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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..b63de67 --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #60129 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/60129) diff --git a/old/60129-8.txt b/old/60129-8.txt deleted file mode 100644 index a918530..0000000 --- a/old/60129-8.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,1741 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook, A Visit to the Sarö and Shera Yögurs, by C. -G. E. Mannerheim - - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - - - - -Title: A Visit to the Sarö and Shera Yögurs - - -Author: C. G. E. Mannerheim - - - -Release Date: August 18, 2019 [eBook #60129] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - - -***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A VISIT TO THE SARÖ AND SHERA -YÖGURS*** - - -E-text prepared by Jari Koivisto - - - -A VISIT TO THE SARÖ AND SHERA YÖGURS - -by - -C. G. E. MANNERHEIM - - - - - - -Helsingfors, -The Finnish Literary Society, -1911. - - - - -Introductory note. - - -During an expedition made in Central Asia and Northern China in the -years 1906-1908 I had the opportunity of spending some days among the -Sarö and Shera Yögurs, two small tribes which under the common name -of "Huang-fan" (the yellow barbarians) inhabit the northern reaches -of the Nanshan mountains in the district of Kanchow-Hsuchow, and -part of the plain at its foot. In the hope of assisting in spreading -some light upon these imperfectly known races, I offer some extracts -from my journal, a vocabulary of words noted down parallely, as used -by both tribes, some anthropological measurements and a number of -photographs, some of which were taken during my expedition, others -representing an ethnographical collection which I made. - -In making the vocabulary, the words have been taken down phonetically. -Dr Ramstedt of the Alexander University at Helsingfors, has kindly -supplied the Mongolian equivalent. In my anthropological and -ethnographical observations I have followed the directions I found in -"Notes and Queries" on Anthropology given by John George Garson, M.D. -and Charles Hercules Read, F.S.A., and in "Ethnography", by the latter -author. - -Unfortunately some of the photographs have been less successful than -others owing to the fact that a stress of work obliged me to postpone -for some months the developing of some dozen films. - -As the principal aim of my expedition lay altogether outside the -spheres of anthropology and ethnography, and as I have had no -opportunity to revise my more or less casually made observations, -it is without the least claim to authority that I present this very -unpretentious material to the kind consideration of the reader. - -Helsingfors, August 10th 1909. - -C.G.E. Mannerheim. - - - - -I - -Among the Sarö Yögurs. - - -At dawn on December 13th 1907, we started upon our expedition, and we -soon left behind us the pleasant little Chinese town Chin-t'a, with its -halfrounded, irregular clay walls, so unlike the strictly symmetrical -Chinese type, its narrow, winding alleys, its temple courts shaded by -ancient gnarled trees, and its towers with their innumerable bells -all tinkling in the wind. Our road led in a SE direction, past a -temple with a high conical tower which except for the missing gilding -still gave reason for the town's name, (_chin_ 'gold', _t'a_ 'tower'; -_Chint'a_ 'the golden tower') and we over the ruins of a wall, which -formerly enclosed this oasis -- one of the most northerly outposts of -Chinese civilisation, in the sand and gravel ocean of the Gobi Desert. - -Beyond the wall extended a sandy, sterile stretch of ground, which, at -first thickly bestrewn with Chinese tombstones, rose gradually towards -a low chain of hills lying in a ESE-WNW direction. In character, these -resembled a number of narrow gravel ridges, some of which formed a -crest, others rising in terraces. A slight pass which we rode through -at about twelve kilometres from the town was the highest point reached -that day, and the descent southwards was even less perceptible than our -ascent. The only vegetation to be seen was some insignificant creeping -brush, growing in tufts at lengthy intervals. About nine kilometres -from the pass the belt of gravel merged into a sandy formation, dotted -thickly with knolls on which grew more of the same creeping brush, -though of somewhat larger growth. Some few kilometres further, reeds -appeared, and these soon gave place to a typical porous soil with -a strong salty deposit. As far as the eye could see, the same -inhospitable kind of country extended, sparsely covered by grass -towards the south, where it merged into the _Nan-shan_ mountains, -the outlines ol which could be discerned in the misty distance. - -The great high road -- joining _K'ou-li_ (the territory inside the -Great Wall) and _K'ou-wai_ (the territory outside) has in _North Kansu -an_ E-W direction and at _Shuang-t'ingtzu_, twenty-seven kilometres -from Chint'a, we crossed one of the innumerable etape stations which -faithfully follow its course all the way from the Pacific Ocean to the -distant plains of Russia and India. Some seven or eight kilometres -south of the road, we rode past the first of the scattered dwellings -of the Yögur village of _Ma-chuang-tzu_. I dismounted to get a nearer -view of three women who were busy in the yard of the house. They wore -a strange costume such as I had never seen before. The eldest, a woman -of fifty, with a Roman nose and a generally dignified appearance, was -very talkative. She offered us tea, and told us they were Sarö Yögurs --- a name which she repeated proudly several times. The other two women -had prominent cheek bones, small eyes, thick ugly noses, and were of a -common appearance. My camera, which I brought out carelessly, changed -however the mental atmosphere at a stroke. There was a sudden end to -confidences and there remained nothing for us but to continue our way -to the village temple, distant 12-13 km to the south. - -Built near the remains of a small ruin, the plain temple buildings soon -rose before us, surrounded by a small group of wooden huts occupied -by the lamas. None of the lamas were at home but the Chinese officer -in command of the Shuangt'ingtzu mounted guard gave unhesitatingly -orders that my things should be carried into the cleanest of the -houses. All was arranged in a moment and the house looked as if we -had always lived there. Hashim was busily washing rice, cleaning -carrots and preparing the mutton for the ever-appetising _palao_, -with which he had delighted us for the last seventeen months, Chou, -my seventeen-year-old interpreter arranging the meteorological -instruments, Lukanin, the Cossack of the expedition, and Hsu, a retired -Chinese Colonel, now in my service, saw to the horses and equipments, -while at the scanty kitchen fire, I tried to thaw my fingers, stiff -from the cold December breeze, to start work on notebooks and maps. - -The lamas, on their arrival, appeared somewhat surprised at our -intrusion but though the first meeting was rather cool, the ice soon -was broken, and my host, in particular, grew both hospitable and -talkative. - -Machuangtzu is a village of about forty houses spread over a wide -area, occupied by people who call themselves _Sarö Yögur_ ('yellow -Yögurs') and called by the Chinese _Huang Fantzu_ (huang 'yellow', -fan 'barbarian'; 'the yellow barbarians') to distinguish them from -the Tangutans, who are called _Hei Fantzu_ (hei 'black'). A legend, -imparted from father to son, says that more than a thousand years ago, -their forefathers came from the west, where they had inhabited a city, -bearing the name _Shiche-Hache_, called by the Chinese _Chenfu tun_. -It lay, they said, a forty-five days' march to the west or southwest, -on the shores of a river and was surrounded by high mountains. In -Shiche-Hache, a temple had been built with many excavated caves in -the mountain. -- According to another Yögur version, they had moved -to their present dwelling places during the reign of the Emperor -_K'ang-hsi_, to escape a contagious disease, the name of which my -interpreter gave as cholera. Some of the tribe had settled in the -mountains S and SE of _Hsuchow_, the remainder on the plain. Those who -had settled nearest Hsuchow had become amalgamated with the Chinese, -the others still retained their language. The ruin near the present -temple had belonged to a race of people, having tails, whom the Chinese -call _Kuzurkei_. - -About forty kilometres eastward from Machuangtzu lies a village, called -_Tung-heitzu_, also consisting of forty or fifty homesteads, with a -temple, -- and about thirty kilometres south of the town _Kaot'aj_ -there is still another called _Yumashan Huang Fantzu_, where the same -language is spoken. Further south, at _Bayakhtag_ and in the mountains -south of _Kanchow_, there are also Huang Fantzu living, but they -speak another language which resembles Mongolian, while the language -spoken by those mentioned first, has a great resemblance to Khirgis and -to the Turkish spoken by the Sarts. No Yögur written language has ever -been heard of, neither could they tell me anything about their early -history, of wars they had taken part in, or the names of their Princes -or chiefs. I was also unable to gather any old songs or legends. They -told me there were none, but it is possible that their suspicious -nature, or the incompetence of my interpreter or other reasons, may -have been the cause of their unwillingness to reveal them to me. - -The temple at Machuangtzu is small and poor, and it was evident -that it was seldom used. Three large rude paintings, brought from -_Sining_, representing _Shykshatva_ enthroned between _Tshulma_ and -_Shtsha-ryzyk_, decorate the principal wall, and old dirty, smoky -Buddha pictures, in the form of banners, cover part of the side walls. -Some of them were said to have been brought from the north and were -probably of Mongolian origin. - -There were seven or eight lamas, each living in his own clean little -wooden house of two or three rooms, built and furnished in Chinese -style. They told me they earned their living by keeping cattle, and -by cutting wood. The contributions of the villagers, contrary to what -is the custom in other Buddhist communities which I visited, are very -insignificant. A number of boys, distributed about the lamas' houses, -were being educated by them for the priestly office. The lamas alone -can read and write, but the written language is Tangutan. A document -written in a beatiful text-hand from the renowned lama monastery of -_Gumbum_, these men could not decipher. They declared there are two -Tibetan written languages of which they knew only one. - -The local administration lies in the hands of a _pykh_ and his -assistant _yarkatshe_. The villages of Machuangtzu, Tungheitzu and -Yumashan pay a yearly tax of thirteen horses to the Chinese government -which is collected by the brigadier-general in Hsuchow, through an -officer stationed at Khunkeitzu (about fifty km south of Machuangtzu). - -All the houses I visited were fairly clean, and were built in Chinese -style, only a few could be considered poor, taking into consideration -the general circumstances. - -The chief room in the house was provided with the traditional Chinese -sleeping stove, _k'ang_, covered with a straw matting, and heated from -outside. Opposite the door, stood a small Buddhist altar, sometimes -decorated with a small banner, blackened by smoke and dirt. Another -room contained a brick fireplace in which two or three shallow Chinese -kettles were immured, for the preparation of tea, in the Mongolian way, -with salt and butter. A pot was moved into the centre of the room, -where it was placed on three unburnt bricks, while all the company -present sat around upon the floor, using their own legs and heels as -seats. All the household utensils I saw were of Chinese origin, with -the exception of some turned Mongolian wooden cups, with wide flat -bottoms. In the yards you often saw white flags, covered with Buddhist -prayers -- a certain remedy against sickness and other misfortunes. -More expensive articles, such as bronze statues of Buddha, I only saw -in the house of a lama, and in another the traditional prayer-cylinder. - -The clothes were cut in Chinese fashion but usually made of home-spun -material. The men wear a Chinese cap with a button, or a Mongolian -felt cap, a long coat, or fur coat, bound round the waist with a long -narrow home-woven scarf in grey, reddish-lilac, or blue, also a pair of -half-loose trousers of coarse home-spun cotton, or skin, bound round -the legs at the bottom by a broad, home spun bandage-like fastening. -They wear coarse woollen stockings knitted in the Chinese way and -Chinese shoes often garnished with a loose legging of blue cotton -material. Neither shirts nor drawers are worn. The women's dresses -resemble those of the men, but their summer costume is fashioned like -that of the Chinese women, though somewhat shorter. The fur coat worn -by both men and women is usually bordered with fur as the Khirgis and -Mongolians wear it, and was of better quality than is usually to be -bought in Chinese bazars. - -The women's head dresses were very peculiar. To each of the plaits -hanging over the breast, a long, narrow strip of cloth is fastened. -This is decorated with small pieces of coral and glass beads in various -tints of violet. Below this hang a whole series of copper rings, -used by the Chinese as thimbles, and the whole is finished off by a -large metal ornament, from which a tassel hangs. This long head-dress -reaches to the ground. Below this is fastened a bunch of small pockets, -embroidered by the women in Chinese patterns. A long narrow piece of -cloth hangs down the back on which a row of big white bone buttons is -sewn. The head is usually covered by a Mongolian fur or felt cap. This -curious head dress is only used by the married woman, but having once -adopted it, she wears it till her death. Even in the grave it is not -all removed, only the strips of embroidered cloth silver ornaments and -bone buttons, she being allowed to retain her copper rings. - -The Sarö Yögur has not much in the way of clothes. There is no holiday -attire, not even a change of every-day clothes. Nothing new is bought -till the old is falling to tatters. It is particularly difficult during -the cold season to make purchases for an ethnographic collection, -for if a Yögur sells a piece of clothing, he has nothing with which to -replace it. - -On visiting any of the Yögur homesteads, you are almost sure to find -the men at home, the women being busy out of doors, looking after the -cattle, carrying water etc. There is nothing in the way of handicrafts -or home-industries, except weaving, basket-making and the knitting of -stockings. The two latter, hardly to be called masculine occupations, -are performed by the men. The coarse stems of a species of grass are -used as knitting needles. The basket-work is very rude and primitive -and greatly inferior to Chinese work. Cloth is woven by the women in -long narrow strips which in quality as well as in the style of weaving -closely resembles the work of Khirgis women. Their primitive looms -stand in the yard, where the warp is fastened to two sticks driven into -the ground while the finished material is wound round a third. The -materials were coarse, but like that of the Khirgis, of good quality. -It is almost the only saleable article possessed by them, and is sold -in Hsuchow and Kanchow for 70 _tshokh_ (900 _tshokh_ = 1 _lan_ = 1 r. -60 kop.) per Chin, _ch'ih_ (0,33 m). There is no forging of iron. Not -even blankets, those very necessary articles in an Asiatic household -are made by the Sarö Yögurs, who get what they require from the -Chinaman. There is no agriculture, the grazing of cattle is their only -means of livelihood -- and the Sarö Yögurs are purely a pastoral people -though they have fixed abodes. Much of the live stock, which one sees -in their care, belongs however to Chinamen in neighbouring villages and -the Sarö Yögurs receive wool and some flour as payment for herding -them. - -Their chief articles of food are flour and various kinds of cereals. -Tea is made with salt and butter, and milk and cream when it can be -obtained. Roasted wheaten flour is often mixed with tea. They also -make a paste out of flour and water, which is rolled out and cut up -into long strips and eaten in boiling water as soup. Rice is made into -porridge. Meat is a rarity. A sheep is only killed on specially festive -occasions, and these are not reputed to be very gay. They have no -musical instruments, no dancing and very seldom any chorus singing. -Now and again, you hear a monotonous song sung in the fields, but when -I offered to have a sheep killed, and arrange a feast (_tomashá_) the -lamas could not get the necessary people to sing. One of the lamas, who -was supposed to have a good voice, sang at my request a monotonous -melody, in which _oor_ ("he or she has come") occured innumerable -times. He assured me they had no songs, a tune being sung to any words -which the occasion offered. - -In general, the people gave an impression of being in straightened -circumstances and readily complained of money difficulties. The grass -on their pasture land was coarse, almost reedy, they had not much -live stock, and their economic condition was undeniably low, but in -comparison with the really terrible poverty so often seen in Central -Asia, their condition cannot be considered very bad. The richest man -among them had only six or seven horses, ten cows, and a hundred sheep, -but as an appended table shows, out of the nineteen homesteads that -I visited there was only one where no livestock at all was owned, -and though another was in much the same condition, even they could -make a living by herding the cattle belonging to the Chinese of the -neighbouring village. - -It seemed to me that there was a great lack of energy and one was -surprised at the want of manliness, especially among the young men. -There is no kind of sport, no races, no wrestling, even none of the -games on horseback which are so usual in Central Asia. In many houses -you see guns of the antediluvian type characteristic of the whole of -Central Asia but you never hear of any shooting. Involuntarily one -asks oneself if the laziness and lack of energy of the people has been -caused by the difficult conditions, or if the contrary is not nearer -the truth. - -The majority of the Sarö Yögurs whom I met, did not appear shy, and -my host particularly was very frank in his opinions and informations. -Or perhaps they appeared relatively less shy and reserved, because -I was on this occasion without my craniometer -- which always had the -effect of depriving even the boldest among them of all courage. The -greater part of my equipment, among other things my instruments for -anthropological measurements, had followed the main high road, by -some mistake, passed me and was probably awaiting me in Kanchow. This -circumstance forces me to content myself with describing the appearance -of these tribes without being able to give the far more reliable -measurements. - -The cheek bones are, in most cases, decidedly, if not excessively -prominent, though I saw several with an oval shape of face, without -any strikingly prominent cheek bones, but in general the type of face -was short and somewhat broad. A true Finnish turned up nose, with an -insignificant bridge was to be seen in many faces, and some of the -women had thick potatow-noses, but in general they were straight. -The mouth was normal, with neither very thin nor thick lips, the eyes -small and the distance between also normal. The corners of the eyes -were open, and not overgrown by the eyelid. Their hair and their thin -beards were black. They were of average height and we saw no corpulent -people. Their movements were slow and sluggish except when there was an -opportunity of buying or selling. If a few _tshokh_ can be earned, the -Sarö Yögur becomes lively and the interest is general, nearly as great -in the on-lookers as in the purchaser. - -The short time at my disposal did not give me much opportunity for a -thorough study of their customs. The little I was able to note, follows -here: - -In cases of death, a lama is called upon to read prayers. The body is -burnt naked, in summer within three days, in winter within seven to ten -days, on a bier made of faggots. No oil is used, but a kind of spirit -as a means of ignition. The corpse is placed in a lying position, with -its head towards the south. Nothing in the way of food, ornaments, etc. -is burnt with it. The ashes are gathered together and covered with a -small heap of earth. A young man or maiden dying after a short illnes -is simply buried and the place marked by a mound of earth. Visitors and -those present at the burial are entertained in the home of the deceased -according to his means, and the lama is paid for his services by gifts, -without having any right, as in certain other tribes, to a share in the -household goods. - -The property is inherited by the wife, who in case she marries again -must yield it to the male heirs. Daughters inherit no rights. Cousins -are forbidden to marry, neither is marriage allowed between a niece and -uncle, or nephew and aunt; sisters and brothers-in-law may not marry, -nor stepchildren with stepfather or mother. - -The wife is bought, the decision being taken by the parents without -consulting the young people. The final arrangements are usually made by -some elderly woman who has been sent for this purpose to the parents -of the girl. No festivities take place during these proceedings. The -price which has been agreed upon for the girl is either paid at once -or by instalments. These agreements are often entered upon while the -bride and bridegroom are still children. Men marry between the ages of -fifteen and thirty, and women at about sixteen years of age. A younger -brother steps into his elder brother's place, in case of the death of -the latter, despite the difference of age, but if the marriage has -already taken place he cannot afterwards marry his sister-in-law. The -bride and bridegroom are not allowed to see each other before marriage. -The bride is given a dowry, according to the wealth of her parents and -the sum which has been paid for her. On the wedding day the lama is -called upon to read prayers, in the homes of both bride and bridegroom. -Relatives and friends gather in the home of the bride and, after the -wedding feast, accompany her, as she rides away -- with her dowry in -her hand, and her hair plaited and decorated for the first time, -- to -her new home. The parents of the bridegroom take no part in the -festivities at the bride's house, nor do the bride's parents accompany -their daughter, when she leaves her home. On arrival, the bride is -received by a number of women, who lead her to a tent raised for the -occasion and all the company present are lavishly entertained by the -parents of the bridegroom. When the lama finds a propitious moment, he -leads the bridal pair to the house, where they first kneel before the -altar and then to all the older people present. For the wedding feast, -which does not last more than one day, a sheep is killed and Chinese gin -is drunk. The men gladly take this opportunity of getting drunk, the -women, on the contrarys, very seldom, chiefly, it was told me, because -the modest supply of liquor seldom sufficed for all. - -Next day a visit to the bride's parents is paid by the young married -couple, taking with them some insignificant present, such as a piece of -cloth, a bottle of _Chiu_ (Chinese gin) or something of the kind. -- -Only monogamy exists -- even if the marriage is childless. Divorce is -sometimes permitted. They do not marry Chinese or Tangutans. - -Weddings are almost the only festive occasions observed by the Sarö -Yögurs. On New Year's Day there may be somewhat more food prepared, the -richest peasants kill a sheep, but there is no visiting. They do not -have any gatherings to celebrate Buddha ceremonies or sacrifices, and -the lamas only read prayers on the 1st and the 15th of every month, as -they say themselves that no one ever attends the services. - -The lamas have no knowledge of medicine. In case of serious illness -they are only called upon to pray. Sometimes the lama walks round the -bed burning paper as a kind of invocation. - -In childbirth, the women kneel, and are assisted by women only, the -husband not being present. The navel string is severed with a pair of -scissors by an old woman, often the grandmother of the child. The child -is washed in warm water and rubbed with butter, and this is repeated a -week later. The hair is cut or shaved later. Before the birth of the -child, the lama reads prayers over the mother, but he takes no notice -of the newly born. There are no festivities, no christening, whether -the child be boy or girl, -- but the parents are visited by their -nearest friends, who bring small presents of food. After a month's -separation the joint bed is again resumed. - -The words which I have noted and phonetically transcribed as heard -among the Sarö Yögurs and Shera Yögurs, are to be found in a table at -the end of this brochure. It is worthy of note, that a number of words, -such as boot, bear, window, baskets, and others, are not to be found in -the Sarö Yögur language, where they substitute the Chinese word -- but -they are to be found among the Shera Yögurs. - -The number of births and deaths during the last ten years, in the -nineteen homesteads we visited, and the number of live stock possessed -by each family is shown in the following table: - - births, deaths, cattle, horses, sheep, donkeys. - - N:o 1 2 -- 4 2 60 1 - 2 2 -- 4 -- 30 3 - 3 3 -- -- -- 15 1 - 4 4 1 5 2 60 1 - 5 2 -- -- -- 20 1 - 6 2 -- 4 1 60 1 - 7 4 -- 27 7 80 -- - 8 4 -- 17 3 45 -- - 9 1 1 2 -- 35 1 - 10 1 1 11 -- 60 2 - 11 1 1 -- -- -- 1 - 12 2 -- 5 -- 20 2 - 13 -- -- 1 -- 10 2 - 14 1 -- 3 2 42 2 - 15 2 -- 6 4 100 1 - 16 1 1 -- -- 6 1 - 17 -- 1 -- -- -- -- - 18 1 -- -- -- 15 1 - 19 4 1 2 -- 50 1 - -It must be pointed out that these very primitive statistics stand in -manifest opposition to the general information which they gave me, -according to which the tribe on its arrival in those parts had been -far more numerous, their constant struggle against unfavourable -pecuniary and hygienic conditions having decimated them till there -only remained the handful of Sarö Yögur families who inhabit the above -mentioned villages. The number of deaths still outnumber the births. -It is however possible that the statistical account which, especially -in regard to their livestock, is always collected with difficulty, -may have been intentionally falsified, but, on the other hand, vague -statements are often liable to be unintentionally wrong. - -On the morning of the 16th I said farewell to my hospitable host and -with my men and two packhorses started in a ENE direction to the -village Yench'i from where I intended to follow the great high road to -Kanchow. From Kanchow I wished to make an excursion and visit the Shera -Yögur Prince, whose home in the Nanshan mountains had been described -to me by my friends, the lamas. My host, the lama _Kuá_ was polite -enough to wish to accompany me all the way to Yench'i. He rode a small -pony which more resembled a rat than a horse. It was no bigger than -the donkey on whose back my friend, the Chinese officer commanding -Shuangt'ingtzu's mounted guard station, balanced himself. However it -walked so quickly that my big horse, which during seventeen months -of travel had every opportunity of developing its stride, could with -difficulty keep pace with it. - -A few cows were seen, in the early morning, standing about the -farmsteads. They were thin and small. Our road led us over the same -porous, salty ground and the lama complained of the poor soil and the -coarse grass. It must be confessed that it resembled reeds more than -grass and seemed better fit to be used as knitting needles than as food -for cattle. - -It was a beautiful clear morning, not a breath stirring and we -thoroughly enjoyed the splendid day. I asked _Kuá_ to sing us a song, -as we rode along, but he was only capable of rendering the same _oor_ -in an indescribably dull and dreary tone. Time after time, he asked for -my matches, dismounted and making up a bundle of dry grass, lighted it -and croached over it for a moment, warming himself, then remounting -and hurriedly catching up with our party. I am sure any of the Yögur -women would have shown more power of endurance than this young man of -twenty-eight -- and at the moment of parting with him, it appeared -clearer than ever to me that this little, lost, Turkish tribe, living -at the foot of the Nanshan mountains, with its stocking-knitting -men, void of all energy and manliness, was on its way to certain -annihilation. - - - - -II. - -Among the Shera Yögurs. - - -In Kanchow I was obliged to remain a conple of days for the preparations -necessary for my intended visit to the so-called "Yellow Tanguts" -living to the south of the town. To secure myself a good reception, -I applied to the highest military mandarin of the place for -a letter of introduction to the Tangutan Prince. _Ma-t'idu_, -the mandarin in question was one of that numerous class of Chinese -Mussulmans who had betrayed their co-religionists and during the -bloody Dungan revolt had made common cause with the Chinamen. He was -kind enough not only to give me the letter I required but offered -me a military escort. Not wishing to take so many people with me -into the mountains I begged that the escort might not exceed one -mounted soldier, and laughingly the mandarin agreed, promising -to give the necessary orders that the man should meet me in the -village _Kanchenp'u_ near the town _Li-yen_, about 23-24 km WSW -from _Kanchow_. Having very heartily thanked the mandarin, whose -imposing soldierly figure and jovial face adorned by a fierce pair of -moustaches, looked considerably more Turkish than Chinese, I left his -spacious _yamen_ (office) and early on the following morning, Dec. 24th -1907, made a start, with two packhorses and three followers, the -interpreter, Cossack and cook. Our road led out of the western gate and -westward through a prosperous densely populated low country, crossed by -innumerable irrigation canals. After a rise of 8-9 km the stony bed of -the river Heiho was reached and its seven-branched estuary forded. The -largest of these forks was forty-four strides wide and 0,5 m in depth, -and had a fairly strong current. The river bed here is about 2 km wide -but it broadens to the south, where it spreads out into a perfect sea -of stone and gravel, several miles in width, which at the rainy periods -is completely covered by the water rushing from the mountains -in the south, bringing with it ever more and more boulderstones. In -Kanchenp'u we sought in vain for the promised escort with the letter of -introduction, of the importance of which I had many opportunities of -assuring myself during earlier visits paid to Kalmucks and Tangutans, -Khirgis and other nomadic tribes. There was however nothing to be -done but to await patiently his arrival from the thirty mile distant -Li-yen. As he did not arrive by the following evening. I was forced -to wait another whole day for the purpose of sending a messenger to -the garrison there. My messenger returned with word that a soldier had -been sent, not to Kanchenp'u, but to a small military post in a ravine -halfway between the village and the Tangutan monastery _K'ang-lung-ssu_. - -On the morning of the 26th I was at last able to start, after having -with great difficulty, almost by force, secured a guide for the first -part of the day's march. It was a sunny though windy winter morning, -and we soon passed the boundary of cultivated ground, and made our way -towards a grassy slope stretching upwards to the mountains in the -south. Following the dry bed of a river we reached a ravine opening to -the east, along the bottom of which the river _Hrar-gol_ or _Ta-ho_, -now ice-bound, had worn itself a deep channel -- about 200 fathoms wide --- and along its high precipitous right bank we made our way. Above the -steep strand plateau lie low hills of conglomerate which at a distance -rise to some considerable height. The road leads very soon across the -frozen strip of water to the opposite shore and then back again and -this movement was repeated time after time during the day's march. The -shore became more stony the farther one penetrated into the ravine, -and the ice if possible more slippery. The few trees growing in the -river-bed were being hewn down by Chinamen, who, binding them in pairs, -lay them, with the loose ends dragging, over the backs of donkeys, -and thus draw them out upon the plain. The further one rides, the more -of these little donkey caravans one meets, and now it is one of our -horses which slips and lies full length on the glassy ice, now it is -one of the small donkeys which lies helpless. Fortunately the earth was -bare: if it had been icy, it would have been impossible to get over -such ground, stony and broken as the road was. Now the horses climbed -a clift several fathoms high, now they crept like snakes between huge -blocks of all dimensions. The hills around us were not very high and -there were no grassy slopes, the naked walls of rock showing in many -places a bright-red colour. The ravine soon narrowed and its sides rose -steeply, often precipitously. About four km from the beginning of -the pass, we rode past one of the small guardhouses which the Chinese -government officers are so fond of building in any inaccessible place. -They are spread over the whole width of the Empire and do good police -service. In a little square tower built of granite, a guard consisting -of three men from the Li-yen garrison was posted. A little further on, -where the ravine broadened again, we saw a poverty-stricken little -Chinese homestead, and a small temple. The ravine opened out now and -again, soon to narrow once more, and the road grew worse and worse. -About eleven km from the guardhouse, the hills around us rose to a -considerable height and we crossed a sharply defined crest. Firtrees -showed themselves on the slopes towards the north and west, which were -less steep. About 17-18 km from the guard house we passed a fork of -the ravine, which now broadened somewhat, and, turning sharply to the -south, we rode towards the river _Kiito-gol_ which we approached on -the left. Now the mountains were lower, the shores and slopes covered -with grass, and in the distance was seen one of those decorated white -conical towers so characteristic of Buddhist countries. Another turn of -the road and we were suddenly arrived at our destination, K'anglungssu, -the chief monastery of the _Shera Yögurs_, or _Rtangu rgonba_ as it -is called in their language. - -Built on the lower slopes of some small hills, the monastery appeared -to be a mass of buildings out of which rose a large, massive temple -in red and brown and grey and white, with the usual gilded Buddha -roof-decorations. Around the temple walls some dozens of houses, -were grouped the majority of them low and of the most unpretentious -description. Together with another smaller temple, your eye was caught -at once by a temple-like building, which is used by the monastery, and -a couple of rather more capacious houses, one of them belonging to the -_t'umu_ (a sort of hereditary governor) the other being kindly placed -at my disposal. - -Timber is chiefly used in building, only the crevices being filled with -clay. Four-cornered beams are used as columns indoors as well as in -the outer walls of the building. The rooms are almost completely dark, -very small, and black with soot. A _k'ang_ heated with coal and dry -manure, which is lifted into the room by removing a board or two in the -ceiling takes up nearly all the space. No Buddha altar or decorations -were visible in the houses of the lamas I visited. Some blankets, a -fur-coat, cups, basins, a jar for coal and a couple of chests, or -cupboard-like boxes, is all that is to be seen in the way of household -goods. By the door outside stands a wide deep bench, like a bed, -without sides, the wall forming the back of it. It is used as a seat in -winter, and in summer as a bed. - -The temple, the chief religious shrine of the Shera Yögurs was large, -and wealthy. In its size and architectural style it greatly resembled -the monastery of _Kuré_ belonging to the Zurgan sumun Kalmucks in the -valley of the Tekés river, which I had visited some months previously, -but the details showed signs of Tibetan influence. The front of the -building faced east and opened upon a roomy courtyard. It was decorated -with large, very rudely painted pictures of warriors, like those to be -seen outside the houses and temples of the mandarins. A colonnade of -narrow wooden columns led from the principal entrance to the altar, -where the high and throne-like chair of state belonging to the _gegen_ -stood on the left. The four walls of the temple were formed by four -narrow buildings with carved Chinese roofs, of which those at the -entrance and at the altar wall rose somewhat above the two side -buildings. The central square connecting these four buildings, which -lack their inner walls, was raised two stories and crowned by a -four-cornered roof with carved roof-trees, embellished at the highest -point with a gilded cone. - -Round three sides of the second story ran small rooms under the same -roof, which are used for storing various things. The fourth side, that -towards the entrance door, was open allowing free passage for light -but also for cold. The interior walls of this gallery were covered -with Buddhist pictures, painted in bright colours and set into the -walls like panels, and diverse banners with Buddhist ornamentation. In -the lower, larger temple-court, the side walls were divided into open -square cupboards and compartments, holding a great number of Buddhist -books. The Tangut lettering was carefully inscribed on long narrow -loose pages, often enclosed in an artistic frame, secured between two -wooden boards bound together by a cord. Along the entrance side of the -courts, on low benches, the lamas scarlet mantles, highcombed head -dresses, staffs and other insignia were lying. The centre of the altar -wall was occupied by Buddha figures with low tables placed before -them, bearing small dishes of water, grain -- a burning lamp and other -ritualistic objects. On both sides of this, the wall was covered from -floor to ceiling by hundreds of small compartments, in which, behind a -hanging, the same image of Buddha was repeated. - -The place of honour, that is, the centre of the wall behind the altar, -was occupied by a bronze statue of _Tsunkoa_ (the same in both Yögur -and Tangut), half a metre high, wrapped in a piece of red cloth. Before -him stood _Stonba_, also in bronze, but in miniature. On each side -stand _Shagdur (Shagiur?)_ in two different aspects and further away -two highly-coloured banners representing _Shtshanrygzyc_ on the left -and _Stongsko_ on the right. Lastly, on the far left was still another -fine bronze Buddha, also some Buddhas of painted clay, and on the -right, three bronze Buddhas forming three small separate groups round -the wall. Along the cornice between the lower ceiling and the wall of -the gallery numbers of banners were hanging, their century-old dim -colouring and gilding being most effective. - -A narrow corridor-like room behind the altar was filled with the most -extraordinary collection of Buddha idols seated in a row round the four -walls. Opposite the entrance a richly gilded _Stongsko_, of immense -size, was enthroned. - -The lamas living in this monastery do not number more than fifteen, -all ages included. The younger men especially were extremely friendly -and obliging, owing probably to _Ma-t'idu's_ sending me an escort. -The _gegen_ of the monastery, their _Shke_ lama (Great Lama) Buddha's -reincarnation, was still a child, growing up in the mountains, a -three day's ride further south, under the care of elderly Yögur lamas. -He had succeeded the last _Shke_ lama, who died eight or nine years -ago, but was only brought to K'anglungssu for the solemnizing of great -ceremonies, occuring every sixth and twelfth Chinese moon. On the -hill-side nearest the monastery some tombs were marked by high poles -and heaps of stones, in memory of some respected lamas. When a Yögur -rides by, he dismounts and mumbles some prayers half aloud, but you -never hear, as among the Zurgan sumun Khalmucks and Tanguts, the lama's -solemn singing, with its deep, long drawn-out notes which spread a veil -of mysticism and religious feeling over the hidden valleys and chasms -of their high impenetrable mountains. Still, if you walk along the -winding paths between the wooden huts of the monastery, the tinkling -of small bells, and a monotonous voice tells you that here too, in the -depths of their dark huts, prayers are being chanted with the same -zeal as among the Tibetan hills. The lamas are supported by voluntary -contributions in payment for their services as prayer-readers. The -generosity evinced is great, and is proved by the fact that in the case -of a death, from one-third to one-half of the property left is given -to the lamas. Only a small percentage of the lamas are able to read -the Tangutan language, they have nothing to do with medicine, and in -cases of serious illness a fortune-teller is called upon -- usually a -lama -- to foretell the future, and also another lama, to pray for the -sick. The fortune-teller uses three dice and a Tangutan book in which -all answers to the various combinations are to be found. - -Not even the presence of their _t'umu, Rentshen Nurbo_, who had been -kind enough to come to meet me at K'anglungssu, conquered the terror -which the lamas felt for my anthropological instruments. Many of those -who had been most sociable disappeared, and not even the tempting -knives, looking-glasses, snuff-boxes, etc, which I offered to the -bravest, who dared face the danger of being measured, could persuade -them to cross the threshold of their homes. Seeing that all efforts -were vain and having no further hope of success, I determined to leave -K'anglungssu on the 29th of December for the purpose of paying a return -visit to the t'umu. He offered his services as guide and in the bright -glory of the early morning, as we said farewell to the monastery, -with its red-mantled, closely cropped lamas, the country round about -appeared to me far pleasanter than on my arrival there. Kiito-gol winds -southwards past the monastery between two mountain slopes. That to the -left, is covered with grass, while a thick forest of fir-trees climbs -to the crest of the other. Opposite the monastery from the east a -narrow valley winds its way between grassy hills. Its northerly slope -facing SE carries you by several terrace-like plateaux to the higher -mountain range which we had crossed a few days ago, -- its granite -crest could be seen, forming three long peaks bordered with a fringe of -fir-trees growing along its northern slope. The sunburnt grass had in -the sunshine a warm sandstone colour against which the grey mountain -ridge with its dark border of fir-trees stood out effectively. The -white and greyish-blue ribbon of the icebound Kiito-gol disappeared -among the hills to the north. I said goodbye to a group of lamas, -who, no longer terrified at my craniometer, had assembled to see me -off. The red mantles and togas in which the lamas sometimes drape -themselves wearing their right arm and shoulder bare -- their closely -cropped heads, their wonderfully expressive faces, with bronze and -earth-coloured skin hanging in deep wrinkles and folds, their kindly -insinuating smiles, white teeth and outstretched hands, all made an -ineffaceable impression. - -We rode south up the hilly ridge, rising between Kiito-gol and -_Hrar-gol_, at the foot of which lies the monastery, and found a -"_place of prayer_" on its crest, marked by a great clump of poles and -young trees. Down a precipitous slope wre reached the bottom of the -narrow valley of Hrar-gol. To the south forest-covered heights could -be seen dominated by a great snow-topped giant, which the t'umu names -_Hanshozu_. [A horse-path which is only open for part of the year leads -south along the Hrar-gol valley. Hsining is reached after a 12-17 days' -ride.] A narrow side ravine brought us to a slight pass; from which we -turned westward. The upward climb was very steep and the road divided -here, one path leading westward to Khungeitza-Hsuchow which was reached -in four days. Still followed on the right by the same fir-bordered -mountain crest, which we saw in K'anglungssu to the NW, we rode over a -high, undulating plain, covered with snow. In the far distance to the -left was seen a wide snowcovered mountain range, which the natives call -_Longshur_. It is supposed to be a continuation of the above mentioned -Hanshozu. Glittering in its white covering, _Galdjan_ rose in the WNW -high above the rest of the range, and here _Neimen-gol_, one of the -great tributaries of the Hei-ho, has its source. After gathering all -the waters from the rivers pouring down these mountains it flows past -Li-yen. The ride down from the heights was if possible even steeper -than our ride up, but we were soon at the bottom of a fork-like ravine, -in the left branch of which lay the "residence" of the _t'umu_, on the -shore of an insignificant little river called _Kluadjek-gol_. - -A somewhat larger wooden house and a couple of huts built of slender -timbers with the roofs prolonged to form a small, half-open outhouse, -is the simple dwelling during the winter months of the hereditary -_t'umu_ of the Shera Yögurs, and one which, I am sure, his very -unpretentious people consider to be the height of modern comfort. The -larger building consisted of two spacious, barn-like rooms, absolutely -unfurnished, with simply a hole in the ceiling, above the kettle placed -on eight bricks in the centre of the floor. In a small partition in -one of the gables of the house, a _k'ang_ was covered with carpets and -rugs, to give the t'umu an opportunity of indulging in his dearest -passion, the opium pipe. On each side of the larger building were two -enclosures fenced in, the one for cattle, the other for sheep. Near by, -stood a couple of typical Shera Yögur dwellings, low grey tents raised -on a low foundation of slender timbers, caulked with manure and provided -each with an enclosure for cattle. With the exception of the monastery -of K'anglungssu and this house of the t'umu's, there are said to be no -other wooden buildings owned by the Yögurs. - -The Shera Yögurs inhabit the mountains round the following rivers, all -of which are tributaries of _Hei-ho_ or of its tributaries: _Neiman_ -or _Longsor_ (flows past Li-yen), _Tshulung, Zdem, Sheirik, -Hrar, Kiito, Tashtyng, Khsan, and Pazyng gol_ (Hei-ho's upper -course) or _Khara Murin_, as it is called lower down. The t'umu, whose -knowledge of his country seemed rather limited, said that his people -inhabited an area of two or three days' ride westward, as much to the -East, and three to four days' ride southward, from K'anglungssu, and -he considered that there were not more thau about _three hundred tents_ -spread over a distance of from five to six versts. They are governed by -some ten t'umus (5 _t'umu's_ and 5 _fu-fumu's_) all subordinate to my -host, who is called _ta t'umu_ (the great t'umu). - -The dignity of t'umu which in Yögur is called _nujun_ is hereditary -and carries with it the right of wearing a Chinese mandarin button. -A _t'umu_ acts as judge, adjusts taxes, and manages the tents which -belong to his district. Important questions are referred to the eldest -_t'umu_. None of them have any pay, but they receive small gifts when -a complaint is brought before them. There are no written laws, neither -are any of the people able to read. Tradition and common-sense are the -guiding principles. Crimes do not occur, and when there is any question -of an execution the case is referred to the Chinese authorities. - -Since the Dungan revolt, only twenty-three horses are levied yearly -- -formerly eighty-two were paid -- and they are sent by the commander of -the garrison in Li-yen to _t'idu_ in Kanchow. Privately, the officer -in question also receives fifty tiao copper coins, about fifty lan, 1 -deer and from two to thirty hares in the year. The price of the horses -is paid in money, at twenty-eight lan per horse, and the sum levied on -the different tents depends upon their means. The _t'umu_ complained -of the arbitrariness and extortion of the Chinese officials. He was -very anxious at the moment about some coal-shafts in the _Liwenku_ -ravine, for the use of which the Chinese had hitherto paid the Yögurs -a small yearly rental. Now the nearest local mandarin had admonished -the Chinese to pay the rental to him and not to the Yögurs, which after -all, only came to some three or four taels per shaft. - -Neither the _t'umu_ nor the lamas seemed to know much about the origin -of the tribe. They had once lived in _K'ouwai_ (outside the Great -Wall), probably in the North, but possibly in the W or NW, which land -in Chinese was called _Tangutá_, in their language Seche-Hache -- some -of them calling it _Shilagu_. [_Potanin_ in his book of travels says -that some of the Yögurs pronounced Shilagu as Sheragol.] They had left -it very long ago and removed to their present surroundings. Where -that land lay, whether it was mountainous or level they did not know; -neither did they know if it had been governed by their own Princes, nor -had they preserved the names of their more renowned ancestors, except -that of a certain Khor Geser Rdjalu (Djavu, according to _Potanin_). -[The foot prints of Gesers horse are said to be found on the walls of -a cliff near the Tangut monastery Matissu, 120 li. S of Kanchow. There -is also a hole with a stone in it where his dog was fed.] Documentary -evidence in regard to their origin had existed, and had been left -in the care of Li-yen's military mandarin, but it had probably been -destroyed by fire when his government office was burnt during the -Dungan revolt. According to one document they had removed hither during -the reign of the Emperor _K'ang-hsi_ and become Chinese subjects, but -in another it was said they had come over and lived by robbery. The -general impression was that they had come here during the Emperor -_K'ang-hsi's_ reign, though some of the lamas maintained that it had -been during Shunchih's. The circumstances which speak for the former -view are the following: The monastery of K'anglungssu, according to -their statements, had been founded at the time of their settling here. -Over the entrance to the temple its name is written in Chinese -characters, which same characters occur in the name of the Emperor -K'ang-hsi. The only document I was fortunate enough to secure is -reproduced below. It was engrossed on white silk by the _t'idu_ in -Ganchow, during the thirty-fifth year of the reign of the Emperor -_K'ang-hsi_. It gives official permission to graze on the pasture lands -which the tribes use at present. There is reason to believe that the -permission was given soon after their migration at the request of the -Chinese officials. It is a strange fact that this little mountain tribe -who not only consider themselves, but, without doubt, are, Mongolian, -say that in spite of the difference of language they belong to the same -tribe as the Sarö Yögurs, whom they, at the same time, consider to be -_Tshantu_, that is to say _Sarts_, and whose name they say ought to be -_Kara (black) Yögur_ not _Sarö Yogur_. [Potanin also calls them Kara -Yögur in the statements he makes in his book regarding these people but -I consider it altogether impossible that I should mistake K. for S. It -is however possible that the Sarö Yögur themselves have replaced -Kara with Sara -- that is, the Chinese huang 'yellow' translated -in to their own language.] They believe that in years gone by they -had both lived in Tangutá, which they left simultaneously. [Where -lay this mysterious Tangutá or Seche-Hache, and how have these so -dissimilar tribes become one Yögur race?] -- According to a statement -made by the Chinese mandarin in Li-yen, the country now inhabited by -the Yögurs had been earlier peopled by a tribe called _Hung maotzu_ -(the red-haired) or _Huang fan_ (the red barbarians) who were in bad -repute as robbers. [Ruins, which the Yögurs consider as belonging to -the Khumouza people, are to be found west of Longsor's left mountain -range, about ten versts SW from Li-yen, at a place called _Sar Oron_ -and about fifteen km to the south of ta t'umu's home. There are only -traces of dwellings left, in both places; in the latter case these -have been numerous.] By the command of the emperors they had been -quite exterminated. To this desolate country, where wild beasts began -to thrive in startling numbers, were sent at the request of the -_t'idu_ in Kanchow, by _Chiangch'un_ (a kind ol Governor General) in -Ili six _tshi Huang-fan_ from the district of _Urumtchi_. The Chinese -Government provided them with cattle. This movement is supposed to have -taken place during Yungch'eng's reign. The Sarö and Shera Yögurs are -the remnant of these six _tshi_ and the Chinese military authorities -consider them even yet a kind of irregular troop, which can be called -upon in case of need. - -They had been a numerous tribe and counted up to three thousand -tents. They had driven out another race, whom the Chinese called _Khu -maotzu-si fan_ and the Tanguts _Sjamar_. - -Death, and also the amalgamation with the Chinese element, has greatly -diminished the tribe, and it goes on diminishing rapidly. Women are -considerably more numerous than men. Many of them are sterile, and -there are seldom more than three children in a family, never more than -five or six. Marriage with the Chinese does not occur any longer, -neither with the Tanguts, though it did occur earlier. The percentage -of lamas is as great as among the Mongolians. It is said that there are -at least a hundred of them. In a family where there is more than one -son, it is the custom that one of them should be a lama and the weaker -boys are educated to the office. - -The Shera Yögurs consist of the following so-called "bones". -_Tokshu_ 5; _Orgé_ 20; _Sultus_ 8-9; _Turgush_ 2; _Kargos_ 10-15; -_Arlat_ 2; _Kong_ 2-3; _Lantshak_ 30-35; _Sockä_ 1; _Khongrott_ 3; -_Temyrt_ or _Temurtshin_ 2; _Jaglakyr_ 4; _Tshungsa_ 6; _Tshangban_ -20-25; _Rkomdjuk_ 4; _Glan_ 2; _Kyrgys_ 7-8 families, and _Andjan_, -out of which all the _t'umus_ are chosen. _Tuman_ and _Uirot_ are -bones which are common to both _Sarö_ (Kara) and Shera Yögurs. There -are however only two families of Shera Yögurs in Tuman. The Sarö -Yögurs have, besides, the _Minack_ and _Patan_ "bones", as well as the -_Pegeshi_, from which they take their t'umus. This classification has -no importance except as a system of relationship between the respective -"bones". The people belonging to the same "bone" are not allowed to -intermarry. - -The administrative division of the Shera Yögurs is as follows: (The -Chinese names indicate the number of horses which are paid in yearly -tax.) - - Chinese Yögur Chinese Yögur - - o cha, Päjat tavyn otóck with the temple of Tingyaossu, Smaktsho - v cha, Neiman otóck " " " of Hungwangssu, Neimankit - o cha, Kurke otöck " " " of Khaya kusu, Kurkin kit - o ma cha, Dörven kolma otóck - (Durben golma.) - wuko ma cha, Shkatok otöck - (Harban tabyn golma) " " " of Kanglungssu, Rtangú rgonba - iko ma cha, Janga otóck - (Harban niga golma) - i ma cha, Neiman golma otók - lai cha, Nanso otóck " " " of Pa baor t'a ssu - Edejeninkit or Kufussu - -The division of the Sarö (Kara) Yögurs is as follows: - - Jaglaky otók with the temple of Changkussu Yög. Pájran. - Khurungut " " " " Longtsha. - -This however does not include the temples in Machuangtzu and Tungheitzu. - -_Ta t'umu_ is considered the head of the Sarö Yögurs as well as of the -Shera Yögurs, but his authority must be very nominal, when even the -settlement of taxes is not in his hands. -- - -As to the uses and customs of the Shera Yögurs, this is what I have -gathered: - -From three to seven days after a death occurs, the body is carried out -into the mountains some little distance from the tent and left there -to be eaten by birds of prey. The eyes are closed but the limbs in no -way straightened. No importance is attached to the position in which -the body lies. After three days some of the relatives of the dead go to -see if the body has been eaten up by vultures -- which is a sign that -the dead has been a good man. If such is not the case, a lama is called -upon to read more prayers. The bodies of richer people are burnt on a -bier of faggots. No food is placed upon it and the body is naked, with -its head turned to the west. The ashes are kneaded into a _burkhan_ -(an image of Buddha), which placed inside a wooden box, is buried. The -lama only reads prayers in the tent directly after the death, and the -earlier custom of entertaining guests on the occasion has gradually -disappeared under the influence of the lamas. -- Only male descendants -inherit. -- The widow remains with her son or sons, who very often do -not divide the property. Daughters only inherit in cases where there -are no sons. - -The marriages are arranged by the parents of both parties. A girl -cannot get engaged before she is fifteen years old. Men marry between -the ages of fifteen and thirty -- women between seventeen and -thirty -- and the wives are often eight or ten years older than their -husbands. A widow seldom remarries, unless her husband has left her -destitute, while a widower usually marries again. The only daughter -of a family does not marry. Marriages are not entered into among the -members of the same "bone", as said above, neither can cousins marry, -nor uncles or aunts with their nieces or nephews -- neither is it -allowed between step-parents and their children. The bride is bought, -also in the Shera Yögur tribe, and the agreement is made by two men -sent to her father, who, while praising the high qualities of the -bridegroom, discusses with them the price of the girl and her dowry. -When an agreement is come to, tea, meat and spirits are offered. -Before the engagement the young people had no difficulty in meeting as -often as they wished, but after it they do not see each other till the -wedding day. After some time the two spokesmen appear again bringing -the promised amount of cows, sheep and horses, -- the price being -always paid in live stock -- and with them comes the bridegroom. All -three are entertained in the best possible way and a belt is presented -to the bridegroom by his future father-in-law. A month or so later the -bride's dowry is ready and the wedding takes place. Lamas are invited -to hold services both homes, and accompanied by her mother and all the -guests who have assembled at her home, the bride mounts her horse and -starts upon the journey to her new home. Her hair has been combed and -plaited and decorated with rings, clasps and buttons -- the insignia -of a married woman -- and she is dressed in her finest array -and takes all her dowry with her, which consists of clothes, hair -decorations and cattle, according to the wealth of her parents, and, -in some cases, a suit of clothes for the bridegroom. The wedding -procession is met by all the guests, who have assembled at the -bridegroom's home, both men and women. The bride is taken to a special -tent, where she spends the night in company with one of the women, -all the remaining guests being invited into the usual dwelling where -(by special invitation) the father of the bride also later, makes his -appearance. Here all sorts of food are offered; tea, with salt, milk, -cream and butter, roasted flour, boiled meat, (beef or mutton), paste -cut in narrow strips (eaten in soup) and gin, and the festivities are -kept up all night. There is some singing, but no dancing, and on the -following morning the bridegroom receives the dowry, in the bride's -tent. The young people now proceed to the common tent where they kneel -before the altar, after which the bridegroom alone kneels before his -parents and the elder guests who give him small presents. On the third -day the newly married couple visit the bride's parents when small gifts -are again exchanged. - -No proof of virility is required of the bridegroom before entering -upon marriage, the men have usually known women before and it is by no -means rare that the bride also is well initiated in these mysteries and -that she brings one or more children together with her dowry to the -new home. Sometimes the children remain with her parents. Infidelity -sometimes occurs after marriage, but not openly, and the consequence -is generally that the wife gets a good beating with which the pangs of -jealousy are appeased. There is no divorce, but bigamy is usual where -the first marriage proves childless, in which case both wives live in -the same tent. The women are often childless, but do not attempt to -cure sterility by eating herbs, only by having prayers read. - -As with the Sarö Yögurs the women kneel in giving birth, and are -assisted by women, one of whom acts as midwife. The navel-string is cut -with a pair of scissors or a bit of pottery. In case of a laborious or -delayed delivery a lama is called to lead prayers, and there seem to be -no methods of hastening delivery. - -For seven days the newborn child is daily washed and rubbed with -butter, and for seven days the mother keeps her bed -- and sleeps -separately for twenty days or so. She nurses the child for two years, -and often part of the third year. A quilt is used as wrapper, though -no board is used as among the Kalmucks. Twins are rare and there is no -superstition connected with the birth of two children -- and it is said -that no deformed children are born. There are no festivities on the -occasion of a birth. The child's hair is cut when it is two or three -years old or at the birth of another child, and it is sometimes cut -at once for the Chinese plait, sometimes the whole head is cropped -close. The first teeth show themselves when the child is about eight -months old, and milk-teeth are replaced at eleven years of age. At -twelve years of age, the child is given a name which the lamas have -chosen out of their books. - -The Shera Yögurs are of medium height and not badly built. Those I had -the opportunity of examining had, on the contrary, well-formed hands -and feet and narrow wrists and ankles. There is nothing about them of -the coarse and vulgar appearance which distinguishes the Kalmucks. -Stout people are never seen -- many of them are even remarkably thin. -Their faces are neither exceptionally long and narrow nor short and -broad, and though some have well developed cheekbones, wide cheekbones -are rare, and in many individuals they are not at all protruding. The -mouth is normal, with neither thin nor thick lips, the nose straight -and of a good shape. Some however had wide turned-up noses, with very -little bridge to them. The distance between the eyes was, among the -majority, rather wide, though in some individuals normal. The corner of -the eye is slightly overgrown by the eyelid in the case of children, -but this peculiarity almost disappears as they grow older. The eyes are -black or dark, with slight changes in them, but I saw no blue eyes. -Their hair is black or quite dark, sometimes curly, the children often -having brown hair. The men are never bald, but you often see them very -grey, and judging by the women, the growth of hair is not particularly -good. They have very scanty beards, and there is seldom any growth of -hair on the body. - -The Sarö Yögurs gave me the impression of being much sharper than the -generality of Mongolians, Kalmucks and Tanguts. It is easier to make -them understand you -- they are livelier, imagine they understand you -before you say more than a few words and interrupt you with an answer -before you have explained what you want. They not only examine any new -object with the greatest interest but very quickly understand its uses. -The _Ta fumu_ had an exceptionally good ear for foreign languages, and -when I asked the names of numbers of things, through my interpreter, -he amused himself repeating the Russian words he had heard me use. -The strange thing was that he had often rightly caught the sound and -preserved it in his memory, in spite of the usual long Chinese phrases, -which the interpreter used in speaking to him. He was greatly delighted -with this and at my astonishment when he pronounced correctly -some rather complicated words. Besides this, he attached the title, -which the Chinese give Europeans, _ta jen_ (your excellency or your -greatness) before the Yögur verbs I wanted to hear, and obtained in -this way very ridiculous phrases, such as "ta jen nurses your child", -etc, which amused him and the other Yögurs immensely. In general they -are very fond of jokes. - -The Yögurs can multiply figures mentally, sometimes in more complicated -cases finding help in the beads of their rosary. The practical way -of multiplying with the help of their fingers as practised by the -Mongolians is unknown. Weights, measures and money are Chinese. - -The costume worn consists of a sheepskin coat, short in itself, and -made shorter by being bound round by a scarf in such a way as to form -a big bag hanging over the waist, which is used as a pocket. It is -furnished with a low collar usually covered with a bit of red or blue -cloth, which often continues as a border edging the coat. Wealthier -men cover the whole coat with blue cloth. To the home-woven scarf, -which is wound two or three times round the waist, with its ends tucked -in so that they hang down the back, is fastened, by a copper clasp, -a metal case with a knife, chop-sticks, often a tinderbox and some -other small articles. No shirt is worn but sometimes a summer costume, -of which the collar, cut and decorated in the same way as the coat, -shows through the open fur-collar. A pair of half-wide trousers made -of Chinese cotton or skin, over which a pair of so-called Chinese -trousers (two three-cornered shaped trouser legs, fastened by a cord -round the waist) made of the same material as the inner pair and high -Chinese boots, the leggings of which are made of cotton material and -bound round with a band, completes the costume which is common to -both sexes. The head-dresses and style of head-covering distinguishes -the women. The former which is made of a kind of stiff canvas covered -on the outside with white and under the brim with red cotton, is in -the form of a somewhat curved cylinder, with quite a low, narrow -crown and wide straight brim. It is tied loosely under the chin and -is worn coquettishly very much on the side. The hair is plaited into -three plaits, without any _kutas_ (oxen hair) being added. One plait -hangs down the back, and bears a white bone button in the nape of -the neck; the other two are worn hanging over the breast, and are -threaded through numbers of silver and enamel rings and various stone -ornaments of Chinese production. Below these are fastened upon two -wide straps, flat copper rings, and clasps, gaudily ornamented, the -whole being finished off with enamel button-like decorations sewn -upon wide pieces of leather, which nearly reach the ground. The men -wear a Mongolian felt or fur cap of Chinese or Mongolian type. All -domestic appliances and implements are Chinese with the exception of -the loom, which was the same as that used by the Sarö Yögurs, Kalmucks -and Khirgis. There is no home-industry except weaving and the making -of coarse blankets of an inferior quality. I also saw in the monastery -some good, if simple, joiner's work for which Chinese axes, planes -and other implements had been used. The knitting of stockings and -basketwork are unknown here. Weapons, knives and other metal articles -are bought from Sinin. - -The people were dirty, but it is questionable if one would not also -become so if one was forced as they are to spend the cold and stormy -winter in their uncomfortable tents. The household goods were however -washed far more carefully than the Kalmucks wash theirs and you even -saw some of the people washing themselves, which I have never seen -among the latter, not even in summer. I never saw a Yögur spit, smoking -is rare, but snuff was often used. Only some dozen of them were -addicted to the opium passion. - -The food they ate was much the same as that eaten by other nomadic -people. Tea with salt, butter, milk and cream, when it can be had, and -roasted flour are the chief articles of nourishment. On great occasions -a cow or sheep is killed and soup made. The meat is then taken out and -cut up in thin slices together with strips of paste and put back into -the soup. Meat was served on small four-cornered wooden platters, -the soup in wooden cups. Chinese chop-sticks were used; if they were -not handy, a couple of chips were broken from a faggot. In general the -people did eat tidily though the dishes were very carefully licked -after a meal. The Mongolian milk brandy is not made, but _chün_, the -Chinese preparation, is highly prized by both men and women. The chief -meal of the day was eaten in the evening, after the day's work of -caring for the cattle was over. After tea had been drunk, and the cups -all well licked, all the family remained seated round the fire, in the -centre of the tent, mumbling prayers in low voices for some half-hour. -It was an indescribably strange sight, to see them sitting in the -half-dark tents, the women in their coquettish, rakish hats, the men in -fur caps and enormous fur coats, the lama's cropped heads and shaven -faces, all very solemn, yet madly gabbling, as it seemed, the same word -over and over again. - -One day the _t'umu_ had a sheep killed and arranged a feast in my -honour, with Chinese brandy and singing. These songs were sung -alternately by two women and two young men. The women sang best, and -while singing they clung closely to each other, staring into each -other's eyes, as if trying to guess what the next note would be. They -sang beautiful melodies, usually finishing upon a long drawn-out sad -note. Ever now and again the singers offered to one of the guests -a small cup of hot brandy with a polite and pretty bow and with the -gesture so characteristic of Mongolian and other nomadic tribes, -- the -hands being outstretched with palms turned upward. There seem to be no -real Yögur songs, but Mongolian songs, learned in their youth, are sung -on these occasions. I was on the whole surprised to see how gracefully -they moved about in their awkward furs and boots. The soup was served -by three young men, relatives of the _t'umu_, and it was a pleasure -to see how politely and gracefully they handed cups and dishes, and -received them from the assembled guests. - -The winter sun is late in penetrating the mountain valleys, which is -perhaps the reason the Yögurs also are late in the mornings. As soon -as they rise, tea is made in a big kettle, and is taken with roasted -flour, and then the day's work begins. The cows are milked, snow is -melted in a big kettle, cups and kettles are scrubbed with ashes, -flour is ground, wood is chopped and the women busy themselves among -the sheep. You see them, humming a scrap of song, making their way -carefully through the tightly packed flock of sheep, carrying one or -two lambs under their arms, kissing and caressing the bleating animals. -The cattle are driven to the mountain slopes by the men, but all the -small household duties go on unceasingly till the evening, when the -sheep come home again and require attention. It is only when all -the day's work is done, that dinner is first thought of. The Yögurs -are quick at their work, talkative and amusing. You never hear -quarrelling nor do you see dissatisfied faces. Their movements are -not quick but this must be ascribed to their clumsy boots and heavy -fur-coats, for you often see a man or woman running quickly and lightly -down a steep mountain side. After dinner or rather supper, prayers -are said, as I described, for quite half an hour, when the cups are -scrubbed with ashes again, and talk and laughter goes on round the fire -till late at night. They sleep, quite naked, each on his own blanket -spread on the floor of the tent. Their furs are used as coverlets, -though sometimes coverlets are made of wool covered with some of -their homewoven cloth. - -The tents they inhabit are considerably less comfortable than the -Mongolian and Khirgis "yurts". They measure three to four strides in -width but are so low that you cannot stand upright in them. Made of a -coarse home-woven canvas-like material, of a greyish white colour with -dark brown stripes, it is raised with the help of six poles, of which -the two in the middle are joined by a crossbar. It is furnished on the -outside with ropes, which fasten it to a low fence. During winter the -tents are furnished with a low foundation of slender timbers, lying -lengthwise and caulked with manure. This is not moved in their summer -migrations. Along the top of the tent there is a long rectangular -opening to allow the smoke to escape. In the centre of the tent stands -the kettle on its bits of clay, opposite the door a couple of Buddhas, -and some brass vessels on a low table and along the walls, the small -collection of household utensils, blankets, saddles etc. - -The live stock I saw, was good of its kind. The cattle were chiefly yak -cows, grey and black, both with horns and hornless. The size varied -very much, and you could see an undergrown little cow by the side of -one well-worth being exhibited, as an exeptionally fine specimen. -The milk had a good taste and a high percentage of fat. The sheep -seemed larger than those of the other nomadic tribes in Tienshan and -were not of the fat-tailed breed. -- The horses were small, fairly -well proportioned, and strong, but not handsome. Most of them were -knock-kneed. -- The dogs were chiefly Tangutan, large, dark-brown, -long-haired, very fine animals. -- The Yögurs complained of their many -sufferings during the protracted Dungan revolt, especially of their -loss of cattle, and that since that time they had never regained the -same degree of prosperity. - -We spent New Year's Day in rifle practice. The t'umu had never fired a -shot and had not the very faintest idea of handling a gun. He screwed -up both eyes in the funniest manner when I made him try to shoot from -a rest with a Berdan gun which I had given him. There is no sport -worth mentioning among the Yögurs. Their fire arms are brought from -Sining and are of the usual type found in Central Asia, with a moveable -fork-like rest and a fuse. - -There did not seem to be much game either in the neigbourhood, nothing -in the way to be seen but so called "kekliks" (mountain grouse) and -big vultures -- the Yögur grave diggers. Hares and wolves were said to -exist, and bears, in summer, but you never heard of the ibex, the wild -goat and other animals which are usual in the Tienshan heights. The -wild yak is found further south. I saw no traps or snares, except wolf -traps. They were round, with two strong springs attached at opposite -sides of the circle, which by the aid of two running rings caused -the two segments of the circle to close with force. They were placed -over a piece of cloth drawn over a wand, also bent into a circle of -the same size. A peg fastened to the outer circumference was threaded -through a loop in the centre of the circle, and kept the trap open till -something, trampling on the cloth, caused the peg to fly out of the -loop. -- You heard of no manly sports, and if games or races did take -place, they were not of the same extent, nor were they considered of so -much importance as among the Kalmucks and Khirgis. - -Unfortunately I cannot add anything regarding the superstitious customs -of these tribes to the very interesting statements which were published -by Potanin in his book of travels. Either they would not initiate me -into these things or they were really free from superstition. They -pretended not to attach importance to dreams. They begged me not to -bring indoors an enormous old vulture which I shot, and they carefully -buried any scraps of meat found in the neighbourhood of the tent, but -remembering that the vultures eat the bodies of their dead, this seems -very natural. - -During four months of the Chinese year, they gather together for the -purpose of chanting prayers at the "praying places" -- the heaps of -stones and tall poles, raised in the mountains, which I have described -before. At one of the heaps, raised in honour of the cattle god, -prayers are offered for the health and welfare of the cattle. - -It was with real feelings of regret that, on the 2nd of January, I -left my hospitable hosts, the Shera Yögurs, and their little home -imbedded among the grassy hills, where we had spent such a pleasant New -Year's Day. All the men assembled round the saddled horses, to wish us -farewell. One held my horse's bridle, another the stirrup, a third gave -me a helping push into the saddle, while a fourth stood on the other -side ready to prevent me from overbalancing myself. As we rode past -the flocks of sheep where the women were busy with their usual work, I -reined iu my horse and shouted them a loud _tshuavá_ and _sujá_ (thanks --- and -- goodbye), which evidently pleased them, judging by the smile -I received from the bright eyes of the _t'umu's_ adopted daughter -- -bright dark eyes, into the depths of which both Lukanin, my Cossack, -and I, were tempted to gaze too long. - -The valley of the _Kluadjek-gol_ opened at a short distance from the -_t'umu's_ home, into another, _Mör-gol_, where there were only traces -left of the river's course. We followed this narrow valley with its -steep grassy slopes in a NNW and N direction. A little higher the -surface of the rock was often visible. For a short distance the hills -were of a considerable height, but soon sank again, and after a ride of -seven km our direction was NNE and our road followed a water course, -with cakes of ice lying here and there. Four km further on the valley -which now bears the name _Talipin-gol_ began to widen and the hills on -both sides rose imposingly. Another half hour's ride brought us to the -great _Lansor's_ or _Neiman-gol_ valley in which the river forming a -wide bend, open to the north, pours its waters over a broad stony bed, -between one hundred and fifty and two hundred and fifty fathoms wide, -through one principal channel and several smaller ones. Along both -shores rose steep picturesque heights, of which those on the left shore -were of a warm terra-cotta red colour. We rode down the river in a -north-easterly direction following a road made along its right shore by -doukey caravans carrying coal. The bright-coloured cliffs hung closely -over the river-bed. High and steep on both shores, they precipitate -themselves headlong down to the water along the left shore. Encircling -a wide cultivated plain the hills retreat, again to encroach upon the -river some kilometres further to the NE. Amid groups of trees and small -fields the towers and embattled walls of a Chinese town delineate -themselves against the red background of hills on the left shore of -the river. We had arrived at the little town _Li-yen_, a name which in -Chinese means "the garden of peartrees" -- which name the place really -deserves for its good fruit-trees -- pear, apricot and nut. Twenty -years ago it was visited by _Potanin's_ expedition, when on his return -to Russia he crossed the Yögur country, and nothing can have changed -since then in the picturesque little place, where it lies encircled -by tall willow trees, in the close embrace of the heights surrounding -it. The yamen (the official building of the mandarin) destroyed in -the Dungan revolt, still lies half in ruins, the small temples built -high on the steep rocks are still there -- yes, all is the same, even -the reception accorded me was like that discribed by _Potanin_. The -friendly old mandarin was evidently, like his predecessor twenty years -ago, glad to see the face of a stranger, there were no bounds to his -courteous attentions. He sent me a delicious dinner, cooked, as I heard -later, by himself, when, in consequence of feeling ill and tired, I -was obliged to refuse his kind invitation to dine with him. The shark -fins tasted splendidly and when, next morning, during a farewell call, -his beautiful fur cape excited my admiration the deaf old gentlemen's -politeness went so far as to promise me on my next visit (!) five sable -skins -- one of those so characteristic civilities of the Chinese, "qui -n'obligent à rien et qui font toujours plaisir". On the following day -we rode to _Kanchenp'u_, and from there along the road we had followed -earlier, to _Kanchow_. - - - -***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A VISIT TO THE SARÖ AND SHERA -YÖGURS*** - - -******* This file should be named 60129-8.txt or 60129-8.zip ******* - - -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: -http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/6/0/1/2/60129 - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part -of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm -concept and trademark. 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