the -gentes and receiving all its powers from the people had thus far -performed all the duties of government. - -After the Upper Status of barbarism is reached we find confederated -tribes dwelling together in walled cities surrounded by embankments, -and a state of affairs existing which called for a further -differentiation of the functions of government, and a redistribution of -the powers and responsibilities of the people. In process of time, with -the accumulation of property in masses in the hands of the few, and -the consequent rise of an aristocracy, a government founded on wealth, -or on a territorial basis, rather than on the personal relations of an -individual to his gens, was demanded; and, finally, those principles, -rights, and privileges which constitute a pure democracy, and which -had always formed the basis of gentile institutions were gradually -ignored; that personal influence which was originally exercised by each -and every gentilis being transferred to a privileged class—a class -which controlled the wealth, and at the head of which was the military -commander or _basileus_. Such was the condition of Grecian society as -it first appears in history. - -A comparison instituted by Mr. Morgan between the Iroquois gens and -that of the Greeks shows the former at the time when it first came -under European observation to have been in the archaic stage, with -descent and all the rights of succession traced in the female line; -while the latter, at the time designated as the heroic age, had not -only changed the manner of reckoning descent from the female to the -male line, but was evidently about to give place to political society -which, instead of being founded on kinship, was based on property and -territory, or upon a man’s relations to the township or deme in which -he resided. - -While the Iroquois tribe of Indians represents the gens in its original -vitality, the Greeks appear to have reached a stage at which the -archaic form of government instituted on the basis of kin was found -inadequate to meet their necessities; hence the confusion arising -from disputed authority, at the almost interminable struggle between -the various classes which had arisen, and the evident disaffection -and unrest manifest among the entire Grecian people during the ages -intervening between Codrus, nearly eleven hundred years B.C., and -Clisthenes, five hundred years later. - -That degree of jealousy with which individual liberty was guarded -during the earlier ages of historic Greece, that thirst for freedom, -and that restlessness under tyranny which characterized the Grecian -people throughout their entire career, are explained by the fact that -prior to the age of Clisthenes they were under gentile institutions, -the fundamental principles of which were liberty, equality, and -justice. From all the facts which may be gathered bearing upon this -subject, it is evident that although at the beginning of the historic -period the Greeks had lost much of that independence which belonged to -an earlier stage of human development, their institutions still partook -of the character of a democracy. - -Of the similarity of the customs and institutions of early historic -Greece and those of a more primitive age we have ample evidence. In -ancient Greece, as among the Iroquois tribe of Indians, “property -was vested absolutely in the clan, and could not be willed away from -it.”[148] Not only did the members of a clan hold their property in -common, but they were obliged to help, defend, support, and even -avenge those of their number who required their assistance. Young -females bereft of near relations were either furnished with husbands or -provided with suitable portions. Descent must still have been reckoned -in the female line, for foreigners admitted to citizenship were not -members of any clan, neither were their descendants, unless born of -women who were citizens. Citizens were enrolled in the clan and phratry -of their mothers.[149] - -[148] George Rawlinson, book v., essay ii. - -[149] _Ibid._ - -In the administration of the government, however, are to be noted a -few important changes. The complications which had arisen as a result -of the individual ownership of property, the change in the reckoning -of descent from the female to the male line which followed, and the -growth of the aristocratic element, had produced a corresponding change -in the control and management of the government. Solicitude for the -common weal, although still felt by the great mass of the people, had -among the rulers given place to extreme egoism, and that association -and combination of interests, which since the dawn of organized society -had characterized the gens, was rapidly giving way before the love of -dominion, the thirst for power, and the greed of gain—characters which -in process of time came to represent the mainspring of human action. - -With the changes which took place in the conditions of the people, -it is seen that the administrative functions became still further -differentiated. Co-ordinate with the Greek _basileus_ or war-chief are -to be observed not only a council of chiefs who were the heads of the -gentes, but also an assembly of the people, these three governmental -functions corresponding in a general way to our President, Senate, and -House of Representatives. - -The Ecclesia or general assembly at Sparta was originally composed -of all the free males who dwelt within the city. Although this body -originated no measures, it was invested with authority to adopt or -reject any proposed legislation or plan of action devised by the -chiefs. “All changes in the constitution or laws, and all matters of -great public import, as questions of peace or war, of alliances, and -the like, had to be brought before it for decision.”[150] Thus may be -observed the precautions which during the latter stages of barbarism -had been taken to guard the rights of the people, and to insure them -against individual and class usurpation. - -[150] George Rawlinson, book v., essay i. - -Curtius assures us that the Dorian people - - did not feel as if they were placed in a foreign state, but they were - the citizens of their own—not merely the objects of legislation, but - also participants in it, for they only obeyed such statutes as they - themselves had agreed to.[151] - -[151] _History of Greece_, book ii., chap. i. - -Although Mr. Grote would have us believe that the assembly of the -people was simply a “listening agora,”[152] it is plain that it was -originally invested with sufficient power to protect the people against -despotism. In the further differentiation of the administrative -functions the powers of the subordinate officers are all drawn from -the sum of the powers invested in the three principal branches of -the government, the ill-defined duties of each giving rise to those -unabated dissensions and fierce and unrelenting strifes which in course -of time became such a fruitful source of devastation and bloodshed. - -[152] Vol. ii., p. 348. - -From what is known at the present time regarding Greek society prior -to the age of Theseus, it is not at all likely that it was organized -on monarchial principles, or that any form of government prevailed in -Greece other than that of a military democracy. It is true that by most -of the writers who have dealt with the subject of the government of the -early Greeks, the _basileus_ has been designated as king, and that he -has been invested by them with all the insignia of a modern monarch. -In later times, however, with a better understanding of the principles -underlying early society, this view of the matter is seen to be false. -Mr. Morgan, a writer who as we have seen has given much attention to -the constitution of gentile society, informs us that in the Lower and -also in the Middle Status of barbarism the office of chief was elective -or during good behaviour, “for this limitation follows from the right -of the gens to depose from office.”[153] - -[153] _Ancient Society_, p. 262. - -When descent was in the female line this office descended either to a -brother of the deceased chief or to a sister’s son, but later, when -descent began to be traced in the male line, the eldest son was usually -elected to succeed his father. Upon this subject Mr. Morgan says -further: - - It cannot be claimed, on satisfactory proof, that the oldest son of - the _basileus_ took the office, upon the demise of his father, by - absolute hereditary right.... The fact that the oldest, or one of - the sons, usually succeeded, which is admitted, does not establish - the fact in question; because by usage he was in the probable line of - succession by a free election from a constituency. The presumption on - the face of Grecian institutions is against succession to the office - of _basileus_ by hereditary right; and in favour either of a free - election, or of a confirmation of the office by the people through - their recognized organization, as in the case of the Roman rex. With - the office of _basileus_ transmitted in the manner last named, the - government would remain in the hands of the people. Because without an - election or confirmation he could not assume the office; and because, - further, the power to elect or confirm implies the reserved right to - depose.[154] - -[154] _Ancient Society_, p. 262. - -There is no lack of evidence at the present time going to prove -that all these early tribes were originally organized on thoroughly -democratic principles, and that there never was any dignity conferred -on the leader of the early Grecian hosts answering to the present -definition of king; also that prior to the time of Romulus, no -chieftain of the Latin tribes was ever invested with sufficient -authority to have constituted him an imperial ruler. The term -_basileus_, as applied to a leader of a military democracy in the early -ages of Grecian history, doubtless implies simply the war-chief of the -primitive tribe, an officer chosen from among the chiefs of the gentes -as a leader of the hosts in battle, but as claiming no civil functions, -and as possessing no authority outside the office of military -chieftain. - -The Homeric writings, which contain the earliest direct information -which we have of the Greeks, and in which are doubtless mirrored forth -a tolerably correct picture of the customs, institutions, and manners -of this people, when read by the light of more recently developed facts -relative to the early constitution of society, are invested with new -interest, and a fresh charm and a new significance are added to every -detail connected with the narrative. As to the extent of authority -attached to the office of military leader among the Greeks, Homer has -given us a fair illustration in the person of Agamemnon—“shepherd of -the people.” That the position of this chieftain differs widely from -that occupied by the king of succeeding ages is apparent. At the outset -we find the injured Achilles, after he has taunted the chieftain with -being the “greediest of men,” addressing him in the following language: - - Ha, thou mailed in impudence - And bent on lucre! Who of all the Greeks - Can willingly obey thee, on the march, - Or bravely battling with the enemy![155] - -[155] _The Iliad_, book i., Bryant’s translation. - -Then Pelides takes up the strain and with opprobrious words thus -addresses the son of Atreus: - - Wine-bibber with the forehead of a dog - And a deer’s heart. Thou never yet hast dared - To arm thyself for battle with the rest, - Nor join the other chiefs prepared to lie - In ambush,—such thy craven fear of death. - Better it suits thee, midst the mighty host - Of Greeks, to rob some warrior of his prize - Who dares withstand thee.[156] - -[156] _The Iliad_, book i., Bryant’s translation. - -Even the brawler Thersites, - - Squint-eyed, with one lame foot, and on his back - A lump, and shoulders curving towards the chest, - -dares to insult this chief—this king as he is represented by most -modern writers, and to his face taunt him with his injustice towards -Achilles. To Agamemnon he says: - - Of what dost thou complain; what wouldst thou more, - Atrides? In thy tents are heaps of gold; - Thy tents are full of chosen damsels, given - To thee before all others, by the Greeks, - Whene’er we take a city. Dost thou yet - Hanker for gold, brought by some Trojan knight, - A ransom for his son, whom I shall lead— - I, or some other Greek—a captive bound? - Or dost thou wish, for thy more idle hours, - Some maiden, whom thou mayst detain apart? - Ill it beseems a prince like thee to lead - The sons of Greece, for such a cause as this, - Into new perils. O ye coward race! - Ye abject Greeklings, Greeks no longer, haste - Homeward with all the fleet, and let us leave - This man at Troy to win his trophies here, - That he may learn whether the aid we give - Avails him aught or not, since he insults - Achilles, a far braver man than he.[157] - -[157] Book ii. - -It is true Ulysses smote Thersites as he upbraided him for this insult -to Agamemnon. It is plain, however, that the chastisement was of a -private nature. It seems not to have been a crime openly to berate -their chief. Indeed the position of “shepherd of the people” was not -one of such dignity that any warrior among the hosts might not with -impunity freely speak his mind concerning him, or to his face confront -him with improper behaviour. When Agamemnon compared unfavourably -the valour of Diomed with that of his father, Tydeus, Sthenelus, the -honoured son of Capaneus, hesitated not to remind the chief of his -folly, and to his face upbraid him. “Atrides, speak not falsely when -thou knowest the truth so well.”[158] - -[158] Book iv. - -Regarding the office of king, Mr. Morgan says: - - Modern writers, almost without exception, translate _basileus_ by - the term _king_, and _basileia_ by the term _kingdom_, without - qualification, and as exact equivalents. I wish to call attention - to this office of _basileus_, as it existed in the Grecian tribes, - and to question the correctness of this interpretation. There is no - similarity whatever between the _basileia_ of the ancient Athenians - and the modern kingdom or monarchy.... Constitutional monarchy is - a modern development, and essentially different from the _basileia_ - of the Greeks. The _basileia_ was neither an absolute nor a - constitutional monarchy; neither was it a tyranny nor a despotism. The - question then is, what was it? - -Mr. Morgan’s answer to the question is as follows: - - The primitive Grecian government was essentially democratical, - reposing on gentes, phratries, and tribes organized as self-governing - bodies, and on the principles of liberty, equality, and fraternity. - -This writer says further: - - Our views upon Grecian and Roman questions have been moulded by - writers accustomed to monarchical government and privileged classes, - who were perhaps glad to appeal to the earliest known governments of - the Grecian tribes for a sanction of this form of government, as at - once natural, essential, and primitive.[159] - -[159] _Ancient Society_, p. 247. - -We have noted the precautions which during the second and latter -periods of barbarism were necessary to keep in check the increasing -thirst for power, and it may not be doubted that through the growth of -the aristocratic tendency during the latter ages of the existence of -the gens, the office of _basileus_ gave to its incumbent a degree of -distinction closely allied to that of king. - -In the eleventh century B.C. upon the death of Codrus, so necessary -had it become to check the continually increasing power of the military -chieftains that the office was abolished and the archonship established -in its place; but as an election or confirmation was necessary before -the duties of either office could be entered upon, it is plain that at -the period referred to a democratic form of government still prevailed. - -Now archon is the term which had been applied to the chief of the -early gentes at a time when fraternity, liberty, and equality were -the cardinal virtues of society; and the abolition of the office of -_basileus_, to which had become attached a considerable degree of -power, was doubtless an attempt on the part of the people to return -to the simpler and purer methods of government which had formerly -prevailed; but the institution known as the Agora, Ecclesia, or -Appella, which had proved the great bulwark of safety to early -democratic institutions, had, through the strengthening of the -aristocratic element, become gradually weakened, hence the nobles -were in a position to draw to themselves not only much of the power -originally exercised by the military commander, but that also which -had formerly belonged to the assembly of the people. We have observed -that not only among the Greeks of the heroic age, but among the -tribes and nations which preceded them, as far back in the history -of the past as the close of the second stage of barbarism, there had -always been an assembly of the people whose duty it was to guard the -rights of the tribe, to protect it against usurpation, and to keep -down the rising tendency toward imperialism. Of this institution, Mr. -Rawlinson says: “Thus at Athens, as elsewhere, in the heroic times, -there was undoubtedly the idea of a public assembly consisting of all -freemen.”[160] - -[160] George Rawlinson, book v., essay ii. - -Theseus, _basileus_, or military chieftain of the Athenian tribes, -a personage who belongs to the legendary period, was the first to -perceive the insufficiency of gentile institutions to meet the needs -of the people. Although the primary idea involved in the establishment -of political society was the transference of the original governmental -functions from the gens to a territorial limit, so deeply had the -instincts, ideas, and associations connected with the personal -government of the gens taken root that several centuries were required -to accomplish the change. To establish the deme or township, in which, -irrespective of kinship or personal ties, all its inhabitants (except -slaves) should be enrolled as citizens, with rights, privileges, and -duties adjusted according to the amount of property owned by each, and -which should be a unit of the larger and more important institution—the -State,—was an undertaking the mastery of which although seemingly -simple, nevertheless involved intricacies and obstacles of such -magnitude as to baffle all attempts of the Greeks from the time of -Theseus to that of Clisthenes, at which time political society was -established, and the gens, shorn of its utility and power, remained -only as the embodiment of certain social ideas, or survived as a -religious centre, over which their eponymous ancestor, as hero or god, -still presided. - -The age of Theseus could not have been later than 1050 B.C., and the -final overthrow of gentile government did not, as we have seen, occur -until the age of Clisthenes, five hundred years later. Throughout the -intervening time between Theseus and Clisthenes little real advancement -is noted among the Greeks; none, perhaps, except that connected with -the growth of the idea of government as indicated by the change -from gentile to political institutions, and even this growth, when -we observe that nearly five centuries and a half were required to -establish it, or to substitute the deme or township in the place of the -gens as the unit in the governmental series, can scarcely be regarded -as evidence of remarkable genius, or as indicating a notable degree -of ingenuity. In the transference of society, however, from gentile -to political institutions may be observed a progressive principle, -inasmuch as by it the limits of the gens and tribe were gradually -broken down or obliterated, and the enlarged conception of the state -established in their stead. After the age of Clisthenes an isolated -community bound together by kinship, and with interests extending no -further than the tribe of which it was a part, no longer constituted -the fundamental basis upon which the superstructure of society was to -rest; but, on the contrary, the deme or township, with all its free -inhabitants, of whatsoever tribe or gens, was to become the recognized -unit in organized society. - -Prior to the age of Theseus, Attica was divided into petty states, -each with a council-house of its own. According to the testimony of -Thucydides, from the time of Cecrops to Theseus - - the population of Athens had always inhabited independent cities, with - their own guild-halls and magistrates; and at such times as they were - not in fear of any danger they did not meet with the king to consult - with him, but themselves severally conducted their own government, and - took their own counsel.[161] - -[161] Thucydides, _The History of Peloponnesian War_. - -The _basileus_ or war-chief exercised no civil functions,[162] and his -services were never called into requisition except in times of danger. - -[162] Morgan, _Ancient Society_, p. 250. - -Theseus upon receiving the office of military chieftain “persuaded” the -people in the adjacent country to remove to the city.[163] According -to Plutarch he “settled all the inhabitants of Attica in Athens and -made them one people in one city.”[164] He persuaded them to abolish -their independent city governments and to establish in their stead, -at Athens, a council-house which would be common to all. Thus, under -his direction, the Attic peoples coalesced, or were united under -one government. Theseus, we are told, divided the people into three -classes, irrespective of gentes, on the basis of property and social -position. The chiefs of the several gentes with their families, and -the citizens who through their great wealth had become influential, -constituted the first class; the second class were the husbandmen, -and the third the mechanics. All the principal offices both of the -government and the priesthood were in the hands of the nobles or the -moneyed and aristocratic classes. Thucydides refers to the fact that -“when Greece was becoming more powerful, and acquiring possessions -of money still more than before, tyrannies were established in the -cities.”[165] - -[163] Thucydides, book ii., 14. - -[164] _Theseus._ - -[165] Book i., 13. - -Upon this subject Mr. Rawlinson says: - - All important political privilege is engrossed by the Eupatrids, who - consist of a certain number of “clans” claiming a special nobility, - but not belonging to any single tribe, or distinguishable from the - ignoble clans, otherwise than by the possession of superior rank and - riches. The rest of the citizens constitute an unprivileged class, - personally free, but with no atom of political power, and are roughly - divided, according to their occupation, into yeoman-farmers and - artisans. The union of the Eupatrids in the same tribes and phratries - with the Geomori and Demiurgi, seems to show that the aristocracy of - Athens was not original, like that of Rome, but grew out of an earlier - and more democratical condition of things—such, in fact, as we find - depicted in the Homeric poems.... Thus at Athens, as elsewhere, in the - heroic times, there was undoubtedly the idea of a public assembly, - consisting of all free-men; but this institution seems entirely to - have disappeared during the centuries which intervened between Codrus - and Solon.[166] - -[166] Rawlinson, book v., essay ii. - -During the three hundred years which followed the death of Codrus, -nothing of great importance is observed concerning the growth of -Grecian institutions. Doubtless their development was characterized -only by the strengthening of the aristocracy and the stimulation of -those egoistic principles which are essential in the establishment of -an oligarchy. That in course of time the power attached to the office -of archon also became a menace to the people’s liberties is shown in -the fact that in the first year of the seventh Olympiad, B.C., 752, the -life archonship was brought to a close and the term of office reduced -to ten years. Although the office was still limited to the family of -Codrus, the incumbent became amenable to the elders or chiefs for his -acts. However, that this movement was not wholly in the interest of the -masses of the people is shown in the fact that during the following -thirty years the Eupatrids, or members of the aristocratic party, had -drawn to themselves all the power belonging to the archonship. It -is observed that during the reign of the fourth decennial archon, a -pretext having been found to depose him, the reigning family or gens -was declared as having forfeited its right to rule and the office was -thrown open to all Eupatrids. Nine archons from among the aristocratic -party, with all the powers formerly belonging to the supreme archon, -conveyed to them, were chosen as a governing board,[167] and were -to continue in office for one year. Selected by and from among the -Eupatrids, their legislation was wholly in the interest of the wealthy -and privileged classes. - -[167] Rawlinson, book v., essay ii. - -From 684 B.C. to 624 B.C., the aristocratic party exercised unlimited -control over the Athenian state, and during the entire sixty years used -their great power to crush out even a semblance of free institutions. -The thirst for power among them was equalled only by their greed for -gain; hence while wielding the former, they gratified their cupidity -by gathering into their own coffers almost the entire wealth of the -nation. With the machinery of legislation turned against them, the -middle and lower classes were soon robbed even of their means of -support. Most of the land was mortgaged, and the persons of the owners -held by the Eupatrids for debt. Men sold their children and their -sisters to satisfy the demands of creditors,[168] and such was the -inequality existing between various classes that dissensions arose on -every hand, and a general state of confusion, disorder, and discontent -prevailed. Thus may be observed some of the processes by which the -early principles of fraternity, liberty, and justice were overthrown. - -[168] _Ibid._ - -At length the sufferings of the people caused by the injustice and -rapacity of their rulers became unbearable, and by means of various -signs of discontent, notably that of a popular demand for written -laws, it became evident that a crisis had been reached. The Eupatrids, -pretending to heed the popular demand, elected Draco, one of their -number, to the office of archon, with the understanding that a code of -written laws defining the rights of the several classes be prepared. - -As the Greeks of the Draconian and Solonic age were but a few -centuries removed from a time when individual liberty and equality had -constituted the cardinal principles upon which society was founded, we -may believe that that spirit of personal independence and self-respect -which had been inherited from gentile institutions, although it had -perhaps slumbered, had never been crushed; therefore, a condition -of subjection or slavery, although for a time endured, could not be -willingly accepted as a settled fact. - -As the laws prepared by Draco tended only to aggravate the abuses -of which the people complained, it is quite evident that no reform -was intended; the Eupatrids, however, had mistaken the temper of the -people, and the fact soon became manifest, even to the members of the -governing classes themselves, that certain concessions must be made -to the popular demand for justice. An idea of the rapacity, greed, -dishonesty, and cupidity which prevailed at this stage of Greek life -may be obtained from the writings of Theognis, a poet of Grecian Mega, -who lived about five hundred and seventy years B.C. Among his Maxims -appear the following: - - Now at length a sense of shame hath perished among mankind, but - shamelessness reigns over the earth. Everyone honours a rich man but - dishonours a poor: And in all men there is the same mind.... No one of - the present race of men doth the sun look down upon, being entirely - good and moderate.... When I am flourishing, friends are many; but - should any calamity have chanced upon me, few retain a faithful - spirit. For the multitude of men there is this virtue only, namely, to - be rich: But of the rest, I wot, there is no use. - -The fact is obvious that already in the history of the Greeks the love -of property and the rise of the aristocratic spirit had gained such a -foothold that a democracy was no longer desired by the more influential -citizens, and that it was the moneyed classes and the aristocratic -party who were growing restless under institutions which acknowledged -the equality of all free-born citizens. - -Doubtless the power which had been hitherto exercised by the gentes -had already been drawn to the moneyed classes; still, this attempt to -organize society into classes on the basis of property and station was -perhaps the first regulated movement openly to curtail the hitherto -recognized power of the individual members of the gens, and doubtless -constituted the first formulated step towards the subsequent removal of -this ancient institution from its original position as the unit in the -governmental series. - -From accessible facts to be gathered relative to early Greek society, -it is plain that individual liberty perished with the gens, and that -monarchy, aristocracy, and slavery were the natural results of the -decline of the altruistic principles upon which early society was -founded. - - - - -CHAPTER II - -WOMEN IN EARLY HISTORIC TIMES - - -As it is claimed that the history of the natural growth of society is -represented by the extant tribes in the varying stages of advancement -from savagery to civilization, and as upon our first acquaintance with -the Greeks we find them just emerging from barbarism and preparing to -enter upon a civilized career, we may naturally expect to find in their -various traditions, customs, forms of marriage, etc., some hint of that -influence which, but little more than one ethnical period before, had -been exercised by women, and some clue to the processes involved in the -change from female to male supremacy. - -From the facts which are gradually coming to light concerning society -in the early historic period, it is observed that the extant mythoses -and traditions of the ancients contain a mixture of history, mythology, -and astrology. Until a comparatively recent time no attempt has been -made to separate the former from the latter two. - -Herodotus opens his account of the Greeks with a story of the capture -of women. The Phœnicians, the great maritime people of that time, -had sent ships loaded with merchandise to Argos. When nearly all was -disposed of there came down to the beach several women among whom was -Io, child of Ianchus the king. As the women were standing by the stern -of the ship attending to their purchases, the foreign sailors rushed -upon them and attempted to carry them off. The most of them made their -escape, but a number were taken away and Io amongst them.[169] - -[169] Rawlinson, book i., 1. - -Doubtless beneath this myth is concealed a religious doctrine which -had an historical basis. The original version of the legend was that -Io who was carried to Egypt by a god became the mother of a race of -hero-kings; but when the true significance of the early physiological, -religious myth was forgotten, this one of Io, too, after having become -mutilated and distorted to suit a more degenerate time, was accepted in -a purely literal sense and made to do duty as actual history. Following -this narrative in the history of Herodotus is the story of Europa who -was carried away by the Greeks. - -In the next generation was enacted the seizure of Helen by Paris, -son of Priam, a deed which, whether committed for revenge or lust, -is supposed to have constituted the sole cause of the Trojan War—a -struggle which continued for nine years. Helen had previously, and -while but a child, according to Plutarch, been carried off by Theseus, -founder of Athens, and borne away to Egypt. Indeed it would seem from -the accounts of this hero that his exploits were instigated for the -most part by a desire to possess himself of women. Even later in the -history of the Greeks we find that Pausanius, King of Sparta, upon -the defeat of the barbarians, received as his share of the booty, ten -specimens of the following articles: “women, horses, talents, and -camels.” The familiar story of the seizure of the Sabine women by the -Romans is regarded as a probable myth or as a doubtful fact; yet, when -we remember that not far distant in the past, capture constituted the -only form of marriage, the acts of violence committed on women are -invested with a fresh interest, for by them we are enabled to trace the -identity of the processes of development between historic nations and -the tribes occupying a lower position in the scale of advancement. - -Although Homer traces genealogies through fathers, the fact will -doubtless be observed that two generations generally suffice to carry -men back to an unknown or divine progenitor. Indeed many of the Greeks -of Homer’s time sprang directly from gods. Tlepolemus was of the stock -of Hercules. Priam and his sons were descendants of Zeus, and many of -the noblest Greeks derived their origin from Mars. Helen also was the -descendant of Zeus. - -A tradition from Varro in reference to the decline of woman’s power in -Athens is as follows: - - In the age of Cecrops two wonders sprang from the earth at the same - time, one of which was the olive tree, the other water. The king in - terror dispatched a messenger to Delphi to ascertain what he was to - do in the matter. The oracle in response answered that the olive tree - signified Minerva (Athene), and the water Neptune (Poseidon); and - that it was optional with the Burgesses after which of the two they - would name their town. Cecrops convened an assembly of the Burgesses, - both men and women, for it was customary then for the women to take - part in the public counsels. The men voted for Poseidon, the women - for Athene, and as there were more women than men by one, Athene - conquered. Thereupon Poseidon became enraged, and immediately the sea - flowed over all the land of Athens. To appease the god the Burgesses - were compelled to impose a three-fold punishment upon their wives: - They were to lose their votes; the children were to receive no more - the mother’s name; and they themselves were no longer to be called - Athenians after the goddess. - -We are assured that prior to the struggle between Athene and Poseidon -for the mastery in Athens, children in Attica and Lycia were named -after their mothers, and that the people as a body were called after -the goddess. Formerly the women were actual Burgesses but after the -decision that the office of father in the processes of reproduction -is superior to that of the mother the women lost their position as -Burgesses and became only the wives of Burghers. It is the vote of -Athene herself which decides that the child is the production of the -father. The ancient Attic traditions are full of references to female -supremacy. Indeed, Herr Bachofen is certain that he has found proof of -female descent and supremacy not only among the early Greek tribes but -in every branch of the Indo-Germanic family. - -The Grecian tribes were named after women, as were also the ancient -cities of Greece. The founders of these cities and the eponymous -leaders of the various peoples were women who had been “carried off by -gods.” Sarpedon and Minos who quarrelled over the government of Lycia -were the sons of Europa[170] who had been carried off from Tyre on the -Phœnician coast. Thebe, the eponymous leader of the Thebans, and Egina, -the founder of Egina, were sisters. Therefore when the oracle commanded -the Thebans to seek succour from their nearest of kin, they applied to -the Eginetans, thereby proving that at that time relationships were -still traced through women. - -[170] Herodotus, book i., 173. - -The Greek tradition of the Scythian nation is as follows: As Hercules -was passing through the country he came to a district called the -Woodland. While he slept, the mares which he had loosed from his -chariot wandered away, and while in quest of them he came to a cave in -which dwelt a being with the head of a woman and the body of a serpent, -probably a goddess representing the two creative principles throughout -nature. Upon being asked by Hercules if she had seen his mares, she -replied, “yes,” but that unless he would remain with her she would not -yield them to him, whereupon he consented to do her bidding. Later, as -she questioned him as to his wishes concerning the three sons which she -had borne him, she said: “Wouldst thou wish that I should settle them -here in this land whereof I am mistress, or shall I send them to thee?” -Hercules placed in her hand a bow with instruction that the son which -when grown to manhood should bend it in a certain way should remain as -king of the land. Scythes, the youngest son of the goddess, was the -successful competitor. From this time gods, not goddesses, are in the -possession of the country.[171] Europe, Asia, and Lybia (Africa) are -named after women, and in nearly all the earliest traditions, a woman, -either divine or human, appears as the eponymous leader of the people. - -[171] Herodotus, book v., 80. - -The tradition respecting the daughters of Danaūs fleeing from their -native land to avoid the hateful caresses of the sons of Egyptus, -doubtless refers to a time when relationships were beginning to be -traced through males, and when under the _ba’al_ form of marriage they -were beginning to claim the right to control the women of their own -group. - -Egyptus and Danaūs were brothers, the former of whom had fifty sons, -the latter fifty daughters. Upon the sons of Egyptus demanding that -their cousins unite with them in marriage, the women immediately fled -by sea to Argos and placed themselves under the protection of Pelasgus. -Although hotly pursued by their tormentors, they reached Argos in -safety; the following is their supplication as set forth by Æschylus: - - On this moist shore, drive them into the deep, - With all their flying streamers and quick oars, - There let them meet the whirlwind’s boisterous rage, - Thund’rings and lightnings, and the furious blasts - That harrow up the wild tempestuous waves, - And perish in the storm, ere they ascend - Our kindred bed, and seize against our will - What nature and the laws of blood deny.[172] - -[172] _The Supplicants._ - -After having reached Argos and after having besought Pelasgus to -espouse their cause, he says: - - If by your country’s laws Egyptus’ sons, - As next of blood, assert a right in you, - Who should oppose them? It behooves thee then - By your own laws to prove such claim unjust. - -To which they make answer: - - Ah! never may I be perforce a thrall - To man. By heaven-directed flight I break - The wayward plan of these detested nuptials. - Arm justice on thy side, and with her aid, - Judge with what sanctity the gods demand. - -The reply of Pelasgus is as follows: - - No easy province: Make not me your judge, - Great though my power, it is not mine to act, - I told thee so, without my people’s voice - Assenting. - -It is plain that these lines refer to a time when woman was not “a -thrall to man.” It relates also to a time when the _basileus_ or chief -could not act without the consent of his people. - -That in the earliest traditions and accounts of the Greeks, women -occupy a much more exalted position than they do four or five centuries -later, is a fact which can be explained only by the truths which have -been set forth in the foregoing pages; namely, the capture of women -for wives, at first singly and finally in groups. We have seen that -during the period designated as the Latter Status of barbarism, wars -were frequently undertaken upon no other pretext than that of securing -women for wives. Cities were attacked and destroyed, the men murdered, -and the women carried away captives. Property both landed and personal -was seized and held by the conquerors, and as these captured women -were strangers, aliens, and dependents in the countries to which they -were taken, they became simply sexual slaves, or wives, and in process -of time sank to the position in which we find them under Solon, the -lawgiver of Athens. - -The difference in the sentiments entertained toward women during -Homer’s time and those which had come to prevail among the Greeks in -the sixth century, B.C., may be observed in the following lines from -Æschylus, and also in a quotation from _The Iliad_, which follows. -At the siege of Thebes, when the women, fearing captivity more than -death, appeared before the sacred images to pray for protection, -Etiocles the chief, trembling with fear, and himself praying loudly to -Jove, to Earth, and “all the guardian gods,” being displeased with the -attitude of the female supplicants, and doubtless eager to exercise his -authority over women thus displays his contempt for them: - - It is not to be borne, ye wayward race; - Is this your best, is this the aid you lend - The State, the fortitude with which you steel - The souls of the besieged, thus falling down - Before these images to wail, and shriek - With lamentations loud? Wisdom abhors you. - Nor in misfortune, nor in dear success, - Be woman my associate. If her power - Bears sway, her insolence exceeds all bounds, - But if she fears, woe to that house and city. - And now, by holding counsel with weak fear, - You magnify the foe, and turn our men - To flight: thus are we ruined by ourselves. - This ever will arise from suffering women - To intermix with men. But mark me well, - Whoe’er henceforth dares disobey my orders, - Be it man or woman, old or young, - Vengeance shall burst upon him, the decree - Stands irreversible, and he shall die. - War is no female province, but the scene - For men: hence home; nor spread your mischiefs here, - Hear you, or not? Or speak I to the deaf?[173] - -[173] _The Seven Chiefs against Thebes._ - -From this scene pictured by Æschylus five centuries and a quarter B.C., -let us return to the siege of Troy, three centuries earlier, and listen -to Homer. During the thickest of the fight Helenus, approaching Eneas -and Hector, his brother, thus addresses the latter: - - But, Hector, thou depart - To Troy and seek the mother of us both - And bid her call the honoured Trojan dames, - -that at the fane of Pallas they may supplicate for mercy in behalf of -the wives and little ones of the defenders of Troy. Whereupon the noble -Hector calls aloud: - - O valiant sons of Troy, and ye allies - Summoned from far! Be men, my friends; call back - Your wonted valour, while I go to Troy - To ask the aged men, our counselors, - And all our wives, to come before the gods - And pray and offer sacrifice.[174] - -[174] _The Iliad_, book vi., Bryant’s translation. - -After referring to the generally conceded fact that in Europe the -spread of civilization has been commensurate with the influence -exercised by women, Mr. Buckle expresses himself as being unable -to account for the seeming inconsistencies which are presented by a -comparison of the position occupied in Greece by the women of Homer’s -time, and that as pictured by the laws, usages, and social customs in -the age of Plato and his contemporaries. - -Although the Greeks during the ages which intervened between Homer -and Plato had made many notable improvements in the arts of life, and -in various branches of speculative and practical knowledge, women had -evidently lost ground, “their influence being less than it was in the -earlier and more barbarous period depicted by Homer.”[175] - -[175] _The Influence of Women on the Progress of Knowledge._ - -The fact will doubtless be borne in mind that at the time Mr. Buckle -penned these words comparatively little concerning the construction or -organization of primitive society was known. That one ethnical period -and a half prior to the earliest age of the historic Greeks, woman’s -influence was supreme in the family and in the gens, that descent was -reckoned in the female line, and that all rights of succession were -traced through mothers, are facts with which this writer was evidently -unacquainted; hence, we are not surprised that in contemplating a -social phenomenon like that presented by the diminution of woman’s -influence during the ages between Homer and Plato, he should have been -at a loss to account for it, and that he should have declared that -the “causes of these inconsistencies would form a curious subject for -investigation.” - -Mr. Lecky, also, in referring to the same subject, says: - - A broad line must, however, be drawn between the legendary or poetical - period, as reflected in Homer and perpetuated in the tragedians, and - the later historical period. It is one of the most remarkable, and to - some writers one of the most perplexing, facts in the moral history of - Greece, that in the former and ruder period women had undoubtedly the - highest place, and their type exhibited the highest perfection.[176] - -[176] _European Morals_, vol. ii., p. 295. - -Of marriage in the legendary period of Greek history, Mr. Grote says: - - We find the wife occupying a station of great dignity and influence, - though it was the practice for the husband to purchase her by valuable - presents to her parents.... She even seems to live less secluded - and to enjoy a wider sphere of action than was allotted to her in - historical Greece.... A large portion of the romantic interest which - Grecian legend inspires is derived from the women.[177] - -[177] _History of Greece_, vol. ii., p. 83. - -From the facts which have been brought to light in relation to the -position occupied by women in the age in which Homer wrote, it may be -observed that much of the seeming inconsistency noticed by Mr. Buckle, -Mr. Lecky, Mr. Grote, and others, between the picture of Greek life -as it appeared at this time, and that noticed six or seven centuries -later in the age of Plato, may be easily explained. The triumph of -the male over the female in human society as exemplified amongst the -earliest Greeks, was of such a recent date that the influence of women -was not wholly extinct, and the deference due them had not entirely -given place to that lofty contempt and biting scorn which characterized -the treatment of women by Greek men at a later stage of their career. - -Although later in the history of this people, mothers were not regarded -as related to their own children, and although in the age of Homer -relationships had begun to be reckoned through fathers, in many places -this writer reveals to us the fact that the bond between mother and -child was stronger than that between father and child, or that the tie -between sisters and brothers of the same mother was closer than that -between the children of the same father. In Apollo’s address before -the assembled gods, in which he advocates the ransoming of the body of -Hector by Priam and his sons, Homer puts the following words into the -mouth of the oracle: - - A man may lose his best-loved friend, a son, - Or his own mother’s son, a brother dear.[178] - -[178] _The Iliad_, book xxiv., Derby’s translation. - -Numerous illustrations might be drawn from _The Iliad_ as proof of the -fact that the tie between mother and child was still regarded as more -binding than that between father and child. Homer doubtless represents -an age in which the manner of reckoning descent was in dispute, certain -tribes acknowledging only the tie between children born of the same -mother, others only the bond between those of the same father, while -still others acknowledge both, though with a preference for either one -or the other. In the _Eumenides_ of Æschylus the idea of male descent -is put forth as a new doctrine. Orestes, who has murdered his mother, -Clytemnestra, asks: “Do you call me related to my mother?” Although -reproaches and imprecations are heaped upon him for his inhumanity, it -is found that the new doctrine in which the father is represented as -the only real parent, has many adherents—that the gods have concurred -in it, Athene herself having succumbed to the new faith. - -No one, I think, who is acquainted with the recently developed facts -relative to human growth, can carefully read _The Iliad_ without -observing the similarity existing between the position occupied by -the women of Greece in Homer’s time, and that of the women among the -tribes and races in a somewhat lower stage of development. On board -the “roomy ships” of the Greeks, the prizes parcelled out to the -chiefs were women. We observe that even the daughters of influential -and wealthy priests, like the oracle of Apollo, might be “carried -off”—an act for which there was absolutely no redress except perhaps -an appeal to the gods. Briseis also was a captured prize assigned to -Achilles by the Greek warriors. Notwithstanding the fact that wives -were still captured, we frequently find women possessed of both wealth -and influence. Helen, although the wife of Meneluas, had vast treasure -which she was able to take away with her when she was carried off by -Paris—treasure over which neither of her husbands seems to have had any -control. Laothoë, the aged wife of Priam, had gold and brass of her own -with which to ransom her sons,[179] and Andromache, the wife of Hector, -who came to Ilium from “among the woody slopes of Placos,” brought with -her not only wealth but sufficient influence to secure for her the -respect of the king’s household.[180] - -[179] _The Iliad_, book xxii. - -[180] _Ibid._, book vi. - -We have seen that in an earlier age, at a time when women were free, -wives had to be captured from foreign tribes; but later, after the -_ba’al_ form of marriage had become established, wives were for the -most part selected from the ranks of native-born women, while foreign -women were usually utilized as concubines. It is true that in the -Homeric age, foreign women sometimes became the wedded wives of their -captors, but unless they possessed great wealth, or unless they were -the daughters of kings, they were unable to command that degree of -consideration due to those who were native-born. The practice, during -the early history of the Greeks, of securing foreign women for -concubines is doubtless the source whence sprang the custom among the -Athenians of later times, of importing all classes of “kept women” from -other countries, Athenian women only being reserved for wives. - -During the latter stage of barbarism a marked change in the government -and in the fundamental principles regulating human conduct had taken -place. A review of the facts connected with the history of Greek -society during the ages between Homer and Solon shows that coeval with -the decline of the cardinal principles of the gens, namely, justice, -equality, and fraternity, there had been also a corresponding change -in the relations of the sexes; that during the time in which egoism -or selfishness had gained the ascendancy over the early altruistic -principles developed in human society, woman’s influence had steadily -declined.[181] - -[181] A similar change had taken place in the god-idea. Jove was no -longer the “terrible virgin” who “breathes out on crime, misery, and -death,” but, on the contrary, had come to represent a male god who had -given birth to Minerva. - - - - -CHAPTER III - -ANCIENT SPARTA - - -Although in the writings commonly ascribed to Homer is to be observed -a fairly correct picture of many phases of Greek life, the earliest -authentic historical accounts which we have of this people are -perhaps those of Aristotle and Plutarch. In the accounts given of the -Lacedæmonians by the last named of these writers, the fact is shown -that male influence among the Spartans of the time of Lycurgus had not -reached that state of intense and overshadowing domination in which we -find the Athenians of the Solonic period submerged. - -The early Dorians were ever ready to uphold the ancient customs -as opposed to innovations. In the management of public affairs -they trusted to the ties of relationship rather than to political -organization based on property. The policy of the Athenians, on the -contrary, as enunciated by Pericles, was that “it is not the country -and the people, but movable and personal property, in the proper sense -of the word, which make states great and powerful.” The one policy was -essentially Doric, the other Ionic.[182] - -[182] Müller, _History and Antiquity of the Doric Race_, book i., 9, -13. - -The exact time at which Lycurgus occupied the position of lawgiver to -the Spartans is not known, but it is claimed by Xenophon that he lived -shortly after the age of Homer. If the accounts of the Lacedæmonians -which have come down to us in connection with the name of this -legislator belong to that early age, if scarcely one ethnical period -had elapsed since woman’s influence was supreme in the home and in the -group, we would naturally expect to find in their customs, usages, and -regulations for the management of society, certain traces of a former -state of female independence, and a hint, at least, of those principles -of liberty and equality in the establishment of the commonwealth -which were the result of female influence; especially would this be -true as we are informed that the Spartans were a conservative people, -clinging to the prejudices of more ancient times. A glance at Spartan -institutions at the time indicated, furnishes ample proof of the fact -that the Lacedæmonians were still to a considerable extent living under -conditions which had been established under the archaic rule of the -gens. - -The Spartan senate as reconstructed by Lycurgus was composed of thirty -members including the two kings or military leaders.[183] These chiefs -were the heads of the several gentes. The Ecclesia, or assembly of the -people, “contained originally all the free males who dwelt within the -city were of a legal age.”[184] Hence may be observed the fact that -the constitution of the state was the same as that in the Upper Status -of barbarism; yet the spectacle of a double monarchy (notwithstanding -the fact that it has been designated as a kind of irresponsible -generalship)[185] shows that the power attached to the office of -_basileus_ had become a menace to the liberties of the people; hence -this equal division of responsibility and authority. - -[183] Grote, _History of Greece_, vol. ii., p. 345. - -[184] Rawlinson, book v., essay i. - -[185] Aristotle, _Politics_, book iii., Jowett’s translation. - -The Spartan men were warriors who had subjugated the country, making -serfs of the original inhabitants. In the time of Lycurgus these -gentlemen soldiers constituted an aristocratic class who spent their -lives in the performance of public duties, leaving the cultivation of -the soil to the serfs. Helots, the name given to the serfs, signifies -“captives.” They were the slave population of Laconia.[186] The -manufacturers and tradespeople of the towns and country districts -around Sparta were free, but had been deprived of their political -rights. It is evident from these facts that although the constitution -of the state had not been changed, the division of the people into -classes, a division which since the latter part of the Second Status -of barbarism had been threatened, had through spoliation and conquest -already taken place. Add to this the fact that property had passed -into the hands of private individuals, and we shall observe that the -conditions had already become favourable for the development of that -thirst for wealth and power which characterizes monarchial institutions. - -[186] Rawlinson, book v., essay i. - -If we carefully note the early condition of Spartan society, and -studiously observe the processes involved in the growth of human -institutions, we shall be enabled to perceive the nature of the “load” -under which the Spartans “groaned” in the time of Lycurgus. The fact -has been noted that, throughout an entire ethnical period, human -ingenuity had been taxed to the utmost to subdue or keep in check the -growing tendency toward usurpation and tyranny, and the spectacle of -a double monarchy, or of two military chieftains as they appeared in -ancient Sparta, indicates an attempt on the part of the people to -divide the power which had become attached to this office, and which -was doubtless already menacing the popular rights. - -In addition to the turmoil and strife engendered by the thirst for -power were the turbulence and frequent insurrections of the serfs, who, -it will be remembered, had previously been free, and who were therefore -restless and impatient under the tyranny of their Spartan masters. - -Although wealth had greatly increased in Sparta during the ages -immediately preceding the Lycurgan system, yet that the disorders which -prevailed were in no wise attributable to luxury and enervation is -shown in the fact as given by Aristotle, that the men during their -frequent campaigns had become inured to the rigours and hardships of a -soldier’s life. He says: - - For, during the wars of the Lacedæmons, first against the Argives, - and afterwards against the Arcadians and Messenians, the men were - long away from home, and on the return of peace, they gave themselves - into the legislator’s hands, already prepared by the discipline of - a soldier’s life (in which there were many elements of virtue), to - receive his enactments.[187] - -[187] _Politics_, book ii. - -It is indeed plain that the state of disorder which prevailed at Sparta -in the time of Lycurgus can be accounted for in no other way than -that the people were no longer able to keep in check the constantly -increasing egoism and selfishness developed within the governing -classes. - -The extent to which all wise regulations are attributed to the -governing head is plainly apparent in the view taken of the management -of Sparta which Herodotus and Plutarch ascribe to Lycurgus, but which -in the very nature of the case must have originated from other sources. - -It is in no wise probable that Lycurgus instituted any such radical -changes in the constitution of the state as have been ascribed to him -by the above writers, for, as we have seen, prior to his appearance -as lawgiver the government was administered by a military chieftain -or _basileus_, a senate, and an assembly of the people. In order to -strengthen their authority, the kings had made common cause with the -assembly of the people, and through this means had drawn to themselves -nearly all the powers originally vested in that body; while the senate, -destitute of support, had gradually yielded up its functions to them. - -Before accepting the statements of these writers, attributing to -Lycurgus that almost unparalleled degree of genius by means of which -was originated an entirely new set of institutions, all the accessible -facts relative to these institutions should without prejudice be -closely scrutinized, especially as they involve principles and actions -which could scarcely have been forced upon a people through an -arbitrary stretch of power in the hands of a single individual. - -Doubtless the principal changes in the government inaugurated by -Lycurgus were, first, the importance which he caused to be attached to -the assembly of the people, and second, the restoration of the senate. -By strengthening this body, which was originally composed of the heads -of the gentes, the gentile organization was in a measure restored to -its original dignity. The extreme anxiety felt in the time of Lycurgus -lest the people’s rights be invaded, is shown in the fact that the -three administrative functions of the government were supplemented -by five ephors chosen annually as agents of the people, whose chief -prerogative it was to scrutinize the acts of the chief magistrate and -other guardians of the commonwealth. Although the office of the ephors -is much older than the Lycurgan legislation,[188] it had previously -been abolished, or had sunk into disuse. The ephors of Lycurgus were -“probably appointed for the special purpose of watching over the -Lycurgan discipline, and punishing those who neglected it.”[189] - -[188] Curtius, _History of Greece_, book ii., chap. i. - -[189] Rawlinson, book v., essay i. - -Later, however, when through the greed for gain and the inordinate -thirst for power, the ephors in their turn had drawn to themselves -the greater share of the powers belonging to the state, the military -commander, or so-called king, became responsible to them for his -conduct even while directing the army in the field. He received his -orders from them, and although in cases of emergency he was authorized -to exercise the power of life and death, according to Xenophon, they -could accuse the king and compel him to defend his acts or suffer the -penalty of death. By a gradual process of usurpation the ephors had, -“by the time of Thucydides, completely superseded the king as the -directors of affairs at Sparta.” - -The fact has been observed that the authority of the senate, a body -which in earlier times had been composed of the heads of the genets, -who were elected by all the people, and who held their office only -during good behaviour, had, in the time of Lycurgus, through the growth -of the monarchial and aristocratic party become weakened; and that, -as the kings had drawn to themselves the powers formerly belonging to -the popular assembly, the people were no longer represented, but had -been obliged to surrender their independence to the authority of the -military leaders. It is altogether likely, therefore, that the load -under which the Spartans are said to have groaned, and from which -Lycurgus is supposed to have released them, was the undue assumption -of power by the _basileus_ and the aristocratic party; and that the -chief service which he lent to the state was the sanction which he gave -to those principles of equality and liberty which had been recognized -and practised at a time when the gens as the unit of human society was -still in its original vitality and strength, and when woman’s influence -was therefore in the ascendency. - -Most modern writers agree in the opinion that Lycurgus instituted no -fundamental changes in the constitution of the state; indeed all the -accessible facts relative to this subject go to prove that the attempt -at legislative reform in the time of this lawgiver did not begin with -him; but, on the contrary, that all along the line of development, for -an entire ethnical period, there had been a struggle between the people -on the one hand and the constantly increasing power exercised by their -rulers on the other. - -Concerning the measures instituted by Lycurgus, and the way in which -the political power was distributed by him, we are assured that it was -according to a Rhetra of this legislator given under the direction of -the Pythian Apollo: - - _Build a temple to Jupiter Hellanius and Minerva Hellania; divide - the tribes, and institute thirty obas; appoint a council, with its - princes; convene the assembly between Babyca and Cnacion; propose - this, and then depart; and let there be a right of decision and power - to the people._[190] - -[190] Müller, _History and Antiquity of the Doric Race_, book iii., -chap. v. - -By this decree the assembly was invested with authority to reject -or accept any proposed measures of the council and princes. Later, -however, when the chiefs and the military leaders would draw to -themselves a portion of the power which had been delegated to the -people, we find subjoined to the original document of the priestess the -following clause: “But if the people should follow a crooked opinion, -the elders and the princes shall dissent.” Or, according to Plutarch: -“If the people attempt to corrupt any law, the senate and chiefs shall -retire,” meaning that “they shall dissolve the assembly and annul the -alterations.”[191] - -[191] _Lycurgus._ - -According to the testimony of Plutarch, when Lycurgus entered upon -the duties of lawgiver he went to Crete, and while there examined the -laws of that people; those of them which he considered wise and suited -to the needs of a commonwealth and which were based on principles -involving the highest interests of the people, he incorporated into -his system. Now the Cretans were a branch of the Doric stock,[192] -and as among them descent and rights of succession were still traced -through women, it would seem that they had preserved much of that -simplicity of manner which characterizes primitive society. Upon his -return from Crete Lycurgus made an equal division of the land, and -as he could not induce the people to surrender their treasures, he -prohibited the use of gold and silver currency and substituted iron in -its place. To a great quantity and weight of this metal he assigned -a slight value, so that to lay up a small amount of wealth a whole -room was required, and for the removal of a moderate sum of money a -yoke of oxen must be employed. When this became current many kinds of -injustice ceased in Lacedæmonia. “Who would steal or take a bribe, -who would defraud or rob, when he could not conceal the booty, when -he could neither be dignified by the possession of it, nor if cut in -pieces be served by its use?”[193] There is little evidence in support -of the statement of Plutarch that Lycurgus attempted to establish a -community of goods among the Spartans. Although he caused the landed -possessions which had been parcelled out to individuals to be returned -to the state, too much interest had already become attached to personal -possessions to have made a division of this kind of wealth possible. - -[192] Aristotle’s _Politics_, book ii. - -[193] Plutarch’s _Lycurgus_. - -A legislator may not enact laws with the expectation of seeing them -enforced which are not in accord with the temper of the people, and the -degree of success which attended the legislation ascribed to Lycurgus -proves that the great mass of the people were in sympathy with many of -the measures which he proposed for the government of Sparta. - -It is plain that the object of the person or persons, whom history -has named Lycurgus, was a return to the simpler manners and purer -customs of a more primitive age, which the growth of the aristocratic -spirit and the accumulation of wealth in masses in the hands of the -few threatened entirely to subvert; and, as a community of goods was -at this time impossible, he, or they, sought to level the distinctions -between rich and poor by exalting virtue and moral excellence above the -mere possession of wealth and hereditary titles. - -It is the opinion of some writers that although Lycurgus did not -inaugurate a new set of institutions, nor materially change the -constitution of the state, the great service which he rendered to the -Spartans was the remarkable system of discipline which he is supposed -to have inaugurated. Of this Mr. Rawlinson says: “It must always remain -one of the most astonishing facts in history, that such a system was -successfully imposed upon a state which had grown up without it.”[194] -Of the fact, however, that the state had not grown up without it there -is ample evidence. On this subject Curtius remarks: - - It is certain that the Spartan discipline in many respects corresponds - to the primitive customs of the Dorians, and that by constant - practice, handed down from generation to generation, it grew into the - second nature of the members of the community.[195] - -[194] Book i., essay i. - -[195] _History of Greece_, book ii., chap. i. - -From the facts at hand it is quite evident that Lycurgus did not -originate that system of discipline through which it is claimed Spartan -greatness was achieved. The fact has been noted that when he entered -upon the duties of lawgiver he sailed for Crete, and, “having been -struck with admiration of some of their laws,” he resolved to make use -of them in Sparta.[196] As the discipline of Lycurgus constitutes the -principal feature of the government ascribed to him, and as his models -were for the most part drawn from the Cretans, it is only reasonable -to suppose that this remarkable system was itself, in part at least, -copied from them. It appears that among the Cretans, as among all -peoples among whom female influence is in the ascendency, the children -belonged to the mother, and that women owned, or at least controlled, -their own households; they did not, therefore, follow the fathers of -their children to their homes. In Crete, “the young Dorians were left -in the houses of their mothers till they grew up into youths.”[197] As -Cretan mothers had charge of their sons until they were grown up, it is -not unlikely that the discipline which Lycurgus attempted to copy was -a system inaugurated under matriarchal usages, but which in Sparta in -the time of Lycurgus may have become somewhat relaxed. However, that -the primitive discipline of the Dorian people was not extinct among -the Spartans of this time is observed in the warlike character of the -males, and in the express testimony of Aristotle that Spartan men had -become inured to hardships by means of their frequent campaigns. To -restore, or rather to intensify this discipline, seems to have been the -object of Lycurgus; yet that he lacked greatly in judgment is shown by -the measures which he put into execution. We are informed that - -[196] Plutarch’s _Lycurgus_. - -[197] Curtius, _History of Greece_, book ii., chap. i. - - Spartan boys were as early as their eighth year taken into public - training, and assigned their places in their respective divisions, - where they had to go through all the exercises introductory to - military service, and accustom their bodies to endurance and exercise, - in exact obedience to the forms acquired by the state through its - officers.[198] - -[198] _Ibid._ - -This interference with the natural development of the Spartan youth was -not without its effect upon his character; and especially so as the -policy adopted was such as to narrow his mental horizon, and confine -his ideas within the scope of Spartan possibilities. - -From all the evidence to be gathered about the individual whom -historians call Lycurgus, it would appear that he was a fanatic, who, -doubtless feeling deeply the disorders which had fastened themselves -upon society, attempted to manage not only the affairs of the state, -but to impose his authority also upon individual conduct. - -Of the position occupied by women at the time when Lycurgus is said to -have been lawgiver at Sparta, there seems to be much evidence going -to show that they were in the possession of a remarkable degree of -liberty, and that they were possessed of great power and influence. -We have seen that while the men of Sparta were away from their homes -engaged in warfare, the country had become wealthy and prosperous. Not -only was the land controlled by women, but nearly two-fifths of it was -theirs by actual possession.[199] Therefore, when Aristotle informs -us that when Lycurgus “wanted to bring the women under his laws, -they resisted, and he gave up the attempt,”[200] we are by no means -surprised. Indeed, Aristotle himself says that this license of the -Lacedæmonian women existed from the earliest times, and was only what -might be expected.[201] It is altogether likely that in the time of -Lycurgus, Spartan women had not been brought under subjection to male -authority. - -[199] _Politics_, vol. ii., p. 9. - -[200] _Ibid._ - -[201] _Ibid._ - -According to the accounts given by Aristotle and Plutarch, under -regulations made by Lycurgus, the men dined on the plainest fare at -the public table, or mess, while the women remained within their own -homes. That a considerable degree of success crowned this legislator’s -efforts to control the conduct and private life of men, from the facts -at hand may not be doubted; among the women, however, the case seems to -have been altogether different. Of the Spartans, Aristotle says: “In -the days of their greatness many things were managed by their women. -But what difference does it make whether women rule, or the rulers are -ruled by women.”[202] Because, however, the Spartan women preferred -to remain within their own homes, and refused to allow their private -affairs to be controlled by Lycurgus, Aristotle accuses them “of -intemperance and luxury.” He says: - -[202] _Politics._ - - For a husband and a wife, being each a part of every family, the state - may be considered as about equally divided into men and women; and, - therefore, in those states in which the condition of the women is bad, - half the city may be regarded as having no laws. And this is what has - actually happened at Sparta, the legislator wanted to make the whole - state temperate, and he has carried out his intentions in the case of - the men, but he has neglected the women, who live in every sort of - intemperance and luxury.[203] - -[203] _Ibid._ - -So far, however, from the Spartan women refusing to concur in those -movements which were in operation to make the whole state hardy and -temperate, we have ample evidence going to prove that it was women -themselves who in former times had encouraged the healthful and -moderate exercise of body and limb among the youth of both sexes. -Indeed, from natural inferences to be drawn from the facts at hand, -it is probable that these exercises which had originated among the -primitive Dorians, while under the matriarchal system, had not only -been encouraged, but practised, by women while their husbands and -fathers were absent on their campaigns. - -We have seen that, according to Aristotle, women refused to unite -in those movements in operation in the time of Lycurgus for the -strengthening and general improvement of the youth. Plutarch, on -the contrary, ascribes all the physical strength and vigour of mind -possessed by Spartan women to the wise regulations of Lycurgus; -and, notwithstanding the fact that, according to his own testimony, -they were possessed of great liberty and power, he imputes to this -legislator the inauguration of all those practices for the promotion -of perfect freedom among women which were so salutary in producing or -continuing a healthful state of public morals. - -It is plain that the position occupied by Spartan women presented -difficulties to the minds of Aristotle and Plutarch which they were -wholly unable to explain. With regard to the supposition of Plutarch -that the exercises performed by the young women of Sparta while in a -nude or semi-nude condition were inaugurated by Lycurgus, it is too -unreasonable for serious consideration. It is to be doubted if there -has ever existed, either in ancient or modern times, a legislator, who, -unaided and alone, and simply through a stretch of arbitrary power, -has been able to regulate the dress, amusements, bodily exercise, and -general movements of women in possession of a reasonable degree of -personal freedom and liberty of action. - -Respecting the wise regulations instituted by Lycurgus for the -management of women, Plutarch says: - - In order to take away the excessive tenderness and delicacy of the - sex, the consequence of a recluse life, he accustomed the virgins - occasionally to be seen naked as well as the young men, and to dance - and sing in their presence on certain festivals.[204] - -[204] _Lycurgus._ - -Perhaps throughout the entire narrative of Plutarch concerning Lycurgus -and his laws, there is nothing so absolutely devoid of reason as this. -If, as he assures us, women were possessed of that excessive tenderness -and delicacy which are the result of a recluse life; and if, as he -supposes, they had hitherto been trained according to masculine ideas -of female modesty and decorum, it is greatly to be doubted if the laws -of Lycurgus, or even the lightnings of Zeus could have driven these -virgins into the presence of the opposite sex under the conditions -named. - -Doubtless the Spartan people had not at this stage of their career -departed so far from the customs of a gynecocracy that women were -unable to exercise absolute control over their persons. Being free -from the domination of the opposite sex, all those exercises and -habits of body in use to increase their own vigour and that of the -entire race had doubtless been instigated by women, or at least had -been instituted at a time when female influence was in the ascendency. -Concerning the position occupied by the women of Sparta, Plutarch says -they had assumed to themselves great liberty and power “on account of -the frequent expeditions of their husbands, during which they were left -sole mistresses at home, and so gained an undue deference and improper -titles.”[205] - -[205] _Lycurgus._ - -It is evident that this writer was unacquainted with the fact that -at a time not far distant in the past from the age of Lycurgus, the -influence of women in the family and in the gens had been supreme; -hence, like others who have attempted to deal with the subject of -primitive peoples, he was unable to conceive of a condition of society -in which women’s natural instincts played a conspicuous part in -regulating the social customs and in formulating the laws by which they -were governed. - -The extreme modesty and sensitiveness which are observed as a -characteristic of both sexes in the marriage relation, and the reserve -of the youths at festivals in which young women are reported to have -appeared naked, may not be ascribed to the laws of Lycurgus, but on the -other hand appear as direct results of those checks upon the animal -instincts in the male which the former strength and independence of -women had imposed.[206] - -[206] As to the exercises of the virgins, and their appearing naked, -C. O. Müller, in his _History and Antiquities of the Doric Race_ -observes: - -“The female sex underwent in this respect the same education as the -male, though (as has been above remarked) only the virgins. They had -their own gymnasia, and exercised themselves, either naked or lightly -clad, in running, wrestling, or throwing the quoit or spear. It is -highly improbable that youths or men were allowed to look on, since -in the gymnasia of Lacedæmon no idle bystanders were permitted; every -person was obliged either to join the rest, or withdraw.”—Book iv., ch. -v.-viii. - -At a later age, for instance that of Plutarch, the spectacle of young -maidens appearing on occasions of public festivity in a single garment, -loose, and reaching a little below the knee, would have been associated -with ideas of disgrace and shame; but, under a condition of society in -which the animal instincts had not wholly gained the ascendency over -the higher faculties, or in which the characters peculiar to women had -not been overshadowed or subdued by the grosser elements developed -in human nature, such a proceeding might not, as we have seen, be -inconsistent with the purest motives and the highest aims. - -Something of the extent to which the influence of women was exerted -to stimulate bravery and courage in the opposite sex is shown in the -description by Plutarch of the festivals in which the young people -appeared before each other in a semi-nude state to practise the popular -games of strength and skill. Concerning these festivals this writer -remarks that the young women engaged in little raillery upon those -who lacked skill, or who had not done their best, while “on such as -deserved them they sang encomiums, thus exciting in the young men a -useful emulation and love of glory.” Plutarch observes also that “those -who were praised for their bravery and celebrated among the virgins -went away perfectly happy, while their satirical glances were no less -cutting than serious admonitions.”[207] - -[207] _Lycurgus._ - -These facts indicate something of the extent to which female influence -still survived in ancient Sparta, and reveal plainly the fact that -although in the time of Lycurgus the coarser instincts developed in -human nature had made considerable headway, they had not totally -eclipsed the finer characters peculiar to women, as was the case at a -later period of Grecian history—more particularly among the Athenians. -“As for the virgins appearing naked,” Plutarch himself assures us, - - there was nothing disgraceful in it, because everything was conducted - with modesty, and without one indecent word or action. Nay, it caused - a simplicity of manner and an emulation for the best habit of body; - their ideas too were naturally enlarged while they were not excluded - from their share of bravery and honour. - -Regarding the commingling of the sexes among the Spartans, Mr. Grote -says: - - When we read the restrictions which Spartan custom imposed upon the - intercourse even between married persons, we shall conclude without - hesitation that the public intermixture of the sexes led to no such - liberties between persons not married, as might be likely to arise - from it under other circumstances.[208] - -[208] _History of Greece_, vol. ii., p. 385. - -It was a Dorian who first threw aside his heavy girdle during the -Olympian contests and ran naked to the goal. In an allusion to this -incident, and also to the custom of Spartan virgins appearing in -a semi-nude state in the presence of the opposite sex during the -performance of their gymnastic feats, C. O. Müller says that a display -of the naked form when all covering was unnecessary and inconvenient -was quite in keeping with the character and temper of the Dorians.[209] - -[209] _History and Antiquity of the Doric Race_, book iv., ch. ii., -p. 1. - -Concerning the style of dress adopted by the Doric virgins, it is said -to have consisted of a loose woollen garment called a _himation_. It -was without sleeves and was fastened over the shoulders with large -clasps. The _himation_ was completely joined only on one side, the -other side being left loose and fastened with a buckle or clasp. -Doubtless this adjustment of the gown was to enable the wearer to -open it and throw it back, thereby securing greater freedom to the -limbs while running and wrestling. This simple garment reached only to -the calf of the leg, and was worn sometimes with a girdle, sometimes -without. - -The pure state of morals in Sparta furnishes an explanation of that -peculiar style of dress among women which has elicited so much comment -among later writers, and which has stamped the Spartan women as -creatures especially “devoid of modesty.” True modesty was evidently -one of the leading characteristics of this people among both sexes, but -the simulation of it, which, by the way, is usually practised just in -proportion as the lower propensities have gained the ascendency over -the higher faculties, was doubtless absent in Spartan society.[210] - -[210] We have the authority of Tacitus respecting the customs, -character, and style of dress of the ancient Germans. Among this -people, as is well known, the influence of women was in the ascendency -over that of men, and the state of public morals was exactly that which -might be expected. Respecting the dress of women, this writer says they -“do not lengthen their upper garment into sleeves but leave exposed the -whole arm, and part of the breast” (_Germania_, chap. xvii.). It is -observed, however, that chastity was the characteristic virtue of this -people among both sexes. The marriage bond was strict and severe, and -we are informed that among the Saxons the women themselves inflicted -the penalty for adultery. From an epistle of St. Boniface, Archbishop -of Mentz, to Ethelbald, King of England, we have the following: “In -ancient Saxony (now Westphalia), if a virgin pollute her father’s -house, or a married woman prove false to her vows, sometimes she is -forced to put an end to her own life by the halter, and over the ashes -of her burned body her seducer is hanged.” - -An illustration of the state of public morals in ancient Sparta may be -observed in the following dialogue. A stranger once asked a Spartan -what penalty their law attached to adultery. The reply was: “My -friend, there are no adulterers in our country.” Upon being further -interrogated, “But what if there should be one?” the Spartan replied: -“Why then, he must forfeit a bull so large that he might drink of the -Eurotus from the top of Mount Taygetus.” When the stranger asked: “How -can such a bull be found?” the man answered with a smile, “How can an -adulterer be found in Sparta?”[211] - -[211] Plutarch’s _Lycurgus_. - -Commenting on the relative position of Doric and Athenian women, C. O. -Müller says: - - The domestic relation of the wife to her husband among the Dorians was - in general the same as that of the ancient western nation, described - by Homer as universal among the Greeks, and which existed at Rome till - a late period; the only difference being that the peculiarities of the - custom were preserved by the Dorians more strictly than elsewhere. - - Amongst the Dorians of Sparta, the wife was honoured by her husband - with the title of mistress (a gallantry belonging to the north of - Greece, and also practised by the Thessalians), which was used neither - ironically nor unmeaningly. Nay, so strange did the importance which - the Lacedæmonian women enjoy, and the influence which they exercised - as the managers of their household, and mothers of families, appear - to the Greeks, at a time when the prevalence of Athenian manners - prevented a due consideration for national customs, that Aristotle - supposed Lycurgus to have attempted, but without success, to regulate - the lives of women as he had regulated that of the men; and the - Spartans were frequently censured for submitting to the yoke of their - wives. - -It has been truly said that nowhere else in Greece do we find traces of -that power exercised by women over their sons when arrived at manhood -observed among Spartan mothers. When a woman of another country said to -Gorgo, the wife of Leonidas, “You of Lacedæmon are the only women in -the world that rule the men,” she replied, “We are the only women that -bring forth men.”[212] - -[212] Plutarch’s _Lycurgus_. - -With our present knowledge respecting the influence and independence -of the Spartan women, it is folly for certain writers to assert that -married women were confined within the house and that only virgins -appeared in public. There is some evidence going to prove that at -Crete, at Sparta, and at Olympia, women were not only spectators at -the Olympian games, but that they engaged personally in the chariot -contests. According to an inscription in Della Cella, it is shown that -women presided over the public gymnastic exercises in that town. - -One very important fact going to show whence proceeded the reforms of -Lycurgus is that the mandates of the oracle were supreme. The oracles -controlled the rulers, but women always controlled or interpreted -the oracles. The celebrated Rhetra of Lycurgus, in which unlimited -authority is given to the people to reject or adopt the proposals of -the king, was given according to the direction of the Pythian Apollo, -whose mandates were interpreted by women. - -In an earlier age the chiefs of the gentes were elected by all the -people, and they held their office by virtue of their relationship -to the leader of the gens, who was a woman. That the honour due to -women was still recognized in Sparta is shown in the following from -Plutarch in relation to the election of senators. The person who had -received the loudest acclamations was declared duly elected, whereupon -he was crowned with a garland, and a number of young men followed him -about to extol his virtues. The women sang his praises and blessed -his life and conduct. Two portions were set before him, one of which -he carried to the gates of the public hall, where the women were in -waiting to receive him. To the one for whom he had the greatest esteem -he presented the portion, saying: “That which I received as a mark of -honour I give to you.” The woman thus honoured “was conducted home with -great applause by the rest of the women.”[213] - -[213] Plutarch’s _Lycurgus_. - -Spartan men were forbidden to marry foreign women, hence, contrary to -the customs of surrounding nations at this early period, wives as well -as husbands were native-born. All were Spartans, which fact probably -accounts in a measure for the exalted position occupied by women. - -Both in Sparta and in Crete the form of marriage was by capture; -thus, although in the time of Lycurgus the Spartan men and women both -belonged to the same stock, it is plain that originally they were of -different tribes. Of capture as practised in Sparta, Müller says that -it was clearly an ancient national custom, founded on the idea that -“the young woman could not surrender her freedom and virgin purity, -unless compelled by the violence of the stronger sex.”[214] According -to Plutarch, after the arrangements for the wedding had been completed, -the bridegroom rushed in, seized the bride from among her assembled -friends, and bore her away. - -[214] _History and Antiquity of the Doric Race_, book iv., chap. iv. - -The Dorian stock alone seems to have preserved the ancient customs, -and among these peoples, wherever they are found, woman’s influence is -in the ascendency. According to Herodotus and Aristotle, the Spartans, -the Cretans, and the Lycians were related. The people of Crete still -preserved their ancient usages, hence may be observed the reason -why Lycurgus visited that country in quest of information before -enunciating the laws which were to restore order among the Spartans. -In Lycia, as in Crete, woman’s influence must still have been -considerable. Of the Lycians Herodotus says: - - Their customs are partly Cretan, partly Carian.... They take the - mother’s and not the father’s name. Ask a Lycian who he is, and he - answers by giving his own name, that of his mother, and so on in the - female line. Moreover, if a free woman marry a man who is a slave, - their children are full citizens; but if a free man marry a foreign - woman, or live with a concubine, even though he be the first person in - the state, the children forfeit all the rights of citizenship.[215] - -[215] Book i. - -On the manner of reckoning descent through women which prevailed in -Lycia, Curtius remarks that the usage extends far beyond the territory -commanded by the Lycian nationality. It is still extant in India; it -was practised in ancient Egypt, among the Etruscans, and among the -Cretans, who were closely related to the Lycians. This writer observes -that if - - Herodotus regards the usage in question as thoroughly peculiar to the - Lycians, it must have maintained itself longest among them of all - the nations related to the Greeks, as is also proved by the Lycian - inscriptions.[216] - -[216] _History of Greece_, book i., Ward’s translation. - -As the Sabines who united with the Romans in founding Rome claimed -relationship with the Dorians, we may reasonably expect to find among -them somewhat of that womanly influence which characterized the -Spartans, and some hint among their customs of an earlier age of female -independence. Although the Sabine women did not “voluntarily” assume -the position of wives to the Romans but were captured by them, when the -two nations united, the Sabines were regarded rather in the light of -conferring honour upon Rome than as detracting from its dignity. - -Of the early Romans, Ortolan says: - - The _connubium_, or right of marriage, did not exist between males and - females of different cities unless by special agreement between those - cities. Thus it was that the primitive Romans, according to tradition, - were compelled to resort to ambuscade and force in order to carry off - their first wives.[217] - -[217] _History of Roman Law_, p. 79. - -The Roman family, like the Roman state, began with slavery. Of the -Romans it has been said that they acquired their territory, their -property, and even their wives by the lance. - - With them the lance became the symbol of property, and even had a - place in their judicial procedure. Their slaves were booty, their - wives were booty, and their children, begotten of them, the fruit of - their possessions.[218] - -[218] Ortolan’s _History of Roman Law_, p. 42. - -The right of fathers, under Romulus, to sell their sons, upon the -accession of Numa the Sabine ruler, to the office of lawgiver, was -withdrawn, and the reason given for it was consideration for women. -According to Plutarch, Numa “reckoned it a great hardship, that a woman -should marry a man as free, and then live with him as a slave.”[219] - -[219] Numa and Lycurgus compared. - -In the life of Numa by Plutarch we have a hint of a former age of -universal freedom. It was one of this ruler’s institutions, that once -a year the slaves should be entertained along with their masters at -a public feast, there to enjoy the fruits “which they had helped to -produce.” The same writer assures us that some are of the opinion that -this is a remnant of that equality which was in existence in the times -of Saturn, when there was neither master nor slave, but all were upon -the same footing. Plutarch quotes from Macrobius, who says that this -feast was celebrated in Italy long before the building of Rome. - -From all the facts to be gathered relative to the relations of the -sexes in the age of Numa, it is plain that that freedom of action -exercised by women in a former age among the Dorians, was rapidly -declining, and that the early independence which has characterized -the Sabine women was beginning to bring upon them the condemnation -of their Roman lords. This is shown in the fact that it soon became -Numa’s arduous task to institute certain restrictions on their former -liberties. In a comparison between Lycurgus and Numa, Plutarch, in -referring to this subject, observes: - - Numa’s strictures as to virgins tended to form them to that modesty - which is the ornament of their sex; but the great liberty which - Lycurgus gave them, brought upon them the censure of the poets, - particularly Ibycus. - -The grossness which had been developed during the four or five hundred -years following the age of Lycurgus, and the jealousy with which the -movements of women had come to be regarded, are illustrated by the -following stanza from Euripides: - - These quit their homes, ambitious to display, - Amidst the youths, their vigour in the race, - Or feats of wrestling, whilst their airy robe - Flies back and leaves their limbs uncovered.[220] - -[220] Quoted by Plutarch. - -It is evident that not only in private life, but in their desire for -public activity also, the independence of the Sabine women failed to -comport with the ideas already in vogue among their Roman husbands -regarding the “proper sphere” of women. Consequently their behaviour -was thought to be - - too bold and too masculine, in particular to their husbands; for - they considered themselves as absolute mistresses in their houses; - nay, they wanted a share in affairs of state, and delivered their - sentiments with great freedom concerning the most weighty matters.[221] - -[221] Numa and Lycurgus compared. - -A woman even appeared in the Forum to plead her own cause, whereupon -the grave senators ordered that the oracles be consulted that the true -import of the singular phenomenon might be revealed.[222] - -[222] _Ibid._ - -Plutarch, who lived in the first century of the Christian era, after -having recounted these misdemeanours, assures us that “what is recorded -of a few infamous women is a proof of the obedience and meekness of -Roman matrons in general.”[223] - -[223] _Ibid._ - -Doubtless, in Plutarch’s time, Roman women had lost much of that -influence which characterized the female sex in an earlier age; it -is not, therefore remarkable that by this writer the Sabine women -should have been regarded as too forward and as altogether infamous. -That their conduct was not all that could be desired by the outlaws -and bandits who founded Rome, and who had stolen them for wives, is -evident; and the regulations of their rulers respecting them show -plainly that much judicious training and a vast amount of repression -were required before they were fitted for the peculiar duties devolving -upon them as sexual slaves. - -We are told by Plutarch that the regulations established by Lycurgus, -instead of encouraging that licentiousness of the women which prevailed -at a later period, operated to render adultery unknown amongst them; -yet this writer forgets to mention the fact that in Sparta, in the time -of this ruler, there was no demand for prostitution by a class who -held all the wealth and power, and who were therefore in a position -to regulate this matter to suit their own tastes and inclinations. -On the contrary, the female sex was free, not only in the matter of -sexual relations, but in the exercise of all their natural tendencies, -and in the direction of all their movements. The idea of sex, which -among later and more thoroughly sensualized nations became first and -foremost, among the Dorians, so far as equal rights, obligations, and -duties were concerned, was ignored or left to nature to regulate. - -Plutarch, like most writers who have dealt with the relations of the -sexes, fails to observe the fact that just to the extent in the past -history of mankind to which women have been free and independent, -licentiousness has disappeared, and that just in proportion as the -influence of women has declined, in just such proportion have shame, -profligacy, disease, and infamy prevailed. To produce a state of -society in which the animal instincts ruled supreme, and in which -passion was the recognized god, women had first to become physically -dependent and mentally enslaved. - -For so long a time have women been judged by masculine standards, it -is not perhaps remarkable that male writers of these later times can -discern in the simplicity and chastity existing among the Dorians, -in the age of Lycurgus, no evidence of a former era of female -independence. Neither is it singular, as for so many ages women have -been subject to the pleasure and control of the opposite sex, that we -should be repeatedly told by writers who have dealt with the usages -of the Spartans, that their women were “permitted” to do this, and -“allowed” to do that, although the facts in the case prove that in all -their movements they were guided by their own wills, exercised either -directly, or through the oracles of the gods. - -When the customs of the ancient Dorians are viewed without prejudice, -the fact will doubtless be observed that they originated not in a -depraved and licentious state of society, but, on the contrary, -that they were the direct result of that freedom of action which -characterizes purity of life and a high standard of thought and action. - - - - -CHAPTER IV - -ATHENIAN WOMEN - - -According to Wilford, the Greeks were the descendants of the Yavanas -of India. This writer observes that the Pandits insist that the words -_Yavana_ and _Yoni_ are derived from the same root, _Yu_, and that when -the Ionians emigrated they adopted this name to distinguish themselves -as adorers of the female, in opposition to a strong sect of male -worshippers which had been driven from the mother country.[224] Under -the constantly increasing importance of the male, however, both in -human affairs and in the god-idea, they subsequently became ashamed of -their religious title and sought to abandon it. Of the aversion felt in -Greece for this name Herodotus says: - -[224] See Hargrave Jennings, _Phallicism_. - - The Athenians and most of the Ionic states over the world went so far - in their dislike of the name as actually to lay it aside; and even at - the present day the greater number of them seems to me to be ashamed - of it.[225] - -[225] Book i. - -Whenever in early historic times a country was subjugated, the -conquerors either murdered or enslaved the men, and utilized the women -for wives, or sexual slaves. The Ionians who, according to Herodotus, -sailed from Attica, without women, took for wives native Carians whose -fathers they had slain; hence these captives made a law, which they -bound themselves by an oath to observe, and which they handed down to -their daughters after them, that “none should ever sit at meat with -her husband, or call him by his name; because the invaders slew their -fathers, their husbands, and their sons, and then forced them to become -their wives.”[226] The terms of the oaths sworn by them at the time -of the capture seem, subsequently, to have been enforced by their -imperious masters. - -[226] Book i. - -As these women were foreigners they were entitled to little or no -respect from their captors. However, as they were to become the mothers -of Greek citizens, they must necessarily be “protected,” or, in other -words, they must be kept in seclusion. In the time of Solon, rape -committed on a free-born woman was punishable by fine.[227] - -[227] Plutarch, _Solon_. - -From that stage in the history of Greek tribes, at which through -capture and appropriation of the soil by individuals women began to -lose that influence which they had exercised under matriarchal usages, -to the time of Solon, the lawgiver of Athens, when they had finally -descended to the lowest level of misery and sexual degradation, may be -observed a corresponding tendency gradually developing itself among the -people towards selfishness, usurpation of power, and the slavery of the -masses. In the age of Solon the limit of human wretchedness seems to -have been reached, and as the human race is never at a standstill, it -must at this time have either become extinct, or have begun gradually -to lift itself from the condition of disgrace and ruin into which it -had fallen. - -The character of Solon, as gathered from the facts at hand regarding -him, reflects in a measure the true condition of society at that -time. Although vain and morally weak, he was in a certain sense -humane; his humanity, however, extended only to those of his own sex. -A large proportion of the women of Athens were imported foreigners, -and were therefore so degraded that they had no rights which any one, -even a lawgiver, was bound to protect. After his appointment to the -archonship, Solon’s first act was to cancel the debts against the lands -and persons of the Athenians, and to establish a law that in future no -man should accept the body of his debtor for security.[228] Many who -had been previously banished or driven out of the country for debt, -and had remained so long from their native land as to forget their -Attic dialect, were recalled as freemen, while others, who at home had -suffered slavery, were released and given their freedom. - -[228] Plutarch, _Solon_. - -Perhaps, however, in no position in life will a vain, morally weak -man display to better advantage the defects in his character than in -his attempts to legislate for women; and under no circumstances will -his true inwardness of purpose stand more truly revealed than in his -efforts to “regulate” the relations of the sexes. A brief notice of -Solon’s laws concerning women proves him to have been no exception to -the generally observed rule. It is recorded of him that in his extreme -solicitude lest their movements should not comport with his ideas of -female propriety and decorum, he regulated their journeyings, and laid -down rules respecting their mournings, sacrifices, and the number of -gowns which they were to take with them when they went out of town. -The provision for their journey and even the size of the basket in -which it was to be conveyed were subjects not unworthy the attention of -the great Athenian lawgiver. Women’s mode of travel by night was also -prescribed as was also their conduct at funerals and various places of -amusement. In fact all their actions were subjected to that meddlesome -espionage and control which characterize a weak and sensuous age. -Indeed, we have something more than a hint of the degraded position -occupied by women, in the fact that a man might not be allowed to sell -a daughter or a sister “unless she were taken in an act of dishonour -before marriage,” in which case her accuser might sell her person for -individual gain; and this, too, notwithstanding the fact that he, as -well as nearly every other man in Athens, was steeped in infamy. - -The measure adopted by Solon for the regulation of prostitution, -and his division of women into classes for the convenience of all -conditions of men, indicate clearly the disgrace and shamelessness -which characterized the Athenians at this stage of their career, and -depict with unerring fidelity the depth of horror into which womanhood -had been dragged. - -The condition of public morals during the three hundred years following -the age of Solon is plainly indicated not only in the laws but in the -mythologies of Greece and Rome. Prostitution was enjoined by religion -and when Draco, suddenly shocked by the degeneracy of his time, affixed -the penalty of death to rape, seduction, and adultery, it has been said -that by the performance of the prescribed religious rites within the -temple, the “rigour of his edicts was considerably softened.” - -The restraint imposed upon the Athenians by the Draconian regulations -was, however, of short duration; for when Solon, the successor of -Draco, assumed the position of archon, he at once legally established -a sufficient number of houses of prostitution at Athens to supply the -demand, filling them with female slaves who had been taken captives -in war, or who had been otherwise provided by the munificence of the -government. - - But you did well for every man, O Solon; - For they do say you were the first to see - The justice of a public-spirited measure, - The Saviour of the State.[229] - -[229] Philemon. Quoted by _Athenæus_, book xiii. - -By this time, so degraded had womanhood become, that the traffic in -female captives for sexual purposes was regarded as a legitimate -business, and the revenue accruing from their services was considered -a lawful source of gain to the state, its use being devoted to the -rearing of temples and to the carrying out of the various projects -connected with religious worship. - -That the Athenians of this period were wholly given over to luxury and -licentiousness is shown by the fact that at their bacchanalian feasts, -the troops of women who were in attendance and who had been provided -for the occasion by the generosity of the state, performed all their -duties under direct and explicit instruction of the government “to -disobey no order of a guest”; for which wise regulations Solon received -the praise and commendation of Athenian men. - -In a former portion of this work the fact has been noted that until -well into the Latter Status of barbarism all women were protected; -that among the Kaffirs, the Fiji Islanders, and various other peoples -occupying a lower stage in the order of growth, women, although -divested of their former influence, are still jealously guarded by the -gens to which they belong; and that when maidens are bereft of home and -near relatives, they are adopted into some other gens within the tribe -where they are invested with the same rights as are its own members. -Therefore when contemplating the social condition of the Athenians five -or six hundred years B.C., we are naturally led to inquire: What were -the causes which during one ethnical period had produced so marked a -change in the position of the female sex? For an answer to our question -we must recall the facts set forth in this volume relative to the -capture of wives, together with the feeling of hatred entertained by -early society for alien women. - -In the time of Pericles, an age when Athens was at the height of its -prosperity, the women of the city were divided into five classes as -regarded their duties and uses. The first of these consisted of wives, -who, for the most part, were kept in seclusion and allowed to exist -solely for the purpose of propagating Greek citizens. These women were -without influence, possessing no rights or privileges beyond the will -of their “lords”; while to such an extent were they considered merely -in the light of household furniture that they were not permitted to -appear in public, nor to sit at table with their masters. - -The following dialogue between Socrates and Ischomachus, a man who had -managed his household in such a manner as to be “pointed out as a model -for all Athens,” perhaps serves as a correct picture of the relations -existing between husband and wife in the Periclean age. “I should like -to know this particular from you,” said Socrates, “whether you yourself -educated your wife so as to make her what she ought to be, or whether -you received her from her parents with a knowledge of her duties?”—“And -how could I have received her so educated, Socrates, when she came -to me not fifteen years old, and had lived up to that time under the -strictest surveillance that she might see as little as possible, and -hear as little as possible, and inquire as little as possible?” - -Of the five classes to which reference has been made, wives only were -native-born, and as this particular class had specific duties to -perform, severe penalties were attached to the crimes of seduction and -rape when committed upon Athenian women. The remaining four classes -were arranged according to the dignity of their associates, the highest -in rank and repute being the hetairai, the members of which comprised -the only free women in Athens. Themselves philosophers and stateswomen, -their associates among males were of the same rank or station. They -constituted a highly intellectual class, and as such were able to -control not only their own movements, but to exercise a remarkable -influence upon literature, art, and the affairs of state. Because of -the important position occupied by these women, they will be referred -to later in this work. - -The next in rank were the _auletrides_, or flute-players. Many of the -most fashionable of these were slaves who had been brought to Greece -by speculators. We are informed that female musicians were a usual -accompaniment to an Athenian banquet, and that flute-playing became an -essential feature in the worship of several of their deities; hence, -the services of this particular class were in demand, not only to -heighten the enjoyment of social intercourse, but to stimulate and -encourage religious enthusiasm. At public gatherings, after the dinner -was over, and while the wine was flowing freely, these women made their -appearance in a semi-nude condition, dancing and keeping time to the -music by the graceful motion of their beautifully moulded figures. -While the enthusiasm was at its height they were sold to the highest -bidder. Fist fights, or hand-to-hand encounters for the possession of -these female flute-players, were not uncommon occurrences in the best -society in Athens.[230] - -[230] _Athenæus_, book xiii., - -These scenes were performed under the sanction of religion and law; -they therefore serve to reveal the true inwardness of the Greek -character at this stage of development. It is reported that the finest -houses in Alexandria were inscribed with the names of famous Greek -_auletrides_. Of all the flute-players of Greece, Lamia is said to -have been the most successful. For fifteen or twenty years she was -the delight of the entire city of Alexandria and of King Ptolemy. -Finally, when the city was taken by Demetrius of Macedon, Lamia was -taken also. When she demanded that an immense tax be levied on the city -of Athens for her benefit, it is recorded that although the people -murmured at the amount, they nevertheless found it to their interest to -deify her and erect a temple in her honour. According to the testimony -of Plutarch, Lamia raised money on her own authority to provide an -entertainment for the king.[231] - -[231] Demetrius. - -The fourth class consisted of concubines, or purchased slaves who were -in the service of Athenian gentlemen (?). This appendage to the Greek -family was a member of the household of her master where she was kept -with the full knowledge of the wife, the latter occupying a position -little if any superior to that of her rival. Indeed, as the purchased -slave could be disposed of whenever the fancy or caprice of her master -so dictated, and another installed in her place, it is reasonable to -suppose that so long as she did remain, she was the object of quite as -much attention as was the wife. - -The lowest class, or those who were allowed the least freedom of -action, were those known as the _dicteriades_. They were compelled to -reside at a designated place, and were forbidden to be seen upon the -streets by day. Nothing of a personal nature was allowed to interfere -with the duties which were imposed upon them by their imperious -masters. Their only duty was to obey. - -By this time we are prepared to appreciate, to a certain extent, the -moral aspect of Greek society during the years intervening between the -age of Solon and that of Pericles, a period of about a century and a -half. That all women, wives and concubines, native-born and foreign, -had been dragged to the lowest depths of disgrace and shame and that -they were classified and arranged to meet the demands of those who -through the unchecked tendencies inherent in the male nature had -reached the lowest level of infamy to which it is possible for living -creatures to descend, are facts which are only too plainly shown by -those whose duty it has been to record the events connected with the -history of the Greeks. - -Although under Draco, the predecessor of Solon, the political -degradation of the citizens of Greece may be said to have reached its -height, and although the uprising of the masses against the usurpation -of power by the few marks an era in the history of the Greeks, it -was not until the dawn of the Periclean age that women had gained -sufficient freedom to enable them to exercise any direct influence on -thought, or on the principles underlying human conduct. - -We must bear in mind the fact that for five or six centuries the -inferiority of women had been systematically and religiously taught. -Ever since the rule of Cecrops, at which time doubtless the manner -of reckoning descent began to be changed from the female to the -male line, woman’s influence in Athens had gradually declined. The -religio-physiological doctrine that in the office of reproduction the -mother plays only an insignificant part had not only been proclaimed -by Apollo but had been sanctioned also by Athene. It is recorded of -Cecrops that “he instituted marriage and established a new religion.” - -Just here may be observed the key to the gradually declining position -of the female element in the deity, and to the finally accepted dogma -that the female is inferior to the male. Through the private ownership -of land and the consequent dependency of women upon men, the way had -been paved for this assumption—an assumption which had the effect to -create in Ionian men the supreme and lofty contempt for women which is -observed throughout their literature and laws. From the age of Solon -to that of Pericles, the overwhelming degree of superiority assumed by -Athenian men over women had uprooted in the former every vestige of -restraint, at the same time that it had deprived them of the last trace -of that respect for womanhood which under earlier and more natural -conditions had been entertained. - -It has been frequently remarked that women took little or no part in -the intellectual development of Greece; that during the most rapid -progress of Greek men, there was no corresponding improvement in the -position occupied by Greek women. - -From what is recorded relative to Athenian women from the time of -Cecrops to that of Solon, one would scarcely expect to find them -competing with men for the prizes of life. Later, however, that a -considerable number of them did assert their independence, and that, -defying the customs and traditions by which they were bound, did prove -themselves the equals of men, may not be doubted. - -There probably has never been a time since the dominion of man -began when the more sensitive and better endowed among women have -not secretly rebelled against the tyranny exercised over them, and, -throughout the ages, whenever an opportunity has been offered, -large numbers of these women, have never failed to make known their -discontent. Greek women were no exception to this rule. Their first -step toward liberty was to free themselves from the galling chain -imposed upon them by marriage, a position in which, as has been shown, -wives were simply household slaves, tools of their imperious and -degenerate masters. Greek women, in the Periclean age, simply assumed -the control of their persons and by so doing provoked the maledictions -of future ages, ages in which sensualism still reigned supreme. - -For reasons which have already been explained, the foremost women -in Greece, and in fact all women who during the Periclean age were -engaged in art, literature, philosophy, and statesmanship, belonged to -the class known as the hetairai, a term which, through the excessive -growth or sensuality and superstition, subsequently became a term -of reproach. Whatever may have been the importance of the services -rendered by these women to society, such services would have been -ignored, or, if not altogether ignored, would have been reflected upon, -or appropriated by, the opposite sex. - -To say that the hetairai were free is equal to saying that they -have been misunderstood, hence the calumnies which for more than -two thousand years have been heaped upon them. That the hetairai of -Greece in the Periclean age included a class of women who were the -intellectual compeers of the ablest statesmen and philosophers is a -fact which may not by those who have paid close attention to this -subject be denied. That they taught rhetoric and elocution, that they -lectured publicly and established schools of philosophy at the same -time that they wielded a powerful influence on the state and on the -drift of current thought are facts which mediæval scholasticism has not -been able to conceal. - -I think one may not investigate the various schools of philosophy -which arose during the fourth and fifth centuries B.C., without noting -the peculiarly altruistic principles involved in them, and this, too, -notwithstanding the fact that, hitherto, extreme selfishness or egoism -had constituted the prevailing character observed in Athenian society. - -According to the principles of the Cyrenaics, the virtuous man is not -necessarily he who is in the possession of pleasure but he who is able -to proceed rightly in quest of pleasure. “Virtue is the only possible -and sane way to happiness.” The most eminent members of the Cyrenaics -were Arete the daughter of Aristippus and her son Aristippus the -younger, surnamed the mother-taught.[232] The fundamental doctrine of -the Cyrenes seems to have been that right-living or virtue constitutes -the only good. “The essence of virtue lies in self-control. Enjoyment -sought as an end is evil.” - -[232] Ueberweg, _History of Philosophy_, vol. i., p. 95. We are -informed by Ueberweg that there exists an early monograph on Arete by -J. C. Eck (Leipzig, 1776). - -“Virtue is capable of being taught, and when once acquired cannot be -lost. What is good is honourable, and what is bad is disgraceful.” On -examination it is found that one of the most eminent members of this -school is Hipparchia. That she is not a mere listener, imbibing the -ideas of others, is shown in the fact that she lectured publicly and -argued strongly before the philosophers of Athens. The founder of the -Cynic school of philosophy is said to have been Antisthenes, the son -of a Thracian mother. One of the sayings of this philosopher is, that -“virtue is the same in a man as in a woman.”[233] - -[233] Diogenes Laërtius, _Life of Hipparchia_. - -That the question of the position of women was a theme for discussion -in the age under consideration is shown in a “sophism” proposed by -Hipparchia to Theodorus. Once when she went to sup with Lysimachus, she -said to Theodorus: “What Theodorus could not be called wrong for doing, -that same thing Hipparchia ought not to be called wrong for doing.”[234] - -[234] Diogenes Laërtius, _Life of Hipparchia_, iii. - -When we take into consideration the fact that Hipparchia was intimately -associated with Crates, a man for whom she entertained the tenderest -affection, and when we remember that they were both engaged in teaching -a philosophy which “recognized virtue as the supreme end of life,” -the conversation at the house of Lysimachus between Hipparchia and -Theodorus, as set forth by Diogenes Laërtius will be seen to admit of a -different interpretation than that which commonly prevails. - -Of the Epicureans it has been observed that they were a sort of -Pythagorean brotherhood, consisting of both men and women. - - The scandalous tongue of antiquity was never more virulent than it was - in the case of Epicurus, but, as far as we can judge, the life of the - Garden joined to urbanity and refinement a simplicity which would have - done no discredit to a Stoic; indeed, the Stoic Seneca continually - refers to Epicurus not less as a model for conduct, than as a master - of sententious wisdom. - -Among the most distinguished members of this school were Themistia, -to whom Cicero refers in his speech against Pisa as a “sort of female -Solon,” and Leontium, who ventured to attack Theophrastus in an essay -characterized, as we are assured, by much elegance of style.[235] - -[235] Mayor, _Ancient Philosophy_, pp. 181, 182. - -No school of philosophy arose in Athens with which there was not -closely connected the name of one or another of the illustrious women -of the time. Zeno, the founder of the Stoic philosophy, was the pupil -of Crates, the companion of Hipparchia. - -Aspasia was the “clever preceptress of Socrates,”[236] the sage who -sat for the portrait of the Stoic philosophy. According to the Stoic -philosophy, the supreme end of life is virtue, _i. e._, “a life -conformed to nature.” The degree of self-restraint taught by Socrates -is shown in the following lines: - -[236] _Athenæus._ - - Is it not the duty of every man to consider that temperance is the - foundation of every virtue, and to establish the observance of it in - his mind before all things? For who, without it, can either learn - anything good, or sufficiently practice it? Who, that is a slave to - pleasure, is not in an ill condition both as to his body and his - mind? It appears to me, by Juno, that a free man ought to pray that - he may never meet with a slave of such a character, and that he who - is a slave to pleasure should pray to the gods that he may find - well-disposed masters; for by such means only can a man of that sort - be saved.[237] - -[237] Xenophon, _Memorabilia of Socrates_. - -When the ablest statesmen and the first philosophers of Greece -united in sounding the praises of Alcibiades, the genius of Aspasia -commanded equal recognition. Not only did Socrates and Pericles receive -instruction and inspiration from this gifted woman, but we are assured -that she lectured publicly and that her “acquaintances took their wives -with them to hear her discourse.”[238] Indeed “Pericles threw all -Greece into confusion on account of Aspasia, not the young one, but -that one who associated with the wise Socrates.”[239] - -[238] Plutarch, _Pericles_. - -[239] _Athenæus_, book xiii. - - It is not to be imagined that Aspasia excelled in light and amorous - discourses. Her discourses, on the contrary, were not more brilliant - than solid. It was believed by the most intelligent Athenians, and - amongst them Socrates himself, that she composed the celebrated - funeral oration pronounced by Pericles in honour of those that were - slain in the Samian War.[240] - -[240] Plutarch, _Pericles_. - -It is recorded of her that many Athenians resorted to her lecture-room -on account of her skill in the art of speaking. Not only did she teach -rhetoric, philosophy, and the proper relations of the sexes, but so -renowned was she for statesmanship that Pericles is said to have -surrendered to her the government of Athens then at the height of its -glory and renown. On this subject Plutarch remarks: “Some, indeed, say -that Pericles made his court to Aspasia only on account of her wisdom -and political abilities.” - -It has been said that the expedition against the Samians was merely to -gratify Aspasia. The Milesians and Samians who had been at war were -ordered to lay down their arms. When they refused to obey, Pericles, in -company with Aspasia, sailed with a fleet to Samos and abolished the -oligarchical form of government. Although he was offered large sums of -money, he “treated the Samians in the manner he had resolved on; and -having established a popular government in the island, he returned to -Athens.”[241] - -[241] Plutarch, _Pericles_. - -Plutarch, quoting from Æschines, says that Lysicles, who was “of a -mean, ungenerous disposition, by his intercourse with Aspasia after the -death of Pericles, became the most considerable man in Athens.”[242] -Notwithstanding the scandalous reports which have come down to us -of this woman’s character, in view of the facts which it has been -impossible for sex-prejudice to conceal, we are constrained to ask: -“What manner of woman was this who was able to control statesmen, -impart instruction to world-renowned philosophers, and leave a name -which even bigotry, envy, and malice may not efface from the history of -human events?” - -[242] _Ibid._ - -In seeking for an explanation of the exalted character of Aspasia, -we have something more than a hint in the fact that she is reported -to have “trod in the steps of Thargelia,” a woman who by her -exceeding brilliancy had gained the sovereignty of Thessaly. Indeed, -we have found a key to the entire situation when we learn that -this Thargelia, in whose steps Aspasia trod, “was descended from -the ancient Ionians,”[243] a people who, originally worshipped the -female principle, and who still preserved the customs peculiar to the -matriarchal system, under which it will be remembered women, as aliens, -did not follow the fathers of their children to their homes. So soon -as these facts are understood, we are not in the least surprised to -learn that Aspasia discountenanced the institution of marriage as it -existed in Athens. Neither is it remarkable, when we remember that -the underlying principles involved in the philosophy which she taught -were justice and equity, that she should be found using her great -influence, as in the case of the Milesians and Samians, in substituting -democracies in the place of oligarchies; nor that, in an age when women -had come to be regarded simply as the tools and slaves of men, she -should be found teaching the dignity of womanhood to her own sex, and -the principles of equality to males. - -[243] Plutarch, _Pericles_. - -According to Xenophon, Aspasia’s efforts were to a great extent -directed to the duties of husbands and wives; indeed, her foremost -object seems to have been to educate Athenian women. During the -Periclean age the position of women was one of the leading topics -discussed in Athens. Socrates says to his companions that he has been -of the opinion “of a long time that the female sex are nothing inferior -to ours, excepting only in strength of body or perhaps steadiness -of judgment.”[244] The coarse picture painted by Aristophanes, of -women with beards going in male attire to the agora, “to seize the -administration of the state so as to do the state some good,”[245] -although a vulgar attempt to ridicule the female philosophers of -Athens, furnishes something more than a hint of the fact that the ideas -subsequently set forth in Plato’s _Republic_ had been openly discussed -by the philosophers of the Periclean age. - -[244] Xenophon, _Banquet_. - -[245] _Ecclesiazusæ._ - -That the word hetairai was originally employed in no mean or -compromising sense is plain, since Sappho uses it in the sense of -“female companion (ἑταίρα) of the same rank and the same interests.” -We are assured that these women were able to preserve a friendship -“free from trickery.” Of them even “Cynulcus does not venture to speak -ill.”[246] They “of all women are the only ones who have derived their -name from friendship or from that goddess who is named by the Athenians -Venus Hetæra.”[247] - -[246] _Athenæus_, xiii. - -[247] _Ibid._ - -“Accordingly, even to this day,” observes Athenæus, “free-born women -and maidens call their associates and friends their ἑταίρα; as Sappho -does where she says: - - And now with tuneful voice I’ll sing - These pleasing songs to my companions. - -And in another place she says: - - Niobe and Latona were of old - Affectionate companions ἑταίρα to each other.”[248] - -[248] _Athenæus_, xiii. - -That mediæval scholasticism has not been able wholly to obscure the -greatness of the Greek hetairai is shown by the declaration of a -renowned writer of modern times who says: “Of all the poets who have -appeared on the earth Sappho was undoubtedly the greatest.” - -Notwithstanding the aspersions which have been cast upon the name and -fame of the hetairai of Greece, it is doubtful if the intelligent -women of the present age who carefully examine the shreds and remnants -concerning them which have withstood the envy of mediocrity, and the -bigotry of scholasticism, will be brought to believe that the excesses -which are foreign to the female nature, and which belong to ruder -and less highly developed structures, were practised by these gifted -women. We must bear in mind that the hetairai were free, and therefore -that they were able to direct their movements according to the natural -characters developed within the female,—characters which it will be -remembered are correlated with the maternal instinct. - -The licentiousness, not only of Greek and Roman women, but of those in -certain portions of Asia as well, has been the favourite theme of many -writers of past ages; more especially has the lewdness of Lydian and -Babylonian women been noted and commented upon. After referring to the -annual sale of women in Babylonia, Herodotus says that the people - - have lately hit upon a very different plan to save their maidens - from violence, and prevent their being torn from them and carried to - distant cities, which is to bring up their daughters to be courtesans. - This is now done by all the poorer of the common people, who since - the conquest have been maltreated by their lords, and have had ruin - brought upon their families.[249] - -[249] Book i. - -It is recorded that the various classes of “kept women” in Greece were -foreigners, that they were either bought or captured from surrounding -countries. As in the case of the Lydians and Babylonians, they were -doubtless carried from their homes at a tender age after having been -reared to their profession. Many of the maidens thus taken to Greece -subsequently became philosophers, statesmen, and scholars, whereupon -they abandoned their former calling. Lysias mentions the fact that -Philyra gave up her former course when she was still quite young, -“and so did Scione, and Hippaphesis, and Theoclea, and Psamathe, and -Lagisca, and Anthea.”[250] - -[250] _Athenæus_, book xiii. - -As special mention is made of a woman who “did not cease to live a -prostitute when she began to learn philosophy,”[251] we may reasonably -infer that it was usual for these women to abandon the calling to which -they had been born and bred, so soon as from such teachers as Aspasia -and Hipparchia they began to imbibe principles of self-respect and -womanly independence. - -[251] _Ibid._, book xiii. - -From the position occupied by the hetairai it is evident that by the -philosophers of Greece, they were regarded with that respect which is -ever due to cultured womanhood; indeed, from the evidence at hand we -may believe that they were the most highly honoured citizens in Athens. - -All women in Greece who prostituted themselves were forbidden to take -sacred names; yet of Nemeas, Athenæus says: “And we may wonder how it -was that the Athenians permitted a courtesan to have such a name, which -was that of a most honourable and solemn festival.”[252] - -[252] _Ibid._, book xiii. - -Of Glycera it is related that Harpalus issued an edict that no one -should present him with a crown, unless the donor at the same time -presented one to her. He erected a statue to her and permitted her -to dwell in the palace of Tarsus where he allowed her “to receive -adoration from the people”; he permitted her also to bear the title of -Queen, and “to be complimented with other presents which are only fit -for your own mother and your own wife.”[253] - -[253] _Athenæus_, book xiii. - -Timotheus, who was a general of very high repute in the Athenian army, -was the son of a courtesan; we are informed, however, that she was “a -courtesan of very excellent character.”[254] The great Themistocles is -said to have been the son of Abrotonum, a “courtesan.” - -[254] _Ibid._, book xiii. - -It is recorded that in response to an order issued by the people, -Praxiteles made a solid gold statue of one of the hetairai, which was -consecrated in the temple of Delphi. Certainly the deathless models of -Greek art formed by Praxiteles and Phidias are not representations of -coarse and sensualized womanhood. - -That these women were a power in Athens during the Periclean age may -not, in view of the facts recorded in relation to them, be disputed. Of -them it has been said: - - None but they could gather round them of an evening the choicest - spirits of the day, and elicit, in the freedom of unrestrained - intercourse, wit and wisdom, flashing fancy and burning eloquence. - What wonder that the hetairai should have filled so prominent a part - in Greek society! And how small a compensation to virtuous women to - know their rivals could not stand at the altar when sacrifice was - offered, could not give birth to a citizen. - -In this acknowledgment of the exalted position occupied by the Greek -hetairai the author, like most writers upon the subject of the sexual -relations, measures virtue not by its antithesis to vice, but by the -established masculine standards which have been set up for women to -conform to. A Greek wife’s life may have been one continuous scene of -subjection to the lowest appetites of a master for whom she may have -had not the least degree of respect or affection, and who regarded her -only in the light of an instrument for his convenience and pleasure; -still such an one would doubtless be accounted as a “virtuous” woman in -contradistinction to one of the hetairai whose position enabled her to -control her own person and who was able to exercise her own will-power -in protecting it against the excesses of Greek men. It is evident that -this class of women more than any other in Greece was able to direct -its movements and manage its activities, and, therefore, if we bear -in mind the characters correlated in the female constitution with the -maternal instinct, we may be assured that among the entire population -of Athens, the lives of these women were the most pure and the least -addicted to excesses. - -Aspasia, the philosopher and statesman; Hipparchia, practical professor -of Cynic philosophy and one of the most voluminous and esteemed writers -of her time; Thargelia, the Milesian, whom Xerxes employed at the -court of Thessaly, and many others scarcely less renowned, prove that -through the exercise of that personal freedom enjoyed by the hetairai, -women had at length risen to that position in which they were able to -exert a powerful influence, not only on the affairs of state, but upon -the intellectual development of the Athenians and the entire world. To -say that these women have been written about in an age in which male -power and male influence have been in the ascendency, is to say that -they have been misunderstood and their movements misinterpreted. - -Because of the efforts put forth by scholastics for two thousand years -to belittle or annul the importance of the services rendered by the -hetairai, they will doubtless for some time continue to be judged not -by their intellectual vigour nor by what they accomplished, but by -the social position into which, through the exigencies of masculine -domination, they had been jostled. The fact has been observed that less -than two centuries prior to the age of Aspasia and Socrates, Solon -had given to the calling of prostitution the sanction of religion and -law; that he had purchased a sufficient number of young slaves from -surrounding countries to satisfy the demands of the men of Greece; -and that he had made the calling of these girls a source of public -revenue for which services he had received the title of “Saviour of -the State.” We would scarcely expect, therefore, to find chastity -among the prominent virtues of the Periclean age. I wish to emphasize -the fact that by the conditions of society at that time, the class -designated as hetairai, although they were in a certain sense free, -were practically prevented, no matter what may have been their natural -inclinations or aspirations, from rising to a higher plane of moral -action, and furthermore that the existing conditions were wholly -the result of the supremacy gained by the lower propensities over -the higher forces developed in human nature. Had these gifted women -accepted the position of wife, ignorance and seclusion would have been -their portion, while their sexual degradation would have been none -the less complete or perfect; indeed it would have been all the more -intolerable, for the reason that the degradation of their persons, -which in the position of hetairai was sued for as a privilege, in the -position of wife would have been claimed as a right. - -By most writers upon this subject the fact seems to have been -overlooked, or, if observed, has not been acknowledged, that -licentiousness among women during a certain period of Greek life, about -which so much has been written, was governed wholly by the demands -of their masters; in fact, throughout the history of mankind since -the ascendency of the male over the female has been gained, the class -which has controlled the means of support, and within which has resided -all the power to direct the activities of women, has ever regulated -the supply of victims to be offered upon the altar of lust; and in -all these regulations may be observed such an adjustment of women’s -“duties” to the “necessities” of the male nature, that no alternative -has been left them but submission. - - - - -CHAPTER V - -ROMAN LAW, ROMAN WOMEN, AND CHRISTIANITY - - -The far-reaching results of the various schools of philosophy which -rose in Greece during the Periclean age will be noted in this chapter. -That the principles involved in this philosophy may not have been -formulated by the hetairai of Athens is doubtless true, yet that the -inception and development of these principles were largely due to -the freedom of these gifted women seems probable, especially when we -remember the conditions under which this philosophy arose. - -A glance at the principles involved in the Stoic philosophy will show -its thoroughly altruistic character. The sum of its tenets was to “live -according to nature’s laws,” to subordinate one’s self to the welfare -of one’s family, one’s country, and the entire race, and to “rise -above the gross indulgences and pleasures of the vulgar” to higher -laws of thought and action; it taught that to be just, and to live -according to the dictates of reason rather than to be governed by the -promptings of blind passion and the desire of the appetites, should -be not only the duty but the highest pleasure of mankind. Possibly -some of the minor precepts of the Stoic philosophy were absurd; no -doubt in their desire for reform, its founders set up a canon of -conduct which was severe and impracticable; but its fundamental -principles, the subjection of the animal in man to the reasoning -faculties, as applied to future Roman law, Roman civilization, and -Roman character, served to produce specimens of manhood which the women -of all subsequent ages should delight to honour. So long as virtue is -applauded and moral greatness is exalted, the enactments of the Roman -jurisconsults in the interest of women, prior to, and during the time -of the Antonine Cæsars, will stand forth throughout the ages as the -one single movement, during thousands of years, toward the removal -of the legal disabilities of women. When we remember that the Stoic -philosophy took root and flourished during an age of unparalleled -profligacy which was stimulated and encouraged by the example of the -most opulent and luxurious personages among the Greeks, and at a time -when licentiousness had for centuries been sanctioned by religion and -upheld by laws made by the men of Greece, it is quite evident that some -potent influence, which had hitherto been unfelt, had been in operation -to produce it. - -In order to understand the influence which the Stoic philosophy exerted -on civilization, and especially on the legal position of women, we -must first understand its effect upon Roman law. An inquiry into the -changes which had been wrought in Roman jurisprudence at the time of -the Antonine Cæsars, by engrafting upon it the underlying principles -contained in the Stoic philosophy, discloses the fact that the -emancipation of women had been practically accomplished in Rome. - -Perhaps there is no subject which at the present time possesses greater -interest for inquiring women than that concerning the status of their -sex under the older Roman law; for, by an understanding of woman’s -legal status, as fixed under this institution at a time when man had -gained the summit of his power over her, is furnished a key whereby may -be unlocked many of the mysteries surrounding the still extant social -and legal disabilities of women. - -The thoroughly egoistic character of the principles underlying the -older Roman law has been noticed in a former portion of this work. We -have seen that in Rome the father, who was the sole representative of -the family, had drawn to himself not only all the authority over the -child which under the earlier gentile organization of society had been -acknowledged as belonging exclusively to the mother, but, ignoring -individual liberty, and all the principles of personal freedom which -had been established under the matriarchal system, had proclaimed -himself absolute sovereign over all within the agnatic bond. The divine -oracle of Apollo, which had enunciated the doctrine that the soul of -the child is derived from the father, had at the same time declared -that the mother has to do only with furnishing the body. Thus the -father, as Creator, became the household god; his authority, as we have -seen, being supreme even to the exercise of the power of life and death -over its members. - -Under ancient law, the father, as head of the household, really -constituted the family, the remaining members being merely ciphers -which, from the peculiar position in which they were placed, were -without significance except as vassals under the strictest tutelage of -their master. Under this august system of father-worship, males as well -as females had become enslaved. The bondage of men, however, differed -somewhat from the “perpetual tutelage of women,” in the fact that they -themselves in time might become heads of families, and in that imperial -position to assume the same authority and dominion over others as had -been exercised over them. Women, however, could never become heads of -families, and therefore could never hope to be free. So long as they -remained single they were under the tutelage of their blood-relations, -or were subject to the authority of some individual whom the father, -before his death, might choose to appoint over them as guardian. Thus -arose the law known as the Perpetual Tutelage of Women. Upon this -subject Sir Henry Maine says: - - Ancient law subordinates the woman to her blood-relations, while a - prime phenomenon of modern jurisprudence has been her subordination - to her husband. The history of the change is remarkable. It begins far - back in the annals of Rome. Anciently, there were three modes in which - marriage might be contracted according to Roman usage, one involving a - religious solemnity, the other two the observance of certain secular - formalities. By the religious marriage of _Confarreation_; by the - higher form of civil marriage, which was called _Coemption_; and by - the lower form, which was termed _Usus_, the husband acquired a number - of rights over the person and property of his wife, which were on - the whole in excess of such as are conferred on him in any system of - modern jurisprudence. But in what capacity did he acquire them? Not - as _Husband_, but as _Father_. By the _Confarreation_, _Coemption_, - and _Usus_, the woman passed in _manum viri_—that is, in law she - became the _Daughter_ of her husband. She was included in his _Patria - Potestas_. She incurred all the liabilities springing out of it while - it subsisted, and surviving it when it had expired. All her property - became absolutely his and she was retained in tutelage after his death - to the guardian whom he had appointed by will.[255] - -[255] _Ancient Law_, p. 149. - -On this subject of male supremacy in the family Mr. Maine remarks: - - The foundation of Agnation is not the marriage of Father and Mother, - but the authority of the Father. All persons are Agnatically bound - together who are under the same Paternal Power, or who have been under - it, or who might have been under it if their lineal ancestor had - lived long enough to exercise his empire.[256] - -[256] _Ancient Law_, p. 144. - -Under this bond would be united all the children belonging to the -head of the household and all the descendants of the sons, but not of -the daughters; the daughters’ children under this manner of reckoning -descent belonged to the families of their respective fathers. Although -under this system a man might adopt a stranger into his family, and -invest him with all the rights and privileges appertaining thereunto, -no descendant of a daughter could claim any of the rights of agnation. -Under Hindu law, which is saturated with the primitive notions of -family dependency, in the genealogies, the names of women are omitted -altogether. We are assured by Mr. Maine that the exclusion of women -from governmental functions certainly had its origin in agnation. Thus -it is seen that paternity had come to involve the idea of a supreme -ruler or potentate, and that the overshadowing predominance of the -male over the female had paved the way to the future worship of one -all-powerful male deity. - -We have seen that the principles involved in the Stoic philosophy -were justice, equality, and the subjection of the appetites to the -dictates of reason and conscience. So soon as Greece was subjugated -by Rome, the ablest of the Romans espoused the principles embodied in -this philosophy, and notably among those who became interested in its -tenets were the Roman lawyers, who began immediately to reconstruct the -civil law upon the principles underlying this system. - -That it is only through a return to the archaic and natural principles -of justice and right living, the acknowledgment of which at once -establishes the proper relations of the sexes, that women may ever hope -to be free, is plain to all those who have given attention to this -subject. This fact was evidently observed by the Roman lawyers who, -through the persistency with which only those labour who are engaged -in establishing a principle, had so far succeeded in overcoming the -prejudice against sex as to have established a legal code wherein was -practically recognized the equality of women with men. - -Doubtless the Romans were as tenacious of their ancient customs, -prejudices, and long-established privileges as have been the people -of any other country; hence we may perhaps form a faint idea of the -obstacles which presented themselves, and of the devices which must -have been resorted to by Roman jurists in an endeavour to remove the -existing legal restrictions upon the liberties of women. - -Mr. Maine informs us that Gaius, a celebrated jurist who lived in the -age of the Antonine Cæsars, devoted an entire volume to descriptions of -the ingenious expedients devised by Roman lawyers to evade the letter -of the ancient law, and that it was through this source that the fact -finally became known that in the age of the Antonine Cæsars the legal -disabilities of women had been practically annulled. - -From the facts at hand it is observed that the object of the Roman -lawyers was to frame an edictal jurisprudence which should supersede -the older law, or which in effect should annul its power. We are -informed that the prætor was not only the chief equity judge, but that -he was also the common-law magistrate. So soon, therefore, as the edict -had passed through the necessary formalities enabling it to become a -law, the prætor’s court began to apply it in place, or by the side of -the civil law, “which was directly or indirectly repealed without any -express enactment of legislation.” In reference to the legal status of -women in the age of the Antonine Cæsars, Henry Maine observes: “Led by -their theory of natural law, the jurisconsults had at this time assumed -the equality of the sexes as a principle of their code of equity.”[257] - -[257] _Ancient Law_, p. 149. - -Although the seed, sown in Greece during the Periclean age when -conveyed to Rome, produced a golden harvest, the fact will doubtless -be remembered that the Roman lawyers had but just completed their work -of establishing the legal equality of the sexes when the agencies -which for years had been at work to destroy the Empire culminated; and -finally, when Christianity, in the person of Constantine ascended the -throne, the results of four centuries of civilization were destroyed, -or for more than sixteen hundred years were practically annulled. - -Regarding the changes which had been wrought in the legal status of -women in the age of the Antonine Cæsars, we are informed that whereas -under the older Roman law a woman at marriage came under the Patria -Potestas of her husband, under the later law, as influenced by the -principles involved in the Stoic philosophy, she remained as a member -of her own family, or was placed under the protection of a guardian -appointed by her parents, whose jurisdiction over her, although -superior to that of her husband, was not such as to interfere with -her personal liberty; thus, the same as under matriarchal usages, the -situation of the Roman woman, whether married or single, was one of -great influence. Of this freedom exercised by women in the time of the -Antonine Cæsars, Mr. Maine remarks: - - But Christianity tended somewhat from the very first to narrow this - remarkable liberty.... The latest Roman Law, so far as it is touched - by the Constitutions of the Christian Emperors, bears some marks - of a reaction against the liberal doctrines of the great Antonine - jurisconsults. And the prevalent state of religious sentiment may - explain why it is that modern jurisprudence, forged in the furnace of - barbarian conquest, and formed by the fusion of Roman jurisprudence - with patriarchal usage, has absorbed, among its rudiments, much more - than usual of those rules concerning the position of women which - belong peculiarly to an imperfect civilization.[258] - -[258] _Ancient Law_, p. 150. - -Concerning the influence of ecclesiasticism on that portion of Roman -jurisprudence relating particularly to women, Mr. Lecky observes: - - Wherever the canon law has been the basis of legislation, we find laws - of succession sacrificing the interests of daughters and of wives, and - a state of public opinion which has been formulated and regulated by - these laws. - -By means of a formulated ecclesiastical jurisprudence the complete -inferiority of the sex was maintained, - - and that generous public opinion, which in Rome had frequently - rebelled against the injustice done to girls in depriving them of - the greater portion of the inheritance of their fathers, totally - disappeared. - -In comparing the Roman law with the canon or ecclesiastical code, the -same writer says that the pagan laws during the Empire were constantly -repealing the old disabilities of women; but that it was the aim of -the canon law to substitute enactments which should entail on the -female sex the greatest personal restrictions and the most stringent -subordination.[259] - -[259] _European Morals_, vol. ii., p. 358. - -Those who have paid attention to the history of the English Common -Law, which forms the basis of our present system of jurisprudence, and -who have noted the part played by ecclesiasticism in fixing the status -of women therein, will not be surprised at the attitude which the -so-called Christian Church has assumed toward women. Referring to the -Common Law, an able writer has said: - - This imperishable specimen of human sagacity is, strange to say, so - grossly unjust toward women that a great writer upon that code has - well observed that in it women are regarded not as persons but as - things; so completely were they stripped of all their rights, and held - in subjection to their proud and imperious masters.[260] - -[260] Buckle’s _Essays_. - -It has been remarked that in no one particular does the canon law -depart so widely from the spirit of secular jurisprudence as in the -view it takes of the relations created by marriage. Although the leaven -of civilization preserved from Roman institutions was the codified -jurisprudence of Justinian, as the chapter of law relating to women -was read by the light of canon law, the altruistic principles which -had characterized the later Roman code soon became extinct. Upon this -subject Mr. Maine remarks: - - This was in part inevitable since no society which preserves any - tincture of Christian institutions is likely to restore to married - women the personal liberty conferred on them by the middle Roman law. - -And this is doubtless true for the reason that the entire Christian -superstructure rests on the dogma of female weakness and female -depravity. The doctrine of Original Sin, which depends entirely on the -story of the fruit-tree of Genesis being taken in a literal sense, had -by canonists been accepted. On her first appearance upon the scene of -action, woman is labouring under a curse pronounced upon her by an -all-powerful male God for the mischief she had wrought on innocent man; -it is only reasonable, therefore, that human law should unite with -the divine decree in establishing her complete and final degradation; -hence, the return to the ancient Hindu law and the older Roman code for -models of legislation concerning her. - -On this subject Mr. Maine remarks: - - I do not know how the operation and nature of the ancient Patria - Potestas can be brought so vividly before the mind as by reflecting on - the prerogatives attached to the husband by the pure English Common - Law, and by recalling the rigorous consistency with which the view of - a complete legal subjection on the part of the wife is carried by it, - where it is untouched by equity or statutes, through every department - of rights, duties, and remedies.[261] - - [261] _Ancient Law_, p. 154. - - - NOTE.—As the position of women among the early German hordes was one - of great dignity and respect, it may scarcely be argued that the - sentiments embodied in the English Common Law relative to wives were - in any degree the result of innate Teutonic prejudice against the - female sex. #/ - -Notwithstanding the efforts which for several centuries were put forth -in Rome to secure to women that independence which under the earlier -Roman law had been denied them, in the code of Justinian, which was -compiled in the early part of the sixth century, no word respecting -the remarkable degree of liberty which under the later Roman law was -accorded to women appears; and but for the discovery of the manuscript -of Gaius, to which reference has already been made, we would never -have become acquainted with the changes which had been wrought in -this particular branch of Roman jurisprudence. In the Justinian code, -instead of the humane edicts of the later, or middle Roman law, -appeared the Canon or ecclesiastical law, by means of which women were -condemned to a state of servitude even more degrading than that which -had been imposed on them by the older law. - -Had mediæval scholasticism succeeded in concealing from the world the -information contained in the manuscript of Gaius, still there would -have remained sufficient evidence left to prove that in the second -century of the present era woman’s freedom had been practically won. -That women themselves were claiming absolute legal equality with men -may not be doubted. Honoria, a Roman matron, first enunciated the -principle: Taxation without representation is tyranny.[262] Cato’s -celebrated oration in which he passionately exclaims: If you allow -your women to be your equals how long will it be before they become -your superiors?[263] shows that a certain type of men were becoming -alarmed over the growing independence of women. - -[262] Roman History. Appian, London, 1913. - -[263] The History of Rome. Titus Livius, p. 172. - -The freeing of women from the bondage entailed on them by the older -Roman law, an achievement which had required more than three centuries -to accomplish, was a triumph for civilization unparalleled during the -historic period. That this triumph over tyranny was of short duration -is shown in the sequel to this movement. - -That the coming of Jesus at a time when the principles of justice and -equality were becoming the recognized rule of life among the better -class of Romans is not surprising. No one may study Greek philosophy -without noting the similarity between it and the teachings of Christ. -Justice, self-restraint, and regard for the rights and feelings of -others, principles which when applied to Roman law had liberated women -from the tyranny of the past, were also the principles taught by Jesus. -It seems to have been the mission of the latter to convey these lofty -doctrines to the multitude. Do unto others as you would have others do -unto you was not however understood by the masses who knew no other -rule of life than that of selfishness and ungoverned lust. Hence in -process of time the new movement came to have no other effect than to -add to the already established evils another quite as contemptible, -namely—hypocrisy. - -Among the earliest Christians theological disputes were unknown. -Original sin and the doctrine of a vicarious atonement whereby a man -is “saved” not from sin but from the penalty for sin were unheard of. -To spread the simple principles enunciated by Jesus and by so doing to -kindle into life the divine spark in man, seem to have constituted the -object and aim of the earliest Christians. The activities necessary for -the propagation of these principles were shared alike by both sexes. -Women exhorted, prophesied, and prayed in the churches. They baptized -their own sex. One of them wrote a gospel which, so long as woman’s -influence continued, was in use among the Christians. - -Such were the conditions when Paul, a Jew who had espoused the new -religion, first appeared on the scene. An extant legend describes this -man as small in stature and of ignoble bearing. According to this -legend Paul was bald-headed and bow-legged. As to his intellectual -ability we have the following Corinthians x., 10: “For his letters -they were weighty and strong but his speech is of no account.” It is -elsewhere recorded of him that “his speech was contemptible.” From -what is known of this man Paul it is evident that he was domineering, -self-sufficient, and aggressive. He quarrelled with Peter and was -intolerant of the ideas of his associates. His forceful character, his -untiring energy, his zeal for the cause which he had espoused and above -all his capacity for organization soon gained for him the leadership of -the new movement. - -Nowhere is it recorded that during the earlier years of Paul’s -Christian career he attempted to discourage, or curtail, the activities -of women. On the contrary he refers to them as co-workers, acknowledges -them as prophets, and praises their ministrations. In his writings, the -name of Priscilla occurs many times. Phœbe, Claudia, Julia and others -are regarded as worthy of mention by him. As his influence and power -increased, however, his egoism began to assert itself. It is evident -that Paul’s strong masculine nature could no longer tolerate a religion -which might with some degree of consistency be regarded as a feminine -movement. The old doctrine enunciated by Apollo during the reign of -Cecrops namely that man is a divine emanation while woman is only human -must be revived. - -The following from Paul’s writings shows that his aim was to crush the -influence and power exercised by women, and the means employed was to -subject them to the dominion of their husbands. - - The head of every man is Christ; and the head of every woman is the - man and the head of Christ is God. - - For the man is not of the woman but the woman of the man. Neither was - the man created for the woman but the woman for the man. - - Let your women keep silence in the churches, for it is not permitted - unto them to speak but they are commanded to be under obedience. - - And if they would learn anything let them ask their husbands at home. - -That women were no longer to be the equals and companions of their -husbands but that they were to become sexual slaves is indicated by the -command, “Wives subject yourselves unto your husbands.” - -It must be remembered that these commands of Paul were not, as has -been frequently asserted, delivered to and about weak, ignorant women -devoid of influence, but were directed against those whose position of -equality in the new religion had not before been questioned, and whose -legal disabilities had at that time been well-nigh removed. - -Before the close of the second century, the simple, ethical teachings -of Jesus were forgotten. Christianity had disappeared and Paulism had -taken its place. A century later, after the Empire had come under the -control of so-called Christian rule, woman’s influence, as we have -already seen, entirely disappeared. All that had been gained by means -of the middle Roman law had been annulled by the decrees of the Canon -law. - -Pauline Christianity in the fourth century A.D. was an attempt to -re-establish that form of Paganism which had prevailed prior to the -rise of Greek philosophy. This older religion, which had its origin -in Sun worship, or in the worship of the two fecundating principles -throughout nature, had as early as the Periclean age ceased to claim -the attention of the educated classes among the Greeks. Æschylus -barely escaped being stoned to death for heresy, and as is well known, -Socrates the founder of the Stoic philosophy was forced to drink of -the fatal cup because of his unbelief in the prevailing superstitions. -Not to destroy Paganism itself but to exterminate the last vestige of -Greek philosophy was the task which the Pauline Christians had set -themselves to perform. Jesus now became the new Solar Deity and all -the forms observed under the older Paganism were now attached to his -worship. He was born at the winter solstice, or at the time when the -sun had reached its zenith and was about to return. He died and was -buried, but at the vernal equinox, Easter, the time at which all nature -is revived—he arose from the dead and became the Saviour of mankind. -The entire Christian calendar is copied from the ancient Pagan worship. -A medal was struck on which appeared the figure of a man on a cross, -on the obverse side of which was the representation of a blazing sun. -Christ was the new Sun of Righteousness, the giver and preserver of -life. - -Every page in the history of the Pauline religion reveals its masculine -origin. The Deities worshipped are a Father and a Son. All the angels -and archangels are men. All extant Gospels and Epistles have been -written and expounded by men. It is true that in response to a popular -demand in the fifth century for a recognition of the female principle, -the Virgin Mary, an ancient Deity, reappeared. The lateness of her -coming, however, shows that she was an afterthought. Moreover, it must -be borne in mind that, true to the ancient doctrine which was revived -by Paul relative to the divinity of man and the material nature of -woman, the Mother of Jesus was human while the Father and the Son were -divine. She was matter. They were spirit. - -Among the discussions of the early Pauline “Fathers” none was more -important than these. Ought women to be allowed to learn the alphabet? -And has woman a soul? It is recorded that a few of these pious leaders -entertained the opinion that because of the great power and goodness -of the Almighty “women may possibly be permitted to rise as men at the -resurrection.” - -As we have seen, to destroy Greek philosophy was the slogan of the new -movement. The destruction of the Alexandrian library by a fanatical -mob led by Archbishop Theophilus is an example of the fury with which -all institutions not directly connected with the new religion were -attacked. As is well known, this library contained the accumulated -knowledge of a highly civilized people, extending over a period of -several thousands of years. Among the priceless treasures stored -in this library were the records of astronomical observations -scientifically registered during a period of not less than three -thousand years. - -The lectures delivered by Hypatia in Alexandria during the latter part -of the fourth century were the last attempt made to stem the tide of -fanaticism which was destined to sweep over a large portion of the -habitable globe. The fate of Hypatia who was foully murdered by a mob -led by St. Cyril was a forecast of the fate which awaited any and all -who should henceforth dare to think or act independently of the new -religion. - -When Greek philosophy was no longer taught, the principles of equality -and liberty which had been incorporated into the middle Roman law were -annulled or practically forgotten; and when the doctrine of woman’s -inferiority and total depravity became crystallized not only in -religion but in law and in all the customs of the time, women sank to a -degree of degradation never before witnessed in the history of mankind. - - - - -CHAPTER VI - -THE RENAISSANCE - - -If the theory that the higher faculties and the moral sense originated -in the female and that these qualities are by her transmitted to -offspring, then the conditions existing in the first half of the -sixteenth century are easily explained; or if, as is clearly proved by -the facts brought out by scientists, woman represents the constructive -and combining element in human society without which organized society -would have been impossible, the degeneracy observed after thirteen -hundred years during which time women were wholly without influence -and power is exactly what might be expected. Indeed it is not singular -that with the disintegrating or destructive forces in command over the -conserving or constructive elements that war and religion should have -become the business of the world and that a state of society should -have prevailed which was in strict accord with these conditions. - -However, that the constructive element was not dead is shown by the -mental and moral unrest which began to manifest itself in the latter -half of the sixteenth century. Women began to learn the alphabet and -in a weak way to demand concessions hitherto denied them. Many men of -genius who like the jurisconsults of Rome had not been submerged by -the degeneracy of their time defied their persecutors and secretly -promulgated the scientific theories which were to revolutionize human -thought. - -The demand for freedom of conscience and for the release of the -intellect and reason from the domination of bigotry and superstition -constituted one of the first steps toward reform. Galileo, Bruno, -Copernicus, and Harvey are notable examples of the revolt against the -intellectual tyranny which prevailed. - -It is not a little singular that at this time the throne of England -was occupied by a woman and that her reign should have been the most -brilliant that that country has ever enjoyed. It has frequently been -said that the success of Elizabeth’s reign was due not to her greatness -but to that of the statesmen whom she called about her. But even were -this true, which it is not, it would not detract from her greatness. -The innate qualities developed within Queen Elizabeth, namely genius -and intuition, can alone explain the brilliancy of her reign. - -It is to be doubted if the progressive principle has ever been wholly -dead. That even during the darkest period of the Middle Ages the -constructive element was still alive in Europe is shown in the fact -that as early as the year 1215 the idea of individual human liberty had -already been formulated. In the Magna Charta wrested from King John at -Runnymede appears the following: - - No freeman shall be taken or imprisoned or dispossessed or outlawed or - banished, or in any way destroyed, nor will we go upon him or upon him - send except by the legal judgment of his peers, or by the law of the - land. To no one will we sell; to no one will we deny or delay right or - justice. - -Although a few attempts were made during the sixteenth century -to better the conditions of the masses of the people, as all the -institutions for the perpetuation of the slavery of the masses were -firmly established, little was accomplished in this direction. That -reforms move slowly is shown in the fact that as late as the beginning -of the nineteenth century of the Christian era, the greater portion -of the human race was in a state of bondage. Slavery existed in every -quarter of the globe. In Russia, in 1855, there were forty-eight -millions of serfs, and in Austria and Prussia the peasantry were nearly -all slaves. In Hungary nine millions of human beings belonged to a -subject class. - -Although no slaves were owned in England, slavery still existed in her -colonies. In the West Indies the whip was freely used, and prior to the -year 1820 no voice had been raised against the flogging of women on -the plantations. In Scotland, down to the last year of the eighteenth -century, colliers and salters were slaves and bound to their service -for life, being bought and sold with the works at which they laboured. -Although America had put down the slave-trade, she still owned slaves, -and continued to traffic in them until the year 1863. - -The history of legislation during the historic period shows that -it has ever been in the interest of the rich against the poor, the -strong against the weak. In France, at the beginning of the nineteenth -century, liberty was extinct. “The rich man could purchase for money -the power to destroy those whom he hated.”[264] - -[264] Robert Mackenzie, _The Nineteenth Century_, p. 9. - -The lawmakers of the age which we are considering were gentlemen -landowners, and as such were able to exercise their cupidity in a -degree which precluded all idea of justice to the poorer classes. The -abuses of government, the corn-laws, the enormous tax on salt and on -the various necessities of life, show somewhat of the extent to which -the poor were systematically robbed by the rich. - -The law passed in 1350, at Bannockburn, regulating the movements of the -British workingmen, and which prohibited combinations among them, was -in force until 1824. The evident object of this law was to repress the -labourer and deprive him of his just earnings. Although this enactment -was known to be oppressive, the working-classes were not possessed of -sufficient influence to cause its repeal. - -In England, women with their children worked in coal pits, and in the -darkness, on hands and feet, dragged about wagons fastened to their -waists by chains. Of this Mr. Mackenzie says: - - Children of six were habitually employed. Their hours of labour were - fourteen to sixteen daily. The horrors among which they lived induced - disease and early death. Law did not seem to reach to the depths - of a coal-pit, and the hapless children were often mutilated and - occasionally killed with perfect impunity by the brutalized miners - among whom they laboured. There was no machinery to drag the coals to - the surface, and women climbed long wooden stairs with baskets of coal - upon their backs. - -In the factories, also, as late as 1832 children of six years of age -worked from thirteen to fifteen hours daily. If they fell asleep they -were flogged. Sometimes through exhaustion they fell upon the machinery -and were injured—possibly crushed,—an occurrence which caused little -concern to any except the mothers, who had learned to bear their pangs -in silence. These children, who were stunted in size and disposed to -various acute diseases, were also scrofulous and consumptive. In 1832 -the recruiting surgeon could find no men to suit his purpose in the -manufacturing districts. - -Throughout Europe, the prevailing idea concerning the management of -criminals seems to have been vengeance. One would scarcely believe, -except on trustworthy authority, that at the beginning of the -nineteenth century the English criminal law recognized 223 capital -offences. Indeed, so strong was the feeling in favour of severity that -Edmund Burke said he could obtain the assent of the House of Commons -to any law imposing the penalty of death. If one shot a rabbit he was -hanged; if he injured Westminster Bridge he was hanged; if he appeared -disguised on a public road he was hanged, and so on. The hanging of -small groups was a common occurrence—children of ten years being -sometimes among the condemned.[265] - -[265] Robert Mackenzie, _The Nineteenth Century_, p. 77. - -A visit to the Five-Sided Tower in Nuremberg, in which are still -preserved various instruments of human torture, will give an idea of -the extreme cruelty practised upon political offenders and heretics a -century ago. - -The “Holy Alliance” of Austria, Prussia, and Russia, which was formed -ostensibly to insure peace and establish justice, but which in reality -was entered into to suppress free speech, check the growing liberties -of the people, and strengthen the belief in the “divine right of -kings,” shows the obstacles which had to be overcome before any -principle of justice and humanity could take root. - -The history of industrial and economic conditions since the beginning -of the eighteenth century is largely the history of the common people. -The change from the Feudal system to that of the wage-earning régime -may not, as far as the working class is concerned, be regarded as -an unmixed blessing. Under Feudalism the “lord of the soil” was -responsible for the maintenance and well-being of his vassals, while -under the wage system the “captains of industry” assume no such -responsibility. If the labourer chooses to accept the terms offered -well and good, if he refuses he may starve; it is a matter of no -concern to the employer, for, are there not plenty of labourers who -stand ready to take his place? - -That the labourer was no less a slave under the wage-earning system -than he had been under Feudalism is shown in the fact that under the -first named as well as under the latter he had not the right of free -contract. He must take what was offered him or starve. - -As is well known the repression of the mental activities and the -low physical condition which for more than thirteen centuries had -prevailed, prevented the seed sown in the sixteenth century from -taking root among the masses of the people. Their instincts were -those of the slave and two centuries were required to waken them from -their lethargy. Finally, however, even among the class mentioned the -constructive forces began to assert themselves. Free thought and to -a certain extent free speech were established. With the further -development of liberal ideas a belief in the Divine Right of Kings and -in the principles underlying monarchial institutions became somewhat -weakened. A few attempts were even made to establish republics. Because -of the glimmering light of scientific truth put forth in the sixteenth -century, ecclesiastical authority was no longer supreme. - -Although many important steps had been taken to free men from the -thraldom of the past, so firmly had the idea of woman’s inferiority -been established that no thought of including her in the new régime was -ever entertained. - -Justice, equality, and liberty are subjects upon which man descants -loudly and long. He talks glibly of his free institutions and even -designates a number of his one-sided governments as republics, and this -too notwithstanding the fact that women are still denied representation -in the governments to which they owe allegiance, and that a large -proportion of men are still within the grasp of economic slavery; all -of which shows the extent to which the moral sense and the judgment -have been dwarfed by prejudice and selfishness. Democracy is still a -meaningless term—an ideal yet to be realized. - -At the beginning of the nineteenth century such were the conditions -surrounding women that an attempt on their part to extricate themselves -from their legal and social bondage would have proved utterly futile. -At that time women had practically no legal rights; even the right -to control their own bodies was denied them. As woman was dependent -upon man for support her sex-functions were controlled by him and the -children which she bore belonged exclusively to him. He constituted the -family—wife and children did not count. To a considerable extent these -conditions still prevail. - -Masculine law, masculine religion, and masculine ideas concerning the -duties and uses of the female sex had made of woman a nondescript—a -creature neither male nor female. Her mental constitution had become -atrophied, the diluted reflections of men’s opinions having been -substituted for the natural feminine instincts and ideas. Among the -great mass of women the original feminine type had disappeared. - -In process of time, however, women began slowly to awaken from the -hideous nightmare which threatened to destroy the last remaining -vestige of the instincts and ideas peculiar to the female constitution. -In the beginning of the nineteenth century some of the educational -advantages enjoyed by men began to be appropriated by women. Thus began -the unrest which now extends over the entire earth. - -About seventy years ago a movement was started by women to secure for -themselves the right to self-government. Immediately all the prejudice -which characterizes a sex-aristocracy was aroused. Ridicule, calumny, -and even personal abuse were directed against all those who were -intelligent enough or fearless enough to stem the tide of popular -indignation. - -For forty years, little or no progress was made toward securing the -right of self-government for women. As late as 1870 a woman who -openly avowed herself a suffragist was regarded not only as “bold and -unwomanly” but as a dangerous person. The most strenuous opposition -to the movement came from the clergy and the flocks over which they -presided. Whenever church women were asked to consider the question of -the equality of the sexes their unvarying reply was: “My bible forbids -it.” Now that the history of Pauline Christianity is better understood -its attitude toward the freedom of women needs no further explanation. - -When the then existing mental conditions are recalled and especially -when the religious prejudices of the time are considered the attitude -manifested toward the proposed enfranchisement of women is not perhaps -remarkable. - -Although forty years ago biological science was in its infancy enough -facts had at that time been discovered clearly to indicate the position -which Nature intended woman to occupy. By the scientists of that time, -however, the logical and unavoidable inferences to be drawn from -these facts were wholly ignored. During the ages of man’s undisputed -supremacy so deeply rooted had the idea of woman’s inferiority become -that these newly discovered facts concerning her development could not -be accepted—the old prejudices could not at once be uprooted. - -We have already observed that whenever and wherever Mr. Darwin and -other scientists of his time felt called upon to compare the relative -importance of men and women such comparison has invariably been to the -disadvantage of the latter and this too notwithstanding the fact that -the evidence which they themselves have elaborated warrants no such -conclusions. - -Forty years ago the doctrine that woman has no independent existence, -but that she is simply an appendage to man, was everywhere accepted and -taught not only by ecclesiastics but by scientists as well. Woman was -only a “rib” taken from the side of man. - -None of the doctrines elaborated for the guidance of women was so -explicit as those relating to the duties of wives. The cause for this -is obvious. Earlier in this work the fact has been noted that our -present form of marriage originated in force—that no other principle -was involved in it than coercion on the one side and unwilling -submission on the other. - -So long as the original idea underlying marriage is retained, or so -long as woman is recognized as the property of her husband and subject -to his control, no matter what may be achieved by individual women, the -belief in the inferiority of women as a class will continue. In other -words so long as women remain economic slaves dependent upon their -husband for support so long will their status remain unchanged. - -“She is my goods, my chattels, my household stuff.” - -There are in this country at the present time more than nine millions -of women engaged in earning their own livelihood. Many of these women -have families dependent upon them for support. The disadvantages under -which they labour are realized when we remember that their competitors -are their political and economic superiors and are therefore able to a -considerable extent to dictate the conditions under which these women -work; yet notwithstanding these unfavourable conditions this change in -woman’s environment represents an important step in the evolutionary -processes. By it women are learning that only through independence is -self-respect possible. - -We have already seen that whenever during the historic period, women -have had an opportunity to rise they have never failed to rebel -against the conditions imposed upon them. The women of Athens during -the Periclean age, the Spartan women under Lycurgus, and the women of -Rome during the time of the Antonine Cæsars are notable examples of -this fact. Even the Chinese women are claiming the right to govern -themselves. In these later years they are unbinding their feet and in -other ways are defying the forces which in the past have prevented -them from asserting their independence. The various examples of revolt -among women have hitherto been carried on by single nations or by -countries widely separated from one another. At the present time, -however, the women of the entire world have risen to demand the freedom -of their sex. However much those who favour the subjection of women may -deplore this movement even the most stupid among them will surely not -fail to recognize its importance. - -The history of human society during the last four hundred years has -for the most part been a struggle between the constructive elements -developed in human society and the destructive or disintegrating forces -which are the result of the unchecked egoism or selfishness developed -in man during the ages in which woman has been subject to his will. - - - - -CHAPTER VII - -CONCLUSION - - -Scientific investigation has proved the great age of the earth and the -enormous length of time which has elapsed since the first appearance of -human beings upon its surface. Concerning the career of man during the -countless millions of years which followed his advent upon the earth, -little is known down to a comparatively recent time—a time commonly -designated as the historic period. - -When considering the past one is inclined to ask the question: “Does -the history of mankind represent an unbroken line of progress, or, -on the contrary, does it reflect a series of alternating periods of -development and decay?” - -We have observed that in recent times through the study of tribes -and races in the various stages of development much has been learned -concerning the origin of organized society and the development of human -institutions. We have also seen that through the legends, traditions, -and myths of the earliest historic peoples much reliable information -has been gained regarding the conditions which prevailed at a still -earlier period of human existence. - -Notwithstanding the proofs which in recent times have been obtained -relative to the law of periodicity which has thus far regulated human -progress the idea prevails that in our own time mental activity has -reached a stage never before witnessed. It is assumed that throughout -the entire history of mankind material and intellectual development has -never attained to such colossal proportions. It is evident that our -egoism has obscured our normal vision. We lack perspective. - -There is no evidence to prove that the present brain capacity of human -beings exceeds that of the earliest ages of human history, neither is -there any proof that the moral sense has been in the least reinforced. -The lofty moral and spiritual precepts which abound in the Upanishads -have never been surpassed—possibly never equalled. We are heirs of all -the ages. The accumulated knowledge of the past is responsible for -present achievements. - -Those who have made a study of tribes and races in the various stages -of development find much evidence going to prove that extant savage -tribes do not represent man as he first emerged from the animal type, -but, on the contrary, that they are the degenerate descendants of an -extinct civilized race differing little from our own. If this be true, -if human development which thus far seems to have been wholly material -contain within itself the seeds of its own destruction, would it not -be wise for the present generation to examine existing conditions in -order to ascertain if we too have not already entered upon the path of -degeneracy or decay? - -Possibly this will be regarded as a pessimistic suggestion, but as has -already been observed, a comparison between the conditions existing in -prehistoric times and those which prevail under the present so-called -civilized régime fully justifies this suggestion. - -Those persons who have acquainted themselves with the available facts -underlying the growth of organized society and the development of -existing institutions, and who have co-ordinated these facts with -the present situation are able to trace not only the growth of the -destructive principle in human affairs but are able to forecast with -a considerable degree of accuracy the results which must inevitably -follow. Without a knowledge of the past it is impossible to understand -or interpret the present. - -We are living in a remarkable age. It is to be doubted if throughout -the entire historic period there has been a time when passing events -moved so swiftly or when they assumed the magnitude of those now taking -place. Causes which were set up during prehistoric times have reached a -climax. The inevitable results from those causes are upon us. - -In order to compare the past and the present it becomes necessary -briefly to recall some of the already recorded facts relative to -existing conditions under early organized society. - -When human beings lived closer to nature and before the natural checks -to the lower or disintegrating forces had been withdrawn, the basic -principles underlying human action were equality and liberty. No member -of a communal group could claim any right or privilege not enjoyed -by all. There was no poverty and no crime. Disease as we know it was -unknown. As the lands were held in common, women were absolutely free -and independent. They chose their mates and were responsible for the -well-being of their offspring. As women controlled the sexual relation -and themselves regulated prenatal conditions, the children inherited -strong bodies and healthy minds. Dissensions over property did not -occur, and jealousy and a desire for personal aggrandizement had not -been developed. - -The religious worship of primitive people consisted for the most -part in invocations to the Great Mother, the fructifying principle -throughout nature, from whom were derived all earthly benefits. Later -the Great Mother came to be worshipped under various appellations, -namely, Cybele, or Astarte, in Asia Minor, Athene in Greece, Minerva -in Rome, and Isis or Neith in Egypt. Finally, as is well known, -these goddesses were dethroned by an all-powerful male God, an -anthropomorphic deity whose chief attribute was virile might. This -change in the god-idea was coincident with, and dependent upon, a -corresponding change in the relations of the sexes which took place at -a certain period in human history. The god-idea is now and ever has -been in strict accord with the existing conceptions concerning the -relative importance of the sex-functions in human beings. - -During thousands of years of life on “earth” the mother was the -only recognized parent. As the giver of life and the protector of -offspring she was regarded as the Creator and Preserver of the race. -She represented the constructive element in human society. Later, -however, when man began to contest the supremacy of woman, her hitherto -unquestioned prerogatives began to be claimed by him. It was at this -juncture in human affairs that the contention arose over the relative -importance of the sexes in the processes of reproduction. Not only -in the traditions and legends of early historic peoples but in their -histories as well there is much evidence given to prove that this -contention was as fierce as that which at the present time is going -on between the sexes. As a result of this contention both female and -male gods were worshipped. Those who recognized the mother as the giver -of life continued to worship the female principle, while those who -accepted the new doctrine enunciated by Apollo, namely, that the soul -of the child is derived from the father and the mother is only a nurse -to his heaven-born offspring, accepted the new religion. When the -dominion of man over woman was complete the female principle throughout -nature and in the god-idea was practically unrecognized or wholly -ignored. Throughout the historic period male power has been supreme not -only on the earth but also in heaven. Classical history is not wanting -in references to this change in the relations of the sexes and in the -god-idea which took place at a certain stage of human development. - -We are informed that in Greece, probably about 1100 years B.C., Cecrops -“instituted marriage and established a new religion.” The new religion -instituted by Cecrops was the doctrine that the father is the only -parent, that the soul of the child is derived from him, and that the -mother performs simply the office of nurse to his offspring. Woman -was no longer the creator or giver of life. She was matter while man, -who was henceforth to be her lord and master, was spirit. Marriage as -instituted by Cecrops was the natural and inevitable outcome of the -new religion. It was the first attempt of the Greek tribes to legalize -and control the sex-functions of women. The deeper one delves into the -mysteries of the past the more apparent does it become that the sexual -degradation of women is deeply rooted in religion. - -For untold ages early organized society proceeded along the line of -uninterrupted evolutionary progress. Although humanity was traversing -an unknown path the arts of life steadily increased. The production of -farinaceous food by means of which an exclusive meat diet was avoided -was an achievement of the utmost importance to the race. The idea of -government which at first included only the members of related groups -was extended to the tribe and even to the nation. - -Equality, freedom, and justice constituted the fundamental principles -of early organized society. Finally, however, through causes which have -already been set forth in these pages, this system gradually gave place -to a regime founded on selfishness, or egoism. At this time in human -affairs related groups could no longer defend themselves against the -aggressions of powerful hostile foes; jealousies arose and alien tribes -began to make war upon one another, the stronger appropriating the -lands of the weaker and making slaves of the people. The women of the -subjugated groups became the sexual slaves of the conquerors. As native -women were free, foreign women who could be controlled were greatly in -demand. Therefore frequent attacks were made on foreign groups for the -sole purpose of “carrying off” the women. - -The lands which had been held in common by all the members of the tribe -were now parcelled out among individual chieftains. The prestige given -to these “lords of the soil,” and the advantage gained by them through -the control of the natural resources and the means of subsistence, -soon gave rise to a privileged class—a class which in process of time -became masters of the masses of the people. When wars for conquest -and spoliation became general and when the communal system under -which the principles of liberty and equality had been established -gave place to a system founded on force the entire habitable globe -became a battle-ground upon which each and every individual struggled -fiercely with every other individual not only for place and power, -but for the means of subsistence as well. When the principles of -democracy established under gentile institutions gave place to a system -of governmental control under which only the rights of the few were -recognized, and when the unchecked disruptive forces had gained the -ascendency over the constructive elements developed in human nature, -the degeneracy of the race began. It is not difficult to trace the -steps by which this degeneracy has been accomplished. - -Although we of the present boast of our material achievements, -and although we arrogate to ourselves a most remarkable degree of -intelligence, enlightenment, and even culture, it is evident that we -have not risen above a plane of the grossest materialism, and that -in the truly human qualities, those which distinguish man from the -animal, we are sadly deficient. That in these later days the moral -sense has become atrophied is shown in the fact that our present tooth -and claw system, under which each individual must array himself against -every other individual in his struggle for existence, is regarded as -a practical exemplification of the principle of the “Survival of -the Fittest.” According to this interpretation, not those who are -best endowed, physically, mentally, and morally are the fittest to -survive, but on the contrary those who are best able to appropriate to -themselves the opportunities and advantages which belong to others. In -other words it is claimed that by the Survival of the Fittest is meant -the survival of those who because of their material advantages are able -to exploit their fellowmen. A few of the processes involved in the -control of the many by the few have already been mentioned. To maintain -the authority of the privileged class and to strengthen their hold on -the liberties of the people, Monarchy, Aristocracy, and Ecclesiasticism -were established and the Divine Right of Kings proclaimed. Intrenched -behind these mighty bulwarks the position of the usurpers has been -impregnable. Through enforced ignorance and superstition the “common -people” came to regard their situation not only as natural and -unavoidable but as representing the will of the Almighty. If they were -faithful to their masters in this world, in the world to come they -would be furnished with free transport to Fields Elysian. Strange to -relate this belief still prevails. - -At the present time the principle of human freedom is still struggling -for recognition, but the great mass of human beings, although boasting -of their civilization and enlightenment, continue to uphold the -principle that the few should rule the many. They regard their rulers -as superior beings whose authority may not be questioned. At the -present time we have before us the dismal spectacle of half a dozen -hereditary monarchs who with their satellites claim the right to -rule over nearly the whole of Europe and a large portion of Asia. -Twenty-five millions of men are now engaged in a deadly conflict to -further the commercial and territorial interests of their masters. - -When we compare present conditions with those which existed under early -organized society at a time when every individual member of a group was -equal in responsibility and power with every other member of the same -group we are enabled to perceive the path which mankind has taken on -its onward course. - -When one reflects on the peculiar trend of human development one may -feel no surprise over the fact that at this juncture in human affairs -there should arise a ruler in whom the desire for world-dominion is -clearly apparent. That such a potentate has already appeared is shown -in the following from Emperor William II. of Germany. - -“On me as Germany’s Emperor the spirit of God has descended. I am His -weapon, His sword, his vicegerent. Woe unto the disobedient. Death to -the unbeliever.” Here it is observed that this ruler aspires not only -to earthly dominion but also to divine recognition. - -To strangle the growing principles of liberty and to establish a system -founded on force under which the individual was to become only an -instrument to do the bidding of his lord and master was doubtless the -original object of those who instigated the present war. - -During the ages since the establishment of the authority of the few -over the many, the latter until a comparatively recent time have -offered little resistance to the tyranny exercised over them. Mentally -dwarfed the proletariat have not yet reached the degree of intelligence -necessary for a combination of interests. They have therefore remained -like dumb driven cattle subject only to the will of their masters. - -About sixty years ago through the efforts of a few leaders who had -begun to realize the situation, a certain degree of unrest began to -manifest itself among them, and forty years later the proletariat -succeeded in establishing an international organization ostensibly for -their own benefit as opposed to the interests of the ruling class. -They, however, lacked solidarity. The natural tendency of their sex -toward separateness or disintegration was not easily overcome. This -is shown in the case of the present European conflict. When the war -broke out instead of standing together they at once hastened to obey -the mandates of their respective rulers, and with no higher idea than -patriotism or nationality they at once began their brutal assault -upon one another. It was evident from the beginning that the German -socialists, they who had been the most conspicuous in the international -movement, were first, last, and all the time Germans and that after all -they were actuated only by one desire, namely, national aggrandizement. -So lacking are men in the principle of solidarity, and so deeply rooted -within them is the idea of separateness, that it is to be doubted if, -without the aid of woman, they will ever be able to free themselves -from the tyranny of the past. - -In very recent times a foe has arisen which threatens to be a greater -menace to the liberties of the masses of the people than were the foes -by which they were originally enslaved. I refer to the money power, or -plutocracy. - -During the last few years, through the application of scientific -methods to industry, and through mechanical inventions by means of -which the power and efficiency of labour have been greatly increased, -the accumulation of wealth has reached a point never before witnessed -in the history of the world, yet strange to relate, along with this -enormous increase in wealth there has been a corresponding increase in -poverty and crime. This immense wealth has not been shared by those who -produced it but has gone into the pockets of those who exploit labour -for profits. Along with this enormous increase in wealth is observed a -general lowering of standards both in private and public life. There -are in this country alone ten millions of people who are deprived -of the necessary food, clothing, and shelter to insure a healthful -existence. In the public schools of New York City it is reported that -six hundred thousand children are victims of malnutrition. In winter -thousands of hungry men and women go up and down the streets of our -large cities begging for an opportunity to earn a living. Our jails and -prisons are filled to overflowing. Our almshouses and insane asylums -are insufficient to meet the demands. Imbecility and other forms of -mental degeneracy are increasing at an alarming rate. Epilepsy and -other congenital diseases prevail among all classes and conditions of -the people. Five-sixths of the children born are diseased at birth. - -The basic principle underlying our present economic system is profits. -To secure large profits labour must be cheap and plentiful, and that -labour may be cheap and plentiful an enormous population must be -produced. In order to produce this enormous population women must -be enslaved. Although existing conditions are such as to make life -a curse instead of a blessing, the cry for “babies, more babies” is -heard on every hand, and this notwithstanding the fact that a large -proportion of the children born die before the age of five because this -environment is unfavourable to life. - -The clamour for an ever increasing birth-rate never ceases. It is -believed that Providence alone is responsible for human ills. Poverty -and disease are accepted as natural and unavoidable evils. - -The fears expressed lest the human race fail to perpetuate itself -would be pathetic were the reason for these fears less obvious. When -we reflect that the labour market must be constantly supplied with -cheap labour, and that millions of soldiers must be produced to protect -the commercial and territorial interests of the ruling class the true -inwardness of this insatiate cry for constantly increasing numbers is -revealed. - -Ecclesiasticism, the faithful ally of Plutocracy, mindful of the fact -that its strength lies in an excess of numbers, has ever jealously -guarded the injunction to increase and multiply. No doctrine of -the so-called Christian church has been so fondly cherished and so -faithfully preserved as has that of the subjection of women. Woman’s -glorification under the Christian system has been exactly commensurate -with her obedience to man. No offering from her to the Almighty is so -acceptable as unrestrained reproductive energy. - -The report of a declining birth-rate in any country of the globe is a -signal for instant alarm, but although publicists and politicians have -attempted to control the birth-rate not only by threats and promises -but by legal enactments regulating marriage, still it is observed that -in all countries of Europe, with the exception of Ireland, Bulgaria, -and Roumania, the birth-rate during the last twenty-five years has -steadily declined. Although numberless causes have been suggested -to account for this phenomenon, and although various remedies have -been proposed to lessen this “evil,” the actual cause underlying the -declining birth-rate of our time remains unrecognized. Politicians, -publicists, and ecclesiastics all refuse to acknowledge the obvious -fact that the increasing economic independence of women is alone -responsible for this phenomenon. - -Notwithstanding the fact that during the last twenty-five years marked -progress is observed in the social and economic conditions of women, -still the sexual position of the great mass of women has steadily -declined. The fact that so far as her sex relations are concerned -civilized woman occupies a lower position than that occupied by the -female animal has already been noted in these pages. The traffic in -women is carried on in every country on the earth. - -The existing sexual conditions are the direct result of the -overstimulation of the disruptive characters inherited by man from his -male progenitors among the lower orders of life, characters which among -animals have been checked by the constructive forces developed in the -female. Our sexual conditions and our present economic and industrial -situation loudly proclaim the degeneracy of our time. - -When the principles of equality and liberty, which were established by -early organized society, gave place to a system founded on force and -the control of the many by the few, and when through the subjection of -women the natural checks to the disruptive tendencies developed in the -male were withdrawn, the conditions now existing in so-called civilized -society were foreshadowed. - -A crisis has been reached in human affairs. The old regime has run its -course and is about to disappear. A new era is about to dawn on the -human race. The war which is now devastating Europe, and which will -doubtless spread over the entire earth, is the beginning of the end. -The effects of the causes which were set up in prehistoric times have -reached their full measure of development and can no more be postponed -or averted than can the thunderbolt which follows an electrical -explosion. A thoroughly material civilization founded on selfishness -and sensuality must be destroyed root and branch before the higher -planes of activity for which humanity is destined may be reached. The -present conflict therefore should not be regarded simply as a horrible -calamity but as a necessary preliminary to these higher conditions. If -the birth of the new regime can come only through blood and tears, if -only through the throes of war is deliverance possible, then it is not -only unwise but useless to bewail the present crisis. - -Through the cleansing process involved in the present revolution, -humanity will doubtless return to the legitimate path of evolutionary -development. Either liberty and justice, the cardinal principles -underlying early organized society will be re-established or the -processes of disruption will complete the work of degeneration now -so well under way. In the transformation which is to take place it -is not likely that a vestige of the institutions which have produced -the present regime will remain. The conflict now going on between the -higher and lower forces developed in human life represents the struggle -of Omnipotent Life for higher expression in matter. - -It has been shown in this work that during the development of life on -the earth two forces have been steadily at work, the one a conserving, -cohesive element, the other a disruptive, disintegrating energy. -The one tends toward combination or solidarity, the other toward -separateness or individual sufficiency. The one is constructive, the -other destructive. Had the constructive processes in human society been -allowed their legitimate expression the scenes now being enacted in -Europe would have been impossible. - -The principal force which has been employed in the development of our -present civilization has been male energy. In the past this enormous -force has been necessary to subdue the earth and make of it a suitable -habitation for civilized humanity. In later times, however, the -discovery of hitherto unknown forces in nature, the application of -scientific methods to industry, and the invention of mechanical devices -for the lessening of human toil have done away with the necessity for -an excess of human brawn. In other words the excessive male energy -which has in the past been required for the development of our present -civilization has become not only useless but an actual hindrance to -further progress. As this enormous power is no longer needed for -useful purposes it has been turned into channels of wantonness and -destruction. It has become disruptive and dangerous to a degree which -may be appreciated when we reflect on the present conditions not only -in Europe, but over the entire earth. Among the cleansing processes -involved in the present crisis is the elimination of a considerable -number of the useless elements described above—elements which being no -longer necessary for the maintenance of the common good have become a -menace to society. - -According to our narrow human conceptions by which passing events are -regarded only in relation to their present effects, the eliminating -processes now going on are cruel and inhuman. Nature, however, pays -little heed to human suffering, but although she ignores human misery -she will nevertheless demand an exact accounting for the deeds of -selfishness and ignorance which are responsible for the present -disorder. She will inaugurate no scheme of salvation; no “Vicarious -Atonement” will be provided to save mankind from the consequences of -their own folly. - -The struggle now going on in nearly every quarter of the globe marks -the beginning of the eliminating process. The useless elements in human -society are wearing themselves out, destroying themselves by their own -rashness and folly. Impelled by a desire which they do not understand -and which they are unable to resist, these victims of a decaying -civilization rush madly on to destruction. Those men who voluntarily -seek war represent a dissatisfied or discontented class. True to the -primitive instincts of the race they crave the peculiar excitement -which war brings. It is not unlikely that many of them understand -instinctively that something is wrong with the present regime, but they -seem not to be able to analyse the situation. - -Doubtless very many of those engaged in the present European struggle -are actuated by patriotism. They want to maintain the existing -territorial boundaries presided over by their respective rulers. They -desire also to retain the institutions, social, political, economic, -and religious which have grown up under a system where the few control -the many. Evidently the idea of human liberty has not yet dawned upon -them. If universal freedom awaits the birth of the new regime, which -is being heralded by the present upheaval, then it is plain that the -men in the trenches are quite unmindful of the significance of the -conflict in which they are engaged. The belligerent countries of Europe -may consent to a truce and there may be a lull in the universal unrest, -but there will be no genuine peace until the principle of human -liberty has been established on a firm and lasting basis. - -That the removal of these superfluous men from their usual vocations -will not materially interfere with the useful industries of Europe is -shown in the fact that although 25,000,000 of them have been called -to the war their withdrawal from the industrial field has not greatly -disturbed the industrial situation, and this too notwithstanding the -fact that many new occupations have been created by the war. The work -formerly done by these men has been largely taken up by women. - -It should be borne in mind that under the new conditions which are -approaching, the constructive element developed in human society is -again to assume command over the destructive forces which have been in -control since the beginning of the historic period. As this element has -been confided to women and as it is by them transmitted to offspring, -it is not difficult to forecast the position which the women of the -future will occupy. - -The institution of marriage as it now exists will disappear. Only the -most robust among women will propagate the race. These women, as did -the women under early organized society, will choose their mates. They -will exercise absolute control over the sex-functions. Thus will be -avoided the terrible consequences which have resulted from the present -form of marriage. - -The numerical preponderance of women over men under the new regime -is probable. Nor will the devastating processes of war be wholly -responsible for this condition. Science informs us that not only among -the lower orders of life but among human beings as well, certain -conditions of nutrition produce more females than males. The more -nutritious and wholesome the food the greater the excess of females -over males. Under higher conditions, when the laws of health and -life are better understood and especially when the subject of proper -nutrition has received the attention which its importance deserves, it -is not unreasonable to suppose that the excess of female births over -those of males will be considerable. - -Although there have doubtless been long lapses of time during which the -human race has seemed to go backward, it is believed that the trend of -humanity is now and ever has been upward. If, as is believed, human -events move in cycles, if the civilizations which have risen in the -past represent a spiral, each of these civilizations reaching a higher -stage of development than its predecessor, then it may be inferred that -the era which is now dawning will surpass in grandeur anything which -the world has ever witnessed. If, as many persons believe, a stage of -development has been reached in which human beings are to be endowed -with a sixth sense, if the intuitive faculties which are closely -allied to the constructive element and which mark a still greater -distinction between man and the animal are to come into play it may -be assumed that the mental and spiritual faculties will reach a stage -of development scarcely dreamed of in our own time. Humanity will have -come into its own, the animal in man will have been left behind. - -The co-ordination of science and history not only illumines the past -and explains the present, but the inevitable results of the natural -sequence of events point unerringly to the conditions which must -prevail in the future. - -The philosophy of history proves to the earnest seeker after truth that -the door of the future is not wholly closed. - - - - -INDEX - - - A - - Abipones, their customs, 148; - independence of women among, 186 - - Abrotonum, 342 - - Adoption, among early races, 144, 145, 324; - symbol of, 146, 147 - - Affection in primitive groups, 126 - - Agamemnon, 256 - - Agnation, 351 - - Ainos, 49 - - Altruism, its development in the female, 17, 67, 86; - its development in society, 124, 140 - - Amazonianism, 208 - - Andromache, 283 - - Arabia, organization of society in, 129, 177; - marriage in, 179, 181, 182 - - Arawaks, their customs, 147, 174 - - Archonship, 259; - its close, 264 - - Areta, 332 - - Aristocracy, its growth among the Greeks, 251, 265-267 - - Aristophanes, his picture of female philosophers, 338 - - Aspasia, preceptress of Socrates, 334; - her genius, her teachings, 337-338 - - Assembly of the people, 156; - development of the, 251; - its duties, 259; - its disappearance in Greece, 264; - its powers among the Spartans, 293 - - Atavism, 52 - - Athene, her decision concerning paternity, 272 - - Athenian men, their policy, 285; - ashamed of their name, 318; - their wives Carians, 319; - their moral degradation, 323-326 - - Athenian women, imported foreigners, 319; - their degradation, 323; - their division into classes 324; - decline of influence among, 329; - their reputed licentiousness, 339 - - Auletrides, 325 - - Australians, 230 - - - B - - Babylonian women, 234, 340 - - _Basileus_, germ of present king, 156; - does not correspond to modern monarch, 156, 255, 257; - elected by a constituency, 253; - abolition of the office of, 259 - - Birds, their courtships, 20-21; - aversion of females for certain males among, 20; - the female among, chooses her mate, 20, 23, 25, 108; - efforts of the male to please the female among, 21; - eagerness of the male among, 21, 26, 30; - powers of the female among, 27; - inheritance of the female among, 29; - inheritance of the male among, 29; - constancy of the female among, 108 - - Burgesses, 272 - - - C - - Captives, not enslaved in early groups, 145; - as sexual slaves, 163, 276 - - Cecrops, 262, 272, 329, 362 - - Chastity of early races, 110, 113, 114, 306 - - Clisthenes, 249, 261 - - Codrus, 249, 259, 264 - - Colour-blindness, 55 - - Common law, the, woman’s position under, 357 - - Communal marriage, 225 - - Concubines, 327 - - _Couvade, la_, its extent, 148 - - Crates, 334 - - Cuckoos, character of, 69 - - Cynic philosophy, the, its principles, 332 - - - D - - Danaūs, daughters of, 274 - - Deme, establishment of, 249, 260 - - Democracy, of early races, 127; - of the early Greeks, 250-251; - decay of, 264-265, 267; - in ancient Italy, 313 - - Descent, traced through men, 128, 135, 281; - in Arabia, 131; - in Greece, 133 - - Descent, traced through women, 141, 142, 157, 222; - its universality, 228, 311; - among the Iroquois Indians, 249; - law of, 253; - in Lycia, 310 - - Desires, primary, of the male, 20 - - _Dicteriades_, 327 - - Differentiation, 8, 10, 16, 65 - - Diseases of women, 61; - not constitutional, 54 - - Dorians, their conservatism, 285 - - Draco, 266; - his laws, 322 - - - E - - Early Christianity, 361 - - Ecclesia, 251 - - Ecclesiasticism, its effect on the position of women, 356-357 - - Egoism, its development in males, 17, 86; - not pronounced among earliest races, 125, 140; - its development in later ages, 155 - - England in the nineteenth century, 370 - - Epicureans, 333 - - Eupatrids, their cupidity, 264 - - Evolution, individual and historic, 15 - - - F - - Family, the, not the basis of the gens, 246 - - Female, conditions which produce the, 39 - - Fijians, their customs, 116-117; - parental affection among, 118 - - Foreign women, as wives, 188, 192, 219; - as concubines, 283, 327, 348 - - France, marriage customs in, 172; - in the nineteenth century, 370 - - - G - - Gaius, 353 - - Genealogies traced through fathers, 271 - - Gentile organization, the, universality of, 124; - principles established by, 124; - democratic character of, 127, 138, 139, 152; - unity of, 128; - government under, 137, 152, 156, 247; - property belonging to, 140; - altruistic character of, 140, 157; - in Greece, 245; - its decay, 260; - its final overthrow, 261; - in Athens, 262 - - Glycera, 341 - - Government, development of, 248 - - Greek society, its construction, 243, 245 - - - H - - Hairy covering for the body, 49-51 - - Hand, the female, 59 - - Hercules, tradition of, 273 - - Hetairai, a term of reproach, 329; - their renown, 330; - origin of the word, 338; - honoured citizens, 341; - judged by masculine standards, 344 - - Hindu law, 352 - - - I - - Infanticide, McLennan’s theory of, 217; - not practised by early races, 220; - Sir J. Lubbock’s theory of, 226-227 - - Insects, nutrition determines sex, 40; - males appear first, 42 - - Iroquois Indians, 137 - - - J - - Justinian Code, 357, 359 - - - L - - Lamia, 326 - - Lance, symbol of property, 181, 312 - - Leontium, 334 - - Life, origin of, 4; - earliest forms hermaphrodite, 11, 15 - - Lydian women, 340 - - Lysicles, 336 - - - M - - Magna Charta, 369 - - Man, shorter-lived than woman, 45, 53; - imperfections in the organization of, 55-59; - superior to woman, Darwin’s theory, 75; - assumes the duties of maternity, 147; - superior to woman according to edict of Apollo, 199 - - Marriage, origin of, 161; - in India, 163; - _Racshasa_, 163; - in Arabia, 164, 179, 181, 182; - by _Confarreatio_ and _Usus_, 164, 351; - among the Israelites, 165; - in Afghanistan, 165; - in Greenland, 170; - in Nubia, 171; - in Sparta, 173; - _sadica_, 179; - _beena_, 180; - _motă_, 181; - _ba’al_, 181, 188, 193; - laws of Mohammed, 183, 188; - in Japan, 185; - in Rome, 189; - of the future, 399; - rise of the present system of, 197; - ceremonies among the Spartans, 310 - - Matter, conservation of, 6 - - Mother-in-law, the, her aversion to sons-in-law, 174, 236 - - - N - - Names, adoption of, 144 - - Nemeas, 341 - - - O - - Ontogeny, 7 - - Oracles of the Greeks controlled by women, 309 - - Organization of society, 123 - - - P - - Pangenesis, 29 - - Parthenogenesis, 38, 40 - - Paternal affection, absence of, among lower orders, 69, 71; - not a primary character, 71; - absence of, among lower races, 149; - absence of, among the Romans, 189, 191 - - Pericles, 335 - - Perpetual tutelage of women, 350 - - Political society, establishment of, 249, 260-261 - - Polyandry, not practised among lower orders, 107 - - Polygamy, rise of, 106, 189 - - Poverty of the masses in Greece, 266 - - Primitive races, promiscuity among, 107, 115, 211; - chastity of, 108, 110, 112, 116, 306, 307; - morality of, 112, 115, 118; - humanity of, 145 - - Property, control of, 140, 221; - inheritance of, 141; - in early Greece, 250 - - Protection of women in early groups, 112, 117, 146, 178, 186 - - - Q - - Quadrupeds, constancy of the female among, 24-25, 106-107; - unions of, not left to chance, 25 - - - R - - Religion of Mohammed, 183 - - Religious idea, 150, 211 - - Reversion, 48, 52 - - Rights of Roman fathers, 191, 313 - - Roman family, the, 312, 349, 352 - - Roman lawyers, 352-353 - - Roman society, its constitution, 243 - - Roman women, 178, 189, 314 - - Rotifera, 38 - - - S - - Sabine women, capture of, 312 - - St. Paul, 361 - - Selection, natural, 7 - - Selection, sexual, Darwin’s theory of, 18; - compared with artificial selection, 36; - processes of, reversed, 82; - lower characters eliminated through, 90 - - Sexes, origin of, 11, 14-15; - numerical proportion of, 39, 43, 52 - - Slavery, 145; - its extent in the nineteenth century, 369 - - Socialism, 390 - - Socrates, 334-335 - - Solon, his legislation, 320-321; - his character, 320, 322 - - Spartan women, their power, 298, 308; - they controlled the land, 298; - they resisted the laws of Lycurgus, 299; - they originated the exercises of the youth, 300, 302; - their dress, 303, 305; - their influence, 303, 304, 310, 361 - - Spartans, their government, 156; - democratic character of their institutions, 252-253; - their senate, 286; - their morality, 302, 304; - adultery unknown among them, 307, 316; - election of senators among the, 309, 310 - - Stoic philosophy, the, its principles, 334, 347-348; - its effect on Roman law, 348 - - Struggles for mates, 22-23, 64 - - Survival of the fittest, 388 - - Symbols in marriage ceremonies, among the Circassians, 171; - in Abyssinia, 172; - in Arabia, 172; - in Scandinavia, Wales, and Ireland, 173; - in Central Africa, 175; - in Italy, 176; - as explained by McLennan, 216 - - Sympathy, development of, 67 - - - T - - Thargelia, 337 - - Themistia, 334 - - Themistocles, 342 - - Theseus, 260, 271; - united the Attic tribes, 262 - - Timotheus, 342 - - Tribe, the, its formation, 126, 153; - growth of the governmental idea within, 247 - - Tribes named after women, 273 - - Tyrannies established among the Greeks, 263 - - - U - - Union of tribes in Athens, 262 - - Unisexual forms, development of, 15 - - - V - - Variability denotes low organization, 36 - - Variations in the human body, 47-48 - - Vital force, expenditure of, 32 - - - W - - Wife-capture, among the Israelites, 164; - among the Arabians, 177; - its extent, 177; - McLennan’s theory to account for, 215; - Lubbock’s theory of, 224-227; - among the Spartans, 310 - - Women, in excess of men, 52; - of Greenland, 54; - their intuitions, 78; - their apparel, 80; - of Australia, 111; - among the Kaffirs, 111, 146, 187; - of early German tribes, 112; - of Nubia, 111; - of Sumatra, 112; - of Tahiti, 116; - among the Fijians, 117, 186; - among the North American Indians, 139; - head of the family, 139, 144, 154; - of Arabia, 178-179, 188; - of Rome, 178, 190; - in Japan, 185; - among the Abipones, 186; - among the Greeks, 272, 276, 277, 279, 283; - under the ancient Roman law, 350; - under the middle Roman law, 352-354 - - - Y - - Yavanas, 318 - - - Z - - Zeno, 334 - - Zulus, marriage customs among, 173 - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Sexes in Science and History, by -Eliza Burt Gamble - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE SEXES IN SCIENCE AND HISTORY *** - -***** This file should be named 60219-0.txt or 60219-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/6/0/2/1/60219/ - -Produced by MWS, Les Galloway and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive) - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: The Sexes in Science and History - An inquiry into the dogma of woman's inferiority to man - -Author: Eliza Burt Gamble - -Release Date: September 1, 2019 [EBook #60219] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE SEXES IN SCIENCE AND HISTORY *** - - - - -Produced by MWS, Les Galloway and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive) - - - - - - -</pre> - - -<div class="transnote"> - -<h3>Transcriber’s Notes</h3> - -<p>Obvious typographical errors have been silently corrected. Variations -in hyphenation and accents have been standardised but all other spelling and -punctuation remains unchanged.</p> - -<p>The precise location of footnote 256 is speculative since it is not indicated in the original. -</p> - -</div> -<hr class="chap" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> - -<h1> -The Sexes in Science<br /> -<small>and</small><br /> -History</h1> - -<p class="center">An Inquiry into the Dogma of Woman’s<br /> -Inferiority to Man</p> - -<p class="center">By</p> - -<p class="center"><big>Eliza Burt Gamble</big></p> - -<p class="center spaced"><small><i>A revised edition of “The Evolution of Woman”</i></small></p> - - -<p class="center">G. P. Putnam’s Sons<br /> -<small>New York and London<br /> -The Knickerbocker Press<br /> -1916</small> -</p> - - - - -<p class="center space-above xs"> -<span class="smcap">Copyright</span>, 1893<br /> -Under the title <i>The Evolution of Woman</i>, by<br /> -G. P. PUTNAM’S SONS</p> -<p class="center space-below xs"> -<span class="smcap">Copyright</span>, 1916<br /> -for the revised edition, by<br /> -G. P. PUTNAM’S SONS</p> -<p class="center xs"> -The Knickerbocker Press, New York -</p> - -<div class="chapter"></div> -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_iii">iii</span></p> - - - - -<h2><a name="PREFACE_TO_NEW_EDITION" id="PREFACE_TO_NEW_EDITION">PREFACE TO NEW EDITION</a></h2> - - -<p>This volume is a revised edition of <i>The Evolution -of Woman</i> published by G. P. Putnam’s -Sons in 1894.</p> - -<p>In this later work much added evidence appears -going to prove the correctness of the theory advanced -in the former work. In it the subject of -sex-development has been brought down to the -present time and in this later investigation it is -found that each and every fact connected with the -biological and sociological development of the -last twenty years is in strict accord not only with -the facts set forth in <i>The Evolution of Woman</i> -but with the conclusions therein arrived at.</p> - -<p>In the concluding chapters of this volume the -results of the separate development of the two -diverging lines of sex demarcation are set forth. -I have endeavoured to show that present conditions -are the legitimate outcome of the ascendency -gained during the later ages of human history by -the egoistic or destructive agencies over the -higher or constructive forces developed in human -nature.</p> - -<p class="right">E. B. G.</p> - -<div class="chapter"></div> -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_v">v</span></p> - - - - -<h2 id="PREFACE_TO_FIRST_EDITION">PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION</h2> - - -<p>After a somewhat careful study of written -history, and after an investigation extending over -several years of all the accessible facts relative -to extant tribes representing the various stages of -human development, I had reached the conclusion, -as early as the year 1882, that the female -organism is in no wise inferior to that of the male. -For some time, however, I was unable to find any -detailed proof that could consistently be employed -to substantiate the correctness of this hypothesis.</p> - -<p>In the year 1885, with no special object in view -other than a desire for information, I began a -systematized investigation of the facts which at -that time had been established by naturalists -relative to the development of mankind from -lower orders of life. It was not, however, until -the year 1886, after a careful reading of <i>The -Descent of Man</i>, by Mr. Darwin, that I first became -impressed with the belief that the theory -of evolution, as enunciated by scientists, furnishes -much evidence going to show that the female -among all the orders of life, man included, represents -a higher stage of development than the male.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_vi">vi</span> -Although at the time indicated, the belief that -man has descended from lower orders in the scale -of being had been accepted by the leading minds -both in Europe and America, for reasons which -have not been explained, scientists, generally, -seemed inclined to ignore certain facts connected -with this theory which tend to prove the superiority -of the female organism.</p> - -<p>Scarcely considering at the outset whether my -task would eventually take the form of a magazine -article, or whether it would be extended to the -dimensions of a book, I set myself to work to show -that some of the conclusions of the savants regarding -the subject of sex-development are not in -accord with their premises.</p> - -<p>While writing the first part of this volume, and -while reasoning on the facts established by -scientists in connection with the observations -which have been made in these later years relative -to the growth of human society and the development -of human institutions, it seemed clear to me -that the history of life on the earth presents an -unbroken chain of evidence going to prove the -importance of the female; and, so struck was I by -the manner in which the facts of science and -those of history harmonize, that I decided to -embrace within my work some of the results of -my former research. I therefore set about the -task of tracing, in a brief manner, the growth -of the primary characters observed in the two -diverging sex-columns, according to the facts<span class="pagenum" id="Page_vii">vii</span> -and principles enunciated in the theory of natural -development.</p> - -<p>It is not perhaps singular, during an age dominated -by theological dogmatism, and in which no -definite knowledge relative to the development -of life on the earth had been gained, that man -should have regarded himself as an infinitely -superior being. Neither is it remarkable that -woman, who was supposed to have appeared -later on the scene of action than did her male -mate, and who owed her existence to a surgical -operation performed upon him, should have been -regarded simply as an appendage, a creature -brought forth in response to the requirements of -the masculine nature.</p> - -<p>The above doctrines when enunciated by theologians -need cause little surprise, but with the -dawn of a scientific age it might have been expected -that the prejudices resulting from those doctrines -might disappear. When, however, we turn to the -most advanced scientific writings of the present -century, we find that the prejudices which throughout -thousands of years have been gathering -strength are by no means eradicated, and any -discussion of the sex question is still rare in which -the effects of these prejudices may not be traced. -Even Mr. Darwin, notwithstanding his great -breadth of mental vision and the important work -which he accomplished in the direction of original -inquiry, whenever he had occasion to touch on the -mental capacities of women, or more particularly<span class="pagenum" id="Page_viii">viii</span> -on the relative capacities of the sexes, manifested -the same spirit which characterizes the efforts of -an earlier age; and throughout his entire investigation -of the human species, his ability to ignore -certain facts which he himself adduced, and which -all along the line of development tend to prove -the superiority of the female, is truly remarkable.</p> - -<p>We usually judge of a man’s fitness to assume -the rôle of an original investigator in any branch -of human knowledge, by noting his powers of -observation and generalization, and by observing -his capacity to perceive connections between -closely related facts; also, by tracing the various -processes by which he arrives at his conclusions. -The ability, however, to collect facts, and the -power to generalize and draw conclusions from -them, avail little, when brought into direct -opposition to deeply rooted prejudices.</p> - -<p>The indications are strong that the time has -at length arrived when the current opinions -concerning sex capacity and endowment demand -a revision, and when nothing short of scientific -deductions, untainted by the prejudices and -dogmatic assumptions of the past, will be -accepted.</p> - -<p>As has been stated, the object of this volume is -to set forth the principal data brought forward by -naturalists bearing on the subject of the origin -and development of the two lines of sexual demarcation, -and by means of the facts observed by -explorers among peoples in the various stages of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_ix">ix</span> -development, to trace, so far as possible, the -effect of such differentiation upon the individual, -and upon the subsequent growth of human -society.</p> - -<p class="right">E. B. G.</p> - - -<div class="chapter"></div> -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xi">xi</span></p> - - - - -<h2 id="CONTENTS">CONTENTS</h2> - - - -<div class="center"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> -<tr> - <td align="right" colspan="3"><small>PAGE</small></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td align="left" colspan="2"><span class="smcap"><a href="#PREFACE_TO_NEW_EDITION">Preface to Second Edition</a></span></td> - <td align="left">iii</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td align="left" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Preface to First Edition</span></td> - <td align="left">v</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td align="center" colspan="3"><a href="#PART_I">PART I</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td align="center" colspan="3"><i>THE THEORY OF EVOLUTION</i></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td align="left" colspan="2"><small>CHAPTER</small></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt"><a href="#CHAPTER_I-1">I</a>.—</td> - <td class="tdh"><span class="smcap">Development of the Organism</span></td> - <td class="tdrb">3</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt"><a href="#CHAPTER_II-1">II</a>.—</td> - <td class="tdh"><span class="smcap">The Origin of Sex Differences</span></td> - <td class="tdrb">14</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt"><a href="#CHAPTER_III-1">III</a>.—</td> - <td class="tdh"><span class="smcap">Male Organic Defects</span></td> - <td class="tdrb">35</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV-1">IV</a>.—</td> - <td class="tdh"><span class="smcap">The Development of the Social Instincts -and the Moral Sense</span></td> - <td class="tdrb">63</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt"><a href="#CHAPTER_V-1">V</a>.—</td> - <td class="tdh"><span class="smcap">The Supremacy of the Male</span></td> - <td class="tdrb">74</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td align="center" colspan="3"><a href="#PART_II">PART II</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td align="center" colspan="3"><i>PREHISTORIC SOCIETY</i></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt"><a href="#CHAPTER_I-2">I</a>.—</td> - <td class="tdh"><span class="smcap">Method of Investigation</span></td> - <td class="tdrb">95</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt"><a href="#CHAPTER_II-2">II</a>.—</td> - <td class="tdh"><span class="smcap">The Relations of the Sexes among -Early Mankind</span></td> - <td class="tdrb">104</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt"><a href="#CHAPTER_III-2">III</a>.—</td> - <td class="tdh"><span class="smcap">The Gens Women under Gentile -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xii">xii</span>Institutions</span></td> - <td class="tdrb">123</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV-2">IV</a>.—</td> - <td class="tdh"><span class="smcap">The Origin of Marriage</span></td> - <td class="tdrb">159</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt"><a href="#CHAPTER_V-2">V</a>.—</td> - <td class="tdh"><span class="smcap">The Mother-Right</span></td> - <td class="tdrb">203</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt"><a href="#CHAPTER_VI-2">VI</a>.—</td> - <td class="tdh"><span class="smcap">Theories to Explain Wife-Capture</span></td> - <td class="tdrb">215</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td align="center" colspan="3"><a href="#PART_III">PART III</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td align="center" colspan="3"><i>EARLY HISTORIC SOCIETY</i></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt"><a href="#CHAPTER_I-3">I</a>.—</td> - <td class="tdh"><span class="smcap">Early Historic Society Founded on the Gens</span></td> - <td class="tdrb">243</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt"><a href="#CHAPTER_II-3">II</a>.—</td> - <td class="tdh"><span class="smcap">Women in Early Historic Times</span></td> - <td class="tdrb">269</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt"><a href="#CHAPTER_III-3">III</a>.—</td> - <td class="tdh"><span class="smcap">Ancient Sparta</span></td> - <td class="tdrb">285</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV-3">IV</a>.—</td> - <td class="tdh"><span class="smcap">Athenian Women</span></td> - <td class="tdrb">318</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt"><a href="#CHAPTER_V-3">V</a>.—</td> - <td class="tdh"><span class="smcap">Roman Law, Roman Women, and Christianity</span></td> - <td class="tdrb">347</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt"><a href="#CHAPTER_VI-3">VI</a>.—</td> - <td class="tdh"><span class="smcap">The Renaissance</span></td> - <td class="tdrb">367</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt"><a href="#CHAPTER_VII-3">VII</a>.—</td> - <td class="tdh"><span class="smcap">Conclusion</span></td> - <td class="tdrb">380</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td align="left" colspan="2"><span class="smcap"><a href="#INDEX">Index</a></span></td> - <td class="tdrb">403</td> -</tr> -</table></div> - - -<div class="chapter"></div> -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1">1</span></p> -<p class="half-title">The Sexes in Science and History</p> - - - - -<h2><a name="PART_I" id="PART_I">PART I</a><br /> - -<small>The Theory of Evolution</small></h2> - -<div class="chapter"></div> -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_3">3</span></p> - - - - -<h3><a name="CHAPTER_I-1" id="CHAPTER_I-1">CHAPTER I</a><br /> - -<small>DEVELOPMENT OF THE ORGANISM</small></h3> - - -<p>Sex is not only the basic fact underlying physical -life but it is also the fundamental principle -involved in the origin and development of religion. -Throughout the history of mankind, the God-idea -has ever been, male or female, according to -the relative importance of the two sex principles -in human affairs.</p> - -<p>Scientists declare that they are now able to -trace the development of the two diverging lines -of sex-demarcation from the time of their separation, -or from the time when these principles were -confined within one and the same individual. In -order to understand the origin of sex, it becomes -necessary to recall, briefly, the theory of the development -of life on the earth as set forth by the -savants.</p> - -<p>As science deals only with matter, a mechanical -theory of the universe is inevitable. As science -is wholly materialistic, it is perfectly consistent -in its declaration that the senses and the intellect -constitute the only means whereby truth may be -discovered. Modern philosophy, on the other<span class="pagenum" id="Page_4">4</span> -hand, which deals less with matter itself than -with the causes which underlie the development -of matter, affirms that a character has been developed -in human beings which in its capacity -to discern truth, far transcends the intellect. That -character is intuition. But as we are dealing -only with scientific observations, philosophical -speculations do not here concern us.</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>The fundamental idea, which must necessarily lie -at the bottom of all natural theories of development, -is that of a gradual development of all (even the most -perfect) organisms out of a single, or out of a very few, -quite simple, and quite imperfect original beings, -which came into existence, not by supernatural -creation, but by spontaneous generation.<a id="FNanchor_1_1" href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">1</a></p></blockquote> - -<p>According to the theory of evolution as elaborated -by scientists, the history of man begins with -small animated particles, or Monera, which appeared -in the primeval sea. These marine specks -were albuminous compounds of carbon, generated -by the sun’s heat, which made their appearance -as soon as the mists which enveloped the earth -were sufficiently cleared away to permit the rays -of the sun to penetrate them and reach the -surface of the globe. Concerning the origin of the -principle of life which these particles contained, -or regarding the development of organic bodies -from inorganic substances, the more timid among -naturalists declare that in the present state of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_5">5</span> -human knowledge it is impossible to know anything, -while others of them, more bold, or more -confident of the latent powers of the human intellect, -after having elaborated a natural or mechanical -explanation for the development of all organic -forms, are not disposed to accept a supernatural -theory for the beginning of life. For example, -since organic structures represent the development -of matter according to laws governing the chemical, -molecular, and physical forces inherent in it, it is -believed that the gulf separating organic and inorganic -substances is not so difficult to span as -has hitherto been supposed. Among those who -hold this view may be ranked the celebrated -naturalist, Ernst Haeckel.</p> - -<p>Regarding the phenomena of life this writer -observes: “We can demonstrate the infinitely -manifold and complicated physical and chemical -properties of the albuminous bodies to be the -real cause of organic or vital phenomena.”<a id="FNanchor_2_2" href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">2</a> Indeed, -in whatever manner the vital force within -them originated, naturalists agree that from these -particles have been derived all the forms, both -animal and vegetable, which have ever existed -upon the earth.</p> - -<p>As speculations concerning the origin of matter -lie without the domain of natural or scientific -inquiry, they form no part of the investigations -of the naturalist. So far as is known, matter is -eternal, and all that may be learned concerning<span class="pagenum" id="Page_6">6</span> -it must be gleaned by observing the changes, -chemical and molecular, through which it is manifested. -By those who have observed the laws -which govern the manifold changes in matter, -the fact is declared that the various manifestations -in form and substance constitute the only creation -of which we may have any knowledge; and, -moreover, that the genesis of existence is going on -as actively in our time as at any previous period -in the history of matter. So far as human knowledge -extends, no particle of matter has ever been -created and none ever destroyed. This continuous -process of transmutation of substance and -change of form, in other words the phenomena -designated Life, may have been in operation -during all the past, and may continue forever.</p> - -<p>As all speculations concerning the origin of -matter have been unavailing, so all attempts to -solve the problem of the origin of life have proved -futile. The experiments recently carried on in -the Rockefeller Institute, in which by means -of chemical processes detached organs from the -bodies of animals have been made to perform their -normal functions, are interesting and instructive, -but these experiments furnish no clue to the origin -of the force which animates living organic matter. -Why the nucleated cells which we call a heart -should pulsate whilst those which we call a liver -should secrete bile, nobody knows.</p> - -<p>That all life on the earth has been derived from -one, or at most from a few original forms, is said<span class="pagenum" id="Page_7">7</span> -to be proved by ontogeny, or the history of the -germ, which in its development passes through -a number of the forms which mark the ascending -scale of life.</p> - -<p>Through the study of comparative anatomy, -the fact has been discovered that the individuals -composing the various orders of the great vertebrate -series are all moulded “on the same general -plan”; that up to a certain stage in the development -of the several germs—for instance those of -the man, the ape, the horse, the dog, etc.,—they -are not distinguishable the one from the other, -and that it is only at a later stage of development -that they take on the peculiarities belonging to -their own special kind. The number and variety -of forms which appear in the animal and vegetable -world make it difficult to conceive of the idea that -all have sprung from one, or at most from a few -original types, yet the chain of evidence in support -of this theory seems quite complete.</p> - -<p>Natural Selection, by which it is demonstrated -that organized matter must move forward simply -through the chemical and physical forces inherent -in it, furnishes a key to all the phenomena of life, -both animal and vegetable, which have ever appeared -on the earth. Natural Selection, we are -told, depends for its operation on the interaction -of two processes or agencies, namely, Inheritance -and Adaptation. Through Inheritance germs receive -from their parents a plastic form which, as -all development is a function of external physical<span class="pagenum" id="Page_8">8</span> -conditions, is itself nothing more than a “manifestation -of the remains of antecedent physical -impressions.” This inherited form causes them -to go forward in a predestined course, while -through Adaptation there is a constant tendency -to change that predestined form imposed upon -them by their parents to one better suited to their -changing physical conditions.</p> - -<p>According to the theory of Natural Selection, -organic structures vary to meet the requirements -of changed conditions; or, when existing circumstances -are such that they are forced into new and -unusual modes of life, they branch off into different -directions; thus new varieties are formed, or -possibly new species. Such portions of a group, -however, as remain sheltered from conditions -unsuited to their present line of development, -retain their ancient forms. This change of structure -by which organisms or portions of organic -bodies are modified so as to perform more complicated -functions, or those better suited to their -environment, is denominated differentiation; hence -the degree of differentiation attained by a structure -determines the stage of development which -it has reached.</p> - -<p>But to return to our single-celled animal—the -simplest form of life on the earth. Except that -by the action of the surrounding forces its surface -has become somewhat hardened, this little animal -is the same throughout, in other words, it is homogeneous. -The hardening of the outer portion<span class="pagenum" id="Page_9">9</span> -constitutes the first process of differentiation, and -therefore the first step in the order of progress.</p> - -<p>Comparing the simplest form of life, the little -carbon-sac found in the sea, with the germ from -which animals and plants are derived, Haeckel -says:</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>Originally every organic cell is only a single globule -of mucus, like a Moneron, but differing from it in -the fact that the homogeneous albuminous substance -has separated itself into two different parts, a firmer -albuminous body, the cell-kernel (nucleus), and an -external, softer albuminous body, the cell-substance -or body (protoplasma).<a id="FNanchor_3_3" href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">3</a></p></blockquote> - -<p>From its body, which, when at rest, is nearly -spherical, it is almost constantly casting forth -certain “finger-like processes” which are as quickly -withdrawn, only to reappear on some other portion -of its surface. The small particles of albuminous -matter with which it comes in contact adhere to -it, or are drawn into its semi-fluid body by displacement -of the several albuminous particles -of which it is composed, and are there digested, -being “absorbed by simple diffusion.” Its only -activity consists in supplying itself with nourishment, -and even during this process it is said to -display a negative or passive quality rather than -real action. The particles absorbed that are not -assimilated, are expelled through the surface of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_10">10</span> -the body in the same manner as they are taken -into it.</p> - -<p>At first, we are told, our animal is only a simple -cell, in fact that it is not a perfect cell, for as yet -the cell-kernel or nucleus has not been separated -from the cell-substance or protoplasm. When its -limit of size has been reached it multiplies by self-division, -or by simply breaking into parts, each -part performing the same functions of nutrition -and propagation as its predecessor. Later, however, -when a parent cell bursts, the newly developed -cells no longer separate from it, but, by -cohering to it and to each other, form a cluster of -nucleated cells, while around this aggregation of -units is formed a wall. Still its food is absorbed. -Subsequently, however, a mouth and prehensile -organs for seizing its food are developed, and the -divisions between the cells are converted into -channels or pipes through which nourishment is -conveyed to every part of the body. In process -of time, limbs for locomotion appear, together -with bones for levers, and muscles for moving -them. Finally, a brain and a heart are evolved, -and although at first the heart appears as only a -simple pulsating vessel, later this animal finds -itself the possessor of a perfect system of digestion, -circulation, and excretion, by which food, after -having been changed into blood and aërated or -purified by processes carried on in the system, is -pumped to every part of the body. With the -formation of different chemical combinations, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">11</span> -the development, through increasing specialization -of the various kinds of tissues, and finally of -the various organs, that intimate relationship observed -between the parts in homogeneous and less -differentiated structures no longer exists; hence, -in response to the demand for communication -between the various organs, numberless threads -or fibres begin to stretch themselves through the -muscles, and collecting in knots or centres in the -brain and spine, establish instantaneous communication -between the different parts, and convey sensation -and feeling throughout the entire organism.</p> - -<p>A division of labour has now been established, -and each organ, being in working order and fashioned -for its own special use, performs its separate -functions independently, although its activity -is co-ordinated with that of all other organs in -the structure.</p> - -<p>This far in the history of life on the earth sex -has not been developed, or, more correctly stated, -as the two sexes have not been separated, our -animal is still androgynous or hermaphrodite—the -reproductive functions being confined in -one and the same individual. Within this little -primeval animal, the progenitor of the human -race, lay not only all the possibilities which have -thus far been realized by mankind, but within -it were embodied also the “promise and potency” -of all that progress which is yet to come, and of -which man himself, in his present undeveloped -state, may have only a dim foreshadowing.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_12">12</span></p> - -<p>From the time of the appearance of life on -the earth to that of the separation of the sexes, -myriads of centuries may have intervened. Only -when through a division of labour these elements -became detached, and the special functions of -each were confided to two distinct and separate -individuals, did the independent history of the -female and male sexes begin.</p> - -<p>No fact is more patent, at the present time, -than that sex constitutes the underlying principle -throughout nature. Although it may not be -said of the simplest forms of life that sexual difference -has been established, yet we are assured -that among the ciliated Infusorians “male and -female nuclear elements have been distinguished.” -This primitive condition, however, is supposed -to be rather a state antecedent to sex than a union -of sexes in one organism. Among all the higher -orders of life, whether animal or vegetable, the -sex elements, female and male, are recognized -as the two great factors in creation.</p> - -<p>As, among all the animals in which there has -been a separation of sexes, there has been established -a division of labour, the consequent specialization -of organs and the differentiation of -parts form the true line of demarcation in the -march of the two diverging columns. Doubtless -in the future, when our knowledge of the history -of life on the earth has become more extended, it -will be found that it is only by tracing the processes -of differentiation throughout the two entire<span class="pagenum" id="Page_13">13</span> -lines of development that we may hope to unravel -all the mysteries bound up in the problem of sex, -or to understand the fundamental differences in -character and constitution caused by this early -division of labour.</p> - -<div class="chapter"></div> -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_14">14</span></p> - - - - -<h3><a name="CHAPTER_II-1" id="CHAPTER_II-1">CHAPTER II</a><br /> - -<small>THE ORIGIN OF SEX DIFFERENCES</small></h3> - - -<p>We have observed that, according to naturalists, -the earliest forms of life which appeared on -the earth were androgynous or hermaphrodite, -that the two elements necessary for reproduction -were originally confined within one and the same -individual within which were carried on all the -functions of reproduction. Later, however, a -division of labour arose, and these two original -functions became detached, after which time the -reproductive processes were carried on only -through the commingling of elements prepared by, -or developed within, two separate and distinct -individuals.</p> - -<p>As the belief is entertained by our guides in -this matter that greater differentiation, or specialization -of parts, denotes higher organization, it -is believed that the division of labour by which the -germ is prepared by one individual and the sperm -by another individual, as is the case at the present -time with all the higher orders of life, constitutes -an important step in the line of progress. Here -this line of argument ceases, and, until very recent<span class="pagenum" id="Page_15">15</span> -times, concerning the course of development followed -by each sex little has been heard. This -silence on a subject of such vital importance to -the student of biology is not perhaps difficult to -understand; the conclusion, however, is unavoidable -that the individual which must nourish and -protect the germ, and by processes carried on -within her own body provide nourishment for the -young during its prenatal existence, and sometimes -for years after birth, must have the more highly -specialized organism, and must, therefore, represent -the higher stage of development. Indeed, -it is admitted by scientists that the advance from -the egg-layers to the milk-givers indicates one of -the most important steps in the entire line of development; -and yet the peculiar specialization of -structure necessary for its accomplishment was -for the most part carried on within the female -organism.</p> - -<p>Concerning the origin of sex in the individual -organism little seems to be known; as a result, -however, of observations on the development of -the reproductive organs in the higher vertebrates, -and especially in birds, it is believed that there -exists a “strict parallelism between the individual -and the racial history,”—that the three main stages -in the development of the chick, viz.: (1) germi-parity, -(2) hermaphroditism, and (3) differentiated -unisexuality, correspond to the three great steps -of historic evolution.</p> - -<p>By a careful investigation of the facts connected<span class="pagenum" id="Page_16">16</span> -with the development of unisexual forms, we are -enabled to discover the early beginnings of the -characteristics which distinguish the two sexes -throughout their entire course. We are told that -with animals which have their sexes separate, in -addition to strictly sexual difference</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>the male possesses certain organs of sense or locomotion, -of which the female is quite destitute, or has -them more highly developed, in order that he may -readily find or reach her; or again the male has special -organs of prehension for holding her securely. These -latter organs, of infinitely diversified kinds, graduate -into those which are commonly ranked as primary.<a id="FNanchor_4_4" href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">4</a></p></blockquote> - -<p>The female, on the other hand, in addition to -those sexual characters which are strictly primary, -has “organs for the nourishment or protection of -her young, such as the mammary glands of mammals, -and the abdominal sacks of the marsupials.” -In addition to these she is frequently provided with -organs for the defence of the community; for -instance, “the females of most bees are provided -with a special apparatus for collecting and carrying -pollen, and their ovipositor is modified into a -sting for the defence of the larvæ and the community.” -We are assured by Mr. Darwin that many -similar cases could be given.<a id="FNanchor_5_5" href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">5</a></p> - -<p>Here, then, with almost the first or primary step -toward sexual differentiation, may be observed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_17">17</span> -the establishment of that peculiar bias which -upon investigation will be seen to extend all along -the two lines of sexual demarcation, and which -(to anticipate the conclusions of our argument), -as soon as mankind is reached, appears in the -male as extreme egoism or selfishness, and in the -female as altruism or care for other individuals -outside of self.</p> - -<p>We are assured, however, that it is not alone to -the reproductive organs and their functions that -we are to look for the chief differences in the constitution -and character of the sexes. Neither is -it entirely to Natural Selection that we are to -seek for the causes which underlie the specialization -peculiar to the two diverging lines of sexual -demarcation; in addition to primary sexual divergences, -there are also “secondary sexual characters” -which are of great importance to their possessor. -Indeed, from the prominence given to Sexual -Selection by Mr. Darwin, it would seem that it -played a part in the development of males quite -equal to that of Natural Selection itself.</p> - -<p>Now the difference between Natural Selection -and Sexual Selection is that, whereas, in the former, -characters are developed and preserved which -are of use to the individual in overcoming the -unfavourable conditions of environment, by the -latter, only those characters are acquired and -preserved which assist the individual in overcoming -the obstacles to reproduction; or, to use Mr. -Darwin’s own language:</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">18</span></p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>[Sexual Selection] depends on the advantage which -certain individuals have over others of the same sex -and species solely in respect of reproduction.... -[Where] the males have acquired their present structure, -not from being better fitted to survive in the -struggle of existence, but from having gained an advantage -over other males, and from having transmitted -this advantage to their male offspring alone, -sexual selection must here have come into action.... -A slight degree of variability leading to some advantage, -however slight, in reiterated deadly contests would -suffice for the work of sexual selection; and it is -certain that secondary sexual characters are eminently -variable. Just as man can give beauty, according -to his standard of taste, to his male poultry, or more -strictly can modify the beauty originally acquired -by the parent species, can give to the Sebright bantam -a new and elegant plumage, an erect and peculiar -carriage—so it appears the female birds in a state of -nature, have by a long selection of the more attractive -males, added to their beauty or other attractive -qualities.<a id="FNanchor_6_6" href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">6</a></p></blockquote> - -<p>Thus, according to Mr. Darwin, it is through a -long selection by females of the more attractive -males that the present structure of the latter has -been acquired. If, in a short time, a man can give -elegant carriage and beauty to his bantams, according -to his standard of beauty, he can see no -reason to doubt that female birds, by selecting -during thousands of generations the most melodious -or beautiful males, according to their<span class="pagenum" id="Page_19">19</span> -standard of beauty, might produce a marked -effect. He says:</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>To sum up on the means through which, as far as -we can judge, sexual selection has led to the development -of secondary sexual characters. It has been -shown that the largest number of vigorous offspring -will be reared from the pairing of the strongest and best -armed males, victorious in contests over other males, -with the most vigorous and best-nourished females, -which are the first to breed in the spring. If such -females select the more attractive, and at the same -time vigorous males, they will rear a larger number of -offspring than the retarded females, which must pair -with the less vigorous and less attractive males.... -The advantage thus gained by the more vigorous pairs -in rearing a larger number of offspring has apparently -sufficed to render sexual selection efficient.<a id="FNanchor_7_7" href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">7</a></p></blockquote> - -<p>Although the belief is common among naturalists -that the appearance of secondary sexual -characters belonging to males is greatly influenced -by female choice, a majority of writers upon this -subject are not in sympathy with Mr. Darwin’s -theory concerning the origin of these variations. -It is believed by them that Sexual Selection “may -account for the perfecting, but not for the origin, -of these characters.”</p> - -<p>It is useless, however, to rehearse the opinions -of the various writers who have dealt with this -subject. It is perhaps sufficient to state that<span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">20</span> -the great beauty of males has usually been accepted -as evidence of their superiority over the -females.</p> - -<p>In his chapter, “The Male generally more -Modified than the Female,” Mr. Darwin remarks: -“Appearances would indicate that not the male -which is most attractive to the female is chosen, -but the one which is least distasteful.” He says -that the aversion of female birds for certain males -renders the season of courtship one of great anxiety -and discomfiture, not only to many of the more -poorly endowed aspirants, but to those also which -are more magnificently attired—that the pairing -ground becomes a field of battle, upon which, -while parading their charms to the best advantage, -is sacrificed much of the gorgeous plumage of the -contestants. On the wooing ground are displayed -for the admiration and approval of the females, -all the physical attractions of the males, as well -as the mental characters correlated with them, -namely, courage, and pugnacity or perseverance. -According to Mr. Darwin, with the exception of -vanity, no other quality is in any considerable -degree manifested by male birds, but to such an -extent has love of display been developed in many -of them, notably the pea-fowl, that, “in the absence -of females of his own species, he will show -off his finery before poultry and even pigs.” We -are assured that the higher we ascend in the -animal kingdom the more frequent and more -violent become two desires in the male:<span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">21</span> “the -desire of appearing beautiful, and that of driving -away rivals.” According to Mr. Darwin’s theory -of development, because of the indifference of -the female among the lower orders of life to the -processes of courtship, it has been necessary for -the male to expend much energy or vital force in -searching for her—in contending with his rivals -for possession of her person, and in performing -various acts to please her and secure her favours. -While excessive eagerness in courtship is the one -all-absorbing character of male fishes, birds, and -mammals, we are assured that with the females, -pairing is not only a matter of indifference, but -that courtship is actually distasteful to them, and, -therefore, that the former must resort to the various -means referred to in order to induce the latter -to submit to their advances.</p> - -<p>We are informed that the female is sometimes -charmed through the power of song; that at other -times she is captivated by the diversified means -which have been acquired by male insects and -birds for producing various sounds resembling -those proceeding from certain kinds of musical -instruments; and not unfrequently she is won -by means of antics or love dances performed -on the ground or in the air. On the pairing-ground, -combs, wattles, elongated plumes, top-knots, -and fancy-coloured feathers are paraded -for the admiration and approval of the females. -Led by the all-absorbing instinct of -desire,</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">22</span></p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>the males display their charms with elaborate -care and to the best effect; and this is done in the -presence of the females.... To suppose that the -females do not appreciate the beauty of the males, is -to admit that their splendid decorations, and all -their pomp and display, are useless; and this is -incredible.<a id="FNanchor_8_8" href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">8</a></p></blockquote> - -<p>Topknots, gaudy feathers, elongated plumes -among birds, huge tusks, horns, etc., among mammals, -the mane of the lion, and the beard of man, -may be noticed among the many characters which -have been acquired through Sexual Selection.</p> - -<p>Although the immense teeth, tusks, horns, and -various other weapons or appendages which ornament -the males of many species of mammals, -have all been developed through Sexual Selection -for contending with their rivals for the favours of -the females, it is observed that the “most pugnacious -and best armed males seldom depend for -success on their ability to drive away or kill their -rivals,” but that their special aim is to “charm -the female.” Mr. Darwin quotes from a “good -observer,” who believes that the battles of male -birds “are all a sham, performed to show themselves -to the greatest advantage before the admiring -females who assemble around.”<a id="FNanchor_9_9" href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">9</a></p> - -<p>In <i>The Descent of Man</i> is quoted the following -from Mr. Belt, who, after describing the beauty -of the <i>Florisuga mellivora</i>, says:</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">23</span></p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>I have seen the female sitting on a branch, and two -males displaying their charms in front of her. One -would shoot up like a rocket, then suddenly expanding -the snow-white tail, like an inverted parachute, slowly -descend in front of her, turning round gradually to -show off back and front.... The expanded white -tail covered more space than all the rest of the bird, -and was evidently the grand feature in the performance. -Whilst one male was descending, the other -would shoot up and come slowly down expanded. -The entertainment would end in a fight between the -two performers; but whether the most beautiful or -the most pugnacious was the accepted suitor, I know -not.<a id="FNanchor_10_10" href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">10</a></p></blockquote> - -<p>Audubon, who spent a long life in observing -birds, has no doubt that the female deliberately -chooses her mate. Of the woodpecker he says the -hen is followed by half a dozen suitors, who continue -performing strange antics “until a marked -preference is shown for one.” Of the red-winged -starling it is said that she is pursued by several -males “until, becoming fatigued, she alights, receives -their addresses, and soon makes a choice.”<a id="FNanchor_11_11" href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">11</a> -Mr. Darwin quotes further from Audubon, who -says that among the Virginia goat-suckers, no -sooner has the female “made her choice than her -approved gives chase to all intruders, and drives -them beyond his dominions.”</p> - -<p>It is said that among mammals the male depends -almost entirely upon his strength and courage to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">24</span> -“charm the female.” With reference to the -struggles between animals for the possession of -the females, Mr. Darwin says:</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>This fact is so notorious that it would be superfluous -to give instances. Hence the females have the opportunity -of selecting one out of several males, on the -supposition that their mental capacity suffices for the -exertion of a choice.<a id="FNanchor_12_12" href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">12</a></p></blockquote> - -<p>We are assured that among nearly all the lower -orders of life the female exhibits a marked preference -for certain individuals, and that an equal -degree of repugnance is manifested towards others, -but that the male, whose predominant character -is desire, “is ready to pair with any female.” On -this subject Mr. Darwin remarks: “The general -impression seems to be that the male accepts any -female.” He says it frequently occurs that while -two males are fighting together to win the favours -of a female, she goes away with a third for whom -she has a preference. Mr. Darwin quotes from -Captain Bryant, who says of a certain species of -seals:</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>Many of the females on their arrival at the island -where they breed, appear desirous of returning to -some particular male, and frequently climb the outlying -rock to overlook the rookeries, calling out and -listening as if for a familiar voice. Then changing -to another place they do the same again.<a id="FNanchor_13_13" href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">13</a></p></blockquote> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_25">25</span></p> -<p>Little seems to be known of the courtship of -animals in a state of nature. Among domesticated -species, however, many observations have been -made by breeders going to prove that the female -exerts a choice in pairing. Concerning dogs, Mr. -Darwin quotes from Mr. Mayhew, who says: -“The females are able to bestow their affections; -and tender recollections are as potent over them -as they are known to be in other cases where -higher animals are concerned.” Of the affection -of female dogs for certain males the same writer -says it “becomes of more than romantic endurance,” -that they manifest a “devotion which no -time can afterwards subdue.”</p> - -<p>On concluding his chapter on choice in pairing -among quadrupeds, Mr. Darwin remarks:</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>It is improbable that the unions of quadrupeds in a -state of nature should be left to mere chance. It is -much more probable that the females are allured -or excited by particular males, who possess certain -characters in a higher degree than other males.<a id="FNanchor_14_14" href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">14</a></p></blockquote> - -<p>As the female among birds selects her partner, -he thinks it would be a strange anomaly if among -quadrupeds, which stand higher in the scale and -have higher mental powers, she did not also exert -a choice.<a id="FNanchor_15_15" href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">15</a></p> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_26">26</span></p> -<p>Because of the indifference of the female to the -attentions of the male, in order to carry on the -processes of reproduction, it was necessary among -the lower orders that the male become eager in his -pursuit of her, and as a result of this eagerness -excessive passion was developed in him. As the -most eager would be the most successful in propagating, -they would leave the greatest number of -offspring to inherit their characters—namely, in -males, passion and pugnacity correlated with -the physical qualities acquired through Sexual -Selection.</p> - -<p>On the subject of the acquirement of secondary -sexual characters, Mr. Darwin says: “The great -eagerness of the males has thus indirectly led to -their much more frequently developing secondary -sexual characters.” Indeed, by all naturalists, -the fact is recognized that the appearance of these -characters is closely connected with the reproductive -function.</p> - -<p>Later experiments have confirmed the observations -of Mr. Darwin concerning the intelligence of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">27</span> -the female among the lower orders of life. Among -these experiments are those recently made by -Professor Harper, of the Department of Biology, in -the Northwestern University. Professor Harper -announces that in all the experiments conducted -by him, the female animal showed a greater degree -of perception, or intelligence, than the male. He -says: “In all my experiments, I found that the -female displayed a remarkable quickness in grasping -ideas which the male after numerous sluggish -efforts finally accomplished.” Professor Harper declared -that these facts regarding animals apply -with equal force to human beings.</p> - -<p>Regarding the power of the female to appreciate -the beauty of the males, Mr. Darwin says:</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>No doubt this implies powers of discrimination -and taste on the part of the female which will at first -appear extremely improbable; but by the facts to -be adduced hereafter, I hope to be able to show that -the females actually have these powers.<a id="FNanchor_16_16" href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">16</a></p></blockquote> - -<p>In commenting on the fact that the female -Argus pheasant appreciates the exquisite shading -of the ball-and-socket ornaments, and the elegant -patterns on the wing-feathers of the male, Mr. -Darwin writes:</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>He who thinks that the male was created as he now -exists, must admit that the great plumes which prevent -the wings from being used for flight, and which are<span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">28</span> -displayed at courtship and at no other time, in a manner -quite peculiar to this species, were given to him -as ornaments. If so he must likewise admit that -the female was created and endowed with the capacity -for appreciating such ornaments. Every one who -admits the principle of evolution, and yet feels great -difficulty in believing the high taste implied by the -beauty of the males, and which generally coincides -with our own standard, should reflect that the -nerve cells of the brain in the highest as in the lowest -members of the vertebrate series are derived -from those of the common progenitor of this great -kingdom.</p></blockquote> - -<p>In referring to the remarkable patterns displayed -on the male Argus pheasant, designs which -have been developed through Sexual Selection, -Mr. Darwin says:</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>Many will declare that it is utterly incredible that -a female bird should be able to appreciate fine shading -and exquisite patterns. It is undoubtedly a marvellous -fact that she should possess this almost human -degree of taste. He who thinks that he can safely -gauge the discrimination and taste of the lower animals -may deny that the female Argus pheasant can -appreciate such refined beauty; but he will then be -compelled to admit that the extraordinary attitudes -assumed by the male during the act of courtship, by -which the wonderful beauty of his plumage is fully -displayed, are purposeless; and this is a conclusion -which I, for one, will never admit.<a id="FNanchor_17_17" href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">17</a></p></blockquote> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">29</span></p> -<p>Here, then, in the female bird we see developed -in a remarkable degree the power of discrimination, -the exercise of taste, a sense of beauty, and the -ability to choose—qualities which the facts brought -forward by scientists show conclusively to have -been acquired by the female and by her transmitted -to her offspring. Regarding males, outside the -instinct for self-preservation, which, by the way, -is often overshadowed by their great sexual eagerness, -no distinguishing characters have been acquired -and transmitted, other than those which -have been the result of passion, namely, pugnacity -and perseverance. This excessive eagerness which -prompts them to parade their charms whenever -such display is likely to aid them in the gratification -of their desires is developed only in the male -line.</p> - -<p>According to the law of heredity, those modifications -of the male which have been the result -of Sexual Selection appear only in the sex in which -they originated. It will be well for us to remember -that according to Mr. Darwin’s theory of -pangenesis, sexes do not differ much in constitution -before the power of reproduction is reached, -but that after this time the undeveloped atoms or</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>gemmules which are cast off from each varying part -in the one sex would be much more likely to possess -the proper affinities for uniting with the tissues of -the same sex, and thus becoming developed, than -with those of the opposite sex.<a id="FNanchor_18_18" href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">18</a></p></blockquote> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">30</span></p> -<p>We are given to understand that secondary -sexual characters are extremely variable, also that -variability denotes low organization; secondary -sexual characters indicate that the various organs -of the structure have not become specialized for -the performance of their legitimate functions. -Highly specialized forms are not variable.</p> - -<p>To sum up the argument thus far: It has been -observed that through the separation of the sexes, -and the consequent division of labour, there have -been established two diverging lines of development. -While the male pheasant has been inheriting -from his male progenitors fantastic -ball-and-socket ornaments, and huge wings which -are utterly useless for their legitimate purpose, the -female, in the meantime, has been receiving as -her inheritance only those peculiarities of structure -which tend toward uninterrupted development. -Within her have been stored or conserved -all the gain which has been effected through -Natural Selection, and as a result of greater specialization -of parts, there have been developed certain -peculiarities in her brain nerve-cells, by which -she is enabled to exercise functions requiring a -considerable degree of intelligence.</p> - -<p>Although this power of choice, which we are -given to understand is exercised by the female -throughout the various departments of the vertebrate -kingdom (evidences of it having been observed -among creatures even as low in the organic -scale as fishes), implies a degree of intelligence<span class="pagenum" id="Page_31">31</span> -far in advance of that manifested by males, it is -admitted that the qualities which bespeak this -superiority, namely, the power to exercise taste -and discrimination, constitute a “law almost as -general as the eagerness of the male.”<a id="FNanchor_19_19" href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">19</a></p> - -<p>We are assured by Mr. Darwin that in the -economy of nature those ornaments of the male -Argus pheasant which serve no other purpose than -to please the female and secure her favours, and -which have been acquired at great expense of -vital force, are of the “highest importance to -him,” and that his success in captivating the -female “has more than compensated him for his -greatly impeded power of flight and his lessened -capacity for running.” Yet it is plain that his -compensation for this immense expenditure of -vital force has not lain in the direction of higher -specialization, but that while by the acquirement -of these characters the processes of reproduction -have doubtless been aided, the injury to the male -constitution has been deep and lasting.</p> - -<p>Upon this subject Mr. Darwin himself says:</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>The development, however, of certain structures—of -the horns, for instance, in certain stags—has been -carried to a wonderful extreme; and in some cases to -an extreme which, as far as the general conditions of -life are concerned, must be slightly injurious to the -male.<a id="FNanchor_20_20" href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">20</a></p></blockquote> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">32</span></p> -<p>He thinks, however, that</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>Natural Selection will determine that such characters -shall not be acquired by the victorious males if they -would be highly injurious, either by expending too -much of their vital powers or by exposing them to -any great danger.</p></blockquote> - -<p>According to Mr. Darwin, as these characters -enable them to leave a more numerous progeny, -their advantages are in the long run greater than -those derived from more perfect adaptation to -their conditions of life. It is plain, however, that -this advantage, although it enables them to gratify -their desires, and at the same time to perpetuate -their species, does not imply higher development -for the male organism.</p> - -<p>We have been assured by our guides in these -matters that in the processes of evolution there -is no continuous or unbroken chain of progress, -that growth or change does not necessarily imply -development, but, on the contrary, only as a -structure becomes better fitted for its conditions, -and only as its organs become more highly specialized -for the performance of all the duties involved -in its environment, may it be said to be in the line -of progress. If this be true, particular attention -should be directed to the fact that as secondary -sexual characters do not assist their possessor in -overcoming the unfavourable conditions of his -environment, they are not within the line of true -development, but, on the contrary, as their growth<span class="pagenum" id="Page_33">33</span> -requires a great expenditure of vital force, and, -as is the case among birds, they often hinder the -free use of the legs in running and walking, and -entirely destroy the use of the wings for flight, -they must be detrimental to the entire structure. -For the reason that females have managed to do -without them, the plea that the great tusks, horns, -teeth, etc., of mammals have been acquired for -self-defence, is scarcely tenable.</p> - -<p>On the subject of the relative expenditure of -vital force in the two lines of sexual demarcation, -Mr. Darwin remarks:</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>The female has to expend much organic matter in -the formation of her ova, whereas the male expends -much force in fierce contests with his rivals, in wandering -about in search of the female, in exerting his voice, -pouring out odoriferous secretions, etc.... In mankind, -and even as low down in the organic scale as -in the Lepidoptera, the temperature of the body is -higher in the male than in the female, accompanied in -the case of man by a slower pulse.[21]</p></blockquote> - -<p>Yet he concludes: “On the whole the expenditure -of matter and force by the two sexes is probably -nearly equal, though effected in very different -ways and at different rates.”<a id="FNanchor_21_21" href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">21</a></p> - -<p>However, as has been observed, the force expended -by the male in fierce contests with his -rivals, in wandering about in search of the female, -and in his exertions to please her when found, does<span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">34</span> -not constitute the only outlay of vitality to which -he is subjected; but in addition to all this, there -still remains to be considered that force which -has been expended in the acquirement of characters -which, so far as his own development is concerned, -are useless and worse than useless; namely, in -birds, combs, wattles, elongated plumes, great -wings, etc., and in mammals great horns, tusks, -and teeth—appendages which lie outside the line -of true development, and, as we have seen, are -of no avail except to aid in the processes of reproduction -and to assist him in the gratification of -his desires; in fact, as these excrescences hinder -him in the performance of the ordinary functions -of life, they may be regarded in the light of actual -hindrances to higher development.</p> - -<div class="chapter"></div> -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">35</span></p> - - - - -<h3><a name="CHAPTER_III-1" id="CHAPTER_III-1">CHAPTER III</a><br /> - -<small>MALE ORGANIC DEFECTS</small></h3> - - -<p>We have observed that through the great sexual -ardour developed at puberty within the male of -the lower species, numberless variations of structure -have been acquired, characters which, as -they are the result of undeveloped atoms cast -off from the varying parts in his progenitors, -denote low organization. We have seen also -that these characters require for their growth -an immense amount of vital force, which, had -the development of the male been normal, would -have been expended in perfecting the organism, -or would have been utilized in fitting it to overcome -the adverse conditions of his environment. -Secondary sexual characters, being so far as males -are concerned, wholly the result of eagerness in -courtship, cannot appear before the time for reproduction -arrives, and as it is a law of heredity -that peculiarities of structure which are developed -late in life, when transmitted to offspring, appear -only in the sex in which they originated, these -variations of structure are confined to males.</p> - -<p>According to Mr. Darwin’s theory little differ<span class="pagenum" id="Page_36">36</span>ence -exists between the sexes until the age of reproduction -arrives. It is at this time, the time -when the secondary sexual characters begin to -assert themselves, that the preponderating superiority -of the male begins to manifest itself.</p> - -<p>Although, according to Mr. Darwin, variability -denotes low organization and shows that the -various organs of the body have not become specialized -to perform properly their legitimate functions, -it is to characters correlated with and -dependent upon these varying parts that the male -has ultimately become superior to the female. If -these characters, namely, pugnacity, perseverance, -and courage have been such important factors in -establishing male superiority, too much care may -not be exercised in analyzing them and in tracing -their origin and subsequent development.</p> - -<p>Sexual Selection resembles artificial selection -save that the female takes the part of the human -breeder. She represents the intelligent factor or -cause in the operations involved. If this be true, -if it is through her will, or through some agency -or tendency latent in her constitution that Sexual -Selection comes into play, then she is the primary -cause of the very characters through which man’s -superiority over woman has been gained. As a -stream may not rise higher than its source, or as -the creature may not surpass its creator in excellence, -it is difficult to understand the processes -by which man, through Sexual Selection, has become -superior to woman.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_37">37</span></p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>He who admits the principle of Sexual Selection will -be led to the remarkable conclusion that the nervous -system not only regulates most of the existing functions -of the body, but has indirectly influenced the -progressive development of various bodily structures -and certain mental qualities. Courage, pugnacity, -perseverance, strength and size of body, weapons of -all kinds, musical organs, both vocal and instrumental, -bright colours, and ornamental appendages have all -been indirectly gained by the one sex or the other, -through the exertion of choice, the influence of love -and jealousy, and the appreciation of the beautiful in -sound, colour, or form; and these powers of the mind -manifestly depend on the development of the brain.<a id="FNanchor_22_22" href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">22</a></p></blockquote> - -<p>While the female has been performing the higher -functions in the processes of reproduction, through -her force of will, or through her power of choice, -she has also been the directing and controlling -agency in the development of those characters -in the male through which, when the human -species was reached, he was enabled to attain a -limited degree of progress.</p> - -<p>Since the origin of secondary sexual characters -is so clearly manifest, perhaps it will be well for -us at this point to examine also their actual significance, -that we may be enabled to note the foundation -upon which the dogma of male superiority -rests.</p> - -<p>Although the gay colouring of male birds and -fishes has usually been regarded as an indication<span class="pagenum" id="Page_38">38</span> -of their superiority over their sombre-coloured -mates, later investigations are proving that these -pigments represent simply unspecialized material, -and an effort of the system to cast out the waste -products which have accumulated as a result of -excessive ardour in courtship. The same is true -of combs, wattles, and other skin excrescences; -they show a feverish condition of the skin in the -over-excited males, whose temperature is usually -much higher than is that of females. We are -assured that the skin eruptions of male fishes at -the spawning season “seem more pathological -than decorative.”<a id="FNanchor_23_23" href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">23</a> In the processes of reproduction, -the undeveloped atoms given off from each -varying part are reproduced only in the male line.</p> - -<p>The beautiful colouring of male birds and fishes, -and the various appendages acquired by males -throughout the various orders below man, and -which, so far as they themselves are concerned, -serve no other useful purpose than to aid them in -securing the favours of the females, have by the -latter been turned to account in the processes of -reproduction. The female made the male beautiful -that she might endure his caresses.</p> - -<p>From the facts elaborated by our guides in this -matter, it would seem that the female is the -primary unit of creation, and that the male functions -are simply supplemental or complementary. -Parthenogenesis among many of the lower forms of -life would seem to favour this view. We are given<span class="pagenum" id="Page_39">39</span> -to understand that under conditions favouring -katabolism, the males among Rotifera wear themselves -out, under which conditions the females -become katabolic enough to do without them.</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>Among the common Rotifera, the males are almost -always very different from the females, and much -smaller. Sometimes they seem to have dwindled out -of existence altogether, for only the females are known. -In other cases, though present, they entirely fail to -accomplish their proper function of fertilization, and, -as parthenogenesis obtains, are not only minute, but -useless.<a id="FNanchor_24_24" href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">24</a></p></blockquote> - -<p>So long as food is plentiful, the females continue -to raise parthenogenetic offspring, but with the -advent of hard times, when food is scarce or of a -poor quality, the parthenogenetic series is interrupted -by the appearance of males. Although, -unaided by the male, the female of certain species -is able to reproduce, he has never been able to -propagate without her co-operation.</p> - -<p>Concerning the conditions which underlie the -production of females and males we have the following -from <i>The Evolution of Sex</i>, by Geddes and -Thomson:</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>Such conditions as deficient or abnormal food, high -temperature, deficient light, moisture, and the like, -are obviously such as would tend to induce a preponderance -of waste over repair—a katabolic habit of -body,—and these conditions tend to result in the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">40</span> -production of males. Similarly, the opposed set of -factors, such as abundant and rich nutrition, abundant -light and moisture, favour constructive processes, -<i>i.e.</i>, make for an anabolic habit, and these conditions -result in the production of females.<a id="FNanchor_25_25" href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">25</a></p></blockquote> - -<p>Among the lower orders of animal life, notably -insects, we are assured that an excess of females -denotes an excess of formative force, and that an -excess of males indicates a deficiency on the part -of the parents. In the case of bees, the queen, -which is the highest development, is produced -only under the best circumstances of nutrition, -while the birth of the drone, which is the lowest -result of propagation, is preceded by extremely -low conditions.</p> - -<p>The working bee which, being an imperfect -female, may not be impregnated, will, however, -give birth to parthenogenetic offspring, such offspring -always being male. In the case of Aphides, -the sex depends on the conditions of nutrition. -During the summer months while food is plentiful -and nutritious, females are parthenogenetically -produced, but with the return of autumn and the -attendant scarcity of food, together with the low -temperature, only males are brought forth. In -seasons in which food is abundant, Cladocera and -Aphides lose the power to copulate; they nevertheless -multiply parthenogenetically at a marvellous -rate of increase,</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_41">41</span></p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>giving birth to generation after generation of parthenogenetic -females, so long as the environment remains -favourable, but giving birth, as soon as the conditions -of life become less favourable, to males and to females -which require fertilization.<a id="FNanchor_26_26" href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">26</a></p></blockquote> - -<p>It is stated also that if caterpillars are shut -up and starved before entering the chrysalis stage, -the butterflies which make their appearance are -males, while the highly nourished caterpillars are -sure to come out females. In the case of moths -unnutritious food produces only males.</p> - -<p>Experiments show that when tadpoles are left -to themselves the average number of females is -about fifty-seven in the hundred, but that under -favourable conditions the percentage of females -is greatly increased. The following is the result -of one series of observations by Yung. In the -first brood, by feeding one set with beef, the -percentage of females was raised from fifty-four -to seventy-eight; in the second, with fish, the -percentage rose from sixty-one to eighty-one, which -in the third set, when the nutritious flesh of frogs -was supplied, only eight males were produced to -ninety-two females.<a id="FNanchor_27_27" href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">27</a></p> - -<p>It is stated that although scarcity of food is an -important factor in determining the appearance -of males, temperature also plays an important -part in their production. Kurg having found a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_42">42</span> -few males in midsummer in pools which were -nearly dried up was induced to attempt their -artificial production. So successful was he, that -“he obtained the males of forty species, in all of -which the males had previously been unknown.” -He proved that</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>any unfavourable change in the water causes the -production of males, which appear as it dries up, as -its chemical constitution changes, when it acquires -an unfavourable temperature, or, in general, when -there is a decrease in prosperity.</p></blockquote> - -<p class="pnindent">From which observations and many others quoted -from Düring, Professor Brooks concludes that -“among animals and plants, as well as in mankind, -a favourable environment causes an excess -of female births, and an unfavourable environment -an excess of male births.”<a id="FNanchor_28_28" href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">28</a> According to Rolph, -also, the percentage of females increases with the -increase of favourable conditions of temperature -and food.</p> - -<p>Among insects the males appear first, thus -showing that less time is required to develop them -from the larval state. Of this Mr. Darwin says: -“Throughout the great class of insects the males -almost always are the first to emerge from the -pupal state, so that they generally abound for a -time before any female can be seen.”<a id="FNanchor_29_29" href="#Footnote_29_29" class="fnanchor">29</a></p> - -<p>Recent observations show that among the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">43</span> -human species nutrition plays a significant part -in determining sex. Statistics prove that in -towns and in well-to-do families there is a preponderance -of girls, while in the country, and -among the poor, more boys are born; also, that -immediately following epidemics, wars, and famines, -there is an excess of male births. On examination, -it was found that in Saxony “the ratio of -boy-births rose and fell with the price of food, -and that the variation was most marked in the -country.”<a id="FNanchor_30_30" href="#Footnote_30_30" class="fnanchor">30</a></p> - -<p>That the female represents a higher development -than the male is proved throughout all the -various departments of nature. Among plants, -staminate flowers open before pistillate, and are -much more abundant, and less differentiated from -the leaves, showing that they are less developed, -and that slighter effort, a less expenditure of force, -is necessary to form the male than the female. -A male flower represents an intermediate stage -between a leaf and a perfect, or we might say, a -female flower, and the germ which produces the -male would, in a higher stage, produce the female.<a id="FNanchor_31_31" href="#Footnote_31_31" class="fnanchor">31</a> -In reference to the subject of the relative positions -of the female and male flowers in the Sedges, Mr. -Meehan observes:</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>In some cases the spike of the male flowers terminates -the scape; in others the male flowers occupy the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_44">44</span> -lower place; in others, again they have various places -on the same spike. It will be generally noted that -this is associated together with lines of nutrition,—those -evidently favoured by comparative abundance -sustaining the female flowers.</p></blockquote> - -<p>To this Mr. Meehan adds:</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>And this is indeed a natural consequence, for, as -vitality exists so much longer in the female than the -male flowers, which generally die when the pollen -has matured, it is essential that they should have -every advantage in this respect.<a id="FNanchor_32_32" href="#Footnote_32_32" class="fnanchor">32</a></p></blockquote> - -<p>The most perfect and vigorous specimens of -coniferous trees are of the female kind. In its -highest and most luxuriant stage the larch bears -only female blossoms, but so soon as its vigour -is lost male flowers appear, after which death -soon ensues.</p> - -<p>In <i>The Evolution of Sex</i>, by Geddes and Thomson, -is the following:</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>In phraseology which will presently become more -intelligible and concrete, the males live at a loss, are -more katabolic,—disruptive changes tending to preponderate -in the sum of changes in their living matter -or protoplasm. The females, on the other hand, live -at a profit, are more anabolic,—constructive processes -predominating in their life, whence indeed the capacity -of bearing offspring.<a id="FNanchor_33_33" href="#Footnote_33_33" class="fnanchor">33</a></p></blockquote> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">45</span></p> -<p>Among the lower orders of animals, there appears -an excess of males, and among the higher -forms of life, man included, the fact that the male -is the result of the cruder, less developed germ, -has been clearly shown, not alone by the facts -brought forward by Mr. Darwin, but by those -enunciated by all reliable writers on this subject. -As a result of the excessive eagerness in males, -and the consequent expenditure of vital force -among the lower orders of life to find the female -and secure her favours, they are generally smaller -in size, with a higher body temperature and -shorter life. Among the higher orders, the human -species, for instance, although man is larger than -woman, he is still shorter lived, has less endurance, -is more predisposed to organic diseases, and is -more given to reversion to former types, facts -which show that his greater size is not the result -of higher development. It is noted that the -liability to assume characters proper to lower -orders belongs in a marked degree to males of all -the higher species—man included.</p> - -<p>Doubtless man’s greater size (a modification -which has been acquired through Sexual Selection) -has been of considerable value to him in the struggle -for existence to which he has been subjected, but -the indications are already strong that after a -certain stage of progress has been reached, even -this modification of structure will prove useless, -if not an actual hindrance to him. On mechanical -principles, every increase of size requires more than<span class="pagenum" id="Page_46">46</span> -a corresponding increase of strength and endurance -to balance the activities and carry on the -vital processes, yet such have been the conditions -of man’s development, that his excess of strength -does not compensate for his greater size and -weight, while his powers of endurance fall below -those of women.</p> - -<p>Although the conditions of the past have required -a vast expenditure of physical energy, the -activities of the future will make no such demand. -Nature’s forces directed by the human will and -intellect are already lessening the necessity for -an excessive outlay of bodily strength. It may -be truly said that electricity and the innumerable -mechanical devices now in use have well nigh -supplanted the necessity for great physical exertion. -Even war, should it be continued, which -is not likely, will be conducted without it. Destructive -weapons based upon high-power explosives -require little physical effort for their -manipulation. The pugilist represents the departing -glory of male physical strength.</p> - -<p>We are informed by Mr. Darwin that by a vast -number of measurements taken of various parts -of the human body in different races, during his -Novara Expedition, it was found that the men -in almost every case presented a greater range of -variations than women, and, as Mr. Wood has -carefully attended to the variations of the muscles -of man, Mr. Darwin quotes from him that<span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">47</span> “the -greatest number of abnormalities in each subject -is found in males.” He adduces also the testimony -of several others who have practically investigated -this subject, all of whom agree in their -statements that variations in the muscles are more -frequent in males than in females. These variations -usually consist in a reversion to lower types—a -reversion in which muscles proper to lower -forms of life make their appearance.</p> - -<p>In an examination of forty male subjects, there -was in nineteen of them a rudimentary muscle -found which is designated as the ischio-pubic, -and in three others of the forty was observed a -ligament which represents this muscle; but, in an -examination by the same person of thirty female -subjects, in only two of them was this muscle -developed on both sides, whilst in three others -the rudimentary ligament was present. Thus -while we observe that about fifty-five per cent. -of the males examined were possessed of muscles -proper to lower orders, in only about seventeen -per cent. of the females under observation did this -reversion appear. In a single male subject, seven -muscular variations proper to apes were indicated.</p> - -<p>Numberless cases might be cited in which reversions -and abnormalities have been developed only -in the male line. Of the porcupine men of the -Lambert family who lived in London last century, -Haeckel says:</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>Edward Lambert, born in 1717, was remarkable -for a most unusual and monstrous formation of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_48">48</span> -skin. His whole body was covered with a horny substance, -about an inch thick, which rose in the form -of numerous thorn-shaped and scale-like processes, -more than an inch long. This monstrous formation -on the outer skin, or epidermis, was transmitted by -Lambert to his sons and grandsons, but not to his -granddaughters.<a id="FNanchor_34_34" href="#Footnote_34_34" class="fnanchor">34</a></p></blockquote> - -<p>According to the testimony of those who have -made a study of the various abnormalities in the -human organism, the ears of men present a greater -range of variations than do those of women, and -the cases in which supernumerary digits appear -in males are as two to one, compared with females -presenting the same structural defect. Of one -hundred and fifty-two cases of this kind tabulated -by Burt Wilder, eighty-six were males and thirty-nine -females, the sex of the remaining twenty-seven -being unknown. Mr. Darwin wishes us to -remember, however, that “women would more -frequently endeavour to conceal a deformity of -this kind than men.” Although it is quite natural -for women to abhor abnormalities and deformities, -it is to be doubted if they would succeed for -any considerable length of time in concealing the -deformity of an organ which, like the hand, is -usually uncovered, and which in waking hours, is -in almost constant use.</p> - -<p>One of the principal characters which distinguishes -the human animal from the lower orders -is the absence of a natural covering for the skin.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_49">49</span> -That mankind have descended from hair-covered -progenitors is the inevitable conclusion of all -those who accept the theory of the evolution -of species, the straggling hairs which are scattered -over the body of man being the rudiments -of a uniform hairy coat which enveloped his -ancestors.</p> - -<p>We are informed that a hairy covering for the -body, pointed ears which were capable of movement, -and a tail provided with the proper muscles, -were among the undoubted characters of the -antecedents of the human race. In addition to -these, among the males, were developed great -canine teeth which were used as weapons against -their rivals.</p> - -<p>As the lack of a hairy coat for the body constitutes -one of the principal characteristics which -distinguishes man from the lower animals, it -would seem that a knowledge of the order of time -in which the two sexes became divested of their -natural covering would serve as a hint to indicate -their relative stages of development. In a paper -read some years ago at a meeting of the Anthropological -Institute in London, Miss Bird (Mrs. -Bishop) the well-known traveller, gave a description -of the Ainos, a race of people found chiefly -in the island of Yezo, and who, it is thought probable, -were the original inhabitants of Japan. The -peculiarity of this people is, that the men are -covered with a thick coat of black hair. The -women, we are told,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_50">50</span> “are not hairy like the men,” -but “have soft brown skins.” Upon this subject -of hairiness, Mr. Darwin says:</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>As the body of woman is less hairy than that of man, -and as this character is common to all races, we may -conclude that it was our female semi-human ancestors -who were first divested of hair, and that this occurred -at an extremely remote period before the several races -had diverged from a common stock.</p></blockquote> - -<p>After our female ancestors had acquired the new -character, nudity, they must have transmitted it -to their own sex, and by continually selecting their -mates from among the least hairy, in process of -time males too would become divested of their -animal covering. Whether or not our semi-human -ancestors were subjected to the scorching heat -of the torrid zone, nudity must have been better -suited to their improved condition, not wholly, -however, because of its greater beauty and comfort, -but because it was a condition better suited to -cleanliness; and, as the hairy coat had become a -useless appendage, or was not necessary to their -changed conditions, it disappeared from the bodies -of females, while doubtless for ages it was retained -upon the bodies of males. That hairiness denotes -a low stage of development, Mr. Darwin incautiously -admits, yet in dealing with this subject he -is not disposed to carry his admission to its legitimate -conclusion by treating its appearance on -the body of man as a test in determining the com<span class="pagenum" id="Page_51">51</span>parative -development of the female and male -organisms.</p> - -<p>Idiots, who, by the way, are more numerous -among males than among females, are frequently -covered with hair, and by the acquirement of -other characters more often revert to lower animal -types. Mr. Darwin assures us that around sores -of long standing stiff hairs are liable to appear, -thus showing that hair on the body is indicative -of undeveloped tissues and low constitutional -conditions. The same writer, however, does not -neglect to inform us that the loss of man’s hairy -covering was rather an injury to him than otherwise; -but whether or not the diminution in the -quality of prehension in his toes, the loss of his -canines, and the disappearance of his tail have -likewise proved detrimental to him, Mr. Darwin -fails to state.</p> - -<p>The fact that throughout the vertebrate kingdom -males possess rudiments of the various parts -appertaining to the reproductive system which -properly belong to females, is regarded as evidence -that some remote progenitor of this kingdom must -have been hermaphrodite, or androgynous, especially -as it has been ascertained that at a very -early embryonic period both sexes possess true -male and female glands. As high in the scale of -life as the mammalian class, males are said to -possess rudiments of a uterus, while at the same -time mammary glands are plainly manifest; which -fact would seem to show that in the high state of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_52">52</span> -development indicated by this great class, male -organs have not through the processes of differentiation -become specialized for the performance of -their legitimate functions. In reference to the -subject of atavism Mr. Darwin cites as a case of -reversion to a former type, an instance in which a -man was the possessor of two pairs of mammæ.</p> - -<p>It is true that instances have been observed in -which characters peculiar to males have been -developed in females. This phenomenon, however, -seldom appears among individuals of the -higher orders, and among the lower forms of life -where it occurs, it is always manifested under low -circumstances of nutrition or in cases of old age, -disease, or loss of vitality. Instances are cited -in which hens, after they have become old or -diseased, have taken on characters peculiar to -males.</p> - -<p>In all “old-settled” countries women are in -excess of men, and this is true, notwithstanding -the fact that more boys are born than girls. Regarding -the excess of the male over female births, -Mr. Darwin quotes from Professor Faye, who says:</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>A still greater preponderance of males would be -met with, if death struck both sexes in equal proportion -in the womb and during birth. But the fact is, -that for every one hundred still-born females, we have -in several countries from 134.6 to 144.9 still-born -males.<a id="FNanchor_35_35" href="#Footnote_35_35" class="fnanchor">35</a></p></blockquote> - -<p class="pnindent">Statistics show that during the first four or five -years of life, more male children die than female. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_53">53</span></p> -<p>Although whenever throughout Mr. Darwin’s -<i>Descent of Man</i> he has been pleased to deal with -the subject of structural variations, he has given -us to understand that they are injurious to the -constitution, and although he has shown that their -appearance is much more frequent in men than in -women, yet he does not seem to realize whither -his admissions are leading him. He has proved -by seemingly well-established facts that the female -organism is freer from imperfections than the -male, and therefore that it is less liable to derangements; -also, that being more highly specialized, -it is less susceptible to injury under unfavourable -conditions; yet, in attempting to explain the reason -why so many more male than female infants -succumb to the exigencies of birth, he expresses -the opinion that the size of the body and “especially -of the head” being greater in males, they -would be “more liable to be injured during -parturition.”</p> - -<p>Among the reasons urged by Mr. Darwin to -account for the excess of women over men in all -“old-settled” countries, is that of the exposure of -grown men to various dangers, and their tendency -to emigrate. Doubtless there is more emigration -among men than among women, still men do not -usually emigrate to a wilderness and rarely to -sparsely settled countries. When men emigrate -from one civilized country, they usually go to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_54">54</span> -another civilized country; yet in all old-settled -countries women are in excess of men. While -the dangers to which men are exposed because of -their greater physical activity have been many, -and the accidents liable to occur from their harder -struggle for existence more numerous than those -to which women have been subjected, still it would -seem that the danger to female life, incident to -the artificial relations of the sexes under our -present semi-civilized conditions, is more than an -offset for that to which men are liable.</p> - -<p>The fact must be borne in mind, however, that -the diseases and physical disabilities of women, -at the present time, although dangerous to health -and life, are not organic, and will therefore disappear -as soon as through higher conditions they -are allowed the free expression of their own will -in matters pertaining to the sexual relation. As -the diseases peculiar to the female constitution are -not caused by structural defects, but, on the -contrary, are due to the overstimulation of the -animal instincts in her male mate, or, to the disparity -between her stage of development and his, -they have not materially injured her constitution -nor shortened her average duration of life, neither -have they lessened her capacity for improvement.</p> - -<p>With reference to the women of Greenland, -Cranz says that while they</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>remain with their parents they are well off; but from -twenty years of age till death, their life is one series<span class="pagenum" id="Page_55">55</span> -of anxieties, wretchedness, and toil, yet, in spite of -all their cares, toils, and vexations the women commonly -arrive at a greater age than the men.<a id="FNanchor_36_36" href="#Footnote_36_36" class="fnanchor">36</a></p></blockquote> - -<p>That the imperfections of the male organism -are already beginning to interpose themselves -between man and many of the occupations and -activities of advancing civilization, is only too -apparent.</p> - -<p>Sight, far more than any other sense, is the -most intellectual, yet in the development of the -visual organs it has been proved that men are -especially deficient. Dr. Andrew Willson assures -us that “colour-blindness is a condition which is -certainly capable of transmission to the progeny. -In one family the males alone were affected through -seven generations.”</p> - -<p>In an examination which was carried on some -years ago under the supervision of Dr. Jeffries, -among the pupils of the Boston schools, in which -were 14,469 boys and young men, and 13,458 -girls and young women, it was found that about -one male in every twenty-five was colour-blind, -while the same defect among the girls and young -women was extremely rare, only 0.066 per cent. of -them being thus affected.<a id="FNanchor_37_37" href="#Footnote_37_37" class="fnanchor">37</a></p> - -<p>At a convention held in the city of Chicago -for the purpose of organizing an association -for educational reform, the teacher of drawing<span class="pagenum" id="Page_56">56</span> -in the St. Paul schools made a statement that -“four per cent. of all male pupils were colour-blind, -while only one-tenth of one per cent. of -female pupils were so affected.” No explanation -was offered for this strange fact; indeed, it was -pronounced a mystery, “even oculists and surgeons -having given it up as impenetrable.”</p> - -<p>That defective vision is beginning to interfere -with the activities of men, is shown by the fact -that in many instances, in later times, colour -tests have been required to determine fitness of -applicants for positions in various departments -of commercial enterprise. In this country, during -the last fifty years, much attention has been -given to the subject of visual defects in seamen, -railroadmen, and other persons occupying -positions of responsibility in which unimpaired -vision is an important qualification. In response -to a request sent by the German Government -through its minister to the Surgeon-General -of the United States Army, for statistical and -other information on the subject of colour-blindness, -Mr. Charles E. Pugh, General Manager -of the Pennsylvania Railroad, in September, -1884, sent to William Thomson, M.D., surgical -expert for the same company, the following -statement:</p> - -<div class="center"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> -<tr><td align="left">Total number examined on lines east of Erie</td><td align="right">25,158</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Colour-blind</td><td align="right">481</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Defective vision</td><td align="right">661</td></tr> -</table></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_57">57</span></p> - -<p>Of this report Dr. Thomson says:</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>The apparently small percentage of colour-blind -in this table may be ascribed to the non-application -of men who knew their deficiency, and to the fact -that men in the service, knowing their defect, would -leave the road before examination, and thus escape -detection, and be enabled to gain employment on other -roads where no examinations are required.<a id="FNanchor_38_38" href="#Footnote_38_38" class="fnanchor">38</a></p></blockquote> - -<p>In several departments of the national government, -attempts have been made to guard against -the dangers resulting from imperfect sight. In -the examination of recruits, the War Department -at Washington, some years ago, issued orders -that bits of coloured pasteboard, or “test cards” -be used for determining the power of individuals -to distinguish objects at a distance, while worsteds -of various hues were employed to ascertain their -ability to distinguish colour. In the Treasury -and Naval Departments were ordered similar -examinations, in which the power to distinguish -colour was a necessary qualification in the case -of all persons seeking employment therein.</p> - -<p>In the examinations ordered by navigation and -railroad companies to protect themselves and the -public against disaster resulting from imperfect -vision in their employees, tests have been made. -Among the requirements imposed by law, applying -to engineers, brakemen, and firemen, in the State -of Connecticut, are the following:<span class="pagenum" id="Page_58">58</span> “Unobstructed -visual field, normal visual acuteness, and freedom -from colour-blindness.”</p> - -<p>If Dr. Jeffries’s investigation in the Boston public -schools and the report of the officers of the Pennsylvania -Railroad are to serve as a criterion in -judging of the extent to which impaired vision is -developed in men, or if among them one in every -twenty-five is defective in the colour sense, the -inference seems unavoidable that the proportion -of them unfitted for railroad and steamboat service, -for military duty, and for various important -government positions, must be large. Hence, -by these tests alone may be observed something -of the extent to which, under the higher conditions -which are approaching, the imperfect development -in men of this one organ (the eye) may cripple -their energies and check those activities which, -in many instances, are best suited to their tastes -and inclinations.</p> - -<p>Nor is this defective vision developed in men a -peculiarity which is confined within the limits -of our own country. In Europe, investigations -analogous to those instituted in America have been -followed by the same or similar results. Until a -comparatively recent time this subject has received -little or no attention, for the reason that the -processes of civilization and the various activities -of life have not, hitherto, demanded a correct or -highly developed colour sense; but with the requirements -of more highly civilized conditions, -in vocations demanding more diversified and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_59">59</span> -complicated physical and mental activities, it is -plain that man, because of this organic imperfection, -must labour under continuous disadvantages. -Then add to defective vision his lack of physical -endurance, his liability to various organic affections -caused by structural defects, and his abnormal -appetites which are constantly demanding for their -gratification the things which are injurious to his -mental and physical constitution, and we are -enabled to judge, to some extent, of the obstacles -against which, in the struggle for existence, the -future man will find himself obliged to contend.</p> - -<p>Not only is man’s sense of sight less perfectly -developed than is woman’s, but his sense of touch -is less acute. The hand, directed as it is by the -brain, is the most completely differentiated member -of the human structure. It may almost be -said of the hand, that it assists the brain in performing -its functions. The female hand, however, -is capable of delicate distinctions which the male -has no means of determining. A dispatch from -Washington says of the women of the Treasury -Department:</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>So superior is their skill in handling paper money -that they accomplish results that would be utterly -unattainable without them. It has been found by -long experience that a counterfeit may go through -half the banks in the country without being detected, -until it comes back, often torn and mutilated, into -the hands of the Treasury women. Then it is certain -of detection. They shut their eyes and feel of a note<span class="pagenum" id="Page_60">60</span> -if they suspect it. If it feels wrong, in half a minute -they point out the incongruities of the counterfeit.</p></blockquote> - -<p>Although throughout the ascending scale of life, -the female has been expending all her energy in -the performance of her legitimate functions—functions -which, as we have seen, are of a higher -order than those performed by the male, through -causes which will be discussed farther on in these -pages, within the later centuries of human existence—she -has been temporarily overcome by the -destructive forces developed in the opposite sex, -forces which are without the line of true development, -and which through overstimulation -and encouragement have overleaped the bounds -of normal activity, and have therefore become -disruptive and injurious.</p> - -<p>During the past five thousand years, woman’s -reproductive functions have been turned into -means of subsistence, and under the peculiar circumstances -of her environment, her “struggle -for existence” has involved physical processes -far more disastrous to life and health than are -those to which man has been subjected. Owing -to the peculiar condition of woman’s environment, -there has been developed within her more delicate -and sensitive organism an alarming degree of -functional nervousness; yet, with the gradual -broadening of her sphere of activity, and the -greater exercise of personal rights, this tendency -to nervous derangement is gradually becoming<span class="pagenum" id="Page_61">61</span> -lessened. That there is reserve force in woman -sufficient to overcome the evil results of the -supremacy of the animal instincts during the last -five thousand or six thousand years of human -existence, from present indications seems more -than likely.</p> - -<p>Commenting on the subject of nervousness, and -the degree in which it is manifested in civilized -countries, and especially among civilized women, -Dr. Beard says:</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>Women, with all their nervousness—and, in civilized -lands, women are more nervous, immeasurably, than -men, and suffer more from general and special nervous -diseases—yet live quite as long as men, if not somewhat -longer; their greater nervousness and far greater -liability to functional diseases of the nervous system -being compensated for by their smaller liability to -acute and inflammatory disorders, and various organic -nervous diseases, likewise, such as the general paralysis -of insanity.<a id="FNanchor_39_39" href="#Footnote_39_39" class="fnanchor">39</a></p></blockquote> - -<p>According to Maudsley women “seldom suffer -from general paralysis.” This disease is frequently -inherited, and is sometimes the result of alcoholic -and other excesses.<a id="FNanchor_40_40" href="#Footnote_40_40" class="fnanchor">40</a></p> - -<p>Regarding the dangers to which women are -exposed by excessive and useless maternity, Dr. -Beard remarks:</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>The large number of cases of laceration at childbirth -and the prolonged and sometimes even life-enduring<span class="pagenum" id="Page_62">62</span> -illness resulting from them, are good reasons for the -terror which the processes of parturition inspires in -the minds of American women today.</p></blockquote> - -<p class="pnindent">However, that the dangers incident to parturition, -and the excessive nervousness which characterizes -civilized women, are not necessary adjuncts of -civilization, but, on the contrary, are a result of -the unchecked disruptive forces developed in man, -and the consequent drain on the vital energies -of woman, will be seen, so soon as through the -cultivation of the higher faculties developed in -and transmitted through females, the lower -nature of males has finally been brought within -its legitimate bounds.</p> - -<div class="chapter"></div> -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_63">63</span></p> - - - - -<h3><a name="CHAPTER_IV-1" id="CHAPTER_IV-1">CHAPTER IV</a><br /> - -<small>THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE SOCIAL INSTINCTS AND -THE MORAL SENSE</small></h3> - - -<p>Man is pre-eminently a social animal. He -seeks companionship and depends largely upon -his fellows for security and happiness. Nor is this -dependence upon others confined to the human -species. Association, or combination of interests, -is manifested throughout the entire organic scale.</p> - -<p>From Mr. Darwin’s reasoning it is evident that -he regards association as the basic principle underlying -progress. He also thinks that combination -is impossible without sympathy or a desire for -the welfare of others outside of self. He is certain -that associated animals have a feeling of affection -for the group and that “they sympathize with -one another in times of distress and danger.”<a id="FNanchor_41_41" href="#Footnote_41_41" class="fnanchor">41</a></p> - -<p>This writer thinks that an animal like the gorilla, -which possessing great size and strength is able -to defend itself against all its enemies, would not -become social and therefore would be unable to -advance. And this too, notwithstanding the fact -that such an animal has already developed pug<span class="pagenum" id="Page_64">64</span>nacity, -courage, and perseverance, the characters -which are regarded as the source of the remarkable -mental endowment of man.</p> - -<p>We have seen that the greater size of the male -is the result of Sexual Selection and is therefore a -secondary sexual character. “All the secondary -sexual characters of man are highly variable.”<a id="FNanchor_42_42" href="#Footnote_42_42" class="fnanchor">42</a> -In dealing with this subject we must not lose sight -of the fact that variability denotes low organization. -It shows that the organs of the body have -not become specialized to perform their legitimate -functions.</p> - -<p>Among monogamous animals difference in size -between the sexes is slight, but among polygamous -species the male is considerably larger than the -female, this difference being correlated with -numerous variations of structure.</p> - -<p>Among early races males were considerably in -excess of females so it was customary for the former -to fight desperately to win the favour of the latter -in much the same manner as their animal progenitors -had fought to secure their mates. These -struggles were enacted in the presence of the -females, they always choosing the strongest and -best endowed leaving the weaker and uglier members -of the group unmated and therefore unable -to propagate their misfortunes. This exercise -of choice by the female in pairing is the primary -fact in the history of human progress. The appalling -effects of the withdrawal from women of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_65">65</span> -this fundamental prerogative will be referred to -later in these pages.</p> - -<p>That pugnacity, courage, and perseverance are -the result of man’s strong sexual nature is shown -wherever this subject is touched upon in <i>The Descent -of Man</i>. Special attention is directed to the fact -that eunuchs are deficient in these qualities.</p> - -<p>That the greater size and strength of the male, -together with courage, pugnacity, and perseverance, -have been of great value to him in deciding -the contests between rivals in courtship is quite -true. It is clear, however, that these characters -are in no wise responsible for the origin and -development of the higher faculties. Even Mr. -Darwin’s premises, when carried to their legitimate -conclusions, furnish sufficient evidence to prove -that the social instincts and the moral sense have -been developed quite independently of these -characters.</p> - -<p>According to the reasoning of the savants it is -only through that specialization of organs which -has resulted in the separation of the sex elements, -and the consequent division of functions, that the -social instincts have originated, and that it is to -processes involved in such specialization, or differentiation, -that the higher faculties and the moral -sense have arisen. It is indeed plain from their -reasoning that matter, or perhaps I should say -the force inherent in matter, had to be raised to a -certain dynamic order before the peculiar quality -of brain and nerve necessary for the development<span class="pagenum" id="Page_66">66</span> -of these faculties could be manifested through -it.</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>As there are different kinds of matter, so there are -different modes of force, in the universe; and as we -rise from the common physical matter in which physical -laws hold sway up to chemical matter and chemical -forces, and from chemical matter again up to living -matter and its modes of force, so do we rise in the -scale of life from the lowest kind of living matter with -its corresponding force or energy, through different -kinds of histological elements, with their corresponding -energies or functions, up to the highest kind of -living matter and corresponding mode of force with -which we are acquainted, viz., nerve element and -nerve force. But, when we have got to nerve element -and nerve force, it behooves us not to rest content -with the general idea, but to trace, with attentive -discrimination, through the nervous system the different -kinds of nervous cells, and their different manifestations -of energy. So also shall we obtain the -groundwork for a true conception of the relations of -mind and the nervous system.<a id="FNanchor_43_43" href="#Footnote_43_43" class="fnanchor">43</a></p></blockquote> - -<p>We have seen that the nervous system not only -regulates most of the existing functions of the -body, but that it has indirectly influenced the -development of various bodily structures and -certain mental qualities, and that these powers -of mind depend on the development of the brain.</p> - -<p>By our guides in this matter, we are assured that -the most important difference observed between<span class="pagenum" id="Page_67">67</span> -man and the lower animals is the conscience; hence, -if we would understand how it has been possible -for man to rise to his present position, we must -know something of the processes involved in the -development of the social instincts, through which -have originated conscience and a desire for the -welfare of others outside of self. The importance -of these instincts in the development of conscience -is thus set forth by Mr. Darwin:</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>Any animal whatever, endowed with well-marked -social instincts, the parental and filial affections being -here included, would inevitably acquire a moral sense -or conscience, as soon as its intellectual faculties had -become as well, or nearly as well, developed as in -man.</p></blockquote> - -<p>Sympathy, we are told, is the foundation-stone -of the social instincts. From facts which are -everywhere presented among the forms of life -below man, it is evident that sympathy was developed -at an early stage of animal life. It is -doubtless strongly manifested in our ape-like -progenitors, and it was probably this instinct -which subsequently led to a community of interest -and the coherence of the tribe.</p> - -<p>In a consideration, therefore, of this question -of sex development and the origin of the progressive -principle, if, as we are assured, sympathy constitutes -the foundation-stone of the social instincts, -and if it is to these instincts that we are to look -for the origin of the moral sense, or conscience<span class="pagenum" id="Page_68">68</span>— -a faculty which constitutes the fundamental -difference between the human species and the -lower orders of life—the question naturally arises: -In which of the two diverging lines of sexual demarcation -has arisen sympathy, or an interest -in the well-being of others? For an answer to -our question we must look carefully to the facts -connected with the development of the sexes -within one of which have been acquired characters -tending toward the welfare of society, or of individuals -outside of self; within the other, characters -looking only toward selfish gratification. Within -the former, the maternal instinct predominates; -within the latter, passion.</p> - -<p>Mr. Darwin admits that “parental and filial -affection lies at the base of the social instincts,” -and gives as his opinion that this quality is the -result of Natural Selection—that those individuals -which bestowed upon their offspring the greatest -care and attention, would survive and multiply -at the expense of others in which this instinct was -less developed. Therefore, in pursuing the inquiry -of sex-function and sex-development, a question -of considerable significance is at this point suggested: -Within which parent is observed the -greater tendency to bestow care and attention -upon offspring?</p> - -<p>We are assured that “the animal family is -especially maternal.” So soon as a female bird -has laid her eggs, she is animated only by one -desire; neither the promise of abundant food nor<span class="pagenum" id="Page_69">69</span> -the fear of bullets is able to divert her purpose. -Although the males among the more highly developed -birds assist in rearing the family, amongst -various species it is only the female which cares -for the young. The male duck has no interest -in his progeny, neither has the male eider. Of the -male turkeys Mr. Letourneau says that they</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>do much worse: they often devour the eggs of their -females, and thus oblige the latter to hide them. -Female turkeys join each other with their young ones -for greater security, and thus form troops of from -sixty to eighty individuals, led by the mothers, and -carefully avoiding the old males, who rush on the -young ones and kill them by violent blows on the -head with their beaks.<a id="FNanchor_44_44" href="#Footnote_44_44" class="fnanchor">44</a></p></blockquote> - -<p>The males of various other species, jealous of the -attentions of the mothers during the time that -their efforts are directed toward the maintenance -of their brood, often kill their young. Regarding -the subject of paternal care, Mr. Letourneau -observes: “It is important to notice that amongst -birds, the fathers devoid of affection generally -belong to the less intelligent, and are most often -polygamous.”</p> - -<p>By observing the habits of cuckoos the fact has -been ascertained that among them the maternal -instinct is almost entirely lacking. Of the -cuckoo it has been remarked that it is a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_70">70</span> “discontented, -ill-conditioned, passionate, in short, -decidedly unamiable bird.” Its note is typical -of its habits and character.</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>The same abruptness, insatiability, eagerness, the -same rage, are noticeable in its whole conduct. The -cuckoos are notoriously unsociable, even in migration -individualistic. They jealously guard their territorial -“preserves,” and verify in many ways the old myth -that they are sparrow-hawks in disguise. The parasitic -habit is consonant with their general character.</p> - -<p>The species consist predominantly of males. The -preponderance is probably about five to one; though -one observer makes it five times greater. In so -male a species, it is not surprising to find degenerate -maternal instincts.<a id="FNanchor_45_45" href="#Footnote_45_45" class="fnanchor">45</a></p></blockquote> - -<p>Regarding spiders and the greater number of -insects, we are told that the males entirely neglect -their young; it is</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>in the female that the care for offspring first awakens. -And this is natural, for the eggs have been formed in -her body; she has laid them, and has been conscious -of them; they form, in a way, an integral part of her -individuality.... With insects maternal forethought -sometimes amounts to a sort of divining prescience -which the doctrine of evolution alone can explain.<a id="FNanchor_46_46" href="#Footnote_46_46" class="fnanchor">46</a></p></blockquote> - -<p>Among the males of mammals below man the -love of offspring seems to be almost entirely -wanting.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_71">71</span></p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>We must here remark, that whatever the form of -sexual association among mammals, the male has -always much less affection for his young than the -female. Even in monogamous species, when the -male keeps with the female, he does so more as chief -than as father. At times he is inclined to commit -infanticide and to destroy the offspring, which, by -absorbing all the attention of his female, thwart his -amours. Thus, among the large felines, the mother -is obliged to hide her young ones from the male during -the first few days after birth, to prevent his devouring -them.<a id="FNanchor_47_47" href="#Footnote_47_47" class="fnanchor">47</a></p></blockquote> - -<p>The fact is obvious that among the orders of -life below man but little paternal affection has -been developed, and with a more extended knowledge -of the past history of the human race comes -the assurance that under earlier conditions of -society, and in fact, until a comparatively recent -time, little notice was taken of the paternal relation—that -kinship and all the rights of succession -were reckoned through the mother. In other -words, motherhood was the primary bond by -which society was bound together.</p> - -<p>Although under higher conditions of civilized -life, males have at length come to manifest much -interest in the well-being of their offspring, yet -that paternal affection is not a primary instinct is -shown by the fact that such interest, even at the -present time, extends only to those individuals -born in wedlock. Men are solicitous only for the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_72">72</span> -welfare of those who are to succeed to their names -and fortunes; hence, although in later times the -paternal instinct has been considerably re-enforced, -it is plain that the interest of fathers for their offspring -has in the past been largely the result of -custom, association, pride, desire for self-perpetuation -or duplication, or some other form of -self-aggrandizement.</p> - -<p>Mr. Darwin says: “The feeling of pleasure -from society is probably an extension of the parental -or filial affections, since the social instinct -seems to be developed by the young remaining -for a long time with their parents.”<a id="FNanchor_48_48" href="#Footnote_48_48" class="fnanchor">48</a> Although -Mr. Darwin does not admit it, from his reasoning -it is plain that the maternal instinct is the root -whence sympathy has sprung, and that it is the -source whence the cohesive quality in the tribe -originated. Regarding the importance of association -or combination in early groups Mr. Darwin -remarks:</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>When two tribes of primeval man, living in the -same country, came into competition, if (other circumstances -being equal) the one tribe included a great -number of courageous, sympathetic, and faithful -members, who were always ready to warn each other -of danger, to aid and defend each other, this tribe -would succeed better and conquer the other.... -Selfish and contentious people will not cohere, and -without coherence nothing can be effected. A tribe -rich in the above qualities would spread and be victorious<span class="pagenum" id="Page_73">73</span> -over other tribes.... Thus the social and moral -qualities would tend slowly to advance and be diffused -throughout the world.<a id="FNanchor_49_49" href="#Footnote_49_49" class="fnanchor">49</a></p></blockquote> - -<p>Since, then, it has been proved by scientists -that without an association of interests and the -coherence of the tribe the social instincts must -have remained weak, and since it has been shown -by them that without concerted action the higher -faculties, including the moral sense, could not -have been developed; and since, furthermore, -the influences which have led to this development -are those growing out of the maternal instincts, -may we not conclude that all of those qualities -which make man pre-eminently a social animal—his -love of society, his desire for the good-will of -his kind, his perception of right and wrong, and, -finally, that sympathy which at last gradually -extending beyond the limits of race and country -proclaims the brotherhood of man and the unity -of life on the earth—all these characteristics, are -but an extension of maternal affection, an outgrowth -of that early bond between mother and -child, which, while affecting the entire line of -development, still remains unchanged and unchangeable.</p> - -<div class="chapter"></div> -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_74">74</span></p> - - - - -<h3><a name="CHAPTER_V-1" id="CHAPTER_V-1">CHAPTER V</a><br /> - -<small>THE SUPREMACY OF THE MALE</small></h3> - - -<p>An unprejudiced review of the facts relative to -the differentiation of the two sexes, as set forth -by naturalists, reveals not only the primary principles -involved in human progress, but shows also the -source whence these principles originated. These -facts serve also to explain that “mental superiority” -of man over woman observed by Mr. Darwin -and others in the present stage of human growth.</p> - -<p>Notwithstanding the superior degree of development -which, according to the facts elaborated -by scientists, must belong to the female in all the -orders of life below mankind, Mr. Darwin would -have us believe that so soon as the human species -appeared on the earth the processes which for -untold ages had been in operation were reversed, -and that through courage and perseverance, or -patience, qualities which were the result of extreme -selfishness, or which were acquired while -in pursuit of animal gratification, man finally -became superior to woman. The following furnishes -an example of Mr. Darwin’s reasoning upon -this subject. He says:</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_75">75</span></p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>The chief distinction in the intellectual powers of -the two sexes is shown by man’s attaining to a higher -eminence, in whatever he takes up, than can woman—whether -requiring deep thought, reason, or imagination, -or merely the use of the senses and the hands. -If two lists were made of the most eminent men and -women in poetry, painting, sculpture, music (inclusive -both of composition and performance), history, and -philosophy, with half-a-dozen names under each -subject, the two lists would not bear comparison....</p> - -<p>Now, when two men are put into competition, or a -man with a woman, both possessed of every mental -quality in equal perfection, save that one has higher -energy, perseverance, and courage, the latter will -generally become more eminent in every pursuit, -and will gain the ascendency. He may be said to -possess genius—for genius has been declared by a -great authority to be patience; and patience, in this -sense, means unflinching, undaunted perseverance.<a id="FNanchor_50_50" href="#Footnote_50_50" class="fnanchor">50</a></p></blockquote> - -<p>Doubtless, for the purpose of strengthening his -position, Mr. Darwin quotes the following from -John Stuart Mill: “The things in which man most -excels woman are those which require most plodding -and long hammering at single thoughts.” -And in summing up the processes by which man -has finally gained the ascendency over woman -he concludes:</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>Thus man has ultimately become superior to woman. -It is, indeed, fortunate that the law of the equal -transmission of characters to both sexes prevails<span class="pagenum" id="Page_76">76</span> -with mammals; otherwise it is probable that man -would have become as superior in mental endowment -to woman, as the peacock is in ornamental plumage -to the peahen.<a id="FNanchor_51_51" href="#Footnote_51_51" class="fnanchor">51</a></p></blockquote> - -<p>Notwithstanding this conclusion of Mr. Darwin, -in view of the facts elaborated by himself, we -cannot help thinking that it is indeed fortunate -that the law of the equal transmission of characters -to both sexes prevails with mammals, otherwise -it is probable that man would never have had any -higher ambition than the gratification of his animal -instincts, and would never have risen above those -conditions in which he struggled desperately for -the possession of the female. All the facts which -have been observed relative to the acquirement of -the social instincts and the moral sense prove -them to have originated in the female constitution, -and as progress is not possible without these -characters, it is not difficult to determine within -which of the sexes the progressive principle first -arose. Even courage, perseverance, and energy, -characters which are denominated as thoroughly -masculine, since they are the result of Sexual -Selection, have been and still are largely dependent -on the will or choice of the female.</p> - -<p>In his zeal to prove the superiority of man over -woman, and while emphasizing energy, perseverance, -and courage as factors in development, Mr. -Darwin seems to have overlooked the importance<span class="pagenum" id="Page_77">77</span> -of the distinctive characters belonging to the female -organism, viz., perception and intuition, combined -with greater powers of endurance, the first two -of which, under the low conditions occasioned by -the supremacy of the animal instincts, have thus -far had little opportunity to manifest themselves. -A fairer statement relative to the capacities of -the two sexes and their ability to succeed might -have been set forth as follows:</p> - -<p>When a man and a woman are put in competition, -both possessed of every mental quality in -equal perfection, save that one has higher energy, -more patience, and a somewhat greater degree of -physical courage, while the other has superior -powers of intuition, finer and more rapid perceptions, -and a greater degree of endurance (the -result of an organism freer from imperfections), -the chances of the latter for gaining the ascendency -will doubtless be equal to those of the -former as soon as the animal conditions of life are -outgrown, and the characters peculiar to the -female constitution are allowed expression. Mr. -Darwin’s quotation from J. Stuart Mill, that -the things in which man excels woman are those -which require most plodding and long hammering -at single thoughts, is evidently true, -and corresponds with the fundamental premises -in the theory of development as set forth by -all naturalists. The female organism is not a -plodding machine, neither is the telephone nor -the telegraph, yet these latter devices accomplish<span class="pagenum" id="Page_78">78</span> -the work formerly done by the stagecoach much -more rapidly, and in a manner better suited to -civilized conditions. So soon as women are freed -from the unnatural restrictions placed upon them -through the temporary predominance of the animal -instincts in man, their greater powers of endurance, -together with a keener insight and an organism -comparatively free from imperfections, will doubtless -give them a decided advantage in the struggle -for existence. While patience is doubtless a -virtue, and while during the past ages of human -experience it has been of incalculable value to -man, it will not, under higher conditions, be -required in competing for the prizes of life.</p> - -<p>Woman’s rapid perceptions, and her intuitions -which in many instances amount almost to second -sight, indicate undeveloped genius, and partake -largely of the nature of deductive reasoning; it is -reasonable to suppose therefore that as soon as -she is free, and has for a few generations enjoyed -the advantages of more natural methods of education -and training, and those better suited to the -female constitution, she will be able to trace the -various processes of induction by which she reaches -her conclusions. She will then be able to reason -inductively up to her deductive conceptions.</p> - -<p>The worthlessness of Mr. Darwin’s comparison -between men and women in performing the various -activities of life is already clearly apparent. Although -less than half a century has elapsed since -<i>The Descent of Man</i> was written women are already<span class="pagenum" id="Page_79">79</span> -successfully competing with men in nearly all the -walks of life both high and low, and this too notwithstanding -the fact that these occupations have -heretofore been regarded as belonging exclusively -to men. We have seen that Mr. Darwin mentions -music as a vocation in which man’s superiority -over woman is manifested, yet already in -the United States, there is not one male musician -who would be willing to match his skill against -that of any one of the four best woman performers.</p> - -<p>It is a well understood fact that neither individuals -nor classes which upon every hand have -been thwarted and restrained, either by unjust -and oppressive laws, or by the tyranny of custom, -prejudice, or physical force, have ever made any -considerable progress in the actual acquirement -of knowledge or in the arts of life. Mr. Darwin’s -capacity for collecting and formulating facts -seems not to have materially aided him in discerning -the close connection existing at this stage of -human progress between the masculinized conditions -of human society and the necessary opportunities -to succeed in the higher walks of life; in -fact, he seems to have forgotten that all the avenues -to success have for thousands of years been controlled -and wholly manipulated by men, while the -activities of women have been distorted and -repressed in order that the “necessities” of the -male nature might be provided for. Besides, it -seems never to have occurred to him that as man -has still not outgrown the animal in his nature,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_80">80</span> -and as the intellectual and moral age is only just -beginning to dawn, the time is not yet ripe for the -direct expression of the more refined instincts and -ideas peculiar to the female organism, and, as -thus far, only that advancement has been made -which is compatible with the supremacy of the -lower instincts, woman’s time has not yet come.</p> - -<p>Although women are still in possession of their -natural inheritance, a finer and more complex -organism comparatively free from imperfections, -and although, as a result of this inheritance, their -intuitions are still quicker, their perceptions keener, -and their endurance greater, the drain on their -physical energies, caused by the abnormal development -of the reproductive energies in the opposite -sex, has, during the ages of man’s dominion -over her, been sufficient to preclude the idea of -success in competing with men for the prizes -of life. Although an era of progress has begun, -ages will doubtless be required to eradicate abuses -which are the result of constitutional defects, -and especially so as the prejudices and feelings of -mankind are for the most part in harmony with -such abuses.</p> - -<p>If we examine the subject of female apparel, -at the present time, we shall observe how difficult -it is to uproot long-established prejudices which -are deeply rooted in sensuality and superstition; -and this is true notwithstanding the fact that such -prejudices may involve the comfort and even the -health of half the people, and seriously affect the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_81">81</span> -welfare of unborn generations. An examination -of the influences which have determined the course -of modern fashions in woman’s clothing will show -the truth of this observation.</p> - -<p>Of all the senses which have been developed, -that of sight is undoubtedly the most refined, and -when in the human species it is cultivated to a -degree which enables its possessor to appreciate -the beautiful in Nature and in Art, we are perhaps -justified in designating it as the intellectual sense. -In point of refinement, the sense of hearing comes -next in order, yet among creatures as low in the -scale of being as birds, we find that females not -only appreciate the beautiful, but that they are -charmed by pleasing and harmonious sounds, -and that if males would win their favour it must -be accomplished by appeals through these senses -to the higher qualities developed within them.</p> - -<p>Although the female of the human species, like -the female among the lower orders of life, is -capable of appreciating fine colouring, and to a -considerable extent the beautiful in form, the style -of dress adopted by women is not an expression -of their natural ideas of taste and harmony. On -the contrary, it is to Sexual Selection that we must -look for an explanation of the incongruities and -absurdities presented by the so-called female -fashions of the past and present. The processes -of Sexual Selection, which, so long as the female -was the controlling agency in courtship, worked -on the male, have in these later ages been reversed.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_82">82</span> -For the reason that the female of the human -species has so long been under subjection to the -male, the styles of female dress and adornment -which have been adopted, and which are still in -vogue, are largely the result of masculine taste. -Woman’s business in life has been to marry, or, -at least, it has been necessary for her, in order to -gain her support, to win the favour of the opposite -sex. She must, therefore, by her charms, captivate -the male.</p> - -<p>With the progress of civilization and since women -as economic and sexual slaves have become -dependent upon men for their support, no male -biped has been too stupid, too ugly, or too vicious -to take to himself a mate and perpetuate his -imperfections. This unchecked freedom of the -male to multiply his defects is responsible for -present conditions.</p> - -<p>As for thousands of years women have been -dependent on men not only for food and clothing -but for the luxuries of life as well, it is not singular -that in the struggle for life to which they have been -subjected they should have adopted the styles -of dress which would be likely to secure to them -the greatest amount of success. When we remember -that the present ideas of becomingness or -propriety in woman’s apparel are the result of -ages of sensuality and servitude, it is not remarkable -that they are difficult to uproot, and especially -so as many of the most pernicious and -health-destroying styles involve questions of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_83">83</span> -female decorum as understood by a sensualized -age.</p> - -<p>Mr. Darwin calls attention to the fact that -women “all over the world” adorn themselves -with the gay feathers of male birds. Since the -beautiful plumage of male birds has been produced -according to female standards of taste, and -since it is wholly the result of innate female ideas -of harmony in colour and design, it is not perhaps -remarkable that women, recognizing the original -female standards of beauty, should desire to -utilize those effects which have been obtained at -so great an expenditure of vital force to the opposite -sex, especially as men are pleased with such display, -and, as under present conditions of male -supremacy, the female of the human species is -obliged to captivate the male in order to secure -her support.</p> - -<p>Ever since the dominion of man over woman -began a strict censorship over her dress has been -maintained. Although in very recent times -women are beginning to exercise a slight degree -of independence in the matter of clothes, still, -because of existing prejudices and customs they -have not yet been able to adopt a style of dress -which admits of the free and unrestricted use of -the body and limbs. It is believed that woman, -the natural tempter of man, if left to her own -sinful devices, would again as of old attempt to -destroy that inherent purity of heart and cleanliness -of life which characterize the male consti<span class="pagenum" id="Page_84">84</span>tution. -Woman’s ankles and throat seem to be -the most formidable foes against which innocent -man has to contend, so the concealment of these -offending members is deemed absolutely necessary -for his protection and safety. Ecclesiastics, a -class whose duty it has ever been to regulate and -control the movements of women, seem to think -that the ankles and throats of women were intended -not for the use and convenience of their possessors -but as snares to entrap holy men.</p> - -<p>It would thus appear that the present fashions -for female apparel have a deeper significance than -we have been in the habit of ascribing to them. -We are still living under conditions peculiar to a -sensual age, and have not yet outgrown the requirements -which condemn women to a style of -dress which hinders the free movements of the -body and which checks all the activities of life. -In one way the woman of the present time may be -said to resemble the male Argus pheasant, whose -decorations, although they serve to please his -mate, greatly hinder his power of motion and the -free use of his body and limbs.</p> - -<p>When we consider that apparel is but one, and -a minor one, of the strictures under which women -have laboured during the later era of human existence -and when we consider all the ignoble and -degrading uses to which womanhood has been subjected, -the wonder is not that women have failed -in the past to distinguish themselves in the various -fields of intellectual labour in which men have<span class="pagenum" id="Page_85">85</span> -achieved a limited degree of success, but that they -have had sufficient energy and courage left to enable -them even to attempt anything so far outside -the boundary of their prescribed “sphere,” or that -they have been able to transmit to their male offspring -those powers through which they have -gained their present stage of progress.</p> - -<p>With regard to Mr. Darwin’s comparison of -the intellectual powers of the two sexes, and his -assertion that man attains to a higher eminence -in whatever he takes up than woman—that, for -instance, he surpasses her in the production of -poetry, music, philosophy, etc., the facts at hand -suggest that if within mankind no higher motives -and tastes had been developed than those derived -from selfishness and passion, there would never -have arisen a desire for poetry, music, philosophy, -or science, or, in fact, for any of the achievements -which have been the result of the more exalted -activities of the human intellect. However, because -of the subjection of the higher faculties -developed in mankind, the poetry, music, and -painting of the past betray their sensuous origin -and plainly reveal the stage of advancement which -has been reached, while history, philosophy, and -even science, judging from Mr. Darwin’s methods, -have not yet wholly emerged from the murky -atmosphere of a sensuous age.</p> - -<p>It will be well for us to remember that the doctrine -of the Survival of the Fittest does not imply -that the best endowed, physically or otherwise,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_86">86</span> -have always succeeded in the struggle for existence. -By the term Survival of the Fittest we are -to understand a natural law by means of which -those best able to overcome the unfavourable -conditions of their environment survive and are -able to propagate their successful qualities. We -must bear in mind that neither the growth of the -individual nor that of society has proceeded in an -unbroken or uninterrupted line; on the contrary, -during a certain portion of human existence on -the earth, the forces which tend toward degeneration -have been stronger than whose which lie -along the line of true development.</p> - -<p>We are assured that the principles of construction -and destruction are mutually employed -in the reproductive processes, that continuous -death means continuous life,—the katabolic or -disruptive tendencies of the male being necessary -to the anabolic or constructive habits of -the female. As it is in reproduction, so has -it been through the entire course of development. -Side by side, all along the line, these two -tendencies have been in operation; the grinding, -rending, and devouring processes which we denominate -Natural Selection, alongside those which -unite, assimilate, and protect. As a result of the -separation of the sexes there have been developed -on the one side extreme egoism, or the desire for -selfish gratification; on the other, altruism, or a -desire for the welfare of others outside of self. -Hence, throughout the later ages of human exist<span class="pagenum" id="Page_87">87</span>ence, -since the egoistic principles have gained the -ascendency, may be observed the unequal struggle -for liberty and justice, against tyranny, and the -oppressors of the masses of the human race. From -present appearances it would seem, that the disruptive -or devouring forces have always been in the -ascendency. The philosophy of history however, -teaches the contrary. With a broader view of the -origin and development of the human race, and -the unexpected light which within the last few -years has been thrown upon prehistoric society and -the grandeur of past achievement, a close student -of the past is able to discern a faint glimmering -of a more natural age of human existence, and is -able to observe in the present intense struggles -for freedom and equality, an attempt to return -to the earlier and more natural principles of justice -and liberty, and so to advance to a stage of society -in which selfishness, sensuality, and superstition -no longer reign supreme.</p> - -<p>The status of women always furnishes an index -to the true condition of society, one or two superficial -writers to the contrary notwithstanding. -For this phenomenon there is a scientific reason, -namely: society advances just in proportion as -women are able to convey to their offspring the -progressive tendencies transmissible only through -the female organism. It is plain, therefore, that -mankind will never advance to a higher plane of -thinking and living until the restrictions upon the -liberties of women have been entirely removed,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_88">88</span> -and until within every department of human -activity, their natural instincts, and the methods -of thought peculiar to them be allowed free expression. -The following is from Mr. Buckle’s lecture -on “The Influence of Women on the Progress of -Knowledge”:</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>I believe and I hope before we separate to convince -you, that so far from women exercising little or no -influence over the progress of knowledge, they are -capable of exercising, and have actually exercised an -enormous influence; that this influence, is, in fact, -so great that it is hardly possible to assign limits to -it; and that great as it is, it may with advantage be -still further increased. I hope, moreover, to convince -you that this influence has been exhibited not merely -from time to time in rare, sudden, and transitory -ebullitions, but that it acts by virtue of certain laws -inherent in human nature; and that, although it -works as an undercurrent below the surface, and -is therefore invisible to hasty observers, it has already -produced the most important results, and has affected -the shape, the character, and the amount of our -knowledge.</p></blockquote> - -<p>Through the processes involved in the differentiation -of sex and the consequent division of -functions, it has been possible during the past six -thousand or seven thousand years (a mere tithe of -the time spent by mankind upon the earth) for -women to become enslaved, or subjected to the -lower impulses of the male nature. Through the -capture of women for wives, through the exigencies<span class="pagenum" id="Page_89">89</span> -of warfare, the individual ownership of land, and -the various changes incident to a certain stage -of human existence, the finer sensibilities which -characterize women have been overshadowed, and -the higher forces which originated within them -and which are transmitted in the female line, have -been temporarily subdued by the great sexual -ardour inherent in the opposite sex; it is not, -therefore, singular that the degree of progress -attained should appear to be wholly the result of -male activity and acumen. Yet, notwithstanding -the degradation to which women in the position -assigned them by physical force have been obliged -to submit, their capacity for improvement has -suffered less from the influences and circumstances -of their environment than has that of men. As -the higher faculties are transmitted through -women equally to both sexes, in the impoverishment -of their inheritance on the female side, men -have suffered equally with women, while, through -their male progenitors, they have inherited appetites -and habits (the result of a ruder and less -developed structure) which weaken and degrade -the entire constitution.</p> - -<p>Doubtless, so soon as women have gained sufficient -strength to enable them to maintain their -independence, and after the higher faculties rather -than the animal propensities rule supreme, men, -through the imperfections in their organism, and -the appetites acquired through these imperfections, -will, for a considerable length of time, find<span class="pagenum" id="Page_90">90</span> -themselves weighted in the struggle for supremacy, -and this, too, by the very characters which under -lower conditions are now believed to have determined -their success.</p> - -<p>It is not unlikely, however, that through Sexual -Selection the characters or qualities unfavourable -to the higher development of man will in time be -eliminated. The mother is the natural guardian and -protector of offspring; therefore, so soon as women -are free they will doubtless select for husbands -only those men who, by their mental, moral, and -physical endowments are fitted to become the -fathers of their children. Only those women will -become mothers who hope to secure to their offspring -immunity from the giant evils with which -society is afflicted. In this way, and this way -only, may these evils be eradicated.</p> - -<p>Under purer conditions of life, when by the -higher powers developed in the race the animal -propensities have become somewhat subdued by -man, we may reasonably hope that the “struggle -for existence,” which is still so relentlessly waged, -will cease, that man will no longer struggle with -man for place or power, and that the bounties of -earth will no longer be hoarded by the few, while -the many are suffering for the necessities of life; -for are we not all members of one family, and -dependent for all that we have on the same -beneficent parent—Nature?</p> - -<p>Although the two principles, the constructive -and destructive, are closely allied, the higher facul<span class="pagenum" id="Page_91">91</span>ties -have been acquired only through the former—the -highest degree of progress is possible only -through union or co-operation, or, through the -uniting and binding force, maternal love from -which has been developed, first, sympathy among -related groups, and later an interest which is -capable of extending itself not only to all members -of the human race, but to every sentient creature. -There is, therefore, little wonder that for thousands -of years of human existence, the female -principle was worshipped over the entire habitable -globe as the source of all light and life—the Creator -and Preserver of the Universe.</p> - -<p>We are only on the threshold of civilization. -Mankind may as yet have no just conception of -their possibilities, but so soon as, through the -agencies now in operation for the advancement of -the race, the “necessities” of the male nature no -longer demand and secure the subjection of women -and the consequent drain on the very fountain -whence spring the higher faculties, a great and -unexpected impetus will be given to progress.</p> - -<p>The fact that a majority of women have not -yet gained that freedom of action necessary to -the absolute control of their own persons, nor -acquired a sufficient degree of independence to -enable them to adopt a course of action in their -daily life which they know to be right, shows the -extent to which selfishness, twin brother to sensuality, -has clouded the conscience and warped -the judgment in all matters pertaining to human<span class="pagenum" id="Page_92">92</span> -justice. So closely has women’s environment -been guarded that in addition to all the restrictions -placed upon their liberties, a majority of -them are still dependent for food and clothing on -pleasing the men, who still hold the purse-strings. -Yet Mr. Darwin, the apostle of original scientific -investigation, concludes:</p> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_93">93</span></p> -<p>“If men are capable of decided prominence over -women in many subjects, the average mental -powers in men must be above those of women.”</p> - - - -<div class="chapter"></div> -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_94">94</span></p> - -<h2><a name="PART_II" id="PART_II">PART II</a><br /> - -<small>Prehistoric Society</small></h2> - -<div class="chapter"></div> -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_95">95</span></p> - - - - -<h3><a name="CHAPTER_I-2" id="CHAPTER_I-2">CHAPTER I</a><br /> - -<small>METHOD OF INVESTIGATION</small></h3> - - -<p>If the theory of the development of the human -race, or more particularly that of the two diverging -lines of sex demarcation as set forth in the foregoing -chapters be correct, it is plain that by it a -new foundation is laid for the study of mankind.</p> - -<p>If, contrary to the generally accepted idea, -within the female organism have been developed -those elements which form the basis of human -progress, or, if the higher faculties are transmitted -through the mother, henceforth all examinations -into primitive conditions and all research into -the causes which underlie existing institutions -must be carried on with reference to this particular -fact. Only through a thorough understanding -of the principles or forces which govern human -development, and a just appreciation of the -source whence these principles have sprung, may -we hope to gain a clear understanding of the past -history of the race, or to perceive the true course -to be pursued toward further development. -Through the investigation of facts revealed in the -records of Geology, and through the study of com<span class="pagenum" id="Page_96">96</span>parative -Embryology and Anatomy, or through -an understanding of Zoölogy and Anthropology, -man has well-nigh solved the problem of his origin, -or has almost proved his connection with and -development from the lower orders of life, but of -the countless ages which intervened between the -era of our ape-like progenitors and the dawn of -organized society, little may be known without -a correct knowledge of the inheritance received -by mankind from creatures lower in the scale of -being. Only by a careful study of the constitutional -bias acquired throughout the entire line of -development, are we enabled to note the motives -or forces by which primitive society was controlled, -or to form a just conclusion relative to the early -conditions of human society and its subsequent -progress.</p> - -<p>Through the attention which in these later years -has been directed toward surviving tribes in the -so-called middle and later stages of savagery, and -in the three successive periods of barbarism, have -doubtless been revealed many of the processes by -which mankind have reached their present condition. -Much of the information, however, which -has been obtained by these inquiries still lacks -that accuracy in detail demanded by exact science; -but, so soon as the array of facts which the last -half-century has brought to bear upon this subject -shall have been correctly interpreted, logically -arranged, intelligently classified, and without -prejudice brought into line with the truths involved<span class="pagenum" id="Page_97">97</span> -in the theory of natural development, there will -doubtless be approximated a system of truth -which will furnish a safe and trustworthy foundation -for a more thorough research into the history -of the human race.</p> - -<p>Although the facts relative to existing undeveloped -races, which have been laid before the -reading public through the patience and industry of -investigators in this particular branch of inquiry, -have been of incalculable value as furnishing a -foundation for a correct understanding of the -origin of the customs, manners, ceremonies, governments, -languages, and systems of consanguinity -and affinity of a primitive race, and although -without these efforts little knowledge of the early -history of mankind could be obtained, yet, as a -majority of the theories built upon these observations -have been based on long-established -prejudices relative to the earliest conditions surrounding -human society and the forces by which -it was controlled, many false conclusions have been -the inevitable result.</p> - -<p>We have seen that owing to the ascendency -which the masculine element in human society -gained during the period designated as the Latter -Status of barbarism, the popular ideas evolved -since that time concerning the origin and development -of government, social usages, religion, and -law, have been in accordance with the then established -assumption that within the male organism -lies not only the active, aggressive element, but<span class="pagenum" id="Page_98">98</span> -the progressive principle as well. It is not, therefore, -singular that at the present time all the lines -of investigation which are being directed toward -man in a primitive state, or which are being conducted -for the avowed purpose of ascertaining the -successive steps by which our social, civil, and -religious institutions have been reared, should -continue to be carried on under the <i>a priori</i> assumption -that the male organism is by nature superior -to that of the female.</p> - -<p>As in all the theories relative to the development -of species the male is the principal factor, -so in the theories brought forward to explain the -development of human institutions the female has -played only an insignificant part; but, as all later -facts bearing upon this subject furnish indisputable -evidence of the early importance of the female -element, not only among the lower orders of life -but under earlier human conditions as well, we -may reasonably expect from these data the establishment, -in the not distant future, of a complete -chain of evidence in support of a more rational -and consistent theory of development than has -yet been put forth, not only of the origin of the -higher faculties, but of the organization of human -society and the growth of its various institutions.</p> - -<p>As, hitherto, all the theories advanced relative -to the evolution of the human race and the establishment -of society on a political and territorial -basis have been founded on preconceived notions -of the superiority of the characters peculiar to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_99">99</span> -the male, it is believed, or at least assumed, that -the ascendency gained by man over woman -during the Latter Status of barbarism constitutes a -regular, orderly, and necessary step in the direct -line of progress; and, as under masculine supremacy, -a certain degree of advancement has been -possible, it is assumed that the nobler animal, man, -having gained the ascendency over the weaker -animal, woman, his progress in the future is to -increase in a sort of geometrical ratio, while she, -still bound by physical disabilities and weighted -by the baneful effects of past limitations and restrictions, -must continue far in the rear of her -better endowed and more thoroughly equipped -male mate. However, in this conception of the -facts of biology, woman is not left without a -crumb of comfort; for, in the forlorn and helpless -condition to which it condemns her, she is given -to understand that if for many successive generations -girls be constantly trained in masculine -methods, they may eventually be able to admire, -and possibly in a measure to comprehend, some -of the less stupendous mental achievements of -their brothers; but, according to the savants, any -attempt on the part of women to compete with -men in the higher walks of life must result in -increased physical weakness, in the immediate -degeneration of the female sex, and in disaster and -ruin to the entire race.</p> - -<p>When we remember that investigations into -the conditions surrounding primitive society have<span class="pagenum" id="Page_100">100</span> -for the most part been conducted under the influence -of prejudices similar to those which have -prompted the above assumptions, it is not singular -that in a majority of cases in which the early -status of women has been discussed, and in which -the organization of society, the fundamental principles -of government, the origin of the institution -of marriage, the monogamic family, and the -growth of the god-idea, have been the topics under -discussion, the conclusions arrived at have been -not wholly warranted by the facts at hand.</p> - -<p>In an investigation of the subject of human -development, we must bear in mind the fact that -all the principal existing institutions have sprung -from germs of thought which originated under -primitive conditions of the race. Government, -language, marriage, the modern family, and our -present system of the accumulation and distribution -of wealth, have all been evolved from the -necessities of early human existence, or from primitive -ideas conceived according to the peculiar -bias which had been given to the female and male -organisms prior to the appearance of mankind -upon the earth, and which have since been developed -in accordance with the laws which govern -human growth.</p> - -<p>With their reasoning faculties still undeveloped, -and, according to our guides, wholly destitute of a -moral sense, human beings at the outset of their -career could have had no guiding principle other -than those instincts which they inherited from<span class="pagenum" id="Page_101">101</span> -their mute progenitors. Therefore, in order fully -to understand the status of the human race as it -emerged from its animal conditions, we must bear -in mind the nature of the inheritance which it had -received during its passage from a formless lump -of carbon, or an infinitesimal jelly dot in the primeval -sea, to a creature endowed with sympathy, -affection, courage, and perseverance. We must -not lose sight of the fact that passion, the all-absorbing -quality developed in males belonging to -the orders lower in the scale of being, must have -been conveyed without diminution or material -change to man. Neither must we forget that those -qualities in the female which had been developed -for the protection of the germ, and by which she -was enabled to hold in check the abnormally -developed appetites of the male, were still in -operation.</p> - -<p>That Nature disdains arbitrary rules, and that -she pays little heed to the proprieties established -by man, are facts everywhere to be observed among -the lower orders of life. She nevertheless jealously -guards the germ and the young of the species. -The mother is the natural guardian of prenatal -and infant life, and as such, under natural conditions, -is usually able to control the sexual relation.</p> - -<p>Failing to note the fact that among the orders -of life below mankind the female chooses her mate, -and failing also to observe that through the natural -adjustment of the sexual relations his instincts are -checked by her will, nearly if not all the writers<span class="pagenum" id="Page_102">102</span> -upon this subject have declared that women and -men at the outset of the human career lived in a -state of “lawlessness” or “promiscuity,” similar -no doubt to that which at the present time would -prevail in a community in which women were -utterly devoid of influence, and in which there were -no laws regulating the intercourse of the sexes.</p> - -<p>By the most trustworthy writers on the subject -of the primitive conditions of the human race, it -is believed that the most archaic organization of -society was that founded on the basis of sex, but, -as in the infancy of the race, prior to the inauguration -of the system based on sex, and during the -long ages which were spent merely in gaining a -subsistence, no organized form of society existed, -it is held that the order which is observed among -creatures lower in the scale of life was suspended, -and that the universal law which had hitherto -regulated the relations of the sexes, and which -throughout the ages of life on the earth had held -in check the lower instincts of the male, became -immediately inoperative.</p> - -<p>Here the common ground of belief ceases, and -each writer branches off upon his own peculiar -line of argument, appropriating and arranging the -facts observed by explorers and investigators in -the various lines of inquiry according to his own -preconceived notions, or as best suits the particular -scheme of development which he essays to -establish.</p> - -<p>In the following pages the attempt will be made<span class="pagenum" id="Page_103">103</span> -to show that the facts which in these later years -have been brought to light concerning the development -of the human race are in strict accord with -the facts as enunciated by scientists relative to -the development of the orders of life below man, -and that together they form a connected chain of -evidence going to prove not only that the higher -faculties had their origin in the female but that -the progressive principle has also been confided -to her.</p> - -<div class="chapter"></div> -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_104">104</span></p> - - - - -<h3><a name="CHAPTER_II-2" id="CHAPTER_II-2">CHAPTER II</a><br /> - -<small>THE RELATIONS OF THE SEXES AMONG EARLY -MANKIND</small></h3> - - -<p>We have seen that an investigation of the instincts -and habits of creatures lower in the scale -is necessary to an understanding of the relations -which must have existed between the sexes among -primitive races.</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>Among birds and mammals, the greater differentiation -of the nervous system and the higher pitch of -the whole life is associated with the development of -what pedantry alone can refuse to call love. Not -only is there often partnership, co-operation, and -evident affection beyond the limits of the breeding -period, but there are abundant illustrations of a high -standard of morality, of all the familiar sexual crimes -of mankind, and every shade of flirtation, courtship, -jealousy, and the like. There is no doubt that in the -two highest classes of animals at least, the physical -sympathies of sexuality have been enhanced by the -emotional, if not also intellectual, sympathies of love.<a id="FNanchor_52_52" href="#Footnote_52_52" class="fnanchor">52</a></p></blockquote> - -<p>It has been observed that among the orders of -life below mankind, except among polygamous<span class="pagenum" id="Page_105">105</span> -species, the female chooses the individual which is -best endowed—the one whose beauty appeals to -her æsthetic taste, or which through his stronger -development is best fitted to assist her in the office -of reproduction.</p> - -<p>Among the more intelligent species of birds, -genuine affection has been observed, strict monogamy -and life-long unions having been established -between mated pairs. Among others, although -the conjugal bond is not life-lasting, so long as the -mother-bird is caring for her brood, constancy -to one another is the undeviating rule. We are -assured that with the female Illinois parrot, -“widowhood and death are synonymous,” and -that “when a wheatear dies, his companion survives -him scarcely a month.”<a id="FNanchor_53_53" href="#Footnote_53_53" class="fnanchor">53</a></p> - -<p>All eagles are monogamous. Golden eagles live -in couples and remain attached to one another for -a hundred or more years, without even changing -their domicile.<a id="FNanchor_54_54" href="#Footnote_54_54" class="fnanchor">54</a> The conjugal unions of bald-headed -eagles, although they are under no “legal -restrictions,” last until the death of one of the -partners. Among birds, although incubation rests -with the mother, the father usually assists his -companion. He not only takes her place if she -desires to leave the nest for a moment, but also -provides her with food.<a id="FNanchor_55_55" href="#Footnote_55_55" class="fnanchor">55</a> So perfect is the bird -family life that Brehm declares that<span class="pagenum" id="Page_106">106</span> “real genuine -marriage can only be found among birds.”<a id="FNanchor_56_56" href="#Footnote_56_56" class="fnanchor">56</a> Upon -this subject we are informed that “examples of -wandering fancy are for the most part rare among -the birds, the majority of whom are monogamous, -and even superior to most men in the matter of -conjugal fidelity.”<a id="FNanchor_57_57" href="#Footnote_57_57" class="fnanchor">57</a></p> - -<p>Concerning mammals, it is observed that although -polygamy is frequent “it is far from being -the conjugal regime universally adopted; monogamy -is common, and is sometimes accompanied -by so much devotion that it would serve as an example -to human monogamists.”<a id="FNanchor_58_58" href="#Footnote_58_58" class="fnanchor">58</a> Bears, weasels, -whales, and many other animals choose their -mates and go in pairs. Several kinds of monkeys -are strictly monogamous.<a id="FNanchor_59_59" href="#Footnote_59_59" class="fnanchor">59</a> Chimpanzees are sometimes -polygamous and sometimes monogamous. -It is stated what when a strong male has succeeded -in driving away the other males of the -group, the females, although in a position to subjugate -him, are nevertheless kind and even tender -toward him. They are doubtless too much occupied -with their legitimate functions to rebel, but -so soon as the young of the horde are grown, the -usurper is driven from their midst. A little observation -will show us that even among polygamous -species, it is affection rather than strength -which keeps the members of a group together.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_107">107</span> -Although among most of the lower orders the -female exercises a choice in the selection of her -mate, still among animals of polygamous habits -the female is said to manifest genuine affection -for the father of her offspring.</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>The polygamic regime of animals is far from extinguishing -affectionate sentiments in the females towards -their husband and master. The females of the -guanaco lamas, for example, are very faithful to their -male. If the latter happens to be wounded or killed, -instead of running away, they hasten to his side, -bleating and offering themselves to the shots of the -hunter in order to shield him, while, on the contrary, -if a female is killed, the male makes off with all his -troop; he only thinks of himself.<a id="FNanchor_60_60" href="#Footnote_60_60" class="fnanchor">60</a></p></blockquote> - -<p>Although among animals a stray male will -sometimes drive away or kill all the other males -of the group, and himself become the common -mate of all the females, they peaceably accepting -the situation, so far as I can find, female insects, -birds, and mammals, although they generally -control the sexual relation, have never been given -to polyandry; the reason for this can be explained -only through a careful analysis of the fundamental -bias of the female constitution. We must bear -in mind that although among the orders of life -below mankind the male is ready to pair with any -female, she, on the other hand, when free to choose, -can be induced to accept the attentions only of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_108">108</span> -the one which by his courage, bravery, or personal -beauty has won her favours. We have noted the -fact that in the earliest ages of the human race -this choice was exercised by women, but we have -no reason to believe that anything resembling -“promiscuity” ever prevailed among primitive -races. It is true that under earlier conditions the -institution of marriage as it exists at the present -time had not appeared; yet the law which had -been impressed on the higher organism of the -female, until overcome by males through means -which will be treated of later in these pages, had -sufficed to keep the animal instincts under subjection, -or at least on a level with those of the -lower species which structurally had been left -behind.</p> - -<p>From facts to be gathered, not alone from among -the lower orders, but from observations among -human beings as well, it would seem that any -degree of affection for more than one individual -at the same time is contrary to the female nature. -A female insect, or bird, which feels a preference -for a particular mate will pair with no other, -hence, among orders where the female instincts -control the relations between the sexes, “lawlessness” -or promiscuity would not prevail.</p> - -<p>A little observation and reflection, I think, will -show us that the affection of the female is a character -differing widely from the sex instinct of the -male—that, while selfishness constitutes the underlying -principle of the latter, the former involves<span class="pagenum" id="Page_109">109</span> -not only care for the young and the unity of the -group, but, when human conditions are reached, -it involves also country, civilization, and the -ultimate brotherhood of mankind.</p> - -<p>If we bear in mind the conditions surrounding -the orders of life from which the human race has -sprung, and if we remember the nature of the -characters inherited by mankind from these orders, -together with the important fact that the lower -instincts among them were under subjection to -the higher faculties, we shall be enabled to see that -the more degraded of the extant savage tribes -cannot represent the primitive race as it emerged -from the animal type.</p> - -<p>Mr. Tylor must have been mindful of the altruistic -character of early races when he remarked: -“Without some control beyond the mere right -of the stronger, the tribe would break up in a -week, whereas in fact savage tribes last on for -ages.”<a id="FNanchor_61_61" href="#Footnote_61_61" class="fnanchor">61</a></p> - -<p>Concerning the relations of the sexes under unorganized -society nothing may be known from -actual observation, as, at the present time, no -tribe or race is to be found under absolutely primitive -conditions. Perhaps from no extant people is -there so little information in reference to the earliest -human state to be gleaned as from the lowest existing -races. Among many of these tribes the rules -which it has been necessary to establish for the -regulation of the relations between the sexes are<span class="pagenum" id="Page_110">110</span> -rigorously enforced, while among others a laxity -prevails which would seem to indicate an almost -total lack of those higher instincts which are observed -among nearly all the lower orders of beings. -The following fact, however, in regard to these -races, has been observed: the more primitive they -are, or the less they have come in contact with -civilization, the more strictly do they observe -the rules which have been established for the -governance of the sexual relation. On this subject -Mr. Parkyns says:</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>I don’t believe that there exists a nation, however -high in the scale of civilization, that can pick a hole -in the character of the lowest, without being in danger -of finding one nearly, if not quite, as big in its own. -The vices of the savage are, like his person, very much -exposed to view. Our own nakedness is not less unseemly -than his, but is carefully concealed under the -convenient cloak which we call “civilization,” but -which I fear he, in his ignorance, poor fellow, might, -on some occasions, be led to look upon as hypocrisy.<a id="FNanchor_62_62" href="#Footnote_62_62" class="fnanchor">62</a></p></blockquote> - -<p>In the West Indian Islands where Columbus -landed, lived tribes which are represented as -having been “the most gentle and benevolent -of the human race.” Regarding these Mr. Tylor -remarks:</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>Schomburgk, the traveller, who knew the warlike -Caribs well in their home life, draws a paradise-like<span class="pagenum" id="Page_111">111</span> -picture of their ways, where they have not been corrupted -by the vices of the white men; he saw among -them peace and cheerfulness and simple family affection, -unvarnished friendship, and gratitude not less -true for not being spoken in sounding words; the -civilized world, he says, has not to teach them morality, -for, though they do not talk about it, they live -in it.<a id="FNanchor_63_63" href="#Footnote_63_63" class="fnanchor">63</a></p></blockquote> - -<p>The men who with Captain Cook first visited the -Sandwich Islands reported the natives as modest -and chaste in their habits; but, later, after coming -in contact with the influences of civilization, -modesty and chastity among them were virtues -almost entirely unknown. The same is true of -the people of Patagonia.</p> - -<p>Barrow says of the Kaffir woman that she is -“chaste and extremely modest,” and we are told -that among this people banishment is the penalty -for incontinence for both women and men. Of -the reports which from time to time come from -the aborigines of certain portions of Australia -relative to the lewdness of the women, Mr. Brough -Smyth says that they are irreconcilable with the -severe penalties imposed for unchastity in former -times amongst the natives of Victoria.<a id="FNanchor_64_64" href="#Footnote_64_64" class="fnanchor">64</a> This -writer is of the opinion that the lewd practices -reported are modern, and that they are the result -of communication with the poor whites. We are -assured that the women of Nubia are virtuous,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_112">112</span> -that public women are not tolerated in the country.<a id="FNanchor_65_65" href="#Footnote_65_65" class="fnanchor">65</a> -Also that in Fiji adultery is one of the -crimes generally punished with death.<a id="FNanchor_66_66" href="#Footnote_66_66" class="fnanchor">66</a></p> - -<p>Marsden observes that in Sumatra “the old -women are very attentive to the conduct of the -girls, and the male relations are highly jealous of -any insults that may be shown them.”<a id="FNanchor_67_67" href="#Footnote_67_67" class="fnanchor">67</a> The -same writer says that prostitution for hire is unknown -in the country; adultery is punishable by -fine, but the crime is rare. Regarding the conduct -of men toward women he remarks: “They -preserve a degree of delicacy and respect toward -the sex which might justify their retorting on many -of the polished nations of antiquity the epithet -of barbarism.”<a id="FNanchor_68_68" href="#Footnote_68_68" class="fnanchor">68</a></p> - -<p>Crantz says that among the Greenlanders single -persons have rarely any connection.<a id="FNanchor_69_69" href="#Footnote_69_69" class="fnanchor">69</a> According -to the testimony of St. Boniface, the punishment -for unchastity among the early Germans was death -to the man, while the woman was driven naked -through the streets.<a id="FNanchor_70_70" href="#Footnote_70_70" class="fnanchor">70</a></p> - -<p>Among the Central Asian Turks we are assured -that a fallen girl is unknown. Mr. Westermarck, -quoting from Klemm, states that although among -the Kalmucks and gypsies the girls take pride in -having gallant affairs, they are<span class="pagenum" id="Page_113">113</span> “dishonoured if -they have children previous to marriage.” The -same writer quotes also from Winwood Reade, -who says that among the Equatorial Africans “a -girl who disgraces her family by wantonness is -banished from her clan; and, in cases of seduction, -the man is severely flogged.”<a id="FNanchor_71_71" href="#Footnote_71_71" class="fnanchor">71</a></p> - -<p>Mr. Westermarck adduces much testimony -going to show that the “lawlessness” of lower -races is due not to inherent vicious tendencies, -but to the evil associations of civilized peoples. -He is of the opinion that the licentiousness among -many of the South Sea Islanders owes its origin -to the intercourse of the natives with Europeans; -and of the tribes who once inhabited the Adelaide -Plains, quoting from Mr. Edward Stephens -who went to Australia half a century ago, he -says:</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>Those who speak of the natives as a naturally -degraded race, either do not speak from experience, -or they judge them by what they have become when -the abuse of intoxicants and contact with the most -wicked of the white race have begun their deadly work. -As a rule, to which there are no exceptions, if a tribe -of blacks is found away from the white settlement, -the more vicious of the white men are most anxious -to make the acquaintance of the natives, and that, -too, solely for purposes of immorality.... I saw -the natives and was much with them before those -deadly immoralities were well known ... and I say -it fearlessly, that nearly all their evils they owed to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_114">114</span> -the white man’s immorality and to the white man’s -drink.<a id="FNanchor_72_72" href="#Footnote_72_72" class="fnanchor">72</a></p></blockquote> - -<p>We are informed that wherever certain vices -prevail among the lower races in America, Africa, -or Asia, they have been carried to them by the -whites. Were it necessary to do so, scores of -examples could be adduced going to show that -among primitive tribes, until corrupted by our -later civilization, chastity is the universal rule.</p> - -<p>Although many of the writers who have dealt -with this subject have discoursed freely on the -laxity of the conjugal bond among so-called primitive -tribes, and the lawlessness which characterizes -lower races in their sexual relations, they have -failed to account satisfactorily for some of the -customs and usages which appear connected with -many of the early forms of marriage,—forms which -would seem to indicate a degree of modest reserve -on the part of these peoples which fail to comport -with the popular theory concerning their lawlessness -and innate indecency.</p> - -<p>We have seen that although among the orders -of life below mankind there are no arbitrary laws -governing the relations of the sexes, there nevertheless -exists a system of natural marriage which -in no wise resembles promiscuity. Now it was -under this natural system controlled by the higher -instincts developed within the female organism, -that the extreme “lawlessness” indicated by the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_115">115</span> -savants prevailed—lawlessness seeming to denote -that state of female independence in which women -were personally free, or in which they were not -held in actual bondage as captive wives. In the -reasoning of many of our guides in this matter it -is implied, if not actually asserted, that the freedom -of women which is now known to have prevailed -in earlier times denotes a state of laxity in -morals, a condition of society directly contrary -to the facts which they themselves have recorded -relative to existing tribes under less advanced -conditions of life, and which would seem to argue -for these peoples a sense of decency which among -the masses in civilized countries is almost entirely -wanting. At the dawn of human existence, had -no higher instincts been developed than passion, -or the desire for selfish gratification, whence -could have arisen this reserve, and these ideas of -chastity and modesty which are observed among -many of the less developed peoples, notably those -which have not come in contact with the higher -races? Upon this subject Mr. Tylor remarks: -“Yet even among the rudest clans of men, unless -depraved by vice or misery and falling to pieces, -a standard of family morals is known and lived -by.”<a id="FNanchor_73_73" href="#Footnote_73_73" class="fnanchor">73</a></p> - -<p>Observing the habits of the lower animals, -Mr. Darwin cannot believe that promiscuous -intercourse prevailed among the early races of -mankind.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_116">116</span></p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>At a very early period, before man attained to his -present rank in the scale, many of his conditions would -be different from what now obtains amongst savages. -Judging from the analogy of the lower animals he -would then either live with a single female, or be a -polygamist.<a id="FNanchor_74_74" href="#Footnote_74_74" class="fnanchor">74</a></p></blockquote> - -<p>We have much evidence going to prove that -the marriage contracts among the lower races are -well kept. According to Cook, in Tahiti, although -nothing more is necessary for the consummation -of a valid marriage than an agreement between -the parties, these contracts are usually well kept. -In case of the disaffection of either party, a divorce -is easily obtained. We are assured, however, -that although the Tahiti women have the undisputed -right to dissolve the marriage contract at -will, they are nevertheless “as faithful to their -husbands as in any part of the world.” The -Veddahs, who are ranked among the most primitive -races, are a strictly monogamous people.<a id="FNanchor_75_75" href="#Footnote_75_75" class="fnanchor">75</a> -Of the extreme modesty of married pairs among -many of the lower races we have much proof. -Among the Fijians, husbands and wives do not -usually spend the night together, except as it were -by stealth, and it is said to be contrary to their -ideas of delicacy that they should sleep under the -same roof.<a id="FNanchor_76_76" href="#Footnote_76_76" class="fnanchor">76</a> Wholly from a sense of reserve or -modesty, the Arab wife remains for months,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_117">117</span> -possibly for a whole year, with her mother before -taking up her abode in her husband’s tent. The -extreme delicacy of the customs regulating the -behaviour of married pairs in ancient Sparta are -well understood. According to Xenophon and -Strabo, it was the custom, not only among the -Spartans but among the Cretans also, for married -pairs to meet clandestinely. The same custom -prevailed in ancient Lycia. Lafitau says that -among the North American Indians the husband -visits his wife only by stealth.<a id="FNanchor_77_77" href="#Footnote_77_77" class="fnanchor">77</a></p> - -<p>It is stated by trustworthy authorities that -among various tribes, during the period of gestation -and lactation, the person of the wife is sacred; -that the rule of chastity, or continence, between -married pairs, during this season, is absolutely -inviolate. In Fiji, women furnish natural nourishment -to their children for three or four years, -during which time their persons are respected.</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>The relatives of the women take it as a public insult -if any child should be born before the customary three -or four years have elapsed, and they consider themselves -in duty bound to avenge it in an equally public -manner.</p></blockquote> - -<p>Mr. Seeman says:</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>I heard of a white man, who, being asked how -many brothers and sisters he had, frankly replied, -“ten.” “But that could not be,” was the rejoinder<span class="pagenum" id="Page_118">118</span> -of the natives, “one mother could scarcely have so -many children.”</p></blockquote> - -<p>When told that these children were born at annual -intervals, and that such occurrences were common -in Europe, they were very much shocked, and -thought it explained sufficiently why so many -white people were “mere shrimps.” After childbirth, -among the Fijians, husband and wife separate -and live apart for three and even four years, -“so that no other baby may interfere with the time -considered necessary for suckling the children, -in order to make them strong and healthy.”<a id="FNanchor_78_78" href="#Footnote_78_78" class="fnanchor">78</a></p> - -<p>Through such wise regulations as these, governing -the sexual relations, the drain on the vital -forces observed among the women of civilized -countries is avoided, and it was doubtless to these -rules and others of a similar character that women, -throughout untold ages of human existence, were -enabled to maintain a position of independence -and supremacy. We are informed that among the -Fijians the birth of a child is cause for a perfect -jubilee; that parental and filial affection is among -the manifest virtues of this people. After referring -to the truthfulness and honesty of the Dyaks -of Borneo, Mr. Wallace says that<span class="pagenum" id="Page_119">119</span> “in several matters -of morality they rank above most uncivilized, -and even above many civilized, nations. They are -temperate in food and drink, and the gross sensuality -of the Chinese and Malays is unknown among -them.”<a id="FNanchor_79_79" href="#Footnote_79_79" class="fnanchor">79</a> Although the usual checks to population -are absent among the Dyaks—namely, -starvation, disease, war, infanticide, and vice,—still -the women in the Dyak tribe rarely had more -than three or four children. In a village in which -there were one hundred and fifty families, in only -one of them were there six children, and only -six with five children.</p> - -<p>In whatever direction we turn, evidences are -abundant going to prove that under simpler and -more natural conditions, and before corrupted by -our later civilization, mankind were governed -largely by the instincts developed within the -female constitution, and that long after her -supremacy over the male was lost, the effects -of these purer conditions were manifest in the -customs, forms, and usages of the people.</p> - -<p>From the evidence at hand it seems more than -likely that many of the extant tribes have at some -remote period been civilized, and that through -some natural catastrophe, the unfavourable conditions -of climate and soil, or some other equally -disadvantageous cause, they have again sunk to -a low plane of existence from which they have -been unable to rise. From available facts one is -almost led to believe that at a period in the remote -past, and while living under purer conditions, a -high stage of civilization was reached, a civilization -which in many respects was equal if not superior -to that of the present. Be this as it may,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_120">120</span> -whenever the environment of a people is such -that after having reached a certain stage it is -unable to advance, it does not remain stationary, -but on the contrary follows a line of retrogression; -or, whenever the conditions of a race or tribe are -such that the higher faculties which tend towards -progress lie dormant, the lower forces which -incline toward retrogression and which are peculiarly -active in low organisms still continue in -operation.</p> - -<p>Although the social arrangement of the native -Australians seems to be founded on classes based -on sex—the earliest form of society—still we find -them practising polygamy and monogamy side -by side, at the same time securing their wives by -capture in exactly the same fashion as did the -early Greeks and Romans. It is apparent, therefore, -that although this people have not been able -to advance in the arts of life, as far as the relations -of the sexes are concerned they have taken about -the same course as have all the other tribes and -races in which the supremacy of the male has -been gained. For unknown reasons, during thousands -of years, the developing agencies have -been quiescent, hence no check to the animal -instincts has been interposed; the Australians -have therefore departed widely from the conditions -which surrounded early human society—conditions -under which the maternal instincts -developed in the lower orders of life were still -sufficiently strong to guard the constructive pro<span class="pagenum" id="Page_121">121</span>cesses -and to continue the chain of uninterrupted -progress.</p> - -<p>As among the lowest existing tribes—peoples -which during countless ages have been unable to -advance—only the ruder elements in the human -composition have been developed, it is plain that -from these tribes little if any information concerning -an earlier or more natural age, when the -animal instincts were controlled by the higher -characters developed in human nature, may be -obtained; but from those peoples within the several -successive stages of development whose environment -has been such as to admit of some degree -of improvement in the arts of life, and in whom -therefore the higher characters developed in their -mute progenitors have not been in a state of retrogression, -may be obtained a clue to many of the -processes by which our present social fabric has -been raised. Among such peoples will be retained -certain symbols, habits, and traditions representing -former modes of life, from which may be reconstructed -much of the previous history of the -race. For instance, by means of the symbol of -wife-capture, a form of marriage which is universal -among tribes in a certain stage of development, -has been furnished much trustworthy information -relative to the institution of marriage and the -development of the modern family. It matters -not that the origin of these symbols is so remote -that their true significance is lost by the peoples -who practise them, they nevertheless repeat with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_122">122</span> -unerring fidelity the past experiences of the race -and reveal the origin of later institutions.</p> - -<p>As the various tribes and races of mankind have -probably sprung from a common progenitor, and -as the “nerve cells in the brain of all classes and -orders have had the same origin,” their development, -although not identical as to time and manner -of detail, has been similar in outline and in -general results; so it is thought that a correct -knowledge of the development of any tribe or race -from savagery to civilization must necessarily -involve the general history of all the tribes and -races of mankind.</p> - -<div class="chapter"></div> -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_123">123</span></p> - - - - -<h3><a name="CHAPTER_III-2" id="CHAPTER_III-2">CHAPTER III</a><br /> - -<small>THE GENS—WOMEN UNDER GENTILE INSTITUTIONS</small></h3> - - -<p>The earliest form of organized society was that -into classes founded on the basis of sex,<a id="FNanchor_80_80" href="#Footnote_80_80" class="fnanchor">80</a> under -which the right of individuals to intermarry was -restricted to one-fourth of the group. This division -of the early race, and the regulations prohibiting -conjugal relations with three-fourths the -members of the related community, is thought to -represent the first coercive abridgment or formal -restriction of the then existing conjugal rights, -and was inaugurated for the purpose of averting -the evil effects arising from intercourse between -near relations. Of this early form of society, -however, and of the ages during which no organized -form existed, little may be known except that -which is suggested by the instincts and habits of -the highest animals, and that which may be inferred -from an investigation of the next higher -organization, that into gentes on the basis of kin. -Although untold ages intervened between the -ancient division of society into classes founded on -the basis of sex, and the higher and more important -organization into gentes on the basis of kin, this<span class="pagenum" id="Page_124">124</span> -last-named plan for the further development of -mankind became universal at a comparatively -early stage of human history.</p> - -<p>By an investigation of the fundamental principles -of the gens, we shall be enabled to observe -the similarity existing between the instincts which -governed early human action and those which -controlled the highest orders of life below mankind. -All facts bearing on the primitive conditions -of the human race, which in these later times -have been brought to light through the investigations -directed toward peoples in the various stages -of development, only serve to emphasize the importance -of the altruistic principle in the formation -of organized society and in the establishment -of human institutions. Although the gens is the -earliest form of organized society of which we have -any accurate knowledge, still as within it were -encysted the germs of all the principles of justice -and equality which our better human nature is -beginning again to recognize, and which must -characterize a higher stage of progress, a knowledge -of its underlying principles is necessary to a -correct understanding, not only of the past development -of the race and all the existing human -institutions, but of the course to be pursued toward -the future advancement of mankind. Of the -gens, Mr. Morgan says:</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>The gentile organization opens to us one of the oldest -and most widely prevalent institutions of mankind.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_125">125</span> -It furnished the nearly universal plan of government -of ancient society, Asiatic, European, African, American, -and Australian. It was the instrumentality by -means of which society was organized and held together. -Commencing in savagery, and continuing -through the three sub-periods of barbarism, it remained -until the establishment of political society, -which did not occur until after civilization had commenced. -The Grecian gens, phratry, and tribe, the -Roman gens, <i>curia</i>, and tribe find their analogues in -the gens, phratry, and tribe of the American aborigines. -In like manner, the Irish <i>sept</i>, the Scottish -<i>clan</i>, the <i>phrara</i> of the Albanians, and the Sanskrit -<i>ganas</i>, without extending the comparison further -are the same as the American-Indian gens, which has -usually been called a clan. As far as our knowledge -extends, this organization runs through the entire -ancient world upon all the continents, and it was -brought down to the historical period by such tribes -as attained to civilization.... Gentile society wherever -found is the same in structural organization and -in principles of action; but changing from lower to -higher forms with the progressive advancement of -the people. These changes give the history of the -development of the same original conceptions.<a id="FNanchor_81_81" href="#Footnote_81_81" class="fnanchor">81</a></p></blockquote> - -<p>Early society, as observed under gentile institutions, -was established on purely personal and -social relations, or, on the basis of the relations -of the individual to the rest of the community, -a community in which each member could trace -her or his origin back to the head of the gens who<span class="pagenum" id="Page_126">126</span> -was a woman. Under gentile institutions, or -until the latter stage of barbarism was reached, -each individual, female and male, constituted a -unit in an aggregation or community whose interests -were identical, and as such, to a certain extent, -was held responsible for the safety and general -welfare of every member composing the group.</p> - -<p>Extreme egoism, as it is the outgrowth of a -later age, was unknown; and sympathy, the chief -promoter of the well-being of mankind, a sprout -from the well-established root, maternal affection, -was the predominant characteristic of these primitive -groups and the bond which held society -together. Although the manner of reckoning -descent had been changed from the female to the -male line, the purely social organization of the -gens, on the basis of kin, was, as has been observed, -in operation at the beginning of our present -civilization, at which time political society supervened, -and individuals were no longer recognized -through their relations to a gens or tribe, but -through their relations to the state, county, township, -or deme, to which institutions they must -henceforward look for protection and for the redress -of injuries done either to person or property.</p> - -<p>Although, until a comparatively recent time, -the writers who have dealt with the subject of -primitive society have been of the opinion that -the tribe constituted the earliest organization of -society, and that the gens and the family followed, -later investigations show conclusively that the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_127">127</span> -gens, next to the remote and obscure division into -classes, represents the oldest and most widely -spread form of organized society, and that it was -through segmentation or division of this archaic -group that the tribe was formed.</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>The natural way in which a tribe is formed is from -a family or group, which in time increases and divides -into many households, still recognizing one another -as kindred, and this kinship is so thoroughly felt to -be the tie of the whole tribe, that even when there has -been a mixture of tribes, a common ancestor is often -invented to make an imaginary bond of union.<a id="FNanchor_82_82" href="#Footnote_82_82" class="fnanchor">82</a></p></blockquote> - -<p>The gens, until a comparatively recent time -in the history of the human race, was composed -of a female ancestor, all her children and all the -children of her daughters, but not of her sons. -The sons’ children and their descendants belonged -to the gens of their respective mothers. The -family, as it appears at the present time, was -unknown. The gens was founded on thoroughly -democratic principles, each individual composing -the group, both female and male, having a voice -in the regulation and management of all matters -pertaining to the general government of the community. -Any injury done to a gentilis was a -wrong committed against the entire gens of which -she or he was a member, hence to her or his kinsmen -each individual looked for protection and -for redress of personal wrongs.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_128">128</span></p> - -<p>The fundamental doctrine of tribal life is unity -of blood. Although the early groups, under the -system of female descent, were united by the -actual bond of kinship as traced through mothers, -later, when descent came to be traced through -fathers, kinship was to a considerable extent -feigned. Kinship, under the system of male -descent, meant not that the blood of the great -father actually flowed in the veins of all the members -of the group, but that under a pretence of -unity of blood, they were bound together by -common duties and responsibilities from which no -one of them could escape. By the terms of the -compact, every member must stand by her or his -own clan. In fact, in all their movements, they -must act as one individual; their interests were -identical and the quarrel of any member of the -group became the quarrel of all counted within -the bond of kinship. If homicide were committed, -they judged and punished the culprit, but if one -of their number was slain by an outsider, the law -of blood-feud, which demanded blood in return, -was immediately put into execution. Of the -gens Mr. Morgan says:</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>Within its membership the bond of kin was a powerful -element for mutual support. To wrong a person -was to wrong his gens; and to support a person was to -stand behind him with the entire array of this gentile -kindred.<a id="FNanchor_83_83" href="#Footnote_83_83" class="fnanchor">83</a></p></blockquote> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_129">129</span></p> -<p>Although in the later ages of gentile government, -all the members of a group were not necessarily -bound by blood, from the nature of the rights -conferred, and the obligations imposed, the bond -uniting them was doubtless stronger than that -which now unites mere kindred. Of this tie uniting -early groups J. G. Frazer says:</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>All the members of a totem clan regard each other -as kinsmen or brothers and sisters, and are bound -to help and protect each other. The totem bond -is stronger than the bond of blood or family in the -modern sense.<a id="FNanchor_84_84" href="#Footnote_84_84" class="fnanchor">84</a></p></blockquote> - -<p>As Arabia, at the time of Mohammed, was still -under gentile organization, there is perhaps at -the present day no country which affords a better -opportunity for the study of several of the successive -stages of human development. At the time -indicated, the entire Arabian peninsula was composed -of a multitude of groups varying in civilization, -which were bound together by common -privileges, obligations, and responsibilities and by -a real or pretended bond of kinship traced through -males.</p> - -<p>In early Arabia a group bound together by a -real or feigned unity of blood was the type or -unit of society. Sometimes a confederation of -these smaller groups was formed, but so strong -was the bond between the more closely related<span class="pagenum" id="Page_130">130</span> -groups that they soon broke up into their original -units. The genealogists assert that these groups -which were patriarchal tribes founded on male -descent are subdivisions of an original stock.</p> - -<p>At the time of the Prophet the Arabians claimed -to trace their descent from two brothers the sons -of Wâil. Prof. W. Robertson Smith informs us, -however, that the name of one of these “brothers” -is a feminine appellation and that it is the designation -of a tribe and not of a person. He says: -“The gender shows that the tribal name existed -before the mythical ancestor was invented,” and -adds: “The older facts down to the time of Al-Farazdac -personify Taghlib as the daughter not -the son of Wâil. It is not unlikely that the -mythical legend of Taghlib and Bakr originated -at a time when the female principle in human -affairs and in the Deity was beginning to give -place to the male.”<a id="FNanchor_85_85" href="#Footnote_85_85" class="fnanchor">85</a></p> - -<p>Within the traditions of the oldest races of -which we have any account, are evidences of a -desperate struggle between two races or between -the followers of two opposing principles. In all -parts of Arabia “these two races maintained -their ancestral traditions of bitter and persistent -feud.”</p> - -<p>Although in Arabia, in the time of the Prophet, -descent was traced in the male line, the evidence -is almost unlimited, going to show that it was not -always so, but, on the contrary, that at an earlier<span class="pagenum" id="Page_131">131</span> -age, relationships were reckoned through women, -mothers being the recognized heads of families -and tribal groups. In his work on <i>Kinship and -Marriage in Early Arabia</i>, Prof. W. R. Smith -says:</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>If a kinship tribe derives its origin from a great -father, we may argue with confidence that it had the -rule that children were of their father’s tribe and kin; -while on the other hand if we find, in a nation organized -on the principle of unity of tribal blood, tribes -which trace their origin to a great mother instead of a -great father, we can feel sure that at some time the -tribe followed the rule that the children belong to the -mother and are of her kin. Now among the Arabs -the doctrine of the unity of tribal blood is universal, -as appears from the universal prevalence of the blood-feud. -And yet among the Arab tribes we find no -small number that refer their origin to a female eponym. -Hence it follows that in many parts of Arabia -kinship was once reckoned not in the male but in the -female line.</p></blockquote> - -<p>In reply to the suggestion that the several -families of polygamous fathers might be designated -by the names of their several mothers, Professor -Smith observes:</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>The point before us, however, is not the use of the -mother’s name by individuals for purposes of distinction, -but the existence of kindred groups whose members -conceive that the tie of blood which unites them -into a tribe is derived from and limited by descent<span class="pagenum" id="Page_132">132</span> -from a common ancestress. That the existence of -such a group proves kinship through women to have -been once the rule is as certain as that the existence -of patronymic groups is evidence of male kinship. -In most cases of the kind the female eponym is mythical, -no doubt, and the belief in her existence is a mere -inference from the rule of female kinship within the -tribe, just as mythical male ancestors are inferred -from a rule of male kinship. But even if we suppose -the ancestress to be historical, the argument is much -the same, for where the bond of maternity is so strong -that it binds together the children of the same mother -as a distinct kindred group against the other children -of their father, there also we may be sure that the -children of one mother by different fathers will hold -together and not follow their father. And this is the -principle of female kinship.<a id="FNanchor_86_86" href="#Footnote_86_86" class="fnanchor">86</a></p></blockquote> - -<p>It is stated that the designation of tribal -unity by a feminine appellation “is not an arbitrary -fiction of later facts,” but that it is “one of -the old standing figures of Semitic speech.” In -Hebrew, <i>em</i>, which means mother, means also -stock, race, or community.</p> - -<p>The name for a tribal group in Arabia was <i>hayy</i>, -a term which indicates life. It is observed that -in Hebrew and Arabic <i>hayy</i> is used in the same -sense. “<i>Hawwa</i> is simply a phonetic variation -of <i>hayy</i> with a feminine termination,” and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_133">133</span> “Eve, -or <i>Hawwa</i>, is so called because she is the mother -of all living, or, more literally, of every <i>hayy</i>.” -We are given to understand that, originally, there -was no rule of reckoning kinship in Arabia except -by the female line, and that the change in descent -from the female to the male line affected society -to its very roots.</p> - -<p>There seems to be little, if any, doubt that a -system of reckoning descent through women once -prevailed throughout all the tribes and races of -mankind. In Greece, as late as the beginning of -the historic period, traces of this early custom are -to be observed, and, indeed, at the present time, -among many peoples, evidences of it are still extant. -The fact that throughout an earlier age of -human existence descent and all the rights of succession -were traced through women, is at the -present time so well established as to require no -detailed proofs to substantiate it. Noting this -custom among early races, and observing also the -natural conclusions to be drawn from such a state -of society, a few writers who have dealt with the -subject of primitive races have taken much pains -to show that it does not naturally follow that under -these usages the influence of women was supreme; -and their theories to explain this (to them) no -doubt singular phenomenon show the extent to -which prejudice and long-established habits of -thought have influenced their investigations. On -this subject C. Staniland Wake remarks:</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>There is strong reason for believing that the practice -of tracing kinship in the female line was very widely<span class="pagenum" id="Page_134">134</span> -observed from a very early period, but this is very -different from the establishment of the supremacy of -women. Where this was found it was due to the -development of the gentile institution and the female -kinship which accompanied it, on which, indeed, that -institution was founded.<a id="FNanchor_87_87" href="#Footnote_87_87" class="fnanchor">87</a></p></blockquote> - -<p>If, however, during the earlier ages of human -existence a system of kinship through women had -been established which was able to produce the -gentile institution, or, if this institution, which -was “founded” on female kinship and dependent -upon it, was able through untold ages to -direct all the processes of evolution, even though -no other evidence were at hand to prove it, then -women’s influence must have been well-nigh -supreme.</p> - -<p>So deeply intrenched has become the idea of -woman’s subjection that it is impossible for many -male writers to contemplate a state of society in -which women are not dominated and controlled -by men.</p> - -<p>Mr. Herbert Spencer’s theory to explain the -universal system of kinship traced through woman -involves the same idea of woman’s subserviency -to man, especially in the sexual relation, and is -an illustration of the reasoning usually employed -in dealing with this subject.</p> - -<p>Although<span class="pagenum" id="Page_135">135</span> “the very lowest races now existing, -Fuegians, Australians, and Andamanese, show us -that, however informally they have originated, -sexual relations of a more or less enduring kind -exist,” he is certain that among the earliest races -a state of “lawlessness” must have prevailed and -that “promiscuity” must have been the rule -among them; and this too notwithstanding the -fact that among the lower orders of life from -which man has descended, and among the earliest -races of mankind the female chooses her mate and -refuses to pair with any individual except the one -of her choice. To account for the universal system -of reckoning descent through the female, Mr. -Spencer says that as the connection between mother -and child is more “obvious” than that existing -between the father and his offspring the custom -arose of reckoning descent through females.<a id="FNanchor_88_88" href="#Footnote_88_88" class="fnanchor">88</a> The -fact is observed that maternal affection without -which organized society would have been impossible, -and which alone can explain the system -of kinship traced through women, is entirely -ignored by Mr. Spencer.</p> - -<p>Noting the reasoning employed by many writers -to prove that in the earliest ages of human existence, -the maternal bond was ignored, and that -the child was accounted as being related only to -the group, Mr. Darwin remarks:</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>But it seems almost incredible that the relationship -of the child to its mother should ever be completely -ignored, especially as the women in most savage tribes -nurse their infants for a long time, and as the lines of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_136">136</span> -descent are traced through the mother alone, to the -exclusion of the father.<a id="FNanchor_89_89" href="#Footnote_89_89" class="fnanchor">89</a></p></blockquote> - -<p>We must bear in mind that under archaic usages -not only did mothers nurse their infants two, -three, and even four years, but that maternity -was the bond which held together related groups -and the source whence proceeded all property -rights and tribal honours; also, that under the -system of female kinship, male parentage was -known but habitually disregarded. Notwithstanding -all this, Mr. Spencer can see no reason -for concluding that in the most primitive groups -there were no “individual possessions of women -by men.”<a id="FNanchor_90_90" href="#Footnote_90_90" class="fnanchor">90</a></p> - -<p>The late Sir A. Smith, who had travelled widely -in South Africa and was acquainted with the -habits of savages there and elsewhere, expressed -the strongest opinion that “no race exists in -which woman is considered as the property of the -community.”<a id="FNanchor_91_91" href="#Footnote_91_91" class="fnanchor">91</a> The reasoning employed by Mr. -Spencer to disprove the early supremacy of women -seems scarcely to justify his lofty pretensions to -intellectual greatness.</p> - -<p>In a state of society in which women were the -recognized heads of families and eponymous -groups where children took the mother’s name, and -in which all rights of succession were traced through -them, it is reasonable to suppose that female<span class="pagenum" id="Page_137">137</span> -influence was in the ascendency over that of the -male, and especially so as primitive human beings -were largely controlled by instincts inherited from -the orders of life in which the female chooses her -mate and controls the sex-functions.</p> - -<p>A knowledge of the customs and tribal usages -of the Iroquois Indians throws much light on the -early position of women. When this tribe first -came under the observation of Europeans it was -in the first stage of barbarism, and as the manner -and order of development of the various races of -mankind are said to be substantially the same, and -as many of the facts connected with the history -of this truly interesting people through nearly -three ethnical periods are accessible, it is thought -that by it, as well as by the Arabians, is afforded -an excellent opportunity for the study of the -general history of mankind during these periods. -To Mr. Morgan we are indebted for the results of -a thorough research into the customs, manners, -and laws of this people.</p> - -<p>Through a knowledge of the rights, privileges, -and obligations which were conferred and imposed -on the members of the Iroquois gens while in the -second state of barbarism, we are enabled to -perceive the principles of true democracy upon -which gentile institutions are based; and this -is important, for the reason that later in this -work I intend to trace the decline of those principles -of liberty and equality established under -female influence and to show the reasons for<span class="pagenum" id="Page_138">138</span> -the subsequent rise of monarchy, aristocracy, -and slavery.</p> - -<p>The rights, privileges, and obligations of the -Iroquois tribe of Indians, as enunciated by Mr. -Morgan, are as follows:</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>The right of electing its sachem and chiefs. The -right of deposing its sachem and chiefs. The obligation -not to marry in the gens. Mutual rights of -inheritance of the property of deceased members. Reciprocal -obligations of help, defence, and redress of -injuries. The right of bestowing names upon its -members. The right of adopting strangers into the -gens. Common religious rites. A common burial -place. A council of the gens.<a id="FNanchor_92_92" href="#Footnote_92_92" class="fnanchor">92</a></p></blockquote> - -<p>As this writer truly remarks: “These functions -and attributes gave vitality as well as individuality -to the organization, and protected the personal -rights of its members.”</p> - -<p>Eligibility to the office of chief was based on -personal merit, and continuance in office depended -on the acknowledged fitness of the individual -occupying it. The qualifications required for -this office were personal bravery, ability to lead, -and eloquence in council. The chief exercised -no kingly authority over the tribe by which he -was appointed; on the contrary, his personality -was respected and his counsels heeded, not because -of his official prerogatives, but on account -of the qualities by which his character was digni<span class="pagenum" id="Page_139">139</span>fied; -therefore so soon as he proved himself unworthy -of the trust confided to him he was deposed -by the same agency which had elected him. Hence -may be observed the truly democratic character -of the gens.</p> - -<p>Concerning the position occupied by women, -and the influence which they exerted in the management -of the clan, Ashur Wright, who was for -many years missionary to the Senecas, in 1873, -wrote to Mr. Morgan the following:</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>As to their family system when occupying the old -long houses, it is probable that some one clan predominated, -the women taking in husbands, however, -from the other clans; and sometimes, for a novelty, -some of their sons bringing in their young wives until -they felt brave enough to leave their mothers. Usually -the female portion ruled the house, and were -doubtless clannish enough about it. The stores were -in common; but woe to the luckless husband or lover -who was too shiftless to do his share of the providing. -No matter how many children or whatever goods he -might have in the house, he might at any time be -ordered to pick up his blanket and budge; and after -such orders it would not be healthful for him to -attempt to disobey. The house would be too hot -for him; and, unless saved by intercession of some -aunt or grandmother, he must retreat to his own clan; -or, as was often done, go and start a new matrimonial -alliance in some other. The women were the great -power among the clans, as everywhere else. They -did not hesitate, when occasion required, “to knock -off the horns,” as it was technically called, from the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_140">140</span> -head of a chief, and send him back to the ranks of the -warriors. The original nomination of the chiefs also -always rested with them.<a id="FNanchor_93_93" href="#Footnote_93_93" class="fnanchor">93</a></p></blockquote> - -<p>In the Lower Status of barbarism we find intermarriage -within the gens prohibited, and the -obligation not to marry those accounted as kin -as strong as a religious duty.</p> - -<p>Although during the latter ages of savagery the -idea of property was slightly developed, it is -thought that it lay nascent until the latter part -of the first period of barbarism. Indeed, until -the first stage of barbarism was reached, the idea -of personal possession had gained only a slight -foothold in the mental constitution of mankind. -Egoism, selfishness, or the desire to better one’s -individual condition at the expense of the rest of -the gens was unknown. All lands were controlled -by the group, and as the property of early society -consisted for the most part of personal effects and -proprietary rights in communal houses and gardens, -one of the most fruitful causes for dissensions -in more advanced stages of society was avoided. -Under primitive conditions, quarrels arising over -disputed ownership within the gens were unknown, -and liberty, equality, and fraternity, the cardinal -virtues and principles of early society were able -to flourish undisturbed by the as yet unheard of -vices inherent in the excessive desire for property.</p> - -<p>In reference to some of the small uncivilized<span class="pagenum" id="Page_141">141</span> -communities which he visited, Mr. Wallace says -that each man respects the rights of his fellow,</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>and any infraction of these rights rarely or never takes -place. In such a community all are nearly equal. -There are none of those wide distinctions of education -and ignorance, wealth and poverty, master and servant, -which are the product of our civilization; there -is none of that widespread division of labour, which, -while it increases wealth, produces also conflicting -interests; there is not that severe competition and -struggle for existence or for wealth which the dense -population of civilized countries inevitably creates.<a id="FNanchor_94_94" href="#Footnote_94_94" class="fnanchor">94</a></p></blockquote> - -<p>Under the archaic rule of the gens, at the death -of a male, whether married or single, his possessions -descended to his sister’s children; while at -the death of a female, her property, including her -personal effects, was distributed among her sisters -and her children and the children of her daughters, -but the children of her sons were not included -among her heirs. The sons’ children belonged to -the gentes of their respective mothers, and as -descent and all the relationships to which rights -of succession were attached were traced only in -the female line, and as property until the middle -of the Second Status of barbarism was strictly -confined to the gens in which it originated, children -could receive nothing from their fathers. -Wives and husbands, as they belonged to separate -gentes, received nothing from one another. In<span class="pagenum" id="Page_142">142</span> -later times, when tribal honours were confined -within certain families or groups, as descent and -property rights were all traced in the female line, -each male was dependent upon his female blood -relations, not only for his common inherited privileges -in the gens, but for any civil or military -distinction to which he might attain.</p> - -<p>Where female kinship prevails, a Rajah’s son -may become a hodman, taking the state of his -mother—while the son of the Rajah’s sister mounts -the throne.<a id="FNanchor_95_95" href="#Footnote_95_95" class="fnanchor">95</a></p> - -<p>Among the Rocch tribe, a people among which -descent is traced in the female line, a man goes -on marriage to live with his wife and her mother, -of whose family he is a subordinate member.<a id="FNanchor_96_96" href="#Footnote_96_96" class="fnanchor">96</a></p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>A Rocch man goes, on his marriage, like the <i>beena</i> -husband of Ceylon, to live with his wife and her -mother; on his marriage, all his property is made -over to his wife, and on her death her heirs are her -daughters.<a id="FNanchor_97_97" href="#Footnote_97_97" class="fnanchor">97</a></p></blockquote> - -<p>For the same reason that wives and husbands -were debarred from sharing in each other’s property, -their bodies, or more properly speaking, -their bones, were separated at death, as were also -the bones of father and child. The bones of the -children always rested beside those of the mother. -It was impious to mix the bones of unrelated per<span class="pagenum" id="Page_143">143</span>sons. -To such an extent was the Motherright -recognized under archaic usages that the child -belonged exclusively to the mother and her relations, -the father having no recognized proprietary -right to his offspring. Indeed, so lightly was the -paternal relation regarded that the father was -supposed to have little if any interest in his own -children.</p> - -<p>Although the bond between a man and his offspring -was weak, toward his sister’s children, -as they belonged to the same gens with himself, -a considerable degree of manly interest was manifested; -indeed, it has been stated that about the -same solicitude was evinced by him for their welfare, -as was shown at a later time by fathers for -the members of their own household.</p> - -<p>Observing the care manifested for a sister’s -children among various tribes, certain writers -have declared that the relationship existing between -a child and its mother’s brother is more -important than any other—that the brother is -practically the head of his sister’s family. However, -if we bear in mind the relative positions of -the sexes in primitive groups, that women controlled -their homes, and that all the rights of -succession were traced through them, we shall -doubtless be led to the conclusion that mothers -themselves were the real heads of their own families, -and that although they may have delegated -to their brothers, who until marriage were permitted -to reside with them, certain manly offices,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_144">144</span> -they nevertheless reserved to themselves the -exclusive right to the control and management of -their own households. As the land belonged to -the gens, and as the gentes were controlled by -women, mothers were absolutely independent.</p> - -<p>Each child received a name soon after birth, -but at the age of sixteen or eighteen this name was -discarded and another adopted. Special rights -were thus conferred and specified obligations were -imposed. On receipt of this name, the incumbent -took upon himself all the duties and responsibilities -devolving upon a member of the group and -by it was entitled to all its rights and privileges. -The greatest precautions were taken with respect -to the adoption of names. The office of naming -the different members belonged to the female -relations and the chiefs. We are informed that -the mother might, if she chose, transfer her child -to another gens. This was accomplished by -simply giving it the name of the gens in which she -desired its adoption. It is claimed that among -the Shawnees and Delawares the mother claimed -the right to transfer her child to another gens than -her own.<a id="FNanchor_98_98" href="#Footnote_98_98" class="fnanchor">98</a> It would seem from this, that among -certain tribes, the mother, if she desires, may -transfer her child to the gens of its father. It is -observed, however, that the transference of a -child from its mother’s gens is a “wide departure -from archaic usages, and exceptional in practice.”</p> - -<p>It has been shown that under early usages<span class="pagenum" id="Page_145">145</span> -wealth was never transferred from the gens in -which it originated; but later, when property began -to be claimed by individuals, and wealth was -amassed in the hands of males, it is not unlikely -that mothers, considering only the future welfare -of their children, in case the father was rich and -powerful, would occasionally take advantage of -their established privileges to remove their children -to his gens, in order that they might share in his -possessions.</p> - -<p>Something of the humanity practised in early -groups may be observed in the custom of adoption, -which, at a certain stage in their development, -prevailed among them. In the earlier ages of -gentile institutions, women and children taken -prisoners in war, were usually adopted into some -gens. Adoption not only conferred gentile rights, -but also the nationality of the tribe. A person -adopted into a gens was treated ever afterwards -as though born within the group. “Slavery which -in the Upper Status of barbarism became the fate -of the captive, was unknown among tribes in the -Lower Status in the aboriginal period.”<a id="FNanchor_99_99" href="#Footnote_99_99" class="fnanchor">99</a></p> - -<p>According to Mariner:</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>It is customary in the Tonga Islands for women to -be what they call mothers to children or grown-up -young persons who are not their own, for the purpose -of providing them, or seeing that they are provided, -with all the conveniences of life.<a id="FNanchor_100_100" href="#Footnote_100_100" class="fnanchor">100</a></p></blockquote> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_146">146</span></p> -<p>According to Mr. E. J. Wood, among the Kaffirs, -although the men inherit the property, their -influences being in the ascendency, every woman -has someone who acts as her father whether her -own father be living or not. Kaffir law provides -for the protection of all women, and so long as a -male relation lives a girl has a protector. It goes -even farther than this, and protects women who -have been bereft of all their male relations. For -such as these provision is made for their adoption -into other groups, in which case, although they -are received as dependents, they are protected -as daughters.<a id="FNanchor_101_101" href="#Footnote_101_101" class="fnanchor">101</a></p> - -<p>This practice of adoption is observed among -various peoples. Among certain tribes in which -descent is traced through women, a woman offers -her breast to the person she is adopting, this being -the strongest symbol of the unity of blood. Thus -may be noted the fact that the fundamental idea, -or principle, of tribal life is maternity, or the -maternal instinct—that the uniting force which -binds a child to its mother is the one which is -supposed to unite the various members of a -primitive group. So strongly has the maternal -instinct as a binding principle taken root, that -among certain peoples even where the manner of -reckoning descent and the rights of succession -have been changed from the female to the male -line, whenever an individual wishes to be adopted -into a gens he takes the hand of the leader of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_147">147</span> -group and sucking one of his fingers, declares -himself to be his child by adoption; henceforth -the new father is bound to assist him as far as he -can.<a id="FNanchor_102_102" href="#Footnote_102_102" class="fnanchor">102</a> Adoption “by the imitation of nature” -was practised by the Romans down to the time -of Augustus.</p> - -<p>It has been observed that under the matriarchal -system the mother was the only recognized -parent, hence, when the father began to assume -the rights and prerogatives which had hitherto -belonged only to her, in order to make valid his -claim, it was thought proper for him to go through -various of the preliminaries attendant on childbirth.</p> - -<p>Of all the forms practised among lower races -there is none, perhaps, which is more singular -than is that of putting the father instead of the -mother to bed in the event of the birth of a child. -Concerning this custom, Mr. Tylor quotes from -Klemm the following:</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>Among the Arawaks of Surinam, for some time after -the birth of his child the father must fell no tree, fire -no gun, hunt no large game; he may stay near home, -shoot little birds with a bow and arrow, and angle for -little fish; but his time hanging heavy on his hands, -the most comfortable thing he can do is to lounge in -his hammock.<a id="FNanchor_103_103" href="#Footnote_103_103" class="fnanchor">103</a></p></blockquote> - -<p>Mr. Tylor quotes also from the Jesuit mission<span class="pagenum" id="Page_148">148</span>ary, -Dobrizhoffer, who gives the following account -of the Abipones:</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>No sooner do you hear that the wife has borne a child, -than you will see the Abipone husband lying in bed, -huddled up with mats and skins, lest some ruder -breath of air should touch him, fasting, kept in -private, and for a number of days abstaining religiously -from certain viands; you would swear it -was he who had had the child.</p></blockquote> - -<p>The custom of putting the father to bed when a -child is born is called <i>la couvade</i>, and traces of it -are yet to be found in France. It is also practised -among the Basques, and according to C. Staniland -Wake, was anciently observed in Corsica, among -the Iberians of Spain, and in the country south -of the Black Sea. It is still practised in Southern -India, in Yunnan, in Borneo, in Kamchatka, and -in Greenland. It is said also to be in use among -the various tribes in South America.<a id="FNanchor_104_104" href="#Footnote_104_104" class="fnanchor">104</a> The persistency -of this practice shows the importance formerly -attached to the maternal functions, and, -as has been suggested, was doubtless inaugurated -at a time when descent was being changed from -the female to the male line.</p> - -<p>It was perhaps in the latter part of the Middle -Status of barbarism that descent and the rights -of succession began to be traced through males. -When, through causes which will be noticed later -in this work, property began to accumulate in the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_149">149</span> -hands of men, children became the recognized -heirs of their fathers and the foundation for the -present form of the family was laid. However, -long after descent began to be reckoned through -males, absolute paternity was not necessary to -fatherhood. During the earlier ages of male -supremacy, fatherhood, like brotherhood, was -a loose term and signified simply the head of a -house, or the “lord” or owner of the mother. It -mattered little whether a man had previously lent -his wife to a friend, or whether he had shared her -favours with several brothers, all the children -“born on his bed” belonged to him and were of -his family.</p> - -<p>Later in these pages will be observed the fact -that the change in reckoning descent, which occurred -at a comparatively late period in the history -of the human race, is directly connected with the -means of subsistence. So long as land was held -in common by the members of the gens, and so -long as women were able to manage the means of -support, their independence was secure, and they -were able to exercise absolute control over their -own persons, their homes, and their offspring. -Under these conditions men were obliged to -please the women if they would win their favours.</p> - -<p>From facts which have been demonstrated by -various writers on the subject of the early conditions -of the human race, it is more than probable -that women were the original tillers of the soil, -and that, during the first period of barbarism,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_150">150</span> -while the hunters and warriors were engaged in -war and the chase, occupations best suited to -their taste, women first discovered the art of producing -farinaceous food through cultivation, and -through this discovery a hitherto exclusive diet -of fish and game was changed for a subsistence in -part vegetable.</p> - -<p>It is conjectured also that the first domestication -of animals was brought about through a -probable “freak of fancy.” That individuals -among these animals were first caught by hunters, -conveyed by them to their homes, and there -tamed through the tenderness and sympathy of -women, is considered more than likely. There -are, however, so far as I know, no actual facts -upon which to base such a conclusion.</p> - -<p>The increase of subsistence through horticulture -and the domestication of animals marks an -important era in the history of mankind. By -this means the human race was enabled to spread -itself over distant areas, and through the improved -condition of nutrition alone, by which the physical -conditions were improved and the mental energies -strengthened, the arts of life were multiplied and -the course of human activities directed into higher -and more important channels. Indeed, through -the numerous benefits derived from the one source -of increased and improved subsistence, the entire -mode of life was changed or materially modified.</p> - -<p>The religious idea, which subsequently comprehended -a complicated system of mythology<span class="pagenum" id="Page_151">151</span> -based on phallic worship, at this early age, consisted -simply of a recognition of the bounties of -earth. The principal office connected with the religious -ceremonies of the Iroquois tribe of Indians, -at the stage of development in which it was -first known to Europeans, seems to have been -“Keeper of the Faith,” a position occupied alike -by both sexes. The Keepers of the Faith were -chosen by the wise members of the group; they -were censors of the people, with power to report -the evil deeds of persons to the council. “With -no official head, and none of the marks of a priesthood, -their functions were equal.”<a id="FNanchor_105_105" href="#Footnote_105_105" class="fnanchor">105</a> For the most -part, their religious services consisted of festivals -held at stated seasons to celebrate the return of -the bounties of Nature. A notable fact in connection -with this subject is, that during the earlier -ages of barbarism the religious idea was thoroughly -monotheistic, and idolatry was unknown, religious -worship, for the most part, consisting of a ceremony -of thanksgiving, with invocations to the -Great Mother-Nature to continue to them the -blessings of life. As altruism waned and egoism -advanced, however, supernaturalism, or a belief in -unseen forces, became more and more pronounced, -until, in the Latter Status of barbarism, when the -supremacy of man had become complete, the -gens became merely the “centre of religious influence -and the source of religious development.”</p> - -<p>The earlier governmental functions were ad<span class="pagenum" id="Page_152">152</span>ministered -through a council of chiefs elected by -the gentes. The thoroughly democratic character -of the gens may be observed in the fact that any -member, female or male, who desired to communicate -with the council on matters of public interest, -might express her or his opinion either in person -or through an orator of her or his own selection.<a id="FNanchor_106_106" href="#Footnote_106_106" class="fnanchor">106</a> -Hence, we observe that government originated -in the gens, which was a pure democracy.</p> - -<p>Regarding the council of the gens, Mr. Morgan -remarks:</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>It was a democratic assembly because every adult -male and female member had a voice upon all questions -brought before it. It elected and deposed its -sachem and chiefs, it elected Keepers of the Faith, it -condoned or avenged the murder of a gentilis, and it -adopted persons into the gens. It was the germ of the -higher council of the tribe, and of that still higher of -the confederacy, each of which was composed exclusively -of chiefs as representatives of the gentes....</p> - -<p>All the members of an Iroquois gens were personally -free, and they were bound to defend each other’s -freedom; they were equal in privileges and in personal -rights, the sachem and chiefs claiming no superiority; -and they were a brotherhood bound together by the -ties of kin. Liberty, equality, and fraternity, though -never formulated, were cardinal principles of the -gens. These facts are material because the gens was -the unit of a social and governmental system, the -foundation upon which Indian society was organized.... -At the epoch of European discovery the American<span class="pagenum" id="Page_153">153</span> -Indian tribes generally were organized in gentes -with descent in the female line. The gens was the -basis of the phratry, of the tribe, and of the confederacy -of tribes.<a id="FNanchor_107_107" href="#Footnote_107_107" class="fnanchor">107</a></p></blockquote> - -<p>From the foregoing it would seem that the gens—the -earliest organization of society of which we -have any accurate knowledge—was founded on -the “mother-right” or on the supremacy of -women. We are assured that the gentile organization -is not confined to the Latin, Grecian, and -Sanskrit-speaking tribes, but that it has been -found “in other branches of the Aryan family of -nations, in the Semitic, Uralian, and Turanian -families, among the tribes of Africa and Australia, -and of the American aborigines.”<a id="FNanchor_108_108" href="#Footnote_108_108" class="fnanchor">108</a></p> - -<p>A tribe was composed of several gentes, the -chiefs of which formed the council. This council -was invested with the power to declare war and to -regulate terms of peace, to receive embassies and -make alliances; it was in fact authorized to perform -all the governmental functions of the tribe. The -duties performed by the council of chiefs may be -regarded as the first attempt at representative -government. In process of time, as the affairs of -the tribe became more complicated, a need arose -for a recognized head, one who when the council -was not in session could lead in the adjustment of -matters pertaining to the general interest of the -group. In response to this demand, one of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_154">154</span> -sachems was invested with a slight degree of -authority over the other chiefs. Hence arose the -military chieftain of the Latter Status of barbarism. -That the powers delegated to the incumbent -of this office differed widely from those of a modern -monarch, is shown in the fact that as he had been -elected by the members of the group he could by -them be deposed. We have seen that the powers -exercised by sachem and chief were alike transmitted -through women. The mother is the natural -guardian of the family; so soon therefore as the -actions of the leaders of the group were not in -accord with those principles of equality and justice -which had characterized society since its organization, -they were deposed, or, as in the case of the -Senecas described by Ashur Wright, they had -their “horns knocked off” through the influence -of women.</p> - -<p>At the head of the family, or gens, producing -and controlling the principal means of subsistence, -and forming the line of descent and inheritance, -women, until the closing ages of the Middle Status -of barbarism, were without doubt the leading -spirits, and thus far the progress of mankind had -been in strict accord with those principles which -since the separation of the sexes had governed -development.</p> - -<p>In process of time, however, the simple form -of government which has been described was found -inadequate to meet the demands arising from the -more complicated requirements of increasing<span class="pagenum" id="Page_155">155</span> -numbers and the general growth of society; therefore, -during the opening ages of the Latter Status -of barbarism, a form of government was evolved -which was better suited to their changed conditions. -When the idea of a coalescence of tribes, -or of a combination of forces for common defence -had taken root, and when under such confederation -the council of chiefs had become co-ordinated -with a military leader for the general management -and defence of the community, it was thought that -an important step had been taken in progressive -governmental functions. Yet, along with the -higher development of the governmental idea -is to be observed also a growing tendency toward -the usurpation of power. Scarcely was the office -of military chieftain created, than we find the -people inaugurating measures with which to protect -themselves against encroachments upon their -liberties, and devising means whereby they might -be enabled to check the personal ambition of their -leaders.</p> - -<p>The extreme egoism developed within the male -constitution was already manifesting itself in the -excessive greed for gain, and in the inordinate -thirst for military glory; hence, as a safeguard -against usurpation, in the earliest stages of the -Latter Status of barbarism, we find the tribe -electing two military chieftains instead of one, -two leaders invested with equal powers and responsibilities -and subjected to the same restrictions -and limitations in the exercise of authority.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_156">156</span> -The Spartan government upon its first appearance -in history is characterized by the existence of -two war-chieftains, who, by historians of later -ages, have been designated as kings; a closer investigation, -however, of the functions performed -by them shows that they were lacking in nearly -all the prerogatives which characterize a modern -sovereign.</p> - -<p>So jealously had the rights of the people been -guarded that the <i>basileus</i> or war-chief of the Latter -Status of barbarism, who is said to represent the -germ of our present king, emperor, and president, -had not succeeded in drawing to himself the powers -exercised by a monarch of modern times. The -selection of a military leader, during the Latter -Status of barbarism, doubtless represents the -first differentiation of the civil from the military -functions of government, and indicates a virtual -acknowledgment of the fact that society had outgrown -the primary and more simple form of -government administered by the council of chiefs.</p> - -<p>The third stage in the development of the idea -of government was represented by a council of -chiefs, a military commander, and an assembly -of the people. In this further growth of the administrative -functions may be discovered the -same solicitude for individual liberty and the -rights of the community which had characterized -the former stage of development, and also the -fact that still greater precautions were deemed -necessary to insure the people against tyranny<span class="pagenum" id="Page_157">157</span> -and the usurpation of their established rights. -The council of chiefs, although representing a -pure democracy, and co-ordinated with two military -chieftains, between whom was an equal division -of power and responsibility, was found to be -an insufficient safeguard against despotism; hence -the measures devised for the management of the -confederacy must henceforth be subjected to an -Assembly of the People, which, although of itself -unable to originate or propound any plan of -government, was invested with the power to -accept or reject any measures offered for adoption -by the council.</p> - -<p>The gens was able to carry mankind through to -the opening ages of civilization, at which time the -council of chiefs was transformed into a senate, -and the Assembly of the People assumed the form -of the popular assembly, from which have been -derived our present Congress and the two houses -of the English Parliament.</p> - -<p>By a careful study of the growth of government, -it is discerned that liberty, fraternity, and equality -were the original and natural inheritance of the -human family, and that tyranny, injustice, and -oppression are excrescences which subsequently -fastened themselves upon human institutions -through the gradual rise of the egoistic principle -developed in human nature. We have seen that -until the beginning of the Latter Status of barbarism, -the gens constituted a sovereign power in -the tribe; women controlled the gens, and sachem<span class="pagenum" id="Page_158">158</span> -and chief were alike invested with the authority -necessary for leadership because they could trace -their descent to some female ancestor who was -the acknowledged head of the people, and whose -influence and patronage must have extended over -all the individuals included within the recognized -bond of kinship.</p> - -<p>With the deposing power in the hands of women, -and with the precautions which were taken by -them against injustice or usurpation of rights, it is -plain that unless some unusual or unprecedented -circumstances had come into play, they never -could have lost that supremacy which, as the -natural result of their development, had been -maintained by females since the separation of the -sexes.</p> - -<div class="chapter"></div> -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_159">159</span></p> - - - - -<h3><a name="CHAPTER_IV-2" id="CHAPTER_IV-2">CHAPTER IV</a><br /> - -<small>THE ORIGIN OF MARRIAGE</small></h3> - -<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poetry"><div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse">I will be master of what is mine own;</div> - <div class="verse">She is my goods, my chattels; she’s my house,</div> - <div class="verse">My household stuff, my field, my barn,</div> - <div class="verse">My horse, my ox, my ass, my everything.</div> -</div><div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse"><i>The Taming of the Shrew.</i></div> -</div></div></div> - - -<p>It is an obvious fact that so far as her sex relations -are concerned the position of civilized woman -is lower than that of the female animal.</p> - -<p>The question which presents itself at this stage -of our inquiry is: What were the causes which led -to the overthrow of female supremacy or what -were the processes by which man gained the undisputed -right to the control of woman’s person? -By contrasting the industrial position of women -under gentile institutions with that of later times, -after they had become the sexual slaves of men, -it will be seen that the question of economics is -deeply involved in this change. Although the -early independence of women is now recognized, -the fact of their industrial supremacy is for the -most part ignored. Indeed the part performed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_160">160</span> -by woman in originating and developing human -industries is seldom referred to by those dealing -with this subject.</p> - -<p>As the activities best suited to the tastes of -primitive man were confined to war and the chase, -those occupations and pursuits which were necessary -for the preservation of the group were carried -on by women. The reason for this is obvious. -Fathers were not regarded as being related to -their offspring. The mother was the only recognized -parent. As the land was held in common, -women were economically free. They were absolutely -independent of men for their support. -Under these conditions the importance of women’s -position may be easily perceived.</p> - -<p>Not only did women establish the first industries, -but they invented and constructed the tools and -implements by which these industries were carried -on. Women were the first tillers of the soil. -It was they who conceived the idea of preserving -seeds whereby farinaceous food might be produced. -Corn was not only raised by them but by -them it was ground and further prepared for use. -They built clay granaries in which to store their -food products and tamed the cat to protect them. -Implements for tilling the soil, and devices for -grinding the grain were invented by women. They -were the first architects and the first builders. -They first conceived the idea of making cloth -with which to protect the body. They were the -first spinners and the first weavers. They in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_161">161</span>vented -the first spindles and the first looms. Their -attempts at decoration were the beginning of art.</p> - -<p>As these pioneers in industry were without -means of transportation other than their backs, -some of the difficulties which they encountered -may be readily perceived. It must be borne in -mind that for primitive women there was no -accumulated store of knowledge and no previous -race-experiences; neither were there any established -rules or precedents to guide them. All -methods and utilities had to be worked out by -woman’s unaided brain. When the conditions -under which these pioneers in industry laboured -are considered, and when one reflects on the -obstacles which must have presented themselves -at every step along their untried pathway, it would -almost seem that their early achievements were -quite as remarkable as are those which have since -been accomplished by men.</p> - -<p>The fact is observed that woman assumed the -rôle of protector and provider, not as is commonly -asserted because she was compelled by man to -become a beast of burden, but because she was -the recognized guardian not only of infant life -but of the public welfare. Later, after the primitive -groups began to coalesce to form the tribe, -after wife-capture became prevalent and men -thereby secured the right to the control and ownership -of individual women, a right which they still -claim, then and not till then did women become -beasts of burden. Then and not till then did<span class="pagenum" id="Page_162">162</span> -man gain the right to the control of woman’s -person.</p> - -<p>It is now known that wife-capture is the origin -of our present form of marriage, and that the -establishment of the family with man at its head -rests on the same basis. It is also known that -through forcible marriage and the economic conditions -which it entailed, woman became a dependent, -a mere appendage to her male mate. The -dominion of man and the assumed inferiority of -woman are the direct results of the authority which -he was able to exercise over her in the marital -relation.</p> - -<p>We have seen that prior to the decline of female -influence women taken prisoners in war were not -regarded as the legitimate property of their captors. -On the contrary, female captives were -adopted into the gens and invested with the same -status of personal independence enjoyed by the -original members of the group. Later, however, -female prisoners began to be regarded as the special -booty of their captors, and as belonging exclusively -to them; and although in primitive times marriage -outside the limits of related groups was prohibited, -owing to the esteem in which military chieftains -came to be held, this claim was at length allowed -them. Any courageous young warrior, conscious -of his popularity, might gather about him a band -of his clansmen and march against a neighbouring -tribe, the women taken prisoners during such -expeditions being the special prizes of their captors.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_163">163</span></p> - -<p>These prisoners were entitled to none of the -privileges of the community into which they were -taken; and as the hostility felt toward unrelated -tribes had become so strong as to be shared by -women, the captive woman could no longer look -for pity even from her own sex.</p> - -<p>From this time in the history of the race may -be traced the decline of woman’s power and the -subjection of the natural female impulses. As, -at this stage, within the limits of their own tribe, -women held the balance of power in their own -hands, and as they still exercised unqualified -control over their own persons, the acknowledged -ownership of one woman, who, being a “stranger,” -was without power or influence, would be an -object much to be desired, and one for which a -warrior would not hesitate to brave the dangers -of a hostile camp. Hence, female captives were -in demand, and the women of warring tribes were -sought after singly and in groups. In process of -time wars for wives became general and under -the new regime women had the fear of captivity -constantly before their view as a condition more -to be dreaded than death.</p> - -<p>In the <i>Mahabharata</i> of India it is stated that -formerly “women were unconfined and roved about -at their pleasure, independent.” Finally, marriage -was instituted and a woman was bound to a -man for life. One of the eight forms of legalized -marriage in the code of Manu was that of capture -<i>de facto</i> and was called <i>Racshasa</i>. This particular<span class="pagenum" id="Page_164">164</span> -form of conjugal union was practised exclusively -by the military classes, among which, the women -taken in battle were the acknowledged booty of -their captors. A definition of this kind of marriage -is as follows: “The seizure of a maiden by -force from her house while she weeps and calls -for assistance, after her kinsmen and friends -have been slain in battle or wounded, and their -houses broken open, is the marriage called -<i>Racshasa</i>.”</p> - -<p>Capture as the prescribed form of marriage for -warriors may be traced through thousands of years -and among various peoples. Of the three legalized -forms of marital union in Rome, that by -capture was the one in use among the plebeians, -the patricians at the same time practising <i>Confarreatio</i> -and <i>Usus</i>. In Arabia, as late as Mohammed’s -time, the carrying off of women was -recognized as a legal form of marriage.<a id="FNanchor_109_109" href="#Footnote_109_109" class="fnanchor">109</a></p> - -<p>That capture constituted a legal form of marriage -among the Israelites, or that women taken -captives in war were appropriated as sexual slaves, -is shown by their religious history, in which the -instructions given to the Lord’s chosen people -after they had taken a city was to “smite every -male thereof with the edge of the sword: But the -women, and the little ones, and the cattle, and -all that is in the city” they were to take unto -themselves. This, it will be noticed, is to be done<span class="pagenum" id="Page_165">165</span> -“unto the cities which are very far off,” and which -“are not of the cities of these nations.”<a id="FNanchor_110_110" href="#Footnote_110_110" class="fnanchor">110</a></p> - -<p>When the Israelites 12,000 strong marched -against the Midianites, they were commanded by -Moses to slay all the males, adults and children, -and all the women except the virgins. These -virgins of whom there were 32,000 were to be -spared and utilized as wives by the victorious -Israelites. The fact will be noted that these -women had been taken from their own people, -hence they were wholly without influence or power. -They were dependents and therefore subject to -the will of their masters. They were sexual -slaves or wives.</p> - -<p>In Australia, among the North American Indians, -the tribes of the Amazon and the Orinoco, -in Hindustan and Afghanistan, marriage by actual -capture is still practised, and many of the details -connected with the <i>modus operandi</i> have been -given by various writers. The following from -Sir George Gray, relative to this form of marriage -as it exists at the present time among some of the -native Australian tribes, is quoted by Mr. J. F. -McLennan.</p> - -<p>Although a woman give no encouragement to -her admirers,</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>many plots are laid to carry her off, and in the encounters -which result from these, she is almost certain -to receive some violent injury, for each of the combatants<span class="pagenum" id="Page_166">166</span> -orders her to follow him, and in the event of -her refusing, throws a spear at her. The early life -of a young woman at all celebrated for beauty is -generally one continued series of captivity to different -masters, of ghastly wounds, of wanderings in strange -families, of rapid flights, of bad treatment from other -females, amongst whom she is brought a stranger by -her captor; and rarely do you see a form of unusual -grace and elegance, but it is marked and scarred by -the furrows of old wounds; and many a female thus -wanders several hundred miles from the home of her -infancy, being carried off successively to distant and -more distant points.<a id="FNanchor_111_111" href="#Footnote_111_111" class="fnanchor">111</a></p></blockquote> - -<p>In an account describing the search for wives -by the natives of Sydney, Collins says:</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>The poor wretch is stolen upon in the absence of -her protectors. Being first stupefied with blows, -inflicted with clubs or wooden swords, on the head, -back, and shoulders, every one of which is followed -by a stream of blood, she is then dragged through the -woods by one arm, with a perseverance and violence -that it might be supposed would displace it from its -socket. This outrage is not resented by the relations -of the female, who only retaliate by a similar outrage -when they find an opportunity. This is so constantly -the practice among them that even the children make -it a play game, or exercise.<a id="FNanchor_112_112" href="#Footnote_112_112" class="fnanchor">112</a></p></blockquote> - -<p>By various travellers and explorers, the fact -has been observed that certain symbols represent<span class="pagenum" id="Page_167">167</span>ing -force in their marriage ceremonies are in use -among nearly if not all extant tribes which have -reached a certain stage of growth. To such an -extent, in an earlier age, has the forcible carrying-off -of women prevailed, that among most of these -tribes a valid marriage may not be consummated -without the appearance of force in the nuptial -ceremonies. In reference to these symbols, we -have the following passage from Mr. McLennan:</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>Meantime, we observe that, whenever we discover -symbolical forms, we are justified in inferring that in -the past life of the people employing them, there were -corresponding realities; and if, among the primitive -races which we examine, we find such realities as -might naturally pass into such forms on an advance -taking place in civility, then we may safely conclude -(keeping within the conditions of a sound inference) -that what these now are, those employing the symbols -once were.<a id="FNanchor_113_113" href="#Footnote_113_113" class="fnanchor">113</a></p></blockquote> - -<p>Among primitive tribes, the area controlled by -each was small, therefore vigilance in maintaining -their possessions was one of their chief duties, -and hostility to surrounding tribes a natural condition. -Subsequently, however, when friendly -relations began to be established with hitherto -hostile tribes, they are found entering into negotiations -to furnish each other with wives. It was -at this time that marriage by sale or contract was -instituted, an arrangement by which the elder<span class="pagenum" id="Page_168">168</span> -men in the tribe could be accommodated with -foreign wives, at the same time that their own -daughters and sisters became to them a source -of revenue.</p> - -<p>In Uganda many men obtain wives by exchanging -daughters and sisters with each other. Of this -practice C. Staniland Wake says:</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>This is not an unusual mode of proceeding in different -parts of the world. The perpetuation of the -monopoly of women enjoyed to a great extent by the -older men of the tribe among the Australians is, -according to Mr. Howitt, encouraged by those having -sisters or daughters to exchange with each other for -wives.<a id="FNanchor_114_114" href="#Footnote_114_114" class="fnanchor">114</a></p></blockquote> - -<p>Not unfrequently actual capture is practised -side by side with fiction—violent seizure being in -active operation among the same tribes at the -same time with the symbol, the frequency of -actual violence depending partly on the extent -to which hostility prevails between the tribes, -and partly on the degree of “uniformity established -by usage in the prices paid for wives.” -Among certain tribes, when a dispute arises concerning -the price to be paid for a bride, if the man -is able to seize the woman and carry her off to his -tent, the law recognizes her as his wife and nothing -is left for the relations to do in the matter but to -accept his terms as to the price.</p> - -<p>The peoples among which actual capture is at<span class="pagenum" id="Page_169">169</span> -present practised, and those among which wives -are procured by sale or contract, represent two -different stages in the development of the institution -of marriage, and it is owing to this fact that -the symbols used among the latter may be traced -to the realities in which they originated.</p> - -<p>Of the Bedouins of Mt. Sinai, Burckhardt says -that marriage is a matter of sale and purchase, -in which the inclination of the girl is disregarded.</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>The young maid comes home in the evening with -the cattle. At a short distance from the camp she -is met by the future spouse and a couple of his young -friends, and carried off by force to her father’s tent. -If she entertains any suspicion of their designs she -defends herself with stones, and often inflicts wounds -on the young men, even though she does not dislike -the lover, for, according to custom, the more she -struggles, bites, kicks, cries, and shrieks, the more she -is applauded ever after by her own companions.<a id="FNanchor_115_115" href="#Footnote_115_115" class="fnanchor">115</a></p></blockquote> - -<p>In reference to the Mezeyne Arabs the same -writer observes that a similar custom prevailed -within the limits of the Sinai Peninsula, but not -among the other tribes of that province.</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>A girl having been wrapped in the Abba at night, -is permitted to escape from her tent, and fly into the -neighbouring mountains. The bridegroom goes in -search of her next day, and remains often many days -before he can find her out, while her female friends -are apprised of her hiding-place, and furnish her with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_170">170</span> -provisions. If the husband finds her at last (which -is sooner or later, according to the impression that -he has made upon the girl’s heart), he is bound to -consummate the marriage in the open country, and -to pass the night with her in the mountains. The -next morning the bride goes home to her tent, that -she may have some food; but again runs away in the -evening and repeats these flights several times, till -she finally returns to her tent. She does not go to -live in her husband’s tent until she is far advanced in -pregnancy; if she does not become pregnant, she may -not join her husband till a full year from the wedding-day.<a id="FNanchor_116_116" href="#Footnote_116_116" class="fnanchor">116</a></p></blockquote> - -<p>Cranz says that in Greenland “some females, -when a husband is proposed to them will fall into -a swoon, elope to a desert place, or cut off their -hair.... In the latter case they are seldom -troubled with further addresses.” The refractory -bride is dragged</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>forcibly into her suitor’s house, where she sits for -several days disconsolate, with dishevelled hair, and -refuses nourishment. When friendly exhortations -are unavailing, she is compelled by force and even -with blows to receive her husband. Should she -elope, she is brought back and treated more harshly -than before.<a id="FNanchor_117_117" href="#Footnote_117_117" class="fnanchor">117</a></p></blockquote> - -<p>Wherever friendly relations have been established -between the tribe of the wife and that of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_171">171</span> -the husband, he pays a price to her relatives for -the privilege of removing her to his camp. This -purchase price, together with the simulated hatred -of the woman’s friends, signifies a sacrifice on the -part of the wife and her family. In Nubia when -a man marries he presents his wife with a wedding-dress, -and gives her also a pledge for three or four -hundred piastres, half of which sum is paid her -in case of a divorce. Divorces, however, are very -rare.<a id="FNanchor_118_118" href="#Footnote_118_118" class="fnanchor">118</a></p> - -<p>Among the Circassians, after the preliminaries -have been settled by the parents, the lover meets -his bride-elect by night in some secluded spot, -and with the assistance of two or three of his best -friends seizes her and carries her away. Sometimes -the pretended capture takes place in the -midst of a noisy feast. The woman is usually -conducted into the presence of a mutual friend, -where, on the following day, her friends, simulating -anger, seek her and demand a reason for her -abduction. Although the affair is usually settled -at once by the bridegroom paying the accustomed -price for his bride, custom requires that there shall -be still further manifestations of anger on the -part of her friends; so, on the following day, all -the relatives of the bride, armed with sticks, -proceed to the place where the bride is in waiting, -there to meet the bridegroom and his friends who -have come to carry off the bride. A sham fight -ensues, in which the bridegroom and his party<span class="pagenum" id="Page_172">172</span> -are always victorious. Among certain of the -Arabian tribes the bridegroom must force his -bride to enter his tent, and in France, as late as -the seventeenth century, a similar custom prevailed.</p> - -<p>In describing a wedding dance in Abyssinia, -Parkyns observes:</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>This dance is performed by men armed with shields -and lances, who with bounds, feints, and springs -attack others armed with guns, so as to approach -them, and at the same time avoid their fire, while the -gunners make similar demonstrations, and at last -fire off their guns either in the air or into the earth, -and then, drawing their swords, flourish them about -as a finish.</p></blockquote> - -<p>Finally the bridegroom fires off a gun and immediately -rushes across to where the bride and her -female relations are stationed.<a id="FNanchor_119_119" href="#Footnote_119_119" class="fnanchor">119</a></p> - -<p>Tylor informs us that a Scandinavian warrior -generally sought to gain his bride by force, that -he conceived it beneath his dignity to win her -by pacific means. That the affair might appear -more heroic, he waited until the object of his -choice was about to wed another, and was actually -on her way to the nuptial ceremony, when with -his friends he would surprise the wedding cortege, -seize the bride, and carry her off. It has been said -of Scandinavian marriages that they were matters -of deep anxiety to the friends both of the bride -and groom, who, until the wedding was over,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_173">173</span> -remained at home in suspense fearing an attack -of the kind already mentioned. It was customary -for a party of young men to station themselves -at the church door, and, as soon as the ceremony -was completed, to carry the news to the homes of -the wedded pair. “Within a few generations the -same old practice was kept up in Wales, where the -bridegroom and his friends, mounted and armed -as for war, carried off the bride,” and in Ireland -they used even to hurl spears at the bride’s people, -though at such a distance that no one was hurt.<a id="FNanchor_120_120" href="#Footnote_120_120" class="fnanchor">120</a></p> - -<p>In the Amazon valley the bride is always carried -away by violence. Among the Zulus, although a -purchase price is paid for a woman, custom requires -that a wife, after having been captured, shall -make three attempts to return to her own home.</p> - -<p>Of the marriage customs in ancient Sparta, -Plutarch says: “In their marriages the bridegroom -carried off the bride by violence.”<a id="FNanchor_121_121" href="#Footnote_121_121" class="fnanchor">121</a> In Rome we -have the familiar example of the Sabine women, -who were captured or carried off by force.</p> - -<p>A notable fact in connection with the subject of -capture is, that the mother of the bride, or, in -case the mother is dead, the nearest female relative, -is the individual who assumes the part of the -principal defender in this ceremony. She it is -who attempts to rescue the bride, and who more -than any other mourns the fate of the captured -wife. Among primitive peoples, with the exception -of the symbol of wife-capture in marriage<span class="pagenum" id="Page_174">174</span> -ceremonies, there is perhaps none more significant -than that typifying the hatred of the mother for -the captor of her daughter. Customs indicating -estrangement or, actual aversion to sons-in-law, -usually, if not always, accompany marriage by -capture.</p> - -<p>The fact that the change in the relative positions -of the sexes, as indicated by the <i>sadica</i> and <i>ba’al</i> -forms of marriage in Arabia, was not easily or -speedily accomplished, is apparent not only in -the symbols of wife-capture everywhere practised -among peoples in a certain stage of development, -but is strongly suggested also by the aversion -found to exist among these same peoples between -mothers-in-law and sons-in-law, whether appearing -as a reality or as a symbol.</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>Among the Arawaks of South America, it is unlawful -for the son-in-law to look upon the face of his -mother-in-law. If they live in the same house a -partition separates them, and if by chance they must -enter the same boat, she must precede him so as to -keep her back toward him.</p></blockquote> - -<p>Among the Caribs, all the women talk with -whom they will, but the husband dare not converse -with his wife’s relations except on extraordinary -occasions.<a id="FNanchor_122_122" href="#Footnote_122_122" class="fnanchor">122</a> Mr. Tylor refers to the fact that</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>In the account of the Floridian expedition of Alvar -Nuñez, commonly known as Cabeca de Vaca, or Co<span class="pagenum" id="Page_175">175</span>w’s -Head, it is mentioned that the parents-in-law did -not enter the son-in-law’s house, nor he theirs, nor -his brother-in-law’s, and if they met by chance, they -went a buckshot out of their way, with their heads -down and eyes fixed on the ground, for they held it a -bad thing to see or speak to one another.</p></blockquote> - -<p>It is observed by Richardson, an author quoted -by Tylor, that among the Crees, while an Indian -lives with his wife’s family, his mother-in-law must -not speak to or look at him. In some portions -of Australia, “the mother-in-law does not allow -the son-in-law to see her, but hides herself if he -is near, and if she has to pass him makes a circuit, -keeping carefully concealed within her cloak.”</p> - -<p>Among some of the tribes in Central Africa, -from the moment a marriage is contracted, the -lover may not behold the parents of his future -bride. When a young man wishes to marry a -girl, he dispatches a messenger to negotiate with -her parents regarding the presents required and -the number of oxen demanded. This being arranged, -he may not again look upon the father -and mother of his intended wife; “he takes the -greatest care to avoid them, and if by chance -they perceive him they cover their faces as if all -ties of friendship were broken.” We are told, -however, that this indifference is only feigned, -that they feel the same friendship as before, and -in conversation extol one another’s merit. Mr. -Caillie says that this custom extends beyond the -relations; if the lover is of a different camp, he<span class="pagenum" id="Page_176">176</span> -must avoid all the inhabitants of the lady’s camp, -except a few intimate friends who are permitted to -assist him in his love-making. A little tent is -set up for him in the neighbourhood, under which -he is to remain during the day. If he has occasion -to cross the camp he must cover his face. He -may not see the face of his intended throughout -the day, but at nightfall he may creep silently -to her tent and remain with her until the dawn. -These clandestine visits are continued for a month -or two when the marriage is solemnized. At the -wedding festival the women collect round the -bride singing her praises and extolling her virtues.<a id="FNanchor_123_123" href="#Footnote_123_123" class="fnanchor">123</a></p> - -<p>Gubernatis is authority for the statement that, -in many parts of Italy the bride is compelled to -go through the process of weeping on her wedding-day, -also for the fact that one of the marriage -customs prevalent in Sardinia is identical with -that which appeared among the plebeians at Rome, -namely, the pretence of tearing the bride from the -arms of her mother.<a id="FNanchor_124_124" href="#Footnote_124_124" class="fnanchor">124</a></p> - -<p>From the facts which have been obtained relative -to the practice of wife-capture, it is only -natural to suppose that the mother of the captured -wife would be her chief ally and defender; that -such has been the case seems to be clearly shown -by the symbols of distrust and aversion everywhere -manifested between mothers-in-law and -sons-in-law among the various existing uncivilized<span class="pagenum" id="Page_177">177</span> -races. The practice of wife-capture exists either -as a reality or as a symbol entering into the marriage -ceremonies among the tribes of Central -Africa, the Indians of North and South America, -in Australia, in New Zealand, in Arabia, in the -hill tracts of India, among the Fuegians, and in -the islands of the Pacific Ocean, and wherever -this system is found the symbol of hatred between -mother-in-law and son-in-law also prevails.</p> - -<p>The simulated anger and sham violence connected -with marriage ceremonies among friendly -peoples, which are so far removed from a time -when actual capture was practised as to be -ignorant of the true significance of these symbols, -show the extent to which marriage is based on -the idea of force on the one side and unwilling -submission on the other.</p> - -<p>As the numerous Arabian clans in the time of -Mohammed represented the varying stages of -advancement from the second period of barbarism -to civilization, the constitution of Arab society -at that time affords an excellent opportunity for -observing the growth of the institution of marriage, -and the various processes by which the former -supremacy of women was overthrown.</p> - -<p>One of the principal objects of war at the time -of the Prophet is said to have been the capture -of women for wives, a practice which was recognized -as lawful. Under Islam the custom of forcibly -carrying off women for wives was universal -and was carried on side by side with the system of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_178">178</span> -marriage by contract or sale. The position of -the captured woman, however, differed somewhat -from that of the purchased wife. The former, -having been forcibly carried away from her home, -lost the protection of her friends, while the purchased -wife, although she relinquished the authority -which had formerly been exercised by women -within the gens, and although she surrendered -her person to her “lord,” did not forfeit her right -to the protection of her own family in case of -abuse.</p> - -<p>Although in Arabia, under the form of marriage -by sale or contract, the wife lost the right to the -control of property belonging to her own gens, -she did not, as in Rome, forfeit her claim to the -protection of her kindred. If she received ill -treatment within the home of her husband, her -relatives, who were still her natural protectors, -were bound to redress her wrongs. In Rome, on -the contrary, under a system representing a later -stage in the development of marriage, the wife -was adopted into the stock of her husband whose -rights over her person were supreme, at the same -time that her kindred renounced the right to -interfere in her behalf.</p> - -<p>It is to the fact, that in early Arabia the wife -never relinquished her hold upon her own relations, -that we are to look for an explanation of -the high social position of Arabian women. We -are assured that it is “an old Arab sentiment, -and not Moslem,” that women are entitled to the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_179">179</span> -highest respect, and that as mothers of the tribe -they “are its most sacred trust.”</p> - -<p>According to Professor W. R. Smith in Mohammed’s -time, in addition to the two forms of marriage -mentioned, namely, that by capture and -that by sale or contract, there existed also a more -ancient form known as the <i>sadica</i>—a form of -conjugal union which was a remnant of the matriarchal -system. By observing the facts connected -with this last-named institution, we shall be enabled -to understand something of the position -occupied by women during the earlier ages of -human existence before wife-capture became -prevalent.</p> - -<p>Among certain tribes just prior to Islam, upon -the event of marriage, the man presented the -woman with a sum of money, which offering was -simply an acknowledgment of the favour which -she was conferring upon him. The husband went -to live with the wife in her tent, and as the contract -was for no specified length of time, he was -at liberty to go whenever he tired of the conditions -imposed on him by his wife and her relations. -Any children, however, that were born as a result -of this union belonged to the mother and became -members of her <i>hayy</i>. If she desired him to go, -she simply turned the tent around, “so that if the -door had faced east it now faced west, and when -the man saw this he knew that he was dismissed -and did not enter.” In relation to these marriage -customs Professor Smith says:<span class="pagenum" id="Page_180">180</span> “Here, therefore, -we have the proof of a well-established custom of -that kind of marriage which naturally goes with -female kinship in the generation immediately -before Islam.” Of this kind of marriage the same -writer observes:</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>The <i>motă</i> marriage was a purely personal contract, -founded on consent between a man and a woman, -without any intervention on the part of the woman’s -kin.... Now the fact that there was no contract -with the woman’s kin—such as was necessary when -the wife left her own people and came under the -authority of her husband—and that, indeed, her kin -might know nothing about it, can have only one -explanation: in <i>motă</i> marriage the woman did not -leave her home, her people gave up no rights which -they had over her, and the children of the marriage -did not belong to the husband. <i>Motă</i> marriage, in -short, is simply the last remains of that type of marriage -which corresponds to a law of mother-kinship, -and Islam condemns it, and makes it “the sister of -harlotry,” because it does not give the husband a -legitimate offspring, <i>i. e.</i>, an offspring that is reckoned -to his own tribe and has rights of inheritance within -it.<a id="FNanchor_125_125" href="#Footnote_125_125" class="fnanchor">125</a></p></blockquote> - -<p>Before the separation of the Hebrews and Aramæans, -the wife remained within her own tent -where she received her husband, the children of -such unions taking her name and becoming her -heirs. This kind of conjugal union is known to -have been in existence in many portions of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_181">181</span> -world. In Ceylon it is designated as the <i>beena</i> -marriage.</p> - -<p>In ancient Arabia, not only did women control -their own homes, but they owned flocks and -herds, and were absolutely independent of male -relations. As late as the fourteenth century of -our era, although the women of certain Arabian -tribes were willing to marry strangers, they never -followed them to their homes.</p> - -<p>Among the Bedouins it is a rare thing for a -woman at marriage to leave her home and kindred. -When a woman marries a man he settles among -her kinsmen, and, as she presents him with a -spear and a tent by way of dowry, it would seem -that he is expected to join her relations and assist -in the common defence. The marks of authority -under gentile rule are the possession of a tent and -a lance; yet we find that these are the objects which, -under matriarchal usages, the wife tenders her -husband when he enters her family; the first -doubtless as a symbol of her protection, the second -as indicating her authority and the services which -he is expected to render her and her people. Until -a late period in Rome it was the custom, during -the solemnities of marriage, to pass a lance -over the head of the wife in token of the power -which the husband was about to gain over her.<a id="FNanchor_126_126" href="#Footnote_126_126" class="fnanchor">126</a></p> - -<p>Under the two types of marriage—namely, -<i>motă</i> and <i>ba’al</i>—the positions of women were so -diametrically opposed that both could not con<span class="pagenum" id="Page_182">182</span>tinue, -hence when under the pressure brought to -bear upon them, women began to accept the <i>ba’al</i> -form of marriage within their own <i>hayy</i>, <i>motă</i> -unions were doomed. Of the more ancient form of -marriage in Arabia, under which the woman chooses -her mate, evidences of which are still extant in that -country, and that by capture under which she becomes -the slave of her lord, Professor Smith says:</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>There is then abundant evidence that the ancient -Arabs practised marriage by capture. And we see -that the type of marriage so constituted is altogether -different from those unions of which the <i>motă</i> is a -survival, and kinship through women the necessary -accompaniment. In the one case the woman chooses -and dismisses her husband at will, in the other she -has lost the right to dispose of her person and so the -right of divorce lies only with the husband; in the -one case the woman receives the husband in her own -tent, among her own people, in the other she is brought -home to his tent and people; in the one case the -children are brought up under the protection of the -mother’s kin and are of her blood, in the other they -remain with the father’s kindred and are of his blood.</p> - -<p>All later Arabic marriages under the system of male -kinship, whether constituted by capture or by contract, -belong to the same type; in all cases, as we shall -presently see in detail, the wife who follows her husband -and bears children who are of his blood has lost -the right freely to dispose of her person; the husband -has authority over her and he alone has the right of -divorce. Accordingly the husband, in this kind of -marriage, is called not in Arabia only, but also among<span class="pagenum" id="Page_183">183</span> -the Hebrews and Aramæans, the woman’s “lord” or -“owner,” and wherever this name for husband is -found we may be sure that marriage is of the second -type, with male kinship, and the wife bound to the -husband and following him to his home.<a id="FNanchor_127_127" href="#Footnote_127_127" class="fnanchor">127</a></p></blockquote> - -<p>Notwithstanding the humane enactments of -Mohammed in the interest of women, their position -steadily declined, such enactments having -been overbalanced by the establishment of marriages -of dominion, by the growing idea that -<i>sadica</i> or <i>motă</i> marriages were not respectable, -and that women could not depend upon their -relations to take their part against their husbands. -The history of religion shows that its growth has -always followed the same course as have the -ideas concerning the relative importance of the -sexes. The god-idea and the fundamental doctrines -of religion are always found to be in harmony -with the established principles and ideas relative -to sex domination and superiority. The religion of -Mohammed was essentially masculine, all its principles -being in strict accord with male supremacy; -it is not, therefore, singular that when the weight -of religion was added to the already growing tendency -toward <i>ba’al</i> marriages that <i>sadica</i> marriages -were doomed.</p> - -<p>In Arabia, as elsewhere, the duties of the purchased -wife were specific. The present which -under the older form of marriage had been given<span class="pagenum" id="Page_184">184</span> -to the bride as a love-token, or as an acknowledgment -of the husband’s devotion to her, subsequently -took the form of a purchase price, and -was claimed by her father and brothers as a compensation -for the loss sustained by the group -through the removal of her offspring, whose -services belonged to their mother’s people. In -other words, the husband paid a price to the wife’s -relations for the right to raise children by her -which should belong exclusively to his kin—children -which should she remain within her own home -would belong to her kindred. The wife was therefore -removed to the husband’s <i>hayy</i>, where, so far -as the sexual relation was concerned, his rights -over her were supreme.</p> - -<p>We have observed that wherever the possessions -of the gens continued to be the property of all its -members, and were controlled by women, the -man at marriage went to live with the woman; -so soon, however, as men began to claim the soil, -and property began to accumulate in their hands, -the wife went to reside with her husband and his -family as a dependent. Among various tribes, -the form of marriage in use depends on the means -of the contracting parties; if the man is able to -pay to the woman’s father or brothers the full -price charged for her, she goes to him as his slave—she -is his property as much as is his dog or his -gun; if, however, he is unable to pay the amount -charged, he goes to live with her and her family, -and becomes their slave.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_185">185</span></p> - -<p>In Japan, among the higher classes, upon the marriage -of the eldest son, his bride accompanies him -to his paternal home; but, on the other hand, when -the eldest daughter marries, her husband takes up -his abode with her parents. Eldest daughters -always retain their own names, which their husbands -are obliged to assume. As the wife of an -eldest son becomes a member of her husband’s -family, and the husband of an eldest daughter -joins the family of his wife and assumes her -name, the eldest son of a family may not marry -the eldest daughter of another family. Regarding -the younger members of the household, if the -husband’s family provides the house, the wife -takes his name, while if the bride’s family furnishes -the home the bridegroom assumes the -name of the wife.<a id="FNanchor_128_128" href="#Footnote_128_128" class="fnanchor">128</a></p> - -<p>In the marriage customs of various nations, -and in their ideas relative to the ownership and -control of the home, may be observed something -more than a hint of the principal causes underlying -the decline of female power. Wherever -women remain within their own homes, or with -their own relations, they are mistresses of the -situation; but when they follow the fathers of -their children to their homes, they become dependents -and wholly subject to the will and pleasure -of their husbands.</p> - -<p>It is plain, however, that under a system of -marriage by sale or contract, although a woman<span class="pagenum" id="Page_186">186</span> -might exercise little influence in the home of her -husband, so long as her relations stood ready to -defend her she would enjoy an immunity from -abuse. The fact that a woman can count upon -her relations for protection against her husband, -shows plainly that in a certain stage of marriage -by contract or sale, women are not the abject -slaves which they have been represented to be. -Although in the Fiji Islands a man may seize a -woman and take her to his home, she does not -remain with him unless agreeable to her inclinations.<a id="FNanchor_129_129" href="#Footnote_129_129" class="fnanchor">129</a></p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>Amongst the Abipones, a man, on choosing a wife -bargains with her parents about the price. But it -frequently happens that the girl rescinds what has -been agreed upon between the parents and the bridegroom, -obstinately rejecting the very mention of -marriage.<a id="FNanchor_130_130" href="#Footnote_130_130" class="fnanchor">130</a></p></blockquote> - -<p>Among the Charruas of South America, divorce -is quite optional. In Sumatra, if a man carries -off a virgin against her will, he incurs a heavy fine, -or if a man carries off a woman under pretence of -marriage, “he must lodge her immediately with -some reputable family.”<a id="FNanchor_131_131" href="#Footnote_131_131" class="fnanchor">131</a></p> - -<p>Although in the earlier ages of marriage by -sale or contract, daughters were regarded as the -property of their fathers, still that stage had not -been reached at which women were accounted<span class="pagenum" id="Page_187">187</span> -simply as sexual slaves. The Arabs practised -marriage by sale or contract, yet they jealously -watched over their women,—they “defended them -with their lives and eagerly redeemed them when -they were taken captive.” They thought it -better to bury their daughters than to give them -in marriage to unworthy husbands.<a id="FNanchor_132_132" href="#Footnote_132_132" class="fnanchor">132</a> According -to the testimony of J. G. Wood, Kaffir women -are very tenacious about their relations, probably, -it is thought, for the reason that husbands are -more respectful toward wives who have friends -near them, than they are to those who have no -relations at hand to take their part.<a id="FNanchor_133_133" href="#Footnote_133_133" class="fnanchor">133</a> Usually -among the Kaffirs, according to Mr. Shooter, -although a man pays a price to the parents of the -woman whom he wishes to marry, the affair is -by no means settled; on the contrary, he must -undergo the closest scrutiny by her before she -will consent to accept him. Bidding him stand, -she surveys first one side of him, then the other, -the relations in the meantime standing about -awaiting her decision. Upon this subject Mr. -Wood remarks: “This amusing ceremony has two -meanings: the first that the contract of marriage -is a voluntary act on both sides; and the second, -that the intending bridegroom has as yet no -authority over her.”<a id="FNanchor_134_134" href="#Footnote_134_134" class="fnanchor">134</a></p> - -<p>Although under the system of marriage by<span class="pagenum" id="Page_188">188</span> -sale or contract a woman has a voice in the selection -of her husband, and although she can count -on her kinsmen to protect her against abuse, still, -practically, the contract brings the wife under the -same condition as a captured wife; she follows -her husband to his home, where, as a dependent, -he exercises control over her person and her children. -In Arabia prior to the time of the Prophet -the wife could claim the protection of her kindred -against her husband, yet the principle underlying -marriage by contract and that by capture was the -same, except that under the former the husband paid -a price for the woman’s sexual subjection, while -under the latter, not only in sexual matters, but in -all others as well, he was her “lord” and master.</p> - -<p>The Prophet says: “I charge you with your -women, for they are with you as captives (<i>awânî</i>).” -Professor Smith informs us that according to the -lexicons <i>awânî</i> is actually used in the same sense -as married women generally.<a id="FNanchor_135_135" href="#Footnote_135_135" class="fnanchor">135</a> For long ages -after <i>ba’al</i> marriages had been established, so -degrading was the office of wife that women of -rank were considered too great to marry.</p> - -<p>After relating some interesting accounts of -certain practices in common with the custom of -capture among the Brazilian tribes, Sir John -Lubbock says:</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>This view also throws some light on the remarkable -subordination of the wife to the husband, which is so<span class="pagenum" id="Page_189">189</span> -characteristic of marriage, and so curiously inconsistent -with all our avowed ideas; moreover it tends to -explain those curious cases in which Hetairæ were -held in greater estimation than those women who -were, as we should consider, properly and respectably -married to a single husband. The former were -originally fellow-countrywomen and relations; the -latter captives and slaves.<a id="FNanchor_136_136" href="#Footnote_136_136" class="fnanchor">136</a></p></blockquote> - -<p>With the development of the egoistic principle, -or when selfishness and the love of gain became -the rule of action, the protection of her kindred, -which in an earlier age a woman could count on -against her husband, was withdrawn, and daughters -came to be looked upon as a legitimate source -of gain to their families. On this subject C. -Staniland Wake remarks:</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>Women by marriage became slaves, and it was the -universal practice for a man who parted with his -daughter to be a slave to require a valuable consideration -for her. Moreover, as a man can purchase as -many slaves as he likes, so he can take as many wives -as he pleases.<a id="FNanchor_137_137" href="#Footnote_137_137" class="fnanchor">137</a></p></blockquote> - -<p>Thus arose polygamy.</p> - -<p>In Rome, in the Latter Status of barbarism and -the opening ages of civilization, woman, at marriage, -forfeited all the privileges belonging to her -as a member of her own family, while within that -of her husband no compensatory advantages were<span class="pagenum" id="Page_190">190</span> -granted her. Even a proprietary right in her -own children was denied her, and from a legal -point of view the wife became the daughter of her -husband, and not unfrequently the ward of her -own son.</p> - -<p>After the power gained by man over woman -during the latter ages of barbarism had reached -its height, the family was based not on the marriage -of a woman and a man, but upon the power -of a man over a woman and her offspring, or upon -the absolute authority of the male parent. In -Rome a man’s wife and children were members of -his family not because they were related to him -but because they were subject to his control. At -this stage in the development of the family, the -father had the power of “uncontrolled corporal -chastisement” and of life and death over his -children.<a id="FNanchor_138_138" href="#Footnote_138_138" class="fnanchor">138</a> If it was his will to do so, he could -even sell them. Indeed, a son’s freedom from -paternal tyranny could be gained only by the -actual sale of his person by his father. Relating -to the control exercised by the father over his -children, it is observed that he had the right -“during their whole life to imprison, scourge, -keep to rustic labour in chains, to sell or slay, -even though they may be in the enjoyment of -high state offices.”<a id="FNanchor_139_139" href="#Footnote_139_139" class="fnanchor">139</a> If a father granted freedom -to his son, that son was no longer a member of -his family.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_191">191</span></p> - -<p>That, with the exception of force, there is no -quality in the male constitution capable of binding -together the various individuals born of the -same father, is apparent from the past history of -the human race. Mr. Parkyns, referring to the -character of the Abyssinians, observes that the -worst point in the constitution of their society is -the want of affection among relations, “even -though they be children of one father.” He says -that the animosities which keep the tribes in a -constant state of warfare do not exist among the -offspring of the same mother and father, but, as -the children of polygamous fathers are more -numerous than own brethren, fraternal affection -is a rare thing.<a id="FNanchor_140_140" href="#Footnote_140_140" class="fnanchor">140</a> A comparison between the -family group under archaic usages at a time when -woman’s influence was in the ascendency, and the -Roman family under the older Roman law, will -serve to show the wide difference existing between -the altruistic and egoistic principles -as controlling agencies in the home and in -society.</p> - -<p>A significant fact in connection with this subject -is here suggested, that, although for untold -ages women were leaders of the gens, so long as -their will was supreme, no human right was ever -invaded, and no legitimate manly prerogative -usurped; but, on the contrary, all were equal, and -the principles of a pure democracy were firmly -grounded. Liberty and justice had not at that<span class="pagenum" id="Page_192">192</span> -time been throttled by the extreme selfishness -inherent in human nature.</p> - -<p>Although the processes by which women at a -certain stage of human development lost their -independence were gradual, they are by no means -difficult to trace. The history of human marriage -as gathered from the various tribes and races in -the several stages of growth shows the primary -idea of the office of wife to have been that of sexual -slavery, and discloses the fact that it was the -desire for foreign women who, shorn of their -natural independence, could be controlled, which -caused the overthrow of female supremacy.</p> - -<p>As during the earlier ages of human existence -the women of the group were absolutely independent -of men for the means of support, they were -able to so control their own movements. Only -foreign women—captives stolen from their homes -and friends—taken singly or in groups could be -subjugated or brought into the wifely relation. -Indeed, until the systematic practice of capturing -women from hostile tribes for sexual purposes had -been inaugurated, and the subsequent agency of -repression—namely, ownership of the soil by -males, had followed as a natural consequence, -the usurpation by man of the natural rights and -privileges of woman was impossible. The male -members of the group had not at that time the -power to sell their sisters and other female relations, -but, on the contrary, defended them manfully -against the assaults of hostile tribes. The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_193">193</span> -foreign captor, the wife-catcher, was an enemy -who was both feared and hated, and upon him -were showered the maledictions of the entire -group upon which the assault had been made. -In retaliation for his offence, the men who had -been bereft of a sister must in their turn commit -a like depredation; thus, through the removal of -women, the men of early groups gradually gained -control of the common possessions at the same -time that they were being supplied with foreign -wives over whom they exercised absolute control. -In process of time, when wealth began to accumulate -in the hands of men, and when friendly -relations began to be established between neighbouring -tribes, foreign wives, without influence, -were received in exchange for the free-born women -of a man’s own clan; henceforward a resort to -capture was unnecessary. Distant tribes, however, -were still liable to attack. Wars were waged -against the men, who were sometimes slain, sometimes -taken prisoners, the invaders taking possession -of the lands and compelling the women to -accept the position of wife to them. Finally, -negotiations were entered into whereby women -were uniformly taken from their homes to become -wives in alien groups. Later, the <i>ba’al</i> form of -marriage came to prevail within the tribe. Professor -Smith, quoting from the advice given by -an Arab to his son, says: “Do not marry in your -own <i>hayy</i>, for that leads to ugly family quarrels,” -to which he adds,</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_194">194</span></p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>there was a real inconsistency in the position of a woman -who was at once her husband’s free kinswoman and his -purchased wife. It was better to have a wife who had -no claims of kin and no brethren near to take her part.<a id="FNanchor_141_141" href="#Footnote_141_141" class="fnanchor">141</a></p></blockquote> - -<p>Under earlier conditions of the human race -women as bearers and protectors of the young -were regarded as the natural land-owners; hence, -they did not leave their own homes to follow the -fathers of their children. The woman who left -her own relations for the <i>hayy</i> of her husband -could no longer exercise control over the possessions -of her own gens, neither could she at a later -period inherit property from her kindred for the -reason that her interests were identical with those -of her children and her children belonged to another -clan. As property could not be transferred -from the group in which it originated, she was -disinherited. Through marriage women gave up -their natural right to the soil, and consequently -to independence. A knowledge of the facts connected -with the origin of the institution of marriage, -reveals the fact that women lost their -influence and power, not because of their weakness, -but because they were foreigners and -dependents in the homes of their husbands.</p> - -<p>The statement was made at the beginning of -this chapter that the origin of marriage and the -establishment of the family with man at its head -involve the subject of economies.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_195">195</span></p> - -<p>When property began to accumulate in the -hands of men, when women were forced to relinquish -their right to the soil and thus to become -dependent on men for their support, their slavery -was inevitable. Later, when through the exigencies -of the situation, woman went without protest -to the home of her master, there to become a -pensioner upon his bounty, her slavery was -complete.</p> - -<p>In process of time, women bound to foreign -tribes by the children which they had borne, -began to accommodate themselves to the situation, -and even to claim an interest in the home -of their adoption, whereupon friendly relations -began to be established between the tribe of the -mother and that of the father. Hence may be -observed the fact that the maternal instinct was -the agency by which the barriers between unrelated -groups were gradually broken down, and -by which a spirit of friendliness was established -between hitherto hostile tribes. As the coherence -of the group and the combination of the -gentes to form the tribe had been possible only -by means of this instinct, so the confederacy of -tribes to form the nation was accomplished in the -same manner.</p> - -<p>The change from female supremacy to male -dominion is among the most important of the -evolutionary processes. From the facts underlying -the development of human society, and -especially those underlying the two diverging<span class="pagenum" id="Page_196">196</span> -lines of sex-demarcation, it is evident that evolution -does not proceed in an undeviating line toward -progress. It is perceived, that seeming -retrogressions always involve a gain—a gain -which could have been accomplished in no other -way.</p> - -<p>Among the benefits derived from this change -in the positions of the sexes was the development -of altruism in man. When fathers began to take -an interest in their own offspring, to care for them -and to become responsible for their welfare, an -important step had been taken toward the establishment -of the principle of brotherhood among -mankind. The evolutionary processes indicate a -constant tendency toward the solidarity of the -race, they may be said to represent a resistless -force ever drawing the human family together in -a closer bond of union and sympathy. Under -female supremacy, combination, or association of -interests, was confined to the gens. The extension -of these interests which resulted from the new -order was necessary before humanity could proceed -on its onward course. These changes could -not have taken place under the early system based -on the supremacy of women.</p> - -<p>The facts brought out by scientists going to -prove that the progressive principle is confided -to the female are accentuated by those connected -with the origin and subsequent development of -marriage and the family. That within the female -lie the elements of progress is clearly indicated,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_197">197</span> -not only in the position which the female occupied -among the orders of life lower in the scale of being, -and during the earlier ages of human history, but -also by her career as the slave of man. Simply -by means of the characters developed within the -female constitution, without material resources, -and deprived of recognized influence, women have -been able to a certain extent, to dignify the family -and the home.</p> - -<p>It is more than likely that in the not distant -future, even the institution of marriage, through -which women have been degraded, will become so -purified and elevated that its results, instead of -being a menace to higher conditions will constitute -a continuous source of progress and a promise -of still higher achievement. Before this may be -accomplished, mothers must be absolutely free -and wholly independent of the opposite sex for -the means of support. Marriage must be a co partnership -in which neither sex has the right to -control the other.</p> - -<p>Although our present system of marriage took -its rise in the practice of forcing women into the -marital relation, it must be borne in mind that it -was not inaugurated for the purpose of establishing -monogamy. On the contrary, the privileges -of the captor remained the same within his tribe -as before the foreign woman was stolen. The -theft was committed for no other purpose than -to augment the hitherto restricted range of -sexual liberties, and to give to the father abso<span class="pagenum" id="Page_198">198</span>lute -dominion over the individuals born in his -house.</p> - -<p>The system of marriage in vogue at the present -time has never restricted men to the possession -of a single woman. Monogamy, as established -under male supremacy, means one husband for one -woman, while a man may have as many women -as he is able or willing to support. As women are -still dependent upon men for the necessities of -life, the supply of the former is regulated by the -demands of the latter.</p> - -<p>Marriage still retains its original meaning and -significance, namely, the ownership and control -of women. With the exception of physical force -all the ceremonies, customs, ideas, and usages of -primitive marriage have been preserved. When -a woman marries she is “given” to her husband -by her father or some other male relative. She -promises to obey her master and accepts a ring -as a badge of her dependence upon him. She relinquishes -her own name and family, accepting -as her own the name and family of her husband. -She follows him to his home where, as she is supported -by his bounty, she is subject to his will -and pleasure. Until women are economically -free they will remain sexual slaves.</p> - -<p>Of all the forms of human slavery which have -ever been devised there has probably never been -one so degrading as is that which has been practiced -within the marital relation, nor one in which -the extrication of the enslaved has been a matter<span class="pagenum" id="Page_199">199</span> -of such utter hopelessness. The present struggle -of women for freedom shows how deeply rooted -is the instinct which demands their subjection.</p> - -<p>The descent of woman has encompassed the -lowest depths of human degradation, but the end -of the long and weary road which she has traversed -is nearly reached. Already the evolutionary -processes which are to release her from -bondage are in operation.</p> - -<p>From available facts relative to the development -of early mankind, it is certain that it must -have required centuries upon centuries of time -to subjugate women and bring them into harmonious -relations with men while occupying a position -of sexual slavery; first, physical force, second, -dependence, and third the substitution of masculine -opinions for the instincts and ideas which are -peculiar to the female constitution. This accomplished -the processes were begun which were -to rivet the chains by which they were bound and -by means of which women themselves in their -weakened condition were to acquiesce in their own -degradation. Religion was the means employed. -Apollo, according to Greek mythology, issued an -edict declaring that man is superior to woman and -must rule, and Athene herself finally accepted the -edict. Through religion, women came to regard -themselves simply as appendages to men, as tools -or instruments for their pleasure and gratification, -and as possessing no inherent right either to -liberty or happiness.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_200">200</span></p> - -<p>Religion has its root in sex. As we have already -seen the creative force has ever been regarded as -masculine or feminine according to the relative -importance of the two sexes in human society -and in the reproductive processes. So long as -woman’s influence and power were in the ascendency -the mother was the only recognized parent. -She was the creator of offspring. Later, the -abstract idea of female reproductive power was -manifested in the female deities. It required -thousands upon thousands of years to subdue -women. It also required millenniums to dethrone -the female deities.</p> - -<p>When, with the rise of male power, man began -to assume the rôle of parent, he assumed also all -the functions which had formerly belonged to -woman. As has been noted in another portion -of this work he even went to bed when a child -was born. With this change in the physical relations -of the sexes, the creative principle soon began -to assume a masculine aspect. Male deities -began to appear associated with the goddesses. -In process of time, as male power increased, the -god-idea became wholly masculine. The Jewish -god is a personified idea of male power and reproductive -energy. This subject will be referred to -later in these pages.</p> - -<p>Thus the ancient plan of government which was -the outgrowth of the free maternal instinct, and -which had guided humanity on its course for -thousands of years, finally succumbed to a system<span class="pagenum" id="Page_201">201</span> -based on physical force. When we remember the -conditions surrounding early society we may well -believe that civilization was gained, not because -of the fact that male power succeeded in gaining -the ascendency over female influence, but in spite -of it.</p> - -<p>Given a combination of circumstances involving -the supremacy of the lower instincts in mankind, -and the individual ownership of land, the subjection -of women, monarchy, and slavery, with all -their attendant evils, namely, poverty, disease, -crime, and misery were sure to follow.</p> - -<p>When we consider the fundamental bias of the -two diverging lines of sexual demarcation, it is -not perhaps singular that the strong sexual nature -which has prompted males to vigorous physical -action should for a time have gained the ascendency -over the higher qualities peculiar to females; yet -the material progress achieved under the inspiration -and direction of agencies like this will not, -in a more enlightened stage of existence, be regarded -as embodying the results of the best efforts -of human activity, or as representing the highest -capabilities of the race.</p> - -<p>Probably no one will deny that the accumulation -of wealth by individuals, and the subsequent -change in the relative positions of the sexes, were -necessary steps toward the establishment of society -on a political or territorial basis, or toward the -breaking up of kindred groups and the acknowledgment -of the idea of the unity of the entire<span class="pagenum" id="Page_202">202</span> -human family. Neither will the proposition be -contradicted that the evils attending these changes -namely, monarchy, slavery, and the inordinate -love of gain have been unavoidable adjuncts to -the development of the race; yet, who will doubt -that under higher conditions, as the animal recedes -in the distance, these blots on the records of human -history will be regarded not as regular steps in the -advancement of mankind, but as by-paths which, -owing to the peculiar bias which had been given -to the male organism among the lower forms of -life, the human race has been obliged to take in -order to reach civilization?</p> - -<div class="chapter"></div> -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_203">203</span></p> - - - - -<h3><a name="CHAPTER_V-2" id="CHAPTER_V-2">CHAPTER V</a><br /> - -<small>THE MOTHER-RIGHT</small></h3> - - -<p>Among the most conspicuous of the writers who -have dealt with the subject of primitive society -are Herr Bachofen, Mr. J. F. McLennan, Sir John -Lubbock, and Mr. L. H. Morgan. In 1861, the -first-named of these writers, a Swiss jurist, published -an extensive work on the early condition -of society, entitled <i>Das Mutter-recht</i> (The Motherright), -in which was first given to the world the -fact that prior to the establishment of a system of -kinship through males, there everywhere existed a -system based on female supremacy, under which -descent was reckoned through women.</p> - -<p>Bachofen was first led to a belief in a former -state of society in which women were the recognized -leaders through the evidence which everywhere -underlies the traditions and mythologies -of extant nations. Upon investigation he found -indisputable evidence going to prove that every -family of the human race had undergone the same -processes of development or growth, and that -among all peoples female influence was once -supreme.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_204">204</span></p> - -<p>According to Bachofen’s theory, as there were -at this early stage of human existence no “laws” -regulating the intercourse between the sexes, -human beings lived in a state of lawlessness, or -hetairism. Recognizing the difference in the -reproductive instinct as manifested in the two -sexes, he says that becoming disgusted with their -manner of living women rebelled, and rising in -arms, conquered their male persecutors by sheer -superiority in military skill; and that after they -had overthrown the degrading practices of communal -or lawless marriage, they established monogamy -in its stead, under which system woman -became the recognized head of the family.</p> - -<p>Children, although they had hitherto succeeded -to the father’s name, were now called after the -mother, and all rights of inheritance were thereafter -established in the female line. Not only -did women take upon themselves the exercise of -domestic authority and control, but, acting under -a strong religious impulse, they seized the reins -of popular government and completed their title -to absolute dominion by wielding the political -sceptre as well, thus declaring themselves unconditional -masters of the situation.</p> - -<p>At this juncture in human affairs, the belief -began to be entertained that motherhood was -divine while the paternal office was regarded only -in the light of a human relation. Thus, through -religion, women were raised from a state of hetairism, -or sexual slavery, to a position of independ<span class="pagenum" id="Page_205">205</span>ence -and self-respect. But that which was gained -through a supernatural impulse they were destined -subsequently to lose through the same source; for, -when in Greece, the doctrine was promulgated -that the spirit of the child is derived from its -father, paternity at once assumed a divine character, -and, as under the new order, the functions -of the mother were only to clothe the spirit, or -simply to act as “nurse” to the heaven-born production -of the father, women lost their supremacy, -and under the new régime, maternity and womanhood -again trailed in the dust.</p> - -<p>According to Bachofen, however, the cause of -mothers did not at once cease to be the subject of -contention and conflict, but ever and anon fresh -battles and renewed struggles proclaimed the -discontent and uneasiness of women and heralded -the fact that the contest for supremacy had not -yet ended. But, in process of time, as resistance -proved ineffectual, mothers themselves gradually -succumbed to the new idea of the divine character -of the father, and, without further murmuring -or complaint, accepted gracefully the position of -nurse to his children.</p> - -<p>The father now became the recognized head of -the family, and men at once seized the reins of -government. Descent was henceforth traced in -the male line, and children took the father’s -instead of the mother’s name; in fact all relationships -to which rights of succession were attached -were thereafter traced through fathers only. The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_206">206</span> -complete and final triumph of males having been -established by the all-powerful authority of Roman -jurisprudence, the conflict between the sexes was -ended forever. Thus, according to Bachofen, was -the supremacy of women gained and lost.</p> - -<p>Through a profound study of the traditions, -legends, symbols, and mythologies of antiquity, -this writer was enabled to discover the fact that -at an earlier age in human history women were -the recognized leaders of mankind; that their -influence and authority were supreme over both -the family and the community, and that all relationships -to which rights of succession were attached -were traced through them. In attempting -to account for this early period of gynecocracy -(the existence of which to Bachofen’s mind no -doubt presented a singular and intricate problem) -it first became necessary to set forth a theory -concerning a former condition of society out of -which such a state could have been evolved. But -as at the time <i>Das Mutter-recht</i> made its appearance, -the theory of the development of the human -species from pre-existing orders had not been -adopted by scientists, and as many of the various -means at present employed for obtaining a knowledge -of primitive races had not been brought -into requisition, even the vast learning of Bachofen -did not suffice to furnish a satisfactory solution -of the problem.</p> - -<p>We have seen that in addition to the discovery -that at an early age in human experience female<span class="pagenum" id="Page_207">207</span> -influence was supreme, he had arrived at the conclusion -that the natural instincts of women differ -from those of men; yet, notwithstanding this, so -accustomed had he become to the predominance -of the masculine instincts in every branch of -human activity as to be unable to conceive of a -state of society in which the characters belonging -to females could have controlled the sexual relations. -Evidently he was unable to connect these -two facts, or to perceive that that tendency or -quality required for the protection of the germ and -the species, and which so early characterized the -female sex, had constituted the most primitive -influence by which the human race had been governed. -As in the earliest ages of human existence -no arbitrary laws regulating marriage and the -relations of the sexes had been in operation, he -could discern no condition under which society -could have existed other than that of “lawlessness” -or “hetairism”—a condition under which -women were slaves, and men ruled supreme.</p> - -<p>As Herr Bachofen was doubtless unaware of the -fact that the human animal is a descendant from -creatures lower in the scale of life, the idea of connecting -his history with theirs had probably -by him never been thought of; therefore, judging -primitive society, not by the instincts and the -natural laws governing them which mankind had -inherited from their progenitors, but, on the contrary, -measuring them by the standards of later -ages when the grosser or disruptive elements had<span class="pagenum" id="Page_208">208</span> -gained dominion over the finer or constructive -qualities in human nature, he was unable to discern -any way in which the conditions of female supremacy -everywhere indicated in the traditions and -mythologies of antiquity could have originated, -except in an uprising of women, and a resort to -arms for the protection of their womanly dignity.</p> - -<p>In referring to the military exploits of the women -of Lycia, and, in fact, of various portions of Africa -and Asia, at a comparatively late stage in human -history, Bachofen says that the importance of -Amazonianism as opposed to Hetairism for the -elevation of the feminine sex, and through them -of mankind, cannot be doubted.</p> - -<p>There seems to be considerable evidence going -to prove that there have been times in the past -history of the race in which women were brave -in war and valiant in defending their rights. -Indeed, the accounts given of the struggles of -the Amazons in maintaining their independence -against surrounding nations—notably, the Greeks—are -tolerably well authenticated.<a id="FNanchor_142_142" href="#Footnote_142_142" class="fnanchor">142</a></p> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_209">209</span></p> -<p>Although the fact seems to be well substantiated -that in certain portions of the earth, and at various -periods in the history of the race, women have -maintained their independence and protected -their interests by force of arms, it seems quite as -certain that actual warfare carried on by them -has been confined to peoples among which male -supremacy had but recently been gained, and -among which a resort to arms represented the last -act of desperation to which they were driven to -maintain their dignity and honour. We have -reason to believe, however, that even these cases -have been exceptional; at least, from the facts at -hand, we have no reason for thinking that at any -stage in the history of women’s career, armed resistance -to masculine authority has been uniform or -protracted among them.</p> - -<p>According to scientists, among the lower orders -of life, males are considerably in the excess of -females, and among less developed races men are -more numerous than women. It has been shown -in a former portion of this work that the advancement -of civilization is characterized by a corresponding -increase in the number of women among -the adult population; hence their evident lack of -numbers among primitive peoples, to say nothing -of their probable aversion to war and bloodshed, -would at once preclude the idea that their dominion -was achieved through armed resistance to a -foe so superior in numbers and in fighting qualities. -By a natural law governing propagation<span class="pagenum" id="Page_210">210</span>— -a law which determines the numerical proportion -of the sexes, and which creates an excess in the -number of that sex best suited to its environment, -primitive women, had they relied on physical -force, would have had little chance to maintain -their independence.</p> - -<p>In a former portion of this work it has been -observed that it was neither to lack of numbers nor -to their want of physical force that women were -divested of their power; that it was not through -their weakness, but through the peculiar course -which the development or growth of males had -taken, that under certain conditions women became -enslaved.</p> - -<p>Not merely from the facts laid down by naturalists -regarding the peculiar development of the -male, but from later researches into the conditions -and causes which have influenced progress, it is -plain that no restrictions on the range of sexual -liberties could have originated in males. Hence -the demand for a more refined state of society -must have begun with females. This fact seems -to have been perceived by Bachofen, but, as -according to his reasoning, at an early period of -human existence, women were slaves, exercising -none of the powers necessary to personal control, -it is difficult to conceive of any manner in which -it was possible for them to rise to the social position -and moral dignity ascribed to them in <i>Das -Mutter-recht</i>.</p> - -<p>According to the theory set forth by this writer,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_211">211</span> -however, religion was the cause of the important -change which at this time took place in the positions -of the sexes. Although, according to him, -the religion which prevailed during the ages of -“lawlessness” was of a low “telluric chthonic” -type, it was nevertheless the cause, or at least one -of the causes which led to the abandonment of -promiscuity and the establishment of the monogamic -family. It will doubtless be remembered, -however, that this age of lawlessness or hetairism -which Bachofen has described, represents a very -early stage of human existence, in which, according -to his reasoning, the baser instincts ruled -supreme; nevertheless, within it, he would have -us believe that a religious system had been evolved -capable of lifting women from a state of degradation -to which they had been consigned by nature, -or at least to which they had always been committed, -to a position of influence and womanly -dignity in which they were able to assume supreme -control over the forces by which they had been -enslaved. With sexual desire as the controlling -influence in human affairs, and with women in -bondage to this power, it is difficult to conceive -of any manner in which such a religion could have -arisen.</p> - -<p>As all religious systems are believed to represent -growths, and to indicate a result of the degree of -progress attained, it is evident that had a religion -appeared at this early age which was capable of -elevating women from a condition of degradation,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_212">212</span> -as indicated by the early state described by Bachofen -it could not have been the result of natural -development, but, on the contrary, must have -proceeded directly from a divine source; in which -event it would doubtless have remained upon the -earth still further to aid development and bless -the race. Such, however, was not the outcome -of this remarkable but premature religion; for it -is asserted by this writer that what women gained -by religion they afterward lost through the same -source—that in Greece, the loss first came through -the oracle of Apollo, which declared the father to -be the real parent of the child.</p> - -<p>Bachofen assures us, also, that through the -Bacchanalian excesses which followed the dominion -of males in Greece, hetairism was again -restored, and through this means gynecocracy reappeared. -From this it would seem that although -under the earliest stage of hetairism women were -without power and wholly under the control of -men, with the return, at a later age, of a like state -of society, the basis was at once laid for female -supremacy.</p> - -<p>It is evident that Herr Bachofen’s confusion -arises from a misconception of the early importance -of women. Although perhaps more than any -other writer upon this subject he has been able -to recognize the true bias of the female constitution, -yet, as he has mistaken the relative positions -of women and men at the outset of the human -career, and as he has been unable to perceive the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_213">213</span> -previously developed influences which governed -these relations, he has failed to furnish a satisfactory -solution of the problem of the early supremacy -of women, which from the evidence -adduced, not only by the traditions and mythologies -of past ages, but by later developments in -ethnology, may not be doubted.</p> - -<p>Prior to the appearance of mankind on the -earth, had there been developed within the female -no higher element than that which characterized -the male, and had she appeared on the scene of -human action as the willing and natural tool of -her less-developed male mate, it is plain that she -would have been unable to elevate herself to the -position of dignity which Bachofen assigns her, -and which, until a comparatively recent period -in the human career, she had occupied.</p> - -<p>As among the orders of creation below mankind -the structural organism of the male has been materially -changed through his efforts to please the -female and secure her favours, it is evident that -under earlier and more natural conditions of -human life, the appetites developed within him -were still largely controlled by her will. From -logical conclusions to be drawn from the hypotheses -of naturalists, it is not likely that at the -outset of human life those restrictions on the -nature of the male imposed by the female throughout -the animal kingdom were suddenly withdrawn, -or that the destructive elements which all along -the line of progress had been in abeyance to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_214">214</span> -the higher powers developed in organized matter, -were immediately and without good cause put in -absolute command over the constructive forces -of life.</p> - -<p>With a better knowledge of the past history of -mankind, comes the assurance that such was not -the case, but, on the contrary, that for thousands -of years women were the ruling spirits in human -society; that the cohesive quality—sympathy, -which is the result of the maternal instinct, and -which conserves the highest interests of offspring, -was the underlying principle which governed -human groups—in fact, that it was the principle -which made organization possible and progress -attainable.</p> - -<div class="chapter"></div> -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_215">215</span></p> - - - - -<h3><a name="CHAPTER_VI-2" id="CHAPTER_VI-2">CHAPTER VI</a><br /> - -<small>THEORIES TO EXPLAIN WIFE-CAPTURE</small></h3> - - -<p>The prevalence of wife-capture and the extent -to which the symbol of force in marriage ceremonies -appears among tribes and races in the -various stages of development, have given rise -to numerous speculations and theories relative -to the origin of these “singular phenomena.” -Notable among the works dealing with this subject -are <i>Primitive Marriage</i>, by Mr. J. F. McLennan, -and the <i>Origin of Civilization</i>, by Sir John Lubbock, -both of which works followed closely the publication -of <i>Das Mutter-recht</i> by Herr Bachofen.</p> - -<p>As at the time these works were published the -fact of man’s descent from the lower orders of -life had not been established, and as nothing -was then known of the origin and development of -organized society it is not remarkable that theories -concerning the early relations of the sexes should -prove worthless except perhaps to show the extent -to which established prejudices may warp the -judgment and dwarf the intellectual faculties -even of those who are honestly seeking after truth.</p> - -<p>The avowed object of Mr. McLennan’s volume<span class="pagenum" id="Page_216">216</span> -was to trace the origin of wife-capture which is -found to exist either as a legal symbol in marriage -ceremonies, or as a stern reality among peoples -which have not yet reached civilized conditions. -This writer declares: “In the whole range of legal -symbolism there is no symbol more remarkable -than that of capture in marriage ceremonies.”</p> - -<p>After setting forth numerous examples to prove -the prevalence of wife-capture among uncivilized -tribes and races, and after denouncing as absurd -the theories relative to the symbol of force entering -into the marriage ceremonies in Sparta and in -Rome, Mr. McLennan observes:</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>The question now arises, what is the meaning and -what the origin of a ceremony so widely spread that -already on the threshold of our inquiry the reader -must be prepared to find it connected with some -universal tendency of mankind?</p></blockquote> - -<p>Mr. McLennan’s answer to his own query is as -follows:</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>We believe the restriction on marriage to be connected -with the practice in early times of female -infanticide which rendering women scarce led at once -to polyandry within the tribe and the capture of -women from without.</p></blockquote> - -<p>In another portion of this work it has been -shown that although marriage was restricted -within the gens, the earliest form of organized -society, this restriction did not extend to the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_217">217</span> -tribe. Marriage was forbidden among closely -related groups. The gentes coalesced to form the -tribe. Although a man might not marry within -his own gens, he was not forbidden to marry -within the tribe.</p> - -<p>In Mr. Morgan’s work on <i>Primitive Society</i>, published -in 1871, are to be found the systems of -consanguinity and affinity of 139 tribes and races -representing, numerically, four-fifths of the entire -human family. These systems show conclusively -that the restrictions on marriage observed in the -gens did not extend to the tribe. The author -of <i>Primitive Marriage</i> has evidently mistaken a -rule of the gens for a binding tribal decree.</p> - -<p>Mr. McLennan’s theory relative to female infanticide -is found to be equally fallacious. Noting -the numerical difference in the two sexes among -lower races, he says that as subsistence was scarce, -and as war was the natural and constant condition -of primitive groups, only those of their members -would be spared who could contribute to the -defence of the tribe, or who would be able to aid -in the supply of subsistence. Males were possessed -of strength, they were by organization and -inclination adapted to war and the chase, and -could therefore be depended upon to assist in -defending the tribe against the assaults of its enemies -and in securing the necessary food for its -requirements. On the other hand, women being -worthless in war and in the chase were regarded -as useless appendages, and as they constituted a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_218">218</span> -source of weakness to the tribe, large numbers -of them were destroyed at birth. Through this -practice the balance of the sexes was greatly disturbed, -and wives could be obtained only by -means of stealth or a resort to force. Thus in process -of time, the stealing of women became a legitimate -practice, and each warrior depended on his -skill in this particular direction to provide himself -with a wife.</p> - -<p>Finally the children of these alien women began -to intermarry and thus the necessity for wife-capture -no longer existed, and the practice of -stealing women for wives was superseded by a -system through which wives from other tribes -were habitually obtained either by gift or sale. -Thereafter the symbol of wife-capture was retained -in marriage ceremonies.</p> - -<p>With a better understanding of peoples in a -less developed state of society, it is found that -infanticide has been less prevalent among them -than was formerly supposed; that when through -scarcity of food it has been practised it has -not been confined to females, neither has it -been carried on by tribes in the lowest stages of -barbarism.</p> - -<p>Regarding this custom in Arabia, Prof. W. -R. Smith says that our authorities “seem to -represent the practice of infanticide as having -taken a new development not very long before -the time of Mohammed.” This writer declares -that the chief motive for infanticide was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_219">219</span> “scarcity -of food which must always have been felt in the -desert.”</p> - -<p>Much has been written in the attempt to explain -the practice of infanticide which to some extent -seems to have prevailed during a certain stage of -human development; but with the exception of -those cases in which children of both sexes were -slain because of scarcity of food, the one cause, -namely, the dread of capture, is sufficient to -explain this unnatural practice.</p> - -<p>Although to a considerable extent, men had -come to depend on foreign tribes for their wives, -they nevertheless found little pleasure in furnishing -their quota of women in return, and as -mothers doubtless preferred the death of their -female children to the degradation and suffering -which was inevitable in case of capture, female -infanticide no doubt seemed the wisest and in -fact the only expedient.</p> - -<p>The blood-tie of ancient society which bound -together all those born of the women of the group -irrespective of their fathers, must have emphasized -the influence of mothers in the matter of infanticide. -It is not reasonable to suppose that the -law of sympathy which had united the members of -a clan by a bond stronger than that which binds -together the members of a modern family was -reversed without some deeper cause than has thus -far been assigned for it. It is indeed difficult to -believe, in opposition to all the facts before us, -that a practice which involved the destruction<span class="pagenum" id="Page_220">220</span> -of the female members of the group would have -gained the sanction of the tribe to such an extent -that it would have become an established rule -among them.</p> - -<p>Regarding the destruction of female infants -among early races, Mr. Darwin remarks:</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>They would not at that period have lost one of the -strongest of all instincts common to all lower animals, -namely the love of their young offspring, and consequently -they would not have practised female infanticide.<a id="FNanchor_143_143" href="#Footnote_143_143" class="fnanchor">143</a></p></blockquote> - -<p>Another reason why female infanticide could -not have prevailed to any considerable extent is -seen in the fact that any diminution in the number -of females, would have involved a scarcity of -warriors, thus weakening their means of defence. -From available facts it is quite evident that the -practice of female infanticide throws no light on -wife-capture.</p> - -<p>Mr. McLennan declares that women among rude -tribes are usually depraved and inured to scenes of -depravity from their earliest infancy; hence when -property began to amass in the hands of men, in -order to assure paternity, it became necessary, that -women be brought under subjection.</p> - -<p>As the female, when free, is unwilling to pair -with individuals for whom she feels no affection, -and as under earlier conditions of human society -women chose their mates, and so long as they<span class="pagenum" id="Page_221">221</span> -remained together were true to them, it is reasonable -to suppose that paternity was known, or at -least that it might have been readily determined.</p> - -<p>Mr. Morgan informs us that the “Turanian, -Ganowánian, and Malayan systems of consanguinity -show conclusively that kinship through -males was recognized as constantly as kinship -through females,” that a man had brothers and -sisters, grandfathers and grandmothers traced -through males as well as through females. Although -under gentile institutions descent and all -rights of succession were traced through mothers, -kinship through fathers was easily ascertained.</p> - -<p>Hence it is plain that Mr. McLennan’s assumption -that women were enslaved in order to assure -paternity, that they became subject to the dominion -and control of men so that fathers might -not be compelled to support children not their -own, is not supported by the evidence at hand.</p> - -<p>That it was through capture, the forcible carrying -away of women at first singly and later in -groups to foreign tribes, in which as aliens and -dependents they were shorn of their right to the -soil, that males were first enabled to arrogate to -themselves the individual right to property is a -fact which has been overlooked by Mr. McLennan.</p> - -<p>From the facts at hand relative to the earliest -social regulation of mankind, that into classes on -the basis of sex, it is evident that it was inaugurated -for no other purpose than the restriction of -the marital relation—a restriction to prevent the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_222">222</span> -pairing of near relations. Yet Mr. McLennan -would have us believe that “the law compelling -marriage outside the recognized limit of near relationship -originated in no innate or primary -feeling against marriage with kinsfolk.”</p> - -<p>The repugnance of females among the lower -orders of life to pairing with those individuals -which were distasteful to them, or for which they -felt no genuine affection, has already been referred -to in these pages. At the earliest dawn of human -life there probably existed within woman a naturally -acquired aversion to pairing with near relations, -yet doubtless many ages elapsed before an -idea of kinship sufficiently definite to be incorporated -into an arbitrary law for the government -of the group was formulated; but in due course of -time, with the further development of the higher -characters, the idea of relationship began to take -shape, whereupon was inaugurated a movement -which doubtless represents one of the most important -steps ever taken toward human advancement.</p> - -<p>As the female among all the orders of life, when -free, is unwilling to pair with individuals for which -she feels no affection, and as the sex-instinct has -ever been restricted or held in abeyance by her, -and as according to the savants, it was through -the efforts of women that from time to time during -the earlier ages of human existence the range of -conjugal rights was abridged, it is reasonable -to suppose that it was woman who first objected -to the pairing with near relations.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_223">223</span></p> - -<p>The statement of Mr. McLennan that the women -of primitive races were depraved, that they -were inured to scenes of depravity from their earliest -infancy is not borne out by facts. It has been -shown in another portion of this work that the -most trustworthy writers, those who have personally -investigated tribes and races in the various -stages of development, agree that chastity was an -unvarying rule among them, that before they were -corrupted by civilization, a condition of morals -existed nowhere to be found among the so-called -higher races.</p> - -<p>After referring to a state of advanced social -existence in which every person knowing what is -right would feel an irresistible impulse toward -right-living, Mr. Wallace remarks that among -peoples low in the scale of development “we find -some approaches to such a perfect social state.” -He observes: “It is not too much to say that the -mass of our population have not at all advanced -beyond the savage code of morals, and have in -many cases sunk below it.”</p> - -<p>Most of the reports which come to us regarding -the immorality of lower races are brought by -missionaries, who, although unacquainted with -the language, customs, and habits of thought of -the peoples whose countries they visit, nevertheless -feel called upon to furnish lengthy reports of those -benighted races which are “utterly destitute of -Christian training.”</p> - -<p>As the restrictions on marriage among early<span class="pagenum" id="Page_224">224</span> -peoples were limited to closely related groups, it -is evident that the capture of wives was not carried -on because of any established law of exogamy, -neither was it practised because of the scarcity -of women resulting from female infanticide nor -because of a desire for recognized paternity. Wife-capture -arose from a demand for foreign women, -aliens, who, torn from their homes and deprived -of the protection of their own kinsfolk, had no -alternative but sexual slavery. These women were -much more desirable than the free-born women -of a man’s own tribe.</p> - -<p>After having created a false and wholly unwarrantable -hypothesis, an hypothesis in which -exogamy and endogamy, two principles which as -applied to tribes never existed, play a conspicuous -part, Mr. McLennan has thrust nearly all the facts -which he has observed relative to primitive society -into false positions and forced them to do duty -in bolstering up his thoroughly imaginative theory -to account for the origin of wife-capture. It is -perhaps needless to say that the whole subject, -so far as his contribution is concerned, is as much -a mystery as before he attempted a solution of -the problem.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Sir John Lubbock, like J. F. McLennan, assumes -that the earliest organization of society was -that of the tribe, and that a man was first regarded -as belonging only to a group. Subsequently, as -the maternal bond is stronger than that which<span class="pagenum" id="Page_225">225</span> -unites a father to his offspring, kinship with his -mother and her relations was established. In -course of time he was accounted as a descendant -of his father only, and lastly he became equally -related to both parents.</p> - -<p>Numerous illustrations are cited by this writer, -going to show that among certain peoples descent -is still reckoned in the female line, and that all the -rights of succession, both as regards property and -tribal honours, are traced through women.</p> - -<p>In his <i>Origin of Civilization</i> the fact is noted that -in Guinea, when a wealthy man dies, his property -passes by inheritance, not to his sons, but to the -children of his sister. He quotes also from Pinkerton’s -<i>Voyages</i> to show that the town of Loango -is governed by four chiefs who are sons of the -king’s sisters, and from Caillie who observes that -in Central Africa the sovereignty remains always -in the same family, but that the son never succeeds -to his father’s position. These and numerous -other instances, similar in character, are cited -from various parts of the world, going to prove -that a system of descent and inheritance through -women was once general throughout the races of -mankind.</p> - -<p>With Herr Bachofen and Mr. McLennan, Sir -John Lubbock is of the opinion that the earliest -conjugal unions of the human race were communal. -Communal marriage was founded on the supremacy -of males, or, was based on the undisputed right -of men to the control of women. According to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_226">226</span> -this writer, communal marriage was succeeded by -individual marriage through capture.</p> - -<p>Although Lubbock coincides with McLennan -in the belief that under certain circumstances -infanticide has been practised by the lower races, -he does not agree with him as to the extent to -which it has prevailed among them; neither is he -of the opinion that it was confined to the female -sex. On the contrary, he cites trustworthy authority -to prove that boys were as frequently disposed -of as were girls.</p> - -<p>Although with McLennan, Lubbock recognizes -the prevalence of wife-capture and the principle -of exogamy, yet, according to the theory of the -former, marriage by capture arose from exogamy, -while, according to the latter, exogamy arose from -marriage by capture.</p> - -<p>Lubbock accounts for wife-capture by the following -theory: As under the communal system, -women of the tribe were the “common property” -of the men of the group, no individual male among -them would have attempted to appropriate one -of these women to himself, for the reason that such -appropriation would have been regarded as an -infringement on the rights of the remaining males -in the community. A warrior, however, upon -capturing a woman from a hostile people, might -claim her as his rightful possession, and hold her -as against all the other members of the tribe. -Since the women of the group were so emphatically -the common property of the men, the exclu<span class="pagenum" id="Page_227">227</span>sive -right to one of them in progressive tribes -which had reached a state of friendliness would -involve a symbol of capture to make valid such -a claim. This symbol, according to Lubbock, -has no reference to those from whom the woman -has been stolen, but is intended to bar the rights -of other members of the tribe into which she is -brought. He thinks that “the exclusive possession -of a wife could only be legally acquired by -a temporary recognition of the pre-existing communal -rights,” and cites the account given by -Herodotus of the custom existing in Babylonia, -where every woman once during her lifetime must -present herself at the temple, there to accept the -proposals of the first man who requests her to -follow him.</p> - -<p>Although Lubbock declares that the symbol of -violence in marriage ceremonies “can only be -explained by the hypothesis that the capture of -wives was once a stern reality,” he claims not to -believe that the early conditions under which -men were compelled to capture their wives by -violence, or do without them, were in any degree -the result of feminine will in the matter.</p> - -<p>In referring to the fallacious theory of Mr. McLennan, -that the capture of women for wives -arose from the practice of female infanticide, which, -by producing a scarcity of women, created a -necessity for marriage without the limits of the -tribe, Sir John Lubbock, although seemingly -unable to recognize the actual force which was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_228">228</span> -in operation to prevent the “appropriation” of -women by men, has nevertheless shown himself -able to perceive the reason why foreign women -were captured, and what the tendency in males -was which demanded their presence.</p> - -<p>After referring to the fact that no male could -appropriate to himself a female belonging to the -tribe, he says:</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>Women taken in war were, on the contrary, in a -different position. The tribe, as a tribe, had no right -to them, and men surely would reserve to themselves -exclusively their own prizes. These captives then -would naturally become wives in our own sense of the -term.</p></blockquote> - -<p>Foreign women would become dependents, their -captors having the undisputed right to the control -of their persons.</p> - -<p>At the outset, Sir John Lubbock finds himself -confronted with the fact that a system of reckoning -descent through women once prevailed over -the habitable globe. According to his own reasoning, -this system presupposes a condition of society -under which property rights and all rights of -succession were traced through women, still we -find him offering the following belief concerning -the matter. “I believe, however, that communities -in which women have exercised the supreme -power are rare and exceptional, if, indeed, they -ever existed at all.”</p> - -<p>Were we not already acquainted with the preju<span class="pagenum" id="Page_229">229</span>dices -of most of the writers who have thus far dealt -with this subject, in view of the facts everywhere -represented going to prove that a system of gynecocracy -once prevailed over the entire earth, this -“belief” of Mr. Lubbock would be truly remarkable, -especially when we learn the reason given -by him for his conclusion. He says:</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>We do not find in history, as a matter of fact, that -women do assert their rights, and savage women would, -I think, be peculiarly unlikely to uphold their dignity -in the manner supposed.<a id="FNanchor_144_144" href="#Footnote_144_144" class="fnanchor">144</a></p></blockquote> - -<p>It is quite true that it is not observed “in history” -that women assert their rights. It has been -shown, however, that prior to the historic age, -through capture and the individual ownership -of land, women had become dependent upon men -and wholly subject to their control. After thousands -of years of subjection to male influence, the -movements of women, who are still dependent -upon men, furnish little satisfactory information -regarding the character of free women at a time -before they had succumbed to the exigencies of -brute force, and the unbridled appetites of their -male masters. Slaves seldom assert their rights, -or, if they do, of what avail is it?</p> - -<p>Were we in possession of no other facts in support -of the theory of an early age of female supremacy -than that all relationships to which rights -of succession were attached were formerly traced<span class="pagenum" id="Page_230">230</span> -through women, the evidence in its favour would -be sufficient to prove it true, but this manner of -reckoning descent represents only one of the many -indications of such an age which Lubbock himself -has been constrained to record; yet, because—during -the historic age—an age throughout which -the masculine element has ruled supreme, women -have not asserted their rights, this writer feels -inclined to ignore all the evidence bearing upon the -subject, at the same time declaring that women -could not have “upheld their dignity in the manner -supposed”; that the female, on gaining human -conditions, could not have exercised the instincts -inherited by her from her dumb progenitors.</p> - -<p>If the females among insects, birds, and many -species of mammals are able to control the relations -between themselves and their male mates, -why should it not be inferred that the female of -the human species would still be able to uphold -the natural dignity of the female sex?</p> - -<p>As an argument in support of his theory that -the influence of women was never supreme, Sir -John Lubbock alludes to the position of Australian -women as being one of “complete subjection,” -and as the native Australians represent perhaps -the lowest existing stage of human society, he -doubtless thinks his argument unassailable. However, -that the position of Australian women cannot -be taken as a reliable guide in estimating primitive -womanhood is shown by the writer’s own reasoning -when he says:</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_231">231</span></p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>It must not be assumed, however, that the condition -of primitive man is correctly represented by -even the lowest of existing races. The very fact that -the latter have remained stationary, that their manners, -habits, and mode of life have continued almost -unaltered for generations, has created a strict, and -often complicated, system of customs, from which -the former was necessarily free, but which has in some -cases gradually acquired even more than the force of -law.<a id="FNanchor_145_145" href="#Footnote_145_145" class="fnanchor">145</a></p></blockquote> - -<p>Yet we find him comparing primitive women -with this race which for thousands upon thousands -of years, because of its environment, or through -some cause which is not understood, has been -unable to advance.</p> - -<p>While this writer perceives clearly that foreign -women were much more desirable for wives than -those belonging to a man’s own tribe, he has not -been able to discover the reason why this was so, -but, continuing to babble about the “rights” of -the men of the group, overlooks the fact that -native-born women were free, and as only those -women who had first been torn from their friends -and shorn of their independence could at this -stage of human existence be forced into the position -of wife, it became necessary to secure them -by violence from surrounding tribes. He is not -blind to the fact that it was a desire to extend the -limit of conjugal liberties on the part of males -which prompted wife-capture; yet he would have<span class="pagenum" id="Page_232">232</span> -us believe that although women were absolutely -independent of men, and although they were the -recognized heads of families, and the source whence -originated all the privileges of the gens, it was in -no degree owing to their influence that the conjugal -liberties of males were restricted within the -tribe, but, on the contrary, that this restriction -was enforced out of regard for the “proprietary -rights” of the men of the group. He says: “We -must remember that under the communal system -the women of the tribe were all common property. -No one could appropriate one of them to himself -without infringing on the general rights of the -tribe.”</p> - -<p>As well might we say of the female bird for -whose favours the male fights until overcome by -exhaustion and loss of blood, that she belongs to -him, or that he may appropriate her, as to say -that the men of early groups could “appropriate” -women. From all the facts relative to the condition -of early society, it is plain that if either sex -could with propriety be designated as property -it must have been the male. It is evident that -women were stolen from distant tribes for the -express purpose of sexual slavery, a position to -which free, native-born women could not be -dragged; therefore, when Lubbock assures us -that these foreign women naturally “became -wives in our own sense of the term,” we may be -sure that he is neither unmindful of the origin of -our present social system, nor of the true signi<span class="pagenum" id="Page_233">233</span>ficance -attached to the position of wife. Indeed, -he informs us that the “origin of marriage was -independent of all sacred and social conditions,” -and proves the same by actually producing the -evidence. He has no hesitancy in declaring that -marriage is a masculine institution, established in -the interest (or supposed interest) of males; that -it was “founded not on the rights of the woman, -but of the man,” and that there was not on the -woman’s part even the semblance of consent. In -fact he declares that he regards it as an illustration -of the good old plan that “he should take -who has the power, and he should keep who can.” -He says also that it had nothing to do with mutual -affection or sympathy, that it was invalidated -by no appearance of consent, and that it was symbolized -not by any demonstration of warm affection -on the one side and tender devotion on the -other, but by brutal violence and unwilling submission. -To prove that the connection between -force and marriage is deeply rooted, Sir John Lubbock, -like Mr. McLennan, has furnished numerous -examples of peoples among whom marriage -by actual capture still prevails, as well as many -among which the system has passed into a mere -symbol. He is quite certain that the complete -subjection of the woman in marriage furnishes -an explanation to those examples in barbarous -life in which women are looked upon as being too -great to marry—and cites the case of Sebituane, -chief of the Bechuanas, who told his daughter,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_234">234</span> -Mamochisáne, that all the men were at her disposal—“she -might take any one, but ought to -keep none.”</p> - -<p>This instance, together with numberless others -which might be cited, proves that long after the -practice of appropriating solitary women for -sexual purposes had become general, the position -of wife was considered too degrading to be occupied -by women of rank.</p> - -<p>Attention has been called to Lubbock’s idea -concerning the “rights” of the males of the group. -We have seen that it is his opinion that the exclusive -possession of a woman could only be legally -acquired by a temporary recognition of the pre-existing -communal rights, and that the account -in Herodotus of the debasement of Babylonian -women was cited by him as evidence to prove his -position. He seems, however, to forget that this -custom, which was practised in various nations, -is a religious rite, and was inaugurated at a time -when the adoration of the sun, as the source of -all life and light, had degenerated into the most -degrading phallic worship. To those who have -given attention to the growth of the god-idea, the -supposed cases of “expiation for marriage,” cited -by Lubbock, are to be explained by the peculiar -practices inaugurated under fire and passion -worship at a time long subsequent to the -establishment of <i>ba’al</i> marriages.</p> - -<p>In his chapter on “The Origin of Marriage by -Capture,” this writer says:</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_235">235</span></p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>That marriage by capture has not arisen from -female modesty, is, I think, evident, not only because -we have no reason to suppose that such a feeling -prevails especially among the lower races of man; -but also, firstly, because it cannot explain the mock -resistance of the relatives; and, secondly, because -the very question to be solved is why it became so -generally the custom to win the female not by -persuasion but by force.<a id="FNanchor_146_146" href="#Footnote_146_146" class="fnanchor">146</a></p></blockquote> - -<p>That female modesty may not account for -marriage by capture will scarcely be disputed; -it is not impossible, however, that disgust, or -aversion, on the part of women, may, in a measure, -serve to explain it.</p> - -<p>Sir John Lubbock should bear in mind that -“choice” in the matter of pairing was an early -prerogative of the female; that true affection, a -character differing widely from the sex instinct -developed in the male was necessary before she -could be induced to accept the attentions of the -male. While the women among primitive peoples -abhorred strangers or foreigners, it may scarcely -be said of them that they were too modest to -accept them as suitors. Evidently, modesty is -not the term to be employed in this connection.</p> - -<p>In seeking a reason to explain why force rather -than persuasion was used in the consummation -of early marriages, we have to remember the wide -difference existing between the position of free -women and that of those who were obliged to accept<span class="pagenum" id="Page_236">236</span> -the <i>ba’al</i> form of marriage. If, as we have reason -to believe, as late as the beginning of the second or -Middle Status of barbarism, instead of following -the father of her children to his house as his slave, -a woman remained in a home owned, or at least -controlled jointly by herself, her mother, her -sisters, and her daughters, it is plain that a state -of female independence existed which was incompatible -with female subjection. Add to this the -fact that a woman’s children belonged exclusively -to herself, or to her family, and that all hereditary -honours and rights of succession were traced -through females, and we have a set of circumstances -which would seem sufficient to explain -why force was necessary to bring women into the -marital relation.</p> - -<p>That the capture of women for wives arose -because the independence of free women was a -bar to the gratification of the lower instincts in -man, can, in the presence of all the facts at hand, -scarcely be doubted; and that women submitted -to the position of wife only when obliged to do so, -or when deprived of liberty and dragged from -home and friends, is only too apparent. While -modesty as a cause for capture may not account -for the resistance of the relations, the sacrifice of -a daughter may serve to explain even this knotty -point. If the capture of a free and independent -girl from her mother by a band of marauders from -a hostile tribe for purposes of the most degrading -slavery, cannot account for the resistance of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_237">237</span> -mother-in-law, among most of the so-called lower -races, then indeed it is difficult to conjecture any -provocation or any set of circumstances which can -account for it.</p> - -<p>This writer’s assertion that it is “contrary to all -experience that female delicacy diminishes with -civilization,” proves conclusively that he regards -the slight degree of reserve which he is pleased to -accredit to women in modern times, as a result of -civilization—a civilization, too, which he evidently -considers as wholly the result of masculine achievement; -in other words, he doubtless thinks that -the degree of self-respect observed among women -at the present time is the result not of the innate -tendencies in the female constitution, but of -masculine tuition and training, an assumption -which, when viewed by the light which in recent -years has been thrown upon the development of -the two diverging sex columns, is as absurd as it -is arrogant and false. Some time will doubtless -elapse before Sir John Lubbock and the class of -writers which he represents will be willing to admit -that civilization has been possible only because -of the checks to the animal nature of the male, -which are the natural result of the maternal -instinct.</p> - -<p>With a system, however, under which for six -thousand years every womanly instinct has been -smothered, and under which female activity has -been utilized in the service of the strong sex instinct -developed in males, the outward expression of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_238">238</span> -female delicacy has doubtless diminished; and, -in their weakened mental and physical condition, -women, dependent not only for all the luxuries -but the necessities of life as well, upon pleasing -the men, have doubtless given them, blinded as -they have become by the conditions of their own -peculiar development, some reason for believing -that within the female as within the male, passion -has been the ruling characteristic.</p> - -<p>Sir John Lubbock, as well as other writers who -have dealt with this subject, should bear in mind -the fact that female delicacy is a subject which can -be satisfactorily discussed only in relation to free -and independent women; hence the degree of its -manifestation at any time during the past six -thousand years may bear little testimony concerning -the natural tendencies of women, or the -condition of society under a system where female -influence was in the ascendency.</p> - -<p>To those individuals whose minds are not -clouded by prejudice, the fact will doubtless be -apparent, that the valuable information which has -been presented by three of the foremost writers -on the subject of the early relations of the sexes -and the origin of marriage, instead of serving as -evidence to substantiate the fallacious theories -which they have propounded, is found to lie in a -direct line with the facts and principles which -have been put forward by scientists in the theory -of natural development.</p> - -<p>A review of the theories set forth by these three<span class="pagenum" id="Page_239">239</span> -writers shows that about the only point on which -they agree is the lawlessness, or promiscuity, of -early races. As they have all started out with a -false premise, it is not singular that none of them -has succeeded in setting forth a consistent and -reasonable hypothesis to account either for the -symbol of wife-capture, or for the early supremacy -of women.</p> - -<div class="chapter"></div> -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_241">241</span></p> - - - - -<h2><a name="PART_III" id="PART_III">PART III</a><br /> - -<small>Early Historic Society</small></h2> - -<div class="chapter"></div> -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_243">243</span></p> - - - - -<h3><a name="CHAPTER_I-3" id="CHAPTER_I-3">CHAPTER I</a><br /> - -<small>EARLY HISTORIC SOCIETY FOUNDED ON THE GENS</small></h3> - - -<p>The result of recent research into the early -organization of society, the growth of the governmental -idea, and the development of the family, -among tribes in the ascending scale, serve to -throw new and unexpected light upon the customs, -ideas, institutions, and legends of early historic -peoples. Upon investigation it is observed that -the construction of Greek and Roman society -corresponds exactly with that of existing tribes -occupying a lower plane in the scale of development, -and that all the institutions of these nations, -although in a higher state of advancement, involve -the same original principles and ideas.</p> - -<p>That the Greek and Roman tribes before reaching -civilization had passed through exactly the same -processes of development as have been witnessed -in the ascending scale among the North American -Indians, the Arabians, and all other extant peoples, -is shown not alone by the manner in which early -society was organized and held together, but by -the similarity observed in their myths, legends, -traditions, institutions, and social usages.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_244">244</span></p> - -<p>Whether or not a more advanced stage of civilization -had been attained by the progenitors of -the Greeks and Romans is a question that does -not here concern us; for, if at any time prior to -the appearance of these peoples in history, a higher -plane of life had been reached, it is reasonable to -suppose that such a state was gained under gentile -forms of society, especially as their various institutions -at the beginning of the historic period -represent them as still to a considerable extent -governed by the ideas peculiar to the gens.</p> - -<p>The earliest authentic accounts which we have -of the Greeks represent them as composed of the -Doric tribes, who were Hellenes, and the Ionians, -who were of Pelasgic origin. The Dorians were a -conservative people, exclusive in their tastes and -intolerant of innovations, while the Ionians, who -occupied the seacoasts and the adjacent islands, -were restless, fond of novelty, and not averse to -intercourse with surrounding nations.</p> - -<p>Of the original inhabitants of Rome, it is observed -that they consisted of wandering tribes, -bands of outlaws, and refugees from various countries. -Concerning the true origin of these peoples, -however, and of the history of their earliest settlements, -they themselves were evidently ignorant, -and the fragmentary accounts of them which have -been preserved to us, when viewed independently -of the light reflected upon them by recent investigation, -furnish but a dim picture in the outline of -which the most prominent figures appear only as<span class="pagenum" id="Page_245">245</span> -indistinct shadows or as objects without definite -shape. It is true there was no lack of myths and -traditions which had come down to the Greeks -and Romans as genuine history, and which were -doubtless regarded by them as trustworthy accounts -of their ancestors. Theseus who united -the Attic tribes, and Romulus who founded Rome, -were heroes in whom the divine and human were -so nicely adjusted and so evenly balanced that the -history of their earthly career presents no shade of -error either in public or in private life. Indeed, -both had sprung from immortal sources, and their -exploits were such as might be expected from the -mythical heroes of a forgotten age.</p> - -<p>Although Greek society when it first came under -our observation was under gentile organization, -the gens had passed out of its archaic stage. This -ancient institution, which had carried humanity -through to civilization, was gradually losing its -vitality; it had lost its efficiency as a governing -agency, and was about to give place to political -institutions.</p> - -<p>With the facts at present accessible regarding -peoples in the lower and middle stages of barbarism, -the various steps in the growth of government -as administered in the upper or latter stage of -barbarism are clearly observed; also by close -attention to the conditions surrounding extant -peoples in the latter stage of barbarism and the -opening ages of civilization, the processes involved -in the transfer of society from gentile to political<span class="pagenum" id="Page_246">246</span> -institutions are easily traced, together with the -principal ideas and motives underlying the growth -of all the institutions belonging to early historic -nations.</p> - -<p>Until civilization was reached the gens constituted -the unit of organized society. This fact, -however, until a comparatively recent time, seems -to have been overlooked. Without attempting -to explain the origin of the gens and phratry as -they existed in Greece, Mr. Grote observes: “The -legislator finds them pre-existing, and adapts or -modifies them to answer some national scheme.” -Unacquainted as this writer evidently was with -the construction of primitive society, he failed to -observe that originally, in Greece, all the powers -of the legislator himself were derived from and -circumscribed by the gens. Indeed, that this -organization upon which the superstructure of -Grecian society rested was the original source -whence proceeded all social privileges and all -military rights and obligations, is a condition which -until a comparatively recent time has been overlooked. -While discussing the relations of the -family to the gens, the gens to the phratry, and -the phratry to the tribe, Mr. Grote says: “The -basis of the whole was the house, hearth, or family—a -number of which, greater or less, composed -the gens, or genos.”<a id="FNanchor_147_147" href="#Footnote_147_147" class="fnanchor">147</a></p> - -<p>Mr. Morgan has shown, however, that the -family could not have constituted the basis of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_247">247</span> -gens, for the reason that the heads of families -belonged to separate gentes. We are assured that -the gens is much older than the monogamic family, -and therefore that the latter could not have formed -the basis of the gentile organization; but even had -the family preceded the gens in order of development, -as its members belonged to different gentes -it could not have constituted the unit of the social -series.</p> - -<p>In order to gain a clear understanding of the -processes and principles involved in the early -Grecian form of government, it first becomes -necessary briefly to review the various steps in -the growth of the governmental functions -through two ethnical periods.</p> - -<p>The tribe is a community of related individuals -possessed of equal rights and privileges, and bound -by equal duties and responsibilities. It has been -shown that in the Lower Status of barbarism the -government consisted of only one power—a council -of chiefs elected by the people. During the Middle -Status of barbarism two powers appear,—the civil -and military functions have become separated, -the duties of a military commander being co-ordinated -with those of a council of chiefs. The -military commander, however, has not succeeded -in drawing to himself the powers of a ruler or king. -In the Second Status of barbarism tribes have -not begun to confederate. A single tribe, its -members bound together by the tie of kinship and -united by common rights and responsibilities, own<span class="pagenum" id="Page_248">248</span>ing -their lands in common, and each contributing -his share toward the common defence, so long as it -was able to maintain its independence, had little -need for an elaborate form of government. As -yet no strifes engendered by envy and extreme -selfishness had arisen to disturb the simplicity -of their lives, or to check the development of -those early principles of liberty and fraternity -which were the natural inheritance of the gens. -A council of chiefs elected by the gentes and receiving -all its powers from the people had thus far -performed all the duties of government.</p> - -<p>After the Upper Status of barbarism is reached -we find confederated tribes dwelling together in -walled cities surrounded by embankments, and a -state of affairs existing which called for a further -differentiation of the functions of government, -and a redistribution of the powers and responsibilities -of the people. In process of time, with the -accumulation of property in masses in the hands of -the few, and the consequent rise of an aristocracy, -a government founded on wealth, or on a territorial -basis, rather than on the personal relations of an -individual to his gens, was demanded; and, finally, -those principles, rights, and privileges which -constitute a pure democracy, and which had always -formed the basis of gentile institutions were gradually -ignored; that personal influence which was -originally exercised by each and every gentilis -being transferred to a privileged class—a class -which controlled the wealth, and at the head of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_249">249</span> -which was the military commander or <i>basileus</i>. -Such was the condition of Grecian society as it -first appears in history.</p> - -<p>A comparison instituted by Mr. Morgan between -the Iroquois gens and that of the Greeks shows -the former at the time when it first came under -European observation to have been in the archaic -stage, with descent and all the rights of succession -traced in the female line; while the latter, at the -time designated as the heroic age, had not only -changed the manner of reckoning descent from -the female to the male line, but was evidently -about to give place to political society which, -instead of being founded on kinship, was based -on property and territory, or upon a man’s relations -to the township or deme in which he resided.</p> - -<p>While the Iroquois tribe of Indians represents -the gens in its original vitality, the Greeks appear -to have reached a stage at which the archaic form -of government instituted on the basis of kin was -found inadequate to meet their necessities; hence -the confusion arising from disputed authority, -at the almost interminable struggle between the -various classes which had arisen, and the evident -disaffection and unrest manifest among the entire -Grecian people during the ages intervening between -Codrus, nearly eleven hundred years <span class="smcap">B. C.</span>, and -Clisthenes, five hundred years later.</p> - -<p>That degree of jealousy with which individual -liberty was guarded during the earlier ages of -historic Greece, that thirst for freedom, and that<span class="pagenum" id="Page_250">250</span> -restlessness under tyranny which characterized -the Grecian people throughout their entire career, -are explained by the fact that prior to the age of -Clisthenes they were under gentile institutions, -the fundamental principles of which were liberty, -equality, and justice. From all the facts which -may be gathered bearing upon this subject, it is -evident that although at the beginning of the -historic period the Greeks had lost much of that -independence which belonged to an earlier stage -of human development, their institutions still -partook of the character of a democracy.</p> - -<p>Of the similarity of the customs and institutions -of early historic Greece and those of a more primitive -age we have ample evidence. In ancient -Greece, as among the Iroquois tribe of Indians, -“property was vested absolutely in the clan, and -could not be willed away from it.”<a id="FNanchor_148_148" href="#Footnote_148_148" class="fnanchor">148</a> Not only -did the members of a clan hold their property in -common, but they were obliged to help, defend, -support, and even avenge those of their number -who required their assistance. Young females -bereft of near relations were either furnished -with husbands or provided with suitable portions. -Descent must still have been reckoned in the -female line, for foreigners admitted to citizenship -were not members of any clan, neither were their -descendants, unless born of women who were -citizens. Citizens were enrolled in the clan and -phratry of their mothers.<a id="FNanchor_149_149" href="#Footnote_149_149" class="fnanchor">149</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_251">251</span></p> - -<p>In the administration of the government, however, -are to be noted a few important changes. -The complications which had arisen as a result of -the individual ownership of property, the change -in the reckoning of descent from the female to the -male line which followed, and the growth of the -aristocratic element, had produced a corresponding -change in the control and management of the -government. Solicitude for the common weal, -although still felt by the great mass of the people, -had among the rulers given place to extreme egoism, -and that association and combination of interests, -which since the dawn of organized society -had characterized the gens, was rapidly giving -way before the love of dominion, the thirst for -power, and the greed of gain—characters which -in process of time came to represent the mainspring -of human action.</p> - -<p>With the changes which took place in the conditions -of the people, it is seen that the administrative -functions became still further differentiated. -Co-ordinate with the Greek <i>basileus</i> or war-chief -are to be observed not only a council of chiefs -who were the heads of the gentes, but also an -assembly of the people, these three governmental -functions corresponding in a general way to our -President, Senate, and House of Representatives.</p> - -<p>The Ecclesia or general assembly at Sparta was -originally composed of all the free males who dwelt -within the city. Although this body originated -no measures, it was invested with authority to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_252">252</span> -adopt or reject any proposed legislation or plan -of action devised by the chiefs. “All changes in -the constitution or laws, and all matters of great -public import, as questions of peace or war, of -alliances, and the like, had to be brought before -it for decision.”<a id="FNanchor_150_150" href="#Footnote_150_150" class="fnanchor">150</a> Thus may be observed the precautions -which during the latter stages of barbarism -had been taken to guard the rights of the -people, and to insure them against individual and -class usurpation.</p> - -<p>Curtius assures us that the Dorian people</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>did not feel as if they were placed in a foreign state, -but they were the citizens of their own—not merely -the objects of legislation, but also participants in it, -for they only obeyed such statutes as they themselves -had agreed to.<a id="FNanchor_151_151" href="#Footnote_151_151" class="fnanchor">151</a></p></blockquote> - -<p>Although Mr. Grote would have us believe that -the assembly of the people was simply a “listening -agora,”<a id="FNanchor_152_152" href="#Footnote_152_152" class="fnanchor">152</a> it is plain that it was originally invested -with sufficient power to protect the people against -despotism. In the further differentiation of the -administrative functions the powers of the subordinate -officers are all drawn from the sum of the -powers invested in the three principal branches of -the government, the ill-defined duties of each giving -rise to those unabated dissensions and fierce and -unrelenting strifes which in course of time became -such a fruitful source of devastation and bloodshed.</p> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_253">253</span></p> -<p>From what is known at the present time regarding -Greek society prior to the age of Theseus, it is -not at all likely that it was organized on monarchial -principles, or that any form of government -prevailed in Greece other than that of a military -democracy. It is true that by most of the writers -who have dealt with the subject of the government -of the early Greeks, the <i>basileus</i> has been designated -as king, and that he has been invested -by them with all the insignia of a modern monarch. -In later times, however, with a better understanding -of the principles underlying early society, -this view of the matter is seen to be false. Mr. -Morgan, a writer who as we have seen has given -much attention to the constitution of gentile -society, informs us that in the Lower and also -in the Middle Status of barbarism the office of -chief was elective or during good behaviour, “for -this limitation follows from the right of the gens -to depose from office.”<a id="FNanchor_153_153" href="#Footnote_153_153" class="fnanchor">153</a></p> - -<p>When descent was in the female line this office -descended either to a brother of the deceased chief -or to a sister’s son, but later, when descent began -to be traced in the male line, the eldest son was -usually elected to succeed his father. Upon this -subject Mr. Morgan says further:</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>It cannot be claimed, on satisfactory proof, that -the oldest son of the <i>basileus</i> took the office, upon the -demise of his father, by absolute hereditary right....<span class="pagenum" id="Page_254">254</span> -The fact that the oldest, or one of the sons, usually -succeeded, which is admitted, does not establish the -fact in question; because by usage he was in the probable -line of succession by a free election from a constituency. -The presumption on the face of Grecian -institutions is against succession to the office of -<i>basileus</i> by hereditary right; and in favour either of a -free election, or of a confirmation of the office by the -people through their recognized organization, as in -the case of the Roman rex. With the office of <i>basileus</i> -transmitted in the manner last named, the government -would remain in the hands of the people. Because -without an election or confirmation he could -not assume the office; and because, further, the power -to elect or confirm implies the reserved right to depose.<a id="FNanchor_154_154" href="#Footnote_154_154" class="fnanchor">154</a></p></blockquote> - -<p>There is no lack of evidence at the present time -going to prove that all these early tribes were -originally organized on thoroughly democratic -principles, and that there never was any dignity -conferred on the leader of the early Grecian hosts -answering to the present definition of king; also -that prior to the time of Romulus, no chieftain of -the Latin tribes was ever invested with sufficient -authority to have constituted him an imperial -ruler. The term <i>basileus</i>, as applied to a leader of -a military democracy in the early ages of Grecian -history, doubtless implies simply the war-chief of -the primitive tribe, an officer chosen from among -the chiefs of the gentes as a leader of the hosts in -battle, but as claiming no civil functions, and as<span class="pagenum" id="Page_255">255</span> -possessing no authority outside the office of -military chieftain.</p> - -<p>The Homeric writings, which contain the earliest -direct information which we have of the Greeks, -and in which are doubtless mirrored forth a tolerably -correct picture of the customs, institutions, -and manners of this people, when read by the light -of more recently developed facts relative to the -early constitution of society, are invested with -new interest, and a fresh charm and a new significance -are added to every detail connected with -the narrative. As to the extent of authority -attached to the office of military leader among the -Greeks, Homer has given us a fair illustration in -the person of Agamemnon—“shepherd of the -people.” That the position of this chieftain -differs widely from that occupied by the king of -succeeding ages is apparent. At the outset we -find the injured Achilles, after he has taunted the -chieftain with being the “greediest of men,” -addressing him in the following language:</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poetry"><div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse">Ha, thou mailed in impudence</div> - <div class="verse">And bent on lucre! Who of all the Greeks</div> - <div class="verse">Can willingly obey thee, on the march,</div> - <div class="verse">Or bravely battling with the enemy!<a id="FNanchor_155_155" href="#Footnote_155_155" class="fnanchor">155</a></div> -</div></div></div> - -<p>Then Pelides takes up the strain and with opprobrious -words thus addresses the son of Atreus:</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poetry"><div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse">Wine-bibber with the forehead of a dog</div> - <div class="verse">And a deer’s heart. Thou never yet hast dared</div><span class="pagenum" id="Page_256">256</span> - <div class="verse">To arm thyself for battle with the rest,</div> - <div class="verse">Nor join the other chiefs prepared to lie</div> - <div class="verse">In ambush,—such thy craven fear of death.</div> - <div class="verse">Better it suits thee, midst the mighty host</div> - <div class="verse">Of Greeks, to rob some warrior of his prize</div> - <div class="verse">Who dares withstand thee.<a id="FNanchor_156_156" href="#Footnote_156_156" class="fnanchor">156</a></div> -</div></div></div> - -<p>Even the brawler Thersites,</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poetry"><div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse">Squint-eyed, with one lame foot, and on his back</div> - <div class="verse">A lump, and shoulders curving towards the chest,</div> -</div></div></div> - -<p>dares to insult this chief—this king as he is represented -by most modern writers, and to his face -taunt him with his injustice towards Achilles. -To Agamemnon he says:</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poetry"><div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse">Of what dost thou complain; what wouldst thou more,</div> - <div class="verse">Atrides? In thy tents are heaps of gold;</div> - <div class="verse">Thy tents are full of chosen damsels, given</div> - <div class="verse">To thee before all others, by the Greeks,</div> - <div class="verse">Whene’er we take a city. Dost thou yet</div> - <div class="verse">Hanker for gold, brought by some Trojan knight,</div> - <div class="verse">A ransom for his son, whom I shall lead—</div> - <div class="verse">I, or some other Greek—a captive bound?</div> - <div class="verse">Or dost thou wish, for thy more idle hours,</div> - <div class="verse">Some maiden, whom thou mayst detain apart?</div> - <div class="verse">Ill it beseems a prince like thee to lead</div> - <div class="verse">The sons of Greece, for such a cause as this,</div> - <div class="verse">Into new perils. O ye coward race!</div> - <div class="verse">Ye abject Greeklings, Greeks no longer, haste</div> - <div class="verse">Homeward with all the fleet, and let us leave</div><span class="pagenum" id="Page_257">257</span> - <div class="verse">This man at Troy to win his trophies here,</div> - <div class="verse">That he may learn whether the aid we give</div> - <div class="verse">Avails him aught or not, since he insults</div> - <div class="verse">Achilles, a far braver man than he.<a id="FNanchor_157_157" href="#Footnote_157_157" class="fnanchor">157</a></div> -</div></div></div> - -<p>It is true Ulysses smote Thersites as he upbraided -him for this insult to Agamemnon. It is -plain, however, that the chastisement was of a -private nature. It seems not to have been a -crime openly to berate their chief. Indeed the -position of “shepherd of the people” was not -one of such dignity that any warrior among the -hosts might not with impunity freely speak his -mind concerning him, or to his face confront him -with improper behaviour. When Agamemnon -compared unfavourably the valour of Diomed with -that of his father, Tydeus, Sthenelus, the honoured -son of Capaneus, hesitated not to remind the -chief of his folly, and to his face upbraid him. -“Atrides, speak not falsely when thou knowest -the truth so well.”<a id="FNanchor_158_158" href="#Footnote_158_158" class="fnanchor">158</a></p> - -<p>Regarding the office of king, Mr. Morgan says:</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>Modern writers, almost without exception, translate -<i>basileus</i> by the term <i>king</i>, and <i>basileia</i> by the -term <i>kingdom</i>, without qualification, and as exact -equivalents. I wish to call attention to this office -of <i>basileus</i>, as it existed in the Grecian tribes, and to -question the correctness of this interpretation. There -is no similarity whatever between the <i>basileia</i> of the -ancient Athenians and the modern kingdom or mon<span class="pagenum" id="Page_258">258</span>archy.... -Constitutional monarchy is a modern -development, and essentially different from the <i>basileia</i> -of the Greeks. The <i>basileia</i> was neither an absolute -nor a constitutional monarchy; neither was it a -tyranny nor a despotism. The question then is, what -was it?</p></blockquote> - -<p>Mr. Morgan’s answer to the question is as -follows:</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>The primitive Grecian government was essentially -democratical, reposing on gentes, phratries, and tribes -organized as self-governing bodies, and on the principles -of liberty, equality, and fraternity.</p></blockquote> - -<p>This writer says further:</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>Our views upon Grecian and Roman questions have -been moulded by writers accustomed to monarchical -government and privileged classes, who were perhaps -glad to appeal to the earliest known governments of -the Grecian tribes for a sanction of this form of government, -as at once natural, essential, and primitive.<a id="FNanchor_159_159" href="#Footnote_159_159" class="fnanchor">159</a></p></blockquote> - -<p>We have noted the precautions which during -the second and latter periods of barbarism were -necessary to keep in check the increasing thirst -for power, and it may not be doubted that through -the growth of the aristocratic tendency during -the latter ages of the existence of the gens, the -office of <i>basileus</i> gave to its incumbent a degree -of distinction closely allied to that of king.</p> - -<p>In the eleventh century <span class="smcap">B. C.</span>, upon the death of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_259">259</span> -Codrus, so necessary had it become to check the -continually increasing power of the military chieftains -that the office was abolished and the archonship -established in its place; but as an election or -confirmation was necessary before the duties of -either office could be entered upon, it is plain that -at the period referred to a democratic form of -government still prevailed.</p> - -<p>Now archon is the term which had been applied -to the chief of the early gentes at a time when -fraternity, liberty, and equality were the cardinal -virtues of society; and the abolition of the office of -<i>basileus</i>, to which had become attached a considerable -degree of power, was doubtless an attempt -on the part of the people to return to the simpler -and purer methods of government which had -formerly prevailed; but the institution known as -the Agora, Ecclesia, or Appella, which had proved -the great bulwark of safety to early democratic -institutions, had, through the strengthening of -the aristocratic element, become gradually weakened, -hence the nobles were in a position to draw -to themselves not only much of the power originally -exercised by the military commander, but -that also which had formerly belonged to the -assembly of the people. We have observed that -not only among the Greeks of the heroic age, but -among the tribes and nations which preceded -them, as far back in the history of the past as the -close of the second stage of barbarism, there had -always been an assembly of the people whose duty<span class="pagenum" id="Page_260">260</span> -it was to guard the rights of the tribe, to protect -it against usurpation, and to keep down the rising -tendency toward imperialism. Of this institution, -Mr. Rawlinson says: “Thus at Athens, as elsewhere, -in the heroic times, there was undoubtedly -the idea of a public assembly consisting of all -freemen.”<a id="FNanchor_160_160" href="#Footnote_160_160" class="fnanchor">160</a></p> - -<p>Theseus, <i>basileus</i>, or military chieftain of the -Athenian tribes, a personage who belongs to the -legendary period, was the first to perceive the insufficiency -of gentile institutions to meet the needs -of the people. Although the primary idea involved -in the establishment of political society -was the transference of the original governmental -functions from the gens to a territorial limit, so -deeply had the instincts, ideas, and associations -connected with the personal government of the -gens taken root that several centuries were required -to accomplish the change. To establish -the deme or township, in which, irrespective of -kinship or personal ties, all its inhabitants (except -slaves) should be enrolled as citizens, with rights, -privileges, and duties adjusted according to the -amount of property owned by each, and which -should be a unit of the larger and more important -institution—the State,—was an undertaking the -mastery of which although seemingly simple, -nevertheless involved intricacies and obstacles -of such magnitude as to baffle all attempts of the -Greeks from the time of Theseus to that of Clis<span class="pagenum" id="Page_261">261</span>thenes, -at which time political society was established, -and the gens, shorn of its utility and power, -remained only as the embodiment of certain social -ideas, or survived as a religious centre, over which -their eponymous ancestor, as hero or god, still -presided.</p> - -<p>The age of Theseus could not have been later -than 1050 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>, and the final overthrow of gentile -government did not, as we have seen, occur until -the age of Clisthenes, five hundred years later. -Throughout the intervening time between Theseus -and Clisthenes little real advancement is noted -among the Greeks; none, perhaps, except that -connected with the growth of the idea of government -as indicated by the change from gentile -to political institutions, and even this growth, -when we observe that nearly five centuries and -a half were required to establish it, or to substitute -the deme or township in the place of the gens -as the unit in the governmental series, can scarcely -be regarded as evidence of remarkable genius, -or as indicating a notable degree of ingenuity. -In the transference of society, however, from -gentile to political institutions may be observed a -progressive principle, inasmuch as by it the limits -of the gens and tribe were gradually broken down -or obliterated, and the enlarged conception of the -state established in their stead. After the age -of Clisthenes an isolated community bound together -by kinship, and with interests extending -no further than the tribe of which it was a part,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_262">262</span> -no longer constituted the fundamental basis upon -which the superstructure of society was to rest; -but, on the contrary, the deme or township, with -all its free inhabitants, of whatsoever tribe or gens, -was to become the recognized unit in organized -society.</p> - -<p>Prior to the age of Theseus, Attica was divided -into petty states, each with a council-house of its -own. According to the testimony of Thucydides, -from the time of Cecrops to Theseus</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>the population of Athens had always inhabited independent -cities, with their own guild-halls and magistrates; -and at such times as they were not in fear of -any danger they did not meet with the king to consult -with him, but themselves severally conducted their -own government, and took their own counsel.<a id="FNanchor_161_161" href="#Footnote_161_161" class="fnanchor">161</a></p></blockquote> - -<p>The <i>basileus</i> or war-chief exercised no civil -functions,<a id="FNanchor_162_162" href="#Footnote_162_162" class="fnanchor">162</a> and his services were never called -into requisition except in times of danger.</p> - -<p>Theseus upon receiving the office of military -chieftain “persuaded” the people in the adjacent -country to remove to the city.<a id="FNanchor_163_163" href="#Footnote_163_163" class="fnanchor">163</a> According to -Plutarch he “settled all the inhabitants of Attica -in Athens and made them one people in one city.”<a id="FNanchor_164_164" href="#Footnote_164_164" class="fnanchor">164</a> -He persuaded them to abolish their independent -city governments and to establish in their stead, -at Athens, a council-house which would be com<span class="pagenum" id="Page_263">263</span>mon -to all. Thus, under his direction, the Attic -peoples coalesced, or were united under one government. -Theseus, we are told, divided the people -into three classes, irrespective of gentes, on the -basis of property and social position. The chiefs -of the several gentes with their families, and the -citizens who through their great wealth had become -influential, constituted the first class; the -second class were the husbandmen, and the third -the mechanics. All the principal offices both of -the government and the priesthood were in the -hands of the nobles or the moneyed and aristocratic -classes. Thucydides refers to the fact that “when -Greece was becoming more powerful, and acquiring -possessions of money still more than before, -tyrannies were established in the cities.”<a id="FNanchor_165_165" href="#Footnote_165_165" class="fnanchor">165</a></p> - -<p>Upon this subject Mr. Rawlinson says:</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>All important political privilege is engrossed by the -Eupatrids, who consist of a certain number of “clans” -claiming a special nobility, but not belonging to any -single tribe, or distinguishable from the ignoble clans, -otherwise than by the possession of superior rank and -riches. The rest of the citizens constitute an unprivileged -class, personally free, but with no atom -of political power, and are roughly divided, according -to their occupation, into yeoman-farmers and artisans. -The union of the Eupatrids in the same tribes and -phratries with the Geomori and Demiurgi, seems to -show that the aristocracy of Athens was not original, -like that of Rome, but grew out of an earlier and more<span class="pagenum" id="Page_264">264</span> -democratical condition of things—such, in fact, as -we find depicted in the Homeric poems.... Thus -at Athens, as elsewhere, in the heroic times, there was -undoubtedly the idea of a public assembly, consisting -of all free-men; but this institution seems entirely -to have disappeared during the centuries which intervened -between Codrus and Solon.<a id="FNanchor_166_166" href="#Footnote_166_166" class="fnanchor">166</a></p></blockquote> - -<p>During the three hundred years which followed -the death of Codrus, nothing of great importance -is observed concerning the growth of Grecian -institutions. Doubtless their development was -characterized only by the strengthening of the -aristocracy and the stimulation of those egoistic -principles which are essential in the establishment -of an oligarchy. That in course of time the power -attached to the office of archon also became a -menace to the people’s liberties is shown in the -fact that in the first year of the seventh Olympiad, -<span class="smcap">B.C.</span>, 752, the life archonship was brought to a -close and the term of office reduced to ten years. -Although the office was still limited to the family -of Codrus, the incumbent became amenable to -the elders or chiefs for his acts. However, that -this movement was not wholly in the interest of -the masses of the people is shown in the fact that -during the following thirty years the Eupatrids, -or members of the aristocratic party, had drawn to -themselves all the power belonging to the archonship. -It is observed that during the reign of the -fourth decennial archon, a pretext having been<span class="pagenum" id="Page_265">265</span> -found to depose him, the reigning family or gens -was declared as having forfeited its right to rule -and the office was thrown open to all Eupatrids. -Nine archons from among the aristocratic party, -with all the powers formerly belonging to the -supreme archon, conveyed to them, were chosen -as a governing board,<a id="FNanchor_167_167" href="#Footnote_167_167" class="fnanchor">167</a> and were to continue in -office for one year. Selected by and from among -the Eupatrids, their legislation was wholly in the -interest of the wealthy and privileged classes.</p> - -<p>From 684 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> to 624 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>, the aristocratic party -exercised unlimited control over the Athenian -state, and during the entire sixty years used their -great power to crush out even a semblance of free -institutions. The thirst for power among them -was equalled only by their greed for gain; hence -while wielding the former, they gratified their -cupidity by gathering into their own coffers almost -the entire wealth of the nation. With the machinery -of legislation turned against them, the middle -and lower classes were soon robbed even of their -means of support. Most of the land was mortgaged, -and the persons of the owners held by the -Eupatrids for debt. Men sold their children and -their sisters to satisfy the demands of creditors,<a id="FNanchor_168_168" href="#Footnote_168_168" class="fnanchor">168</a> -and such was the inequality existing between -various classes that dissensions arose on every -hand, and a general state of confusion, disorder, -and discontent prevailed. Thus may be observed -some of the processes by which the early prin<span class="pagenum" id="Page_266">266</span>ciples -of fraternity, liberty, and justice were -overthrown.</p> - -<p>At length the sufferings of the people caused by -the injustice and rapacity of their rulers became -unbearable, and by means of various signs of -discontent, notably that of a popular demand for -written laws, it became evident that a crisis had -been reached. The Eupatrids, pretending to heed -the popular demand, elected Draco, one of their -number, to the office of archon, with the understanding -that a code of written laws defining the -rights of the several classes be prepared.</p> - -<p>As the Greeks of the Draconian and Solonic -age were but a few centuries removed from a time -when individual liberty and equality had constituted -the cardinal principles upon which society -was founded, we may believe that that spirit of -personal independence and self-respect which -had been inherited from gentile institutions, although -it had perhaps slumbered, had never been -crushed; therefore, a condition of subjection or -slavery, although for a time endured, could not -be willingly accepted as a settled fact.</p> - -<p>As the laws prepared by Draco tended only to -aggravate the abuses of which the people complained, -it is quite evident that no reform was -intended; the Eupatrids, however, had mistaken -the temper of the people, and the fact soon became -manifest, even to the members of the governing -classes themselves, that certain concessions must -be made to the popular demand for justice. An<span class="pagenum" id="Page_267">267</span> -idea of the rapacity, greed, dishonesty, and cupidity -which prevailed at this stage of Greek life may -be obtained from the writings of Theognis, a poet -of Grecian Mega, who lived about five hundred -and seventy years <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> Among his Maxims appear -the following:</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>Now at length a sense of shame hath perished among -mankind, but shamelessness reigns over the earth. -Everyone honours a rich man but dishonours a poor: -And in all men there is the same mind.... No one -of the present race of men doth the sun look down -upon, being entirely good and moderate.... When -I am flourishing, friends are many; but should any -calamity have chanced upon me, few retain a faithful -spirit. For the multitude of men there is this virtue -only, namely, to be rich: But of the rest, I wot, there -is no use.</p></blockquote> - -<p>The fact is obvious that already in the history -of the Greeks the love of property and the rise of -the aristocratic spirit had gained such a foothold -that a democracy was no longer desired by the -more influential citizens, and that it was the -moneyed classes and the aristocratic party who -were growing restless under institutions which -acknowledged the equality of all free-born citizens.</p> - -<p>Doubtless the power which had been hitherto -exercised by the gentes had already been drawn -to the moneyed classes; still, this attempt to organize -society into classes on the basis of property -and station was perhaps the first regulated move<span class="pagenum" id="Page_268">268</span>ment -openly to curtail the hitherto recognized -power of the individual members of the gens, and -doubtless constituted the first formulated step -towards the subsequent removal of this ancient -institution from its original position as the unit -in the governmental series.</p> - -<p>From accessible facts to be gathered relative -to early Greek society, it is plain that individual -liberty perished with the gens, and that monarchy, -aristocracy, and slavery were the natural results -of the decline of the altruistic principles upon -which early society was founded.</p> - -<div class="chapter"></div> -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_269">269</span></p> - - - - -<h3><a name="CHAPTER_II-3" id="CHAPTER_II-3">CHAPTER II</a><br /> - -<small>WOMEN IN EARLY HISTORIC TIMES</small></h3> - - -<p>As it is claimed that the history of the natural -growth of society is represented by the extant -tribes in the varying stages of advancement from -savagery to civilization, and as upon our first -acquaintance with the Greeks we find them just -emerging from barbarism and preparing to enter -upon a civilized career, we may naturally expect -to find in their various traditions, customs, forms -of marriage, etc., some hint of that influence which, -but little more than one ethnical period before, -had been exercised by women, and some clue to -the processes involved in the change from female -to male supremacy.</p> - -<p>From the facts which are gradually coming to -light concerning society in the early historic period, -it is observed that the extant mythoses and traditions -of the ancients contain a mixture of history, -mythology, and astrology. Until a comparatively -recent time no attempt has been made to separate -the former from the latter two.</p> - -<p>Herodotus opens his account of the Greeks with -a story of the capture of women. The Phœnicians,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_270">270</span> -the great maritime people of that time, had sent -ships loaded with merchandise to Argos. When -nearly all was disposed of there came down to the -beach several women among whom was Io, child -of Ianchus the king. As the women were standing -by the stern of the ship attending to their -purchases, the foreign sailors rushed upon them -and attempted to carry them off. The most of -them made their escape, but a number were taken -away and Io amongst them.<a id="FNanchor_169_169" href="#Footnote_169_169" class="fnanchor">169</a></p> - -<p>Doubtless beneath this myth is concealed a -religious doctrine which had an historical basis. -The original version of the legend was that Io -who was carried to Egypt by a god became the -mother of a race of hero-kings; but when the true -significance of the early physiological, religious -myth was forgotten, this one of Io, too, after -having become mutilated and distorted to suit a -more degenerate time, was accepted in a purely -literal sense and made to do duty as actual history. -Following this narrative in the history of -Herodotus is the story of Europa who was carried -away by the Greeks.</p> - -<p>In the next generation was enacted the seizure -of Helen by Paris, son of Priam, a deed which, -whether committed for revenge or lust, is supposed -to have constituted the sole cause of the -Trojan War—a struggle which continued for nine -years. Helen had previously, and while but a -child, according to Plutarch, been carried off by<span class="pagenum" id="Page_271">271</span> -Theseus, founder of Athens, and borne away to -Egypt. Indeed it would seem from the accounts -of this hero that his exploits were instigated for -the most part by a desire to possess himself of -women. Even later in the history of the Greeks -we find that Pausanius, King of Sparta, upon the -defeat of the barbarians, received as his share of -the booty, ten specimens of the following articles: -“women, horses, talents, and camels.” The familiar -story of the seizure of the Sabine women by -the Romans is regarded as a probable myth or as -a doubtful fact; yet, when we remember that not -far distant in the past, capture constituted the -only form of marriage, the acts of violence committed -on women are invested with a fresh interest, -for by them we are enabled to trace the identity -of the processes of development between historic -nations and the tribes occupying a lower position -in the scale of advancement.</p> - -<p>Although Homer traces genealogies through -fathers, the fact will doubtless be observed that -two generations generally suffice to carry men -back to an unknown or divine progenitor. Indeed -many of the Greeks of Homer’s time sprang -directly from gods. Tlepolemus was of the stock -of Hercules. Priam and his sons were descendants -of Zeus, and many of the noblest Greeks -derived their origin from Mars. Helen also was -the descendant of Zeus.</p> - -<p>A tradition from Varro in reference to the -decline of woman’s power in Athens is as follows:</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_272">272</span></p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>In the age of Cecrops two wonders sprang from the -earth at the same time, one of which was the olive -tree, the other water. The king in terror dispatched -a messenger to Delphi to ascertain what he was to do -in the matter. The oracle in response answered that -the olive tree signified Minerva (Athene), and the -water Neptune (Poseidon); and that it was optional -with the Burgesses after which of the two they would -name their town. Cecrops convened an assembly of -the Burgesses, both men and women, for it was customary -then for the women to take part in the public -counsels. The men voted for Poseidon, the women -for Athene, and as there were more women than -men by one, Athene conquered. Thereupon Poseidon -became enraged, and immediately the sea flowed over -all the land of Athens. To appease the god the Burgesses -were compelled to impose a three-fold punishment -upon their wives: They were to lose their votes; -the children were to receive no more the mother’s -name; and they themselves were no longer to be called -Athenians after the goddess.</p></blockquote> - -<p>We are assured that prior to the struggle between -Athene and Poseidon for the mastery in -Athens, children in Attica and Lycia were named -after their mothers, and that the people as a body -were called after the goddess. Formerly the -women were actual Burgesses but after the decision -that the office of father in the processes of -reproduction is superior to that of the mother the -women lost their position as Burgesses and became -only the wives of Burghers. It is the vote of -Athene herself which decides that the child is the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_273">273</span> -production of the father. The ancient Attic -traditions are full of references to female supremacy. -Indeed, Herr Bachofen is certain that -he has found proof of female descent and supremacy -not only among the early Greek tribes -but in every branch of the Indo-Germanic -family.</p> - -<p>The Grecian tribes were named after women, -as were also the ancient cities of Greece. The -founders of these cities and the eponymous leaders -of the various peoples were women who had been -“carried off by gods.” Sarpedon and Minos who -quarrelled over the government of Lycia were the -sons of Europa<a id="FNanchor_170_170" href="#Footnote_170_170" class="fnanchor">170</a> who had been carried off from -Tyre on the Phœnician coast. Thebe, the eponymous -leader of the Thebans, and Egina, the founder -of Egina, were sisters. Therefore when the oracle -commanded the Thebans to seek succour from -their nearest of kin, they applied to the Eginetans, -thereby proving that at that time relationships -were still traced through women.</p> - -<p>The Greek tradition of the Scythian nation is -as follows: As Hercules was passing through the -country he came to a district called the Woodland. -While he slept, the mares which he had loosed -from his chariot wandered away, and while in -quest of them he came to a cave in which dwelt -a being with the head of a woman and the body of -a serpent, probably a goddess representing the -two creative principles throughout nature. Upon<span class="pagenum" id="Page_274">274</span> -being asked by Hercules if she had seen his mares, -she replied, “yes,” but that unless he would -remain with her she would not yield them to him, -whereupon he consented to do her bidding. Later, -as she questioned him as to his wishes concerning -the three sons which she had borne him, she said: -“Wouldst thou wish that I should settle them -here in this land whereof I am mistress, or shall I -send them to thee?” Hercules placed in her hand -a bow with instruction that the son which when -grown to manhood should bend it in a certain -way should remain as king of the land. Scythes, -the youngest son of the goddess, was the successful -competitor. From this time gods, not goddesses, -are in the possession of the country.<a id="FNanchor_171_171" href="#Footnote_171_171" class="fnanchor">171</a> Europe, -Asia, and Lybia (Africa) are named after women, -and in nearly all the earliest traditions, a woman, -either divine or human, appears as the eponymous -leader of the people.</p> - -<p>The tradition respecting the daughters of -Danaūs fleeing from their native land to avoid -the hateful caresses of the sons of Egyptus, doubtless -refers to a time when relationships were beginning -to be traced through males, and when -under the <i>ba’al</i> form of marriage they were beginning -to claim the right to control the women of -their own group.</p> - -<p>Egyptus and Danaūs were brothers, the former -of whom had fifty sons, the latter fifty daughters. -Upon the sons of Egyptus demanding that their<span class="pagenum" id="Page_275">275</span> -cousins unite with them in marriage, the women -immediately fled by sea to Argos and placed themselves -under the protection of Pelasgus. Although -hotly pursued by their tormentors, they reached -Argos in safety; the following is their supplication -as set forth by Æschylus:</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poetry"><div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse">On this moist shore, drive them into the deep,</div> - <div class="verse">With all their flying streamers and quick oars,</div> - <div class="verse">There let them meet the whirlwind’s boisterous rage,</div> - <div class="verse">Thund’rings and lightnings, and the furious blasts</div> - <div class="verse">That harrow up the wild tempestuous waves,</div> - <div class="verse">And perish in the storm, ere they ascend</div> - <div class="verse">Our kindred bed, and seize against our will</div> - <div class="verse">What nature and the laws of blood deny.<a id="FNanchor_172_172" href="#Footnote_172_172" class="fnanchor">172</a></div> -</div></div></div> - -<p>After having reached Argos and after having -besought Pelasgus to espouse their cause, he says:</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poetry"><div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse">If by your country’s laws Egyptus’ sons,</div> - <div class="verse">As next of blood, assert a right in you,</div> - <div class="verse">Who should oppose them? It behooves thee then</div> - <div class="verse">By your own laws to prove such claim unjust.</div> -</div></div></div> - -<p>To which they make answer:</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poetry"><div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse">Ah! never may I be perforce a thrall</div> - <div class="verse">To man. By heaven-directed flight I break</div> - <div class="verse">The wayward plan of these detested nuptials.</div> - <div class="verse">Arm justice on thy side, and with her aid,</div> - <div class="verse">Judge with what sanctity the gods demand.</div> -</div></div></div> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_276">276</span></p> -<p>The reply of Pelasgus is as follows:</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poetry"><div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse">No easy province: Make not me your judge,</div> - <div class="verse">Great though my power, it is not mine to act,</div> - <div class="verse">I told thee so, without my people’s voice</div> - <div class="verse">Assenting.</div> -</div></div></div> - -<p>It is plain that these lines refer to a time when -woman was not “a thrall to man.” It relates -also to a time when the <i>basileus</i> or chief could not -act without the consent of his people.</p> - -<p>That in the earliest traditions and accounts of -the Greeks, women occupy a much more exalted -position than they do four or five centuries later, -is a fact which can be explained only by the truths -which have been set forth in the foregoing pages; -namely, the capture of women for wives, at first -singly and finally in groups. We have seen that -during the period designated as the Latter Status -of barbarism, wars were frequently undertaken -upon no other pretext than that of securing women -for wives. Cities were attacked and destroyed, -the men murdered, and the women carried away -captives. Property both landed and personal -was seized and held by the conquerors, and as -these captured women were strangers, aliens, and -dependents in the countries to which they were -taken, they became simply sexual slaves, or wives, -and in process of time sank to the position in which -we find them under Solon, the lawgiver of Athens.</p> - -<p>The difference in the sentiments entertained -toward women during Homer’s time and those<span class="pagenum" id="Page_277">277</span> -which had come to prevail among the Greeks in -the sixth century, <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>, may be observed in the -following lines from Æschylus, and also in a -quotation from <i>The Iliad</i>, which follows. At the -siege of Thebes, when the women, fearing captivity -more than death, appeared before the sacred -images to pray for protection, Etiocles the chief, -trembling with fear, and himself praying loudly -to Jove, to Earth, and “all the guardian gods,” -being displeased with the attitude of the female -supplicants, and doubtless eager to exercise his -authority over women thus displays his contempt -for them:</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poetry"><div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse">It is not to be borne, ye wayward race;</div> - <div class="verse">Is this your best, is this the aid you lend</div> - <div class="verse">The State, the fortitude with which you steel</div> - <div class="verse">The souls of the besieged, thus falling down</div> - <div class="verse">Before these images to wail, and shriek</div> - <div class="verse">With lamentations loud? Wisdom abhors you.</div> - <div class="verse">Nor in misfortune, nor in dear success,</div> - <div class="verse">Be woman my associate. If her power</div> - <div class="verse">Bears sway, her insolence exceeds all bounds,</div> - <div class="verse">But if she fears, woe to that house and city.</div> - <div class="verse">And now, by holding counsel with weak fear,</div> - <div class="verse">You magnify the foe, and turn our men</div> - <div class="verse">To flight: thus are we ruined by ourselves.</div> - <div class="verse">This ever will arise from suffering women</div> - <div class="verse">To intermix with men. But mark me well,</div> - <div class="verse">Whoe’er henceforth dares disobey my orders,</div> - <div class="verse">Be it man or woman, old or young,</div> - <div class="verse">Vengeance shall burst upon him, the decree</div><span class="pagenum" id="Page_278">278</span> - <div class="verse">Stands irreversible, and he shall die.</div> - <div class="verse">War is no female province, but the scene</div> - <div class="verse">For men: hence home; nor spread your mischiefs here,</div> - <div class="verse">Hear you, or not? Or speak I to the deaf?<a id="FNanchor_173_173" href="#Footnote_173_173" class="fnanchor">173</a></div> -</div></div></div> - -<p>From this scene pictured by Æschylus five -centuries and a quarter <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>, let us return to the -siege of Troy, three centuries earlier, and listen -to Homer. During the thickest of the fight -Helenus, approaching Eneas and Hector, his -brother, thus addresses the latter:</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poetry"><div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent4">But, Hector, thou depart</div> - <div class="verse">To Troy and seek the mother of us both</div> - <div class="verse">And bid her call the honoured Trojan dames,</div> -</div></div></div> - -<p class="pnindent">that at the fane of Pallas they may supplicate -for mercy in behalf of the wives and little ones -of the defenders of Troy. Whereupon the noble -Hector calls aloud:</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poetry"><div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse">O valiant sons of Troy, and ye allies</div> - <div class="verse">Summoned from far! Be men, my friends; call back</div> - <div class="verse">Your wonted valour, while I go to Troy</div> - <div class="verse">To ask the aged men, our counselors,</div> - <div class="verse">And all our wives, to come before the gods</div> - <div class="verse">And pray and offer sacrifice.<a id="FNanchor_174_174" href="#Footnote_174_174" class="fnanchor">174</a></div> -</div></div></div> - -<p>After referring to the generally conceded fact -that in Europe the spread of civilization has been -commensurate with the influence exercised by<span class="pagenum" id="Page_279">279</span> -women, Mr. Buckle expresses himself as being -unable to account for the seeming inconsistencies -which are presented by a comparison of the position -occupied in Greece by the women of Homer’s -time, and that as pictured by the laws, usages, -and social customs in the age of Plato and his -contemporaries.</p> - -<p>Although the Greeks during the ages which -intervened between Homer and Plato had made -many notable improvements in the arts of life, -and in various branches of speculative and practical -knowledge, women had evidently lost ground, -“their influence being less than it was in the earlier -and more barbarous period depicted by Homer.”<a id="FNanchor_175_175" href="#Footnote_175_175" class="fnanchor">175</a></p> - -<p>The fact will doubtless be borne in mind that -at the time Mr. Buckle penned these words comparatively -little concerning the construction or -organization of primitive society was known. -That one ethnical period and a half prior to the -earliest age of the historic Greeks, woman’s influence -was supreme in the family and in the gens, -that descent was reckoned in the female line, and -that all rights of succession were traced through -mothers, are facts with which this writer was -evidently unacquainted; hence, we are not surprised -that in contemplating a social phenomenon -like that presented by the diminution of woman’s -influence during the ages between Homer and -Plato, he should have been at a loss to account for -it, and that he should have declared that the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_280">280</span> -“causes of these inconsistencies would form a -curious subject for investigation.”</p> - -<p>Mr. Lecky, also, in referring to the same subject, -says:</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>A broad line must, however, be drawn between the -legendary or poetical period, as reflected in Homer -and perpetuated in the tragedians, and the later -historical period. It is one of the most remarkable, -and to some writers one of the most perplexing, facts -in the moral history of Greece, that in the former and -ruder period women had undoubtedly the highest -place, and their type exhibited the highest perfection.<a id="FNanchor_176_176" href="#Footnote_176_176" class="fnanchor">176</a></p></blockquote> - -<p>Of marriage in the legendary period of Greek -history, Mr. Grote says:</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>We find the wife occupying a station of great dignity -and influence, though it was the practice for the husband -to purchase her by valuable presents to her -parents.... She even seems to live less secluded and -to enjoy a wider sphere of action than was allotted -to her in historical Greece.... A large portion of the -romantic interest which Grecian legend inspires is -derived from the women.<a id="FNanchor_177_177" href="#Footnote_177_177" class="fnanchor">177</a></p></blockquote> - -<p>From the facts which have been brought to light -in relation to the position occupied by women in -the age in which Homer wrote, it may be observed -that much of the seeming inconsistency noticed -by Mr. Buckle, Mr. Lecky, Mr. Grote, and others, -between the picture of Greek life as it appeared<span class="pagenum" id="Page_281">281</span> -at this time, and that noticed six or seven centuries -later in the age of Plato, may be easily explained. -The triumph of the male over the female in human -society as exemplified amongst the earliest Greeks, -was of such a recent date that the influence of -women was not wholly extinct, and the deference -due them had not entirely given place to that lofty -contempt and biting scorn which characterized -the treatment of women by Greek men at a later -stage of their career.</p> - -<p>Although later in the history of this people, -mothers were not regarded as related to their own -children, and although in the age of Homer relationships -had begun to be reckoned through fathers, -in many places this writer reveals to us the fact -that the bond between mother and child was -stronger than that between father and child, or -that the tie between sisters and brothers of the -same mother was closer than that between the -children of the same father. In Apollo’s address -before the assembled gods, in which he advocates -the ransoming of the body of Hector by Priam -and his sons, Homer puts the following words into -the mouth of the oracle:</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poetry"><div class="stanza"> -<div class="verse">A man may lose his best-loved friend, a son,</div> -<div class="verse">Or his own mother’s son, a brother dear.<a id="FNanchor_178_178" href="#Footnote_178_178" class="fnanchor">178</a></div> -</div></div></div> - -<p>Numerous illustrations might be drawn from -<i>The Iliad</i> as proof of the fact that the tie between -mother and child was still regarded as more bind<span class="pagenum" id="Page_282">282</span>ing -than that between father and child. Homer -doubtless represents an age in which the manner -of reckoning descent was in dispute, certain tribes -acknowledging only the tie between children born -of the same mother, others only the bond between -those of the same father, while still others acknowledge -both, though with a preference for -either one or the other. In the <i>Eumenides</i> of -Æschylus the idea of male descent is put forth as -a new doctrine. Orestes, who has murdered his -mother, Clytemnestra, asks: “Do you call me -related to my mother?” Although reproaches -and imprecations are heaped upon him for his -inhumanity, it is found that the new doctrine in -which the father is represented as the only real -parent, has many adherents—that the gods have -concurred in it, Athene herself having succumbed -to the new faith.</p> - -<p>No one, I think, who is acquainted with the -recently developed facts relative to human growth, -can carefully read <i>The Iliad</i> without observing -the similarity existing between the position occupied -by the women of Greece in Homer’s time, -and that of the women among the tribes and races -in a somewhat lower stage of development. On -board the “roomy ships” of the Greeks, the prizes -parcelled out to the chiefs were women. We observe -that even the daughters of influential and -wealthy priests, like the oracle of Apollo, might -be “carried off”—an act for which there was absolutely -no redress except perhaps an appeal to the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_283">283</span> -gods. Briseis also was a captured prize assigned -to Achilles by the Greek warriors. Notwithstanding -the fact that wives were still captured, -we frequently find women possessed of both wealth -and influence. Helen, although the wife of -Meneluas, had vast treasure which she was able -to take away with her when she was carried off -by Paris—treasure over which neither of her -husbands seems to have had any control. Laothoë, -the aged wife of Priam, had gold and brass -of her own with which to ransom her sons,<a id="FNanchor_179_179" href="#Footnote_179_179" class="fnanchor">179</a> and -Andromache, the wife of Hector, who came to -Ilium from “among the woody slopes of Placos,” -brought with her not only wealth but sufficient -influence to secure for her the respect of the king’s -household.<a id="FNanchor_180_180" href="#Footnote_180_180" class="fnanchor">180</a></p> - -<p>We have seen that in an earlier age, at a time -when women were free, wives had to be captured -from foreign tribes; but later, after the <i>ba’al</i> form -of marriage had become established, wives were -for the most part selected from the ranks of native-born -women, while foreign women were usually -utilized as concubines. It is true that in the -Homeric age, foreign women sometimes became -the wedded wives of their captors, but unless they -possessed great wealth, or unless they were the -daughters of kings, they were unable to command -that degree of consideration due to those who -were native-born. The practice, during the early -history of the Greeks, of securing foreign women<span class="pagenum" id="Page_284">284</span> -for concubines is doubtless the source whence -sprang the custom among the Athenians of later -times, of importing all classes of “kept women” -from other countries, Athenian women only being -reserved for wives.</p> - -<p>During the latter stage of barbarism a marked -change in the government and in the fundamental -principles regulating human conduct had taken -place. A review of the facts connected with the -history of Greek society during the ages between -Homer and Solon shows that coeval with the -decline of the cardinal principles of the gens, -namely, justice, equality, and fraternity, there -had been also a corresponding change in the relations -of the sexes; that during the time in which -egoism or selfishness had gained the ascendancy -over the early altruistic principles developed in -human society, woman’s influence had steadily -declined.<a id="FNanchor_181_181" href="#Footnote_181_181" class="fnanchor">181</a></p> -<div class="chapter"></div> -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_285">285</span></p> - - - -<h3><a name="CHAPTER_III-3" id="CHAPTER_III-3">CHAPTER III</a><br /> - -<small>ANCIENT SPARTA</small></h3> - - -<p>Although in the writings commonly ascribed -to Homer is to be observed a fairly correct picture -of many phases of Greek life, the earliest authentic -historical accounts which we have of this people -are perhaps those of Aristotle and Plutarch. In -the accounts given of the Lacedæmonians by the -last named of these writers, the fact is shown that -male influence among the Spartans of the time of -Lycurgus had not reached that state of intense -and overshadowing domination in which we find -the Athenians of the Solonic period submerged.</p> - -<p>The early Dorians were ever ready to uphold -the ancient customs as opposed to innovations. -In the management of public affairs they trusted -to the ties of relationship rather than to political -organization based on property. The policy of -the Athenians, on the contrary, as enunciated by -Pericles, was that “it is not the country and the -people, but movable and personal property, in the -proper sense of the word, which make states -great and powerful.” The one policy was essentially -Doric, the other Ionic.<a id="FNanchor_182_182" href="#Footnote_182_182" class="fnanchor">182</a></p> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_286">286</span></p> -<p>The exact time at which Lycurgus occupied the -position of lawgiver to the Spartans is not known, -but it is claimed by Xenophon that he lived shortly -after the age of Homer. If the accounts of the -Lacedæmonians which have come down to us in -connection with the name of this legislator belong -to that early age, if scarcely one ethnical period -had elapsed since woman’s influence was supreme -in the home and in the group, we would naturally -expect to find in their customs, usages, and regulations -for the management of society, certain traces -of a former state of female independence, and a -hint, at least, of those principles of liberty and -equality in the establishment of the commonwealth -which were the result of female influence; especially -would this be true as we are informed that -the Spartans were a conservative people, clinging -to the prejudices of more ancient times. A glance -at Spartan institutions at the time indicated, -furnishes ample proof of the fact that the -Lacedæmonians were still to a considerable -extent living under conditions which had -been established under the archaic rule of the -gens.</p> - -<p>The Spartan senate as reconstructed by Lycurgus -was composed of thirty members including -the two kings or military leaders.<a id="FNanchor_183_183" href="#Footnote_183_183" class="fnanchor">183</a> These chiefs -were the heads of the several gentes. The Ecclesia, -or assembly of the people,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_287">287</span> “contained originally -all the free males who dwelt within the city -were of a legal age.”<a id="FNanchor_184_184" href="#Footnote_184_184" class="fnanchor">184</a> Hence may be observed -the fact that the constitution of the state was the -same as that in the Upper Status of barbarism; yet -the spectacle of a double monarchy (notwithstanding -the fact that it has been designated as a kind -of irresponsible generalship)<a id="FNanchor_185_185" href="#Footnote_185_185" class="fnanchor">185</a> shows that the power -attached to the office of <i>basileus</i> had become a -menace to the liberties of the people; hence this -equal division of responsibility and authority.</p> - -<p>The Spartan men were warriors who had subjugated -the country, making serfs of the original -inhabitants. In the time of Lycurgus these gentlemen -soldiers constituted an aristocratic class who -spent their lives in the performance of public -duties, leaving the cultivation of the soil to the -serfs. Helots, the name given to the serfs, signifies -“captives.” They were the slave population -of Laconia.<a id="FNanchor_186_186" href="#Footnote_186_186" class="fnanchor">186</a> The manufacturers and tradespeople -of the towns and country districts around -Sparta were free, but had been deprived of their -political rights. It is evident from these facts -that although the constitution of the state had -not been changed, the division of the people into -classes, a division which since the latter part of -the Second Status of barbarism had been threatened, -had through spoliation and conquest already -taken place. Add to this the fact that property -had passed into the hands of private individ<span class="pagenum" id="Page_288">288</span>uals, -and we shall observe that the conditions -had already become favourable for the development -of that thirst for wealth and power which -characterizes monarchial institutions.</p> - -<p>If we carefully note the early condition of -Spartan society, and studiously observe the processes -involved in the growth of human institutions, -we shall be enabled to perceive the nature -of the “load” under which the Spartans “groaned” -in the time of Lycurgus. The fact has been noted -that, throughout an entire ethnical period, human -ingenuity had been taxed to the utmost to subdue -or keep in check the growing tendency toward -usurpation and tyranny, and the spectacle of a -double monarchy, or of two military chieftains as -they appeared in ancient Sparta, indicates an -attempt on the part of the people to divide the -power which had become attached to this office, -and which was doubtless already menacing the -popular rights.</p> - -<p>In addition to the turmoil and strife engendered -by the thirst for power were the turbulence and -frequent insurrections of the serfs, who, it will -be remembered, had previously been free, and -who were therefore restless and impatient under -the tyranny of their Spartan masters.</p> - -<p>Although wealth had greatly increased in Sparta -during the ages immediately preceding the Lycurgan -system, yet that the disorders which prevailed -were in no wise attributable to luxury and enervation -is shown in the fact as given by Aristotle,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_289">289</span> -that the men during their frequent campaigns had -become inured to the rigours and hardships of a -soldier’s life. He says:</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>For, during the wars of the Lacedæmons, first -against the Argives, and afterwards against the Arcadians -and Messenians, the men were long away from -home, and on the return of peace, they gave themselves -into the legislator’s hands, already prepared -by the discipline of a soldier’s life (in which there were -many elements of virtue), to receive his enactments.<a id="FNanchor_187_187" href="#Footnote_187_187" class="fnanchor">187</a></p></blockquote> - -<p>It is indeed plain that the state of disorder which -prevailed at Sparta in the time of Lycurgus can -be accounted for in no other way than that the -people were no longer able to keep in check -the constantly increasing egoism and selfishness -developed within the governing classes.</p> - -<p>The extent to which all wise regulations are -attributed to the governing head is plainly apparent -in the view taken of the management of -Sparta which Herodotus and Plutarch ascribe to -Lycurgus, but which in the very nature of the -case must have originated from other sources.</p> - -<p>It is in no wise probable that Lycurgus instituted -any such radical changes in the constitution -of the state as have been ascribed to him by the -above writers, for, as we have seen, prior to his -appearance as lawgiver the government was administered -by a military chieftain or <i>basileus</i>, a -senate, and an assembly of the people. In order<span class="pagenum" id="Page_290">290</span> -to strengthen their authority, the kings had made -common cause with the assembly of the people, -and through this means had drawn to themselves -nearly all the powers originally vested in that body; -while the senate, destitute of support, had gradually -yielded up its functions to them.</p> - -<p>Before accepting the statements of these writers, -attributing to Lycurgus that almost unparalleled -degree of genius by means of which was originated -an entirely new set of institutions, all the accessible -facts relative to these institutions should -without prejudice be closely scrutinized, especially -as they involve principles and actions which could -scarcely have been forced upon a people through -an arbitrary stretch of power in the hands of a -single individual.</p> - -<p>Doubtless the principal changes in the government -inaugurated by Lycurgus were, first, the -importance which he caused to be attached to the -assembly of the people, and second, the restoration -of the senate. By strengthening this body, which -was originally composed of the heads of the gentes, -the gentile organization was in a measure restored -to its original dignity. The extreme anxiety felt -in the time of Lycurgus lest the people’s rights -be invaded, is shown in the fact that the three -administrative functions of the government were -supplemented by five ephors chosen annually as -agents of the people, whose chief prerogative it -was to scrutinize the acts of the chief magistrate -and other guardians of the commonwealth. Al<span class="pagenum" id="Page_291">291</span>though -the office of the ephors is much older than -the Lycurgan legislation,<a id="FNanchor_188_188" href="#Footnote_188_188" class="fnanchor">188</a> it had previously been -abolished, or had sunk into disuse. The ephors -of Lycurgus were “probably appointed for the -special purpose of watching over the Lycurgan -discipline, and punishing those who neglected -it.”<a id="FNanchor_189_189" href="#Footnote_189_189" class="fnanchor">189</a></p> - -<p>Later, however, when through the greed for -gain and the inordinate thirst for power, the ephors -in their turn had drawn to themselves the greater -share of the powers belonging to the state, the -military commander, or so-called king, became -responsible to them for his conduct even while -directing the army in the field. He received his -orders from them, and although in cases of emergency -he was authorized to exercise the power of -life and death, according to Xenophon, they could -accuse the king and compel him to defend his acts -or suffer the penalty of death. By a gradual process -of usurpation the ephors had, “by the time -of Thucydides, completely superseded the king -as the directors of affairs at Sparta.”</p> - -<p>The fact has been observed that the authority -of the senate, a body which in earlier times had -been composed of the heads of the genets, who were -elected by all the people, and who held their office -only during good behaviour, had, in the time of -Lycurgus, through the growth of the monarchial -and aristocratic party become weakened; and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_292">292</span> -that, as the kings had drawn to themselves the -powers formerly belonging to the popular assembly, -the people were no longer represented, but had -been obliged to surrender their independence to -the authority of the military leaders. It is altogether -likely, therefore, that the load under which -the Spartans are said to have groaned, and from -which Lycurgus is supposed to have released them, -was the undue assumption of power by the <i>basileus</i> -and the aristocratic party; and that the chief -service which he lent to the state was the sanction -which he gave to those principles of equality and -liberty which had been recognized and practised at -a time when the gens as the unit of human society -was still in its original vitality and strength, and -when woman’s influence was therefore in the -ascendency.</p> - -<p>Most modern writers agree in the opinion that -Lycurgus instituted no fundamental changes in -the constitution of the state; indeed all the accessible -facts relative to this subject go to prove that -the attempt at legislative reform in the time of -this lawgiver did not begin with him; but, on the -contrary, that all along the line of development, -for an entire ethnical period, there had been a -struggle between the people on the one hand and -the constantly increasing power exercised by their -rulers on the other.</p> - -<p>Concerning the measures instituted by Lycurgus, -and the way in which the political power was -distributed by him, we are assured that it was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_293">293</span> -according to a Rhetra of this legislator given under -the direction of the Pythian Apollo:</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p><i>Build a temple to Jupiter Hellanius and Minerva -Hellania; divide the tribes, and institute thirty obas; -appoint a council, with its princes; convene the assembly -between Babyca and Cnacion; propose this, and then -depart; and let there be a right of decision and power -to the people.</i><a id="FNanchor_190_190" href="#Footnote_190_190" class="fnanchor">190</a></p></blockquote> - -<p>By this decree the assembly was invested with -authority to reject or accept any proposed measures -of the council and princes. Later, however, -when the chiefs and the military leaders would -draw to themselves a portion of the power which -had been delegated to the people, we find subjoined -to the original document of the priestess -the following clause: “But if the people should -follow a crooked opinion, the elders and the princes -shall dissent.” Or, according to Plutarch: “If -the people attempt to corrupt any law, the senate -and chiefs shall retire,” meaning that “they shall -dissolve the assembly and annul the alterations.”<a id="FNanchor_191_191" href="#Footnote_191_191" class="fnanchor">191</a></p> - -<p>According to the testimony of Plutarch, when -Lycurgus entered upon the duties of lawgiver he -went to Crete, and while there examined the laws -of that people; those of them which he considered -wise and suited to the needs of a commonwealth -and which were based on principles involving the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_294">294</span> -highest interests of the people, he incorporated -into his system. Now the Cretans were a branch -of the Doric stock,<a id="FNanchor_192_192" href="#Footnote_192_192" class="fnanchor">192</a> and as among them descent -and rights of succession were still traced through -women, it would seem that they had preserved -much of that simplicity of manner which characterizes -primitive society. Upon his return from -Crete Lycurgus made an equal division of the land, -and as he could not induce the people to surrender -their treasures, he prohibited the use of gold and -silver currency and substituted iron in its place. -To a great quantity and weight of this metal he -assigned a slight value, so that to lay up a small -amount of wealth a whole room was required, and -for the removal of a moderate sum of money a -yoke of oxen must be employed. When this became -current many kinds of injustice ceased in -Lacedæmonia. “Who would steal or take a bribe, -who would defraud or rob, when he could not conceal -the booty, when he could neither be dignified -by the possession of it, nor if cut in pieces be served -by its use?”<a id="FNanchor_193_193" href="#Footnote_193_193" class="fnanchor">193</a> There is little evidence in support -of the statement of Plutarch that Lycurgus attempted -to establish a community of goods among -the Spartans. Although he caused the landed -possessions which had been parcelled out to individuals -to be returned to the state, too much -interest had already become attached to personal -possessions to have made a division of this kind -of wealth possible.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_295">295</span></p> - -<p>A legislator may not enact laws with the expectation -of seeing them enforced which are not in -accord with the temper of the people, and the -degree of success which attended the legislation -ascribed to Lycurgus proves that the great mass -of the people were in sympathy with many of the -measures which he proposed for the government -of Sparta.</p> - -<p>It is plain that the object of the person or persons, -whom history has named Lycurgus, was a return -to the simpler manners and purer customs of a -more primitive age, which the growth of the aristocratic -spirit and the accumulation of wealth in -masses in the hands of the few threatened entirely -to subvert; and, as a community of goods was at -this time impossible, he, or they, sought to level -the distinctions between rich and poor by exalting -virtue and moral excellence above the mere possession -of wealth and hereditary titles.</p> - -<p>It is the opinion of some writers that although -Lycurgus did not inaugurate a new set of institutions, -nor materially change the constitution of -the state, the great service which he rendered to -the Spartans was the remarkable system of discipline -which he is supposed to have inaugurated. -Of this Mr. Rawlinson says: “It must always -remain one of the most astonishing facts in history, -that such a system was successfully imposed -upon a state which had grown up without it.”<a id="FNanchor_194_194" href="#Footnote_194_194" class="fnanchor">194</a> -Of the fact, however, that the state had not grown<span class="pagenum" id="Page_296">296</span> -up without it there is ample evidence. On this -subject Curtius remarks:</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>It is certain that the Spartan discipline in many -respects corresponds to the primitive customs of the -Dorians, and that by constant practice, handed down -from generation to generation, it grew into the second -nature of the members of the community.<a id="FNanchor_195_195" href="#Footnote_195_195" class="fnanchor">195</a></p></blockquote> - -<p>From the facts at hand it is quite evident that -Lycurgus did not originate that system of discipline -through which it is claimed Spartan greatness -was achieved. The fact has been noted that when -he entered upon the duties of lawgiver he sailed -for Crete, and, “having been struck with admiration -of some of their laws,” he resolved to make -use of them in Sparta.<a id="FNanchor_196_196" href="#Footnote_196_196" class="fnanchor">196</a> As the discipline of -Lycurgus constitutes the principal feature of the -government ascribed to him, and as his models -were for the most part drawn from the Cretans, -it is only reasonable to suppose that this remarkable -system was itself, in part at least, copied from -them. It appears that among the Cretans, as -among all peoples among whom female influence -is in the ascendency, the children belonged to the -mother, and that women owned, or at least controlled, -their own households; they did not, therefore, -follow the fathers of their children to their -homes. In Crete,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_297">297</span> “the young Dorians were left -in the houses of their mothers till they grew up -into youths.”<a id="FNanchor_197_197" href="#Footnote_197_197" class="fnanchor">197</a> As Cretan mothers had charge -of their sons until they were grown up, it is -not unlikely that the discipline which Lycurgus -attempted to copy was a system inaugurated under -matriarchal usages, but which in Sparta in the -time of Lycurgus may have become somewhat -relaxed. However, that the primitive discipline -of the Dorian people was not extinct among the -Spartans of this time is observed in the warlike -character of the males, and in the express testimony -of Aristotle that Spartan men had become -inured to hardships by means of their frequent -campaigns. To restore, or rather to intensify -this discipline, seems to have been the object of -Lycurgus; yet that he lacked greatly in judgment -is shown by the measures which he put into execution. -We are informed that</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>Spartan boys were as early as their eighth year taken -into public training, and assigned their places in their -respective divisions, where they had to go through all -the exercises introductory to military service, and -accustom their bodies to endurance and exercise, in -exact obedience to the forms acquired by the state -through its officers.<a id="FNanchor_198_198" href="#Footnote_198_198" class="fnanchor">198</a></p></blockquote> - -<p>This interference with the natural development of -the Spartan youth was not without its effect upon his -character; and especially so as the policy adopted was -such as to narrow his mental horizon, and confine -his ideas within the scope of Spartan possibilities.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_298">298</span></p> - -<p>From all the evidence to be gathered about the -individual whom historians call Lycurgus, it would -appear that he was a fanatic, who, doubtless feeling -deeply the disorders which had fastened themselves -upon society, attempted to manage not -only the affairs of the state, but to impose his -authority also upon individual conduct.</p> - -<p>Of the position occupied by women at the time -when Lycurgus is said to have been lawgiver at -Sparta, there seems to be much evidence going to -show that they were in the possession of a remarkable -degree of liberty, and that they were possessed -of great power and influence. We have seen that -while the men of Sparta were away from their -homes engaged in warfare, the country had become -wealthy and prosperous. Not only was the -land controlled by women, but nearly two-fifths -of it was theirs by actual possession.<a id="FNanchor_199_199" href="#Footnote_199_199" class="fnanchor">199</a> Therefore, -when Aristotle informs us that when Lycurgus -“wanted to bring the women under his laws, they -resisted, and he gave up the attempt,”<a id="FNanchor_200_200" href="#Footnote_200_200" class="fnanchor">200</a> we are by -no means surprised. Indeed, Aristotle himself -says that this license of the Lacedæmonian women -existed from the earliest times, and was only what -might be expected.<a id="FNanchor_201_201" href="#Footnote_201_201" class="fnanchor">201</a> It is altogether likely that -in the time of Lycurgus, Spartan women had not -been brought under subjection to male authority.</p> - -<p>According to the accounts given by Aristotle -and Plutarch, under regulations made by Lycurgus, -the men dined on the plainest fare at the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_299">299</span> -public table, or mess, while the women remained -within their own homes. That a considerable -degree of success crowned this legislator’s efforts -to control the conduct and private life of men, from -the facts at hand may not be doubted; among the -women, however, the case seems to have been altogether -different. Of the Spartans, Aristotle -says: “In the days of their greatness many things -were managed by their women. But what difference -does it make whether women rule, or the -rulers are ruled by women.”<a id="FNanchor_202_202" href="#Footnote_202_202" class="fnanchor">202</a> Because, however, -the Spartan women preferred to remain within -their own homes, and refused to allow their private -affairs to be controlled by Lycurgus, Aristotle -accuses them “of intemperance and luxury.” -He says:</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>For a husband and a wife, being each a part of -every family, the state may be considered as about -equally divided into men and women; and, therefore, -in those states in which the condition of the women -is bad, half the city may be regarded as having no -laws. And this is what has actually happened at -Sparta, the legislator wanted to make the whole state -temperate, and he has carried out his intentions in -the case of the men, but he has neglected the women, -who live in every sort of intemperance and luxury.<a id="FNanchor_203_203" href="#Footnote_203_203" class="fnanchor">203</a></p></blockquote> - -<p>So far, however, from the Spartan women refusing -to concur in those movements which were in -operation to make the whole state hardy and tem<span class="pagenum" id="Page_300">300</span>perate, -we have ample evidence going to prove -that it was women themselves who in former times -had encouraged the healthful and moderate exercise -of body and limb among the youth of both -sexes. Indeed, from natural inferences to be -drawn from the facts at hand, it is probable that -these exercises which had originated among the -primitive Dorians, while under the matriarchal -system, had not only been encouraged, but practised, -by women while their husbands and fathers -were absent on their campaigns.</p> - -<p>We have seen that, according to Aristotle, -women refused to unite in those movements in -operation in the time of Lycurgus for the strengthening -and general improvement of the youth. -Plutarch, on the contrary, ascribes all the physical -strength and vigour of mind possessed by Spartan -women to the wise regulations of Lycurgus; and, -notwithstanding the fact that, according to his -own testimony, they were possessed of great -liberty and power, he imputes to this legislator -the inauguration of all those practices for the -promotion of perfect freedom among women which -were so salutary in producing or continuing a -healthful state of public morals.</p> - -<p>It is plain that the position occupied by Spartan -women presented difficulties to the minds of -Aristotle and Plutarch which they were wholly -unable to explain. With regard to the supposition -of Plutarch that the exercises performed by the -young women of Sparta while in a nude or semi<span class="pagenum" id="Page_301">301</span>-nude -condition were inaugurated by Lycurgus, -it is too unreasonable for serious consideration. It -is to be doubted if there has ever existed, either -in ancient or modern times, a legislator, who, -unaided and alone, and simply through a stretch -of arbitrary power, has been able to regulate the -dress, amusements, bodily exercise, and general -movements of women in possession of a reasonable -degree of personal freedom and liberty of -action.</p> - -<p>Respecting the wise regulations instituted by -Lycurgus for the management of women, Plutarch -says:</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>In order to take away the excessive tenderness and -delicacy of the sex, the consequence of a recluse life, -he accustomed the virgins occasionally to be seen naked -as well as the young men, and to dance and sing in -their presence on certain festivals.<a id="FNanchor_204_204" href="#Footnote_204_204" class="fnanchor">204</a></p></blockquote> - -<p>Perhaps throughout the entire narrative of -Plutarch concerning Lycurgus and his laws, there -is nothing so absolutely devoid of reason as this. -If, as he assures us, women were possessed of that -excessive tenderness and delicacy which are the -result of a recluse life; and if, as he supposes, they -had hitherto been trained according to masculine -ideas of female modesty and decorum, it is greatly -to be doubted if the laws of Lycurgus, or even the -lightnings of Zeus could have driven these virgins<span class="pagenum" id="Page_302">302</span> -into the presence of the opposite sex under the -conditions named.</p> - -<p>Doubtless the Spartan people had not at this -stage of their career departed so far from the -customs of a gynecocracy that women were unable -to exercise absolute control over their persons. -Being free from the domination of the opposite sex, -all those exercises and habits of body in use to increase -their own vigour and that of the entire race -had doubtless been instigated by women, or at -least had been instituted at a time when female -influence was in the ascendency. Concerning the -position occupied by the women of Sparta, Plutarch -says they had assumed to themselves great -liberty and power “on account of the frequent -expeditions of their husbands, during which they -were left sole mistresses at home, and so gained -an undue deference and improper titles.”<a id="FNanchor_205_205" href="#Footnote_205_205" class="fnanchor">205</a></p> - -<p>It is evident that this writer was unacquainted -with the fact that at a time not far distant in the -past from the age of Lycurgus, the influence of -women in the family and in the gens had been -supreme; hence, like others who have attempted -to deal with the subject of primitive peoples, he -was unable to conceive of a condition of society -in which women’s natural instincts played a conspicuous -part in regulating the social customs and -in formulating the laws by which they were -governed.</p> - -<p>The extreme modesty and sensitiveness which<span class="pagenum" id="Page_303">303</span> -are observed as a characteristic of both sexes in -the marriage relation, and the reserve of the youths -at festivals in which young women are reported -to have appeared naked, may not be ascribed to -the laws of Lycurgus, but on the other hand appear -as direct results of those checks upon the animal -instincts in the male which the former strength -and independence of women had imposed.<a id="FNanchor_206_206" href="#Footnote_206_206" class="fnanchor">206</a></p> - -<p>At a later age, for instance that of Plutarch, -the spectacle of young maidens appearing on occasions -of public festivity in a single garment, loose, -and reaching a little below the knee, would have -been associated with ideas of disgrace and shame; -but, under a condition of society in which the -animal instincts had not wholly gained the ascendency -over the higher faculties, or in which the -characters peculiar to women had not been overshadowed -or subdued by the grosser elements -developed in human nature, such a proceeding -might not, as we have seen, be inconsistent with -the purest motives and the highest aims.</p> - -<p>Something of the extent to which the influence<span class="pagenum" id="Page_304">304</span> -of women was exerted to stimulate bravery and -courage in the opposite sex is shown in the description -by Plutarch of the festivals in which the -young people appeared before each other in a -semi-nude state to practise the popular games -of strength and skill. Concerning these festivals -this writer remarks that the young women engaged -in little raillery upon those who lacked skill, or -who had not done their best, while “on such as -deserved them they sang encomiums, thus exciting -in the young men a useful emulation and love of -glory.” Plutarch observes also that “those who -were praised for their bravery and celebrated -among the virgins went away perfectly happy, -while their satirical glances were no less cutting -than serious admonitions.”<a id="FNanchor_207_207" href="#Footnote_207_207" class="fnanchor">207</a></p> - -<p>These facts indicate something of the extent -to which female influence still survived in ancient -Sparta, and reveal plainly the fact that although -in the time of Lycurgus the coarser instincts developed -in human nature had made considerable -headway, they had not totally eclipsed the finer -characters peculiar to women, as was the case at -a later period of Grecian history—more particularly -among the Athenians. “As for the virgins -appearing naked,” Plutarch himself assures us,</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>there was nothing disgraceful in it, because everything -was conducted with modesty, and without one indecent -word or action. Nay, it caused a simplicity of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_305">305</span> -manner and an emulation for the best habit of body; -their ideas too were naturally enlarged while they were -not excluded from their share of bravery and honour.</p></blockquote> - -<p>Regarding the commingling of the sexes among -the Spartans, Mr. Grote says:</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>When we read the restrictions which Spartan -custom imposed upon the intercourse even between -married persons, we shall conclude without hesitation -that the public intermixture of the sexes led to no such -liberties between persons not married, as might be -likely to arise from it under other circumstances.<a id="FNanchor_208_208" href="#Footnote_208_208" class="fnanchor">208</a></p></blockquote> - -<p>It was a Dorian who first threw aside his heavy -girdle during the Olympian contests and ran naked -to the goal. In an allusion to this incident, and -also to the custom of Spartan virgins appearing -in a semi-nude state in the presence of the opposite -sex during the performance of their gymnastic -feats, C. O. Müller says that a display of the naked -form when all covering was unnecessary and inconvenient -was quite in keeping with the character -and temper of the Dorians.<a id="FNanchor_209_209" href="#Footnote_209_209" class="fnanchor">209</a></p> - -<p>Concerning the style of dress adopted by the -Doric virgins, it is said to have consisted of a loose -woollen garment called a <i>himation</i>. It was without -sleeves and was fastened over the shoulders -with large clasps. The <i>himation</i> was completely -joined only on one side, the other side being left -loose and fastened with a buckle or clasp. Doubt<span class="pagenum" id="Page_306">306</span>less -this adjustment of the gown was to enable the -wearer to open it and throw it back, thereby -securing greater freedom to the limbs while running -and wrestling. This simple garment reached -only to the calf of the leg, and was worn sometimes -with a girdle, sometimes without.</p> - -<p>The pure state of morals in Sparta furnishes an -explanation of that peculiar style of dress among -women which has elicited so much comment among -later writers, and which has stamped the Spartan -women as creatures especially “devoid of modesty.” -True modesty was evidently one of the leading characteristics -of this people among both sexes, but the -simulation of it, which, by the way, is usually -practised just in proportion as the lower propensities -have gained the ascendency over the higher faculties, -was doubtless absent in Spartan society.<a id="FNanchor_210_210" href="#Footnote_210_210" class="fnanchor">210</a></p> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_307">307</span></p> -<p>An illustration of the state of public morals in -ancient Sparta may be observed in the following -dialogue. A stranger once asked a Spartan what -penalty their law attached to adultery. The -reply was: “My friend, there are no adulterers in -our country.” Upon being further interrogated, -“But what if there should be one?” the Spartan -replied: “Why then, he must forfeit a bull so -large that he might drink of the Eurotus from the -top of Mount Taygetus.” When the stranger -asked: “How can such a bull be found?” the man -answered with a smile, “How can an adulterer be -found in Sparta?”<a id="FNanchor_211_211" href="#Footnote_211_211" class="fnanchor">211</a></p> - -<p>Commenting on the relative position of Doric -and Athenian women, C. O. Müller says:</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>The domestic relation of the wife to her husband -among the Dorians was in general the same as that of -the ancient western nation, described by Homer as -universal among the Greeks, and which existed at -Rome till a late period; the only difference being that -the peculiarities of the custom were preserved by the -Dorians more strictly than elsewhere.</p> - -<p>Amongst the Dorians of Sparta, the wife was -honoured by her husband with the title of mistress -(a gallantry belonging to the north of Greece, and -also practised by the Thessalians), which was used -neither ironically nor unmeaningly. Nay, so strange -did the importance which the Lacedæmonian women -enjoy, and the influence which they exercised as the -managers of their household, and mothers of families,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_308">308</span> -appear to the Greeks, at a time when the prevalence -of Athenian manners prevented a due consideration -for national customs, that Aristotle supposed Lycurgus -to have attempted, but without success, to regulate -the lives of women as he had regulated that of the -men; and the Spartans were frequently censured for -submitting to the yoke of their wives.</p></blockquote> - -<p>It has been truly said that nowhere else in -Greece do we find traces of that power exercised by -women over their sons when arrived at manhood -observed among Spartan mothers. When a woman -of another country said to Gorgo, the wife -of Leonidas, “You of Lacedæmon are the only -women in the world that rule the men,” she replied, -“We are the only women that bring forth men.”<a id="FNanchor_212_212" href="#Footnote_212_212" class="fnanchor">212</a></p> - -<p>With our present knowledge respecting the -influence and independence of the Spartan women, -it is folly for certain writers to assert that married -women were confined within the house and that -only virgins appeared in public. There is some -evidence going to prove that at Crete, at Sparta, -and at Olympia, women were not only spectators -at the Olympian games, but that they engaged -personally in the chariot contests. According -to an inscription in Della Cella, it is shown -that women presided over the public gymnastic -exercises in that town.</p> - -<p>One very important fact going to show whence -proceeded the reforms of Lycurgus is that the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_309">309</span> -mandates of the oracle were supreme. The oracles -controlled the rulers, but women always controlled -or interpreted the oracles. The celebrated Rhetra -of Lycurgus, in which unlimited authority is given -to the people to reject or adopt the proposals of -the king, was given according to the direction -of the Pythian Apollo, whose mandates were -interpreted by women.</p> - -<p>In an earlier age the chiefs of the gentes were -elected by all the people, and they held their -office by virtue of their relationship to the leader -of the gens, who was a woman. That the honour -due to women was still recognized in Sparta is -shown in the following from Plutarch in relation -to the election of senators. The person who had -received the loudest acclamations was declared -duly elected, whereupon he was crowned with a -garland, and a number of young men followed him -about to extol his virtues. The women sang his -praises and blessed his life and conduct. Two -portions were set before him, one of which he -carried to the gates of the public hall, where the -women were in waiting to receive him. To the -one for whom he had the greatest esteem he presented -the portion, saying: “That which I received -as a mark of honour I give to you.” The woman -thus honoured “was conducted home with great -applause by the rest of the women.”<a id="FNanchor_213_213" href="#Footnote_213_213" class="fnanchor">213</a></p> - -<p>Spartan men were forbidden to marry foreign -women, hence, contrary to the customs of sur<span class="pagenum" id="Page_310">310</span>rounding -nations at this early period, wives as -well as husbands were native-born. All were -Spartans, which fact probably accounts in a -measure for the exalted position occupied by -women.</p> - -<p>Both in Sparta and in Crete the form of marriage -was by capture; thus, although in the time of -Lycurgus the Spartan men and women both belonged -to the same stock, it is plain that originally -they were of different tribes. Of capture as -practised in Sparta, Müller says that it was clearly -an ancient national custom, founded on the idea -that “the young woman could not surrender her -freedom and virgin purity, unless compelled by -the violence of the stronger sex.”<a id="FNanchor_214_214" href="#Footnote_214_214" class="fnanchor">214</a> According -to Plutarch, after the arrangements for the wedding -had been completed, the bridegroom rushed -in, seized the bride from among her assembled -friends, and bore her away.</p> - -<p>The Dorian stock alone seems to have preserved -the ancient customs, and among these peoples, -wherever they are found, woman’s influence is in -the ascendency. According to Herodotus and -Aristotle, the Spartans, the Cretans, and the -Lycians were related. The people of Crete still -preserved their ancient usages, hence may be -observed the reason why Lycurgus visited that -country in quest of information before enunciating -the laws which were to restore order among the -Spartans. In Lycia, as in Crete, woman’s influ<span class="pagenum" id="Page_311">311</span>ence -must still have been considerable. Of the -Lycians Herodotus says:</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>Their customs are partly Cretan, partly Carian.... -They take the mother’s and not the father’s name. -Ask a Lycian who he is, and he answers by giving his -own name, that of his mother, and so on in the female -line. Moreover, if a free woman marry a man who -is a slave, their children are full citizens; but if a free -man marry a foreign woman, or live with a concubine, -even though he be the first person in the state, the -children forfeit all the rights of citizenship.<a id="FNanchor_215_215" href="#Footnote_215_215" class="fnanchor">215</a></p></blockquote> - -<p>On the manner of reckoning descent through -women which prevailed in Lycia, Curtius remarks -that the usage extends far beyond the territory -commanded by the Lycian nationality. It is -still extant in India; it was practised in ancient -Egypt, among the Etruscans, and among the -Cretans, who were closely related to the Lycians. -This writer observes that if</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>Herodotus regards the usage in question as thoroughly -peculiar to the Lycians, it must have maintained -itself longest among them of all the nations related -to the Greeks, as is also proved by the Lycian -inscriptions.<a id="FNanchor_216_216" href="#Footnote_216_216" class="fnanchor">216</a></p></blockquote> - -<p>As the Sabines who united with the Romans in -founding Rome claimed relationship with the -Dorians, we may reasonably expect to find among -them somewhat of that womanly influence which<span class="pagenum" id="Page_312">312</span> -characterized the Spartans, and some hint among -their customs of an earlier age of female independence. -Although the Sabine women did not “voluntarily” -assume the position of wives to the -Romans but were captured by them, when the -two nations united, the Sabines were regarded -rather in the light of conferring honour upon Rome -than as detracting from its dignity.</p> - -<p>Of the early Romans, Ortolan says:</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>The <i>connubium</i>, or right of marriage, did not exist -between males and females of different cities unless -by special agreement between those cities. Thus it -was that the primitive Romans, according to tradition, -were compelled to resort to ambuscade and force -in order to carry off their first wives.<a id="FNanchor_217_217" href="#Footnote_217_217" class="fnanchor">217</a></p></blockquote> - -<p>The Roman family, like the Roman state, began -with slavery. Of the Romans it has been said -that they acquired their territory, their property, -and even their wives by the lance.</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>With them the lance became the symbol of property, -and even had a place in their judicial procedure. -Their slaves were booty, their wives were booty, and -their children, begotten of them, the fruit of their -possessions.<a id="FNanchor_218_218" href="#Footnote_218_218" class="fnanchor">218</a></p></blockquote> - -<p>The right of fathers, under Romulus, to sell -their sons, upon the accession of Numa the Sabine -ruler, to the office of lawgiver, was withdrawn,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_313">313</span> -and the reason given for it was consideration for -women. According to Plutarch, Numa “reckoned -it a great hardship, that a woman should -marry a man as free, and then live with him as a -slave.”<a id="FNanchor_219_219" href="#Footnote_219_219" class="fnanchor">219</a></p> - -<p>In the life of Numa by Plutarch we have a hint -of a former age of universal freedom. It was one -of this ruler’s institutions, that once a year the -slaves should be entertained along with their -masters at a public feast, there to enjoy the fruits -“which they had helped to produce.” The same -writer assures us that some are of the opinion that -this is a remnant of that equality which was in -existence in the times of Saturn, when there was -neither master nor slave, but all were upon the -same footing. Plutarch quotes from Macrobius, -who says that this feast was celebrated in Italy -long before the building of Rome.</p> - -<p>From all the facts to be gathered relative to the -relations of the sexes in the age of Numa, it is plain -that that freedom of action exercised by women in a -former age among the Dorians, was rapidly declining, -and that the early independence which has -characterized the Sabine women was beginning -to bring upon them the condemnation of their -Roman lords. This is shown in the fact that it -soon became Numa’s arduous task to institute -certain restrictions on their former liberties. In -a comparison between Lycurgus and Numa, -Plutarch, in referring to this subject, observes:</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_314">314</span></p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>Numa’s strictures as to virgins tended to form them -to that modesty which is the ornament of their sex; -but the great liberty which Lycurgus gave them, -brought upon them the censure of the poets, particularly -Ibycus.</p></blockquote> - -<p>The grossness which had been developed during -the four or five hundred years following the age -of Lycurgus, and the jealousy with which the -movements of women had come to be regarded, -are illustrated by the following stanza from -Euripides:</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poetry"><div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse">These quit their homes, ambitious to display,</div> - <div class="verse">Amidst the youths, their vigour in the race,</div> - <div class="verse">Or feats of wrestling, whilst their airy robe</div> - <div class="verse">Flies back and leaves their limbs uncovered.<a id="FNanchor_220_220" href="#Footnote_220_220" class="fnanchor">220</a></div> -</div></div></div> - -<p>It is evident that not only in private life, but in -their desire for public activity also, the independence -of the Sabine women failed to comport with -the ideas already in vogue among their Roman -husbands regarding the “proper sphere” of women. -Consequently their behaviour was thought to be</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>too bold and too masculine, in particular to their husbands; -for they considered themselves as absolute -mistresses in their houses; nay, they wanted a share -in affairs of state, and delivered their sentiments -with great freedom concerning the most weighty -matters.<a id="FNanchor_221_221" href="#Footnote_221_221" class="fnanchor">221</a></p></blockquote> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_315">315</span></p> -<p>A woman even appeared in the Forum to plead -her own cause, whereupon the grave senators -ordered that the oracles be consulted that the true -import of the singular phenomenon might be -revealed.<a id="FNanchor_222_222" href="#Footnote_222_222" class="fnanchor">222</a></p> - -<p>Plutarch, who lived in the first century of the -Christian era, after having recounted these misdemeanours, -assures us that “what is recorded of -a few infamous women is a proof of the obedience -and meekness of Roman matrons in general.”<a id="FNanchor_223_223" href="#Footnote_223_223" class="fnanchor">223</a></p> - -<p>Doubtless, in Plutarch’s time, Roman women -had lost much of that influence which characterized -the female sex in an earlier age; it is not, -therefore remarkable that by this writer the -Sabine women should have been regarded as too -forward and as altogether infamous. That their -conduct was not all that could be desired by the -outlaws and bandits who founded Rome, and who -had stolen them for wives, is evident; and the -regulations of their rulers respecting them show -plainly that much judicious training and a vast -amount of repression were required before they -were fitted for the peculiar duties devolving upon -them as sexual slaves.</p> - -<p>We are told by Plutarch that the regulations -established by Lycurgus, instead of encouraging -that licentiousness of the women which prevailed -at a later period, operated to render adultery -unknown amongst them; yet this writer forgets to -mention the fact that in Sparta, in the time of this<span class="pagenum" id="Page_316">316</span> -ruler, there was no demand for prostitution by a -class who held all the wealth and power, and who -were therefore in a position to regulate this matter -to suit their own tastes and inclinations. On the -contrary, the female sex was free, not only in the -matter of sexual relations, but in the exercise of -all their natural tendencies, and in the direction -of all their movements. The idea of sex, which -among later and more thoroughly sensualized -nations became first and foremost, among the -Dorians, so far as equal rights, obligations, and -duties were concerned, was ignored or left to nature -to regulate.</p> - -<p>Plutarch, like most writers who have dealt with -the relations of the sexes, fails to observe the fact -that just to the extent in the past history of mankind -to which women have been free and independent, -licentiousness has disappeared, and that -just in proportion as the influence of women has -declined, in just such proportion have shame, -profligacy, disease, and infamy prevailed. To -produce a state of society in which the animal -instincts ruled supreme, and in which passion was -the recognized god, women had first to become -physically dependent and mentally enslaved.</p> - -<p>For so long a time have women been judged by -masculine standards, it is not perhaps remarkable -that male writers of these later times can discern -in the simplicity and chastity existing among the -Dorians, in the age of Lycurgus, no evidence of a -former era of female independence. Neither is it<span class="pagenum" id="Page_317">317</span> -singular, as for so many ages women have been -subject to the pleasure and control of the opposite -sex, that we should be repeatedly told by writers -who have dealt with the usages of the Spartans, -that their women were “permitted” to do this, -and “allowed” to do that, although the facts in -the case prove that in all their movements they -were guided by their own wills, exercised either -directly, or through the oracles of the gods.</p> - -<p>When the customs of the ancient Dorians are -viewed without prejudice, the fact will doubtless -be observed that they originated not in a depraved -and licentious state of society, but, on the contrary, -that they were the direct result of that -freedom of action which characterizes purity of -life and a high standard of thought and action.</p> - -<div class="chapter"></div> -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_318">318</span></p> - - - - -<h3><a name="CHAPTER_IV-3" id="CHAPTER_IV-3">CHAPTER IV</a><br /> - -<small>ATHENIAN WOMEN</small></h3> - - -<p>According to Wilford, the Greeks were the -descendants of the Yavanas of India. This writer -observes that the Pandits insist that the words -<i>Yavana</i> and <i>Yoni</i> are derived from the same root, -<i>Yu</i>, and that when the Ionians emigrated they -adopted this name to distinguish themselves as -adorers of the female, in opposition to a strong -sect of male worshippers which had been driven -from the mother country.<a id="FNanchor_224_224" href="#Footnote_224_224" class="fnanchor">224</a> Under the constantly -increasing importance of the male, however, both -in human affairs and in the god-idea, they subsequently -became ashamed of their religious title -and sought to abandon it. Of the aversion felt -in Greece for this name Herodotus says:</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>The Athenians and most of the Ionic states over the -world went so far in their dislike of the name as -actually to lay it aside; and even at the present day -the greater number of them seems to me to be ashamed -of it.<a id="FNanchor_225_225" href="#Footnote_225_225" class="fnanchor">225</a></p></blockquote> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_319">319</span></p> -<p>Whenever in early historic times a country was -subjugated, the conquerors either murdered or -enslaved the men, and utilized the women for -wives, or sexual slaves. The Ionians who, according -to Herodotus, sailed from Attica, without -women, took for wives native Carians whose -fathers they had slain; hence these captives made -a law, which they bound themselves by an oath -to observe, and which they handed down to their -daughters after them, that “none should ever sit -at meat with her husband, or call him by his name; -because the invaders slew their fathers, their husbands, -and their sons, and then forced them to -become their wives.”<a id="FNanchor_226_226" href="#Footnote_226_226" class="fnanchor">226</a> The terms of the oaths -sworn by them at the time of the capture seem, -subsequently, to have been enforced by their -imperious masters.</p> - -<p>As these women were foreigners they were entitled -to little or no respect from their captors. -However, as they were to become the mothers of -Greek citizens, they must necessarily be “protected,” -or, in other words, they must be kept in -seclusion. In the time of Solon, rape committed -on a free-born woman was punishable by fine.<a id="FNanchor_227_227" href="#Footnote_227_227" class="fnanchor">227</a></p> - -<p>From that stage in the history of Greek tribes, -at which through capture and appropriation of the -soil by individuals women began to lose that influence -which they had exercised under matriarchal -usages, to the time of Solon, the lawgiver of Athens, -when they had finally descended to the lowest level<span class="pagenum" id="Page_320">320</span> -of misery and sexual degradation, may be observed -a corresponding tendency gradually developing -itself among the people towards selfishness, -usurpation of power, and the slavery of the masses. -In the age of Solon the limit of human wretchedness -seems to have been reached, and as the human -race is never at a standstill, it must at this time -have either become extinct, or have begun gradually -to lift itself from the condition of disgrace -and ruin into which it had fallen.</p> - -<p>The character of Solon, as gathered from the -facts at hand regarding him, reflects in a measure -the true condition of society at that time. Although -vain and morally weak, he was in a certain -sense humane; his humanity, however, extended -only to those of his own sex. A large proportion -of the women of Athens were imported foreigners, -and were therefore so degraded that they had no -rights which any one, even a lawgiver, was bound -to protect. After his appointment to the archonship, -Solon’s first act was to cancel the debts -against the lands and persons of the Athenians, -and to establish a law that in future no man should -accept the body of his debtor for security.<a id="FNanchor_228_228" href="#Footnote_228_228" class="fnanchor">228</a> Many -who had been previously banished or driven out -of the country for debt, and had remained so -long from their native land as to forget their Attic -dialect, were recalled as freemen, while others, -who at home had suffered slavery, were released -and given their freedom.</p> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_321">321</span></p> -<p>Perhaps, however, in no position in life will a -vain, morally weak man display to better advantage -the defects in his character than in his -attempts to legislate for women; and under no -circumstances will his true inwardness of purpose -stand more truly revealed than in his efforts to -“regulate” the relations of the sexes. A brief -notice of Solon’s laws concerning women proves -him to have been no exception to the generally -observed rule. It is recorded of him that in his -extreme solicitude lest their movements should -not comport with his ideas of female propriety -and decorum, he regulated their journeyings, and -laid down rules respecting their mournings, sacrifices, -and the number of gowns which they were -to take with them when they went out of town. -The provision for their journey and even the size -of the basket in which it was to be conveyed were -subjects not unworthy the attention of the great -Athenian lawgiver. Women’s mode of travel by -night was also prescribed as was also their conduct -at funerals and various places of amusement. In -fact all their actions were subjected to that meddlesome -espionage and control which characterize -a weak and sensuous age. Indeed, we have something -more than a hint of the degraded position -occupied by women, in the fact that a man might -not be allowed to sell a daughter or a sister “unless -she were taken in an act of dishonour before marriage,” -in which case her accuser might sell her -person for individual gain; and this, too, not<span class="pagenum" id="Page_322">322</span>withstanding -the fact that he, as well as nearly -every other man in Athens, was steeped in -infamy.</p> - -<p>The measure adopted by Solon for the regulation -of prostitution, and his division of women into -classes for the convenience of all conditions of men, -indicate clearly the disgrace and shamelessness -which characterized the Athenians at this stage -of their career, and depict with unerring fidelity -the depth of horror into which womanhood had -been dragged.</p> - -<p>The condition of public morals during the three -hundred years following the age of Solon is plainly -indicated not only in the laws but in the mythologies -of Greece and Rome. Prostitution was enjoined -by religion and when Draco, suddenly -shocked by the degeneracy of his time, affixed -the penalty of death to rape, seduction, and -adultery, it has been said that by the performance -of the prescribed religious rites within the -temple, the “rigour of his edicts was considerably -softened.”</p> - -<p>The restraint imposed upon the Athenians by -the Draconian regulations was, however, of short -duration; for when Solon, the successor of Draco, -assumed the position of archon, he at once legally -established a sufficient number of houses of prostitution -at Athens to supply the demand, filling -them with female slaves who had been taken -captives in war, or who had been otherwise provided -by the munificence of the government.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_323">323</span></p> - -<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poetry"><div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse">But you did well for every man, O Solon;</div> - <div class="verse">For they do say you were the first to see</div> - <div class="verse">The justice of a public-spirited measure,</div> - <div class="verse">The Saviour of the State.<a id="FNanchor_229_229" href="#Footnote_229_229" class="fnanchor">229</a></div> -</div></div></div> - -<p>By this time, so degraded had womanhood -become, that the traffic in female captives for -sexual purposes was regarded as a legitimate business, -and the revenue accruing from their services -was considered a lawful source of gain to the state, -its use being devoted to the rearing of temples -and to the carrying out of the various projects -connected with religious worship.</p> - -<p>That the Athenians of this period were wholly -given over to luxury and licentiousness is shown -by the fact that at their bacchanalian feasts, the -troops of women who were in attendance and who -had been provided for the occasion by the generosity -of the state, performed all their duties under -direct and explicit instruction of the government -“to disobey no order of a guest”; for which wise -regulations Solon received the praise and commendation -of Athenian men.</p> - -<p>In a former portion of this work the fact has -been noted that until well into the Latter Status -of barbarism all women were protected; that -among the Kaffirs, the Fiji Islanders, and various -other peoples occupying a lower stage in the order -of growth, women, although divested of their -former influence, are still jealously guarded by<span class="pagenum" id="Page_324">324</span> -the gens to which they belong; and that when -maidens are bereft of home and near relatives, -they are adopted into some other gens within the -tribe where they are invested with the same rights -as are its own members. Therefore when contemplating -the social condition of the Athenians -five or six hundred years <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>, we are naturally led -to inquire: What were the causes which during -one ethnical period had produced so marked a -change in the position of the female sex? For an -answer to our question we must recall the facts -set forth in this volume relative to the capture of -wives, together with the feeling of hatred entertained -by early society for alien women.</p> - -<p>In the time of Pericles, an age when Athens was -at the height of its prosperity, the women of the -city were divided into five classes as regarded their -duties and uses. The first of these consisted of -wives, who, for the most part, were kept in seclusion -and allowed to exist solely for the purpose of -propagating Greek citizens. These women were -without influence, possessing no rights or privileges -beyond the will of their “lords”; while to -such an extent were they considered merely in the -light of household furniture that they were not -permitted to appear in public, nor to sit at table -with their masters.</p> - -<p>The following dialogue between Socrates and -Ischomachus, a man who had managed his household -in such a manner as to be “pointed out as a -model for all Athens,” perhaps serves as a correct<span class="pagenum" id="Page_325">325</span> -picture of the relations existing between husband -and wife in the Periclean age. “I should like to -know this particular from you,” said Socrates, -“whether you yourself educated your wife so as -to make her what she ought to be, or whether you -received her from her parents with a knowledge of -her duties?”—“And how could I have received -her so educated, Socrates, when she came to me -not fifteen years old, and had lived up to that time -under the strictest surveillance that she might see -as little as possible, and hear as little as possible, -and inquire as little as possible?”</p> - -<p>Of the five classes to which reference has been -made, wives only were native-born, and as this -particular class had specific duties to perform, -severe penalties were attached to the crimes -of seduction and rape when committed upon -Athenian women. The remaining four classes were -arranged according to the dignity of their associates, -the highest in rank and repute being the -hetairai, the members of which comprised the only -free women in Athens. Themselves philosophers -and stateswomen, their associates among males -were of the same rank or station. They constituted -a highly intellectual class, and as such were -able to control not only their own movements, -but to exercise a remarkable influence upon literature, -art, and the affairs of state. Because of the -important position occupied by these women, they -will be referred to later in this work.</p> - -<p>The next in rank were the <i>auletrides</i>, or flute<span class="pagenum" id="Page_326">326</span>-players. -Many of the most fashionable of these -were slaves who had been brought to Greece by -speculators. We are informed that female musicians -were a usual accompaniment to an Athenian -banquet, and that flute-playing became an essential -feature in the worship of several of their -deities; hence, the services of this particular class -were in demand, not only to heighten the enjoyment -of social intercourse, but to stimulate and -encourage religious enthusiasm. At public gatherings, -after the dinner was over, and while the wine -was flowing freely, these women made their appearance -in a semi-nude condition, dancing and -keeping time to the music by the graceful motion -of their beautifully moulded figures. While the -enthusiasm was at its height they were sold to -the highest bidder. Fist fights, or hand-to-hand -encounters for the possession of these female flute-players, -were not uncommon occurrences in the -best society in Athens.<a id="FNanchor_230_230" href="#Footnote_230_230" class="fnanchor">230</a></p> - -<p>These scenes were performed under the sanction -of religion and law; they therefore serve to reveal -the true inwardness of the Greek character at this -stage of development. It is reported that the -finest houses in Alexandria were inscribed with -the names of famous Greek <i>auletrides</i>. Of all the -flute-players of Greece, Lamia is said to have been -the most successful. For fifteen or twenty years -she was the delight of the entire city of Alexandria -and of King Ptolemy. Finally, when the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_327">327</span> -city was taken by Demetrius of Macedon, Lamia -was taken also. When she demanded that an -immense tax be levied on the city of Athens for -her benefit, it is recorded that although the people -murmured at the amount, they nevertheless found -it to their interest to deify her and erect a temple -in her honour. According to the testimony of -Plutarch, Lamia raised money on her own authority -to provide an entertainment for the king.<a id="FNanchor_231_231" href="#Footnote_231_231" class="fnanchor">231</a></p> - -<p>The fourth class consisted of concubines, or -purchased slaves who were in the service of Athenian -gentlemen (?). This appendage to the Greek -family was a member of the household of her -master where she was kept with the full knowledge -of the wife, the latter occupying a position little -if any superior to that of her rival. Indeed, as -the purchased slave could be disposed of whenever -the fancy or caprice of her master so dictated, -and another installed in her place, it is reasonable -to suppose that so long as she did remain, she was -the object of quite as much attention as was the -wife.</p> - -<p>The lowest class, or those who were allowed the -least freedom of action, were those known as the -<i>dicteriades</i>. They were compelled to reside at a -designated place, and were forbidden to be seen -upon the streets by day. Nothing of a personal -nature was allowed to interfere with the duties -which were imposed upon them by their imperious -masters. Their only duty was to obey.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_328">328</span></p> - -<p>By this time we are prepared to appreciate, to -a certain extent, the moral aspect of Greek society -during the years intervening between the age of -Solon and that of Pericles, a period of about a -century and a half. That all women, wives and -concubines, native-born and foreign, had been -dragged to the lowest depths of disgrace and shame -and that they were classified and arranged to -meet the demands of those who through the unchecked -tendencies inherent in the male nature -had reached the lowest level of infamy to which -it is possible for living creatures to descend, are -facts which are only too plainly shown by those -whose duty it has been to record the events connected -with the history of the Greeks.</p> - -<p>Although under Draco, the predecessor of Solon, -the political degradation of the citizens of Greece -may be said to have reached its height, and although -the uprising of the masses against the -usurpation of power by the few marks an era in the -history of the Greeks, it was not until the dawn -of the Periclean age that women had gained sufficient -freedom to enable them to exercise any -direct influence on thought, or on the principles -underlying human conduct.</p> - -<p>We must bear in mind the fact that for five or -six centuries the inferiority of women had been -systematically and religiously taught. Ever since -the rule of Cecrops, at which time doubtless the -manner of reckoning descent began to be changed -from the female to the male line, woman’s influ<span class="pagenum" id="Page_329">329</span>ence -in Athens had gradually declined. The -religio-physiological doctrine that in the office -of reproduction the mother plays only an insignificant -part had not only been proclaimed -by Apollo but had been sanctioned also by Athene. -It is recorded of Cecrops that “he instituted -marriage and established a new religion.”</p> - -<p>Just here may be observed the key to the gradually -declining position of the female element in the -deity, and to the finally accepted dogma that -the female is inferior to the male. Through the -private ownership of land and the consequent dependency -of women upon men, the way had been -paved for this assumption—an assumption which -had the effect to create in Ionian men the supreme -and lofty contempt for women which is observed -throughout their literature and laws. From the -age of Solon to that of Pericles, the overwhelming -degree of superiority assumed by Athenian men -over women had uprooted in the former every -vestige of restraint, at the same time that it had -deprived them of the last trace of that respect for -womanhood which under earlier and more natural -conditions had been entertained.</p> - -<p>It has been frequently remarked that women -took little or no part in the intellectual development -of Greece; that during the most rapid progress -of Greek men, there was no corresponding -improvement in the position occupied by Greek -women.</p> - -<p>From what is recorded relative to Athenian<span class="pagenum" id="Page_330">330</span> -women from the time of Cecrops to that of Solon, -one would scarcely expect to find them competing -with men for the prizes of life. Later, however, -that a considerable number of them did assert -their independence, and that, defying the customs -and traditions by which they were bound, did -prove themselves the equals of men, may not be -doubted.</p> - -<p>There probably has never been a time since the -dominion of man began when the more sensitive -and better endowed among women have not secretly -rebelled against the tyranny exercised over -them, and, throughout the ages, whenever an -opportunity has been offered, large numbers of -these women, have never failed to make known -their discontent. Greek women were no exception -to this rule. Their first step toward liberty -was to free themselves from the galling chain -imposed upon them by marriage, a position in -which, as has been shown, wives were simply -household slaves, tools of their imperious and -degenerate masters. Greek women, in the Periclean -age, simply assumed the control of their -persons and by so doing provoked the maledictions -of future ages, ages in which sensualism -still reigned supreme.</p> - -<p>For reasons which have already been explained, -the foremost women in Greece, and in fact all -women who during the Periclean age were engaged -in art, literature, philosophy, and statesmanship, -belonged to the class known as the hetairai, a term<span class="pagenum" id="Page_331">331</span> -which, through the excessive growth or sensuality -and superstition, subsequently became a term of -reproach. Whatever may have been the importance -of the services rendered by these women to -society, such services would have been ignored, -or, if not altogether ignored, would have been -reflected upon, or appropriated by, the opposite -sex.</p> - -<p>To say that the hetairai were free is equal to -saying that they have been misunderstood, hence -the calumnies which for more than two thousand -years have been heaped upon them. That the -hetairai of Greece in the Periclean age included a -class of women who were the intellectual compeers -of the ablest statesmen and philosophers is a fact -which may not by those who have paid close -attention to this subject be denied. That they -taught rhetoric and elocution, that they lectured -publicly and established schools of philosophy at -the same time that they wielded a powerful influence -on the state and on the drift of current thought -are facts which mediæval scholasticism has not -been able to conceal.</p> - -<p>I think one may not investigate the various -schools of philosophy which arose during the -fourth and fifth centuries <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>, without noting the -peculiarly altruistic principles involved in them, -and this, too, notwithstanding the fact that, hitherto, -extreme selfishness or egoism had constituted -the prevailing character observed in Athenian -society.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_332">332</span></p> - -<p>According to the principles of the Cyrenaics, -the virtuous man is not necessarily he who is in -the possession of pleasure but he who is able to -proceed rightly in quest of pleasure. “Virtue is -the only possible and sane way to happiness.” -The most eminent members of the Cyrenaics -were Arete the daughter of Aristippus and her -son Aristippus the younger, surnamed the -mother-taught.<a id="FNanchor_232_232" href="#Footnote_232_232" class="fnanchor">232</a> The fundamental doctrine of the -Cyrenes seems to have been that right-living or -virtue constitutes the only good. “The essence -of virtue lies in self-control. Enjoyment sought -as an end is evil.”</p> - -<p>“Virtue is capable of being taught, and when -once acquired cannot be lost. What is good is -honourable, and what is bad is disgraceful.” On -examination it is found that one of the most eminent -members of this school is Hipparchia. That -she is not a mere listener, imbibing the ideas of -others, is shown in the fact that she lectured -publicly and argued strongly before the philosophers -of Athens. The founder of the Cynic -school of philosophy is said to have been -Antisthenes, the son of a Thracian mother. -One of the sayings of this philosopher is, that -“virtue is the same in a man as in a woman.”<a id="FNanchor_233_233" href="#Footnote_233_233" class="fnanchor">233</a></p> - -<p>That the question of the position of women<span class="pagenum" id="Page_333">333</span> -was a theme for discussion in the age under consideration -is shown in a “sophism” proposed by -Hipparchia to Theodorus. Once when she went -to sup with Lysimachus, she said to Theodorus: -“What Theodorus could not be called wrong for -doing, that same thing Hipparchia ought not to -be called wrong for doing.”<a id="FNanchor_234_234" href="#Footnote_234_234" class="fnanchor">234</a></p> - -<p>When we take into consideration the fact that -Hipparchia was intimately associated with Crates, -a man for whom she entertained the tenderest -affection, and when we remember that they were -both engaged in teaching a philosophy which -“recognized virtue as the supreme end of life,” -the conversation at the house of Lysimachus -between Hipparchia and Theodorus, as set forth -by Diogenes Laërtius will be seen to admit of a -different interpretation than that which commonly -prevails.</p> - -<p>Of the Epicureans it has been observed that -they were a sort of Pythagorean brotherhood, -consisting of both men and women.</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>The scandalous tongue of antiquity was never -more virulent than it was in the case of Epicurus, but, -as far as we can judge, the life of the Garden joined -to urbanity and refinement a simplicity which would -have done no discredit to a Stoic; indeed, the Stoic -Seneca continually refers to Epicurus not less as a -model for conduct, than as a master of sententious -wisdom.</p></blockquote> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_334">334</span></p> - -<p>Among the most distinguished members of this -school were Themistia, to whom Cicero refers in -his speech against Pisa as a “sort of female Solon,” -and Leontium, who ventured to attack Theophrastus -in an essay characterized, as we are -assured, by much elegance of style.<a id="FNanchor_235_235" href="#Footnote_235_235" class="fnanchor">235</a></p> - -<p>No school of philosophy arose in Athens with -which there was not closely connected the name -of one or another of the illustrious women of -the time. Zeno, the founder of the Stoic philosophy, -was the pupil of Crates, the companion -of Hipparchia.</p> - -<p>Aspasia was the “clever preceptress of Socrates,”<a id="FNanchor_236_236" href="#Footnote_236_236" class="fnanchor">236</a> -the sage who sat for the portrait of the Stoic -philosophy. According to the Stoic philosophy, -the supreme end of life is virtue, <i>i. e.</i>, “a life conformed -to nature.” The degree of self-restraint -taught by Socrates is shown in the following -lines:</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>Is it not the duty of every man to consider that -temperance is the foundation of every virtue, and to -establish the observance of it in his mind before all -things? For who, without it, can either learn anything -good, or sufficiently practice it? Who, that is -a slave to pleasure, is not in an ill condition both as -to his body and his mind? It appears to me, by Juno, -that a free man ought to pray that he may never -meet with a slave of such a character, and that he who<span class="pagenum" id="Page_335">335</span> -is a slave to pleasure should pray to the gods that he -may find well-disposed masters; for by such means -only can a man of that sort be saved.<a id="FNanchor_237_237" href="#Footnote_237_237" class="fnanchor">237</a></p></blockquote> - -<p>When the ablest statesmen and the first philosophers -of Greece united in sounding the praises -of Alcibiades, the genius of Aspasia commanded -equal recognition. Not only did Socrates and -Pericles receive instruction and inspiration from -this gifted woman, but we are assured that she -lectured publicly and that her “acquaintances -took their wives with them to hear her discourse.”<a id="FNanchor_238_238" href="#Footnote_238_238" class="fnanchor">238</a> -Indeed “Pericles threw all Greece into confusion -on account of Aspasia, not the young one, but -that one who associated with the wise Socrates.”<a id="FNanchor_239_239" href="#Footnote_239_239" class="fnanchor">239</a></p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>It is not to be imagined that Aspasia excelled in -light and amorous discourses. Her discourses, on -the contrary, were not more brilliant than solid. It -was believed by the most intelligent Athenians, and -amongst them Socrates himself, that she composed the -celebrated funeral oration pronounced by Pericles in -honour of those that were slain in the Samian War.<a id="FNanchor_240_240" href="#Footnote_240_240" class="fnanchor">240</a></p></blockquote> - -<p>It is recorded of her that many Athenians resorted -to her lecture-room on account of her skill -in the art of speaking. Not only did she teach -rhetoric, philosophy, and the proper relations of -the sexes, but so renowned was she for statesman<span class="pagenum" id="Page_336">336</span>ship -that Pericles is said to have surrendered to -her the government of Athens then at the height -of its glory and renown. On this subject Plutarch -remarks: “Some, indeed, say that Pericles made -his court to Aspasia only on account of her wisdom -and political abilities.”</p> - -<p>It has been said that the expedition against the -Samians was merely to gratify Aspasia. The -Milesians and Samians who had been at war were -ordered to lay down their arms. When they refused -to obey, Pericles, in company with Aspasia, -sailed with a fleet to Samos and abolished the -oligarchical form of government. Although he -was offered large sums of money, he “treated the -Samians in the manner he had resolved on; and -having established a popular government in the -island, he returned to Athens.”<a id="FNanchor_241_241" href="#Footnote_241_241" class="fnanchor">241</a></p> - -<p>Plutarch, quoting from Æschines, says that -Lysicles, who was “of a mean, ungenerous disposition, -by his intercourse with Aspasia after the -death of Pericles, became the most considerable -man in Athens.”<a id="FNanchor_242_242" href="#Footnote_242_242" class="fnanchor">242</a> Notwithstanding the scandalous -reports which have come down to us of this -woman’s character, in view of the facts which it -has been impossible for sex-prejudice to conceal, we -are constrained to ask: “What manner of woman -was this who was able to control statesmen, impart -instruction to world-renowned philosophers, and -leave a name which even bigotry, envy, and malice -may not efface from the history of human events?”</p> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_337">337</span></p> -<p>In seeking for an explanation of the exalted character -of Aspasia, we have something more than a -hint in the fact that she is reported to have “trod -in the steps of Thargelia,” a woman who by her -exceeding brilliancy had gained the sovereignty -of Thessaly. Indeed, we have found a key to the -entire situation when we learn that this Thargelia, -in whose steps Aspasia trod, “was descended from -the ancient Ionians,”<a id="FNanchor_243_243" href="#Footnote_243_243" class="fnanchor">243</a> a people who, originally -worshipped the female principle, and who still -preserved the customs peculiar to the matriarchal -system, under which it will be remembered women, -as aliens, did not follow the fathers of their children -to their homes. So soon as these facts are understood, -we are not in the least surprised to learn -that Aspasia discountenanced the institution of -marriage as it existed in Athens. Neither is it -remarkable, when we remember that the underlying -principles involved in the philosophy which -she taught were justice and equity, that she should -be found using her great influence, as in the case -of the Milesians and Samians, in substituting -democracies in the place of oligarchies; nor that, -in an age when women had come to be regarded -simply as the tools and slaves of men, she should -be found teaching the dignity of womanhood to -her own sex, and the principles of equality to males.</p> - -<p>According to Xenophon, Aspasia’s efforts were -to a great extent directed to the duties of husbands -and wives; indeed, her foremost object seems to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_338">338</span> -have been to educate Athenian women. During -the Periclean age the position of women was one -of the leading topics discussed in Athens. Socrates -says to his companions that he has been of -the opinion “of a long time that the female sex are -nothing inferior to ours, excepting only in strength -of body or perhaps steadiness of judgment.”<a id="FNanchor_244_244" href="#Footnote_244_244" class="fnanchor">244</a> The -coarse picture painted by Aristophanes, of women -with beards going in male attire to the agora, “to -seize the administration of the state so as to do -the state some good,”<a id="FNanchor_245_245" href="#Footnote_245_245" class="fnanchor">245</a> although a vulgar attempt -to ridicule the female philosophers of Athens, -furnishes something more than a hint of the fact -that the ideas subsequently set forth in Plato’s -<i>Republic</i> had been openly discussed by the philosophers -of the Periclean age.</p> - -<p>That the word hetairai was originally employed -in no mean or compromising sense is plain, since -Sappho uses it in the sense of “female companion -(ἑταίρα) of the same rank and the same interests.” -We are assured that these women were able to -preserve a friendship “free from trickery.” Of -them even “Cynulcus does not venture to speak -ill.”<a id="FNanchor_246_246" href="#Footnote_246_246" class="fnanchor">246</a> They “of all women are the only ones who -have derived their name from friendship or from -that goddess who is named by the Athenians -Venus Hetæra.”<a id="FNanchor_247_247" href="#Footnote_247_247" class="fnanchor">247</a></p> - -<p>“Accordingly, even to this day,” observes -Athenæus,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_339">339</span> “free-born women and maidens call -their associates and friends their ἑταίρα; as Sappho -does where she says:</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poetry"><div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse">And now with tuneful voice I’ll sing</div> - <div class="verse">These pleasing songs to my companions.</div> -</div></div></div> - -<p>And in another place she says:</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poetry"><div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse">Niobe and Latona were of old</div> - <div class="verse">Affectionate companions ἑταίρα to each other.”<a id="FNanchor_248_248" href="#Footnote_248_248" class="fnanchor">248</a></div> -</div></div></div> - -<p>That mediæval scholasticism has not been able -wholly to obscure the greatness of the Greek -hetairai is shown by the declaration of a renowned -writer of modern times who says: “Of all the poets -who have appeared on the earth Sappho was -undoubtedly the greatest.”</p> - -<p>Notwithstanding the aspersions which have -been cast upon the name and fame of the hetairai -of Greece, it is doubtful if the intelligent women -of the present age who carefully examine the -shreds and remnants concerning them which have -withstood the envy of mediocrity, and the bigotry -of scholasticism, will be brought to believe that -the excesses which are foreign to the female nature, -and which belong to ruder and less highly developed -structures, were practised by these gifted -women. We must bear in mind that the hetairai -were free, and therefore that they were able to -direct their movements according to the natural -characters developed within the female,—char<span class="pagenum" id="Page_340">340</span>acters -which it will be remembered are correlated -with the maternal instinct.</p> - -<p>The licentiousness, not only of Greek and Roman -women, but of those in certain portions of Asia -as well, has been the favourite theme of many -writers of past ages; more especially has the lewdness -of Lydian and Babylonian women been noted -and commented upon. After referring to the -annual sale of women in Babylonia, Herodotus -says that the people</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>have lately hit upon a very different plan to save their -maidens from violence, and prevent their being torn -from them and carried to distant cities, which is to -bring up their daughters to be courtesans. This is -now done by all the poorer of the common people, -who since the conquest have been maltreated by their -lords, and have had ruin brought upon their families.<a id="FNanchor_249_249" href="#Footnote_249_249" class="fnanchor">249</a></p></blockquote> - -<p>It is recorded that the various classes of “kept -women” in Greece were foreigners, that they were -either bought or captured from surrounding countries. -As in the case of the Lydians and Babylonians, -they were doubtless carried from their -homes at a tender age after having been reared -to their profession. Many of the maidens thus -taken to Greece subsequently became philosophers, -statesmen, and scholars, whereupon they abandoned -their former calling. Lysias mentions the -fact that Philyra gave up her former course when -she was still quite young,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_341">341</span> “and so did Scione, and -Hippaphesis, and Theoclea, and Psamathe, and -Lagisca, and Anthea.”<a id="FNanchor_250_250" href="#Footnote_250_250" class="fnanchor">250</a></p> - -<p>As special mention is made of a woman who -“did not cease to live a prostitute when she began -to learn philosophy,”<a id="FNanchor_251_251" href="#Footnote_251_251" class="fnanchor">251</a> we may reasonably infer -that it was usual for these women to abandon the -calling to which they had been born and bred, so -soon as from such teachers as Aspasia and Hipparchia -they began to imbibe principles of self-respect -and womanly independence.</p> - -<p>From the position occupied by the hetairai it is -evident that by the philosophers of Greece, they -were regarded with that respect which is ever due -to cultured womanhood; indeed, from the evidence -at hand we may believe that they were the most -highly honoured citizens in Athens.</p> - -<p>All women in Greece who prostituted themselves -were forbidden to take sacred names; yet of -Nemeas, Athenæus says: “And we may wonder -how it was that the Athenians permitted a courtesan -to have such a name, which was that of a -most honourable and solemn festival.”<a id="FNanchor_252_252" href="#Footnote_252_252" class="fnanchor">252</a></p> - -<p>Of Glycera it is related that Harpalus issued an -edict that no one should present him with a crown, -unless the donor at the same time presented one to -her. He erected a statue to her and permitted her -to dwell in the palace of Tarsus where he allowed -her “to receive adoration from the people”; he -permitted her also to bear the title of Queen, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_342">342</span> -“to be complimented with other presents which -are only fit for your own mother and your own -wife.”<a id="FNanchor_253_253" href="#Footnote_253_253" class="fnanchor">253</a></p> - -<p>Timotheus, who was a general of very high repute -in the Athenian army, was the son of a courtesan; -we are informed, however, that she was “a courtesan -of very excellent character.”<a id="FNanchor_254_254" href="#Footnote_254_254" class="fnanchor">254</a> The great -Themistocles is said to have been the son of -Abrotonum, a “courtesan.”</p> - -<p>It is recorded that in response to an order issued -by the people, Praxiteles made a solid gold statue -of one of the hetairai, which was consecrated in the -temple of Delphi. Certainly the deathless models -of Greek art formed by Praxiteles and Phidias -are not representations of coarse and sensualized -womanhood.</p> - -<p>That these women were a power in Athens -during the Periclean age may not, in view of the -facts recorded in relation to them, be disputed. -Of them it has been said:</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>None but they could gather round them of an -evening the choicest spirits of the day, and elicit, in -the freedom of unrestrained intercourse, wit and -wisdom, flashing fancy and burning eloquence. What -wonder that the hetairai should have filled so prominent -a part in Greek society! And how small a compensation -to virtuous women to know their rivals -could not stand at the altar when sacrifice was offered, -could not give birth to a citizen.</p></blockquote> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_343">343</span></p> - -<p>In this acknowledgment of the exalted position -occupied by the Greek hetairai the author, like -most writers upon the subject of the sexual relations, -measures virtue not by its antithesis to vice, -but by the established masculine standards which -have been set up for women to conform to. A -Greek wife’s life may have been one continuous -scene of subjection to the lowest appetites of a -master for whom she may have had not the least -degree of respect or affection, and who regarded -her only in the light of an instrument for his convenience -and pleasure; still such an one would -doubtless be accounted as a “virtuous” woman in -contradistinction to one of the hetairai whose -position enabled her to control her own person -and who was able to exercise her own will-power -in protecting it against the excesses of Greek men. -It is evident that this class of women more than -any other in Greece was able to direct its movements -and manage its activities, and, therefore, -if we bear in mind the characters correlated in the -female constitution with the maternal instinct, -we may be assured that among the entire population -of Athens, the lives of these women were the -most pure and the least addicted to excesses.</p> - -<p>Aspasia, the philosopher and statesman; Hipparchia, -practical professor of Cynic philosophy -and one of the most voluminous and esteemed -writers of her time; Thargelia, the Milesian, whom -Xerxes employed at the court of Thessaly, and -many others scarcely less renowned, prove that<span class="pagenum" id="Page_344">344</span> -through the exercise of that personal freedom enjoyed -by the hetairai, women had at length risen -to that position in which they were able to exert -a powerful influence, not only on the affairs of -state, but upon the intellectual development of -the Athenians and the entire world. To say that -these women have been written about in an age -in which male power and male influence have -been in the ascendency, is to say that they have -been misunderstood and their movements misinterpreted.</p> - -<p>Because of the efforts put forth by scholastics -for two thousand years to belittle or annul the importance -of the services rendered by the hetairai, -they will doubtless for some time continue to be -judged not by their intellectual vigour nor by -what they accomplished, but by the social position -into which, through the exigencies of masculine -domination, they had been jostled. The fact has -been observed that less than two centuries prior -to the age of Aspasia and Socrates, Solon had given -to the calling of prostitution the sanction of religion -and law; that he had purchased a sufficient -number of young slaves from surrounding countries -to satisfy the demands of the men of Greece; -and that he had made the calling of these girls -a source of public revenue for which services he -had received the title of “Saviour of the State.” -We would scarcely expect, therefore, to find chastity -among the prominent virtues of the Periclean -age. I wish to emphasize the fact that by the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_345">345</span> -conditions of society at that time, the class designated -as hetairai, although they were in a certain -sense free, were practically prevented, no matter -what may have been their natural inclinations or -aspirations, from rising to a higher plane of moral -action, and furthermore that the existing conditions -were wholly the result of the supremacy gained -by the lower propensities over the higher forces -developed in human nature. Had these gifted -women accepted the position of wife, ignorance -and seclusion would have been their portion, while -their sexual degradation would have been none -the less complete or perfect; indeed it would have -been all the more intolerable, for the reason that -the degradation of their persons, which in the -position of hetairai was sued for as a privilege, in -the position of wife would have been claimed as a -right.</p> - -<p>By most writers upon this subject the fact -seems to have been overlooked, or, if observed, -has not been acknowledged, that licentiousness -among women during a certain period of Greek -life, about which so much has been written, was -governed wholly by the demands of their masters; -in fact, throughout the history of mankind since -the ascendency of the male over the female has -been gained, the class which has controlled the -means of support, and within which has resided -all the power to direct the activities of women, has -ever regulated the supply of victims to be offered -upon the altar of lust; and in all these regulations<span class="pagenum" id="Page_346">346</span> -may be observed such an adjustment of women’s -“duties” to the “necessities” of the male nature, -that no alternative has been left them but -submission.</p> - -<div class="chapter"></div> -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_347">347</span></p> - - - - -<h3><a name="CHAPTER_V-3" id="CHAPTER_V-3">CHAPTER V</a><br /> - -<small>ROMAN LAW, ROMAN WOMEN, AND CHRISTIANITY</small></h3> - - -<p>The far-reaching results of the various schools -of philosophy which rose in Greece during the -Periclean age will be noted in this chapter. -That the principles involved in this philosophy -may not have been formulated by the hetairai -of Athens is doubtless true, yet that the inception -and development of these principles were largely -due to the freedom of these gifted women seems -probable, especially when we remember the conditions -under which this philosophy arose.</p> - -<p>A glance at the principles involved in the Stoic -philosophy will show its thoroughly altruistic -character. The sum of its tenets was to “live -according to nature’s laws,” to subordinate one’s -self to the welfare of one’s family, one’s country, -and the entire race, and to “rise above the gross -indulgences and pleasures of the vulgar” to higher -laws of thought and action; it taught that to be -just, and to live according to the dictates of reason -rather than to be governed by the promptings of -blind passion and the desire of the appetites, should -be not only the duty but the highest pleasure of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_348">348</span> -mankind. Possibly some of the minor precepts -of the Stoic philosophy were absurd; no doubt -in their desire for reform, its founders set up a -canon of conduct which was severe and impracticable; -but its fundamental principles, the subjection -of the animal in man to the reasoning faculties, -as applied to future Roman law, Roman civilization, -and Roman character, served to produce -specimens of manhood which the women of all -subsequent ages should delight to honour. So -long as virtue is applauded and moral greatness -is exalted, the enactments of the Roman jurisconsults -in the interest of women, prior to, and -during the time of the Antonine Cæsars, will -stand forth throughout the ages as the one single -movement, during thousands of years, toward -the removal of the legal disabilities of women. -When we remember that the Stoic philosophy -took root and flourished during an age of unparalleled -profligacy which was stimulated and encouraged -by the example of the most opulent -and luxurious personages among the Greeks, and -at a time when licentiousness had for centuries -been sanctioned by religion and upheld by laws -made by the men of Greece, it is quite evident -that some potent influence, which had hitherto -been unfelt, had been in operation to produce it.</p> - -<p>In order to understand the influence which the -Stoic philosophy exerted on civilization, and especially -on the legal position of women, we must -first understand its effect upon Roman law. An<span class="pagenum" id="Page_349">349</span> -inquiry into the changes which had been wrought -in Roman jurisprudence at the time of the Antonine -Cæsars, by engrafting upon it the underlying -principles contained in the Stoic philosophy, -discloses the fact that the emancipation of women -had been practically accomplished in Rome.</p> - -<p>Perhaps there is no subject which at the present -time possesses greater interest for inquiring women -than that concerning the status of their sex -under the older Roman law; for, by an understanding -of woman’s legal status, as fixed under -this institution at a time when man had gained -the summit of his power over her, is furnished -a key whereby may be unlocked many of the -mysteries surrounding the still extant social and -legal disabilities of women.</p> - -<p>The thoroughly egoistic character of the principles -underlying the older Roman law has been -noticed in a former portion of this work. We -have seen that in Rome the father, who was the -sole representative of the family, had drawn to -himself not only all the authority over the child -which under the earlier gentile organization of -society had been acknowledged as belonging exclusively -to the mother, but, ignoring individual -liberty, and all the principles of personal freedom -which had been established under the matriarchal -system, had proclaimed himself absolute sovereign -over all within the agnatic bond. The divine -oracle of Apollo, which had enunciated the doctrine -that the soul of the child is derived from the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_350">350</span> -father, had at the same time declared that the -mother has to do only with furnishing the body. -Thus the father, as Creator, became the household -god; his authority, as we have seen, being -supreme even to the exercise of the power of life -and death over its members.</p> - -<p>Under ancient law, the father, as head of the -household, really constituted the family, the -remaining members being merely ciphers which, -from the peculiar position in which they were -placed, were without significance except as vassals -under the strictest tutelage of their master. Under -this august system of father-worship, males as -well as females had become enslaved. The bondage -of men, however, differed somewhat from the “perpetual -tutelage of women,” in the fact that they -themselves in time might become heads of families, -and in that imperial position to assume the same -authority and dominion over others as had been exercised -over them. Women, however, could never -become heads of families, and therefore could never -hope to be free. So long as they remained single -they were under the tutelage of their blood-relations, -or were subject to the authority of some individual -whom the father, before his death, might choose to -appoint over them as guardian. Thus arose the -law known as the Perpetual Tutelage of Women. -Upon this subject Sir Henry Maine says:</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>Ancient law subordinates the woman to her blood-relations, -while a prime phenomenon of modern juris<span class="pagenum" id="Page_351">351</span>prudence -has been her subordination to her husband. -The history of the change is remarkable. It begins -far back in the annals of Rome. Anciently, there -were three modes in which marriage might be contracted -according to Roman usage, one involving a -religious solemnity, the other two the observance of -certain secular formalities. By the religious marriage -of <i>Confarreation</i>; by the higher form of civil -marriage, which was called <i>Coemption</i>; and by the -lower form, which was termed <i>Usus</i>, the husband -acquired a number of rights over the person and -property of his wife, which were on the whole in excess -of such as are conferred on him in any system of -modern jurisprudence. But in what capacity did he -acquire them? Not as <i>Husband</i>, but as <i>Father</i>. -By the <i>Confarreation</i>, <i>Coemption</i>, and <i>Usus</i>, the -woman passed in <i>manum viri</i>—that is, in law she -became the <i>Daughter</i> of her husband. She was included -in his <i>Patria Potestas</i>. She incurred all the -liabilities springing out of it while it subsisted, and -surviving it when it had expired. All her property -became absolutely his and she was retained in tutelage -after his death to the guardian whom he had -appointed by will.<a id="FNanchor_255_255" href="#Footnote_255_255" class="fnanchor">255</a></p></blockquote> - -<p>On this subject of male supremacy in the family -Mr. Maine remarks:</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>The foundation of Agnation is not the marriage of -Father and Mother, but the authority of the Father. -All persons are Agnatically bound together who are -under the same Paternal Power, or who have been -under it, or who might have been under it if their<span class="pagenum" id="Page_352">352</span> -lineal ancestor had lived long enough to exercise his -empire.<a id="FNanchor_256_256" href="#Footnote_256_256" class="fnanchor">256</a></p></blockquote> - -<p>Under this bond would be united all the children -belonging to the head of the household and all -the descendants of the sons, but not of the daughters; -the daughters’ children under this manner -of reckoning descent belonged to the families of -their respective fathers. Although under this -system a man might adopt a stranger into his -family, and invest him with all the rights and -privileges appertaining thereunto, no descendant -of a daughter could claim any of the rights of -agnation. Under Hindu law, which is saturated -with the primitive notions of family dependency, -in the genealogies, the names of women are omitted -altogether. We are assured by Mr. Maine that -the exclusion of women from governmental functions -certainly had its origin in agnation. Thus it -is seen that paternity had come to involve the -idea of a supreme ruler or potentate, and that -the overshadowing predominance of the male over -the female had paved the way to the future worship -of one all-powerful male deity.</p> - -<p>We have seen that the principles involved in -the Stoic philosophy were justice, equality, and -the subjection of the appetites to the dictates -of reason and conscience. So soon as Greece was -subjugated by Rome, the ablest of the Romans -espoused the principles embodied in this philo<span class="pagenum" id="Page_353">353</span>sophy, -and notably among those who became -interested in its tenets were the Roman lawyers, -who began immediately to reconstruct the civil -law upon the principles underlying this system.</p> - -<p>That it is only through a return to the archaic -and natural principles of justice and right living, -the acknowledgment of which at once establishes -the proper relations of the sexes, that women may -ever hope to be free, is plain to all those who -have given attention to this subject. This fact -was evidently observed by the Roman lawyers -who, through the persistency with which only -those labour who are engaged in establishing a principle, -had so far succeeded in overcoming the -prejudice against sex as to have established a -legal code wherein was practically recognized the -equality of women with men.</p> - -<p>Doubtless the Romans were as tenacious of -their ancient customs, prejudices, and long-established -privileges as have been the people of any -other country; hence we may perhaps form a -faint idea of the obstacles which presented themselves, -and of the devices which must have been -resorted to by Roman jurists in an endeavour to -remove the existing legal restrictions upon the -liberties of women.</p> - -<p>Mr. Maine informs us that Gaius, a celebrated -jurist who lived in the age of the Antonine Cæsars, -devoted an entire volume to descriptions of the -ingenious expedients devised by Roman lawyers -to evade the letter of the ancient law, and that<span class="pagenum" id="Page_354">354</span> -it was through this source that the fact finally -became known that in the age of the Antonine -Cæsars the legal disabilities of women had been -practically annulled.</p> - -<p>From the facts at hand it is observed that the -object of the Roman lawyers was to frame an -edictal jurisprudence which should supersede the -older law, or which in effect should annul its power. -We are informed that the prætor was not only -the chief equity judge, but that he was also the -common-law magistrate. So soon, therefore, as the -edict had passed through the necessary formalities -enabling it to become a law, the prætor’s court -began to apply it in place, or by the side of the -civil law, “which was directly or indirectly repealed -without any express enactment of legislation.” -In reference to the legal status of women -in the age of the Antonine Cæsars, Henry Maine -observes: “Led by their theory of natural law, -the jurisconsults had at this time assumed the -equality of the sexes as a principle of their code -of equity.”<a id="FNanchor_257_257" href="#Footnote_257_257" class="fnanchor">257</a></p> - -<p>Although the seed, sown in Greece during the -Periclean age when conveyed to Rome, produced -a golden harvest, the fact will doubtless be remembered -that the Roman lawyers had but just -completed their work of establishing the legal -equality of the sexes when the agencies which -for years had been at work to destroy the Empire -culminated; and finally, when Christianity, in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_355">355</span> -the person of Constantine ascended the throne, -the results of four centuries of civilization were -destroyed, or for more than sixteen hundred years -were practically annulled.</p> - -<p>Regarding the changes which had been wrought -in the legal status of women in the age of the Antonine -Cæsars, we are informed that whereas under -the older Roman law a woman at marriage came -under the Patria Potestas of her husband, under -the later law, as influenced by the principles involved -in the Stoic philosophy, she remained as a -member of her own family, or was placed under -the protection of a guardian appointed by her -parents, whose jurisdiction over her, although -superior to that of her husband, was not such as -to interfere with her personal liberty; thus, the -same as under matriarchal usages, the situation -of the Roman woman, whether married or single, -was one of great influence. Of this freedom -exercised by women in the time of the Antonine -Cæsars, Mr. Maine remarks:</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>But Christianity tended somewhat from the very -first to narrow this remarkable liberty.... The -latest Roman Law, so far as it is touched by the -Constitutions of the Christian Emperors, bears some -marks of a reaction against the liberal doctrines of -the great Antonine jurisconsults. And the prevalent -state of religious sentiment may explain why it is that -modern jurisprudence, forged in the furnace of barbarian -conquest, and formed by the fusion of Roman -jurisprudence with patriarchal usage, has absorbed,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_356">356</span> -among its rudiments, much more than usual of those -rules concerning the position of women which belong -peculiarly to an imperfect civilization.<a id="FNanchor_258_258" href="#Footnote_258_258" class="fnanchor">258</a></p></blockquote> - -<p>Concerning the influence of ecclesiasticism on -that portion of Roman jurisprudence relating -particularly to women, Mr. Lecky observes:</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>Wherever the canon law has been the basis of legislation, -we find laws of succession sacrificing the interests -of daughters and of wives, and a state of -public opinion which has been formulated and -regulated by these laws.</p></blockquote> - -<p>By means of a formulated ecclesiastical jurisprudence -the complete inferiority of the sex was maintained,</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p class="pnindent">and that generous public opinion, which in Rome -had frequently rebelled against the injustice done to -girls in depriving them of the greater portion of the -inheritance of their fathers, totally disappeared.</p></blockquote> - -<p class="pnindent">In comparing the Roman law with the canon or -ecclesiastical code, the same writer says that the -pagan laws during the Empire were constantly -repealing the old disabilities of women; but that -it was the aim of the canon law to substitute -enactments which should entail on the female sex -the greatest personal restrictions and the most -stringent subordination.<a id="FNanchor_259_259" href="#Footnote_259_259" class="fnanchor">259</a></p> - -<p>Those who have paid attention to the history<span class="pagenum" id="Page_357">357</span> -of the English Common Law, which forms the -basis of our present system of jurisprudence, -and who have noted the part played by ecclesiasticism -in fixing the status of women therein, -will not be surprised at the attitude which the -so-called Christian Church has assumed toward -women. Referring to the Common Law, an -able writer has said:</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>This imperishable specimen of human sagacity is, -strange to say, so grossly unjust toward women that -a great writer upon that code has well observed that -in it women are regarded not as persons but as things; -so completely were they stripped of all their rights, and -held in subjection to their proud and imperious masters.<a id="FNanchor_260_260" href="#Footnote_260_260" class="fnanchor">260</a></p></blockquote> - -<p>It has been remarked that in no one particular -does the canon law depart so widely from the -spirit of secular jurisprudence as in the view it -takes of the relations created by marriage. Although -the leaven of civilization preserved from -Roman institutions was the codified jurisprudence -of Justinian, as the chapter of law relating to -women was read by the light of canon law, the -altruistic principles which had characterized the -later Roman code soon became extinct. Upon -this subject Mr. Maine remarks:</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>This was in part inevitable since no society which -preserves any tincture of Christian institutions is -likely to restore to married women the personal -liberty conferred on them by the middle Roman law.</p></blockquote> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_358">358</span></p> - -<p>And this is doubtless true for the reason that the -entire Christian superstructure rests on the dogma -of female weakness and female depravity. The -doctrine of Original Sin, which depends entirely -on the story of the fruit-tree of Genesis being -taken in a literal sense, had by canonists been -accepted. On her first appearance upon the scene -of action, woman is labouring under a curse pronounced -upon her by an all-powerful male God -for the mischief she had wrought on innocent -man; it is only reasonable, therefore, that human -law should unite with the divine decree in establishing -her complete and final degradation; hence, -the return to the ancient Hindu law and the older -Roman code for models of legislation concerning her.</p> - -<p>On this subject Mr. Maine remarks:</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>I do not know how the operation and nature of the -ancient Patria Potestas can be brought so vividly -before the mind as by reflecting on the prerogatives -attached to the husband by the pure English Common -Law, and by recalling the rigorous consistency with -which the view of a complete legal subjection on the -part of the wife is carried by it, where it is untouched -by equity or statutes, through every department of -rights, duties, and remedies.<a id="FNanchor_261_261" href="#Footnote_261_261" class="fnanchor">261</a></p> - - -<blockquote> - -<p><span class="smcap">Note.</span>—As the position of women among the early German -hordes was one of great dignity and respect, it may scarcely be -argued that the sentiments embodied in the English Common -Law relative to wives were in any degree the result of innate -Teutonic prejudice against the female sex.</p></blockquote></blockquote> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_359">359</span></p> - -<p>Notwithstanding the efforts which for several -centuries were put forth in Rome to secure to -women that independence which under the earlier -Roman law had been denied them, in the code of -Justinian, which was compiled in the early part -of the sixth century, no word respecting the remarkable -degree of liberty which under the later -Roman law was accorded to women appears; -and but for the discovery of the manuscript of -Gaius, to which reference has already been made, -we would never have become acquainted with the -changes which had been wrought in this particular -branch of Roman jurisprudence. In the -Justinian code, instead of the humane edicts of -the later, or middle Roman law, appeared the -Canon or ecclesiastical law, by means of which -women were condemned to a state of servitude -even more degrading than that which had been -imposed on them by the older law.</p> - -<p>Had mediæval scholasticism succeeded in concealing -from the world the information contained -in the manuscript of Gaius, still there would have -remained sufficient evidence left to prove that -in the second century of the present era woman’s -freedom had been practically won. That women -themselves were claiming absolute legal equality -with men may not be doubted. Honoria, a -Roman matron, first enunciated the principle: -Taxation without representation is tyranny.<a id="FNanchor_262_262" href="#Footnote_262_262" class="fnanchor">262</a> -Cato’s celebrated oration in which he passionately<span class="pagenum" id="Page_360">360</span> -exclaims: If you allow your women to be your -equals how long will it be before they become your -superiors?<a id="FNanchor_263_263" href="#Footnote_263_263" class="fnanchor">263</a> shows that a certain type of men were -becoming alarmed over the growing independence -of women.</p> - -<p>The freeing of women from the bondage entailed -on them by the older Roman law, an achievement -which had required more than three centuries to -accomplish, was a triumph for civilization unparalleled -during the historic period. That this -triumph over tyranny was of short duration is -shown in the sequel to this movement.</p> - -<p>That the coming of Jesus at a time when the -principles of justice and equality were becoming -the recognized rule of life among the better class -of Romans is not surprising. No one may study -Greek philosophy without noting the similarity -between it and the teachings of Christ. Justice, -self-restraint, and regard for the rights and feelings -of others, principles which when applied to Roman -law had liberated women from the tyranny of the -past, were also the principles taught by Jesus. It -seems to have been the mission of the latter to -convey these lofty doctrines to the multitude. -Do unto others as you would have others do unto -you was not however understood by the masses -who knew no other rule of life than that of selfishness -and ungoverned lust. Hence in process of -time the new movement came to have no other -effect than to add to the already established<span class="pagenum" id="Page_361">361</span> -evils another quite as contemptible, namely—hypocrisy.</p> - -<p>Among the earliest Christians theological disputes -were unknown. Original sin and the -doctrine of a vicarious atonement whereby a man -is “saved” not from sin but from the penalty -for sin were unheard of. To spread the simple -principles enunciated by Jesus and by so doing to -kindle into life the divine spark in man, seem to -have constituted the object and aim of the earliest -Christians. The activities necessary for the propagation -of these principles were shared alike -by both sexes. Women exhorted, prophesied, and -prayed in the churches. They baptized their -own sex. One of them wrote a gospel which, so -long as woman’s influence continued, was in use -among the Christians.</p> - -<p>Such were the conditions when Paul, a Jew -who had espoused the new religion, first appeared -on the scene. An extant legend describes this -man as small in stature and of ignoble bearing. -According to this legend Paul was bald-headed -and bow-legged. As to his intellectual ability -we have the following Corinthians x., 10: “For -his letters they were weighty and strong but his -speech is of no account.” It is elsewhere recorded -of him that “his speech was contemptible.” -From what is known of this man Paul it is evident -that he was domineering, self-sufficient, and aggressive. -He quarrelled with Peter and was intolerant -of the ideas of his associates. His forceful char<span class="pagenum" id="Page_362">362</span>acter, -his untiring energy, his zeal for the cause -which he had espoused and above all his capacity -for organization soon gained for him the leadership -of the new movement.</p> - -<p>Nowhere is it recorded that during the earlier -years of Paul’s Christian career he attempted to -discourage, or curtail, the activities of women. -On the contrary he refers to them as co-workers, -acknowledges them as prophets, and praises their -ministrations. In his writings, the name of -Priscilla occurs many times. Phœbe, Claudia, -Julia and others are regarded as worthy of mention -by him. As his influence and power increased, -however, his egoism began to assert -itself. It is evident that Paul’s strong masculine -nature could no longer tolerate a religion which -might with some degree of consistency be regarded -as a feminine movement. The old doctrine -enunciated by Apollo during the reign of Cecrops -namely that man is a divine emanation while -woman is only human must be revived.</p> - -<p>The following from Paul’s writings shows that -his aim was to crush the influence and power -exercised by women, and the means employed was -to subject them to the dominion of their husbands.</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>The head of every man is Christ; and the head of -every woman is the man and the head of Christ is -God.</p> - -<p>For the man is not of the woman but the woman -of the man. Neither was the man created for the -woman but the woman for the man.</p> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_363">363</span></p> -<p>Let your women keep silence in the churches, for -it is not permitted unto them to speak but they are -commanded to be under obedience.</p> - -<p>And if they would learn anything let them ask -their husbands at home.</p></blockquote> - -<p>That women were no longer to be the equals -and companions of their husbands but that they -were to become sexual slaves is indicated by the -command, “Wives subject yourselves unto your -husbands.”</p> - -<p>It must be remembered that these commands of -Paul were not, as has been frequently asserted, -delivered to and about weak, ignorant women -devoid of influence, but were directed against -those whose position of equality in the new religion -had not before been questioned, and whose -legal disabilities had at that time been well-nigh -removed.</p> - -<p>Before the close of the second century, the -simple, ethical teachings of Jesus were forgotten. -Christianity had disappeared and Paulism had -taken its place. A century later, after the Empire -had come under the control of so-called Christian -rule, woman’s influence, as we have already seen, -entirely disappeared. All that had been gained -by means of the middle Roman law had been -annulled by the decrees of the Canon law.</p> - -<p>Pauline Christianity in the fourth century <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> -was an attempt to re-establish that form of Paganism -which had prevailed prior to the rise of Greek -philosophy. This older religion, which had its<span class="pagenum" id="Page_364">364</span> -origin in Sun worship, or in the worship of the -two fecundating principles throughout nature, -had as early as the Periclean age ceased to claim -the attention of the educated classes among the -Greeks. Æschylus barely escaped being stoned -to death for heresy, and as is well known, Socrates -the founder of the Stoic philosophy was forced to -drink of the fatal cup because of his unbelief in -the prevailing superstitions. Not to destroy -Paganism itself but to exterminate the last vestige -of Greek philosophy was the task which the Pauline -Christians had set themselves to perform. Jesus -now became the new Solar Deity and all the forms -observed under the older Paganism were now -attached to his worship. He was born at the -winter solstice, or at the time when the sun had -reached its zenith and was about to return. He -died and was buried, but at the vernal equinox, -Easter, the time at which all nature is revived—he -arose from the dead and became the Saviour -of mankind. The entire Christian calendar is -copied from the ancient Pagan worship. A medal -was struck on which appeared the figure of a man -on a cross, on the obverse side of which was the -representation of a blazing sun. Christ was the -new Sun of Righteousness, the giver and preserver -of life.</p> - -<p>Every page in the history of the Pauline religion -reveals its masculine origin. The Deities worshipped -are a Father and a Son. All the angels -and archangels are men. All extant Gospels and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_365">365</span> -Epistles have been written and expounded by -men. It is true that in response to a popular -demand in the fifth century for a recognition of -the female principle, the Virgin Mary, an ancient -Deity, reappeared. The lateness of her coming, -however, shows that she was an afterthought. -Moreover, it must be borne in mind that, true -to the ancient doctrine which was revived by Paul -relative to the divinity of man and the material -nature of woman, the Mother of Jesus was human -while the Father and the Son were divine. She -was matter. They were spirit.</p> - -<p>Among the discussions of the early Pauline -“Fathers” none was more important than these. -Ought women to be allowed to learn the alphabet? -And has woman a soul? It is recorded that a -few of these pious leaders entertained the opinion -that because of the great power and goodness of -the Almighty “women may possibly be permitted -to rise as men at the resurrection.”</p> - -<p>As we have seen, to destroy Greek philosophy -was the slogan of the new movement. The -destruction of the Alexandrian library by a fanatical -mob led by Archbishop Theophilus is an example -of the fury with which all institutions not -directly connected with the new religion were attacked. -As is well known, this library contained -the accumulated knowledge of a highly civilized -people, extending over a period of several thousands -of years. Among the priceless treasures -stored in this library were the records of astro<span class="pagenum" id="Page_366">366</span>nomical -observations scientifically registered during -a period of not less than three thousand years.</p> - -<p>The lectures delivered by Hypatia in Alexandria -during the latter part of the fourth century were -the last attempt made to stem the tide of fanaticism -which was destined to sweep over a large -portion of the habitable globe. The fate of Hypatia -who was foully murdered by a mob led by St. -Cyril was a forecast of the fate which awaited -any and all who should henceforth dare to think -or act independently of the new religion.</p> - -<p>When Greek philosophy was no longer taught, -the principles of equality and liberty which had -been incorporated into the middle Roman law -were annulled or practically forgotten; and when -the doctrine of woman’s inferiority and total depravity -became crystallized not only in religion -but in law and in all the customs of the time, women -sank to a degree of degradation never before -witnessed in the history of mankind.</p> - -<div class="chapter"></div> -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_367">367</span></p> - - - - -<h3><a name="CHAPTER_VI-3" id="CHAPTER_VI-3">CHAPTER VI</a><br /> - -<small>THE RENAISSANCE</small></h3> - - -<p>If the theory that the higher faculties and the -moral sense originated in the female and that these -qualities are by her transmitted to offspring, -then the conditions existing in the first half of the -sixteenth century are easily explained; or if, as is -clearly proved by the facts brought out by scientists, -woman represents the constructive and combining -element in human society without which -organized society would have been impossible, the -degeneracy observed after thirteen hundred years -during which time women were wholly without -influence and power is exactly what might be -expected. Indeed it is not singular that with the -disintegrating or destructive forces in command -over the conserving or constructive elements that -war and religion should have become the business -of the world and that a state of society should -have prevailed which was in strict accord with -these conditions.</p> - -<p>However, that the constructive element was -not dead is shown by the mental and moral unrest -which began to manifest itself in the latter half<span class="pagenum" id="Page_368">368</span> -of the sixteenth century. Women began to learn -the alphabet and in a weak way to demand concessions -hitherto denied them. Many men of -genius who like the jurisconsults of Rome had -not been submerged by the degeneracy of their -time defied their persecutors and secretly promulgated -the scientific theories which were to -revolutionize human thought.</p> - -<p>The demand for freedom of conscience and for -the release of the intellect and reason from the -domination of bigotry and superstition constituted -one of the first steps toward reform. Galileo, -Bruno, Copernicus, and Harvey are notable examples -of the revolt against the intellectual -tyranny which prevailed.</p> - -<p>It is not a little singular that at this time the -throne of England was occupied by a woman and -that her reign should have been the most brilliant -that that country has ever enjoyed. It has frequently -been said that the success of Elizabeth’s -reign was due not to her greatness but to that of -the statesmen whom she called about her. But -even were this true, which it is not, it would not -detract from her greatness. The innate qualities -developed within Queen Elizabeth, namely genius -and intuition, can alone explain the brilliancy of -her reign.</p> - -<p>It is to be doubted if the progressive principle -has ever been wholly dead. That even during -the darkest period of the Middle Ages the constructive -element was still alive in Europe is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_369">369</span> -shown in the fact that as early as the year 1215 -the idea of individual human liberty had already -been formulated. In the Magna Charta wrested -from King John at Runnymede appears the following:</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>No freeman shall be taken or imprisoned or dispossessed -or outlawed or banished, or in any way destroyed, -nor will we go upon him or upon him send -except by the legal judgment of his peers, or by the -law of the land. To no one will we sell; to no one will -we deny or delay right or justice.</p></blockquote> - -<p>Although a few attempts were made during the -sixteenth century to better the conditions of the -masses of the people, as all the institutions for -the perpetuation of the slavery of the masses were -firmly established, little was accomplished in -this direction. That reforms move slowly is -shown in the fact that as late as the beginning of -the nineteenth century of the Christian era, the -greater portion of the human race was in a state -of bondage. Slavery existed in every quarter -of the globe. In Russia, in 1855, there were forty-eight -millions of serfs, and in Austria and Prussia -the peasantry were nearly all slaves. In Hungary -nine millions of human beings belonged to a subject -class.</p> - -<p>Although no slaves were owned in England, -slavery still existed in her colonies. In the West -Indies the whip was freely used, and prior to the -year 1820 no voice had been raised against the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_370">370</span> -flogging of women on the plantations. In Scotland, -down to the last year of the eighteenth century, -colliers and salters were slaves and bound to -their service for life, being bought and sold with -the works at which they laboured. Although -America had put down the slave-trade, she still -owned slaves, and continued to traffic in them -until the year 1863.</p> - -<p>The history of legislation during the historic -period shows that it has ever been in the interest -of the rich against the poor, the strong against -the weak. In France, at the beginning of the -nineteenth century, liberty was extinct. “The -rich man could purchase for money the power to -destroy those whom he hated.”<a id="FNanchor_264_264" href="#Footnote_264_264" class="fnanchor">264</a></p> - -<p>The lawmakers of the age which we are considering -were gentlemen landowners, and as such -were able to exercise their cupidity in a degree -which precluded all idea of justice to the poorer -classes. The abuses of government, the corn-laws, -the enormous tax on salt and on the various -necessities of life, show somewhat of the extent -to which the poor were systematically robbed by -the rich.</p> - -<p>The law passed in 1350, at Bannockburn, -regulating the movements of the British workingmen, -and which prohibited combinations among -them, was in force until 1824. The evident object -of this law was to repress the labourer and deprive -him of his just earnings. Although this enact<span class="pagenum" id="Page_371">371</span>ment -was known to be oppressive, the working-classes -were not possessed of sufficient influence -to cause its repeal.</p> - -<p>In England, women with their children worked -in coal pits, and in the darkness, on hands and -feet, dragged about wagons fastened to their -waists by chains. Of this Mr. Mackenzie says:</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>Children of six were habitually employed. Their -hours of labour were fourteen to sixteen daily. The -horrors among which they lived induced disease and -early death. Law did not seem to reach to the depths -of a coal-pit, and the hapless children were often -mutilated and occasionally killed with perfect impunity -by the brutalized miners among whom they -laboured. There was no machinery to drag the coals -to the surface, and women climbed long wooden stairs -with baskets of coal upon their backs.</p></blockquote> - -<p>In the factories, also, as late as 1832 children -of six years of age worked from thirteen to fifteen -hours daily. If they fell asleep they were flogged. -Sometimes through exhaustion they fell upon the -machinery and were injured—possibly crushed,—an -occurrence which caused little concern to any -except the mothers, who had learned to bear -their pangs in silence. These children, who were -stunted in size and disposed to various acute -diseases, were also scrofulous and consumptive. -In 1832 the recruiting surgeon could find no men -to suit his purpose in the manufacturing districts.</p> - -<p>Throughout Europe, the prevailing idea con<span class="pagenum" id="Page_372">372</span>cerning -the management of criminals seems to -have been vengeance. One would scarcely believe, -except on trustworthy authority, that at -the beginning of the nineteenth century the -English criminal law recognized 223 capital offences. -Indeed, so strong was the feeling in favour -of severity that Edmund Burke said he could -obtain the assent of the House of Commons to any -law imposing the penalty of death. If one shot -a rabbit he was hanged; if he injured Westminster -Bridge he was hanged; if he appeared -disguised on a public road he was hanged, and so -on. The hanging of small groups was a common -occurrence—children of ten years being sometimes -among the condemned.<a id="FNanchor_265_265" href="#Footnote_265_265" class="fnanchor">265</a></p> - -<p>A visit to the Five-Sided Tower in Nuremberg, -in which are still preserved various instruments -of human torture, will give an idea of the extreme -cruelty practised upon political offenders and heretics -a century ago.</p> - -<p>The “Holy Alliance” of Austria, Prussia, and -Russia, which was formed ostensibly to insure -peace and establish justice, but which in reality -was entered into to suppress free speech, check the -growing liberties of the people, and strengthen -the belief in the “divine right of kings,” shows -the obstacles which had to be overcome before -any principle of justice and humanity could take -root.</p> - -<p>The history of industrial and economic condi<span class="pagenum" id="Page_373">373</span>tions -since the beginning of the eighteenth century -is largely the history of the common people. -The change from the Feudal system to that of -the wage-earning régime may not, as far as the -working class is concerned, be regarded as an -unmixed blessing. Under Feudalism the “lord -of the soil” was responsible for the maintenance -and well-being of his vassals, while under the -wage system the “captains of industry” assume -no such responsibility. If the labourer chooses -to accept the terms offered well and good, if he -refuses he may starve; it is a matter of no concern -to the employer, for, are there not plenty of labourers -who stand ready to take his place?</p> - -<p>That the labourer was no less a slave under the -wage-earning system than he had been under -Feudalism is shown in the fact that under the -first named as well as under the latter he had not -the right of free contract. He must take what -was offered him or starve.</p> - -<p>As is well known the repression of the mental -activities and the low physical condition which -for more than thirteen centuries had prevailed, -prevented the seed sown in the sixteenth century -from taking root among the masses of the people. -Their instincts were those of the slave and two -centuries were required to waken them from their -lethargy. Finally, however, even among the -class mentioned the constructive forces began -to assert themselves. Free thought and to a certain -extent free speech were established. With the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_374">374</span> -further development of liberal ideas a belief in -the Divine Right of Kings and in the principles -underlying monarchial institutions became somewhat -weakened. A few attempts were even made -to establish republics. Because of the glimmering -light of scientific truth put forth in the sixteenth -century, ecclesiastical authority was no longer -supreme.</p> - -<p>Although many important steps had been taken -to free men from the thraldom of the past, so -firmly had the idea of woman’s inferiority been -established that no thought of including her in -the new régime was ever entertained.</p> - -<p>Justice, equality, and liberty are subjects upon -which man descants loudly and long. He talks -glibly of his free institutions and even designates -a number of his one-sided governments as republics, -and this too notwithstanding the fact that -women are still denied representation in the -governments to which they owe allegiance, and -that a large proportion of men are still within the -grasp of economic slavery; all of which shows the -extent to which the moral sense and the judgment -have been dwarfed by prejudice and selfishness. -Democracy is still a meaningless term—an ideal -yet to be realized.</p> - -<p>At the beginning of the nineteenth century -such were the conditions surrounding women that -an attempt on their part to extricate themselves -from their legal and social bondage would have -proved utterly futile. At that time women had<span class="pagenum" id="Page_375">375</span> -practically no legal rights; even the right to control -their own bodies was denied them. As woman -was dependent upon man for support her sex-functions -were controlled by him and the children -which she bore belonged exclusively to him. He -constituted the family—wife and children did not -count. To a considerable extent these conditions -still prevail.</p> - -<p>Masculine law, masculine religion, and masculine -ideas concerning the duties and uses of the female -sex had made of woman a nondescript—a creature -neither male nor female. Her mental constitution -had become atrophied, the diluted reflections -of men’s opinions having been substituted for the -natural feminine instincts and ideas. Among the -great mass of women the original feminine type -had disappeared.</p> - -<p>In process of time, however, women began -slowly to awaken from the hideous nightmare -which threatened to destroy the last remaining -vestige of the instincts and ideas peculiar to the -female constitution. In the beginning of the -nineteenth century some of the educational advantages -enjoyed by men began to be appropriated -by women. Thus began the unrest which now -extends over the entire earth.</p> - -<p>About seventy years ago a movement was -started by women to secure for themselves the -right to self-government. Immediately all the -prejudice which characterizes a sex-aristocracy -was aroused. Ridicule, calumny, and even per<span class="pagenum" id="Page_376">376</span>sonal -abuse were directed against all those who -were intelligent enough or fearless enough to -stem the tide of popular indignation.</p> - -<p>For forty years, little or no progress was made -toward securing the right of self-government for -women. As late as 1870 a woman who openly -avowed herself a suffragist was regarded not only -as “bold and unwomanly” but as a dangerous -person. The most strenuous opposition to the -movement came from the clergy and the flocks -over which they presided. Whenever church -women were asked to consider the question of the -equality of the sexes their unvarying reply was: -“My bible forbids it.” Now that the history of -Pauline Christianity is better understood its attitude -toward the freedom of women needs no -further explanation.</p> - -<p>When the then existing mental conditions are -recalled and especially when the religious prejudices -of the time are considered the attitude manifested -toward the proposed enfranchisement of -women is not perhaps remarkable.</p> - -<p>Although forty years ago biological science was -in its infancy enough facts had at that time been -discovered clearly to indicate the position which -Nature intended woman to occupy. By the -scientists of that time, however, the logical and -unavoidable inferences to be drawn from these -facts were wholly ignored. During the ages of -man’s undisputed supremacy so deeply rooted -had the idea of woman’s inferiority become that<span class="pagenum" id="Page_377">377</span> -these newly discovered facts concerning her development -could not be accepted—the old -prejudices could not at once be uprooted.</p> - -<p>We have already observed that whenever and -wherever Mr. Darwin and other scientists of his -time felt called upon to compare the relative -importance of men and women such comparison -has invariably been to the disadvantage of the -latter and this too notwithstanding the fact that -the evidence which they themselves have elaborated -warrants no such conclusions.</p> - -<p>Forty years ago the doctrine that woman has -no independent existence, but that she is simply -an appendage to man, was everywhere accepted -and taught not only by ecclesiastics but by scientists -as well. Woman was only a “rib” taken -from the side of man.</p> - -<p>None of the doctrines elaborated for the guidance -of women was so explicit as those relating -to the duties of wives. The cause for this is obvious. -Earlier in this work the fact has been noted -that our present form of marriage originated in -force—that no other principle was involved in it -than coercion on the one side and unwilling submission -on the other.</p> - -<p>So long as the original idea underlying marriage -is retained, or so long as woman is recognized as -the property of her husband and subject to his -control, no matter what may be achieved by -individual women, the belief in the inferiority of -women as a class will continue. In other words<span class="pagenum" id="Page_378">378</span> -so long as women remain economic slaves dependent -upon their husband for support so long will -their status remain unchanged.</p> - -<p>“She is my goods, my chattels, my household -stuff.”</p> - -<p>There are in this country at the present time -more than nine millions of women engaged in -earning their own livelihood. Many of these -women have families dependent upon them for -support. The disadvantages under which they -labour are realized when we remember that their -competitors are their political and economic -superiors and are therefore able to a considerable -extent to dictate the conditions under which -these women work; yet notwithstanding these -unfavourable conditions this change in woman’s -environment represents an important step in the -evolutionary processes. By it women are learning -that only through independence is self-respect -possible.</p> - -<p>We have already seen that whenever during -the historic period, women have had an opportunity -to rise they have never failed to rebel -against the conditions imposed upon them. The -women of Athens during the Periclean age, the -Spartan women under Lycurgus, and the women -of Rome during the time of the Antonine Cæsars -are notable examples of this fact. Even the -Chinese women are claiming the right to govern -themselves. In these later years they are unbinding -their feet and in other ways are defy<span class="pagenum" id="Page_379">379</span>ing -the forces which in the past have prevented -them from asserting their independence. The -various examples of revolt among women have -hitherto been carried on by single nations or -by countries widely separated from one another. -At the present time, however, the women of the -entire world have risen to demand the freedom of -their sex. However much those who favour the -subjection of women may deplore this movement -even the most stupid among them will surely not -fail to recognize its importance.</p> - -<p>The history of human society during the last -four hundred years has for the most part been a -struggle between the constructive elements developed -in human society and the destructive or -disintegrating forces which are the result of the -unchecked egoism or selfishness developed in -man during the ages in which woman has been -subject to his will.</p> - -<div class="chapter"></div> -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_380">380</span></p> - - - - -<h3><a name="CHAPTER_VII-3" id="CHAPTER_VII-3">CHAPTER VII</a><br /> - -<small>CONCLUSION</small></h3> - - -<p>Scientific investigation has proved the great -age of the earth and the enormous length of time -which has elapsed since the first appearance of -human beings upon its surface. Concerning the -career of man during the countless millions of years -which followed his advent upon the earth, little -is known down to a comparatively recent time—a -time commonly designated as the historic period.</p> - -<p>When considering the past one is inclined to -ask the question: “Does the history of mankind -represent an unbroken line of progress, or, on -the contrary, does it reflect a series of alternating -periods of development and decay?”</p> - -<p>We have observed that in recent times through -the study of tribes and races in the various stages -of development much has been learned concerning -the origin of organized society and the development -of human institutions. We have also seen that -through the legends, traditions, and myths of the -earliest historic peoples much reliable information -has been gained regarding the conditions which -prevailed at a still earlier period of human existence.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_381">381</span></p> - -<p>Notwithstanding the proofs which in recent -times have been obtained relative to the law of -periodicity which has thus far regulated human -progress the idea prevails that in our own time -mental activity has reached a stage never before -witnessed. It is assumed that throughout the -entire history of mankind material and intellectual -development has never attained to such -colossal proportions. It is evident that our egoism -has obscured our normal vision. We lack -perspective.</p> - -<p>There is no evidence to prove that the present -brain capacity of human beings exceeds that of -the earliest ages of human history, neither is there -any proof that the moral sense has been in the -least reinforced. The lofty moral and spiritual -precepts which abound in the Upanishads have -never been surpassed—possibly never equalled. -We are heirs of all the ages. The accumulated -knowledge of the past is responsible for present -achievements.</p> - -<p>Those who have made a study of tribes and -races in the various stages of development find -much evidence going to prove that extant savage -tribes do not represent man as he first emerged -from the animal type, but, on the contrary, that -they are the degenerate descendants of an extinct -civilized race differing little from our own. If -this be true, if human development which thus -far seems to have been wholly material contain -within itself the seeds of its own destruction,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_382">382</span> -would it not be wise for the present generation -to examine existing conditions in order to ascertain -if we too have not already entered upon the -path of degeneracy or decay?</p> - -<p>Possibly this will be regarded as a pessimistic -suggestion, but as has already been observed, a -comparison between the conditions existing in -prehistoric times and those which prevail under -the present so-called civilized régime fully justifies -this suggestion.</p> - -<p>Those persons who have acquainted themselves -with the available facts underlying the growth of -organized society and the development of existing -institutions, and who have co-ordinated these -facts with the present situation are able to trace -not only the growth of the destructive principle -in human affairs but are able to forecast with a -considerable degree of accuracy the results which -must inevitably follow. Without a knowledge -of the past it is impossible to understand or -interpret the present.</p> - -<p>We are living in a remarkable age. It is to be -doubted if throughout the entire historic period -there has been a time when passing events moved -so swiftly or when they assumed the magnitude -of those now taking place. Causes which were -set up during prehistoric times have reached a -climax. The inevitable results from those causes -are upon us.</p> - -<p>In order to compare the past and the present -it becomes necessary briefly to recall some of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_383">383</span> -already recorded facts relative to existing conditions -under early organized society.</p> - -<p>When human beings lived closer to nature and -before the natural checks to the lower or disintegrating -forces had been withdrawn, the basic -principles underlying human action were equality -and liberty. No member of a communal group -could claim any right or privilege not enjoyed by -all. There was no poverty and no crime. Disease -as we know it was unknown. As the lands were -held in common, women were absolutely free and -independent. They chose their mates and were -responsible for the well-being of their offspring. -As women controlled the sexual relation and themselves -regulated prenatal conditions, the children -inherited strong bodies and healthy minds. Dissensions -over property did not occur, and jealousy -and a desire for personal aggrandizement had not -been developed.</p> - -<p>The religious worship of primitive people consisted -for the most part in invocations to the Great -Mother, the fructifying principle throughout -nature, from whom were derived all earthly benefits. -Later the Great Mother came to be worshipped -under various appellations, namely, -Cybele, or Astarte, in Asia Minor, Athene in -Greece, Minerva in Rome, and Isis or Neith -in Egypt. Finally, as is well known, these goddesses -were dethroned by an all-powerful male -God, an anthropomorphic deity whose chief -attribute was virile might. This change in the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_384">384</span> -god-idea was coincident with, and dependent -upon, a corresponding change in the relations of -the sexes which took place at a certain period in -human history. The god-idea is now and ever -has been in strict accord with the existing conceptions -concerning the relative importance of the -sex-functions in human beings.</p> - -<p>During thousands of years of life on “earth” -the mother was the only recognized parent. As -the giver of life and the protector of offspring she -was regarded as the Creator and Preserver of the -race. She represented the constructive element -in human society. Later, however, when man -began to contest the supremacy of woman, her -hitherto unquestioned prerogatives began to be -claimed by him. It was at this juncture in human -affairs that the contention arose over the relative -importance of the sexes in the processes of reproduction. -Not only in the traditions and legends -of early historic peoples but in their histories as -well there is much evidence given to prove that -this contention was as fierce as that which at the -present time is going on between the sexes. As -a result of this contention both female and male -gods were worshipped. Those who recognized -the mother as the giver of life continued to worship -the female principle, while those who accepted the -new doctrine enunciated by Apollo, namely, that -the soul of the child is derived from the father -and the mother is only a nurse to his heaven-born -offspring, accepted the new religion. When the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_385">385</span> -dominion of man over woman was complete the -female principle throughout nature and in the -god-idea was practically unrecognized or wholly -ignored. Throughout the historic period male -power has been supreme not only on the earth -but also in heaven. Classical history is not wanting -in references to this change in the relations -of the sexes and in the god-idea which took place -at a certain stage of human development.</p> - -<p>We are informed that in Greece, probably about -1100 years <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>, Cecrops “instituted marriage and -established a new religion.” The new religion -instituted by Cecrops was the doctrine that the -father is the only parent, that the soul of the child -is derived from him, and that the mother performs -simply the office of nurse to his offspring. Woman -was no longer the creator or giver of life. She -was matter while man, who was henceforth to be -her lord and master, was spirit. Marriage as -instituted by Cecrops was the natural and inevitable -outcome of the new religion. It was the -first attempt of the Greek tribes to legalize and -control the sex-functions of women. The deeper -one delves into the mysteries of the past the more -apparent does it become that the sexual degradation -of women is deeply rooted in religion.</p> - -<p>For untold ages early organized society proceeded -along the line of uninterrupted evolutionary -progress. Although humanity was traversing -an unknown path the arts of life steadily increased. -The production of farinaceous food by means of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_386">386</span> -which an exclusive meat diet was avoided was -an achievement of the utmost importance to the -race. The idea of government which at first -included only the members of related groups was -extended to the tribe and even to the nation.</p> - -<p>Equality, freedom, and justice constituted the -fundamental principles of early organized society. -Finally, however, through causes which have already -been set forth in these pages, this system -gradually gave place to a regime founded on selfishness, -or egoism. At this time in human -affairs related groups could no longer defend themselves -against the aggressions of powerful hostile -foes; jealousies arose and alien tribes began to -make war upon one another, the stronger appropriating -the lands of the weaker and making -slaves of the people. The women of the subjugated -groups became the sexual slaves of the -conquerors. As native women were free, foreign -women who could be controlled were greatly in -demand. Therefore frequent attacks were made -on foreign groups for the sole purpose of “carrying -off” the women.</p> - -<p>The lands which had been held in common by -all the members of the tribe were now parcelled -out among individual chieftains. The prestige -given to these “lords of the soil,” and the advantage -gained by them through the control of the -natural resources and the means of subsistence, -soon gave rise to a privileged class—a class which -in process of time became masters of the masses of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_387">387</span> -the people. When wars for conquest and spoliation -became general and when the communal -system under which the principles of liberty and -equality had been established gave place to a -system founded on force the entire habitable -globe became a battle-ground upon which each -and every individual struggled fiercely with every -other individual not only for place and power, -but for the means of subsistence as well. When -the principles of democracy established under -gentile institutions gave place to a system of -governmental control under which only the rights -of the few were recognized, and when the unchecked -disruptive forces had gained the ascendency -over the constructive elements developed -in human nature, the degeneracy of the race began. -It is not difficult to trace the steps by which this -degeneracy has been accomplished.</p> - -<p>Although we of the present boast of our material -achievements, and although we arrogate to ourselves -a most remarkable degree of intelligence, -enlightenment, and even culture, it is evident that -we have not risen above a plane of the grossest -materialism, and that in the truly human qualities, -those which distinguish man from the animal, -we are sadly deficient. That in these later days -the moral sense has become atrophied is shown in -the fact that our present tooth and claw system, -under which each individual must array himself -against every other individual in his struggle for -existence, is regarded as a practical exemplification<span class="pagenum" id="Page_388">388</span> -of the principle of the “Survival of the Fittest.” -According to this interpretation, not those who -are best endowed, physically, mentally, and -morally are the fittest to survive, but on the contrary -those who are best able to appropriate to -themselves the opportunities and advantages -which belong to others. In other words it is -claimed that by the Survival of the Fittest is -meant the survival of those who because of their -material advantages are able to exploit their -fellowmen. A few of the processes involved in -the control of the many by the few have already -been mentioned. To maintain the authority of the -privileged class and to strengthen their hold on -the liberties of the people, Monarchy, Aristocracy, -and Ecclesiasticism were established and the -Divine Right of Kings proclaimed. Intrenched -behind these mighty bulwarks the position of -the usurpers has been impregnable. Through enforced -ignorance and superstition the “common -people” came to regard their situation not only -as natural and unavoidable but as representing -the will of the Almighty. If they were faithful -to their masters in this world, in the world to come -they would be furnished with free transport to -Fields Elysian. Strange to relate this belief still -prevails.</p> - -<p>At the present time the principle of human freedom -is still struggling for recognition, but the great -mass of human beings, although boasting of their -civilization and enlightenment, continue to up<span class="pagenum" id="Page_389">389</span>hold -the principle that the few should rule the many. -They regard their rulers as superior beings whose -authority may not be questioned. At the present -time we have before us the dismal spectacle of -half a dozen hereditary monarchs who with their -satellites claim the right to rule over nearly the -whole of Europe and a large portion of Asia. -Twenty-five millions of men are now engaged in -a deadly conflict to further the commercial and -territorial interests of their masters.</p> - -<p>When we compare present conditions with those -which existed under early organized society at a -time when every individual member of a group -was equal in responsibility and power with every -other member of the same group we are enabled -to perceive the path which mankind has taken on -its onward course.</p> - -<p>When one reflects on the peculiar trend of -human development one may feel no surprise -over the fact that at this juncture in human -affairs there should arise a ruler in whom the -desire for world-dominion is clearly apparent. -That such a potentate has already appeared is -shown in the following from Emperor William II. -of Germany.</p> - -<p>“On me as Germany’s Emperor the spirit of -God has descended. I am His weapon, His sword, -his vicegerent. Woe unto the disobedient. Death -to the unbeliever.” Here it is observed that this -ruler aspires not only to earthly dominion but -also to divine recognition.</p> - -<div class="chapter"></div> -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_390">390</span></p> - -<p>To strangle the growing principles of liberty -and to establish a system founded on force under -which the individual was to become only an -instrument to do the bidding of his lord and -master was doubtless the original object of those -who instigated the present war.</p> - -<p>During the ages since the establishment of the -authority of the few over the many, the latter -until a comparatively recent time have offered -little resistance to the tyranny exercised over -them. Mentally dwarfed the proletariat have -not yet reached the degree of intelligence necessary -for a combination of interests. They have -therefore remained like dumb driven cattle subject -only to the will of their masters.</p> - -<p>About sixty years ago through the efforts of a -few leaders who had begun to realize the situation, -a certain degree of unrest began to manifest itself -among them, and forty years later the proletariat -succeeded in establishing an international organization -ostensibly for their own benefit as opposed -to the interests of the ruling class. They, however, -lacked solidarity. The natural tendency -of their sex toward separateness or disintegration -was not easily overcome. This is shown in the -case of the present European conflict. When the -war broke out instead of standing together they -at once hastened to obey the mandates of their -respective rulers, and with no higher idea than -patriotism or nationality they at once began their -brutal assault upon one another. It was evident<span class="pagenum" id="Page_391">391</span> -from the beginning that the German socialists, -they who had been the most conspicuous in the -international movement, were first, last, and all -the time Germans and that after all they were -actuated only by one desire, namely, national -aggrandizement. So lacking are men in the -principle of solidarity, and so deeply rooted within -them is the idea of separateness, that it is to be -doubted if, without the aid of woman, they will -ever be able to free themselves from the tyranny -of the past.</p> - -<p>In very recent times a foe has arisen which -threatens to be a greater menace to the liberties -of the masses of the people than were the foes by -which they were originally enslaved. I refer to -the money power, or plutocracy.</p> - -<p>During the last few years, through the application -of scientific methods to industry, and through -mechanical inventions by means of which the -power and efficiency of labour have been greatly -increased, the accumulation of wealth has reached -a point never before witnessed in the history of -the world, yet strange to relate, along with this -enormous increase in wealth there has been a corresponding -increase in poverty and crime. This -immense wealth has not been shared by those -who produced it but has gone into the pockets -of those who exploit labour for profits. Along -with this enormous increase in wealth is observed -a general lowering of standards both in private -and public life. There are in this country alone<span class="pagenum" id="Page_392">392</span> -ten millions of people who are deprived of the -necessary food, clothing, and shelter to insure a -healthful existence. In the public schools of -New York City it is reported that six hundred -thousand children are victims of malnutrition. -In winter thousands of hungry men and women -go up and down the streets of our large cities -begging for an opportunity to earn a living. Our -jails and prisons are filled to overflowing. Our -almshouses and insane asylums are insufficient to -meet the demands. Imbecility and other forms -of mental degeneracy are increasing at an alarming -rate. Epilepsy and other congenital diseases -prevail among all classes and conditions of the -people. Five-sixths of the children born are -diseased at birth.</p> - -<p>The basic principle underlying our present -economic system is profits. To secure large -profits labour must be cheap and plentiful, and -that labour may be cheap and plentiful an enormous -population must be produced. In order -to produce this enormous population women must -be enslaved. Although existing conditions are -such as to make life a curse instead of a blessing, -the cry for “babies, more babies” is heard on -every hand, and this notwithstanding the fact -that a large proportion of the children born die -before the age of five because this environment is -unfavourable to life.</p> - -<p>The clamour for an ever increasing birth-rate -never ceases. It is believed that Providence<span class="pagenum" id="Page_393">393</span> -alone is responsible for human ills. Poverty and -disease are accepted as natural and unavoidable -evils.</p> - -<p>The fears expressed lest the human race fail -to perpetuate itself would be pathetic were the -reason for these fears less obvious. When we -reflect that the labour market must be constantly -supplied with cheap labour, and that millions of -soldiers must be produced to protect the commercial -and territorial interests of the ruling class -the true inwardness of this insatiate cry for -constantly increasing numbers is revealed.</p> - -<p>Ecclesiasticism, the faithful ally of Plutocracy, -mindful of the fact that its strength lies in an -excess of numbers, has ever jealously guarded -the injunction to increase and multiply. No doctrine -of the so-called Christian church has been -so fondly cherished and so faithfully preserved as -has that of the subjection of women. Woman’s -glorification under the Christian system has been -exactly commensurate with her obedience to man. -No offering from her to the Almighty is so acceptable -as unrestrained reproductive energy.</p> - -<p>The report of a declining birth-rate in any country -of the globe is a signal for instant alarm, but -although publicists and politicians have attempted -to control the birth-rate not only by threats and -promises but by legal enactments regulating -marriage, still it is observed that in all countries -of Europe, with the exception of Ireland, Bulgaria, -and Roumania, the birth-rate during the last<span class="pagenum" id="Page_394">394</span> -twenty-five years has steadily declined. Although -numberless causes have been suggested to account -for this phenomenon, and although various remedies -have been proposed to lessen this “evil,” -the actual cause underlying the declining birth-rate -of our time remains unrecognized. Politicians, -publicists, and ecclesiastics all refuse to acknowledge -the obvious fact that the increasing economic -independence of women is alone responsible for -this phenomenon.</p> - -<p>Notwithstanding the fact that during the last -twenty-five years marked progress is observed in -the social and economic conditions of women, still -the sexual position of the great mass of women -has steadily declined. The fact that so far as -her sex relations are concerned civilized woman -occupies a lower position than that occupied by -the female animal has already been noted in these -pages. The traffic in women is carried on in -every country on the earth.</p> - -<p>The existing sexual conditions are the direct -result of the overstimulation of the disruptive -characters inherited by man from his male progenitors -among the lower orders of life, characters -which among animals have been checked by -the constructive forces developed in the female. -Our sexual conditions and our present economic -and industrial situation loudly proclaim the -degeneracy of our time.</p> - -<p>When the principles of equality and liberty, -which were established by early organized society,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_395">395</span> -gave place to a system founded on force and the -control of the many by the few, and when through -the subjection of women the natural checks to -the disruptive tendencies developed in the male -were withdrawn, the conditions now existing in -so-called civilized society were foreshadowed.</p> - -<p>A crisis has been reached in human affairs. -The old regime has run its course and is about -to disappear. A new era is about to dawn on the -human race. The war which is now devastating -Europe, and which will doubtless spread over the -entire earth, is the beginning of the end. The -effects of the causes which were set up in prehistoric -times have reached their full measure of development -and can no more be postponed or averted -than can the thunderbolt which follows an electrical -explosion. A thoroughly material civilization -founded on selfishness and sensuality must -be destroyed root and branch before the higher -planes of activity for which humanity is destined -may be reached. The present conflict therefore -should not be regarded simply as a horrible -calamity but as a necessary preliminary to these -higher conditions. If the birth of the new regime -can come only through blood and tears, if only -through the throes of war is deliverance possible, -then it is not only unwise but useless to bewail -the present crisis.</p> - -<p>Through the cleansing process involved in the -present revolution, humanity will doubtless return -to the legitimate path of evolutionary develop<span class="pagenum" id="Page_396">396</span>ment. -Either liberty and justice, the cardinal -principles underlying early organized society will -be re-established or the processes of disruption -will complete the work of degeneration now so -well under way. In the transformation which is -to take place it is not likely that a vestige of the -institutions which have produced the present -regime will remain. The conflict now going on -between the higher and lower forces developed -in human life represents the struggle of Omnipotent -Life for higher expression in matter.</p> - -<p>It has been shown in this work that during the -development of life on the earth two forces have -been steadily at work, the one a conserving, cohesive -element, the other a disruptive, disintegrating -energy. The one tends toward combination or -solidarity, the other toward separateness or individual -sufficiency. The one is constructive, the -other destructive. Had the constructive processes -in human society been allowed their legitimate -expression the scenes now being enacted in -Europe would have been impossible.</p> - -<p>The principal force which has been employed -in the development of our present civilization has -been male energy. In the past this enormous force -has been necessary to subdue the earth and make -of it a suitable habitation for civilized humanity. -In later times, however, the discovery of hitherto -unknown forces in nature, the application of -scientific methods to industry, and the invention -of mechanical devices for the lessening of human<span class="pagenum" id="Page_397">397</span> -toil have done away with the necessity for an -excess of human brawn. In other words the -excessive male energy which has in the past been -required for the development of our present civilization -has become not only useless but an actual -hindrance to further progress. As this enormous -power is no longer needed for useful purposes it -has been turned into channels of wantonness and -destruction. It has become disruptive and dangerous -to a degree which may be appreciated -when we reflect on the present conditions not only -in Europe, but over the entire earth. Among the -cleansing processes involved in the present crisis -is the elimination of a considerable number of the -useless elements described above—elements which -being no longer necessary for the maintenance of -the common good have become a menace to -society.</p> - -<p>According to our narrow human conceptions -by which passing events are regarded only in -relation to their present effects, the eliminating -processes now going on are cruel and inhuman. -Nature, however, pays little heed to human suffering, -but although she ignores human misery she -will nevertheless demand an exact accounting for -the deeds of selfishness and ignorance which are -responsible for the present disorder. She will inaugurate -no scheme of salvation; no “Vicarious -Atonement” will be provided to save mankind -from the consequences of their own folly.</p> - -<p>The struggle now going on in nearly every quarter<span class="pagenum" id="Page_398">398</span> -of the globe marks the beginning of the eliminating -process. The useless elements in human society -are wearing themselves out, destroying themselves -by their own rashness and folly. Impelled by a desire -which they do not understand and which they -are unable to resist, these victims of a decaying -civilization rush madly on to destruction. Those -men who voluntarily seek war represent a dissatisfied -or discontented class. True to the -primitive instincts of the race they crave the peculiar -excitement which war brings. It is not unlikely -that many of them understand instinctively -that something is wrong with the present regime, -but they seem not to be able to analyse the situation.</p> - -<p>Doubtless very many of those engaged in the -present European struggle are actuated by patriotism. -They want to maintain the existing territorial -boundaries presided over by their respective -rulers. They desire also to retain the institutions, -social, political, economic, and religious which -have grown up under a system where the few -control the many. Evidently the idea of human -liberty has not yet dawned upon them. If universal -freedom awaits the birth of the new regime, -which is being heralded by the present upheaval, -then it is plain that the men in the trenches are -quite unmindful of the significance of the conflict -in which they are engaged. The belligerent -countries of Europe may consent to a truce and -there may be a lull in the universal unrest, but<span class="pagenum" id="Page_399">399</span> -there will be no genuine peace until the principle -of human liberty has been established on a firm -and lasting basis.</p> - -<p>That the removal of these superfluous men from -their usual vocations will not materially interfere -with the useful industries of Europe is shown in -the fact that although 25,000,000 of them have -been called to the war their withdrawal from the -industrial field has not greatly disturbed the industrial -situation, and this too notwithstanding -the fact that many new occupations have been -created by the war. The work formerly done by -these men has been largely taken up by women.</p> - -<p>It should be borne in mind that under the new -conditions which are approaching, the constructive -element developed in human society is again -to assume command over the destructive forces -which have been in control since the beginning -of the historic period. As this element has been -confided to women and as it is by them transmitted -to offspring, it is not difficult to forecast the position -which the women of the future will occupy.</p> - -<p>The institution of marriage as it now exists -will disappear. Only the most robust among -women will propagate the race. These women, -as did the women under early organized society, -will choose their mates. They will exercise absolute -control over the sex-functions. Thus will be -avoided the terrible consequences which have -resulted from the present form of marriage.</p> - -<p>The numerical preponderance of women over<span class="pagenum" id="Page_400">400</span> -men under the new regime is probable. Nor will -the devastating processes of war be wholly responsible -for this condition. Science informs us that -not only among the lower orders of life but among -human beings as well, certain conditions of nutrition -produce more females than males. The more -nutritious and wholesome the food the greater -the excess of females over males. Under higher -conditions, when the laws of health and life are -better understood and especially when the subject -of proper nutrition has received the attention -which its importance deserves, it is not unreasonable -to suppose that the excess of female births -over those of males will be considerable.</p> - -<p>Although there have doubtless been long lapses -of time during which the human race has seemed -to go backward, it is believed that the trend of -humanity is now and ever has been upward. If, -as is believed, human events move in cycles, if -the civilizations which have risen in the past represent -a spiral, each of these civilizations reaching -a higher stage of development than its predecessor, -then it may be inferred that the era -which is now dawning will surpass in grandeur -anything which the world has ever witnessed. -If, as many persons believe, a stage of development -has been reached in which human beings are -to be endowed with a sixth sense, if the intuitive -faculties which are closely allied to the constructive -element and which mark a still greater distinction -between man and the animal are to come into<span class="pagenum" id="Page_401">401</span> -play it may be assumed that the mental and -spiritual faculties will reach a stage of development -scarcely dreamed of in our own time. -Humanity will have come into its own, the animal -in man will have been left behind.</p> - -<p>The co-ordination of science and history not -only illumines the past and explains the present, -but the inevitable results of the natural sequence -of events point unerringly to the conditions which -must prevail in the future.</p> - -<p>The philosophy of history proves to the earnest -seeker after truth that the door of the future is -not wholly closed.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> - - -<h2 id="INDEX">INDEX</h2> - - -<ul class="index"> -<li class="ifrst">A</li> - -<li class="indx">Abipones, their customs, <a href='#Page_148'>148</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">independence of women among, <a href='#Page_186'>186</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Abrotonum, <a href='#Page_342'>342</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Adoption, among early races, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a>, <a href='#Page_145'>145</a>, <a href='#Page_324'>324</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">symbol of, <a href='#Page_146'>146</a>, <a href='#Page_147'>147</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Affection in primitive groups, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Agamemnon, <a href='#Page_256'>256</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Agnation, <a href='#Page_351'>351</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ainos, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Altruism, its development in the female, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">its development in society, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a>, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Amazonianism, <a href='#Page_208'>208</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Andromache, <a href='#Page_283'>283</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Arabia, organization of society in, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">marriage in, <a href='#Page_179'>179</a>, <a href='#Page_181'>181</a>, <a href='#Page_182'>182</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Arawaks, their customs, <a href='#Page_147'>147</a>, <a href='#Page_174'>174</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Archonship, <a href='#Page_259'>259</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">its close, <a href='#Page_264'>264</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Areta, <a href='#Page_332'>332</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Aristocracy, its growth among the Greeks, <a href='#Page_251'>251</a>, <a href='#Page_265'>265</a>-267</li> - -<li class="indx">Aristophanes, his picture of female philosophers, <a href='#Page_338'>338</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Aspasia, preceptress of Socrates, <a href='#Page_334'>334</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">her genius, her teachings, <a href='#Page_337'>337</a>-338</li> - -<li class="indx">Assembly of the people, <a href='#Page_156'>156</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">development of the, <a href='#Page_251'>251</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">its duties, <a href='#Page_259'>259</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">its disappearance in Greece, <a href='#Page_264'>264</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">its powers among the Spartans, <a href='#Page_293'>293</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Atavism, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Athene, her decision concerning paternity, <a href='#Page_272'>272</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Athenian men, their policy, <a href='#Page_285'>285</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">ashamed of their name, <a href='#Page_318'>318</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">their wives Carians, <a href='#Page_319'>319</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">their moral degradation, <a href='#Page_323'>323</a>-326</li> - -<li class="indx">Athenian women, imported foreigners, <a href='#Page_319'>319</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">their degradation, <a href='#Page_323'>323</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">their division into classes<a href='#Page_324'>324</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">decline of influence among, <a href='#Page_329'>329</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">their reputed licentiousness, <a href='#Page_339'>339</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Auletrides, <a href='#Page_325'>325</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Australians, <a href='#Page_230'>230</a></li> - - -<li class="ifrst">B</li> - -<li class="indx">Babylonian women, <a href='#Page_234'>234</a>, <a href='#Page_340'>340</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Basileus</i>, germ of present king, <a href='#Page_156'>156</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">does not correspond to modern monarch, <a href='#Page_156'>156</a>, <a href='#Page_255'>255</a>, <a href='#Page_257'>257</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">elected by a constituency, <a href='#Page_253'>253</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">abolition of the office of, <a href='#Page_259'>259</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Birds, their courtships, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>-21;</li> -<li class="isub1">aversion of females for certain males among, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">the female among, chooses her mate, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">efforts of the male to please the female among, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">eagerness of the male among, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">powers of the female among, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">inheritance of the female among, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">inheritance of the male among, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">constancy of the female among, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Burgesses, <a href='#Page_272'>272</a></li> - - -<li class="ifrst">C</li> - -<li class="indx">Captives, not enslaved in early groups, <a href='#Page_145'>145</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">as sexual slaves, <a href='#Page_163'>163</a>, <a href='#Page_276'>276</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cecrops, <a href='#Page_262'>262</a>, <a href='#Page_272'>272</a>, <a href='#Page_329'>329</a>, <a href='#Page_362'>362</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Chastity of early races, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a>, <a href='#Page_113'>113</a>, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a>, <a href='#Page_306'>306</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Clisthenes, <a href='#Page_249'>249</a>, <a href='#Page_261'>261</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Codrus, <a href='#Page_249'>249</a>, <a href='#Page_259'>259</a>, <a href='#Page_264'>264</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Colour-blindness, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Common law, the, woman’s position under, <a href='#Page_357'>357</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Communal marriage, <a href='#Page_225'>225</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Concubines, <a href='#Page_327'>327</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Couvade, la</i>, its extent, <a href='#Page_148'>148</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Crates, <a href='#Page_334'>334</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cuckoos, character of, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cynic philosophy, the, its principles, <a href='#Page_332'>332</a></li> - - -<li class="ifrst">D</li> - -<li class="indx">Danaūs, daughters of, <a href='#Page_274'>274</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Deme, establishment of, <a href='#Page_249'>249</a>, <a href='#Page_260'>260</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Democracy, of early races, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">of the early Greeks, <a href='#Page_250'>250</a>-251;</li> -<li class="isub1">decay of, <a href='#Page_264'>264</a>-265, <a href='#Page_267'>267</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in ancient Italy, <a href='#Page_313'>313</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Descent, traced through men, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a>, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a>, <a href='#Page_281'>281</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in Arabia, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in Greece, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Descent, traced through women, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a>, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a>, <a href='#Page_157'>157</a>, <a href='#Page_222'>222</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">its universality, <a href='#Page_228'>228</a>, <a href='#Page_311'>311</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">among the Iroquois Indians, <a href='#Page_249'>249</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">law of, <a href='#Page_253'>253</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in Lycia, <a href='#Page_310'>310</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Desires, primary, of the male, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Dicteriades</i>, <a href='#Page_327'>327</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Differentiation, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Diseases of women, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">not constitutional, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Dorians, their conservatism, <a href='#Page_285'>285</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Draco, <a href='#Page_266'>266</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">his laws, <a href='#Page_322'>322</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">E</li> - -<li class="indx">Early Christianity, <a href='#Page_361'>361</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ecclesia, <a href='#Page_251'>251</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ecclesiasticism, its effect on the position of women, <a href='#Page_356'>356</a>-357</li> - -<li class="indx">Egoism, its development in males, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">not pronounced among earliest races, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a>, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">its development in later ages, <a href='#Page_155'>155</a></li> - -<li class="indx">England in the nineteenth century, <a href='#Page_370'>370</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Epicureans, <a href='#Page_333'>333</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Eupatrids, their cupidity, <a href='#Page_264'>264</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Evolution, individual and historic, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a></li> - - -<li class="ifrst">F</li> - -<li class="indx">Family, the, not the basis of the gens, <a href='#Page_246'>246</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Female, conditions which produce the, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Fijians, their customs, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a>-117;</li> -<li class="isub1">parental affection among, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Foreign women, as wives, <a href='#Page_188'>188</a>, <a href='#Page_192'>192</a>, <a href='#Page_219'>219</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">as concubines, <a href='#Page_283'>283</a>, <a href='#Page_327'>327</a>, <a href='#Page_348'>348</a></li> - -<li class="indx">France, marriage customs in, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in the nineteenth century, <a href='#Page_370'>370</a></li> - - -<li class="ifrst">G</li> - -<li class="indx">Gaius, <a href='#Page_353'>353</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Genealogies traced through fathers, <a href='#Page_271'>271</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Gentile organization, the, universality of, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">principles established by, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">democratic character of, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a>, <a href='#Page_138'>138</a>, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">unity of, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">government under, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a>, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a>, <a href='#Page_156'>156</a>, <a href='#Page_247'>247</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">property belonging to, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">altruistic character of, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a>, <a href='#Page_157'>157</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in Greece, <a href='#Page_245'>245</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">its decay, <a href='#Page_260'>260</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">its final overthrow, <a href='#Page_261'>261</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in Athens, <a href='#Page_262'>262</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Glycera, <a href='#Page_341'>341</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Government, development of, <a href='#Page_248'>248</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Greek society, its construction, <a href='#Page_243'>243</a>, <a href='#Page_245'>245</a></li> - - -<li class="ifrst">H</li> - -<li class="indx">Hairy covering for the body, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>-51</li> - -<li class="indx">Hand, the female, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hercules, tradition of, <a href='#Page_273'>273</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hetairai, a term of reproach, <a href='#Page_329'>329</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">their renown, <a href='#Page_330'>330</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">origin of the word, <a href='#Page_338'>338</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">honoured citizens, <a href='#Page_341'>341</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">judged by masculine standards, <a href='#Page_344'>344</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hindu law, <a href='#Page_352'>352</a></li> - - -<li class="ifrst">I</li> - -<li class="indx">Infanticide, McLennan’s theory of, <a href='#Page_217'>217</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">not practised by early races, <a href='#Page_220'>220</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Sir J. Lubbock’s theory of, <a href='#Page_226'>226</a>-227</li> - -<li class="indx">Insects, nutrition determines sex, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">males appear first, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Iroquois Indians, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a></li> - - -<li class="ifrst">J</li> - -<li class="indx">Justinian Code, <a href='#Page_357'>357</a>, <a href='#Page_359'>359</a></li> - - -<li class="ifrst">L</li> - -<li class="indx">Lamia, <a href='#Page_326'>326</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lance, symbol of property, <a href='#Page_181'>181</a>, <a href='#Page_312'>312</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Leontium, <a href='#Page_334'>334</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Life, origin of, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">earliest forms hermaphrodite, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lydian women, <a href='#Page_340'>340</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lysicles, <a href='#Page_336'>336</a></li> - - -<li class="ifrst">M</li> - -<li class="indx">Magna Charta, <a href='#Page_369'>369</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Man, shorter-lived than woman,</li> -<li class="indx">45, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">imperfections in the organization of, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>-59;</li> -<li class="isub1">superior to woman, Darwin’s theory, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">assumes the duties of maternity, <a href='#Page_147'>147</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">superior to woman according to edict of Apollo, <a href='#Page_199'>199</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Marriage, origin of, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in India, <a href='#Page_163'>163</a>;</li> -<li class="ifrst"><i>Racshasa</i>, <a href='#Page_163'>163</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in Arabia, <a href='#Page_164'>164</a>, <a href='#Page_179'>179</a>, <a href='#Page_181'>181</a>, <a href='#Page_182'>182</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">by <i>Confarreatio</i> and <i>Usus</i>, <a href='#Page_164'>164</a>, <a href='#Page_351'>351</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">among the Israelites, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in Afghanistan, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in Greenland, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in Nubia, <a href='#Page_171'>171</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in Sparta, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a>;</li> -<li class="ifrst"><i>sadica</i>, <a href='#Page_179'>179</a>;</li> -<li class="ifrst"><i>beena</i>, <a href='#Page_180'>180</a>;</li> -<li class="ifrst"><i>motă</i>, <a href='#Page_181'>181</a>;</li> -<li class="ifrst"><i>ba’al</i>, <a href='#Page_181'>181</a>, <a href='#Page_188'>188</a>, <a href='#Page_193'>193</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">laws of Mohammed, <a href='#Page_183'>183</a>, <a href='#Page_188'>188</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in Japan, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in Rome, <a href='#Page_189'>189</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">of the future, <a href='#Page_399'>399</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">rise of the present system of, <a href='#Page_197'>197</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">ceremonies among the Spartans, <a href='#Page_310'>310</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Matter, conservation of, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mother-in-law, the, her aversion to sons-in-law, <a href='#Page_174'>174</a>, <a href='#Page_236'>236</a></li> - - -<li class="ifrst">N</li> - -<li class="indx">Names, adoption of, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Nemeas, <a href='#Page_341'>341</a></li> - - -<li class="ifrst">O</li> - -<li class="indx">Ontogeny, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Oracles of the Greeks controlled by women, <a href='#Page_309'>309</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Organization of society, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a></li> - - -<li class="ifrst">P</li> - -<li class="indx">Pangenesis, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Parthenogenesis, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Paternal affection, absence of, among lower orders, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">not a primary character, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">absence of, among lower races, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">absence of, among the Romans, <a href='#Page_189'>189</a>, <a href='#Page_191'>191</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pericles, <a href='#Page_335'>335</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Perpetual tutelage of women, <a href='#Page_350'>350</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Political society, establishment of, <a href='#Page_249'>249</a>, <a href='#Page_260'>260</a>-261</li> - -<li class="indx">Polyandry, not practised among lower orders, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Polygamy, rise of, <a href='#Page_106'>106</a>, <a href='#Page_189'>189</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Poverty of the masses in Greece, <a href='#Page_266'>266</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Primitive races, promiscuity among, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a>, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>, <a href='#Page_211'>211</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">chastity of, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a>, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a>, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a>, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a>, <a href='#Page_306'>306</a>, <a href='#Page_307'>307</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">morality of, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a>, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">humanity of, <a href='#Page_145'>145</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Property, control of, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a>, <a href='#Page_221'>221</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">inheritance of, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in early Greece, <a href='#Page_250'>250</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Protection of women in early groups, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a>, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a>, <a href='#Page_146'>146</a>, <a href='#Page_178'>178</a>, <a href='#Page_186'>186</a></li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Q</li> - -<li class="indx">Quadrupeds, constancy of the female among, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>-25, <a href='#Page_106'>106</a>-107;</li> -<li class="isub1">unions of, not left to chance, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a></li> - - -<li class="ifrst">R</li> - -<li class="indx">Religion of Mohammed, <a href='#Page_183'>183</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Religious idea, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>, <a href='#Page_211'>211</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Reversion, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Rights of Roman fathers, <a href='#Page_191'>191</a>, <a href='#Page_313'>313</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Roman family, the, <a href='#Page_312'>312</a>, <a href='#Page_349'>349</a>, <a href='#Page_352'>352</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Roman lawyers, <a href='#Page_352'>352</a>-353</li> - -<li class="indx">Roman society, its constitution, <a href='#Page_243'>243</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Roman women, <a href='#Page_178'>178</a>, <a href='#Page_189'>189</a>, <a href='#Page_314'>314</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Rotifera, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a></li> - - -<li class="ifrst">S</li> - -<li class="indx">Sabine women, capture of, <a href='#Page_312'>312</a></li> - -<li class="indx">St. Paul, <a href='#Page_361'>361</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Selection, natural, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Selection, sexual, Darwin’s theory of, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">compared</li> -<li class="indx">with artificial selection, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">processes of, reversed, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">lower characters eliminated through, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sexes, origin of, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>-15;</li> -<li class="isub1">numerical proportion of, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a>, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Slavery, <a href='#Page_145'>145</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">its extent in the nineteenth century, <a href='#Page_369'>369</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Socialism, <a href='#Page_390'>390</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Socrates, <a href='#Page_334'>334</a>-335</li> - -<li class="indx">Solon, his legislation, <a href='#Page_320'>320</a>-321;</li> -<li class="isub1">his character, <a href='#Page_320'>320</a>, <a href='#Page_322'>322</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Spartan women, their power, <a href='#Page_298'>298</a>, <a href='#Page_308'>308</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">they controlled the land, <a href='#Page_298'>298</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">they resisted the laws of Lycurgus, <a href='#Page_299'>299</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">they originated the exercises of the youth, <a href='#Page_300'>300</a>, <a href='#Page_302'>302</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">their dress, <a href='#Page_303'>303</a>, <a href='#Page_305'>305</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">their influence, <a href='#Page_303'>303</a>, <a href='#Page_304'>304</a>, <a href='#Page_310'>310</a>, <a href='#Page_361'>361</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Spartans, their government, <a href='#Page_156'>156</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">democratic character of their institutions, <a href='#Page_252'>252</a>-253;</li> -<li class="isub1">their senate, <a href='#Page_286'>286</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">their morality, <a href='#Page_302'>302</a>, <a href='#Page_304'>304</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">adultery unknown among them, <a href='#Page_307'>307</a>, <a href='#Page_316'>316</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">election of senators among the, <a href='#Page_309'>309</a>, <a href='#Page_310'>310</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Stoic philosophy, the, its principles, <a href='#Page_334'>334</a>, <a href='#Page_347'>347</a>-348;</li> -<li class="isub1">its effect on Roman law, <a href='#Page_348'>348</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Struggles for mates, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>-23, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Survival of the fittest, <a href='#Page_388'>388</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Symbols in marriage ceremonies, among the Circassians, <a href='#Page_171'>171</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in Abyssinia, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in Arabia, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in Scandinavia, Wales, and Ireland, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in Central Africa, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in Italy, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">as explained by McLennan, <a href='#Page_216'>216</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sympathy, development of, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a></li> - - -<li class="ifrst">T</li> - -<li class="indx">Thargelia, <a href='#Page_337'>337</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Themistia, <a href='#Page_334'>334</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Themistocles, <a href='#Page_342'>342</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Theseus, <a href='#Page_260'>260</a>, <a href='#Page_271'>271</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">united the Attic tribes, <a href='#Page_262'>262</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Timotheus, <a href='#Page_342'>342</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tribe, the, its formation, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a>, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">growth of the governmental idea within, <a href='#Page_247'>247</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tribes named after women, <a href='#Page_273'>273</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tyrannies established among the Greeks, <a href='#Page_263'>263</a></li> - - -<li class="ifrst">U</li> - -<li class="indx">Union of tribes in Athens, <a href='#Page_262'>262</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Unisexual forms, development of, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a></li> - - -<li class="ifrst">V</li> - -<li class="indx">Variability denotes low organization, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Variations in the human body, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>-48</li> - -<li class="indx">Vital force, expenditure of, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a></li> - - -<li class="ifrst">W</li> - -<li class="indx">Wife-capture, among the Israelites, <a href='#Page_164'>164</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">among the Arabians, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">its extent, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">McLennan’s theory to account for, <a href='#Page_215'>215</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Lubbock’s</li> -<li class="indx">theory of, <a href='#Page_224'>224</a>-227;</li> -<li class="isub1">among the Spartans, <a href='#Page_310'>310</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Women, in excess of men, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">of Greenland, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">their intuitions, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">their apparel, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">of Australia, <a href='#Page_111'>111</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">among the Kaffirs, <a href='#Page_111'>111</a>, <a href='#Page_146'>146</a>, <a href='#Page_187'>187</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">of early German tribes, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">of Nubia, <a href='#Page_111'>111</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">of Sumatra, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">of Tahiti, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">among the Fijians, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a>, <a href='#Page_186'>186</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">among the North American Indians, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">head of the family, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a>, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">of Arabia, <a href='#Page_178'>178</a>-179, <a href='#Page_188'>188</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">of Rome, <a href='#Page_178'>178</a>, <a href='#Page_190'>190</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in Japan, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">among the Abipones, <a href='#Page_186'>186</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">among the Greeks, <a href='#Page_272'>272</a>, <a href='#Page_276'>276</a>, <a href='#Page_277'>277</a>, <a href='#Page_279'>279</a>, <a href='#Page_283'>283</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">under the ancient Roman law, <a href='#Page_350'>350</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">under the middle Roman law, <a href='#Page_352'>352</a>-354</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Y</li> - -<li class="indx">Yavanas, <a href='#Page_318'>318</a></li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Z</li> - -<li class="indx">Zeno, <a href='#Page_334'>334</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Zulus, marriage customs among, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a></li> -</ul> - -<hr class="chap" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> - -<h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> - -<div class="footnotes"> -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1_1" href="#FNanchor_1_1" class="label">1</a> -Haeckel, <i>History of Creation</i>, 1884, vol. i., p. 75.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_2_2" href="#FNanchor_2_2" class="label">2</a> -<i>History of Creation</i>, vol. i., p. 331.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_3_3" href="#FNanchor_3_3" class="label">3</a> -<i>History of Creation</i>, 1884, vol. i., p. 187.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_4_4" href="#FNanchor_4_4" class="label">4</a> -Darwin, <i>The Descent of Man</i>, 1877, p. 207.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_5_5" href="#FNanchor_5_5" class="label">5</a> -<i>Ibid.</i>, p. 208.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_6_6" href="#FNanchor_6_6" class="label">6</a> -<i>The Descent of Man</i>, 1877, pp. 209-211.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_7_7" href="#FNanchor_7_7" class="label">7</a> -<i>The Descent of Man</i>, 1877, p. 220.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_8_8" href="#FNanchor_8_8" class="label">8</a> -<i>The Descent of Man</i>, 1877, p. 496.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_9_9" href="#FNanchor_9_9" class="label">9</a> -<i>Ibid.</i>, p. 367.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_10_10" href="#FNanchor_10_10" class="label">10</a> -<i>The Descent of Man</i>, 1877, p. 443.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_11_11" href="#FNanchor_11_11" class="label">11</a> -<i>Ibid.</i>, p. 416.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_12_12" href="#FNanchor_12_12" class="label">12</a> -<i>The Descent of Man</i>, 1877, p. 212.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_13_13" href="#FNanchor_13_13" class="label">13</a> -<i>Ibid.</i>, p. 523.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_14_14" href="#FNanchor_14_14" class="label">14</a> -<i>The Descent of Man</i>, 1877, p. 525.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_15_15" href="#FNanchor_15_15" class="label">15</a> -It should be noted, in passing, that, according to this reasoning, -the female of the human species would also be likely to exercise -her will power in the selection of a mate. Evidences are -indeed at hand going to prove that until a comparatively recent -time in the history of the human race women controlled the sexual -relation. As will be shown in Part II., during the primitive -ages of human existence the position of woman was much higher -than was that occupied by man. During the earlier ages, and -under more natural conditions, women selected their mates, -and among the human species, as among the lower orders, it -became necessary for the male to please the female if he would -win her favours; hence, through Sexual Selection, it is believed, -was acquired the greater size of man.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_16_16" href="#FNanchor_16_16" class="label">16</a> -<i>The Descent of Man</i>, 1877, p. 211.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_17_17" href="#FNanchor_17_17" class="label">17</a> -<i>The Descent of Man</i>, 1877, p. 400.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_18_18" href="#FNanchor_18_18" class="label">18</a> -<i>The Descent of Man</i>, 1877, p. 232.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_19_19" href="#FNanchor_19_19" class="label">19</a> -<i>The Descent of Man</i>, 1877, p. 222.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_20_20" href="#FNanchor_20_20" class="label">20</a> -<i>Ibid.</i>, p. 227.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_21_21" href="#FNanchor_21_21" class="label">21</a> -<i>The Descent of Man</i>, p. 224.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_22_22" href="#FNanchor_22_22" class="label">22</a> -<i>The Descent of Man</i>, 1877, p. 617.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_23_23" href="#FNanchor_23_23" class="label">23</a> -Geddes and Thomson, <i>The Evolution of Sex</i>, 1890, p. 24.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_24_24" href="#FNanchor_24_24" class="label">24</a> -<i>The Evolution of Sex</i>, 1890, p. 20.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_25_25" href="#FNanchor_25_25" class="label">25</a> -<i>The Evolution of Sex</i>, p. 50.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_26_26" href="#FNanchor_26_26" class="label">26</a> -Prof. W. K. Brooks, <i>Pop. Science Monthly</i>, vol. xxvi., p. 327.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_27_27" href="#FNanchor_27_27" class="label">27</a> -Geddes and Thomson, <i>The Evolution of Sex</i>, 1890, p. 42.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_28_28" href="#FNanchor_28_28" class="label">28</a> -<i>Popular Science Monthly</i>, vol. xxvi., p. 328.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_29_29" href="#FNanchor_29_29" class="label">29</a> -<i>The Descent of Man</i>, 1877, p. 212.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_30_30" href="#FNanchor_30_30" class="label">30</a> -W. K. Brooks, <i>Popular Science Monthly</i>, vol. xxvi., p. 326.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_31_31" href="#FNanchor_31_31" class="label">31</a> -Thomas Meehan, <i>Native Flowers and Ferns</i>, vol. i., p. 47.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_32_32" href="#FNanchor_32_32" class="label">32</a> -<i>Native Flowers and Ferns</i>, vol. i., p. 39.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_33_33" href="#FNanchor_33_33" class="label">33</a> -<i>The Evolution of Sex</i>, 1890, p. 26.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_34_34" href="#FNanchor_34_34" class="label">34</a> -<i>History of Creation</i>, 1884, vol. i., p. 178.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_35_35" href="#FNanchor_35_35" class="label">35</a> -<i>The Descent of Man</i>, 1887, p. 243.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_36_36" href="#FNanchor_36_36" class="label">36</a> -<i>History of Greenland</i>, vol. i., p. 152.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_37_37" href="#FNanchor_37_37" class="label">37</a> -<i>Pop. Science Monthly</i>, vol. xix., p. 567.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_38_38" href="#FNanchor_38_38" class="label">38</a> -<i>Pop. Science Monthly</i>, vol. xxxi., p. 796.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_39_39" href="#FNanchor_39_39" class="label">39</a> -<i>American Nervousness</i>, p. 207.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_40_40" href="#FNanchor_40_40" class="label">40</a> -Maudsley, <i>Physiology and Pathology of the Mind</i>, p. 360.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_41_41" href="#FNanchor_41_41" class="label">41</a> -<i>The Descent of Man</i>, 1877, p. 102.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_42_42" href="#FNanchor_42_42" class="label">42</a> -<i>The Descent of Man</i>, 1877, p. 559.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_43_43" href="#FNanchor_43_43" class="label">43</a> -Maudsley, <i>Physiology and Pathology of the Mind</i>, p. 60.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_44_44" href="#FNanchor_44_44" class="label">44</a> -<i>The Evolution of Marriage and the Family</i>, p. 29.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_45_45" href="#FNanchor_45_45" class="label">45</a> -Geddes and Thomson, <i>The Evolution of Sex</i>, p. 276.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_46_46" href="#FNanchor_46_46" class="label">46</a> -Letourneau, <i>The Evolution of Marriage and the Family</i>, p. 22.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_47_47" href="#FNanchor_47_47" class="label">47</a> -<i>The Evolution of Marriage and the Family</i>, p. 34.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_48_48" href="#FNanchor_48_48" class="label">48</a> -<i>The Descent of Man</i>, p. 105.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_49_49" href="#FNanchor_49_49" class="label">49</a> -<i>The Descent of Man</i>, p. 130.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_50_50" href="#FNanchor_50_50" class="label">50</a> -<i>The Descent of Man</i>, p. 564.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_51_51" href="#FNanchor_51_51" class="label">51</a> -<i>The Descent of Man</i>, p. 565.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_52_52" href="#FNanchor_52_52" class="label">52</a> -Geddes and Thomson, <i>The Evolution of Sex</i>, p. 266.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_53_53" href="#FNanchor_53_53" class="label">53</a> -Letourneau, <i>The Evolution of Marriage and the Family</i>, p. 27.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_54_54" href="#FNanchor_54_54" class="label">54</a> -J. G. Wood, <i>Natural History</i>, p. 262.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_55_55" href="#FNanchor_55_55" class="label">55</a> -Westermarck, <i>The History of Human Marriage</i>, p. 11.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_56_56" href="#FNanchor_56_56" class="label">56</a> -Brehm, <i>Bird-Life</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_57_57" href="#FNanchor_57_57" class="label">57</a> -Letourneau, <i>The Evolution of Marriage and the Family</i>, p. 27.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_58_58" href="#FNanchor_58_58" class="label">58</a> -<i>Ibid.</i>, p. 35.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_59_59" href="#FNanchor_59_59" class="label">59</a> -Darwin, <i>The Descent of Man</i>, p. 590.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_60_60" href="#FNanchor_60_60" class="label">60</a> -Letourneau, <i>The Evolution of Marriage and the Family</i>, p. 32.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_61_61" href="#FNanchor_61_61" class="label">61</a> -<i>Anthropology</i>, p. 405.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_62_62" href="#FNanchor_62_62" class="label">62</a> -<i>Life in Abyssinia</i>, vol. ii., p. 152.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_63_63" href="#FNanchor_63_63" class="label">63</a> -Tylor, <i>Anthropology</i>, p. 406.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_64_64" href="#FNanchor_64_64" class="label">64</a> -Quoted by Westermarck, <i>History of Human Marriage</i>, p. 61.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_65_65" href="#FNanchor_65_65" class="label">65</a> -Burckhardt’s <i>Travels in Nubia</i>, p. 146.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_66_66" href="#FNanchor_66_66" class="label">66</a> -Seeman, <i>A Mission to Viti</i>, p. 191.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_67_67" href="#FNanchor_67_67" class="label">67</a> -<i>History of Sumatra</i>, p. 230.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_68_68" href="#FNanchor_68_68" class="label">68</a> -<i>Ibid.</i>, p. 226.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_69_69" href="#FNanchor_69_69" class="label">69</a> -<i>History of Greenland</i>, vol. i., p. 145.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_70_70" href="#FNanchor_70_70" class="label">70</a> -<i>Epistle of St. Boniface to Ethelbald.</i></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_71_71" href="#FNanchor_71_71" class="label">71</a> -<i>History of Human Marriage</i>, p. 62.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_72_72" href="#FNanchor_72_72" class="label">72</a> -<i>The History of Human Marriage</i>, p. 68.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_73_73" href="#FNanchor_73_73" class="label">73</a> -<i>Anthropology</i>, chap, xvi., p. 405.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_74_74" href="#FNanchor_74_74" class="label">74</a> -<i>The Descent of Man</i>, p. 594.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_75_75" href="#FNanchor_75_75" class="label">75</a> -<i>Ibid.</i>, p. 591.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_76_76" href="#FNanchor_76_76" class="label">76</a> -Seeman, <i>A Mission to Viti</i>, p. 191.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_77_77" href="#FNanchor_77_77" class="label">77</a> -Quoted by Sir John Lubbock, <i>Origin of Civilization</i>, p. 82.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_78_78" href="#FNanchor_78_78" class="label">78</a> -Seeman, <i>A Mission to Viti</i>, p. 191.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_79_79" href="#FNanchor_79_79" class="label">79</a> -<i>The Malay Archipelago.</i></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_80_80" href="#FNanchor_80_80" class="label">80</a> -Morgan, <i>Ancient Society</i>, p. 52.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_81_81" href="#FNanchor_81_81" class="label">81</a> -<i>Ancient Society</i>, pp. 62, 63.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_82_82" href="#FNanchor_82_82" class="label">82</a> -Tylor, <i>Anthropology</i>, p. 405.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_83_83" href="#FNanchor_83_83" class="label">83</a> -<i>Ancient Society</i>, p. 76.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_84_84" href="#FNanchor_84_84" class="label">84</a> -<i>Totemism</i>, p. 57.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_85_85" href="#FNanchor_85_85" class="label">85</a> -<i>Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia</i>, p. 14.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_86_86" href="#FNanchor_86_86" class="label">86</a> -<i>Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia</i>, pp. 26, 27.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_87_87" href="#FNanchor_87_87" class="label">87</a> -<i>Marriage and Kinship</i>, p. 16.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_88_88" href="#FNanchor_88_88" class="label">88</a> -<i>Sociology</i> vol. i., p. 665.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_89_89" href="#FNanchor_89_89" class="label">89</a> -<i>Descent of Man</i>, p. 588.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_90_90" href="#FNanchor_90_90" class="label">90</a> -<i>Sociology</i>, vol. i., p. 665.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_91_91" href="#FNanchor_91_91" class="label">91</a> -Quoted by Darwin, <i>Descent of Man</i>, p. 588.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_92_92" href="#FNanchor_92_92" class="label">92</a> -<i>Ancient Society</i>, p. 71.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_93_93" href="#FNanchor_93_93" class="label">93</a> -<i>Ancient Society</i>, p. 455.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_94_94" href="#FNanchor_94_94" class="label">94</a> -<i>The Malay Archipelago.</i></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_95_95" href="#FNanchor_95_95" class="label">95</a> -McLennan, <i>Studies in Ancient History</i>, p. 103.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_96_96" href="#FNanchor_96_96" class="label">96</a> -C. Staniland Wake, <i>Marriage and Kinship</i>, p. 306.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_97_97" href="#FNanchor_97_97" class="label">97</a> -<i>Studies in Ancient History</i>, p. 103.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_98_98" href="#FNanchor_98_98" class="label">98</a> -Morgan, <i>Ancient Society</i>, p. 79.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_99_99" href="#FNanchor_99_99" class="label">99</a> -Morgan, <i>Ancient Society</i>, p. 80.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_100_100" href="#FNanchor_100_100" class="label">100</a> -Quoted by Lubbock, <i>Origin of Civilization</i>, p. 96.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_101_101" href="#FNanchor_101_101" class="label">101</a> -<i>Uncivilized Races of the World</i>, vol. i., p. 78.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_102_102" href="#FNanchor_102_102" class="label">102</a> -Parkyns, <i>Life in Abyssinia</i>, vol. i., p. 174.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_103_103" href="#FNanchor_103_103" class="label">103</a> -<i>Early History of Mankind</i>, p. 296.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_104_104" href="#FNanchor_104_104" class="label">104</a> -<i>Marriage and Kinship</i>, p. 262.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_105_105" href="#FNanchor_105_105" class="label">105</a> -Morgan, <i>Ancient Society</i>, p. 82.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_106_106" href="#FNanchor_106_106" class="label">106</a> -Morgan, <i>Ancient Society</i>, p. 117.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_107_107" href="#FNanchor_107_107" class="label">107</a> -Morgan, <i>Ancient Society</i>, p. 85.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_108_108" href="#FNanchor_108_108" class="label">108</a> -<i>Ibid.</i>, p. 64.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_109_109" href="#FNanchor_109_109" class="label">109</a> -W. Robertson Smith, <i>Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia</i>, -p. 73.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_110_110" href="#FNanchor_110_110" class="label">110</a> -Deuteronomy, chap. xx., 13, 14, 15.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_111_111" href="#FNanchor_111_111" class="label">111</a> -<i>Studies in Ancient History</i>, p. 40.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_112_112" href="#FNanchor_112_112" class="label">112</a> -Quoted by Sir J. Lubbock, <i>Origin of Civilization</i>, p. 108.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_113_113" href="#FNanchor_113_113" class="label">113</a> -<i>Studies in Ancient History</i>, p. 5.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_114_114" href="#FNanchor_114_114" class="label">114</a> -<i>Marriage and Kinship</i>, p. 207.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_115_115" href="#FNanchor_115_115" class="label">115</a> -Quoted by E. J. Wood, <i>The Wedding Day</i>, etc., p. 60.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_116_116" href="#FNanchor_116_116" class="label">116</a> -Quoted by E. J. Wood, <i>The Wedding Day</i>, etc., p. 60.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_117_117" href="#FNanchor_117_117" class="label">117</a> -<i>History of Greenland</i>, vol. i., p. 146.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_118_118" href="#FNanchor_118_118" class="label">118</a> -Burckhardt, <i>Travels in Nubia</i>, p. 34.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_119_119" href="#FNanchor_119_119" class="label">119</a> -<i>Life in Abyssinia</i>, vol. ii., p. 49.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_120_120" href="#FNanchor_120_120" class="label">120</a> -<i>Anthropology</i>, p. 404.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_121_121" href="#FNanchor_121_121" class="label">121</a> -<i>Lycurgus.</i></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_122_122" href="#FNanchor_122_122" class="label">122</a> -Quoted by Tylor, <i>Early History of Mankind</i>, p. 290.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_123_123" href="#FNanchor_123_123" class="label">123</a> -<i>Travels through Central Africa</i>, vol. i., p. 94.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_124_124" href="#FNanchor_124_124" class="label">124</a> -See McLennan’s <i>Studies in Ancient History</i>, p. 189.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_125_125" href="#FNanchor_125_125" class="label">125</a> -Prof. W. R. Smith, <i>Kinship and Marriage</i>, p. 69.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_126_126" href="#FNanchor_126_126" class="label">126</a> -Ortolan, <i>History of Roman Law</i>, p. 80.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_127_127" href="#FNanchor_127_127" class="label">127</a> -<i>Kinship and Marriage</i>, p. 75.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_128_128" href="#FNanchor_128_128" class="label">128</a> -Quoted by C. S. Wake from Morgan’s <i>System</i>, etc., p. 428.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_129_129" href="#FNanchor_129_129" class="label">129</a> -Darwin, <i>The Descent of Man</i>, p. 598.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_130_130" href="#FNanchor_130_130" class="label">130</a> -<i>Ibid.</i>, p. 598.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_131_131" href="#FNanchor_131_131" class="label">131</a> -Marsden, <i>History of Sumatra</i>, p. 193.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_132_132" href="#FNanchor_132_132" class="label">132</a> -Professor Smith, <i>Kinship and Marriage</i>, p. 79.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_133_133" href="#FNanchor_133_133" class="label">133</a> -<i>Uncivilized Races</i>, etc., p. 78.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_134_134" href="#FNanchor_134_134" class="label">134</a> -<i>Ibid.</i>, p. 79.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_135_135" href="#FNanchor_135_135" class="label">135</a> -<i>Kinship and Marriage</i>, p. 77.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_136_136" href="#FNanchor_136_136" class="label">136</a> -<i>Origin of Civilization</i>, p. 127.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_137_137" href="#FNanchor_137_137" class="label">137</a> -C. Staniland Wake, <i>Marriage and Kinship</i>, p. 199.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_138_138" href="#FNanchor_138_138" class="label">138</a> -Maine, <i>Ancient Law</i>, p. 133.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_139_139" href="#FNanchor_139_139" class="label">139</a> -Ortolan, <i>History of Roman Law</i>, p. 107.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_140_140" href="#FNanchor_140_140" class="label">140</a> -<i>Life in Abyssinia</i>, p. 156.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_141_141" href="#FNanchor_141_141" class="label">141</a> -<i>Kinship and Marriage</i>, p. 105.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_142_142" href="#FNanchor_142_142" class="label">142</a> -Concerning one of the encounters of this warlike people, -the following has been recounted by Plutarch (<i>Theseus</i>): -</p> -<p> -“And it appears to have been no slight or womanish enterprise; -for they could not have encamped in the town, or joined battle -on the ground about the Pynx and the Museum, or fallen in so -intrepid a manner upon the city of Athens, unless they had first -reduced the country round about. It is difficult, indeed, to -believe (though Hellanicus has related it) that they crossed the -Cimmerian Bosphorus upon the ice; but that they encamped -almost in the heart of the city is confirmed by the names of -places, and by the tombs of those that fell.”</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_143_143" href="#FNanchor_143_143" class="label">143</a> -<i>Descent of Man</i>, p. 594.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_144_144" href="#FNanchor_144_144" class="label">144</a> -<i>Origin of Civilization</i>, p. 99.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_145_145" href="#FNanchor_145_145" class="label">145</a> -<i>Origin of Civilization</i>, p. 2.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_146_146" href="#FNanchor_146_146" class="label">146</a> -<i>Origin of Civilization</i>, p. 106.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_147_147" href="#FNanchor_147_147" class="label">147</a> -<i>History of Greece</i>, vol. iii., p. 54.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_148_148" href="#FNanchor_148_148" class="label">148</a> -George Rawlinson, book v., essay ii.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_149_149" href="#FNanchor_149_149" class="label">149</a> -<i>Ibid.</i></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_150_150" href="#FNanchor_150_150" class="label">150</a> -George Rawlinson, book v., essay i.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_151_151" href="#FNanchor_151_151" class="label">151</a> -<i>History of Greece</i>, book ii., chap. i.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_152_152" href="#FNanchor_152_152" class="label">152</a> -Vol. ii., p. 348.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_153_153" href="#FNanchor_153_153" class="label">153</a> -<i>Ancient Society</i>, p. 262.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_154_154" href="#FNanchor_154_154" class="label">154</a> -<i>Ancient Society</i>, p. 262.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_155_155" href="#FNanchor_155_155" class="label">155</a> -<i>The Iliad</i>, book i., Bryant’s translation.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_156_156" href="#FNanchor_156_156" class="label">156</a> -<i>The Iliad</i>, book i., Bryant’s translation.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_157_157" href="#FNanchor_157_157" class="label">157</a> -Book ii.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_158_158" href="#FNanchor_158_158" class="label">158</a> -Book iv.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_159_159" href="#FNanchor_159_159" class="label">159</a> -<i>Ancient Society</i>, p. 247.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_160_160" href="#FNanchor_160_160" class="label">160</a> -George Rawlinson, book v., essay ii.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_161_161" href="#FNanchor_161_161" class="label">161</a> -Thucydides, <i>The History of Peloponnesian War</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_162_162" href="#FNanchor_162_162" class="label">162</a> -Morgan, <i>Ancient Society</i>, p. 250.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_163_163" href="#FNanchor_163_163" class="label">163</a> -Thucydides, book ii., 14.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_164_164" href="#FNanchor_164_164" class="label">164</a> -<i>Theseus.</i></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_165_165" href="#FNanchor_165_165" class="label">165</a> -Book i., 13.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_166_166" href="#FNanchor_166_166" class="label">166</a> -Rawlinson, book v., essay ii.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_167_167" href="#FNanchor_167_167" class="label">167</a> -Rawlinson, book v., essay ii.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_168_168" href="#FNanchor_168_168" class="label">168</a> -<i>Ibid.</i></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_169_169" href="#FNanchor_169_169" class="label">169</a> -Rawlinson, book i., 1.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_170_170" href="#FNanchor_170_170" class="label">170</a> -Herodotus, book i., 173.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_171_171" href="#FNanchor_171_171" class="label">171</a> -Herodotus, book v., 80.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_172_172" href="#FNanchor_172_172" class="label">172</a> -<i>The Supplicants.</i></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_173_173" href="#FNanchor_173_173" class="label">173</a> -<i>The Seven Chiefs against Thebes.</i></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_174_174" href="#FNanchor_174_174" class="label">174</a> -<i>The Iliad</i>, book vi., Bryant’s translation.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_175_175" href="#FNanchor_175_175" class="label">175</a> -<i>The Influence of Women on the Progress of Knowledge.</i></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_176_176" href="#FNanchor_176_176" class="label">176</a> -<i>European Morals</i>, vol. ii., p. 295.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_177_177" href="#FNanchor_177_177" class="label">177</a> -<i>History of Greece</i>, vol. ii., p. 83.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_178_178" href="#FNanchor_178_178" class="label">178</a> -<i>The Iliad</i>, book xxiv., Derby’s translation.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_179_179" href="#FNanchor_179_179" class="label">179</a> -<i>The Iliad</i>, book xxii.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_180_180" href="#FNanchor_180_180" class="label">180</a> -<i>Ibid.</i>, book vi.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_181_181" href="#FNanchor_181_181" class="label">181</a> -A similar change had taken place in the god-idea. Jove was -no longer the “terrible virgin” who “breathes out on crime, -misery, and death,” but, on the contrary, had come to represent -a male god who had given birth to Minerva.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_182_182" href="#FNanchor_182_182" class="label">182</a> -Müller, <i>History and Antiquity of the Doric Race</i>, book i., 9, 13.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_183_183" href="#FNanchor_183_183" class="label">183</a> -Grote, <i>History of Greece</i>, vol. ii., p. 345.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_184_184" href="#FNanchor_184_184" class="label">184</a> -Rawlinson, book v., essay i.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_185_185" href="#FNanchor_185_185" class="label">185</a> -Aristotle, <i>Politics</i>, book iii., Jowett’s translation.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_186_186" href="#FNanchor_186_186" class="label">186</a> -Rawlinson, book v., essay i.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_187_187" href="#FNanchor_187_187" class="label">187</a> -<i>Politics</i>, book ii.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_188_188" href="#FNanchor_188_188" class="label">188</a> -Curtius, <i>History of Greece</i>, book ii., chap. i.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_189_189" href="#FNanchor_189_189" class="label">189</a> -Rawlinson, book v., essay i.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_190_190" href="#FNanchor_190_190" class="label">190</a> -Müller, <i>History and Antiquity of the Doric Race</i>, book iii., -chap. v.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_191_191" href="#FNanchor_191_191" class="label">191</a> -<i>Lycurgus.</i></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_192_192" href="#FNanchor_192_192" class="label">192</a> -Aristotle’s <i>Politics</i>, book ii.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_193_193" href="#FNanchor_193_193" class="label">193</a> -Plutarch’s <i>Lycurgus</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_194_194" href="#FNanchor_194_194" class="label">194</a> -Book i., essay i.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_195_195" href="#FNanchor_195_195" class="label">195</a> -<i>History of Greece</i>, book ii., chap. i.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_196_196" href="#FNanchor_196_196" class="label">196</a> -Plutarch’s <i>Lycurgus</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_197_197" href="#FNanchor_197_197" class="label">197</a> -Curtius, <i>History of Greece</i>, book ii., chap. i.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_198_198" href="#FNanchor_198_198" class="label">198</a> -<i>Ibid.</i></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_199_199" href="#FNanchor_199_199" class="label">199</a> -<i>Politics</i>, vol. ii., p. 9.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_200_200" href="#FNanchor_200_200" class="label">200</a> -<i>Ibid.</i></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_201_201" href="#FNanchor_201_201" class="label">201</a> -<i>Ibid.</i></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_202_202" href="#FNanchor_202_202" class="label">202</a> -<i>Politics.</i></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_203_203" href="#FNanchor_203_203" class="label">203</a> -<i>Ibid.</i></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_204_204" href="#FNanchor_204_204" class="label">204</a> -<i>Lycurgus.</i></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_205_205" href="#FNanchor_205_205" class="label">205</a> -<i>Lycurgus.</i></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_206_206" href="#FNanchor_206_206" class="label">206</a> -As to the exercises of the virgins, and their appearing naked, -C. O. Müller, in his <i>History and Antiquities of the Doric Race</i> -observes: -</p> -<p> -“The female sex underwent in this respect the same education -as the male, though (as has been above remarked) only the virgins. -They had their own gymnasia, and exercised themselves, either -naked or lightly clad, in running, wrestling, or throwing the -quoit or spear. It is highly improbable that youths or men were -allowed to look on, since in the gymnasia of Lacedæmon no idle -bystanders were permitted; every person was obliged either to -join the rest, or withdraw.”—Book iv., ch. v.-viii.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_207_207" href="#FNanchor_207_207" class="label">207</a> -<i>Lycurgus.</i></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_208_208" href="#FNanchor_208_208" class="label">208</a> -<i>History of Greece</i>, vol. ii., p. 385.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_209_209" href="#FNanchor_209_209" class="label">209</a> -<i>History and Antiquity of the Doric Race</i>, book iv., ch. ii., p. 1.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_210_210" href="#FNanchor_210_210" class="label">210</a> -We have the authority of Tacitus respecting the customs, -character, and style of dress of the ancient Germans. Among -this people, as is well known, the influence of women was in the -ascendency over that of men, and the state of public morals was -exactly that which might be expected. Respecting the dress of -women, this writer says they “do not lengthen their upper garment -into sleeves but leave exposed the whole arm, and part of -the breast” (<i>Germania</i>, chap. xvii.). It is observed, however, -that chastity was the characteristic virtue of this people among -both sexes. The marriage bond was strict and severe, and we -are informed that among the Saxons the women themselves -inflicted the penalty for adultery. From an epistle of St. Boniface, -Archbishop of Mentz, to Ethelbald, King of England, we -have the following: “In ancient Saxony (now Westphalia), if a -virgin pollute her father’s house, or a married woman prove false -to her vows, sometimes she is forced to put an end to her own life -by the halter, and over the ashes of her burned body her seducer -is hanged.”</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_211_211" href="#FNanchor_211_211" class="label">211</a> -Plutarch’s <i>Lycurgus</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_212_212" href="#FNanchor_212_212" class="label">212</a> -Plutarch’s <i>Lycurgus</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_213_213" href="#FNanchor_213_213" class="label">213</a> -Plutarch’s <i>Lycurgus</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_214_214" href="#FNanchor_214_214" class="label">214</a> -<i>History and Antiquity of the Doric Race</i>, book iv., chap. iv.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_215_215" href="#FNanchor_215_215" class="label">215</a> -Book i.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_216_216" href="#FNanchor_216_216" class="label">216</a> -<i>History of Greece</i>, book i., Ward’s translation.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_217_217" href="#FNanchor_217_217" class="label">217</a> -<i>History of Roman Law</i>, p. 79.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_218_218" href="#FNanchor_218_218" class="label">218</a> -Ortolan’s <i>History of Roman Law</i>, p. 42.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_219_219" href="#FNanchor_219_219" class="label">219</a> -Numa and Lycurgus compared.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_220_220" href="#FNanchor_220_220" class="label">220</a> -Quoted by Plutarch.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_221_221" href="#FNanchor_221_221" class="label">221</a> -Numa and Lycurgus compared.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_222_222" href="#FNanchor_222_222" class="label">222</a> -<i>Ibid.</i></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_223_223" href="#FNanchor_223_223" class="label">223</a> -<i>Ibid.</i></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_224_224" href="#FNanchor_224_224" class="label">224</a> -See Hargrave Jennings, <i>Phallicism</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_225_225" href="#FNanchor_225_225" class="label">225</a> -Book i.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_226_226" href="#FNanchor_226_226" class="label">226</a> -Book i.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_227_227" href="#FNanchor_227_227" class="label">227</a> -Plutarch, <i>Solon</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_228_228" href="#FNanchor_228_228" class="label">228</a> -Plutarch, <i>Solon</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_229_229" href="#FNanchor_229_229" class="label">229</a> -Philemon. Quoted by <i>Athenæus</i>, book xiii.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_230_230" href="#FNanchor_230_230" class="label">230</a> -<i>Athenæus</i>, book xiii.,</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_231_231" href="#FNanchor_231_231" class="label">231</a> -Demetrius.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_232_232" href="#FNanchor_232_232" class="label">232</a> -Ueberweg, <i>History of Philosophy</i>, vol. i., p. 95. We are -informed by Ueberweg that there exists an early monograph -on Arete by J. C. Eck (Leipzig, 1776).</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_233_233" href="#FNanchor_233_233" class="label">233</a> -Diogenes Laërtius, <i>Life of Hipparchia</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_234_234" href="#FNanchor_234_234" class="label">234</a> -Diogenes Laërtius, <i>Life of Hipparchia</i>, iii.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_235_235" href="#FNanchor_235_235" class="label">235</a> -Mayor, <i>Ancient Philosophy</i>, pp. 181, 182.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_236_236" href="#FNanchor_236_236" class="label">236</a> -<i>Athenæus.</i></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_237_237" href="#FNanchor_237_237" class="label">237</a> -Xenophon, <i>Memorabilia of Socrates</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_238_238" href="#FNanchor_238_238" class="label">238</a> -Plutarch, <i>Pericles</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_239_239" href="#FNanchor_239_239" class="label">239</a> -<i>Athenæus</i>, book xiii.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_240_240" href="#FNanchor_240_240" class="label">240</a> -Plutarch, <i>Pericles</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_241_241" href="#FNanchor_241_241" class="label">241</a> -Plutarch, <i>Pericles</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_242_242" href="#FNanchor_242_242" class="label">242</a> -<i>Ibid.</i></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_243_243" href="#FNanchor_243_243" class="label">243</a> -Plutarch, <i>Pericles</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_244_244" href="#FNanchor_244_244" class="label">244</a> -Xenophon, <i>Banquet</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_245_245" href="#FNanchor_245_245" class="label">245</a> -<i>Ecclesiazusæ.</i></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_246_246" href="#FNanchor_246_246" class="label">246</a> -<i>Athenæus</i>, xiii.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_247_247" href="#FNanchor_247_247" class="label">247</a> -<i>Ibid.</i></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_248_248" href="#FNanchor_248_248" class="label">248</a> -<i>Athenæus</i>, xiii.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_249_249" href="#FNanchor_249_249" class="label">249</a> -Book i.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_250_250" href="#FNanchor_250_250" class="label">250</a> -<i>Athenæus</i>, book xiii.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_251_251" href="#FNanchor_251_251" class="label">251</a> -<i>Ibid.</i>, book xiii.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_252_252" href="#FNanchor_252_252" class="label">252</a> -<i>Ibid.</i>, book xiii.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_253_253" href="#FNanchor_253_253" class="label">253</a> -<i>Athenæus</i>, book xiii.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_254_254" href="#FNanchor_254_254" class="label">254</a> -<i>Ibid.</i>, book xiii.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_255_255" href="#FNanchor_255_255" class="label">255</a> -<i>Ancient Law</i>, p. 149.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_256_256" href="#FNanchor_256_256" class="label">256</a> -<i>Ancient Law</i>, p. 144.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_257_257" href="#FNanchor_257_257" class="label">257</a> -<i>Ancient Law</i>, p. 149.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_258_258" href="#FNanchor_258_258" class="label">258</a> -<i>Ancient Law</i>, p. 150.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_259_259" href="#FNanchor_259_259" class="label">259</a> -<i>European Morals</i>, vol. ii., p. 358.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_260_260" href="#FNanchor_260_260" class="label">260</a> -Buckle’s <i>Essays</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_261_261" href="#FNanchor_261_261" class="label">261</a> -<i>Ancient Law</i>, p. 154.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_262_262" href="#FNanchor_262_262" class="label">262</a> -Roman History. Appian, London, 1913.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_263_263" href="#FNanchor_263_263" class="label">263</a> -The History of Rome. Titus Livius, p. 172.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_264_264" href="#FNanchor_264_264" class="label">264</a> -Robert Mackenzie, <i>The Nineteenth Century</i>, p. 9.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_265_265" href="#FNanchor_265_265" class="label">265</a> -Robert Mackenzie, <i>The Nineteenth Century</i>, p. 77.</p></div> -</div> - - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Sexes in Science and History, by -Eliza Burt Gamble - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE SEXES IN SCIENCE AND HISTORY *** - -***** This file should be named 60219-h.htm or 60219-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/6/0/2/1/60219/ - -Produced by MWS, Les Galloway and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive) - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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