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diff --git a/58810-8.txt b/58810-0.txt index 1f5d86a..09a9b1d 100644 --- a/58810-8.txt +++ b/58810-0.txt @@ -1,38 +1,4 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Heavens Above, by J. A. (Joseph Anthony) -Gillet and W. J. (William James) Rolfe - - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - - - - -Title: The Heavens Above - A Popular Handbook of Astronomy - - -Author: J. A. (Joseph Anthony) Gillet and W. J. (William James) Rolfe - - - -Release Date: February 2, 2019 [eBook #58810] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - - -***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE HEAVENS ABOVE*** - - -E-text prepared by Colin Bell, Brenda Lewis, David King, and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net) from page images -generously made available by Internet Archive (https://archive.org) +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 58810 *** @@ -134,7 +100,7 @@ from the photographs in Carpenter and Nasmyth's work on the moon. The majority of the cuts illustrating the solar system are copied from the French edition of Guillemin's "Heavens." Most of the remainder are from Lockyer's "Solar Physics," Young's "Sun," and other recent authorities. -The cuts illustrating comets, meteors, and nebulæ, are nearly all taken +The cuts illustrating comets, meteors, and nebulæ, are nearly all taken from the French editions of Guillemin's "Comets" and Guillemin's "Heavens." @@ -286,13 +252,13 @@ III. THE STELLAR UNIVERSE 322 Chemical and Physical Constitution of the Stars 371 - III. Nebulæ 373 + III. Nebulæ 373 - Classification of Nebulæ 373 + Classification of Nebulæ 373 - Irregular Nebulæ 376 + Irregular Nebulæ 376 - Spiral Nebulæ 384 + Spiral Nebulæ 384 The Nebular Hypothesis 391 @@ -325,7 +291,7 @@ A curve described about any point on the surface of a sphere, with a radius of uniform length, will be a circle. As the radius of a circle described on a sphere is a curved line, its length is usually denoted in degrees. The circle described on the surface of a sphere increases with -the length of the radius, until the radius becomes 90°, in which case +the length of the radius, until the radius becomes 90°, in which case the circle is the largest that can possibly be described on the sphere. The largest circles that can be described on the surface of a sphere are called _great circles_, and all other circles _small circles_. @@ -364,7 +330,7 @@ sphere. A great circle, MM', situated half way between the poles of a sphere, is called the _equator_ of the sphere. Every great circle of a sphere has two poles. These are the two points -on the surface of the sphere which lie 90° away from the circle. The +on the surface of the sphere which lie 90° away from the circle. The poles of a sphere are the poles of its equator. [Illustration: Fig. 2.] @@ -480,9 +446,9 @@ the zenith, and _SN_ the horizon. _NP_, the elevation of the pole, is equal to _ZE_, the distance of the zenith from the equinoctial, and to the distance of _O_ from the equator, or the latitude of the place. -Two angles, or two arcs, which together equal 90°, are said to be +Two angles, or two arcs, which together equal 90°, are said to be _complements_ of each other. _ZE_ and _ES_ in Fig. 12 are together equal -to 90°: hence they are complements of each other. _ZE_ is equal to the +to 90°: hence they are complements of each other. _ZE_ is equal to the latitude of the place, and _ES_ is the _elevation_ of the equinoctial above the horizon: hence the elevation of the equinoctial is equal to the complement of the latitude of the place. @@ -558,7 +524,7 @@ The vertical circle which passes through the north and south points of the horizon is called the _meridian_; and the one which passes through the east and west points, the _prime vertical_. These two circles are shown in Fig. 15; _SZN_ being the meridian, and _EZW_ the prime -vertical. These two circles are at right angles to each other, or 90° +vertical. These two circles are at right angles to each other, or 90° apart; and consequently they divide the horizon into four quadrants. [Illustration: Fig. 15.] @@ -575,7 +541,7 @@ from the meridian. When a heavenly body lies north of the prime vertical, its azimuth is measured from the meridian on the north; and, when it lies south of the prime vertical, its azimuth is measured from the meridian on the south. The azimuth of a body can, therefore, never -exceed 90°. The azimuth of a body is the angle which the plane of the +exceed 90°. The azimuth of a body is the angle which the plane of the vertical circle passing through it makes with that of the meridian. The _amplitude_ of a body is its distance measured north or south from @@ -665,7 +631,7 @@ the first point of Aries, measured from the equinoctial colure. It is equal to the arc of the celestial equator included between the first point of Aries and the hour circle which passes through the heavenly body. As right ascension is measured eastward entirely around the -celestial sphere, it may have any value from 0° up to 360°. Right +celestial sphere, it may have any value from 0° up to 360°. Right ascension corresponds to longitude on the earth, and declination to latitude. @@ -704,10 +670,10 @@ adjusted as to mark 0 when the vernal equinox, or first point of Aries, is on the meridian. As the first point of Aries makes a complete circuit of the heavens in -twenty-four hours, it must move at the rate of 15° an hour, or of 1° in +twenty-four hours, it must move at the rate of 15° an hour, or of 1° in four minutes: hence, when the astronomical clock marks 1, the first -point of Aries must be 15° west of the meridian, and when it marks 2, -30° west of the meridian, etc. That is to say, by observing an accurate +point of Aries must be 15° west of the meridian, and when it marks 2, +30° west of the meridian, etc. That is to say, by observing an accurate astronomical clock, one can always tell how far the meridian at any time is from the first point of Aries. @@ -715,8 +681,8 @@ is from the first point of Aries. right ascension of a heavenly body, we have merely to ascertain the exact time, by the astronomical clock, at which the body crosses the meridian. If a star crosses the meridian at 1 hour 20 minutes by the -astronomical clock, its right ascension must be 19°; if at 20 hours, its -right ascension must be 300°. +astronomical clock, its right ascension must be 19°; if at 20 hours, its +right ascension must be 300°. To enable the observer to ascertain with great exactness the time at which a star crosses the meridian, a number of equidistant and parallel @@ -831,7 +797,7 @@ front-view plan is now entirely abandoned. _The Newtonian Reflector._--The plan proposed by Sir Isaac Newton was to place a small plane mirror just inside the focus, inclined to the -telescope at an angle of 45°, so as to throw the rays to the side of the +telescope at an angle of 45°, so as to throw the rays to the side of the tube, where they come to a focus, and form the image. An opening is made in the side of the tube, just below where the image is formed; and in this opening the eye-piece is inserted. The small mirror cuts off some @@ -930,15 +896,15 @@ an inappreciable distance from the sun towards the celestial sphere. [Illustration: Fig. 31.] 23. _The Obliquity of the Ecliptic._--The ecliptic is inclined to the -celestial equator by an angle of about 23-1/2°. This inclination is +celestial equator by an angle of about 23-1/2°. This inclination is called the _obliquity of the ecliptic_. The obliquity of the ecliptic is due to the deviation of the earth's axis from a perpendicular to the plane of its orbit. The axis of a rotating body tends to maintain the same direction; and, as the earth revolves around the sun, its axis points all the time in nearly the same direction. The earth's axis -deviates about 23-1/2° from the perpendicular to its orbit; and, as the +deviates about 23-1/2° from the perpendicular to its orbit; and, as the earth's equator is at right angles to its axis, it will deviate about -23-1/2° from the plane of the ecliptic. The celestial equator has the +23-1/2° from the plane of the ecliptic. The celestial equator has the same direction as the terrestrial equator, since the axis of the heavens has the same direction as the axis of the earth. @@ -981,15 +947,15 @@ above the horizon. But, as the ecliptic is oblique to the equator, it makes different angles with the celestial axis on different sides; and hence, at any place, the angle which the ecliptic makes with the horizon varies according to the part which is above the horizon. The two extreme -angles for a place more than 23-1/2° north of the equator are shown in +angles for a place more than 23-1/2° north of the equator are shown in Figs. 34 and 35. The least angle is formed when the vernal equinox is on the eastern horizon, the autumnal on the western horizon, and the winter solstice on the meridian, as in Fig. 34. The angle which the ecliptic then makes with the horizon is equal to the elevation of the equinoctial _minus_ -23-1/2°. In the latitude of New York this angle = 49° - 23-1/2° = -25-1/2°. +23-1/2°. In the latitude of New York this angle = 49° - 23-1/2° = +25-1/2°. [Illustration: Fig. 35.] @@ -997,8 +963,8 @@ The greatest angle is formed when the autumnal equinox is on the eastern horizon, the vernal on the western horizon, and the summer solstice is on the meridian (Fig. 35). The angle between the ecliptic and the horizon is then equal to the elevation of the equinoctial _plus_ -23-1/2°. In the latitude of New York this angle = 49° + 23-1/2° = -72-1/2°. +23-1/2°. In the latitude of New York this angle = 49° + 23-1/2° = +72-1/2°. Of course the equinoxes, the solstices, and all other points on the ecliptic, describe diurnal circles, like every other point in the @@ -1009,7 +975,7 @@ distance measured north or south from the ecliptic; and _celestial longitude_ is distance measured on the ecliptic eastward from the vernal equinox, or the first point of Aries. Great circles perpendicular to the ecliptic are called _celestial meridians_. These circles all pass -through the poles of the ecliptic, which are some 23-1/2° from the poles +through the poles of the ecliptic, which are some 23-1/2° from the poles of the equinoctial. The latitude of a heavenly body is measured by the arc of a celestial meridian included between the body and the ecliptic. The longitude of a heavenly body is measured by the arc of the ecliptic @@ -1029,7 +995,7 @@ gyratory motion, like the handle of a spinning-top which has begun to wabble a little. This gyratory motion causes the axis of the heavens to describe a cone in about twenty-six thousand years, and the pole of the heavens to describe a circle about the pole of the ecliptic in the same -time. The radius of this circle is 23-1/2°. +time. The radius of this circle is 23-1/2°. [Illustration: Fig. 36.] @@ -1665,8 +1631,8 @@ Fig. 69. rotation of the earth on its axis_, by which a place on the surface of the earth is carried alternately into the sunshine and out of it. As the sun moves around the heavens on the ecliptic, it will be on the -celestial equator when at the equinoxes, and 23-1/2° north of the -equator when at the summer solstice, and 23-1/2° south of the equator +celestial equator when at the equinoxes, and 23-1/2° north of the +equator when at the summer solstice, and 23-1/2° south of the equator when at the winter solstice. 60. _Day and Night when the Sun is at the Equinoxes._--When the sun is @@ -1692,16 +1658,16 @@ these times _day and night will be equal in every part of the earth_. will be in the sunshine and out of it just half of the time. 61. _Day and Night when the Sun is at the Summer Solstice._--When the -sun is at the summer solstice, it will be 23-1/2° north of the celestial -equator. The diurnal circle described by the sun will then be 23-1/2° +sun is at the summer solstice, it will be 23-1/2° north of the celestial +equator. The diurnal circle described by the sun will then be 23-1/2° north of the celestial equator; and more than half of this diurnal circle will be above the horizon at all places north of the equator, and less than half of it at places south of the equator: hence _the days will be longer than the nights at places north of the equator, and shorter than the nights at places south of the equator_. At places -within 23-1/2° of the north pole, the entire diurnal circle described by +within 23-1/2° of the north pole, the entire diurnal circle described by the sun will be above the horizon, so that the sun will not set. At -places within 23-1/2° of the south pole of the earth, the entire diurnal +places within 23-1/2° of the south pole of the earth, the entire diurnal circle will be below the horizon, so that the sun will not rise. [Illustration: Fig. 72.] @@ -1711,8 +1677,8 @@ circle will be below the horizon, so that the sun will not rise. The illumination of the earth at this time is shown in Figs. 72 and 73. In Fig. 72 the sun is represented as on the western horizon along the middle line of the figure, and in Fig. 73 as on the - meridian. It is seen at once that the illumination extends 23-1/2° - beyond the north pole, and falls 23-1/2° short of the south pole. As + meridian. It is seen at once that the illumination extends 23-1/2° + beyond the north pole, and falls 23-1/2° short of the south pole. As the earth rotates on its axis, places near the north pole will be in the sunshine all the time, while places near the south pole will be out of the sunshine all the time. All places north of the equator @@ -1721,16 +1687,16 @@ circle will be below the horizon, so that the sun will not rise. they are in it. 62. _Day and Night when the Sun is at the Winter Solstice._--When the -sun is at the winter solstice, it is 23-1/2° south of the celestial -equator. The diurnal circle described by the sun is then 23-1/2° south +sun is at the winter solstice, it is 23-1/2° south of the celestial +equator. The diurnal circle described by the sun is then 23-1/2° south of the celestial equator. More than half of this diurnal circle will therefore be above the horizon at all places south of the equator, and less than half of it at all places north of the equator: hence _the days will be longer than the nights south of the equator, and shorter than -the nights at places north of the equator_. At places within 23-1/2° of +the nights at places north of the equator_. At places within 23-1/2° of the south pole, the diurnal circle described by the sun will be entirely above the horizon, and the sun will therefore not set. At places within -23-1/2° of the north pole, the diurnal circle described by the sun will +23-1/2° of the north pole, the diurnal circle described by the sun will be wholly below the horizon, and therefore the sun will not rise. The illumination of the earth at this time is shown in Figs. 74 and @@ -1769,12 +1735,12 @@ described by it will be above the horizon, and half of them below it. 64. _The Zones._--It will be seen, from what has been stated above, that the sun will at some time during the year be directly overhead at every -place within 23-1/2° of the equator on either side. This belt of the +place within 23-1/2° of the equator on either side. This belt of the earth is called the _torrid zone_. The torrid zone is bounded by circles called the _tropics_; that of _Cancer_ on the north, and that of _Capricorn_ on the south. -It will also be seen, that, at every place within 23-1/2° of either +It will also be seen, that, at every place within 23-1/2° of either pole, there will be, some time during the year, a day during which the sun will not rise, or on which it will not set. These two belts of the earth's surface are called the _frigid zones_. These zones are bounded @@ -2271,7 +2237,7 @@ than the sidereal year. allowances for deficiencies and excesses. Twelve moons fell short of the true year, thirteen exceeded it; 365 days were not enough, 366 were too many. To prevent the confusion resulting from these errors, - Julius Cæsar reformed the calendar by making the year consist of 365 + Julius Cæsar reformed the calendar by making the year consist of 365 days, 6 hours (which is hence called a _Julian_ year), and made every fourth year consist of 366 days. This method of reckoning is called _Old Style_. @@ -2495,7 +2461,7 @@ of water), and this product by 5.6. 86. _Cause of Precession._--We have seen that the earth is flattened at the poles: in other words, the earth has the form of a sphere, with a protuberant ring around its equator. This equatorial ring is inclined to -the plane of the ecliptic at an angle of about 23-1/2°. In Fig. 100 this +the plane of the ecliptic at an angle of about 23-1/2°. In Fig. 100 this ring is represented as detached from the enclosed sphere. _S_ represents the sun, and _Sc_ the ecliptic. As the point _A_ of the ring is nearer the sun than the point _B_ is, the sun's pull upon _A_ is greater than @@ -2574,7 +2540,7 @@ forty thousand miles. at each point with that of the same fixed star near the body. The star is so distant, that it will be seen in the same direction from both points: hence, if the direction of the body differs from that - of the star 2° as seen from one point, and 2° 6' as seen from the + of the star 2° as seen from one point, and 2° 6' as seen from the other point, the two lines _AB_ and _DB_ must differ in direction by 6'; in other words, the angle _ABD_ would be 6'. @@ -2809,19 +2775,19 @@ _nodes_. The moon's nodes have a westward motion corresponding to that of the equinoxes, but much more rapid. They complete the circuit of the ecliptic in about nineteen years. -The moon's latitude ranges from 5° north to 5° south; and since, owing +The moon's latitude ranges from 5° north to 5° south; and since, owing to the motion of her nodes, the moon is, during a period of nineteen -years, 5° north and 5° south of every part of the ecliptic, her -declination will range from 23-1/2° + 5° = 28-1/2° north to 23-1/2° + 5° -= 28-1/2° south. +years, 5° north and 5° south of every part of the ecliptic, her +declination will range from 23-1/2° + 5° = 28-1/2° north to 23-1/2° + 5° += 28-1/2° south. 101. _The Meridian Altitude of the Moon._--The _meridian altitude_ of any body is its altitude when on the meridian. In our latitude, the meridian altitude of any point on the equinoctial is forty-nine degrees. -The meridian altitude of the summer solstice is 49° + 23-1/2° = 72-1/2°, -and that of the winter solstice is 49° - 23-1/2° = 25-1/2°. The greatest -meridian altitude of the moon is 72-1/2° + 5° = 77-1/2°, and its least -meridian altitude, 25-1/2° - 5° = 20-1/2°. +The meridian altitude of the summer solstice is 49° + 23-1/2° = 72-1/2°, +and that of the winter solstice is 49° - 23-1/2° = 25-1/2°. The greatest +meridian altitude of the moon is 72-1/2° + 5° = 77-1/2°, and its least +meridian altitude, 25-1/2° - 5° = 20-1/2°. When the moon's meridian altitude is greater than the elevation of the equinoctial, it is said to run _high_, and when less, to run _low_. The @@ -2842,14 +2808,14 @@ is always in the opposite part of the heavens to the sun. to the line joining the cusps. Now the ecliptic makes the least angle with the horizon when the vernal equinox is on the eastern horizon and the autumnal equinox is on the western. In our latitude, - as we have seen, this angle is 25-1/2°: hence in our latitude, if + as we have seen, this angle is 25-1/2°: hence in our latitude, if the moon were at new on the ecliptic when the sun is at the autumnal equinox, as shown at _M_{3}_ (Fig. 114), the great circle passing through the centre of the sun and moon would be the ecliptic, and at - New York would be inclined to the horizon at an angle of 25-1/2°. If - the moon happened to be 5° south of the ecliptic at this time, as at + New York would be inclined to the horizon at an angle of 25-1/2°. If + the moon happened to be 5° south of the ecliptic at this time, as at _M_{4}_, the great circle passing through the centre of the sun and - moon would make an angle of only 20-1/2° with the horizon. In either + moon would make an angle of only 20-1/2° with the horizon. In either of these cases the line joining the cusps would be nearly perpendicular to the horizon. @@ -2858,9 +2824,9 @@ is always in the opposite part of the heavens to the sun. If the moon were at new on the ecliptic when the sun is near the vernal equinox, as shown at _M_{1}_ (Fig. 115), the great circle passing through the centres of the sun and moon would make an angle - of 72-1/2° with the horizon at New York; and were the moon 5° north + of 72-1/2° with the horizon at New York; and were the moon 5° north of the ecliptic at that time, as shown at _M_{2}_, this great circle - would make an angle of 77-1/2° with the horizon. In either of these + would make an angle of 77-1/2° with the horizon. In either of these cases, the line joining the cusps would be nearly parallel with the horizon. @@ -3603,8 +3569,8 @@ the earth, which has in the mean time passed on in its orbit to _E'_. While the earth is passing from _E_ to _E'_, the planet passes entirely around its orbit, and from _P_ to _P'_ in addition. Now the arc _PP'_ is just equal to the arc _EE'_: hence the planet has to pass over the same -arc that the earth does, and 360° more. In other words, the planet has -to gain 360° on the earth. +arc that the earth does, and 360° more. In other words, the planet has +to gain 360° on the earth. The synodical period of the planet is found by direct observation. @@ -3615,12 +3581,12 @@ The synodical period of the planet is found by direct observation. Let _a_ denote the synodical period of the planet, Let _b_ denote the sidereal period of the earth, Let _x_ denote the sidereal period of the planet. - Then _360°/b_ = the daily motion of the earth, - And _360°/x_ = the daily motion of the planet, - And _360°/x - 360°/b_ = the daily gain of the planet: - Also _360°/a_ = the daily gain of the planet: - Hence _360°/x - 360°/b = 360°/a_. - Dividing by 360°, we have _1/x - 1/b = 1/a_; + Then _360°/b_ = the daily motion of the earth, + And _360°/x_ = the daily motion of the planet, + And _360°/x - 360°/b_ = the daily gain of the planet: + Also _360°/a_ = the daily gain of the planet: + Hence _360°/x - 360°/b = 360°/a_. + Dividing by 360°, we have _1/x - 1/b = 1/a_; Clearing of fractions, we have _ab - ax = bx_: Transposing and collecting, we have _(a + b)x = ab_: @@ -3641,7 +3607,7 @@ The synodical period of the planet is found by direct observation. of Venus from the sun at the time of this greatest elongation. Draw the radius _SV_ and the line _SE_. Since _SV_ is a radius, the angle at _V_ is a right angle. The angle at _E_ is known by measurement, - and the angle at _S_ is equal to 90°- the angle _E_. In the + and the angle at _S_ is equal to 90°- the angle _E_. In the right-angled triangle _EVS_, we then know the three angles, and we wish to find the ratio of the side _SV_ to the side _SE_. @@ -3728,7 +3694,7 @@ part of their orbit are so nearly the same, that no change in the form of their disks can be detected. 135. _The Synodical Period of a Superior Planet._--During a synodical -period of a superior planet the earth must gain one revolution, or 360°, +period of a superior planet the earth must gain one revolution, or 360°, on the planet, as will be evident from an examination of Fig. 152, in which _S_ represents the sun, _E_ the earth, and _P_ the planet at opposition. Before the planet can be in opposition again, the earth must @@ -3753,11 +3719,11 @@ observation. Let _a_ denote the synodical period of the planet, Let _b_ denote the sidereal period of the earth, Let _x_ denote the sidereal period of the planet. - Then will _360°/b_ = daily motion of the earth, - And _360°/x_ = daily motion of the planet; - Also _360°/b - 360°/x_ = daily gain of the earth. - But _360°/a_ = daily gain of the earth: - Hence _360°/b - 360°/x = 360°/a_ + Then will _360°/b_ = daily motion of the earth, + And _360°/x_ = daily motion of the planet; + Also _360°/b - 360°/x_ = daily gain of the earth. + But _360°/a_ = daily gain of the earth: + Hence _360°/b - 360°/x = 360°/a_ _1/b - 1/x = 1/a_ @@ -3799,9 +3765,9 @@ observation. Since _EB_ and _eA_ are parallel, the angle _EAS_ is equal to _BEA_. - _SEA = 180° - (ESA + EAS)_ + _SEA = 180° - (ESA + EAS)_ _ESM = ESA - MSA_ - _EMS = 180° - (SEA + ESM)_. + _EMS = 180° - (SEA + ESM)_. We have then @@ -4460,8 +4426,8 @@ they have been called _Fraunhofer's lines_. the numbers at which they are found on the scale which accompanies the map. This scale is usually drawn at the top of the map, as will be seen in some of the following diagrams. The two most elaborate - maps of the solar spectrum are those of Kirchhoff and Angström. The - scale on Kirchhoff's map is an arbitrary one, while that of Angström + maps of the solar spectrum are those of Kirchhoff and Angström. The + scale on Kirchhoff's map is an arbitrary one, while that of Angström is based upon the wave-lengths of the rays of light which would fall upon the lines in the spectrum. @@ -4532,7 +4498,7 @@ establishes the fact that iron vapor is present in the solar atmosphere. 3. Calcium 89 75 Kirchhoff. - 4. Manganese 75 57 Angström. + 4. Manganese 75 57 Angström. 5. Nickel 51 33 Kirchhoff. @@ -4548,7 +4514,7 @@ establishes the fact that iron vapor is present in the solar atmosphere. 11. Copper? 15 7? Kirchhoff. - 12. Hydrogen 5 5 Angström. + 12. Hydrogen 5 5 Angström. 13. Palladium 29 5 Lockyer. @@ -4562,13 +4528,13 @@ establishes the fact that iron vapor is present in the solar atmosphere. 18. Uranium 21 3 Lockyer. - 19. Aluminium 14 2 Angström. + 19. Aluminium 14 2 Angström. 20. Cerium 64 2 Lockyer. 21. Cadmium 20 2 Lockyer. - 22. Oxygen a 42 12 ± bright H. Draper. + 22. Oxygen a 42 12 ± bright H. Draper. Oxygen b 4 4? Schuster. @@ -4828,13 +4794,13 @@ that the cloud-masses over the more quiet portions of the solar surface are really, as they seem, nearly globular, while near the spots they are drawn out into filamentary forms by atmospheric currents." -175. _Faculæ._--The _faculæ_ are irregular streaks of greater brightness +175. _Faculæ._--The _faculæ_ are irregular streaks of greater brightness than the general surface, looking much like the flecks of foam on the surface of a stream below a waterfall. They are sometimes from five to twenty thousand miles in length, covering areas immensely larger than a terrestrial continent. -These faculæ are _elevated regions_ of the solar surface, ridges and +These faculæ are _elevated regions_ of the solar surface, ridges and crests of luminous matter, which rise above the general level of the sun's surface, and protrude through the denser portions of the solar atmosphere. When one of these passes over the edge of the sun's disk, it @@ -4842,18 +4808,18 @@ can be seen to project, like a little tooth. Any elevation on the sun to be perceptible at all must measure at least half a second of an arc, or two hundred and twenty-five miles. -The faculæ are most numerous in the neighborhood of the spots, and much +The faculæ are most numerous in the neighborhood of the spots, and much more conspicuous near the limb of the sun than near the centre of the -disk. Fig. 192 gives the general appearance of the faculæ, and the -darkening of the limb of the sun. Near the spots, the faculæ often +disk. Fig. 192 gives the general appearance of the faculæ, and the +darkening of the limb of the sun. Near the spots, the faculæ often undergo very rapid change of form, while elsewhere on the disk they change rather slowly, sometimes undergoing little apparent alteration for several days. [Illustration: Fig. 192.] -176. _Why the Faculæ are most Conspicuous near the Limb of the -Sun._--The reason why the faculæ are most conspicuous near the limb of +176. _Why the Faculæ are most Conspicuous near the Limb of the +Sun._--The reason why the faculæ are most conspicuous near the limb of the sun is this: The luminous surface of the sun is covered with an atmosphere, which, though not very thick compared with the diameter of the sun, is still sufficient to absorb a good deal of light. Light @@ -5005,7 +4971,7 @@ satisfactorily explained. sometimes gradual, requiring days or even weeks for its full development; and sometimes a single day suffices. Generally, for some time before its appearance, there is an evident disturbance of the solar -surface, indicated especially by the presence of many brilliant faculæ, +surface, indicated especially by the presence of many brilliant faculæ, among which _pores_, or minute black dots, are scattered. These enlarge, and between them appear grayish patches, in which the photospheric structure is unusually evident, as if they were caused by a dark mass @@ -5021,7 +4987,7 @@ brighter than the average of the solar surface, push across the umbra; the arrangement of the penumbra filaments becomes confused; and, as Secchi expresses it, the luminous matter of the photosphere seems to tumble pell-mell into the chasm, which disappears, and leaves a -disturbed surface marked with faculæ, which, in their turn, gradually +disturbed surface marked with faculæ, which, in their turn, gradually subside. [Illustration: Fig. 200.] @@ -5066,8 +5032,8 @@ degrees from the perpendicular to the earth's orbit. rotation is deduced from the motion of spots in different solar latitudes, there is found to be considerable variation in the results obtained. Thus spots near the equator indicate that the sun rotates in -about twenty-five days; while those in latitude 20° indicate a period -about eighteen hours longer; and those in latitude 30° a period of +about twenty-five days; while those in latitude 20° indicate a period +about eighteen hours longer; and those in latitude 30° a period of twenty-seven days and a half. Strictly speaking, the sun, as a whole, has no single period of rotation; but different portions of its surface perform their revolutions in different times. The equatorial regions not @@ -5085,10 +5051,10 @@ rotation of the sun. 187. _Distribution of the Sun-Spots._--The sun-spots are not distributed uniformly over the sun's surface, but occur mainly in two zones on each -side of the equator, and between the latitudes of 10° and 30°, as shown +side of the equator, and between the latitudes of 10° and 30°, as shown in Fig. 203. On and near the equator itself they are comparatively rare. -There are still fewer beyond 35° of latitude, and only a single spot has -ever been recorded more than 45° from the solar equator. +There are still fewer beyond 35° of latitude, and only a single spot has +ever been recorded more than 45° from the solar equator. Fig. 204 shows the distribution of the sun-spots observed by Carrington during a period of eight years. The irregular line on the left-hand side @@ -5229,7 +5195,7 @@ neighborhood of a spot are such as are represented in Fig. 213. "Over the sun's surface generally, these clouds probably have the form of vertical columns, as at _aa_. Just outside the spot, the level of the photosphere is the most part, overtopped by eruptions of hydrogen and -usually raised into faculæ, as at _bb_. These faculæ are, for metallic +usually raised into faculæ, as at _bb_. These faculæ are, for metallic vapors, as indicated by the shaded clouds.... While the great clouds of hydrogen are found everywhere upon the sun, these spiky, vivid outbursts of metallic vapors seldom occur except just in the neighborhood of a @@ -5363,7 +5329,7 @@ Fig. 215. recently, the solar atmosphere could be seen only during a total eclipse of the sun; but now the spectroscope enables us to study the chromosphere and the prominences with nearly the same facility as the -spots and faculæ. +spots and faculæ. The protuberances are ordinarily invisible, for the same reason that the stars cannot be seen in the daytime; they are hidden by the intense @@ -5472,7 +5438,7 @@ At _a_ there was a brilliant lump, somewhat in the form of a thunder-head. On returning to the spectroscope less than half an hour afterwards, he found that the cloud had been literally blown into shreds by some inconceivable uprush from beneath. The prominence then presented -the form shown in Fig. 222. The _débris_ of the cloud had already +the form shown in Fig. 222. The _débris_ of the cloud had already attained a height of a hundred thousand miles. While he was watching them for the next ten minutes, they rose, with a motion almost perceptible to the eye, till the uppermost reached an altitude of two @@ -5945,19 +5911,19 @@ bright spot. [Illustration: Fig. 256.] -Schröter, a celebrated German astronomer, at about the beginning of the +Schröter, a celebrated German astronomer, at about the beginning of the present century, thought that he detected spots and shadings on the disk of the planet, which indicated both the presence of an atmosphere and of elevations. The shading along the terminator, which seemed to indicate the presence of a twilight, and therefore of an atmosphere, are shown in Fig. 256. It also shows the blunted aspect of one of the cusps, which -Schröter noticed at times, and which he attributed to the shadow of a +Schröter noticed at times, and which he attributed to the shadow of a mountain, estimated to be ten or twelve miles high. Fig. 257 shows this -mountain near the upper cusp, as Schröter believed he saw it in the year -1800. By watching certain marks upon the disk of Mercury, Schröter came +mountain near the upper cusp, as Schröter believed he saw it in the year +1800. By watching certain marks upon the disk of Mercury, Schröter came to the conclusion that the planet rotates on its axis in about twenty-four hours. Modern observers, with more powerful telescopes, have -failed to verify Schröter's observations as to the indications of an +failed to verify Schröter's observations as to the indications of an atmosphere and of elevations. Nothing is known with certainty about the rotation of the planet. @@ -5965,7 +5931,7 @@ rotation of the planet. The border around Mercury, and the bright spot on its disk at the time of the transit of the planet across the sun, have been seen since -Schröter's time, and the existence of these phenomena is now well +Schröter's time, and the existence of these phenomena is now well established; but astronomers are far from being agreed as to their cause. @@ -6064,18 +6030,18 @@ when she is at her aphelion and the earth at its perihelion. [Illustration: Fig. 260.] -233. _The Atmosphere and Surface of Venus._--Schröter believed that he +233. _The Atmosphere and Surface of Venus._--Schröter believed that he saw shadings and markings on Venus similar to those on Mercury, indicating the presence of an atmosphere and of elevations on the surface of the planet. Fig. 261 represents the surface of Venus as it appeared to this astronomer. By watching certain markings on the disk of -Venus, Schröter came to the conclusion that Venus rotates on her axis in +Venus, Schröter came to the conclusion that Venus rotates on her axis in about twenty-four hours. [Illustration: Fig. 261.] It is now generally conceded that Venus has a dense atmosphere; but -Schröter's observations of the spots on her disk have not been verified +Schröter's observations of the spots on her disk have not been verified by modern astronomers, and we really know nothing certainly of her rotation. @@ -6250,7 +6216,7 @@ from the sun, the actual distances being as follows:-- Mercury. Venus. Earth. Mars. ---- Jupiter. Saturn. - 3·9 7·2 10 15·2 52·9 95·4 + 3·9 7·2 10 15·2 52·9 95·4 245. _The First Discovery of the Asteroids._--The great gap between Mars and Jupiter led astronomers, from the time of Kepler, to suspect the @@ -6258,7 +6224,7 @@ existence of an unknown planet in this region; but no such planet was discovered till the beginning of the present century. _Ceres_ was discovered Jan. 1, 1801, _Pallas_ in 1802, _Juno_ in 1804, and _Vesta_ in 1807. Then followed a long interval of thirty-eight years before -_Astræa_, the fifth of these minor planets, was discovered in 1845. +_Astræa_, the fifth of these minor planets, was discovered in 1845. 246. _Olbers's Hypothesis._--After the discovery of Pallas, Olbers suggested his celebrated hypothesis, that the two bodies might be @@ -7174,7 +7140,7 @@ is either inside of the earth's orbit, or but little outside of it. 290. _Recognition of a Telescopic Comet._--It is impossible to distinguish telescopic comets by their appearance from another class of -heavenly bodies known as _nebulæ_. Such comets can be recognized only by +heavenly bodies known as _nebulæ_. Such comets can be recognized only by their motion. Thus, in Fig. 322, the upper and lower bodies look exactly alike; but the upper one is found to remain stationary, while the lower one moves across the field of view. The upper one is thus shown to be a @@ -7319,8 +7285,8 @@ this comet had a period of five hundred and seventy-five years, and that its first recorded appearance was in 43 B.C., its third in 1106, and its fourth in 1680. If this is its real period, it will return in 2255. The comet of 43 B.C. made its appearance just after the assassination of -Julius Cæsar. The Romans called it the _Julian Star_, and regarded it as -a celestial chariot sent to convey the soul of Cæsar to the skies. It +Julius Cæsar. The Romans called it the _Julian Star_, and regarded it as +a celestial chariot sent to convey the soul of Cæsar to the skies. It was seen two or three hours before sunset, and continued visible for eight successive days. The great comet of 1106 was described as an object of terrific splendor, and was visible in close proximity to the @@ -8114,21 +8080,21 @@ greater. Sometimes hundreds or even thousands of stars are visible in the field of view at once, and sometimes the number is so great that they cannot be counted. -328. _Nebulæ._--Another class of objects which are found in the +328. _Nebulæ._--Another class of objects which are found in the celestial spaces are irregular masses of soft, cloudy light, known as -_nebulæ_. Many objects which look like nebulæ in small telescopes are +_nebulæ_. Many objects which look like nebulæ in small telescopes are shown by more powerful instruments to be really star-clusters. But many of these objects are not composed of stars at all, being immense masses of gaseous matter. [Illustration: Fig. 369.] -The general distribution of nebulæ is the reverse of that of the stars. -Nebulæ are thickest where stars are thinnest. While stars are most -numerous in the region of the Milky-Way, nebulæ are most abundant about -the poles of the Milky-Way. This condensation of nebulæ about the poles +The general distribution of nebulæ is the reverse of that of the stars. +Nebulæ are thickest where stars are thinnest. While stars are most +numerous in the region of the Milky-Way, nebulæ are most abundant about +the poles of the Milky-Way. This condensation of nebulæ about the poles of the Milky-Way is shown in Figs. 367 and 369, in which the points -represent, not stars, but nebulæ. +represent, not stars, but nebulæ. II. THE STARS. @@ -8195,23 +8161,23 @@ In a straight line between Denebola and Eta, at the end of the Great Bear's tail, are, at about equal distances, the two small constellations of _Coma Berenices_, or _Berenice's Hair_, and _Canes Venatici_, or the _Hunting-Dogs_. These are shown in Fig. 377. The dogs are represented as -pursuing the bear, urged on by the huntsman _Boötes_. +pursuing the bear, urged on by the huntsman _Boötes_. [Illustration: Fig. 377.] -332. _Boötes, Hercules, and the Northern Crown._--_Arcturus_, the -principal star of _Boötes_, may be found by drawing a line from Zeta to +332. _Boötes, Hercules, and the Northern Crown._--_Arcturus_, the +principal star of _Boötes_, may be found by drawing a line from Zeta to Eta of the Dipper, and then prolonging it with a slight bend, as shown in Fig. 378. Arcturus and Polaris form a large isosceles triangle with a first-magnitude star called _Vega_. This triangle encloses at one corner -the principal stars of Boötes, and the head of the Dragon near the +the principal stars of Boötes, and the head of the Dragon near the opposite side. The side running from Arcturus to Vega passes through _Corona Borealis_, or the _Northern Crown_, and the body of _Hercules_, which is marked by a quadrilateral of four stars. [Illustration: Fig. 378.] -_Boötes_, who is often represented as a husbandman, _Corona Borealis_, +_Boötes_, who is often represented as a husbandman, _Corona Borealis_, and _Hercules_, are delineated in Fig. 379. These constellations are visible in the evening from May to September. @@ -8375,7 +8341,7 @@ The _Fishes_ lie under _Pegasus_ and _Andromeda_, but contain no bright stars. _Aries_ (between _Pisces_ and _Taurus_) is marked by a pair of stars on the head,--one of the second, and one of the third magnitude. _Cancer_ (between _Leo_ and _Gemini_) has no bright stars, but contains -a remarkable cluster of small stars called _Præsepe_, or the _Beehive_. +a remarkable cluster of small stars called _Præsepe_, or the _Beehive_. Clusters. @@ -8452,7 +8418,7 @@ kind in the heavens, the stars in it being literally innumerable. Fig. arrangement of its component stars. Star clusters are especially abundant in the region of the Milky-Way, -the law of their distribution being the reverse of that of the nebulæ. +the law of their distribution being the reverse of that of the nebulæ. Double and Multiple Stars. @@ -8476,7 +8442,7 @@ seconds. [Illustration: Fig. 409.] -_Epsilon Lyræ_ is a good example of a pair of stars that can barely be +_Epsilon Lyræ_ is a good example of a pair of stars that can barely be separated with a good eye. Figs. 407 and 408 show this pair as it appears in telescopes magnifying respectively four and fifteen times; and Fig. 409 shows it as seen in a more powerful telescope, in which @@ -8840,7 +8806,7 @@ STARS APPROACHING US. Vega 50 miles per second. Deneb 39 miles per second. Pollux 49 miles per second. - Alpha Ursæ Majoris 46 miles per second. + Alpha Ursæ Majoris 46 miles per second. These results are confirmed by the fact that the amount of motion indicated is about what we should expect the stars to have, from their @@ -8891,48 +8857,48 @@ first type, in which the temperature is so high that the dissociation - III. NEBULÆ. + III. NEBULÆ. - Classification of Nebulæ. + Classification of Nebulæ. -370. _Planetary Nebulæ._--Many nebulæ (328) present a well-defined +370. _Planetary Nebulæ._--Many nebulæ (328) present a well-defined circular disk, like that of a planet, and are therefore called -_planetary_ nebulæ. Specimens of planetary nebulæ are shown in Fig. 429. +_planetary_ nebulæ. Specimens of planetary nebulæ are shown in Fig. 429. [Illustration: Fig. 429.] -371. _Circular and Elliptical Nebulæ._--While many nebulæ are circular -in form, others are elliptical. The former are called _circular_ nebulæ, -and the latter _elliptical_ nebulæ. Elliptical nebulæ have been +371. _Circular and Elliptical Nebulæ._--While many nebulæ are circular +in form, others are elliptical. The former are called _circular_ nebulæ, +and the latter _elliptical_ nebulæ. Elliptical nebulæ have been discovered of every degree of eccentricity. Examples of various circular -and elliptical nebulæ are given in Fig. 430. +and elliptical nebulæ are given in Fig. 430. [Illustration: Fig. 430.] -372. _Annular Nebulæ._--Occasionally ring-shaped nebulæ have been +372. _Annular Nebulæ._--Occasionally ring-shaped nebulæ have been observed, sometimes with, and sometimes without, nebulous matter within -the ring. They are called _annular_ nebulæ. They are both circular and -elliptical in form. Several specimens of this class of nebulæ are given +the ring. They are called _annular_ nebulæ. They are both circular and +elliptical in form. Several specimens of this class of nebulæ are given in Fig. 431. [Illustration: Fig. 431.] 373. _Nebulous Stars._--Sometimes one or more minute stars are enveloped in a nebulous haze, and are hence called _nebulous stars_. Several of -these nebulæ are shown in Fig. 432. +these nebulæ are shown in Fig. 432. [Illustration: Fig. 432.] -374. _Spiral Nebulæ._--Very many nebulæ disclose a more or less spiral -structure, and are known as _spiral_ nebulæ. They are illustrated in +374. _Spiral Nebulæ._--Very many nebulæ disclose a more or less spiral +structure, and are known as _spiral_ nebulæ. They are illustrated in Fig. 433. There are, however, a great variety of spiral forms. We shall -have occasion to speak of these nebulæ again (381-383). +have occasion to speak of these nebulæ again (381-383). [Illustration: Fig. 433.] -375. _Double and Multiple Nebulæ._--Many _double_ and _multiple_ nebulæ +375. _Double and Multiple Nebulæ._--Many _double_ and _multiple_ nebulæ have been observed, some of which are represented in Fig. 434. [Illustration: Fig. 434.] @@ -8947,12 +8913,12 @@ similar to that of the components of double stars. [Illustration: Fig. 436.] - Irregular Nebulæ. + Irregular Nebulæ. 376. _Irregular Forms._--Besides the more or less regular forms of -nebulæ which have been classified as indicated above, there are many of -very irregular shapes, and some of these are the most remarkable nebulæ +nebulæ which have been classified as indicated above, there are many of +very irregular shapes, and some of these are the most remarkable nebulæ in the heavens. Fig. 437 shows a curiously shaped nebula, seen by Sir John Herschel in the southern heavens; and Fig. 438, one in _Taurus_, known as the _Crab_ nebula. @@ -8961,7 +8927,7 @@ known as the _Crab_ nebula. [Illustration: Fig. 438.] -377. _The Great Nebula of Andromeda._--This is one of the few nebulæ +377. _The Great Nebula of Andromeda._--This is one of the few nebulæ that are visible to the naked eye. We see at a glance that it is not a star, but a mass of diffused light. Indeed, it has sometimes been very naturally mistaken for a comet. It was first described by Marius in @@ -8970,7 +8936,7 @@ This gives a very good idea of the impression it produces, which is that of a translucent object illuminated by a brilliant light behind it. With a small telescope it is easy to imagine it to be a solid like horn; but with a large one the effect is more like fog or mist with a bright body -in its midst. Unlike most of the nebulæ, its spectrum is a continuous +in its midst. Unlike most of the nebulæ, its spectrum is a continuous one, similar to that from a heated solid, indicating that the light emanates, not from a glowing gas, but from matter in the solid or liquid state. This would suggest that it is really an immense star-cluster, so @@ -9033,7 +8999,7 @@ hydrogen and nitrogen gas; but of this we cannot be certain. the variable star _Eta Argus_ (355), which is remarkable as exhibiting variations of brightness and of outline. -In many other nebulæ, changes have been suspected; but the +In many other nebulæ, changes have been suspected; but the indistinctness of outline which characterizes most of these objects, and the very different aspect they present in telescopes of different powers, render it difficult to prove a change beyond a doubt. @@ -9049,7 +9015,7 @@ the great Parsonstown reflector (20). [Illustration: Fig. 444.] - Spiral Nebulæ. + Spiral Nebulæ. 381. _The Spiral Nebula in Canes Venatici._--The great spiral nebula in @@ -9062,13 +9028,13 @@ Parsonstown reflector. [Illustration: Fig. 446.] -382. _Condensation of Nebulæ._--The appearance of the nebula just +382. _Condensation of Nebulæ._--The appearance of the nebula just mentioned suggests a body rotating on its axis, and undergoing condensation at the same time. -It is now a generally received theory that nebulæ are the material out +It is now a generally received theory that nebulæ are the material out of which stars are formed. According to this theory, the stars -originally existed as nebulæ, and all nebulæ will ultimately become +originally existed as nebulæ, and all nebulæ will ultimately become condensed into stars. [Illustration: Fig. 447.] @@ -9077,12 +9043,12 @@ condensed into stars. [Illustration: Fig. 449.] -383. _Other Spiral Nebulæ._--Fig. 447 represents a spiral nebula of the +383. _Other Spiral Nebulæ._--Fig. 447 represents a spiral nebula of the _Great Bear_. This nebula seems to have several centres of condensation. Fig. 448 is a view of a spiral nebula in _Cepheus_, and Fig. 449 of a singular spiral nebula in the _Triangle_. This also appears to have several points of condensation. Figs. 450 and 451 represent oval and -elliptical nebulæ having a spiral structure. +elliptical nebulæ having a spiral structure. [Illustration: Fig. 450.] @@ -9115,29 +9081,29 @@ cloud in the figure. [Illustration: Fig. 455.] -385. _Structure of the Nubeculæ._--Fig. 455 shows the structure of these +385. _Structure of the Nubeculæ._--Fig. 455 shows the structure of these clouds as revealed by a powerful telescope. The general ground of both consists of large tracts and patches of nebulosity in every stage of resolution,--from that which is irresolvable with eighteen inches of reflecting aperture, up to perfectly separated stars, like the Milky-Way -and clustering groups. There are also nebulæ in abundance, both regular +and clustering groups. There are also nebulæ in abundance, both regular and irregular, globular clusters in every state of condensation, and objects of a nebulous character quite peculiar, and unlike any thing in other regions of the heavens. In the area occupied by the _nubecula -major_ two hundred and seventy-eight nebulæ and clusters have been +major_ two hundred and seventy-eight nebulæ and clusters have been enumerated, besides fifty or sixty outliers, which ought certainly to be reckoned as its appendages, being about six and a half per square degree; which very far exceeds the average of any other part of the nebulous heavens. In the _nubecula minor_ the concentration of such -objects is less, though still very striking. The nubeculæ, then, +objects is less, though still very striking. The nubeculæ, then, combine, each within its own area, characters which in the rest of the heavens are no less strikingly separated; namely, those of the galactic and the nebular system. Globular clusters (except in one region of small -extent) and nebulæ of regular elliptic forms are comparatively rare in +extent) and nebulæ of regular elliptic forms are comparatively rare in the Milky-Way, and are found congregated in the greatest abundance in a part of the heavens the most remote possible from that circle; whereas -in the nubeculæ they are indiscriminately mixed with the general starry -ground, and with irregular though small nebulæ. +in the nubeculæ they are indiscriminately mixed with the general starry +ground, and with irregular though small nebulæ. THE NEBULAR HYPOTHESIS. @@ -9191,20 +9157,20 @@ ground, and with irregular though small nebulæ. bodies like the solar system. 388. _Herschel's Hypothesis._--The idea of the gradual transmutation - of nebulæ into stars seems to have been suggested to Herschel, not - by the study of the solar system, but by that of the nebulæ + of nebulæ into stars seems to have been suggested to Herschel, not + by the study of the solar system, but by that of the nebulæ themselves. Many of these bodies he believed to be immense masses of phosphorescent vapor; and he conceived that these must be gradually condensing, each around its own centre, or around the parts where it is most dense, until it should become a star, or a cluster of stars. - On classifying the nebulæ, it seemed to him that he could see this + On classifying the nebulæ, it seemed to him that he could see this process going on before his eyes. There were the large, faint, - diffused nebulæ, in which the condensation had hardly begun; the + diffused nebulæ, in which the condensation had hardly begun; the smaller but brighter ones, which had become so far condensed that the central parts would soon begin to form into stars; yet others, in which stars had actually begun to form; and, finally, star-clusters in which the condensation was complete. The - spectroscopic revelations of the gaseous nature of the true nebulæ + spectroscopic revelations of the gaseous nature of the true nebulæ tend to confirm the theory of Herschel, that these masses will all, at some time, condense into stars. @@ -9357,7 +9323,7 @@ universe is often referred to as the _cloven disk_ theory. [Illustration: Fig. 458.] -392. _The Cloven Ring Theory._--According to Mädler, the stars of the +392. _The Cloven Ring Theory._--According to Mädler, the stars of the Milky-Way are entirely separated from the other stars of our system, belonging to an outlying ring, or system of rings. To account for the division of the Milky-Way, the ring is supposed to be cloven on one @@ -9380,7 +9346,7 @@ are distant, but because they are really small. 394. _Newcomb's View._--According to Newcomb, the stars of our system are all situated in a comparatively thin zone lying in the plane of the -Milky-Way, while there is a zone of nebulæ lying on each side of the +Milky-Way, while there is a zone of nebulæ lying on each side of the stellar zone. He believes that so much is certain with reference to the structure of our stellar universe; but he considers that we are as yet comparatively ignorant of the internal structure of either the stellar @@ -9418,7 +9384,7 @@ to this view, is shown in Fig. 460. Andromeda (constellation), 343, 346. nebula in, 376. - Angström's map of spectrum, 164. + Angström's map of spectrum, 164. Antares, star in Scorpio, 347. @@ -9433,7 +9399,7 @@ to this view, is shown in Fig. 460. Aquila, or the Eagle, 336. - Arcturus, star in Boötes, 335, 365, 370. + Arcturus, star in Boötes, 335, 365, 370. Argo, or the Ship, 360. nebula in, 383. @@ -9443,7 +9409,7 @@ to this view, is shown in Fig. 460. Asteroids, 223, 241. - Astræa, an asteroid, 241. + Astræa, an asteroid, 241. Auriga, or the Wagoner, 342. @@ -9459,7 +9425,7 @@ to this view, is shown in Fig. 460. Bode's law, 241. disproved, 273. - Boötes (constellation), 334, 335. + Boötes (constellation), 334, 335. C. @@ -9628,7 +9594,7 @@ to this view, is shown in Fig. 460. Epicycloid, 107. - Epsilon Lyræ, a double star, 356. + Epsilon Lyræ, a double star, 356. Equator, the celestial, 7. @@ -9647,7 +9613,7 @@ to this view, is shown in Fig. 460. F. - Faculæ, solar, 177. + Faculæ, solar, 177. Fomalhaut, star in Southern Fish, 350. @@ -9846,7 +9812,7 @@ to this view, is shown in Fig. 460. in the Triangle, 387. in Ursa Major, 386. - Nebulæ, 281, 330, 373. + Nebulæ, 281, 330, 373. annular, 373. circular, 373. condensation of, 385. @@ -9946,7 +9912,7 @@ to this view, is shown in Fig. 460. Pollux, star in Gemini, 340, 370. - Præsepe, or the Beehive, 350. + Præsepe, or the Beehive, 350. Precession of equinoxes, 31, 85. @@ -10062,7 +10028,7 @@ to this view, is shown in Fig. 460. chromosphere of, 149, 196. corona of, 149, 196, 204. distance of, 142. - faculæ of, 177. + faculæ of, 177. heat radiated by, 150. inclination of axis of, 187. mass of, 140. @@ -10218,365 +10184,4 @@ Typographical errors were silently corrected. -***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE HEAVENS ABOVE*** - - -******* This file should be named 58810-8.txt or 58810-8.zip ******* - - -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: -http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/5/8/8/1/58810 - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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(William James) Rolfe</h1> -<p>This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States -and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no -restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it -under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this -eBook or online at <a -href="http://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you are not -located in the United States, you'll have to check the laws of the -country where you are located before using this ebook.</p> -<p>Title: The Heavens Above</p> -<p> A Popular Handbook of Astronomy</p> -<p>Author: J. A. (Joseph Anthony) Gillet and W. J. (William James) Rolfe</p> -<p>Release Date: February 2, 2019 [eBook #58810]</p> -<p>Language: English</p> -<p>Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1</p> -<p>***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE HEAVENS ABOVE***</p> <p> </p> -<h4 class="pg">E-text prepared by<br /> - Colin Bell, Brenda Lewis, David King,<br /> - and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team<br /> - (<a href="http://www.pgdp.net">http://www.pgdp.net</a>)<br /> - from page images generously made available by<br /> - Internet Archive<br /> - (<a href="https://archive.org">https://archive.org</a>)</h4> <p> </p> <table border="0" style="background-color: #ccccff;margin: 0 auto;" cellpadding="10"> <tr> @@ -15871,368 +15850,9 @@ according to this view, is shown in Fig. 460.</p> <p> </p> <p> </p> <hr class="full" /> -<p>***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE HEAVENS ABOVE***</p> -<p>******* This file should be named 58810-h.htm or 58810-h.zip *******</p> -<p>This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:<br /> -<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/5/8/8/1/58810">http://www.gutenberg.org/5/8/8/1/58810</a></p> -<p> -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed.</p> - -<p>Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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