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diff --git a/58867-8.txt b/58867-0.txt index 8190e2c..47b1431 100644 --- a/58867-8.txt +++ b/58867-0.txt @@ -1,36 +1,8 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Biology and its Makers, by William A. Locy +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 58867 *** -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll -have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using -this ebook. -Title: Biology and its Makers - With Portraits and Other Illustrations - -Author: William A. Locy - -Release Date: February 11, 2019 [EBook #58867] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BIOLOGY AND ITS MAKERS *** - - - - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Graeme Mackreth and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - @@ -222,7 +194,7 @@ CONTENTS results of this movement, 20. Enumeration of the chief epochs in biological history: renewal of observation, 20; the overthrow of authority in science, 20. Harvey and experimental investigation, - 20; introduction of microscopes, 20; Linnæus, 20; Cuvier, + 20; introduction of microscopes, 20; Linnæus, 20; Cuvier, 20; Bichat, 21; Von Baer, 21; the rise of physiology, 21; the beginnings of evolutionary thought, 21; the cell-theory, 21; the discovery of protoplasm, 21. @@ -244,7 +216,7 @@ CONTENTS trousers, the resurrection bone, 34, 35. The court physician, 35. Close of his life, 36. Some of his successors: Eustachius and Fallopius, 36. The especial service of Vesalius: he overthrew - dependence on authority and reëstablished the scientific method + dependence on authority and reëstablished the scientific method of ascertaining truth, 37, 38. @@ -262,7 +234,7 @@ CONTENTS demonstration of circulation of the blood based on cogent reasoning; he did not have ocular proof of its passage through capillaries, 47. Views of his predecessors on the movement of - the blood, 48. Servetus, 50. Realdus Columbus, 50. Cæsalpinus, + the blood, 48. Servetus, 50. Realdus Columbus, 50. Cæsalpinus, 51. The originality of Harvey's views, 51. Harvey's argument, 51. Harvey's influence, 52. A versatile student; work in other directions, 52. His discovery of the circulation @@ -287,7 +259,7 @@ CONTENTS 67. Early interest in natural history, 68. Studies medicine, 68. Important observations, 68. Devotes himself to minute anatomy, 70. Method of working, 71. Great intensity, 70. High - quality of his work, 72. The _Biblia Naturæ_, 73. Its publication + quality of his work, 72. The _Biblia Naturæ_, 73. Its publication delayed until fifty-seven years after his death, 73. Illustrations of his anatomical work, 74-76. Antony van Leeuwenhoek, 1632-1723, 77. A composed and better-balanced man, 77. Self-taught @@ -313,9 +285,9 @@ CONTENTS anatomy of the willow caterpillar, 91. Selected illustrations, 92-94. Great detail--4,041 muscles, 91. Extraordinary character of his drawings, 90. A model of detailed dissection, but lacking - in comparison and insight, 92. The work of Réaumur, Roesel, + in comparison and insight, 92. The work of Réaumur, Roesel, and De Geer on a higher plane as regards knowledge of insect life, - 95. Straus-Dürckheim's monograph on insect anatomy, 96. Rivals + 95. Straus-Dürckheim's monograph on insect anatomy, 96. Rivals that of Lyonet in detail and in the execution of the plates, 99. His general considerations now antiquated, 99. He attempted to make insect anatomy comparative, 100. Dufour endeavors to @@ -327,36 +299,36 @@ CONTENTS Structural studies on other small animals, 103. The discovery of the simplest animals, 104. Observations on the microscopic animalcula, 105. The protozoa discovered in 1675 by Leeuwenhoek, - 105. Work of O.F. Müller, 1786, 106. Of Ehrenberg + 105. Work of O.F. Müller, 1786, 106. Of Ehrenberg 1838, 107. Recent observations on protozoa, 109. CHAPTER VI - Linnæus and Scientific Natural History, 110 + Linnæus and Scientific Natural History, 110 Natural history had a parallel development with comparative anatomy, 110. The Physiologus, or sacred natural history of the Middle - Ages, 110, 111. The lowest level reached by zoölogy, 111. The + Ages, 110, 111. The lowest level reached by zoölogy, 111. The return to the science of Aristotle a real advance over the Physiologus, 112. The advance due to Wotton in 1552, 112. Gesner, 1516-1565. High quality of his _Historia Animalium_, 112-114. The scientific writings of Jonson and Aldrovandi, 114. John - Ray the forerunner of Linnæus, 115. His writings, 117. Ray's - idea of species, 117. Linnæus or Linné, 118. A unique service + Ray the forerunner of Linnæus, 115. His writings, 117. Ray's + idea of species, 117. Linnæus or Linné, 118. A unique service to natural history. Brings the binomial nomenclature into general use, 118. Personal history, 119. Quality of his mind, 120. His early struggles with poverty, 120. Gets his degree in - Holland, 121. Publication of the _Systema Naturæ_ in 1735, 121. + Holland, 121. Publication of the _Systema Naturæ_ in 1735, 121. Return to Sweden, 123. Success as a university professor in Upsala, 123. Personal appearance, 125. His influence on natural history, 125. His especial service, 126. His idea of species, - 128. Summary, 129. Reform of the Linnæan system, 130-138. + 128. Summary, 129. Reform of the Linnæan system, 130-138. The necessity of reform, 130. The scale of being, 131. Lamarck the first to use a genealogical tree, 132. Cuvier's four branches, 132. Alterations by Von Siebold and Leuckart, 134-137. Tabular view of classifications, 138. General biological - progress from Linnæus to Darwin. Although details were + progress from Linnæus to Darwin. Although details were multiplied, progress was by a series of steps, 138. Analysis of animals proceeded from the organism to organs, from organs to tissues, from tissues to cells, the elementary parts, and finally @@ -384,7 +356,7 @@ CONTENTS early friends, 156. Estimate of George Bancroft, 156. Cuvier's successors: Milne-Edwards, 157; Lacaze-Duthiers, 157; Richard Owen, 158; Oken, 160; J. Fr. Meckel, 162; Rathke, 163; - J. Müller, 163; Karl Gegenbaur, 164; E.D. Cope, 165. Comparative + J. Müller, 163; Karl Gegenbaur, 164; E.D. Cope, 165. Comparative anatomy a rich subject, 165. It is now becoming experimental, 165. @@ -408,7 +380,7 @@ CONTENTS CHAPTER IX - The Rise of Physiology--Harvey. Haller. Johannes Müller, 179 + The Rise of Physiology--Harvey. Haller. Johannes Müller, 179 Physiology had a parallel development with anatomy, 179. Physiology of the ancients, 179. Galen, 180. Period of Harvey, 180. @@ -418,13 +390,13 @@ CONTENTS characteristics, 181. His idea of vital force, 182. His book on the Elements of Physiology a valuable work, 183. Discovery of oxygen by Priestley in 1774, 183. Charles Bell's great discovery - on the nervous system, 183. Period of Johannes Müller, 184. + on the nervous system, 183. Period of Johannes Müller, 184. A man of unusual gifts and personal attractiveness, 185. His personal appearance, 185. His great influence over students, 185. His especial service was to make physiology broadly comparative, 186. His monumental Handbook of Physiology, 186. Unexampled accuracy in observation, 186. Introduces the principles - of psychology into physiology, 186. Physiology after Müller, + of psychology into physiology, 186. Physiology after Müller, 188-195. Ludwig, 188. Du Bois-Reymond, 189. Claude Bernard, 190. Two directions of growth in physiology--the chemical and the physical, 192. Influence upon biology, 193. @@ -450,7 +422,7 @@ CONTENTS Sources of the idea that the embryo is pre-formed within the egg, 207. Malpighi's observations quoted, 207. Swammerdam's view, 208. Leeuwenhoek and the discovery of the sperm, 208. - Bonnet's views on _emboîtement_, 208. Wolff opposes the doctrine + Bonnet's views on _emboîtement_, 208. Wolff opposes the doctrine of pre-formation, 210. His famous Theory of Generation (1759), 210. Sketches from this treatise, 209. His views on the directing force in development, 211. His highest grade of work, 211. @@ -486,7 +458,7 @@ CONTENTS of the cell-theory in 1838-39, 242. Schleiden and Schwann co-founders, 243. Schleiden's work, 243. His acquaintance with Schwann, 243. Schwann's personal appearance, - 244. Influenced by Johannes Müller, 245. The cell-theory his + 244. Influenced by Johannes Müller, 245. The cell-theory his most important work, 246. Schleiden, his temperament and disposition, 247. Schleiden's contribution to the cell-theory, 247. Errors in his observations and conclusions, 248. Schwann's @@ -610,20 +582,20 @@ CONTENTS of fossils by Steno, 322. Fossil deposits ascribed to the Flood, 323. Mosaic deluge regarded as of universal extent, 324. The comparison of fossil and living animals of great importance, 325. - Cuvier the founder of vertebrate palæontology, 325. Lamarck - founds invertebrate palæontology, 326. Lamarck's conception of + Cuvier the founder of vertebrate palæontology, 325. Lamarck + founds invertebrate palæontology, 326. Lamarck's conception of the meaning of fossils more scientific than Cuvier's, 327. The arrangement of fossils in strata, 328. William Smith, 328. Summary of the growth of the science of fossil life, 329. Fossil remains as an index to the past history of the earth, 330. Epoch-making work of Charles Lyell, 330. Effect of the doctrine of - organic evolution on palæontology, 332. Richard Owen's + organic evolution on palæontology, 332. Richard Owen's studies on fossil animals, 332. Agassiz and the parallelism between fossil forms of life and stages in the development of animals, 334. Huxley's geological work, 335. Leidy, 337. Cope, 337. Marsh, 338. Carl Zittel's writings and influence, 338. Henry F. Osborn, 339. Method of collecting fossils, 340. Fossil - remains of man, 340. Discoveries in the Fayûm district of + remains of man, 340. Discoveries in the Fayûm district of Africa, 341. @@ -650,7 +622,7 @@ CONTENTS Steinheim, 351-353. Evolution of the horse, 354. The collection of fossil horses at the American Museum of Natural History, New York, 355. The genealogy of the horse traced for more - than two million years, 354. Connecting forms: the archæopteryx + than two million years, 354. Connecting forms: the archæopteryx and pterodactyls, 358. The embryological record and its connection with evolution, 358. Clues to the past history of animals, 358. Rudimentary organs, 361-363. Hereditary survivals @@ -658,7 +630,7 @@ CONTENTS its building, 364. Antiquity of man, 364. Pre-human types, 365. Virtually three links: the Java man; the Neanderthal skull; the early neolithic man of Engis, 364-366. Evidences of man's evolution - based on palæontology, embryology, and archæology, 366. + based on palæontology, embryology, and archæology, 366. Mental evolution, 366. Sweep of the doctrine of organic evolution, 366-367. @@ -674,7 +646,7 @@ CONTENTS studies for the army, 370. Great bravery, 371. Physical injury makes it necessary for him to give up military life, 371. Portrait, 373. Important work in botany, 371. Pathetic poverty - and neglect, 372. Changes from botany to zoölogy at the age of + and neglect, 372. Changes from botany to zoölogy at the age of fifty years, 372. Profound influence of this change in shaping his ideas, 374. His theory of evolution, 374-380. First public announcement in 1800, 375. His _Philosophie Zoologique_ published @@ -747,7 +719,7 @@ CONTENTS The debate between Cuvier and St. Hilaire, 415. Its effect, 417. Influence of Lyell's Principles of Geology, 418. Herbert Spencer's analysis in 1852, 419. Darwin and Wallace, 420. Circumstances - under which their work was laid before the Linnæan + under which their work was laid before the Linnæan Society of London, 420. The letter of transmission signed by Lyell and Hooker, 420-422. The personality of Darwin, 422. Appearance, 423. His charm of manner, 423. Affectionate @@ -835,7 +807,7 @@ ILLUSTRATIONS 15. Swammerdam, 1637-1680, 69 - 16. From Swammerdam's _Biblia Naturæ_, 74 + 16. From Swammerdam's _Biblia Naturæ_, 74 17. Anatomy of an Insect Dissected and Drawn by Swammerdam, 76 @@ -848,7 +820,7 @@ ILLUSTRATIONS 20_b_. The Capillary Circulation, after Leeuwenhoek, 84 - 21. Plant Cells from Leeuwenhoek's _Arcana Naturæ_, 86 + 21. Plant Cells from Leeuwenhoek's _Arcana Naturæ_, 86 22. Lyonet, 1707-1789, 90 @@ -866,9 +838,9 @@ ILLUSTRATIONS 28. Roesel von Rosenhof, 1705-1759, 97 - 29. Réaumur, 1683-1757, 98 + 29. Réaumur, 1683-1757, 98 - 30. Nervous System of the Cockchafer, from Straus-Dürckheim's + 30. Nervous System of the Cockchafer, from Straus-Dürckheim's Monograph (1828), 101 31. Ehrenberg, 1795-1876, 108 @@ -877,7 +849,7 @@ ILLUSTRATIONS 33. John Ray, 1628-1705, 116 - 34. Linnæus at Sixty (1707-1778), 124 + 34. Linnæus at Sixty (1707-1778), 124 35. Karl Th. von Siebold, 135 @@ -921,7 +893,7 @@ ILLUSTRATIONS 55. Charles Bell, 1774-1842, 184 - 56. Johannes Müller, 1801-1858, 187 + 56. Johannes Müller, 1801-1858, 187 57. Ludwig, 1816-1895, 188 @@ -979,11 +951,11 @@ ILLUSTRATIONS Magnified Cells of a Tradescantia Plant, Showing Circulation of Protoplasm (after Sedgwick and Wilson), 261 - 82. Félix Dujardin, 1801-1860, 265 + 82. Félix Dujardin, 1801-1860, 265 83. Purkinje, 1787-1869, 267 - 84. Carl Nägeli, 1817-1891, 268 + 84. Carl Nägeli, 1817-1891, 268 85. Hugo von Mohl, 1805-1872, 269 @@ -1035,7 +1007,7 @@ ILLUSTRATIONS Osborn. Permission of the American Museum of Natural History, 359 - 108. Fossil Remains of a Primitive Bird (Archæopteryx), 360 + 108. Fossil Remains of a Primitive Bird (Archæopteryx), 360 109. Gill-clefts of a Shark Compared with those of the Embryonic Chick and Rabbit, 361 @@ -1183,7 +1155,7 @@ but a well-connected story in which the new is built upon the old in orderly succession. The old ideas have not been completely superseded by the new, but they have been molded into new forms to keep pace with the advance of investigation. In its early phases, the growth -of biology was slow and discursive, but from the time of Linnæus to +of biology was slow and discursive, but from the time of Linnæus to Darwin, although the details were greatly multiplied, there has been a relatively simple and orderly progress. @@ -1247,7 +1219,7 @@ influence. Some of the glories of our race are exhibited in the lives of the pioneers in scientific progress, in their struggles to establish some great truth and to maintain intellectual integrity. -The names of some of the men of biology, such as Harvey, Linnæus, +The names of some of the men of biology, such as Harvey, Linnæus, Cuvier, Darwin, Huxley, and Pasteur, are widely known because their work came before the people, but others equally deserving of fame on account of their contributions to scientific progress will require an @@ -1351,19 +1323,19 @@ their causes; and, finally, speak of their generation." His position in natural history is frequently misunderstood. One of the most recent writers on the history of science, Henry Smith Williams, pictures him entirely as a great classifier, and as the founder of systematic -zoölogy. While it is true that he was the founder of systematic -zoölogy, as such he did not do his greatest service to natural history, +zoölogy. While it is true that he was the founder of systematic +zoölogy, as such he did not do his greatest service to natural history, nor does the disposition to classify represent his dominant activity. In all his work classification is made incidental and subservient to more important considerations. His observations upon structure and development, and his anticipation of the idea of organic evolution, are the ones upon which his great fame rests. He is not to be remembered as -a man of the type of Linnæus; rather is he the forerunner of those men -who looked deeper than Linnæus into the structure and development of +a man of the type of Linnæus; rather is he the forerunner of those men +who looked deeper than Linnæus into the structure and development of animal life--the morphologists. Particular mention of his classification of animals will be found -in the chapter on Linnæus, while in what follows in this chapter +in the chapter on Linnæus, while in what follows in this chapter attention will be confined to his observation of their structure and development and to the general influence of his work. @@ -1399,16 +1371,16 @@ be remembered that we have but fragments of their works to examine. It is, moreover, doubtful whether the scientific writings ascribed to Aristotle were all from his hand. The work is so uneven that Huxley has suggested that, since the ancient philosophers taught _viva voce_, what -we have of his zoölogical writings may possibly be the notes of some of +we have of his zoölogical writings may possibly be the notes of some of his students. While this is not known to be the case, that hypothesis enables us to understand the intimate mixture of profound observation with trivial matter and obvious errors that occur in the writings ascribed to him. Hertwig says: "It is a matter for great regret that there have been -preserved only parts of his three most important zoölogical works, +preserved only parts of his three most important zoölogical works, '_Historia animalium_,' '_De partibus_,' and '_De generatione_,' works -in which zoölogy is founded as a universal science, since anatomy and +in which zoölogy is founded as a universal science, since anatomy and embryology, physiology and classification, find equal consideration." Some Errors.--Dissections were little practised in his day, and it must @@ -1482,7 +1454,7 @@ arose no great scientific investigator. [Illustration: Fig. 2.--Pliny, 23-79 A.D.] Pliny.--The situation is represented by Pliny the Elder (23-79 -A.D.), Roman general and littérateur (Fig. 2). His works on natural +A.D.), Roman general and littérateur (Fig. 2). His works on natural history, filling thirty-seven volumes, have been preserved with greater completeness than those of other ancient writers. Their overwhelming bulk seems to have produced an impression upon those who, @@ -1617,7 +1589,7 @@ human body. It was an epoch when William Harvey, by adding experiment to observation, demonstrated the circulation of the blood and created a -new physiology. The two coördinate branches of biology were thus early +new physiology. The two coördinate branches of biology were thus early outlined. The introduction of the microscope, mainly through the labors of @@ -1625,7 +1597,7 @@ Grew, Hooke, Malpighi, and Leeuwenhoek, opened a new world to the investigator, and the work of these men marks an epoch in the progress of independent inquiry. -Linnæus, by introducing short descriptions and uniform names for +Linnæus, by introducing short descriptions and uniform names for animals and plants, greatly advanced the subject of natural history. Cuvier, by founding the school of comparative anatomy, so furthered the @@ -1638,7 +1610,7 @@ Von Baer, by his studies of the development of animal life, supplied what was lacking in the work of Cuvier and Bichat and originated modern embryology. -Haller, in the eighteenth, and Johannes Müller in the nineteenth +Haller, in the eighteenth, and Johannes Müller in the nineteenth century, so added to the ground work of Harvey that physiology was made an independent subject and was established on modern lines. @@ -1806,7 +1778,7 @@ man of single talent. He was schooled in all the learning of his time, and his earliest publication was a translation from the Greek of the ninth book of _Rhazes_. After his early training at Brussels and at the University of Louvain, in 1533, at the age of 18, he went to Paris to -study medicine, where, in anatomy, he came under Sylvius and Günther. +study medicine, where, in anatomy, he came under Sylvius and Günther. His Force and Independence.--His impetuous nature was shown in the amphitheatre of Sylvius, where, at the third lecture, he pushed @@ -2347,7 +2319,7 @@ possibly one of these had been examined by Columbus. This assumption is strengthened by the circumstance that Columbus gives no record of observations, but almost exactly repeats the words of Servetus. -Cæsalpinus, the botanist and medical man, expressed in 1571 and 1593 +Cæsalpinus, the botanist and medical man, expressed in 1571 and 1593 similar ideas of the movement of the blood (probably as a matter of argument, since there is no record of either observations or experiments by him). He also laid hold of a still more important @@ -2361,7 +2333,7 @@ of Physiology_. Further considerations of this aspect of the question would lie beyond the purposes of this book. At most, before Harvey, the circuit through the lungs had been vaguely -defined by Galen, Servetus, Columbus, and Cæsalpinus, and the latter +defined by Galen, Servetus, Columbus, and Cæsalpinus, and the latter had supposed some blood to pass from the heart by the arteries and to return to it by the veins; but no one had arrived at an idea of a complete circulation of all the blood through the system, and no one @@ -2685,9 +2657,9 @@ His observation of glands was extensive, and while it must be confessed that many of his conclusions in reference to glandular structure were erroneous, he left his name connected with the Malpighian corpuscles of the kidney and of the spleen. He was also the first to indicate the -nature of the papillæ on the tongue. The foregoing is a respectable +nature of the papillæ on the tongue. The foregoing is a respectable list of discoveries, but much more stands to his credit. Those which -follow have a bearing on comparative anatomy, zoölogy, and botany. +follow have a bearing on comparative anatomy, zoölogy, and botany. Monograph on the Structure and Metamorphosis of the Silkworm.--Malpighi's work on the structure of the silkworm takes rank @@ -2815,7 +2787,7 @@ the finest and most celebrated collection in all Amsterdam. This was stored, not only with treasures, showing the civilization of remote countries, but also with specimens of natural history, for which he had a decided liking. Thus "from the earliest dawn of his understanding the -young Swammerdam was surrounded by zoölogical specimens, and from the +young Swammerdam was surrounded by zoölogical specimens, and from the joint influence, doubtless, of hereditary taste and early association, he became passionately devoted to the study of natural history." @@ -2866,7 +2838,7 @@ to a close soon after the son had consented to yield to his wishes. Boerhaave, his fellow-countryman, gathered Swammerdam's complete writings after his death and published them in 1737 under the title -_Biblia Naturæ_. With them is included a life of Swammerdam, in which +_Biblia Naturæ_. With them is included a life of Swammerdam, in which a graphic account is given of his phenomenal industry, his intense application, his methods and instruments. Most of the following passages are selected from that work. @@ -2947,9 +2919,9 @@ years; the last six or seven years were unproductive because of his mental distractions, and before that, much of his time had been lost through sickness. -The Biblia Naturæ.--It is time to ask, What, with all his talents and +The Biblia Naturæ.--It is time to ask, What, with all his talents and prodigious application, did he leave to science? This is best answered -by an examination of the _Biblia Naturæ_, under which title all his +by an examination of the _Biblia Naturæ_, under which title all his work was collected. His treatise on Bees and Mayflies and a few other articles were published during his lifetime, but a large part of his observations remained entirely unknown until they were published in @@ -2980,7 +2952,7 @@ Swammerdam's fine anatomical work was by no means confined to insects. His determinations on the structure of the young frog were equally noteworthy. -[Illustration: Fig. 16.--From Swammerdam's _Biblia Naturæ_.] +[Illustration: Fig. 16.--From Swammerdam's _Biblia Naturæ_.] But we should have at least one illustration of his handling of insect anatomy to compare more directly with that of Malpighi, already @@ -3041,11 +3013,11 @@ self-taught; he did not have the advantage of a university training, and apparently never had a master in scientific study. This lack of systematic training shows in the desultory character of his extensive observations. Impelled by the same gift of genius that drove his -confrères to study nature with such unexampled activity, he too +confrères to study nature with such unexampled activity, he too followed the path of an independent and enthusiastic investigator. The portrait (Fig. 18) which forms a frontispiece to his _Arcana -Naturæ_ represents him at the age of sixty-three, and shows the +Naturæ_ represents him at the age of sixty-three, and shows the pleasing countenance of a firm man in vigorous health. Richardson says: "In the face peering through the big wig there is the quiet force of Cromwell and the delicate disdain of Spinoza." "It is a mixed @@ -3059,11 +3031,11 @@ Richardson published in _The Asclepiad_[1] the results of researches made by Mr. A. Wynter Blyth in Leeuwenhoek's native town of Delft. I am indebted to that article for much that follows. -His _Arcana Naturæ_ and other scientific letters contained a complete +His _Arcana Naturæ_ and other scientific letters contained a complete record of his scientific activity, but "about his parentage, his education, and his manner of making a living there was nothing but conjecture to go upon." The few scraps of personal history were -contained in the Encyclopædia articles by Carpenter and others, and +contained in the Encyclopædia articles by Carpenter and others, and these were wrong in sustaining the hypothesis that Leeuwenhoek was an optician or manufacturer of lenses for the market. Although he ground lenses for his own use, there was no need on his part of increasing @@ -3071,7 +3043,7 @@ his financial resources by their sale. He held under the court a minor office designated 'Chamberlain of the Sheriff.' The duties of the office were those of a beadle, and were set forth in his commission, a document still extant. The requirements were light, as was also the -salary, which amounted to about £26 a year. He held this post for +salary, which amounted to about £26 a year. He held this post for thirty-nine years, and the stipend was thereafter continued to him to the end of his life. @@ -3244,7 +3216,7 @@ view of the work of his great contemporary, Malpighi, seems to me an overestimate. [Illustration: Fig. 21.--Plant Cells. (From Leeuwenhoek's _Arcana -Naturæ_.)] +Naturæ_.)] Turning his microscope in all directions, he examined water and found it peopled with minute animalcules, those simple forms of animal life @@ -3306,7 +3278,7 @@ opportunity; he devoted himself to microscopic observations, but he wandered over the whole field. While his observations lose all monographic character, nevertheless they were important in opening new fields and advancing the sciences of anatomy, physiology, botany, and -zoölogy. +zoölogy. The combined force of their labors marks an epoch characterized by the acceptance of the scientific method and the establishment of a new @@ -3373,7 +3345,7 @@ His Great Monograph.--Finally Lyonet decided to branch out for himself, and produce a monograph on insect anatomy. After some preliminary work on the sheep-tick, he settled upon the caterpillar of the goat moth, which lives upon the willow-tree. His work, first published in 1750, -bore the title _Traité Anatomique de la Chenille qui ronge le bois de +bore the title _Traité Anatomique de la Chenille qui ronge le bois de Saule_. In exploring the anatomy of the form chosen, he displayed not only patience, but great skill as a dissector, while his superiority as a draughtsman was continually shown in his sketches. He engraved @@ -3450,19 +3422,19 @@ dissections and drawings, but, at the age of sixty, on account of the condition of his eyes, he was obliged to stop all close work, and his project remained unfinished. The sketches which he had accumulated were published later, but they fall far short of those illustrating the -_Traité Anatomique_. Lyonet died in 1789, at the age of eighty-one. +_Traité Anatomique_. Lyonet died in 1789, at the age of eighty-one. [Illustration: Fig. 27.--The Brain and Head Nerves of the Same Animal.] -Roesel, Réaumur, and De Geer on Insect Life.--We must also take note +Roesel, Réaumur, and De Geer on Insect Life.--We must also take note of the fact that, running parallel with this work on the anatomy of insects, observations and publications had gone forward on form, habits, and metamorphosis of insects, that did more to advance the knowledge of insect life than Lyonet's researches. Roesel, in Germany, -Réaumur, in France, and De Geer, in Sweden, were all distinguished +Réaumur, in France, and De Geer, in Sweden, were all distinguished observers in this line. Their works are voluminous and are well -illustrated. Those of Réaumur and De Geer took the current French title -of _Mémoires pour servir à l'Histoire des Insectes_. The plates with +illustrated. Those of Réaumur and De Geer took the current French title +of _Mémoires pour servir à l'Histoire des Insectes_. The plates with which the collected publications of each of the three men are provided show many sketches of external form and details of external anatomy, but very few illustrations of internal anatomy occur. The sketches of @@ -3472,7 +3444,7 @@ of painting in miniature. The name of Roesel (Fig. 28) is connected also with the earliest observations of protoplasm and with a notable publication on the Batrachians. -Réaumur (Fig. 29), who was distinguished for kindly and amiable +Réaumur (Fig. 29), who was distinguished for kindly and amiable personal qualities, was also an important man in his influence upon the progress of science. He was both physician and naturalist; he made experiments upon the physiology of digestion, which aided in the @@ -3481,11 +3453,11 @@ his name, and did other services for the advancement of science. [Illustration: Fig. 28.--Roesel von Rosenhof, 1705-1759.] -Straus-Dürckheim's Monograph on Insect Anatomy.--Insect anatomy +Straus-Dürckheim's Monograph on Insect Anatomy.--Insect anatomy continued to attract a number of observers, but we must go forward into the nineteenth century before we find the subject taking a new direction and merging into its modern phase. The remarkable monograph -of Straus-Dürckheim represents the next step in the development of +of Straus-Dürckheim represents the next step in the development of insect anatomy toward the position that it occupies to-day. His aim is clearly indicated in the opening sentence of his preface: "Having been for a long time occupied with the study of articulated animals, I @@ -3496,9 +3468,9 @@ anatomy and whom he recognized as his great exemplar. His work is dedicated to Cuvier, and is accompanied by a letter to that great anatomist expressing his thanks for encouragement and assistance. -[Illustration: Fig 29.--Réaumur, 1683-1757.] +[Illustration: Fig 29.--Réaumur, 1683-1757.] -Straus-Dürckheim (1790-1865) intended that the general considerations +Straus-Dürckheim (1790-1865) intended that the general considerations should be the chief feature of his monograph, but they failed in this particular because, with the further developments in anatomy, including embryology and the cell-theory, his general discussions regarding the @@ -3516,14 +3488,14 @@ upon the anatomy of the cockchafer was excellent, and in 1824 it was accepted and crowned by the Royal Institute of France. The finely lithographed plates were prepared at the expense of the Institute, and the book was published in 1828 with the following cumbersome title: -_Considérations Générales sur l'Anatomie comparée des Animaux Articulés +_Considérations Générales sur l'Anatomie comparée des Animaux Articulés auxquelles on a joint l'Anatomie Descriptive du Melolontha Vulgaris -(Hanneton) donnée comme example de l'Organisation des Coléoptères_. +(Hanneton) donnée comme example de l'Organisation des Coléoptères_. The 109 sketches with which the plates are adorned are very beautiful, but one who compares his drawings, figure by figure, with those of Lyonet can not fail to see that those of the latter are more detailed and represent a more careful dissection. One illustration from -Straus-Dürckheim will suffice to bring the achievements of the two men +Straus-Dürckheim will suffice to bring the achievements of the two men into comparison. Fig. 30 shows his sketch of the anatomy of the central nervous system. @@ -3532,15 +3504,15 @@ the different segments of the body, while Lyonet brings to view the distribution of the minute terminals to particular muscles. Comparison of other figures--notably that of the dissection of the head--will bring out the same point, _viz._, that Lyonet was more detailed than -Straus-Dürckheim in his explorations of the anatomy of insects, and +Straus-Dürckheim in his explorations of the anatomy of insects, and fully as accurate in drawing what he had seen. -Nevertheless, the work of Straus-Dürckheim is conceived in a different +Nevertheless, the work of Straus-Dürckheim is conceived in a different spirit, and is the first serious attempt to make insect anatomy broadly comparative. Comment.--Such researches as those of Swammerdam, Lyonet, and -Straus-Dürckheim represent a phase in the progress of the study of +Straus-Dürckheim represent a phase in the progress of the study of nature. Perhaps their chief value lies in the fact that they embody the idea of critical observation. As examples of faithful, accurate observations the researches helped to bring about that close study @@ -3553,7 +3525,7 @@ expended labor. Nevertheless, though the writings of these pioneers have become obsolete, their work was of importance in helping to lift observations upon nature to a higher level. -Dufour.--Léon Dufour extended the work of Straus-Dürckheim by +Dufour.--Léon Dufour extended the work of Straus-Dürckheim by publishing, between 1831 and 1834, researches upon the anatomy and physiology of different families of insects. His aim was to found a general science of insect anatomy. That he was unsuccessful in @@ -3565,7 +3537,7 @@ and a willingness to work, but a broadening of the horizon of ideas. This arrived in the Englishman Newport, who was remarkable not only for his skill as a dissector, but for his recognition of the importance of embryology in elucidating the problems of structure. His article -"Insecta" in Todd's _Cyclopædia of Anatomy and Physiology_, in 1841, +"Insecta" in Todd's _Cyclopædia of Anatomy and Physiology_, in 1841, and his papers in the _Philosophical Transactions_ of the Royal Society contain this new kind of research. Von Baer had founded embryology by his great work on the development of animals in 1828, before the @@ -3577,7 +3549,7 @@ architecture of the adult. The introduction of this important idea made his achievement a distinct advance beyond that of his predecessors. [Illustration: Fig. 30.--Nervous System of the Cockchafer. (From -Straus-Dürckheim's Monograph, 1828.)] +Straus-Dürckheim's Monograph, 1828.)] Leydig.--Just as Newport was publishing his conclusions the cell-theory was established (in 1838-39); and this was destined to furnish the @@ -3589,7 +3561,7 @@ of insect histology was an unworked field, but manifestly one of importance. Franz Leydig (for portrait see p. 175) entered the new territory with enthusiasm, and through his extensive investigations all structural studies upon insects assumed a new aspect. In 1864 -appeared his _Vom Bau des Thierchen Körpers_, which, together with +appeared his _Vom Bau des Thierchen Körpers_, which, together with his special articles, created a new kind of insect anatomy based upon the microscopic study of tissues. The application of this method of investigation is easy to see; just as it is impossible to understand @@ -3616,7 +3588,7 @@ forward. Summary.--In this brief sketch we have seen that the study of insect anatomy, beginning with that of Malpighi and Swammerdam, was lifted to -a plane of greater exactitude by Lyonet and Straus-Dürckheim. It was +a plane of greater exactitude by Lyonet and Straus-Dürckheim. It was further broadened by the researches of Dufour, and began to take on its modern aspects, first, through the labors of Newport, who introduced embryology as a feature of investigation, and, finally, through @@ -3628,7 +3600,7 @@ The studies of minute structure in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries were by no means confined to insects; investigations were made upon a number of other forms. Trembley, in the time of Lyonet, produced his noteworthy memoirs upon the small fresh-water hydra -(_Mémoires pour servir à l'histoire des polypes d'eau douce_, 1744); +(_Mémoires pour servir à l'histoire des polypes d'eau douce_, 1744); the illustrations for which, as already stated, were prepared by Lyonet. The structure of snails and other mollusks, of tadpoles, frogs, and other batrachia, was also investigated. We have seen that @@ -3718,12 +3690,12 @@ soon to be designated infusoria. His observations were not at first accompanied by sketches, but in 1711 he sent some drawings with further descriptions. -O. Fr. Müller.--These animalcula became favorite objects of microscopic +O. Fr. Müller.--These animalcula became favorite objects of microscopic study. Descriptions began to accumulate and drawings to be made until it became evident that there were many different kinds. It was, however, more than one hundred years after their discovery by Leeuwenhoek that the first standard work devoted exclusively to these -animalcula was published. This treatise by O. Fr. Müller was published +animalcula was published. This treatise by O. Fr. Müller was published in 1786 under the title of _Animalcula Infusoria_. The circumstance that this volume of quarto size had 367 pages of description with 50 plates of sketches will give some indication of the number of protozoa @@ -3776,8 +3748,8 @@ infusoria based upon the distribution of cilia upon their bodies. This simple method of classification, as well as the names introduced by Stein, is still in use. -From Stein to Bütschli, one of the present authorities on the group, -there were many workers, but with the studies of Bütschli on protozoa +From Stein to Bütschli, one of the present authorities on the group, +there were many workers, but with the studies of Bütschli on protozoa we enter the modern epoch. The importance of these animals in affording a field for @@ -3809,7 +3781,7 @@ from the _Philosophical Transactions_ for the year 1677.] CHAPTER VI -LINNÆUS AND SCIENTIFIC NATURAL HISTORY +LINNÆUS AND SCIENTIFIC NATURAL HISTORY We turn now from the purely anatomical side to consider the parallel @@ -3855,9 +3827,9 @@ scientific natural history from this basis. For a long time the religious character of the contemplations of nature was emphasized and the prevalence of theological influence in natural history is shown in various titles, as Lesser's _Theology of Insects_, -Swammerdam's _Biblia Naturæ_, Spallanzani's _Tracts_, etc. +Swammerdam's _Biblia Naturæ_, Spallanzani's _Tracts_, etc. -The zoölogy of the _Physiologus_ was of a much lower grade than any we +The zoölogy of the _Physiologus_ was of a much lower grade than any we know about among the ancients, and it is a curious fact that progress was made by returning to the natural history of fifteen centuries in the past. The translation of Aristotle's writings upon animals, and @@ -3879,12 +3851,12 @@ course of time independent treatises upon animals began to appear. One of the first to modify Aristotle to any purpose was Edward Wotton, the English physician, who published in 1552 a book on the distinguishing characteristics of animals (_De Differentiis Animalium_). This was a -complete treatise on the zoölogy of the period, including an account of +complete treatise on the zoölogy of the period, including an account of the different races of mankind. It was beautifully printed in Paris, and was dedicated to Edward VI. Although embracing ten books, it was by no means so ponderous as were some of the treatises that followed it. The work was based upon Aristotle, but the author introduced new -matter, and also added the group of zoöphytes, or plant-like animals of +matter, and also added the group of zoöphytes, or plant-like animals of the sea. Gesner.--The next to reach a distinctly higher plane was Conrad Gesner @@ -3911,7 +3883,7 @@ the introduction of good illustrations, which he gives his reader by hundreds." He was so exacting about the quality of his illustrations that his critical supervision of the work of artists and engravers had its influence upon contemporary art. Some of the best woodcuts of the -period are found in his work. His friend Albrecht Dürer supplied one of +period are found in his work. His friend Albrecht Dürer supplied one of the originals--the drawing of the rhinoceros--and it is interesting to note that it is by no means the best, a circumstance which indicates how effectively Gesner held his engraver and draughtsman up to fine @@ -3938,8 +3910,8 @@ the age of forty-nine. Considered from the standpoint of descriptions and illustrations, Gesner's _Historia Animalium_ remained for a long time the best work in -zoölogy. He was the best zoölogist between Aristotle and John Ray, the -immediate predecessor of Linnæus. +zoölogy. He was the best zoölogist between Aristotle and John Ray, the +immediate predecessor of Linnæus. [Illustration: Fig. 32.--Gesner 1516-1565.] @@ -3954,11 +3926,11 @@ Aldrovandi. The wood-engravings in Aldrovandi's volume are coarser than those of Gesner, and are by no means so lifelike. In the Institute at Bologna are preserved twenty volumes of figures of animals in color, which were the originals from which the engravings were made. These are -said to be much superior to the reproductions. The encyclopædic nature +said to be much superior to the reproductions. The encyclopædic nature of the writings of Gesner, Aldrovandi, and Jonston has given rise to -the convenient and expressive title of the encyclopædists. +the convenient and expressive title of the encyclopædists. -Ray.--John Ray, the forerunner of Linnæus, built upon the foundations +Ray.--John Ray, the forerunner of Linnæus, built upon the foundations of Gesner and others, and raised the natural-history edifice a tier higher. He greatly reduced the bulk of publications on natural history, sifting from Gesner and Aldrovandi their irrelevancies, and thereby @@ -4002,7 +3974,7 @@ on the quadrupeds and serpents, a work which gave him high rank in the history of the classification of animals. He died in 1705, but he had accomplished much good work, and was not forgotten. In 1844 there was founded, in London, in his memory, the Ray Society for the publication -of rare books on botany and zoölogy. +of rare books on botany and zoölogy. Ray's Idea of Species.--One of the features of Ray's work, in the light of subsequent development, is of special interest, and that is @@ -4012,20 +3984,20 @@ been used in an indefinite sense to embrace groups of greater or less extent, but Ray applied it to individuals derived from similar parents, thus making the term species stand for a particular kind of animal or plant. He noted some variations among species, and did not assign to -them that unvarying and constant character ascribed to them by Linnæus +them that unvarying and constant character ascribed to them by Linnæus and his followers. Ray also made use of anatomy as the foundation -for zoölogical classification, and introduced great precision and +for zoölogical classification, and introduced great precision and clearness into his definitions of groups of animals and plants. In the particulars indicated above he represents a great advance beyond any of -his precursors, and marks the parting of the ways between mediæval and +his precursors, and marks the parting of the ways between mediæval and modern natural history. In Germany Klein (1685-1759) elaborated a system of classification embracing the entire animal kingdom. His studies were numerous, and his system would have been of much wider influence in molding natural -history had it not been overshadowed by that of Linnæus. +history had it not been overshadowed by that of Linnæus. -Linnæus or Linné.--The service of Linnæus to natural history was +Linnæus or Linné.--The service of Linnæus to natural history was unique. The large number of specimens of animals and plants, ever increasing through the collections of travelers and naturalists, were in a confused state, and there was great ambiguity arising from the @@ -4037,7 +4009,7 @@ country, and often different plants and animals had the same name. In different countries, also, their names were greatly diversified. What was especially needed was some great organizing mind to catalogue the animals and plants in a systematic way, and to give to natural -science a common language. Linnæus possessed this methodizing mind and +science a common language. Linnæus possessed this methodizing mind and supplied the need. While he did little to deepen the knowledge of the organization of animal and plant life, he did much to extend the number of known forms; he simplified the problem of cataloguing them, and he @@ -4053,27 +4025,27 @@ He also inspired many students with a love for natural history and gave an impulse to the advance of that science which was long felt. We can not gainsay that a higher class of service has been rendered by those of philosophic mind devoted to the pursuit of comparative anatomy, -but the step of Linnæus was a necessary one, and aided greatly in the +but the step of Linnæus was a necessary one, and aided greatly in the progress of natural history. Without this step the discoveries and observations of others would not have been so readily understood, and had it not been for his organizing force all natural science would have been held back for want of a common language. A close scrutiny of -the practice among naturalists in the time of Linnæus shows that he +the practice among naturalists in the time of Linnæus shows that he did not actually invent the binomial nomenclature, but by adopting the suggestions of others he elaborated the system of classification and brought the new language into common use. -Personal History.--Leaving for the present the system of Linnæus, we +Personal History.--Leaving for the present the system of Linnæus, we shall give attention to the personal history of the man. The great Swedish naturalist was born in Rashult in 1707. His father was the pastor of the village, and intended his eldest son, Carl, for the same high calling. The original family name was Ignomarsen, but it had been changed to Lindelius, from a tall linden-tree growing in that part of the country. In 1761 a patent of nobility was granted by the crown to -Linnæus, and thereafter he was styled Carl von Linné. +Linnæus, and thereafter he was styled Carl von Linné. His father's resources were very limited, but he managed to send his -son to school, though it must be confessed that young Linnæus showed +son to school, though it must be confessed that young Linnæus showed little liking for the ordinary branches of instruction. His time was spent in collecting natural-history specimens, and his mind was engaged in thinking about them. The reports of his low scholarship @@ -4081,7 +4053,7 @@ and the statement of one of his teachers that he showed no aptitude for learning were so disappointing to his father that, in 1726, he prepared to apprentice Carl to a shoemaker, but was prevented from doing so through the encouragement of a doctor who, being able to -appreciate the quality of mind possessed by the young Linnæus, advised +appreciate the quality of mind possessed by the young Linnæus, advised allowing him to study medicine instead of preparing for theology. Accordingly, with a sum amounting to about $40, all his father could @@ -4106,17 +4078,17 @@ degree. On returning to Upsala, his lack of funds made itself again painfully felt, and he undertook to support himself by giving public lectures on botany, chemistry, and mineralogy. He secured hearers, but the continuance of his lectures was prevented by one of his rivals -on the ground that Linnæus had no degree, and was therefore legally +on the ground that Linnæus had no degree, and was therefore legally disqualified from taking pay for instruction. Presently he became tutor and traveling companion of a wealthy baron, the governor of the province of Dalecarlia, but this employment was temporary. -Helped by His Fiancée.--His friends advised him to secure his medical +Helped by His Fiancée.--His friends advised him to secure his medical degree and settle as a practitioner. Although he lacked the necessary funds, one circumstance contributed to bring about this end: he had formed an attachment for the daughter of a wealthy physician, named -Moré or Moræus, and on applying for her hand in marriage, her father -made it a condition of his consent that Linnæus should take his +Moré or Moræus, and on applying for her hand in marriage, her father +made it a condition of his consent that Linnæus should take his medical degree and establish himself in the practice of medicine. The young lady, who was thrifty as well as handsome, offered her savings, amounting to one hundred dollars (Swedish), to her lover. He succeeded @@ -4133,8 +4105,8 @@ botanical studies with great energy, and now began to reap the benefits of his earlier devotion to natural history. His heart-breaking and harassing struggles were now over. -The Systema Naturæ.--He had in his possession the manuscript of his -_Systema Naturæ_, and with the encouragement of his new friends +The Systema Naturæ.--He had in his possession the manuscript of his +_Systema Naturæ_, and with the encouragement of his new friends it was published in the same year. The first edition (1735) of that notable work, which was afterward to bring him so much fame, consisted of twelve printed folio pages. It was merely an outline of @@ -4144,21 +4116,21 @@ lifetime, the last one appearing in 1768. After the first edition, the books were printed in octavo form, and in the later editions were greatly enlarged. A copy of the first edition was sent to Boerhaave, the most distinguished professor in the University of Leyden, and -secured for Linnæus an interview with that distinguished physician, +secured for Linnæus an interview with that distinguished physician, who treated him with consideration and encouraged him in his work. -Boerhaave was already old, and had not long to live; and when Linnæus +Boerhaave was already old, and had not long to live; and when Linnæus was about to leave Holland in 1738, he admitted him to his sick-chamber and bade him a most affectionate adieu, and encouraged him to further work by most kindly and appreciative expressions. -Through the influence of Boerhaave, Linnæus became the medical +Through the influence of Boerhaave, Linnæus became the medical attendant of Cliffort, the burgomaster at Amsterdam, who had a large botanic garden. Cliffort, being desirous of extending his collections, -sent Linnæus to England, where he met Sir Hans Sloane and other eminent +sent Linnæus to England, where he met Sir Hans Sloane and other eminent scientific men of Great Britain. After a short period he returned to Holland, and in 1737 brought out the _Genera Plantarum_, a very original work, containing an analysis of all the genera of plants. He -had previously published, besides the _Systema Naturæ_, his _Fundamenta +had previously published, besides the _Systema Naturæ_, his _Fundamenta Botanica_, 1735, and _Bibliotheca Botanica_, 1736, and these works served to spread his fame as a botanist throughout Europe. @@ -4169,14 +4141,14 @@ was describing some exotics in Latin. He entered without opportunity to introduce himself. There was one plant which the demonstrator had not yet determined, and which seemed to puzzle him. The Swede looked on in silence, but observing the hesitation of the learned professor, cried -out '_Hæc planta faciem Americanam habet_.' 'It has the appearance +out '_Hæc planta faciem Americanam habet_.' 'It has the appearance of an American plant.' Jussieu, surprised, turned about quickly and -exclaimed 'You are Linnæus.' 'I am, sir,' was the reply. The lecture +exclaimed 'You are Linnæus.' 'I am, sir,' was the reply. The lecture was stopped, and Bernard gave the learned stranger an affectionate welcome." Return to Sweden.--After an absence of three and one-half years, -Linnæus returned to his native country in 1738, and soon after was +Linnæus returned to his native country in 1738, and soon after was married to the young woman who had assisted him and had waited for him so loyally. He settled in Stockholm and began the practice of medicine. In the period of his absence he had accomplished much: visited @@ -4189,7 +4161,7 @@ in disgust had it not been for the dissuasion of his wife. Professor in Upsala.--In 1741 he was elected professor of anatomy in the University of Upsala, but by a happy stroke was able to exchange that position for the professorship of botany, materia medica, and -natural history that had fallen to his former rival, Rosen. Linnæus +natural history that had fallen to his former rival, Rosen. Linnæus was now in his proper element; he had opportunity to lecture on those subjects to which he had been devotedly attached all his life, and he entered upon the work with enthusiasm. @@ -4201,23 +4173,23 @@ the attendance at the university was greatly increased. In 1749 he had 140 students devoted to studies in natural history. The number of students at the university had been about 500; "whilst he occupied the chair of botany there it rose to 1,500." A part of this increase -was due to other causes, but Linnæus was the greatest single drawing +was due to other causes, but Linnæus was the greatest single drawing force in the university. He was an eloquent as well as an enthusiastic lecturer, and he aroused great interest among his students, and he gave an astonishing impulse to the study of natural history in general, and -to botany in particular. Thus Linnæus, after having passed through +to botany in particular. Thus Linnæus, after having passed through great privations in his earlier years, found himself, at the age of thirty-four, established in a position which brought him recognition, honor, and large emolument. -[Illustration: Fig. 34.--Linnæus at Sixty, 1707-1778.] +[Illustration: Fig. 34.--Linnæus at Sixty, 1707-1778.] In May, 1907, the University of Upsala celebrated the two hundredth anniversary of his birth with appropriate ceremonies. Delegations of scientific men from all over the world were in attendance to do honor to the memory of the great founder of biological nomenclature. -Personal Appearance.--The portrait of Linnæus at the age of sixty is +Personal Appearance.--The portrait of Linnæus at the age of sixty is shown in Fig. 34. He was described as of "medium height, with large limbs, brown, piercing eyes, and acute vision." His hair in early youth was nearly white, and changed in his manhood to brown, and became gray @@ -4230,7 +4202,7 @@ was subjected from time to time accordingly threw him into fits of despondency and rage. His Influence upon Natural History.--However much we may admire the -industry and force of Linnæus, we must admit that he gave to natural +industry and force of Linnæus, we must admit that he gave to natural history a one-sided development, in which the more essential parts of the science received scant recognition. His students, like their master, were mainly collectors and classifiers. "In their zeal for @@ -4238,36 +4210,36 @@ naming and classifying, the higher goal of investigation, knowledge of the nature of animals and plants, was lost sight of and the interest in anatomy, physiology, and embryology lagged." -R. Hertwig says of him: "For while he in his _Systema Naturæ_ treated +R. Hertwig says of him: "For while he in his _Systema Naturæ_ treated of an extraordinarily larger number of animals than any earlier naturalist, he brought about no deepening of our knowledge. The manner in which he divided the animal kingdom, in comparison with the Aristotelian system, is to be called rather a retrogression than an -advance. Linnæus divided the animal kingdom into six classes--Mammalia, +advance. Linnæus divided the animal kingdom into six classes--Mammalia, Aves, Amphibia, Pisces, Insecta, Vermes. The first four classes correspond to Aristotle's four groups of animals with blood. In the -division of the invertebrated animals into Insecta and Vermes Linnæus +division of the invertebrated animals into Insecta and Vermes Linnæus stands undoubtedly behind Aristotle, who attempted, and in part indeed successfully, to set up a larger number of groups. -"But in his successors even more than in Linnæus himself we see the +"But in his successors even more than in Linnæus himself we see the damage wrought by the purely systematic method of consideration. The -diagnoses of Linnæus were for the most part models, which, _mutatis +diagnoses of Linnæus were for the most part models, which, _mutatis mutandis_, could be employed for new species with little trouble. There was needed only some exchanging of adjectives to express the differences. With the hundreds of thousands of different species of animals, there was no lack of material, and so the arena was opened -for that spiritless zoölogy of species-making, which in the first -half of the nineteenth century brought zoölogy into such discredit. -Zoölogy would have been in danger of growing into a Tower of Babel +for that spiritless zoölogy of species-making, which in the first +half of the nineteenth century brought zoölogy into such discredit. +Zoölogy would have been in danger of growing into a Tower of Babel of species-description if a counterpoise had not been created in the strengthening of the physiologico-anatomical method of consideration." -His Especial Service.--Nevertheless, the work of Linnæus made a lasting +His Especial Service.--Nevertheless, the work of Linnæus made a lasting impression upon natural history, and we shall do well to get clearly in mind the nature of his particular service. In the first place, he brought into use the method of naming animals and plants which is -employed to-day. In his _Systema Naturæ_ and in other publications he +employed to-day. In his _Systema Naturæ_ and in other publications he employed a means of naming every natural production in two words, and it is therefore called the binomial nomenclature. An illustration will make this clearer. Those animals which had close resemblance, like the @@ -4275,7 +4247,7 @@ lion, tiger, leopard, the lynx, and the cat, he united under the common generic name of _Felis_, and gave to each a particular trivial name, or specific name. Thus the name of the lion became _Felis leo_, of the tiger _Felis tigris_, of the leopard _Felis pardus_, of the cat Felis -catus; and to these the modern zoölogists have added, making the Canada +catus; and to these the modern zoölogists have added, making the Canada lynx _Felis Canadensis_, the domestic cat _Felis domesticata_, etc. In a similar way, the dog-like animals were united into a genus designated _Canis_, and the particular kinds or species became _Canis lupus_, @@ -4288,34 +4260,34 @@ individuality. All animals, plants, and minerals were named according to this method. Thus there were introduced into nomenclature two groups, the genus and the species. The name of the genus was a noun, and that of the species -an adjective agreeing with it. In the choice of these names Linnæus +an adjective agreeing with it. In the choice of these names Linnæus sought to express some distinguishing feature that would be suggestive of the particular animal, plant, or mineral. The trivial, or specific, -names were first employed by Linnæus in 1749, and were introduced into +names were first employed by Linnæus in 1749, and were introduced into his _Species Plantarum_ in 1753, and into the tenth edition of his -_Systema Naturæ_ in 1758. +_Systema Naturæ_ in 1758. -We recognize Linnæus as the founder of nomenclature in natural history, +We recognize Linnæus as the founder of nomenclature in natural history, and by the common consent of naturalists the date 1758 has come to be accepted as the starting-point for determining the generic and specific names of animals. The much vexed question of priority of names for animals is settled by going back to the tenth edition of his _Systema -Naturæ_, while the botanists have adopted his _Species Plantarum_, +Naturæ_, while the botanists have adopted his _Species Plantarum_, 1753, as their base-line for names. As to his larger divisions of animals and plants, he recognized classes and orders. Then came genera -and species. Linnæus did not use the term family in his formulæ; this +and species. Linnæus did not use the term family in his formulæ; this convenient designation was first used and introduced in 1780 by Batch. -The _Systema Naturæ_ is not a treatise on the organization of +The _Systema Naturæ_ is not a treatise on the organization of animals and plants; it is rather a catalogue of the productions of nature methodically arranged. His aim in fact was not to give full descriptions, but to make a methodical arrangement. -To do justice, however, to the discernment of Linnæus, it should +To do justice, however, to the discernment of Linnæus, it should be added that he was fully aware of the artificial nature of his classification. As Kerner has said: "It is not the fault of this accomplished and renowned naturalist if a greater importance were -attached to his system than he himself ever intended. Linnæus never +attached to his system than he himself ever intended. Linnæus never regarded his twenty-four classes as real and natural divisions of the vegetable kingdom, and specifically says so; it was constructed for convenience of reference and identification of species. A real natural @@ -4339,39 +4311,39 @@ His Idea of Species.--A third feature of his work was that of emphasizing the idea of species. In this he built upon the work of Ray. We have already seen that Ray was the first to define species and to bring the conception into natural history. Ray had spoken of -the variability of species, but Linnæus, in his earlier publications, +the variability of species, but Linnæus, in his earlier publications, declared that they were constant and invariable. His conception of a species was that of individuals born from similar parents. It was assumed that at the original stocking of the earth, one pair of each kind of animals was created, and that existing species were the direct descendants without change of form or habit from the original pair. -As to their number, he said: "_Species tot sunt, quot formæ ab initio -creatæ sunt_"--there are just so many species as there were forms +As to their number, he said: "_Species tot sunt, quot formæ ab initio +creatæ sunt_"--there are just so many species as there were forms created in the beginning; and his oft-quoted remark, "_Nulla species nova_," indicates in terse language his position as to the formation -of new species. Linnæus took up this idea as expressing the current +of new species. Linnæus took up this idea as expressing the current thought, without analysis of what was involved in it. He readily might have seen that if there were but a single pair of each kind, some of them must have been sacrificed to the hunger of the carnivorous kinds: but, better than making any theories, he might have looked for evidence in nature as to the fixity of species. -While Linnæus first pronounced upon the fixity of species, it is +While Linnæus first pronounced upon the fixity of species, it is interesting to note that his extended observations upon nature led him to see that variation among animals and plants is common and extensive, -and accordingly in the later editions of his _Systema Naturæ_ we find +and accordingly in the later editions of his _Systema Naturæ_ we find him receding from the position that species are fixed and constant. Nevertheless, it was owing to his influence, more than to that of any other writer of the period, that the dogma of fixity of species was established. His great contemporary Buffon looked upon species as not having a fixed reality in nature, but as being figments of the imagination; and we shall see in a later section of this book how the -idea of Linnæus in reference to the fixity of species gave way to +idea of Linnæus in reference to the fixity of species gave way to accumulating evidence on the matter. -Summary.--The chief services of Linnæus to natural science consisted +Summary.--The chief services of Linnæus to natural science consisted of these three things: bringing into current use the binomial -nomenclature, the introduction of terse formulæ for description, and +nomenclature, the introduction of terse formulæ for description, and fixing attention upon species. The first two were necessary steps; they introduced clearness and order into the management of the immense number of details, and they made it possible for the observations @@ -4383,10 +4355,10 @@ consideration which became such a burning question in the last half of the nineteenth century. -Reform of the Linnæan System +Reform of the Linnæan System Necessity of Reform.--As indicated above, the classification -established by Linnæus had grave defects; it was not founded on a +established by Linnæus had grave defects; it was not founded on a knowledge of the comparative structure of animals and plants, but in many instances upon superficial features that were not distinctive in determining their position and relationships. His system was @@ -4395,7 +4367,7 @@ of animals and plants, but doing violence to the natural arrangement of those organisms. An illustration of this is seen in his classification of plants into classes, mainly on the basis of the number of stamens in the flower, and into orders according to the number of pistils. -Moreover, the true object of investigation was obscured by the Linnæan +Moreover, the true object of investigation was obscured by the Linnæan system. The chief aim of biological study being to extend our knowledge of the structure, development, and physiology of animals and plants as a means of understanding more about their life, the arrangement of @@ -4404,32 +4376,32 @@ rather than an end in itself. It was necessary to follow different methods to bring natural history back into the line of true progress. The first modification of -importance to the Linnæan system was that of Cuvier, who proposed +importance to the Linnæan system was that of Cuvier, who proposed a grouping of animals based upon a knowledge of their comparative anatomy. He declared that animals exhibit four types of organization, -and his types were substituted for the primary groups of Linnæus. +and his types were substituted for the primary groups of Linnæus. The Scale of Being.--In order to understand the bearing of Cuvier's conclusions we must take note of certain views regarding the animal kingdom that were generally accepted at the time of his writing. -Between Linnæus and Cuvier there had emerged the idea that all animals, +Between Linnæus and Cuvier there had emerged the idea that all animals, from the lowest to the highest, form a graduated series. This grouping of animals into a linear arrangement was called exposing the Scale of -Being, or the Scale of Nature (_Scala Naturæ_). Buffon, Lamarck, and +Being, or the Scale of Nature (_Scala Naturæ_). Buffon, Lamarck, and Bonnet were among the chief exponents of this idea. That Lamarck's connection with it was temporary has been generally overlooked. It is the usual statement in the histories of natural -science, as in the _Encyclopædia Britannica_, in the History of Carus, +science, as in the _Encyclopædia Britannica_, in the History of Carus, and in Thomson's _Science of Life_, that the idea of the scale of nature found its fullest expression in Lamarck. Thomson says: "His classification (1801-1812) represents the climax of the attempt to arrange the groups of animals in linear order from lower to higher, in -what was called a _scala naturæ_" (p. 14). Even so careful a writer as +what was called a _scala naturæ_" (p. 14). Even so careful a writer as Richard Hertwig has expressed the matter in a similar form. Now, while Lamarck at first adopted a linear classification, it is only a partial reading of his works that will support the conclusion that he held to -it. In his _Système des Animaux sans Vertèbres_, published in 1801, he +it. In his _Système des Animaux sans Vertèbres_, published in 1801, he arranged animals in this way; but to do credit to his discernment, it should be observed that he was the first to employ a genealogical tree and to break up the serial arrangement of animal forms. In 1809, in the @@ -4446,8 +4418,8 @@ tree. Lamarck's Position in Science.--Lamarck is coming into full recognition for his part in founding the evolution theory, but he is not generally, -as yet, given due credit for his work in zoölogy. He was the most -philosophical thinker engaged with zoölogy at the close of the +as yet, given due credit for his work in zoölogy. He was the most +philosophical thinker engaged with zoölogy at the close of the eighteenth and the beginning of the nineteenth century. He was greater than Cuvier in his reach of intellect and in his discernment of the true relationships among living organisms. We are to recollect that @@ -4478,8 +4450,8 @@ and later in a better-known paper read before the French Academy in 1812, but for the full development of his type-theory we look to his great volume on the animal kingdom published in 1816. The central idea of his arrangement is contained in the secondary title of his book, -"The Animal Kingdom Arranged According to its Organization" (_Le Règne -Animal Distribué d'après son Organisation_, 1816). The expression +"The Animal Kingdom Arranged According to its Organization" (_Le Règne +Animal Distribué d'après son Organisation_, 1816). The expression "arranged according to its organization" embraces the feature in which this analysis of animals differs from all previous attempts. @@ -4502,9 +4474,9 @@ conclusions as Cuvier. Thus the system founded upon comparative anatomy by Cuvier came to have the support of Von Baer's studies in embryology. The contributions of these men proved to be a turning-point in natural -history, and subsequent progress in systematic botany and zoölogy +history, and subsequent progress in systematic botany and zoölogy resulted from the application of the methods of Cuvier and Von Baer, -rather than from following that of Linnæus. His nomenclature remained +rather than from following that of Linnæus. His nomenclature remained a permanent contribution of value, but the knowledge of the nature of living forms has been advanced chiefly by studies in comparative anatomy and embryology, and, also, in the application of experiments. @@ -4528,7 +4500,7 @@ that showed bilateral symmetry. Accordingly, Karl Th. von Siebold, in 1845, separated these animals and redistributed them. For the simplest unicellular animals he adopted the name Protozoa, which they still retain, and the truly radiated forms, as starfish, sea-urchins, hydroid -polyps, coral animals, etc., were united in the group Zoöphyta. Von +polyps, coral animals, etc., were united in the group Zoöphyta. Von Siebold also changed Cuvier's branch, Articulata, separating those forms as crustacea, insects, spiders, and myriopods, which have jointed appendages, into a natural group called Arthropoda, and uniting the @@ -4539,15 +4511,15 @@ direction, and was destined to be carried still farther. [Illustration: Fig. 35.--Karl Th. von Siebold, 1804-1885.] -Von Siebold (Fig. 35) was an important man in the progress of zoölogy, +Von Siebold (Fig. 35) was an important man in the progress of zoölogy, especially in reference to the comparative anatomy of the invertebrates. Leuckart (Fig. 36), whose fame as a lecturer and teacher attracted many young men to the University of Leipsic, is another conspicuous -personality in zoölogical progress. +personality in zoölogical progress. -This distinguished zoölogist, following the lead of Von Siebold, made -further modifications. He split Von Siebold's group of Zoöphytes into +This distinguished zoölogist, following the lead of Von Siebold, made +further modifications. He split Von Siebold's group of Zoöphytes into two distinct kinds of radiated animals; the star-fishes, sea-urchins, sea-cucumbers, etc., having a spiny skin, he designated Echinoderma; the jelly-fishes, polyps, coral animals, etc., not possessing a true @@ -4570,8 +4542,8 @@ Summary.--In reviewing the rise of scientific natural history, we observe a steady development from the time of the _Physiologus_, first through a return to Aristotle, and through gradual additions to his observations, notably by Gesner, and then the striking improvements -due to Ray and Linnæus. We may speak of the latter two as the founders -of systematic botany and zoölogy. But the system left by Linnæus was +due to Ray and Linnæus. We may speak of the latter two as the founders +of systematic botany and zoölogy. But the system left by Linnæus was artificial, and the greatest obvious need was to convert it into a natural system founded upon a knowledge of the structure and the development of living organisms. This was begun by Cuvier and Von Baer, @@ -4582,7 +4554,7 @@ if it stood merely for the systematic classification of animals and plants. Tabular View of Classifications.--A table showing the primary groups of -Linnæus, Cuvier, Von Siebold, and Leuckart will be helpful in picturing +Linnæus, Cuvier, Von Siebold, and Leuckart will be helpful in picturing to the mind the modifications made in the classification of animals. Such a table is given on the following page. @@ -4594,7 +4566,7 @@ published (1859) appeared Darwin's _Origin of Species_. Agassiz, however, was never able to accept the idea, of the transformations of species. - Linnæus Cuvier Von Siebold Leuckart + Linnæus Cuvier Von Siebold Leuckart Mammalia Vertebrata Vertebrata Vertebrata (Embracing five (Embracing five (Five classes.) @@ -4610,16 +4582,16 @@ species. etc.) Articulata {Vermes Arthropoda Vermes Vermes - {Zoöphyta {Echinoderma + {Zoöphyta {Echinoderma (Including Radiata {Coelenterata Mollusca and all {Protozoa Protozoa lower forms.) -Steps in Biological Progress from Linnæus to Darwin +Steps in Biological Progress from Linnæus to Darwin -The period from Linnæus to Darwin is one full of important advances +The period from Linnæus to Darwin is one full of important advances for biology in general. We have considered in this chapter only those features that related to changes in the system of classification, but in the mean time the morphological and the physiological sides of @@ -4635,14 +4607,14 @@ in outline without the confusion arising from the consideration of details. Geddes, in 1898, pointed out the steps in progress, and the account that follows is based upon his lucid analysis. -The Organism.--In the time of Linnæus the attention of naturalists +The Organism.--In the time of Linnæus the attention of naturalists was mainly given to the organism as a whole. Plants and animals were considered from the standpoint of the organism--the external features were largely dealt with, the habitat, the color, and the general appearance--features which characterize the organism as a whole. -Linnæus and Jussieu represent this phase of the work, and Buffon the +Linnæus and Jussieu represent this phase of the work, and Buffon the higher type of it. Modern studies in this line are like addition to the -_Systema Naturæ_. +_Systema Naturæ_. Organs.--The first distinct advance came in investigating animals and plants according to their structure. Instead of the complete organism, @@ -4659,7 +4631,7 @@ level of analysis in directing attention to the tissues that are combined to make up the organs. He distinguished twenty-one kinds of tissues by combinations of which the organs are composed. This step laid the foundation for the science of histology, or minute anatomy. -Bichat called it general anatomy (_Anatomie Générale_, 1801). +Bichat called it general anatomy (_Anatomie Générale_, 1801). Cells.--Before long it was shown that tissues are not the real units of structure, but that they are composed of microscopic elements called @@ -4678,15 +4650,15 @@ of structure contain protoplasm. That this substance is similar in plants and animals and is the seat of all vital activity was determined chiefly by the researches of Max Schultze, published in 1861. Thus step by step, from 1758, the date of the tenth edition of the _Systema -Naturæ_, to 1861, there was a progress on the morphological side, +Naturæ_, to 1861, there was a progress on the morphological side, passing from the organism as a whole to organs, to tissues, to cells, and finally to protoplasm, the study of which in all its phases is the chief pursuit of biologists. The physiological side had a parallel development. In the period of -Linnæus, the physiology of the organism was investigated by Haller and +Linnæus, the physiology of the organism was investigated by Haller and his school; following him the physiology of organs and tissues was -advanced by J. Müller, Bichat, and others. Later, Virchow investigated +advanced by J. Müller, Bichat, and others. Later, Virchow investigated the physiology of cells, and Claude Bernard the chemical activities of protoplasm. @@ -4700,7 +4672,7 @@ CHAPTER VII CUVIER AND THE RISE OF COMPARATIVE ANATOMY -After observers like Linnæus and his followers had attained a knowledge +After observers like Linnæus and his followers had attained a knowledge of the externals, it was natural that men should turn their attention to the organization or internal structure of living beings, and when the latter kind of investigation became broadly comparative, @@ -4732,8 +4704,8 @@ subject, became endued with great interest. [Illustration: Fig. 37.--Severinus, 1580-1656.] Severinus.--The first book expressly devoted to comparative anatomy -was that of Severinus (1580-1656), designated _Zootomia Democritæ_. -The title was derived from the Roman naturalist Democritæus, and the +was that of Severinus (1580-1656), designated _Zootomia Democritæ_. +The title was derived from the Roman naturalist Democritæus, and the date of its publication, 1645, places the treatise earlier than the works of Malpighi, Leeuwenhoek, and Swammerdam. The book is illustrated by numerous coarse woodcuts, showing the internal organs of fishes, @@ -4889,12 +4861,12 @@ Cuvier. "No," said the young man. "Then," replied Cuvier, "go first and anatomize an insect, and return to me; and if you still believe that your observations are discoveries I will then believe you." -Birth and Early Education.--Cuvier was born in 1769, at Montbéliard, a -village at that time belonging to Württemberg, but now a part of the +Birth and Early Education.--Cuvier was born in 1769, at Montbéliard, a +village at that time belonging to Württemberg, but now a part of the French Jura. His father was a retired military officer of the Swiss -army, and the family, being Protestants, had moved to Montbéliard +army, and the family, being Protestants, had moved to Montbéliard for freedom from religious persecution. Cuvier was christened -Léopold-Christian-Frédéric-Dagobert Cuvier, but early in youth took the +Léopold-Christian-Frédéric-Dagobert Cuvier, but early in youth took the name of Georges at the wish of his mother, who had lost an infant son by that name. @@ -4911,7 +4883,7 @@ It was at first contemplated by his family that he should prepare for theology, but failing, through the unfairness of one of his teachers, to get an appointment to the theological seminary, his education was continued in other directions. He was befriended by the sister of -the Duke of Württemberg, who sent him as a pensioner to the famous +the Duke of Württemberg, who sent him as a pensioner to the famous Carolinian academy at Stuttgart. There he showed great application, and with the wonderful memory with which he was endowed, he took high rank as a student. Here he met Kielmeyer, a young instructor only four @@ -4924,7 +4896,7 @@ Life at the Seashore.--In 1788 the resources of his family, which had always been slender, became further reduced by the inability of the government to pay his father's retiring stipend. As the way did not open for employment in other directions, young Cuvier took the post -of instructor of the only son in the family of Count d'Héricy, and +of instructor of the only son in the family of Count d'Héricy, and went with the family to the sea-coast in Normandy, near Caen. For six years (1788-1794) he lived in this noble family, with much time at his disposal. For Cuvier this period, from the age of nineteen to @@ -4994,7 +4966,7 @@ favorite of Napoleon Bonaparte, who elevated him to office and made him director of the higher educational institutions of the Empire. But to whatever place of prominence he attained in the government, he never lost his love for natural science. With him this was an absorbing -passion, and it may be said that he ranks higher as a zoölogist than as +passion, and it may be said that he ranks higher as a zoölogist than as a legislator. Comprehensiveness of Mind.--Soon after his arrival in Paris he began @@ -5006,7 +4978,7 @@ combined in such a manner as to give a broad view of the subject. Indeed, comprehensiveness of mind seems to have been the characteristic which most impressed those who were acquainted with him. Flourens says -of him: "_Ce qui caractérise partout M. Cuvier, c'est l'esprit vaste._" +of him: "_Ce qui caractérise partout M. Cuvier, c'est l'esprit vaste._" His broad and comprehensive mind enabled him to map out on great lines the subject of comparative anatomy. His breadth was at times his undoing, for it must be confessed that when the details of the subject @@ -5026,13 +4998,13 @@ origin of life. Founds Comparative Anatomy.--Regardless of this qualification, he was a great and distinguished student, and founded comparative anatomy. From -1801 to 1805 appeared his _Leçons d' Anatomie Comparée_, a systematic +1801 to 1805 appeared his _Leçons d' Anatomie Comparée_, a systematic treatise on the comparative anatomy of animals, embracing both the invertebrates and the vertebrates. In 1812 was published his great work on the fossil bones about Paris, an achievement which founded the -science of vertebrate palæontology. His extensive examination of the +science of vertebrate palæontology. His extensive examination of the structure of fishes also added to his already great reputation. His -book on the animal kingdom (_Le Règne Animal distribué d'après son +book on the animal kingdom (_Le Règne Animal distribué d'après son Organisation_, 1816), in which he expounded his type-theory, has been considered in a previous chapter. @@ -5081,7 +5053,7 @@ a disagreeable man. Some of his shortcomings that served to retard the progress of science have been mentioned. Still, with all his faults, he dominated -zoölogical science at the beginning of the nineteenth century, and so +zoölogical science at the beginning of the nineteenth century, and so powerful was his influence and so undisputed was his authority among the French people that the rising young men in natural science sided with Cuvier even when he was wrong. It is a noteworthy fact that @@ -5095,7 +5067,7 @@ Cuvier's Successors While Cuvier's theoretical conclusions exercised a retarding influence upon the progress of biology, his practical studies more than compensated for this. It has been pointed out how his type-theory led -to the reform of the Linnæan system, but, besides this, the stimulus +to the reform of the Linnæan system, but, besides this, the stimulus which his investigations gave to studies in comparative anatomy was even of more beneficent influence. As time passed the importance of comparative anatomy as one division of biological science impressed @@ -5110,14 +5082,14 @@ His intellectual heirs in France were Milne-Edwards and Lacaze-Duthiers. Milne-Edwards.--H. Milne-Edwards (1800-1885) was a man of great industry and fine attainments; prominent alike in comparative anatomy, -comparative physiology, and general zoölogy, professor for many years +comparative physiology, and general zoölogy, professor for many years at the Sorbonne in Paris. In 1827 he introduced into biology the fruitful idea of the division of physiological labor. He completed and published excellent researches upon the structure and development of many animals, notably crustacea, corals, etc. His work on comparative anatomy took the form of explanations of the activities of animals, -or comparative physiology. His comprehensive treatise _Leçons sur la -Physiologie et l'Anatomie Comparée_, in fourteen volumes, 1857-1881, +or comparative physiology. His comprehensive treatise _Leçons sur la +Physiologie et l'Anatomie Comparée_, in fourteen volumes, 1857-1881, is a mine of information regarding comparative anatomy as well as the physiology of organisms. @@ -5128,7 +5100,7 @@ of comprehensive mind, stimulating as an instructor of young men, inspiring other workers, and producing a large amount of original research on his own account, director of the Seaside Stations at Roscoff and Banyuls, the founder of a noteworthy periodical of -experimental zoölogy--this great man, whose portrait is shown in Fig. +experimental zoölogy--this great man, whose portrait is shown in Fig. 44, was one of the leading comparative anatomists in France. [Illustration: Fig. 45.--Lorenzo Oken, 1779-1851.] @@ -5197,15 +5169,15 @@ anatomy with researches in development. This is such an important consideration that his influence upon the progress of comparative anatomy can not be overlooked. After being a professor in Dorpat, he came, in 1835, to occupy the position of professor of anatomy and -zoölogy at Königsberg, which had been vacated by Von Baer on the +zoölogy at Königsberg, which had been vacated by Von Baer on the removal of the latter to St. Petersburg. His writings are composed with -great intelligence, and his facts are carefully coördinated. Rathke +great intelligence, and his facts are carefully coördinated. Rathke belonged to the good old school of German writers whose researches were profound and extensive, and whose expression was clear, being based upon matured thought. His papers on the aortic arches and the Wolffian body are those most commonly referred to at the present time. -Müller.--Johannes Müller (1801-1858), that phenomenal man, besides +Müller.--Johannes Müller (1801-1858), that phenomenal man, besides securing recognition as the greatest physiologist of the nineteenth century, also gave attention to comparative anatomy, and earned the title of the greatest morphologist of his time. His researches were @@ -5215,7 +5187,7 @@ accorded, in history, the double distinction of being a great anatomist and a great physiologist, his teaching tended to physiology; and most of his distinguished students were physiologists of the broadest type, uniting comparative anatomy with their researches upon functional -activities. (For Müller's portrait see p. 187.) +activities. (For Müller's portrait see p. 187.) Gegenbaur.--In Karl Gegenbaur (1826-1903) scientific anatomy reached its highest expression. His work was characterized by broad and @@ -5231,7 +5203,7 @@ he had been for many years professor of anatomy in the university. [Illustration: Fig. 48.--Karl Gegenbaur, 1826-1903.] -In the group of living German anatomists the names of Fürbringer, +In the group of living German anatomists the names of Fürbringer, Waldeyer, and Wiedersheim can not go unmentioned. E.D. Cope.--In America the greatest comparative anatomist was E.D. Cope @@ -5299,9 +5271,9 @@ middle man." Whether or not we agree fully with this panegyric of Buckle, we must, I think, place Bichat among the most illustrious men of biological -history, as Vesalius, J. Müller, Von Baer, and Balfour. +history, as Vesalius, J. Müller, Von Baer, and Balfour. -Marie François Xavier Bichat was born in 1771 at Thoirette, department +Marie François Xavier Bichat was born in 1771 at Thoirette, department of the Ain. His father, who was a physician, directed the early education of his son and had the satisfaction of seeing him take kindly to intellectual pursuits. The young student was distinguished in Latin @@ -5367,10 +5339,10 @@ not on account of his age or the great number of years he had labored upon them, but from the intensity and completeness with which he had pursued his investigations, thus giving to his work a lasting quality. -First came his treatise on the membranes (_Traité des Membranes_); +First came his treatise on the membranes (_Traité des Membranes_); followed quickly by his Physiological Researches into the Phenomena of Life and Death (_Recherches Physiologiques sur la Vie et la Mort_); -then appeared his General Anatomy (_Anatomie Générale_) in 1801, and +then appeared his General Anatomy (_Anatomie Générale_) in 1801, and his treatise upon Descriptive Anatomy, upon which he was working at the time of his death. @@ -5434,7 +5406,7 @@ Chapter X. The strong features of this veteran of research are shown in the portrait, Fig. 50, which represents him at the age of seventy. -In 1847 he was called to the University of Würzburg, where he remained +In 1847 he was called to the University of Würzburg, where he remained to the time of his death. From 1850 to 1900, scarcely a year passed without some important contribution from Von Koelliker extending the knowledge of histology. His famous text-book on the structure of the @@ -5521,10 +5493,10 @@ animals; and Ramon y Cajal, for investigations into the histology of the nervous system. Text-Books of Histology.--Besides the works mentioned, the text-books -of Frey, Stricker, Ranvier, Klein, Schäfer, and others represent a +of Frey, Stricker, Ranvier, Klein, Schäfer, and others represent a period in the general introduction of histology to students between 1859 and 1885. But these excellent text-books have been largely -superseded by the more recent ones of Stöhr, Boem-Davidoff, Piersol, +superseded by the more recent ones of Stöhr, Boem-Davidoff, Piersol, Szymonowicz, and others. The number of living investigators in histology is enormous; and their work in the subject of cell-structure and in the department of embryology now overlaps. @@ -5551,7 +5523,7 @@ CHAPTER IX THE RISE OF PHYSIOLOGY -Harvey Haller Johannes Müller +Harvey Haller Johannes Müller Physiology had a parallel development with anatomy, but for convenience it will be considered separately. Anatomy shows us that animals and @@ -5652,7 +5624,7 @@ all the facts and the chief theories of physiology carefully arranged and digested. This, as has been said, made physiology an independent branch of science, to be pursued for itself and not merely as an adjunct to the study of medicine. The work referred to is his Elements -of Physiology (_Elementa Physiologiæ Corporis Humani_, 1758), one +of Physiology (_Elementa Physiologiæ Corporis Humani_, 1758), one of the noteworthy books marking a distinct epoch in the progress of science. @@ -5667,7 +5639,7 @@ various phases of vital activity that it brings about within the living tissues. Charles Bell.--The period of Haller may be considered as extending -beyond his lifetime and as terminating when the influence of Müller +beyond his lifetime and as terminating when the influence of Müller began to be felt. Another discovery coming in the closing years of Haller's period marks a capital advance in physiology. I refer to the discovery of Charles Bell (1774-1842) showing that the nerve fibers of @@ -5681,7 +5653,7 @@ Brain_, which was printed for private distribution. It was expanded in his papers, beginning in 1821, and published in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, and finally embodied in his work on the nervous system, published in 1830. At this latter date -Johannes Müller had reached the age of twenty-nine, and had already +Johannes Müller had reached the age of twenty-nine, and had already entered upon his career as the leading physiologist of Germany. What Bell had divined he demonstrated by experiments. @@ -5691,15 +5663,15 @@ and deportment." [Illustration: Fig. 55.--Charles Bell, 1774-1842.] -Period of Johannes Müller.--The period that marks the beginning of +Period of Johannes Müller.--The period that marks the beginning of modern physiology came next, and was due to the genius and force of -Johannes Müller (1801-1858). Verworn says of him: "He is one of those +Johannes Müller (1801-1858). Verworn says of him: "He is one of those monumental figures that the history of every science brings forth but once. They change the whole aspect of the field in which they work, -and all later growth is influenced by their labors." Johannes Müller +and all later growth is influenced by their labors." Johannes Müller was a man of very unusual talent and attainments, the possessor of a master mind. Some have said, and not without reason, that there -was something supernatural about Müller, for his whole appearance +was something supernatural about Müller, for his whole appearance bore the stamp of the uncommon. His portrait, with its massive head above the broad shoulders, is shown in Fig. 56. In his lectures his manner and his gestures reminded one of a Catholic priest. Early in @@ -5716,16 +5688,16 @@ came into contact with him. He excited almost unbounded enthusiasm and great veneration among his students. They were allowed to work close by his side, and so magnetic was his personality that he stimulated them powerfully and succeeded in transmitting to them some of his own mental -qualities. As professor of physiology in Berlin, Müller trained many +qualities. As professor of physiology in Berlin, Müller trained many gifted young men, among whom were Ludwig (1816-1895), Du Bois-Reymond (1818-1896), and Helmholtz (1821-1894), who became distinguished scholars and professors in German universities. Helmholtz, speaking of -Müller's influence on students, paid this tribute to the grandeur of +Müller's influence on students, paid this tribute to the grandeur of his teacher: "Whoever comes into contact with men of the first rank has an altered scale of values in life. Such intellectual contact is the most interesting event that life can offer." -The particular service of Johannes Müller to science was to make +The particular service of Johannes Müller to science was to make physiology broadly comparative. So comprehensive was his grasp upon the subject that he gained for himself the title of the greatest physiologist of modern times. He brought together in his great work on @@ -5743,7 +5715,7 @@ sifted and elaborated into a unitary picture of the mechanism within the living organism. In this respect the _Handbuch_ is to-day not only unsurpassed, but unequalled." -Müller was the most accurate of observers; indeed, he is the most +Müller was the most accurate of observers; indeed, he is the most conspicuous example in the nineteenth century of a man who accomplished a prodigious amount of work all of which was of the highest quality. In physiology he stood on broader lines than had ever been used before. @@ -5752,46 +5724,46 @@ of simple animals, the microscope, the discoveries in physics, in chemistry, and in psychology. He also introduced into physiology the principles of psychology, and -it is from the period of Johannes Müller that we are to associate +it is from the period of Johannes Müller that we are to associate recognition of the close connection between the operations of the mind and the physiology of the brain that has come to occupy such a conspicuous position at the present time. -[Illustration: Fig. 56.--Johannes Müller, 1801-1858.] +[Illustration: Fig. 56.--Johannes Müller, 1801-1858.] -Müller died in 1858, having reached the age of fifty-seven, but his +Müller died in 1858, having reached the age of fifty-seven, but his influence was prolonged through the teachings of his students. -Physiology after Müller +Physiology after Müller [Illustration: Fig. 57.--Ludwig, 1816-1895.] -Ludwig.--Among the men who handed on the torch of Müller there has +Ludwig.--Among the men who handed on the torch of Müller there has already been mentioned Ludwig (Fig. 57). For many years he lectured in the University of Leipsic, attracting to that university high-minded, eager, and gifted young men, who received from this great luminary of physiology by expression what he himself had derived from contact with -Müller. There are to-day distributed through the universities a number +Müller. There are to-day distributed through the universities a number of young physiologists who stand only one generation removed from -Johannes Müller, and who still labor in the spirit that was introduced +Johannes Müller, and who still labor in the spirit that was introduced into this department of study by that great master. [Illustration: Fig. 58.--Du Bois-Reymond, 1818-1896.] Du Bois-Reymond.--Du Bois-Reymond (Fig. 58), another of his -distinguished pupils, came to occupy the chair which Müller himself +distinguished pupils, came to occupy the chair which Müller himself had filled in the University of Berlin, and during the period of his vigor was in physiology one of the lights of the world. It is no uncommon thing to find recently published physiologies dedicated either -to the memory of Johannes Müller, as in the case of that remarkable +to the memory of Johannes Müller, as in the case of that remarkable _General Physiology_ by Verworn; or to Ludwig, or to Du Bois-Reymond, who were in part his intellectual product. From this disposition among -physiologists to do homage to Müller, we are able to estimate somewhat +physiologists to do homage to Müller, we are able to estimate somewhat more closely the tremendous reach of his influence. -Bernard.--When Müller was twelve years old there was born in -Saint-Julien, department of the Rhône, Claude Bernard, who attained +Bernard.--When Müller was twelve years old there was born in +Saint-Julien, department of the Rhône, Claude Bernard, who attained an eminence as a physiologist, of which the French nation are justly proud. Although he was little thought of as a student, nevertheless after he came under the influence of Magendie, at the age of @@ -5808,8 +5780,8 @@ any special consideration of which lies quite beyond the purpose of this book, he published in 1878-1879 a work upon the phenomena of life in animals and vegetables, a work that had general influence in extending the knowledge of vital activities. I refer to his now -classic _Leçons sur les Phénomènes de la vie communs aux animaux et aux -végétaux_. +classic _Leçons sur les Phénomènes de la vie communs aux animaux et aux +végétaux_. The thoughtful face of Bernard is shown in his portrait, Fig. 59. He was one of those retiring, silent men whose natures are difficult to @@ -5830,7 +5802,7 @@ in the streets passers-by might be heard to say 'I wonder who that is; he must be some distinguished man.'" Two Directions of Growth.--Physiology, established on the broad -foundations of Müller, developed along two independent pathways, the +foundations of Müller, developed along two independent pathways, the physical and the chemical. We find a group of physiologists, among whom Weber, Ludwig, Du Bois-Reymond, and Helmholtz were noteworthy leaders, devoted to the investigations of physiological facts through the @@ -5850,7 +5822,7 @@ afford an opportunity to study at leisure phenomena that occupy a very brief time. The other marked line of physiological investigation has been in the -domain of chemistry, where Wöhler, Liebig, Kühne, and others have, +domain of chemistry, where Wöhler, Liebig, Kühne, and others have, through the study of the chemical changes occurring in its body, observed the various activities that take place within the organism. They have reduced all tissues and all parts of the body to chemical @@ -5870,11 +5842,11 @@ physico-chemical lines. We will recollect that vitalism in the hands of the immediate successors of Haller became not only highly speculative, but highly mystical, tending to obscure any close analysis of vital activity and throwing explanations all back into the domain of -mysticism. Johannes Müller was also a vitalist, but his vitalism was +mysticism. Johannes Müller was also a vitalist, but his vitalism was of a more acceptable form. He thought of changes in the body as being due to vitality--to a living force; but he did not deny the possibility of the transformation of this vital energy into other forms of energy; -and upon the basis of Müller's work there has been built up the +and upon the basis of Müller's work there has been built up the modern conception that there is found in the human body a particular transformation-form of energy, not a mystical vital force that presides over all manifestations of life. @@ -5885,11 +5857,11 @@ biology. We find now the successful and happy union between physiology and morphology in the work which is being so assiduously carried on to-day under the title of experimental morphology. -The great names in physiology since Müller are numerous, and perhaps it +The great names in physiology since Müller are numerous, and perhaps it is invidious to mention particular ones; but, inasmuch as Ludwig and Du Bois-Reymond have been spoken of, we may associate with them the names -of Sir Michael Foster and Burdon-Sanderson, in England; and of Brücke -(one of Müller's disciples) and Verworn, in Germany, as modern leaders +of Sir Michael Foster and Burdon-Sanderson, in England; and of Brücke +(one of Müller's disciples) and Verworn, in Germany, as modern leaders whose investigations have promoted advance, and whose clear exposition of the facts and the theories of physiology have added much to the dignity of the science. @@ -5908,7 +5880,7 @@ There is no more fascinating division of biological study. As Minot says: "Indeed, the stories which embryology has to tell are the most romantic known to us, and the wildest imaginative creations of Scott or Dumas are less startling than the innumerable and almost incredible -shifts of rôle and change of character which embryology has to +shifts of rôle and change of character which embryology has to entertain us with in her histories." Embryology is one of the most important biological sciences in @@ -6214,7 +6186,7 @@ it was a product of the seventeenth century, from several printed accounts one is likely to gather the impression that it arose in the eighteenth century, and that Bonnet, Haller, and Leibnitz were among its founders. This implication is in part fostered by the circumstance -that Swammerdam's _Biblia Naturæ_, which contains the germ of the +that Swammerdam's _Biblia Naturæ_, which contains the germ of the theory, was not published until 1737--more than half a century after his death--although the observations for it were completed before Malpighi's first paper on embryology was published in 1672. @@ -6241,8 +6213,8 @@ nevertheless to no purpose; for the individuals were so jelly-like and so very small that they were lacerated by a light stroke. Therefore, it is right to confess that the beginnings of the chick pre-exist in the egg, and have reached a higher development in no other way than -in the eggs of plants." ("Quare _pulli stamina_ in ovo _præexistere_, -altiorémque originem nacta esse fateri convenit, haud dispari ritu, ac +in the eggs of plants." ("Quare _pulli stamina_ in ovo _præexistere_, +altiorémque originem nacta esse fateri convenit, haud dispari ritu, ac in Plantarum ovis.") Swammerdam (1637-1680) supplied a somewhat better basis. He observed @@ -6260,14 +6232,14 @@ was looked upon as simply a _nidus_ within which the sperm developed, and they asserted that the future animal existed in miniature in the sperm. These controversies gave rise to the schools of the animalculists, who believed the sperm to be the animal germ, and of the -ovulists, who contended for the ovum in that rôle. +ovulists, who contended for the ovum in that rôle. It is interesting to follow the metaphysical speculations which led to another aspect of the doctrine of pre-formation. There were those, notably Swammerdam, Leibnitz, and Bonnet, who did not hesitate to follow the idea to the logical consequence that, if the animal germ exists pre-formed, one generation after another must be encased within -it. This gave rise to the fanciful idea of encasement or _emboîtement_, +it. This gave rise to the fanciful idea of encasement or _emboîtement_, which was so greatly elaborated by Bonnet and, by Leibnitz, applied to the development of the soul. Even Swammerdam (who, by the way, though a masterly observer, was always a poor generalizer) conceived of the @@ -6407,7 +6379,7 @@ Wheeler.) The Period of Von Baer -What Johannes Müller was for physiology, von Baer was for embryology; +What Johannes Müller was for physiology, von Baer was for embryology; all subsequent growth was influenced by his investigations. The greatest classic in embryology is his _Development of Animals_ @@ -6435,7 +6407,7 @@ thought been so successfully combined in embryological work" (Minot). Von Baer was born in 1792, and lived on to 1876, but his enduring fame in embryology rests on work completed more than forty years before -the end of his useful life. After his removal from Königsberg to St. +the end of his useful life. After his removal from Königsberg to St. Petersburg, in 1834, he very largely devoted himself to anthropology in its widest sense, and thereby extended his scientific reputation into other fields. @@ -6537,7 +6509,7 @@ qualified way in which he suggests something of the sort will not justify one in attaching this conclusion to his work. Von Baer was the first to make embryology truly comparative, and to -point out its great value in anatomy and zoölogy. By embryological +point out its great value in anatomy and zoölogy. By embryological studies he recognized four types of organization--as Cuvier had done from the standpoint of comparative anatomy. But, since these types of organization have been greatly changed and subdivided, the importance @@ -6633,7 +6605,7 @@ middle layer as a unit, through which the three germ-layers of later embryologists emerged into the literature of the subject. Koelliker, 1817-1905, the veteran embryologist, for so many years a -professor in the University of Würzburg, carried on investigations on +professor in the University of Würzburg, carried on investigations on the segmentation of the egg. Besides work on the invertebrates, later he followed with care the development of the chick and the rabbit; he encompassed the whole field of embryology, and published, in 1861 and @@ -6656,7 +6628,7 @@ invertebrates and the vertebrates. This was of great influence in subsequent work. Kowalevsky also founded the generalization that all animals in development pass through a gastrula stage--a doctrine associated, since 1874, with the name of Haeckel under the title of the -gastræa theory. +gastræa theory. Beginning of the Doctrine of Germinal Continuity.--The conception that there is unbroken continuity of germinal substance between all @@ -6807,7 +6779,7 @@ recapitulate to a considerable degree phases of their ancestral history. This is one of the widest generalizations of embryology. It was suggested in the writings of Von Baer and Louis Agassiz, but received its first clear and complete expression in 1863, in the -writings of Fritz Müller. +writings of Fritz Müller. Although the course of events in development is a record, it is, at best, only a fragmentary and imperfect one. Many stages have been @@ -6832,9 +6804,9 @@ conclusions. [Illustration: Fig. 70.--Oskar Hertwig in 1890.] -Nearly all problems in anatomy and structural zoölogy are approached +Nearly all problems in anatomy and structural zoölogy are approached from the embryological side, and, as a consequence, the work of -the great army of anatomists and zoölogists has been in a measure +the great army of anatomists and zoölogists has been in a measure embryological. Many of them have produced beautiful and important researches, but the work is too extended to admit of review in this connection. @@ -6868,7 +6840,7 @@ as follows: "Morphology raises the question, How came the organic mechanism into existence? Has it had a history, reaching its present stage of perfection through a long series of gradations, the first term of which was a relatively simple stage? The embryological history -is traced out, and the palæontological records are searched, until +is traced out, and the palæontological records are searched, until the evidence from both sources establishes the fact that the organ or organism under study is but the summation of modifications and elaborations of a relatively simple primordial. This point settled, @@ -6960,8 +6932,8 @@ reprinted and placed on sale.] [Footnote 7: It is of more than passing interest to remember that Pander and Von Baer were associated as friends and fellow-students, -under Döllinger at Würzburg. It was partly through the influence -of Von Baer that Pander came to study with Döllinger, and took up +under Döllinger at Würzburg. It was partly through the influence +of Von Baer that Pander came to study with Döllinger, and took up investigations on development. His ample private means made it possible for him to bear the expenses connected with the investigation, and to secure the services of a fine artist for making the illustrations. The @@ -7066,7 +7038,7 @@ Huxley epitomizes Wolff's views on the development of elementary parts as follows: "Every organ, he says, is composed at first of a little mass of clear, viscous, nutritive fluid, which possesses no organization of any kind, but is at most composed of globules. In this -semifluid mass cavities (_Bläschen_, _Zellen_) are now developed; +semifluid mass cavities (_Bläschen_, _Zellen_) are now developed; these, if they remain round or polygonal, become the subsequent cells; if they elongate, the vessels; and the process is identically the same, whether it is examined in the vegetating point of a plant, or in @@ -7155,7 +7127,7 @@ latter seized upon the nucleus as the starting-point of new cells. He changed the name of the nucleus to cytoblast, and supposed that the new cell started as a small clear bubble on one side of the nucleus, and by continued expansion grew into the cell, the nucleus, or cytoblast, -becoming encased in the cell-wall. All this was shown by Nägeli and +becoming encased in the cell-wall. All this was shown by Nägeli and other botanists to be wrong; yet, curiously enough, it was through the help of these false observations that Schwann arrived at his general conclusions. @@ -7187,18 +7159,18 @@ a few rare books around him, and numerous glass vessels, retorts, vials, and tubes, simple apparatus which he made himself. Or I go in imagination to the dark and fusty halls of the Anatomical Institute where we used to work till nightfall by the side of our excellent -chief, Johann Müller. We took our dinner in the evening, after the +chief, Johann Müller. We took our dinner in the evening, after the English fashion, so that we might enjoy more of the advantages of daylight." Schwann drew part of his stimulus from his great master, Johannes -Müller. He was associated with him as a student, first in the -University of Würzburg, where Müller, with rare discernment for +Müller. He was associated with him as a student, first in the +University of Würzburg, where Müller, with rare discernment for recognizing genius, selected Schwann for especial favors and for close -personal friendship. The influence of his long association with Müller, +personal friendship. The influence of his long association with Müller, the greatest of all trainers of anatomists and physiologists of the nineteenth century, must have been very uplifting. A few years later, -Schwann found himself at the University of Berlin, where Müller had +Schwann found himself at the University of Berlin, where Müller had been called, and he became an assistant in the master's laboratory. There he gained the powerful stimulus of constant association with a great personality. @@ -7208,7 +7180,7 @@ great personality. In 1839, just after the publication of his work on the cell-theory, Schwann was called to a professorship in the University of Louvain, and after remaining there nine years, was transferred to the University of -Liège. He was highly respected in the university, and led a useful +Liège. He was highly respected in the university, and led a useful life, although after going to Belgium he published only one work--that on the uses of the bile. He was recognized as an adept experimenter and demonstrator, and "clearness, order, and method" are designated as the @@ -7251,7 +7223,7 @@ was founded. Schleiden's Contribution.--Schleiden's paper was particularly directed to the question, How does the cell originate? and was published -in Müller's _Archiv_, in 1838, under the German title of _Ueber +in Müller's _Archiv_, in 1838, under the German title of _Ueber Phytogenesis_. As stated above, the cell had been recognized for some years, but the question of its origin had not been investigated. Schleiden says: "I may omit all historical introduction, for, so far @@ -7288,7 +7260,7 @@ in a concise form in a German scientific periodical, and, later, to the Paris Academy of Sciences; but it was not till 1839 that the fully illustrated account was published. This treatise with the cumbersome title, "Microscopical Researches into the Accordance in the Structure -and Growth of Animals and Plants" (_Mikroscopische Untersuchungen über +and Growth of Animals and Plants" (_Mikroscopische Untersuchungen über die Uebereinstimmung in der Structur und dem Wachsthum der Thiere und Pflanzen_) takes rank as one of the great classics in biology. It fills 215 octavo pages, and is illustrated with four plates. @@ -7359,7 +7331,7 @@ substance, which had been announced as sarcode in lower animals, and as protoplasm in plants; but there was as yet no clear indication that these two substances were practically identical. Gradually there came stealing into the minds of observers the suspicion that the sarcode of -the zoölogists and the protoplasm of the botanists were one and the +the zoölogists and the protoplasm of the botanists were one and the same thing. This proposition was definitely maintained by Cohn in 1850, though with him it was mainly theoretical, since his observations were not sufficiently extensive and accurate to support such a conclusion. @@ -7545,7 +7517,7 @@ CHAPTER XII PROTOPLASM, THE PHYSICAL BASIS OF LIFE -The recognition of the rôle that protoplasm plays in the living world +The recognition of the rôle that protoplasm plays in the living world was so far-reaching in its results that we take up for separate consideration the history of its discovery. Although it is not yet fifty years since Max Schultze established the protoplasm doctrine, it @@ -7647,16 +7619,16 @@ and Animals Dujardin.--This substance, of so much interest and importance to biologists, was first clearly described and distinguished from other -viscid substance, as albumen, by Félix Dujardin in 1835. Both the +viscid substance, as albumen, by Félix Dujardin in 1835. Both the substance and the movements therein had been seen and recorded by -others: by Rösel von Rosenhof in 1755 in the proteus animalcule; again +others: by Rösel von Rosenhof in 1755 in the proteus animalcule; again in 1772 by Corti in chara; by Mayen in 1827 in Vallisnieria; and in 1831 by Robert Brown in Tradescantia. One of these records was for the animal kingdom, and three were for plants. The observations of Dujardin, however, were on a different plane from those of the earlier naturalists, and he is usually credited with being the discoverer of protoplasm. His researches, moreover, were closely connected with the -development of the ideas regarding the rôle played in nature by this +development of the ideas regarding the rôle played in nature by this living substance. Dujardin was a quiet modest man, whose attainments and service to the @@ -7670,14 +7642,14 @@ showed great merit. His use of colors was very effective, and in 1818 he went to Paris for the purpose of perfecting himself in painting, and with the intention of becoming an artist. The small financial returns, however, "led him to accept work as an engineer directing the -construction of hydraulic work in Sédan." He had already shown a love +construction of hydraulic work in Sédan." He had already shown a love for natural science, and this led him from engineering into work as a librarian and then as a teacher. He made field observations in geology and botany, and commenced publication in those departments of science. About 1834 he began to devote his chief efforts to microscopic work, toward which he had a strong inclination, and from that time on he -became a zoölogist, with a steadily growing recognition for high-class +became a zoölogist, with a steadily growing recognition for high-class observation. Besides his technical scientific papers, he wrote in a popular vein to increase his income. Among his writings of this type may be mentioned as occupying high rank his charmingly written "Rambles @@ -7716,7 +7688,7 @@ observations which he had established." This failure to assert his claims accounts in part for the inadequate recognition that his work has received. -[Illustration: Fig. 82.--Félix Dujardin, 1801-1860.] +[Illustration: Fig. 82.--Félix Dujardin, 1801-1860.] No portrait of Dujardin was obtainable prior to 1898. Somewhat earlier Professor Joubin, who succeeded other occupants of the chair which @@ -7777,7 +7749,7 @@ the universities of Breslau and Prague. His anatomical laboratory at Breslau is notable as being one of the earliest (1825) open to students. He went to Prague in 1850 as professor of physiology. -[Illustration: Fig. 84.--Carl Nägeli, 1817-1891.] +[Illustration: Fig. 84.--Carl Nägeli, 1817-1891.] Von Mohl.--In 1846, eleven years after the discovery of Dujardin, the eminent botanist Hugo von Mohl (1805-1872) designated a particular part @@ -7787,11 +7759,11 @@ come to be known under the expressive term of plant "_schleim_." He distinguished the firmer mucilaginous and granular constituent, found just under the cell membrane, from the watery cell-sap that occupies the interior of the cell. It was to the former part that he gave the -name protoplasma. Previous to this, the botanist Nägeli had studied +name protoplasma. Previous to this, the botanist Nägeli had studied this living substance, and perceived that it was nitrogenous matter. This was a distinct step in advance of the vague and indefinite idea of Schleiden, who had in reality noticed protoplasm in 1838, but thought -of it merely as gum. The highly accomplished investigator Nägeli (Fig. +of it merely as gum. The highly accomplished investigator Nägeli (Fig. 84) made a great place for himself in botanical investigation, and his name is connected with several fundamental ideas of biology. To Von Mohl, however, belongs the credit of having brought the word protoplasm @@ -7805,17 +7777,17 @@ establishment of the protoplasm doctrine. Von Mohl (Fig. 85) was an important man in botany. Early in life he showed a great love for natural science, and as in his day medical instruction afforded the best opportunities for a man with scientific -tastes, he entered upon that course of study in Tübingen at the age of +tastes, he entered upon that course of study in Tübingen at the age of eighteen. He took his degree of doctor of medicine in 1823, and spent several years in Munich. He became professor of physiology in Bern in -1832, and three years later was transferred to Tübingen as professor of +1832, and three years later was transferred to Tübingen as professor of botany. Here he remained to the end of his life, refusing invitations to institutions elsewhere. He never married, and, without the cares and joys of a family, led a solitary and uneventful life, devoted to botanical investigation. Cohn.--After Von Mohl's studies on "plant schleim" there was a general -movement toward the conclusion that the sarcode of the zoölogists and +movement toward the conclusion that the sarcode of the zoölogists and the protoplasm of the botanists were one and the same substance. This notion was in the minds of more than one worker, but it is perhaps to Ferdinand Cohn (1828-1898) that the credit should be given for bringing @@ -7871,7 +7843,7 @@ physiological likeness, rather than on structural grounds, that he formed his sweeping conclusions. He showed also that sarcode agreed in physiological properties with protoplasm in plants, and that the two living substances were practically identical. His paper of 1861 -considers the living substance in muscles (_Ueber Muskelkörperchen und +considers the living substance in muscles (_Ueber Muskelkörperchen und das was man eine Zelle zu nennen habe_), but in this he had been partly anticipated by Ecker who, in 1849, compared the "formed contractile substance" of muscles with the "unformed contractile substance" of the @@ -7889,7 +7861,7 @@ This astute observer will have an enduring fame in biological science, not only for the part he played in the development of the protoplasm idea, but also on account of other extensive labors. In 1866 he founded the leading periodical in microscopic anatomy, the _Archiv -für Mikroscopische Anatomie_. This periodical was continued after the +für Mikroscopische Anatomie_. This periodical was continued after the untimely death of Schultze in 1874, and to-day is one of the leading biological periodicals. @@ -7934,7 +7906,7 @@ protozoa. They are so infinitesimal in size that under his microscope they appeared as mere specks, and, naturally, observation of these minute organisms was suspended until nearly the middle of the nineteenth century, after the improvement of microscope lenses. It is -characteristic of the little knowledge of bacteria in Linnæus's period +characteristic of the little knowledge of bacteria in Linnæus's period that he grouped them into an order, with other microscopic forms, under the name _chaos_. @@ -7967,7 +7939,7 @@ action of the sun's rays and other natural forces, so that a molecule of living matter is constructed in nature's laboratory without contact or close association with living substance? This is a question of _biogenesis_--life from previous life--or of _abiogenesis_--life -without preëxisting life or from inorganic matter alone. +without preëxisting life or from inorganic matter alone. It is a question with a long history. Its earliest phases do not involve any consideration of microscopic forms, since they were @@ -8099,7 +8071,7 @@ Spallanzani.--The epoch-making researches of Spallanzani, a fellow-countryman of Redi, were needed to point out the error in Needham's conclusions. Spallanzani (Fig. 90) was one of the most eminent men of his time. He was educated for the church, and, -therefore, he is usually known under the title of Abbé Spallanzani. +therefore, he is usually known under the title of Abbé Spallanzani. He did not, however, actively engage in his churchly offices, but, following an innate love of natural science and of investigation, devoted himself to experiments and researches and to teaching. He @@ -8161,7 +8133,7 @@ eighteenth century, was made by Priestley in 1774. It was soon shown that oxygen is necessary to all forms of life, and the question was raised: Had not the boiling of the closed flasks changed the oxygen so that through the heating process it had lost its life-giving -properties? This doubt grew until a reëxamination of the question of +properties? This doubt grew until a reëxamination of the question of spontaneous generation became necessary under conditions in which the nutrient fluids were made accessible to the outside air. @@ -8493,7 +8465,7 @@ determination which led to colossal attainments; at the same time it is mellowed by gentle affection, and contrasts finely with the trusting expression of the younger face. -Pasteur was born of humble parents in Dôle in the Jura, on December +Pasteur was born of humble parents in Dôle in the Jura, on December the 27th, 1822. His father was a tanner, but withal, a man of fine character and stern experience, as is "shown by the fact that he had fought in the legions of the First Empire and been decorated on the @@ -8541,7 +8513,7 @@ treatment the precise culture and capacities which he has brought to bear upon them." In 1857 Pasteur went to Paris as director of scientific studies in the -École Normale, having previously been a professor in Strasburg and in +École Normale, having previously been a professor in Strasburg and in Lille. From this time on his energies became more and more absorbed in problems of a biological nature. It was a momentous year (1857) in the annals of bacteriology when Pasteur brought convincing proof that @@ -8600,7 +8572,7 @@ enthusiasm which accompanied the foundation of this great institution has certainly not been equaled in our time. Considerable sums of money were subscribed in foreign countries, while contributions poured in from every part of France. Even the inhabitants of obscure little -towns and villages organized fêtes, and clubbed together to send their +towns and villages organized fêtes, and clubbed together to send their small gifts" (Franckland). The total sum subscribed on the date of the opening ceremony amounted to 3,586,680 francs. @@ -8756,7 +8728,7 @@ currents of progress will be more helpful than any attempt to estimate critically the underlying principles. Early Theories.--There were speculations regarding the nature of -inheritance in ancient and mediæval times. To mention any of them +inheritance in ancient and mediæval times. To mention any of them prior to the eighteenth century would serve no useful purpose, since they were vague and did not form the foundation upon which the modern theories were built. The controversies over pre-formation and @@ -9018,7 +8990,7 @@ The Application of Statistical Methods and Experiments to the Ideas of Heredity. Mendel.--This feature of investigating questions of heredity is of growing importance. The first to complete experiments and to investigate heredity to any purpose was the Austrian monk Mendel -(1822-1884) (Fig. 95), the abbot of a monastery at Brünn. In his garden +(1822-1884) (Fig. 95), the abbot of a monastery at Brünn. In his garden he made many experiments upon the inheritance, particularly in peas, of color and of form; and through these experiments he demonstrated a law of inheritance which bids fair to be one of the great biological @@ -9122,7 +9094,7 @@ endowed institutions. There is notably in this country, established under the Carnegie Institution, a station for experimental evolution, at Cold Spring Harbor, New York, of which C.B. Davenport is director. Other experimental stations in England and on the Continent have been -established, and we are to expect as the result of coördinated and +established, and we are to expect as the result of coördinated and continuous experimental work many substantial contributions to the knowledge of inheritance. @@ -9235,13 +9207,13 @@ like effects imply like causes, to all manner of fossils, and clearly established the point that they should be regarded as the remains of animals and plants. The method of investigation practiced by Steno was that "which has consciously or unconsciously guided the researches of -palæontologists ever since." +palæontologists ever since." Although his conclusions were well supported, they did not completely overthrow the opposing views, and become a fixed basis in geology. When, at the close of the eighteenth century and the beginning of the nineteenth, fossil remains were being exhumed in great quantities in -the Paris basin, Cuvier, the great French naturalist, reëstablished the +the Paris basin, Cuvier, the great French naturalist, reëstablished the doctrine that fossils are the remains of ancient life. An account of this will be given presently, and in the mean time we shall go on with the consideration of a question raised by the conclusions of Steno. @@ -9281,7 +9253,7 @@ Even the utterances of Cuvier, in his theory of catastrophism to which we shall presently return, gave countenance to the conclusion that the Deluge was of universal extent. As late as 1823, William Buckland, reader in geology in Oxford, and later canon (1825) of Christ Church, -and dean (1845) of Westminster, published his _Reliquiæ Diluvianæ_, +and dean (1845) of Westminster, published his _Reliquiæ Diluvianæ_, or _Observations on the Organic Remains Attesting the Action of a Universal Deluge_. @@ -9290,7 +9262,7 @@ organic fossils was finally surrendered through the advance of knowledge, owing mainly to the labors of Lyell and his followers. The Comparison of Fossil and Living Animals.--The very great interest -connected with the reëstablishment of the conclusion of Steno, that +connected with the reëstablishment of the conclusion of Steno, that fossils were once alive, leads us to speak more at length of the discoveries upon which Cuvier passed his opinion. In the gypsum rocks about Paris the workmen had been turning up to the light bones of @@ -9321,17 +9293,17 @@ inference was drawn that the fossil remains examined belonged to forms that were truly extinct. This discovery marks an epoch in the development of the knowledge of extinct animals. -Cuvier the Founder of Vertebrate Palæontology.--The interesting +Cuvier the Founder of Vertebrate Palæontology.--The interesting discovery that the fossil relics in the Eocene rocks about Paris embraced extinct species was announced to the Institute by Cuvier in January, 1796; and thereafter he continued for a quarter of a century to devote much attention to the systematic study of collections made in that district. These observations were, however, shared with other -labors upon comparative anatomy and zoölogy, which indicates the +labors upon comparative anatomy and zoölogy, which indicates the prodigious industry for which he was notable. In 1812-1813 he published a monumental work, profusely illustrated, under the title _Ossemens Fossiles_. This standard publication entitles him to recognition as the -founder of vertebrate palæontology. +founder of vertebrate palæontology. In examining the records of fossil life, Cuvier and others saw that the evidence indicated a succession of animal populations that had @@ -9352,12 +9324,12 @@ Cuvier was not able to accept the views of his illustrious contemporary Lamarck, who believed that the variations in fossil life, as well as those of living forms, were owing to gradual transformations. -Lamarck Founds Invertebrate Palæontology.--The credit of founding -the science of palæontology does not belong exclusively to Cuvier. +Lamarck Founds Invertebrate Palæontology.--The credit of founding +the science of palæontology does not belong exclusively to Cuvier. Associated with his name as co-founders are those of Lamarck and William Smith. Lamarck, that quiet, forceful thinker who for so many years worked by the side of Cuvier, founded the science of invertebrate -palæontology. The large bones with which Cuvier worked were more easy +palæontology. The large bones with which Cuvier worked were more easy to be recognized as unique or as belonging to extinct animals than the shells which occurred in abundance in the rocks about Paris. The latter were more difficult to place in their true position because @@ -9367,7 +9339,7 @@ vertebrate organization, so Lamarck was equally a master of that vast domain of animal forms which are of a lower grade of organization--the invertebrates. From his study of the collections of shells and other invertebrate forms from the rocks, Lamarck created invertebrate -palæontology and this, coupled with the work of Cuvier, formed the +palæontology and this, coupled with the work of Cuvier, formed the foundations of the entire field. Lamarck's study of the extinct invertebrates led him to conclusions @@ -9388,7 +9360,7 @@ distributed by fortune: Cuvier, picturesque, highly honored, the favorite of princes, advanced to the highest places of recognition in the government, acclaimed as the Jove of natural science; Lamarck, hard-working, harassed by poverty, insufficiently recognized, and, -although more gifted than his confrère, overlooked by the scientific +although more gifted than his confrère, overlooked by the scientific men of the time. The judgment of the relative position of these two men in natural science is now being reversed, and on the basis of intellectual supremacy Lamarck is coming into general recognition @@ -9415,7 +9387,7 @@ within the rocks constitute a stratified series, having definite and unvarying arrangement with reference to one another. In short, the work of these three men--Cuvier, Lamarck, and William -Smith--placed the new science of palæontology upon a secure basis at +Smith--placed the new science of palæontology upon a secure basis at the beginning of the nineteenth century. Summary.--The chief steps up to this time in the growth of the @@ -9504,7 +9476,7 @@ world and became an important feature in preparing for the reception of Darwin's great book upon the descent of animal life. We step forward now to the year 1859, to consider the effect upon -the science of palæontology of the publication of Darwin's _Origin +the science of palæontology of the publication of Darwin's _Origin of Species_. Its influence was tremendous. The geological theories that had provoked so much controversy were concerned not merely with the disappearance of organic forms, but also with the introduction @@ -9524,7 +9496,7 @@ animals. His studies on the fossil remains of Australia and New Zealand brought to light some interesting forms. The extinct giant bird of New Zealand (Fig. 98) was a spectacular demonstration of the enormous size to which birds had attained during the Eocene period. Owen's monograph -(1879) on the oldest known bird--the archæopteryx--described an +(1879) on the oldest known bird--the archæopteryx--described an interesting form uniting both bird-like and reptilian characteristics. [Illustration: Fig. 98.--Professor Owen and the Extinct Fossil Bird @@ -9562,13 +9534,13 @@ on an extended scale, and he shed light in this province as in others upon which he touched. With critical analysis and impartial mind he applied the principles of evolution to the study of fossil remains. His first conclusion was that the evidence of evolution derived from -palæontology was negative, but with the advances in discovery he grew -gradually to recognize that palæontologists, in bringing to light +palæontology was negative, but with the advances in discovery he grew +gradually to recognize that palæontologists, in bringing to light complete evolutionary series, had supplied some of the strongest supporting evidence of organic evolution. By many geologists fossils have been used as time-markers for the determination of the age of various deposits; but, with Huxley, the study of them was always -biological. It is to the latter point of view that palæontology owes +biological. It is to the latter point of view that palæontology owes its great importance and its great development. The statement of Huxley, that the only difference between a fossil and a recent animal is that one has been dead longer than the other, represents the spirit @@ -9577,11 +9549,11 @@ in which the study is being carried forward. [Illustration: Fig. 100.--E.D. Cope, 1840-1897.] With the establishment of the doctrine of organic evolution -palæontology entered upon its modern phase of growth; upon this basis +palæontology entered upon its modern phase of growth; upon this basis there is being reared a worthy structure through the efforts of the recent votaries to the science. It is neither essential nor desirable that the present history of the subject should be followed here in -detail. The collections of material upon which palæontologists are +detail. The collections of material upon which palæontologists are working have been enormously increased, and there is perhaps no place where activity has been greater than in the United States. The rocks of the Western States and Territories embrace a very rich collection @@ -9594,7 +9566,7 @@ City. Leidy, Cope, and Marsh.--Among the early explorers of the fossils of the West must be named Joseph Leidy, E.D. Cope (Fig. 100), and O.C. Marsh. These gentlemen all had access to rich material, and all of -them made notable contributions to the science of palæontology. The +them made notable contributions to the science of palæontology. The work of Cope (1840-1897) is very noteworthy. He was a comparative anatomist equal to Cuvier in the extent of his knowledge, and of larger philosophical views. His extended publications under the direction of @@ -9606,17 +9578,17 @@ discovery of toothed birds in the Western rocks and his collection of fossil horses, until recently the most complete one in existence, are all very well known. Throughout his long life he contributed from his own private fortune, and intellectually through his indefatigable -labors, to the progress of palæontology. +labors, to the progress of palæontology. [Illustration: Fig. 101.--O.C. Marsh, 1831-1899.] -Zittel.--The name most widely known in palæontology is that of the +Zittel.--The name most widely known in palæontology is that of the late Karl von Zittel (1839-1904), who devoted all his working life to the advancement of the science of fossils. In his great work, _Handbuch der Palaeontologie_ (1876-1893), he brought under one view the entire range of fossils from the protozoa up to the mammals. Osborn says: "It is probably not an exaggeration to say that he did more for -the promotion and diffusion of palæontology than any other single +the promotion and diffusion of palæontology than any other single man who lived during the nineteenth century. While not gifted with genius, he possessed extraordinary judgment, critical capacity, and untiring industry." His portrait (Fig. 102) shows a face "full of keen @@ -9643,7 +9615,7 @@ History, New York City. His profound and important investigations in the ancestry of animal life are now nearing the time of their publication in elaborated form. -Palæontology, by treating fossil life and recent life in the same +Palæontology, by treating fossil life and recent life in the same category, has come to be one of the important lines of investigation in biology. It is, of course, especially rich in giving us a knowledge of the hard parts of animals, but by ingenious methods we can arrive @@ -9667,7 +9639,7 @@ fossils in plaster casts for transportation, it has been made possible to uncover and preserve many structures which with a rougher method of handling would have been lost to science. -Fossil Man.--One extremely interesting section of palæontology deals +Fossil Man.--One extremely interesting section of palæontology deals with the fossil remains of the supposed ancestors of the present human race. Geological evidence establishes the great antiquity of man, but up to the present time little systematic exploration has been carried @@ -9684,13 +9656,13 @@ Neanderthal skull and the skulls of the lower representatives of living races of mankind. We shall have occasion to revert to this question in considering the evidences of organic evolution. (See page 364.) -The name palæontology was brought into use about 1830. The science +The name palæontology was brought into use about 1830. The science affords, in some particulars, the most interesting field for biological research, and the feature of the reconstruction of ancient life and the determination of the lineage of living forms has taken a strong hold on the popular imagination. According to Osborn, the most important -palæontological event of recent times was the discovery, in 1900, of -fossil beds of mammals in the Fayûm lake-province of Egypt, about +palæontological event of recent times was the discovery, in 1900, of +fossil beds of mammals in the Fayûm lake-province of Egypt, about forty-seven miles south of Cairo. Here are embedded fossil forms, some of which have been already described in a volume by Charles W. Andrews, which Osborn says "marks a turning-point in the history of mammalia of @@ -9883,7 +9855,7 @@ line of descent. Are Species Fixed in Nature?--The aspect of the matter which presses first upon our attention is this: Are the species (or different kinds of animals and plants) fixed, and, within narrow limits, permanent, as -Linnæus supposed? Have they preserved their identity through all time, +Linnæus supposed? Have they preserved their identity through all time, or have they undergone changes? This is the heart of the question of organic evolution. If observation shows species to be constant at the present time, and also to have been continuous so far as we can trace @@ -9911,7 +9883,7 @@ proper chronological order. Now, we have in Slavonia some fresh-water lakes that have been drying up from the tertiary period. Throughout the ages, these waters were inhabited by snails, and naturally the more ancient ones were the parents of the later broods. As the animals died -their shells sank to the bottom and were covered by mud and débris, +their shells sank to the bottom and were covered by mud and débris, and held there like currants in a pudding. In the course of ages, by successive accumulations, these layers thickened and were changed into rock, and by this means shells have been preserved in their proper @@ -9938,7 +9910,7 @@ of the fresh waters of our globe. [Illustration: Fig. 103.--Transmutations of Paludina. (After Neumayer.)] -A similar series of shells has been brought to light in Württemberg +A similar series of shells has been brought to light in Württemberg in which the variations pass through wider limits, so that not only different species may be observed, but different genera connected by almost insensible gradations. These transformations are found in a @@ -10039,7 +10011,7 @@ Fossil Ancestors of the Horse. European Forms. (After Kayser.)] So far we have treated the question of fixity of species as a historical one, and have gone searching for clues of past conditions -just as an archæologist explores the past in buried cities. The facts +just as an archæologist explores the past in buried cities. The facts we have encountered, taken in connection with a multitude of others pointing in the same direction, begin to answer the initial question, Were the immense numbers of living forms created just as we find them, @@ -10061,7 +10033,7 @@ reaches of time, mammals began to appear. Connecting Forms.--Interesting connecting forms between large groups sometimes are found, or, if not connecting forms, generalized ones embracing the structural characteristics of two separate groups. Such -a form is the archæopteryx (Fig. 108), a primitive bird with reptilian +a form is the archæopteryx (Fig. 108), a primitive bird with reptilian anatomy, with teeth in its jaws, and a long, lizard-like tail covered with feathers, which seems to show connection between birds and reptiles. The wing also shows the supernumerary fingers, which have @@ -10177,7 +10149,7 @@ existing anthropoid apes, and falls very near, but not directly, in the line of human ancestry." The second link is supplied by the famous Neanderthal skull found in -the valley of the Neander, near Düsseldorf, in 1856. The discovery +the valley of the Neander, near Düsseldorf, in 1856. The discovery of this skull, with its receding forehead and prominent ridges above the orbits of the eyes, and its small cranial capacity, created a sensation, for it was soon seen that it was intermediate between the @@ -10187,7 +10159,7 @@ characteristics were abnormal. This conclusion, however, was rendered untenable by the discovery in 1886 of similar skulls and the skeletons of two persons, in a cave near Spy in Belgium. The "Spy man" and the "Neanderthal man" belong to the same type and are estimated to have -been living in the middle of the palæolithic age. +been living in the middle of the palæolithic age. [Illustration: Fig. 111.--Profile Reconstructions of the Skulls of Living and Fossil Men: 1. Brachycephalic European; 2. The more ancient @@ -10205,8 +10177,8 @@ negro, the lowest existing type of mankind known at present." Fig. 111 shows in outline profile reconstructions of the skulls of some of the fossil types as compared with the short-headed type of Europe. -Palæontological discoveries are thus coming to support the evidences of -man's evolution derived from embryology and archæology. While we must +Palæontological discoveries are thus coming to support the evidences of +man's evolution derived from embryology and archæology. While we must admit that the geological evidences are at present fragmentary, there is, nevertheless, reasonable ground for the expectation that they will be extended by more systematic explorations of caverns and deposits of @@ -10231,7 +10203,7 @@ of descent is the most progressive step that has been taken in the development of human knowledge," and says that this position "is justified, it seems to me, even by this fact alone: that the evolution idea is not merely a new light on the special region of biological -sciences, zoölogy and botany, but is of quite general importance. The +sciences, zoölogy and botany, but is of quite general importance. The conception of an evolution of life upon the earth reaches far beyond the bounds of any single science, and influences our whole realm of thought. It means nothing less than the elimination of the miraculous @@ -10332,8 +10304,8 @@ encouragement and proper recognition by his contemporaries. His life was rendered more bearable, however, even after he was overtaken by complete blindness, by the intellectual atmosphere that he created for himself, and by the superb confidence and affection of his devoted -daughter Cornélie, who sustained him and made the truthful prediction -that he would be recognized by posterity ("_La postérité vous +daughter Cornélie, who sustained him and made the truthful prediction +that he would be recognized by posterity ("_La postérité vous honorera_"). His Family.--He came of a military family possessing some claims to @@ -10347,7 +10319,7 @@ selected by his father, although against the lad's own wish, for the clerical profession, and accordingly was placed in the college of the Jesuits at Amiens. He did not, however, develop a taste for theological studies, and after the death of his father in 1760 "nothing could -induce the incipient abbé, then seventeen years of age, longer to wear +induce the incipient abbé, then seventeen years of age, longer to wear his bands." His ancestry asserted itself, and he forsook the college to follow @@ -10418,7 +10390,7 @@ years. From Thornton's _British Plants_, 1805.] -Lamarck Changes from Botany to Zoölogy.--Until 1794, when he was fifty +Lamarck Changes from Botany to Zoölogy.--Until 1794, when he was fifty years of age, Lamarck was devoted to botany, but on being urged, after the reorganization of the _Jardin du Roi_, to take charge of the department of invertebrates, he finally consented and changed from the @@ -10427,7 +10399,7 @@ in shaping his ideas. He found the invertebrates in great confusion, and set about to bring order out of chaos, an undertaking in which, to his credit be it acknowledged, he succeeded. The fruit of his labors, the Natural History of Invertebrated Animals (_Historie naturelle des -Animaux sans Vertèbres_, 1815-1822), became a work of great importance. +Animaux sans Vertèbres_, 1815-1822), became a work of great importance. He took hold of this work, it should be remembered, as an expert observer, trained to rigid analysis by his previous critical studies in botany. In the progress of the work he was impressed with the @@ -10460,7 +10432,7 @@ a part in its better development. Finally, he came to believe that the agencies indicated above were the factors of the evolution of life. His Theory of Evolution.--All that Lamarck had written before he -changed from botany to zoölogy (1794) indicates his belief in the +changed from botany to zoölogy (1794) indicates his belief in the fixity of species, which was the prevailing notion among naturalists of the period. Then, in 1800, we find him apparently all at once expressing a contrary opinion, and an opinion to which he held @@ -10477,8 +10449,8 @@ As Packard, one of his recent biographers, points out, the first expression of his new views of which we have any record occurred in the spring of 1800, on the occasion of his opening lecture to his course on the invertebrates. This avowal of belief in the extensive alteration -of species was published in 1801 as the preface to his _Système des -Animaux sans Vertèbres_. Here also he foreshadowed his theory of +of species was published in 1801 as the preface to his _Système des +Animaux sans Vertèbres_. Here also he foreshadowed his theory of evolution, saying that nature, having formed the simplest organisms, "then with the aid of much time and favorable circumstances ... formed all the others." It has been generally believed that Lamarck's first @@ -10585,7 +10557,7 @@ developed and strengthened by use, become diversified by the new habits maintained for long ages, and by slow degrees the structure, the consistence--in a word, the nature, the condition of the parts and of the organs consequently participating in all these influences, became -preserved and were propagated by heredity (génération)." (Packard's +preserved and were propagated by heredity (génération)." (Packard's translation.) Salient Points.--The salient points in Lamarck's theory may be @@ -10629,7 +10601,7 @@ incidentally corrected several erroneous conception. Neo-Lamarckism.--The ideas of Lamarck regarding the beginning of variations have been revived and accorded much respect under the designation of Neo-Lamarckism. The revival of Lamarckism is especially -owing to the palæontological investigations of Cope and Hyatt. The work +owing to the palæontological investigations of Cope and Hyatt. The work of E.D. Cope in particular led him to attach importance to the effect of mechanical and other external causes in producing variation, and he points out many instances of use-inheritance. Neo-Lamarckism has a @@ -10990,7 +10962,7 @@ THEORIES OF EVOLUTION CONTINUED: WEISMANN, DE VRIES Weismann's views have passed through various stages of remodeling since his first public championship of the Theory of Descent on assuming, -in 1867, the position of professor of zoölogy in the University of +in 1867, the position of professor of zoölogy in the University of Freiburg. Some time after that date he originated his now famous theory of heredity, which has been retouched, from time to time, as the result of aggressive criticism from others, and the expansion of his own @@ -11199,7 +11171,7 @@ think first of applying the test of experiment to supposed cases of such inheritances, and this is the best ground to proceed on. It has been maintained on the basis of the classical experiments of -Brown-Séquard on guinea-pigs that induced epilepsy is transmitted +Brown-Séquard on guinea-pigs that induced epilepsy is transmitted to offspring; and, also, on the basis of general observations, that certain bodily mutilations are inherited. Weismann's analysis of the whole situation is very incisive. He experimented by cutting off the @@ -11243,14 +11215,14 @@ Permission of Charles Scribner's Sons.] Weismann, the Man.--The man who for more than forty years has been elaborating this theory (Fig. 114) is still living and actively at work in the University of Freiburg. August Weismann was born at -Frankfort-on-the-Main in 1834. He was graduated at Göttingen in 1856, +Frankfort-on-the-Main in 1834. He was graduated at Göttingen in 1856, and for a short time thereafter engaged in the practice of medicine. This line of activity did not, however, satisfy his nature, and he turned to the pursuit of microscopic investigations in embryology and morphology, being encouraged in this work by Leuckart, whose name we have already met in this history. In 1863 he settled in Freiburg as _privat-docent_, and has remained connected with the university ever -since. From 1867 onward he has occupied the chair of zoölogy in that +since. From 1867 onward he has occupied the chair of zoölogy in that institution. He has made his department famous, especially by his lectures on the theory of descent. @@ -11278,7 +11250,7 @@ theories with which his name is connected." In a short autobiography published in _The Lamp_ in 1903, although written several years earlier, he gives a glimpse of his family life. "During the ten years (1864-1874) of my enforced inactivity and rest -occurred my marriage with Fräulein Marie Gruber, who became the mother +occurred my marriage with Fräulein Marie Gruber, who became the mother of my children and was my true companion for twenty years, until her death. Of her now I think only with love and gratitude. She was the one who, more than any one else, helped me through the gloom of @@ -11339,7 +11311,7 @@ of evolution; the tendency is not for the breach between the different theories to be widened, but for evolutionists to realize more fully the great complexity of the process they are trying to explain, and to see that no single factor can carry the burden of an explanation. -Mutation is not a substitute for natural selection, but a coöperating +Mutation is not a substitute for natural selection, but a coöperating factor; and neither mutation nor natural selection is a substitute for the doctrine of the continuity of the germ-plasm. Thus we may look forward to a reconciliation between apparently conflicting views, when @@ -11471,7 +11443,7 @@ interesting to determine what was the state of opinion just prior to the appearance of his writings. Studies of nature were in such shape at that time that the question of the origin of species arose, and thereafter it would not recede. This was owing mainly to the fact that -Ray and Linnæus by defining a species had fixed the attention of +Ray and Linnæus by defining a species had fixed the attention of naturalists upon the distinguishing features of the particular kinds of animals and plants. Are species realities in nature? The consideration of this apparently simple question soon led to divergent views, and @@ -11624,7 +11596,7 @@ time." (Packard.) [Illustration: Fig. 117.--Erasmus Darwin, 1731-1802.] Erasmus Darwin (Fig. 117) was the greatest of Lamarck's predecessors. -In 1794 he published the _Zoönomia_. In this work he stated ten +In 1794 he published the _Zoönomia_. In this work he stated ten principles; among them he vaguely suggested the transmission of acquired characteristics, the law of sexual selection--or the law of battle, as he called it--protective coloration, etc. His work @@ -11675,7 +11647,7 @@ speculation; but Cuvier's influence must be looked upon as the chief one in causing disregard for Lamarck's writings. The work of Cuvier has been already considered in connection both with -comparative anatomy and zoölogy, but a few points must still be held +comparative anatomy and zoölogy, but a few points must still be held under consideration. Cuvier brought forward the idea of catastrophism in order to explain the disappearance of the groups of fossil animals. He believed in the doctrine of spontaneous generation. He held to the @@ -11810,14 +11782,14 @@ from the field and publish the essay of Wallace without saying anything about his own work. He decided, however, to abide by the decision of two of his friends, to whom he had submitted the matter, and the result was that the paper of Wallace, accompanied by earlier communications of -Darwin, were laid before the Linnæan Society of London. This was such +Darwin, were laid before the Linnæan Society of London. This was such an important event in the history of science that its consideration is extended by quoting the following letter: "London, June 30th, 1858. "My Dear Sir: The accompanying papers, which we have the honor of - communicating to the Linnæan Society, and which all relate to the same + communicating to the Linnæan Society, and which all relate to the same subject; _viz_., the laws which affect the production of varieties, races, and species, contain the results of the investigations of two indefatigable naturalists, Mr. Charles Darwin and Mr. Alfred Wallace. @@ -11831,7 +11803,7 @@ extended by quoting the following letter: urged by us to do so, and both authors having now unreservedly placed their papers in our hands, we think it would best promote the interests of science that a selection from them should be laid before - the Linnæan Society. + the Linnæan Society. "Taken in the order of their dates, they consist of: @@ -11867,7 +11839,7 @@ extended by quoting the following letter: "On representing this to Mr. Darwin, he gave us permission to make what use we thought proper of his memoir, etc.; and in adopting our - present course, of presenting it to the Linnæan Society, we have + present course, of presenting it to the Linnæan Society, we have explained to him that we are not solely considering the relative claims to priority of himself and his friend, but the interests of science generally; for we feel it to be desirable that views founded @@ -12039,7 +12011,7 @@ into one of 230 pages." And Wallace gives this account: "In February, 1858, I was suffering from a rather severe attack of intermittent fever at Ternate, in the Moluccas; and one day, while lying on my bed during the cold fit, -wrapped in blankets, though the thermometer was at 88° Fahr., the +wrapped in blankets, though the thermometer was at 88° Fahr., the problem again presented itself to me, and something led me to think of the 'positive checks' described by Malthus in his _Essay on Population_, a work I had read several years before, and which had @@ -12068,7 +12040,7 @@ intellectual world as the _Origin of Species_. This skeleton outline should be filled out by reading _Darwin's Life and Letters_, by his son, and the complete papers of Darwin -and Wallace, as originally published in the _Journal of the Linnæan +and Wallace, as originally published in the _Journal of the Linnæan Society_. The original papers are reproduced in the _Popular Science Monthly_ for November, 1901. @@ -12111,10 +12083,10 @@ of science. His other writings of a more general character have been collected in fourteen quarto volumes. Some of the essays in this collection are models of clear and vigorous English style. Mr. Huxley did an astonishing amount of scientific work, especially in -morphology and palæontology. Those who have been privileged to look +morphology and palæontology. Those who have been privileged to look over his manuscripts and unpublished drawings in his old room at South Kensington could not fail to have been impressed, not only with the -extent, but also with the accuracy of his work. Taking Johannes Müller +extent, but also with the accuracy of his work. Taking Johannes Müller as his exemplar, he investigated animal organisms with a completeness and an exactness that have rarely been equaled. @@ -12137,7 +12109,7 @@ writer. There can be no doubt that the germs of evolutionary thought existed in Greek philosophy, and that they were retained in a state of low -vitality among the mediæval thinkers who reflected upon the problem of +vitality among the mediæval thinkers who reflected upon the problem of creation. It was not, however, until the beginning of the nineteenth century that, under the nurture of Lamarck, they grew into what we may speak of as the modern theory of evolution. After various vicissitudes @@ -12215,25 +12187,25 @@ Sanguinis_ (1628), laid the foundations of scientific method in biology. The pioneer researches of Malpighi on the minute anatomy of plants and animals, and on the development of the chick, best represent -the progress of investigation between Harvey and Linnæus. The three +the progress of investigation between Harvey and Linnæus. The three contributions referred to are those on the _Anatomy of Plants_ (_Anatome Plantarum_, 1675-1679); on the _Anatomy of the Silkworm_ (_De Bombyce_, 1669); and on the _Development of the Chick_ (_De Formatione Pulli in Ovo_ and _De Ovo Incubato_, both 1672). -We then pass to the _Systema Naturæ_ (twelve editions, 1735-1768) of -Linnæus, a work that had such wide influence in stimulating activity in -systematic botany and zoölogy. +We then pass to the _Systema Naturæ_ (twelve editions, 1735-1768) of +Linnæus, a work that had such wide influence in stimulating activity in +systematic botany and zoölogy. Wolff's _Theoria Generationis_, 1759, and his _De Formatione Intestinorum_, 1764, especially the latter, were pieces of observation marking the highest level of investigation of development prior to that of Pander and Von Baer. -Cuvier, in _Le Règne Animal_, 1816, applied the principles of +Cuvier, in _Le Règne Animal_, 1816, applied the principles of comparative anatomy to the entire animal kingdom. -The publication in 1800 of Bichat's _Traité des Membranes_ created a +The publication in 1800 of Bichat's _Traité des Membranes_ created a new department of anatomy, called histology. Lamarck's book, _La Philosophie Zoologique_, 1809, must have a place @@ -12247,10 +12219,10 @@ combination of observation and conclusion in embryology. The _Microscopische Untersuchungen_, 1839, of Schwann marks the foundation of the cell-theory. -The _Handbook_ of Johannes Müller (_Handbuch der Physiologie des +The _Handbook_ of Johannes Müller (_Handbuch der Physiologie des Menschen_), 1846, remains unsurpassed as to its plan and its execution. -Max Schultze in his treatise _Ueber Muskelkörperchen und das was man +Max Schultze in his treatise _Ueber Muskelkörperchen und das was man eine Zelle zu nennen habe_, 1861, established one of the most important conceptions with which biology has been enriched, viz., the protoplasm doctrine. @@ -12266,7 +12238,7 @@ to mankind. It is somewhat puzzling to select a man to represent the study of fossil life, one is tempted to name E.D. Cope, whose researches were conceived on the highest plane. Zittel, however, covered the entire -field of fossil life, and his _Handbook of Palæontology_ is designated +field of fossil life, and his _Handbook of Palæontology_ is designated as a mile-post in the development of that science. Before the Renaissance the works of Aristotle and Galen should be @@ -12274,7 +12246,7 @@ included. From the view-point suggested, the more notable figures in the development of biology are: Aristotle, Galen, Vesalius, Harvey, -Malpighi, Linnæus, Wolff, Cuvier, Bichat, Lamarck, Von Baer, J. Müller, +Malpighi, Linnæus, Wolff, Cuvier, Bichat, Lamarck, Von Baer, J. Müller, Schwann, Schultze, Darwin, Pasteur, and Cope. Such a list is, as a matter of course, arbitrary, and can serve no @@ -12405,7 +12377,7 @@ dissolving harmless chemical salts in the sea-water, and observing the changes produced by the alterations of the surrounding conditions. By this means Herbst and others have produced very interesting results. -In the field of artificial fertilization, free swimming larvæ have +In the field of artificial fertilization, free swimming larvæ have been raised from eggs artificially fertilized by changes in osmotic pressure, and also by treating them with both organic and inorganic acids; and these studies have greatly altered opinion regarding the @@ -12540,12 +12512,12 @@ a purely commercial basis, and the result is that some of our best periodicals require financial assistance in order to exist at all. The subsidizing and support of these periodicals aid materially in the biological advance. A typical technical periodical is Schultze's famous -_Archiv für Mikroscopische Anatomie_, founded in 1864 by Schultze and +_Archiv für Mikroscopische Anatomie_, founded in 1864 by Schultze and continued to the present time. Into its pages go the highest grade of investigations, and its continued existence has a salutary influence upon the progress of biology. The list of technical periodicals would be too long to name, but among others the _Morphologisches Jahrbuch_ -of Gegenbaur, and Koelliker's _Zeitschrift für Wissenschaftliche +of Gegenbaur, and Koelliker's _Zeitschrift für Wissenschaftliche Zoologie_ have had wide influence. In England the _Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science_ is devoted to morphological investigations, while physiology is provided for in other journals, as it is also in @@ -12558,7 +12530,7 @@ of which Americans can be justly proud. The _American Journal of Anatomy_ is now filling the field left unoccupied by the cessation of the _Journal of Morphology_.[9] In the department of experimental work many journals have sprung up, as _Biometrica_, edited by Carl Pearson, -Roux's _Archiv für Entwicklungsmechanik_, the _Journal of Experimental +Roux's _Archiv für Entwicklungsmechanik_, the _Journal of Experimental Zoology_ recently established in the United States, etc., etc. Exploration of the Fossil Records.--Explorations of the fossil records @@ -12568,7 +12540,7 @@ great importance. The American Museum of Natural History, in New York City, has carried on an extensive survey, which has enriched it with wonderful collections of fossil animals. Besides explorations of the fossil-bearing rocks of the Western States and Territories, operations -in another locality of great importance are conducted in the Fayûm +in another locality of great importance are conducted in the Fayûm district of Egypt. The result of the studies of these fossil animals is to make us acquainted not only with the forms of ancient life, but with the actual line of ancestry of many living animals. The advances in @@ -12651,7 +12623,7 @@ the original documents. Geddes. A Synthetic Outline of the History of Biology. _Proc. Roy. Soc. Edinb._, 1885-1886. Good. -Richardson. Disciples of Æsculapius, 2 vols., 1901. Collected papers +Richardson. Disciples of Æsculapius, 2 vols., 1901. Collected papers from _The Asclepiad_. Sympathetic accounts of Vesalius, Malpighi, J. Hunter, and others. Good illustrations. @@ -12666,7 +12638,7 @@ Smithson. Inst._, 1900. Buckle. History of Civilization, vol. I, second edition, 1870. -Macgilivray. Lives of Eminent Zoölogists from Aristotle to Linnæus. +Macgilivray. Lives of Eminent Zoölogists from Aristotle to Linnæus. Merz. A History of European Thought in the Nineteenth Century, vol. II, Scientific Thought, 1903. @@ -12676,13 +12648,13 @@ biology. Hoefer. Histoire de la Zoologie, 1873. Not very good. -Encyclopædia Britannica. Among the more excellent articles are: Biology +Encyclopædia Britannica. Among the more excellent articles are: Biology by Huxley; Protoplasm by Geddes; History of Anatomy by Turner. -Chambers's Encyclopædia. New Edition. Discerning articles by Thomson on +Chambers's Encyclopædia. New Edition. Discerning articles by Thomson on the Cell-theory, by Geddes on Biology, Evolution. -Nouvelle Biographie Générale. Good articles on the older writers. Often +Nouvelle Biographie Générale. Good articles on the older writers. Often unreliable as to dates. Haeckel. The historical chapters in The Evolution of Man, 1892, and @@ -12690,10 +12662,10 @@ Anthropogenie, fifth edition, 1903. Good. Haeckel. The History of Creation, vol. I, 1884. -Hertwig. The General Survey of the History of Zoölogy in his Manual of -Zoölogy, 1902. Brief but excellent. +Hertwig. The General Survey of the History of Zoölogy in his Manual of +Zoölogy, 1902. Brief but excellent. -Parker and Haswell. Text-book of Zoölogy, 1897. Historical chapter in +Parker and Haswell. Text-book of Zoölogy, 1897. Historical chapter in vol. II. Nicholson. Natural History, its Rise and Progress in Britain, 1886. @@ -12715,7 +12687,7 @@ Janus. A Periodical devoted to the history of medicine and natural science, founded in 1896. Zoologische Annalen. Founded by Max Braun in 1904 in the interests of -the history of zoölogy. +the history of zoölogy. Mitteilungen zur Geschichte der Medizin und Naturwissenschaften, founded 1901. @@ -12723,7 +12695,7 @@ founded 1901. Surgeon General's Library. The Catalogue should be consulted for its many biographical references to biologists. The Library is especially rich in historical documents, as old anatomies, physiologies, -zoölogies, etc. +zoölogies, etc. Evolution. The bibliography of Evolution is given below under the chapters dealing with the evolution theory. @@ -12750,7 +12722,7 @@ Vesalius: Roth, Andreas Vesalius Bruxellensis, the edition of 1892, the standard source of knowledge of Vesalius and his times, contains bibliography, references to his different portraits, the resurrection bone, etc., etc.; Foster (see General List), Lecture I, excellent; -Richardson in Disciples of Æsculapius, vol. I, contains pictures, +Richardson in Disciples of Æsculapius, vol. I, contains pictures, his signature, etc.; Pettigrew; White, vol. II, pp. 51-55; The Practitioner, 1896, vol. 56; The Asclepiad, 1885, vol. II; De Humani Corporis Fabrica, editions of 1543 and 1555; Opera Omnia, edited by @@ -12773,7 +12745,7 @@ Very interesting. CHAPTER IV -Hooke: Biography in encyclopædias, his microscope in Carpenter, The +Hooke: Biography in encyclopædias, his microscope in Carpenter, The Microscope and Its Revelations, 8th ed., 1900. Malpighi: Richardson, vol. II; Same article in _The Asclepiad_, vol. X, @@ -12784,32 +12756,32 @@ excellent; Locy, Malpighi, Swammerdam, and Leeuwenhoek, _Pop. Sci. Mo._, 1901--portrait and pictures from his works; MacCallum, _J. Hop. Univ. Hospit. Bull_. Malpighi's Writings: Opera Omnia, difficult to obtain, the Robt. Littlebury edition, Lond., 1687, contains posthumous -papers and biography; separate works not uncommon; Traité du Ver à +papers and biography; separate works not uncommon; Traité du Ver à Soie, Montpellier, 1878, contains his life and works. -Swammerdam: Life by Boerhaave in Biblia Naturæ, 1735; also Bibel +Swammerdam: Life by Boerhaave in Biblia Naturæ, 1735; also Bibel der Natur, 1752; also The Book of Nature, 1758; Von Baer, Johann Swammerdam's Leben und Verdienste um die Wissenschaft, 1864, in _Reden_, vol. I; Locy, _loc. cit._--portrait. Leeuwenhoek: New biographical facts in Richardson, vol. I, p. 108; same article in _The Asclepiad_, vol. II, 1885, portrait, signature, and -other illustrations; Arcana Naturæ; Selected works in English, 1758; +other illustrations; Arcana Naturæ; Selected works in English, 1758; Locy, _Pop. Sci. Mo._, April, 1901. CHAPTER V -Lyonet: _The Gentleman's Magazine_, LIX, 1789; the famous Traité -Anatomique, etc., 1750, 1752, not rare. Réaumur: Portrait and life in +Lyonet: _The Gentleman's Magazine_, LIX, 1789; the famous Traité +Anatomique, etc., 1750, 1752, not rare. Réaumur: Portrait and life in _Les Savants Modernes_, p. 332. Roesel: Portrait and biography in _Der monatlich herausgegebenen Insecten Belustigung_, part IV, 1761; Zeigler -in _Natur und Haus_, 1904--nine figs. Straus-Dürckheim: his monograph +in _Natur und Haus_, 1904--nine figs. Straus-Dürckheim: his monograph on Anatomy of the Cockchafer, rather rare. The Minute Anatomists: -Straus-Dürckheim, Dufour, Newport, Leidig, etc., in Miall and Denney's +Straus-Dürckheim, Dufour, Newport, Leidig, etc., in Miall and Denney's The Cockroach, 1886. -Discovery of the Protozoa: Leeuwenhoek, Müller, Ehrenberg, Dujardin, +Discovery of the Protozoa: Leeuwenhoek, Müller, Ehrenberg, Dujardin, etc., Kent's Manual of the Infusoria, vol. I. Ehrenberg: Life by Laue, 1895. @@ -12822,12 +12794,12 @@ Jardine's Naturalist's Library, vol. VI; Gesner's Historia Animalium, 1551-1585. Aldrovandi: Naturalist's Library, vol. III; Macgilivray, _loc. cit._ Jonston: Macgilivray. Ray: Macgilivray; Nicholson; Memorial of, in the Ray Society, 1846; Correspondence of, Ray Soc., 1848. -Linnæus: Macgilivray; _Janus_, vol. 8, 1903; Cuvier, _loc. cit._; +Linnæus: Macgilivray; _Janus_, vol. 8, 1903; Cuvier, _loc. cit._; Agassiz, Essay on Classification, 1859; Jubilee at Upsala, _Science_, -Apl. 26, 1907; Caddy, Through the Fields with Linnæus, 1887; The -Systema Naturæ, especially the tenth edition, 1758. Leuckart: Archives +Apl. 26, 1907; Caddy, Through the Fields with Linnæus, 1887; The +Systema Naturæ, especially the tenth edition, 1758. Leuckart: Archives de Parasit., vol. I, no. 2; _Nature_, 1898. General Biological Progress -from Linnæus to Darwin: Geddes, Proc. Roy. Soc. Edinb., vol. 13, +from Linnæus to Darwin: Geddes, Proc. Roy. Soc. Edinb., vol. 13, 1884-1886. @@ -12842,11 +12814,11 @@ illustrations in Richardson, _loc. cit._; Pettigrew, _loc. cit._ Vicq d'Azyr: Cuvier, _loc. cit._; Huxley in Life of Owen, p. 289; His works in 6 vols., 1805. Cuvier: Life by Flourens; Memoirs by Mrs. Lee, 1833; Buckle, Hist. Civ., vol. I, p. 633 et seq.; Lettres -de Geo. Cuvier à C.M. Paff, 1788-1792, translated from the German, -1858. Cuvier's numerous writings--The Animal Kingdom, Leçons d'Anat. -Comparée, etc.--are readily accessible. H. Milne-Edwards: Biographical +de Geo. Cuvier à C.M. Paff, 1788-1792, translated from the German, +1858. Cuvier's numerous writings--The Animal Kingdom, Leçons d'Anat. +Comparée, etc.--are readily accessible. H. Milne-Edwards: Biographical sketch in _Ann. Rept. Smithson. Inst_, for 1893. Lacaze-Duthiers: Life -with portraits in _Archives de Zool. Expériment._, vol. 10, 1902. +with portraits in _Archives de Zool. Expériment._, vol. 10, 1902. Richard Owen: Life and Letters, 2 vols., 1894; Clark, Old Friends at Cambridge and Elsewhere, p. 349 et seq. J. Fr. Meckel: Carus, _loc. cit._ Gegenbaur: Erlebtes und Erstrebtes, portrait, 1901; Anat. Anz., @@ -12865,12 +12837,12 @@ vol. 56, 1896. Koelliker: His Autobiography, Erinnerungen aus Meinem Leben, 1899, several portraits, interesting; Weldon, Life and Works in _Nature_, vol. 58, with fine portrait; Sterling, _Ann. Rept. Smithson. Inst._, 1905. Schultze: Portrait and Necrology by Schwalbe in _Archiv -für Mikroscop. Anat._, vol. 10, 1874; See further under chapter XII. +für Mikroscop. Anat._, vol. 10, 1874; See further under chapter XII. Virchow: _J. Hop. Univ. Circulars_, vol. XI, 1891, Celebration of Seventieth Birthday of Virchow, Addresses by Osler, Welch, and others; Jacobi, _Medical Record_, N.Y., vol. XX, 1881, good; Israel, in -_Ann. Rept. Smithson. Inst._, 1902. Leydig: Brief sketch in his Horæ -Zoologicæ, 1902. Ramon y Cajal: Portrait in Tenth Anniversary of Clark +_Ann. Rept. Smithson. Inst._, 1902. Leydig: Brief sketch in his Horæ +Zoologicæ, 1902. Ramon y Cajal: Portrait in Tenth Anniversary of Clark University, 1899. @@ -12883,13 +12855,13 @@ Galen's Physiology: Verworn. Harvey: See references under Chapter III; The analysis of his writings by Willis in The Works of Harvey, translated into English, Sydenham Soc., 1847; See also Dr. Moreton's facsimile reproduction of the first edition (1628) of De Motu Cordis -et Sanguinis, 1894. Haller: Fine portrait in his Elementa Physiologiæ, +et Sanguinis, 1894. Haller: Fine portrait in his Elementa Physiologiæ, 1758; English translations of the Elementa. Charles Bell: Pettigrew; Good summary in Foster's Life of Claude Bernard, p. 38 et seq. Johannes -Müller: His life, complete list of works, etc., in Gedächtnissrede -auf Johannes Müller by Du Bois-Reymond, 1860; _Eloge_ by Virchow in +Müller: His life, complete list of works, etc., in Gedächtnissrede +auf Johannes Müller by Du Bois-Reymond, 1860; _Eloge_ by Virchow in _Edinburgh Med. Journ._, vol. 4; Picture of his monument in Coblenz, -_Archiv f. Mik. Anat._, vol. 55; Briefe von J. Müller and Anders +_Archiv f. Mik. Anat._, vol. 55; Briefe von J. Müller and Anders Retzius (1830-1857), 1900; His famous Handbuch der Physiologie and English translations should be inspected. Ludwig: Burdon-Sanderson, Ludwig and Modern Physiology, _Sci. Progress_, vol. V, 1896; The same @@ -12915,7 +12887,7 @@ Theory of Evolution, also Evolution and Epigenesis, both in Woods Holl Biological Lectures, 1895. Von Baer: Leben und Schriften, his autobiography (1864), 2d edition, 1886; Life by Steida, 1886; Obituary, _Proc. Roy. Soc._, 1878; Waldeyer in _Allg. Wien. Med. Ztg._, 1877; -_Nature_, vol. 15; Life by Stölzle, 1897; Haeckel, _loc. cit._, vol. +_Nature_, vol. 15; Life by Stölzle, 1897; Haeckel, _loc. cit._, vol. I; Locy, V. Baer and the Rise of Embryology, _Pop. Sci. Mo._, 1905; Fine portrait as young man in _Harper's Mag_. for 1899; _Rev. Scient._, 1879. Kowalevsky: Lankester in _Nature_, vol. 66, 1902; Portrait and @@ -12936,11 +12908,11 @@ XIX, 1887; The Cell-Theory, Past and Present, Turner, _Nature_, vol. 43, 1890; The Cell-Doctrine, Burnett, _Trans. Am. Med. Assn._, vol. VI, 1853; First illustration of cells in Rob't Hooke's Micrographia, 1665, 1780, etc.; The Cell in Development and Inheritance, Wilson, -1896; Article Cell, in Chambers's (New) Cyclopædia, by Thomson. +1896; Article Cell, in Chambers's (New) Cyclopædia, by Thomson. Schleiden: Sketch of, _Pop. Sci. Mo._, vol. 22, 1882-1883; Sachs' Hist. of Botany 1890; Translation of his original paper of 1838 (Ueber Phytogenesis)--illustrations--Sydenham Soc., 1874. Schwann: Life, _Pop. -Sci. Mo._, vol. 37, 1900; Sa Vie et Ses Travaux, Frédéricq, 1884; +Sci. Mo._, vol. 37, 1900; Sa Vie et Ses Travaux, Frédéricq, 1884; Nachruf, Henle, _Archiv f. Mik. Anat._, vol. 21, 1882; Lankester, _Nature_, vol. XXV, 1882; _The Practitioner_, vol. 49, 1897; _The Catholic World_, vol. 71, 1900. Translation of his contribution of @@ -12957,10 +12929,10 @@ _Archives de Parasitol._, vol. 4, 1901; portrait of Dujardin hitherto unpublished. Dujardin's original description of Sarcode, _Ann. des Sci. Nat._ (_Botanique_), vol. 4, p. 367, 1835. Von Mohl: Sachs' History of Botany, 1890. Translation of his researches, Sydenham Soc., 1847. -Cohn: Blätter der Erinnerung, 1898, with portrait. Schultze: Necrology, +Cohn: Blätter der Erinnerung, 1898, with portrait. Schultze: Necrology, by Schwalbe in _Archiv f. Mik. Anat._, vol. 10, 1874, with portrait. Schultze's paper founding the protoplasm doctrine in _Archiv f. Anat. -und Phys._, 1861, entitled Ueber Muskelkörperchen und das was man eine +und Phys._, 1861, entitled Ueber Muskelkörperchen und das was man eine Zelle zu nennen habe. @@ -12977,9 +12949,9 @@ Redi's Esperienze Intorno Alla Generazione Degl'Insetti, 2 plates, first edition, 1668, in Florence, 40; reprinted at various dates, not uncommon. Spallanzani: Foster, Lects. on Physiol.; Huxley, _loc. cit._; Dunster, _loc. cit._; L'Abbato Spallanzani, by Pavesi, 1901, portrait. -Pouchet: His treatise of historical importance--Hétérogénie; ou Traité -de la Génération Spontanée, basé sur des Nouvelles Expériences, 1859. -Pasteur: Life by René Vallery-Radot, 2 vols., 1902; Percy and G. +Pouchet: His treatise of historical importance--Hétérogénie; ou Traité +de la Génération Spontanée, basé sur des Nouvelles Expériences, 1859. +Pasteur: Life by René Vallery-Radot, 2 vols., 1902; Percy and G. Frankland, 1901; Pasteur at Home, illustrated, Tarbell in _McClure's Mag._, vol. I, 1893; Also _McClure's_, vol. 19, 1902, review of Vallery-Radot's Life of Pasteur; _Nature_, vol. 52, 1895; _Les Savants @@ -13001,13 +12973,13 @@ The History and Theory of Heredity, J.A. Thomson, _Proc. Roy. Soc. Edinb._, vol. XVI, 1889; Chapter on Heredity in Thomson's Science of Life, 1899; also in his Study of Animal Life, 1892. Mendel: Mendel's Principles of Heredity, with translations of his original papers on -hybridization, Bateson, 1902; Mendel's Versuche über Pflanzenhybriden, +hybridization, Bateson, 1902; Mendel's Versuche über Pflanzenhybriden, two papers (1865 and 1869), edited by Tschermak, 1901; _Ann. Rept. Smithson. Inst._, 1901-1902; _Pop. Sci. Mo._, vol. 62, 1903; vol. 63, 1904; _Science_, vol. 23, 1903. Galton: _Pop. Sci. Mo._, vol. 29, 1886; _Nature_, vol. 70, 1907; Galton's Natural Inheritance, 1889. Weismann: Brief Autobiography, with portrait, in _The Lamp_, vol. 26, -1903; Solomonsen, Bericht über die Feier des 70 Geburtstages von August +1903; Solomonsen, Bericht über die Feier des 70 Geburtstages von August Weismann, 1904; Weismann's The Germ-Plasm, 1893, and The Evolution Theory, 1904. @@ -13030,7 +13002,7 @@ VII, for further references. Marsh: _Pop. Sci. Mo._, vol. 13, 1878; Sketches of, _Nature_, vol. 59, 1898-99; _Science_, vol. 9, 1899; _Am. J. Sci._, vol. 157, 1899. Zittel: Biographical Sketch with portrait, Schuchert, _Ann. Rept. Smithson. Inst._, 1903-1904. Osborn, Papers -on Paleontological Discovery in Science from 1899 onward. The Fayûm +on Paleontological Discovery in Science from 1899 onward. The Fayûm Expedition of the Am. Museum of Nat. History, _Science_, March 29, 1907. * * * * * @@ -13085,7 +13057,7 @@ with Translations of his Writings on Organic Evolution, 1901; Lamarck's Philosophie Zoologique, 1809. Recherches sur l'Organisation des corps vivans, 1802, contains an early, not however the first statement of Lamarck's views. For the first published account of Lamarck's theory -see the introduction to his Système des Animaux sans Vertèbres, +see the introduction to his Système des Animaux sans Vertèbres, 1801. Neo-Lamarckism: Packard, _loc. cit._; also in the Introduction to the Standard Natural History, 1885; Spencer, The Principles of Biology, 1866--based on the Lamarckian principle. Cope, The Origin of @@ -13117,7 +13089,7 @@ theory. The Germ-Plasm, 1893; Romanes's An Examination of Weismannism, 1893. Inheritance of Acquired Characters: Weismann's discussion, _loc. cit._, vol. II, very good. Romanes's Darwin and After Darwin, vol. II. Personality of Weismann: Sketch and brief autobiography, in _The Lamp_, -vol. 26, 1903, portrait; Solomonsen, Bericht über die Feier des 70 +vol. 26, 1903, portrait; Solomonsen, Bericht über die Feier des 70 Geburtstages von August Weismann, 1905, 2 portraits. Mutation-Theory of De Vries: Die Mutations-Theorie, 1901; Species @@ -13143,7 +13115,7 @@ Elements of Physiophilosophy, Ray Soc., 1847. Cuvier and St. Hilaire: Perrier, La Philosophie Zoologique avant Darwin, 1884; Osborn, _loc. cit._ Darwin and Wallace: The original communications of Darwin and Wallace, with a letter of transmissal signed by Hooker and Lyell, -published in the _Trans. Linnæan Soc._ for 1858, were reprinted in the +published in the _Trans. Linnæan Soc._ for 1858, were reprinted in the _Pop. Sci. Mo._, vol. 60, 1901. Darwin: Personality and biography (For references to his theory see under Chapter XVII); Life and letters by his son, 3 vols., 1887, new ed., 1896; More Letters of Charles Darwin, @@ -13154,7 +13126,7 @@ and the Theory of Natural Selection, 1896. Wallace: My Life, 2 vols., 1905; The Critic, Oct., 1905. Huxley: Life and Letters by his son, 1901; Numerous sketches at the time of his death, 1895, in _Nature_, _Nineteenth Century_, _Pop. Sci. Mo._, etc., etc. Haeckel: His Life and -Work by Bölsche, 1906. +Work by Bölsche, 1906. CHAPTER XX @@ -13211,9 +13183,9 @@ INDEX Lyonet, 91; Malpighi, 63; Newport, 100; - Réaumur, 96; + Réaumur, 96; Roesel, 96; - Straus-Dürckheim, 96; + Straus-Dürckheim, 96; Swammerdam, 70, 73-77; minute, progress of, 89-104; of plants, Grew, 56; @@ -13227,7 +13199,7 @@ INDEX Aquinas, St. Thomas, on creation, 409 - Arcana Naturæ, of Leeuwenhoek, 78 + Arcana Naturæ, of Leeuwenhoek, 78 Aristotle, 9-15; books of, 13; @@ -13288,7 +13260,7 @@ INDEX personality, 191; portrait, 191 - Biblia Naturæ of Swammerdam, 73 + Biblia Naturæ of Swammerdam, 73 Bichat, and the birth of histology, 166-178; Buckle's estimate of, 166, 167; @@ -13301,7 +13273,7 @@ INDEX writings, 170; successes of, 170 - Binomial nomenclature of Linnæus, 126 + Binomial nomenclature of Linnæus, 126 Biological facts, application of, 443 @@ -13315,7 +13287,7 @@ INDEX Biological progress, continuity of, 434; atmosphere engendered by, 448; - from Linnæus to Darwin, 138-140 + from Linnæus to Darwin, 138-140 Biology, defined, 4; domain of, 4, 5; @@ -13324,14 +13296,14 @@ INDEX applied, 443 Boerhaave, quoted, 71, 72; - and Linnæus, 122 + and Linnæus, 122 Bois-Reymond, Du, 189; portrait, 189 Bones, fossil, 322, 324 - Bonnet, and emboîtement, 208; + Bonnet, and emboîtement, 208; opposition to Wolff, 211; portrait, 212 @@ -13350,7 +13322,7 @@ INDEX C - Cæsalpinus, on the circulation, 50 + Cæsalpinus, on the circulation, 50 Cajal, Ramon y, 176; portrait, 176 @@ -13391,7 +13363,7 @@ INDEX Circulation of the blood, Harvey, 46, 47; Servetus, 50; Columbus, 50; - Cæsalpinus, 50; + Cæsalpinus, 50; in the capillaries, 84; Leeuwenhoek's sketch of, 83; Vesalius on, with illustration, 49 @@ -13409,7 +13381,7 @@ INDEX Cope, in comparative anatomy, 165; portrait, 336; - important work in palæontology, 337, 437 + important work in palæontology, 337, 437 Creation, Aquinas on, 409; St. Augustine on, 408; @@ -13424,7 +13396,7 @@ INDEX domestic life, 155; forerunners of, 143; founds comparative anatomy, 154; - founder of vertebrate palæontology, 325; + founder of vertebrate palæontology, 325; his four branches of the animal kingdom, 132; goes to Paris, 151; life at the seashore, 150; @@ -13456,7 +13428,7 @@ INDEX theory of pangenesis, 306; variation in nature, 382; the original drafts of his theory sent by Hooker and Lyell to the - Linnæan Society, 420-422; + Linnæan Society, 420-422; working hours, 426; summary of his theory, 405 @@ -13474,7 +13446,7 @@ INDEX portrait, 403; summary, 406 - Dufour, Léon, on insect anatomy, 100 + Dufour, Léon, on insect anatomy, 100 Dujardin, 250, 262; discovers sarcode, 250, 266; @@ -13503,7 +13475,7 @@ INDEX controversies regarding the factors, 346, 369; factors of, 368; effect on embryology, 225; - on palæontology, 332; + on palæontology, 332; nature of the question regarding, 348; a historical question, 348; the historical method in, 348; @@ -13559,7 +13531,7 @@ INDEX Fossils, arrangement in strata, 328; ascribed to the flood, 323; their comparison with living animals, 324; - from the Fayûm district, 341; + from the Fayûm district, 341; method of collecting, 340; nature of, 322; determination of, by Cuvier, 325; @@ -13686,7 +13658,7 @@ INDEX Huxley, in comparative anatomy, 161; influence on biology, 430; - in palæontology, 335; + in palæontology, 335; portrait, 430 @@ -13709,7 +13681,7 @@ INDEX illustration, 65; Newport, 100; Leydig, 102; - Straus-Dürckheim, 96; + Straus-Dürckheim, 96; Swammerdam, 70, 75; illustration, 76; theology of, 91 @@ -13744,13 +13716,13 @@ INDEX Lacaze-Duthiers, 158; portrait, 159 - Lamarck, changes from botany to zoölogy, 372; + Lamarck, changes from botany to zoölogy, 372; compared with Cuvier, 327; education, 371; first announcement of his evolutionary views, 375; forerunners of, 411; first use of a genealogical tree, 131; - founds invertebrate palæontology, 326; + founds invertebrate palæontology, 326; on heredity, 377; laws of evolution, 376; military experience, 370; @@ -13781,7 +13753,7 @@ INDEX Leibnitz, 208 - Leidy in palæontology, 337 + Leidy in palæontology, 337 Lesser's theology of insects, 91 @@ -13793,9 +13765,9 @@ INDEX in histology, 175; portrait, 175 - Linnæan system, reform of, 130-138 + Linnæan system, reform of, 130-138 - Linnæus, 118-130; + Linnæus, 118-130; binomial nomenclature, 127; his especial service, 126; features of his work, 127, 128; @@ -13804,10 +13776,10 @@ INDEX personal appearance, 125; personal history, 119; portrait, 124; - helped by his fiancée, 120; + helped by his fiancée, 120; return to Sweden, 123; and the rise of natural history, 100-130; - the Systema Naturæ, 121, 125, 127; + the Systema Naturæ, 121, 125, 127; professor in Upsala, 123; celebration of two hundredth anniversary of his birth, 124; as university lecturer, 123; @@ -13893,29 +13865,29 @@ INDEX Mohl, Von, 268; portrait, 269 - Müller, Fritz, 230; + Müller, Fritz, 230; O. Fr., 106 - Müller, Johannes, as anatomist, 163; + Müller, Johannes, as anatomist, 163; general influence, 185; influence on physiology, 185; as a teacher, 185; his period in physiology, 184; personality, 185; portrait, 187; - physiology after Müller, 188 + physiology after Müller, 188 N - Nägeli, portrait, 268 + Nägeli, portrait, 268 Naples, biological station at, 446; picture of, 445 Natural history, of Gesner, 112, 113, 114; of Ray, 115-118; - of Linnæus, 118-130; + of Linnæus, 118-130; sacred, 110; rise of scientific, 110-130 @@ -13970,13 +13942,13 @@ INDEX sweep of the doctrine of, 366 Osborn, quoted, 10, 364, 410; - in palæontology, 339 + in palæontology, 339 P - Palæontology, Cuvier founds vertebrate, 325; - of the Fayûm district, 341; + Palæontology, Cuvier founds vertebrate, 325; + of the Fayûm district, 341; Lamarck founder of invertebrate, 326; Agassiz, 332; Cope, 337; @@ -14016,9 +13988,9 @@ INDEX rise of, 179-194; period of Harvey, 180; of Haller, 181; - of J. Müller, 184; - great influence of Müller, 185; - after Müller, 188 + of J. Müller, 184; + great influence of Müller, 185; + after Müller, 188 Pithecanthropus erectus, 341, 360 @@ -14057,7 +14029,7 @@ INDEX portrait, 116; and species, 117 - Réaumur, 96; + Réaumur, 96; portrait, 98 Recapitulation theory, 230 @@ -14078,7 +14050,7 @@ INDEX Sarcode and protoplasm, 273, 275 - Scala Naturæ, 131 + Scala Naturæ, 131 Scale of being, 131 @@ -14124,7 +14096,7 @@ INDEX Special creation, theory of, 410 Species, Ray, 117; - Linnæus, 129; + Linnæus, 129; are they fixed in nature, 350; origin of, 350-364 @@ -14144,12 +14116,12 @@ INDEX Steno, on fossils, 322 - Straus-Dürckheim, his monograph, 96; + Straus-Dürckheim, his monograph, 96; illustrations from, 101 Suarez, and the theory of special creation, 410 - Swammerdam, his Biblia Naturæ, 73; + Swammerdam, his Biblia Naturæ, 73; illustrations from, 74, 76; early interest in natural history, 68; life and works, 67-77; @@ -14159,9 +14131,9 @@ INDEX portrait, 69; compared with Malpighi and Leeuwenhoek, 87 - System, Linnæan, reform of, 130-138 + System, Linnæan, reform of, 130-138 - Systema Naturæ, of Linnæus, 121, 127 + Systema Naturæ, of Linnæus, 121, 127 T @@ -14249,7 +14221,7 @@ INDEX Z - Zittel, in palæontology, 338; + Zittel, in palæontology, 338; portrait, 339 @@ -14455,7 +14427,7 @@ contemplation of Nature is constantly arousing in the mind of the unscientific intelligent person. But a collateral object will be to give some intelligent notion of the "causes of things." -While the coöperation of foreign scholars will not be declined, the +While the coöperation of foreign scholars will not be declined, the books will be under the guarantee of American experts, and generally from the American point of view; and where material crowds space, preference will be given to American facts over others of not more than @@ -14470,7 +14442,7 @@ This division will consist of two sections. Section A. A large popular Natural History in several volumes, with the topics treated in due proportion, by authors of unquestioned authority. -8vo. 7-1/2 × 10-1/4 in. +8vo. 7-1/2 × 10-1/4 in. The books so far publisht in this section are: @@ -14507,7 +14479,7 @@ Size not yet determined. II. CLASSIFICATION OF NATURE Section A. Realms of Nature. Detailed treatment of various departments -in a literary and popular way. 8vo. 7-1/2 × 10-1/4 in. +in a literary and popular way. 8vo. 7-1/2 × 10-1/4 in. Already publisht: @@ -14516,7 +14488,7 @@ Already publisht: Section B. Identification Books-- -1. Library Series, very full descriptions. 8vo. 7-1/2 × 10-1/4 in. +1. Library Series, very full descriptions. 8vo. 7-1/2 × 10-1/4 in. Already publisht: @@ -14530,7 +14502,7 @@ III. FUNCTIONS OF NATURE These books will treat of the relation of facts to causes and effects--of heredity in organic Nature, and of the environment in all -Nature. 8vo. 6-5/8 × 9-7/8 in. +Nature. 8vo. 6-5/8 × 9-7/8 in. Already publisht: @@ -14579,7 +14551,7 @@ V. DIVERSIONS FROM NATURE This division will include a wide range of writings not rigidly systematic or formal, but written only by authorities of standing. -Large 12mo. 5-1/4 × 8-1/8 in. +Large 12mo. 5-1/4 × 8-1/8 in. FISH STORIES, by David Starr Jordan and Charles F. Holder. HORSE TALK, by William H. Brewer. @@ -14592,7 +14564,7 @@ VI. THE PHILOSOPHY OF NATURE A Series of volumes by President Jordan, of Stanford University, and Professors Brooks of Johns Hopkins, Lull of Yale, Thomson of Aberdeen, Przibram of Austria, zur Strassen of Germany, and others. Edited by -Professor Kellogg of Leland Stanford. 12mo. 5-1/8 × 7-1/2 in. +Professor Kellogg of Leland Stanford. 12mo. 5-1/8 × 7-1/2 in. HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY, New York @@ -14605,365 +14577,4 @@ Professor Kellogg of Leland Stanford. 12mo. 5-1/8 × 7-1/2 in. End of Project Gutenberg's Biology and its Makers, by William A. 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