diff options
| -rw-r--r-- | .gitattributes | 4 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | LICENSE.txt | 11 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | README.md | 2 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/55781-0.txt | 12449 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/55781-0.zip | bin | 251306 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/55781-h.zip | bin | 341937 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/55781-h/55781-h.htm | 12459 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/55781-h/images/cover.jpg | bin | 75199 -> 0 bytes |
8 files changed, 17 insertions, 24908 deletions
diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..502c1a7 --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #55781 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/55781) diff --git a/old/55781-0.txt b/old/55781-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 6643e30..0000000 --- a/old/55781-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,12449 +0,0 @@ -Project Gutenberg's Willem Adriaan Van Der Stel, by George McCall Theal - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license - - -Title: Willem Adriaan Van Der Stel - And Other Historical Sketches - -Author: George McCall Theal - -Release Date: October 20, 2017 [EBook #55781] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WILLEM ADRIAAN VAN DER STEL *** - - - - -Produced by Chuck Greif, Christine D and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - - - - - - WILLEM ADRIAAN VAN DER STEL - AND OTHER HISTORICAL SKETCHES - - - - - WILLEM ADRIAAN VAN - DER STEL - - AND - - OTHER HISTORICAL SKETCHES - - BY - - GEORGE McCALL THEAL, LITT.D., LL.D. - - CAPETOWN - THOMAS MASKEW MILLER, PUBLISHER - 1913 - - - - - PRINTED BY - WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED - LONDON AND BECCLES - - - - -CONTENTS - - -SKETCH I. - - PAGE -EXPLORATION BY THE PORTUGUESE OF THE WESTERN COAST OF -AFRICA AND DISCOVERY OF THE CAPE OF GOOD HOPE 3 - - -SKETCH II. - -I. FIRST VOYAGES OF THE FRENCH AND ENGLISH TO INDIA. - EARLY HISTORY OF THE NETHERLANDS 35 - -II. THE WAR IN THE NETHERLANDS TO THE UNION OF UTRECHT 62 - -III. CONTINUATION OF THE WAR IN THE NETHERLANDS UNTIL 1606 91 - -IV. THE WAR ON THE SEA BETWEEN SPAIN AND THE NETHERLANDS 116 - -V. THE TRUCE WITH SPAIN AND ENGLISH RIVALRY 149 - - -SKETCH III. - -I. GOVERNOR WILLEM ADRIAAN VAN DER STEL 171 - -II. ORDINARY EVENTS DURING THE ADMINISTRATION OF GOVERNOR - WILLEM ADRIAAN VAN DER STEL 187 - -III. FAITHLESS CONDUCT OF THE GOVERNOR 207 - -IV. PROCEEDINGS IN THE NETHERLANDS REGARDING GOVERNOR - WILLEM ADRIAAN VAN DER STEL 234 - -SKETCH IV. - -I. CHRONICLES OF TWO LEADERS OF THE GREAT EMIGRATION, - LOUIS TRIEGARD AND PIETER UYS 253 - -II. PIETER LAVRAS UYS 275 - - -SYNOPTICAL INDEX. - -SKETCH I. 295 -SKETCH II. 310 -SKETCH III. 314 -SKETCH IV. 321 - - - - -I. - -_Exploration by the Portuguese of the Western Coast of Africa and -Discovery of the Cape of Good Hope, including a short Sketch of the -early History of Portugal._ - - - - -HISTORICAL SKETCHES. - - - - -SKETCH I. - -EXPLORATION BY THE PORTUGUESE OF THE WESTERN COAST OF AFRICA AND -DISCOVERY OF THE CAPE OF GOOD HOPE. - - -The discovery of an ocean route from Europe to India, followed by the -establishment of the Portuguese as the preponderating power in the East, -is one of the greatest events in the history of the world. It is not too -much to say that every state of Central and Western Europe was affected -by it. The time was critical, for the Turks were then menacing -Christendom, and if they had secured a monopoly of the Indian trade -their wealth and strength would have been so augmented that it is -doubtful whether they might not have succeeded in entering Vienna in -1529. As yet the Moslem power was divided, for Egypt was still under the -independent Mameluke rulers, and the greater portion of the Indian -products that found their way to Europe was obtained by the Venetians at -Alexandria. To that city they were conveyed in boats down the Nile from -Cairo, after being carried by camels from the shore of the Red sea, -whither they were brought by ships from the coast of Malabar. From this -traffic Alexandria had thriven greatly, and from it too Venice,--whose -merchants distributed over Europe the silk and cotton fabrics, gems, -pepper, and spices of the East,--had become wealthy and powerful. That -portion of the Indian merchandise which was brought overland by caravans -from the Persian gulf to the Mediterranean coast was under the control -of the Turks, and a few years later, when in 1517 the sultan Selim -overthrew the Mamelukes and made Egypt a province of his dominions, the -whole would have been theirs if the Portuguese had not just in time -forestalled them. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -In the early years of the fifteenth century the Christian nations were -little acquainted with distant countries, America and Australia were -entirely unknown, Eastern Asia was very imperfectly laid down on the -maps, and the greater part of Africa had never been explored. This -continent might have terminated north of the equator, for anything that -the most learned men in Europe knew with certainty to the contrary. They -had only the map of Ptolemy and perhaps that of Edrisi as their guide, -and these were extremely vague as regards its southern part, and, as is -now known, were most incorrect. - -The little kingdom of Portugal at the south-western extremity of Europe -was more favourably situated than any other Christian state for -prosecuting discovery along the western coast of Africa, though its -shipping was small in quantity compared with that of either Venice, -Genoa, the Hanseatic league, or the Netherland dominions of the dukes of -Burgundy. A glance at its history may not be uninteresting, and will -show how it came to embark in maritime exploration.[1] - -In Portugal, as throughout Southern Europe, and as in South Africa, -great numbers of ancient stone implements are found of such rude -workmanship as to prove that the men who made and used them were savages -of a very low type, and there is further evidence that they were cave -dwellers. In South Africa the primitive race has continued to exist -until our own times, but in Portugal it disappeared ages ago, no one can -do more than conjecture how or when. - -Later, but still in the far distant past, the whole of the Iberian -peninsula came to be inhabited by the race of men of whom the Basques -are the present representatives, but whether they succeeded immediately -to the palæolithic savages, or whether some other people came between -them, is as yet unknown. The Basques in Europe correspond to the early -Egyptians and the light coloured men of the North African coast, so that -in speaking of them we are speaking of a race that led the van of -civilisation at a very remote period in the history of the world. - -[Sidenote: The Romans in Spain.] - -Next to appear in the Iberian peninsula were the Celts, by whom the -earlier inhabitants of the south and centre were destroyed, though -probably some few were incorporated. Those living in the mountainous -region in the north, particularly in the western part of the Pyrenees -and along the adjoining coast of the bay of Biscay, however, managed to -hold their own, and their descendants are found in those localities at -the present day. The Phœnicians and Carthaginians followed long -afterwards, and occupied many stations in the southern section of the -peninsula, but never succeeded in establishing their authority in the -northern part of the country. The Greeks also are believed by some -historians to have formed trading stations at the mouths of the rivers -on the western coast as well as on the Mediterranean shore, and it has -even been supposed that Lisbon was founded by a Hellenic colony, though -that seems to be extremely doubtful. - -In the Punic wars the Romans obtained assistance in Spain, by which name -the entire peninsula is meant, and in the year B.C. 206 the -Carthaginians were finally expelled from the country. But now the Romans -turned their arms against the Spaniards, and after a long struggle -succeeded in establishing their authority over the Celtic part of the -country, though insurrections were frequent, and it was only in the time -of Augustus that the Basque section was subdued and the whole peninsula -was reduced to perfect obedience. - -During the next four centuries Spain became thoroughly Romanised, to -such an extent indeed that not only the arts, customs, laws, and -municipal institutions, but even the language of Rome came into general -use, and that language is the basis of the tongue of the Celtic portion -of the people at the present day. The Christian religion also, which had -become that of the ruling power, was firmly adopted. No conquerors ever -left their impression upon a whole people more thoroughly than the -Romans left theirs upon the inhabitants of the greater portion of the -Spanish peninsula. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -So matters went on until the early years of the fifth century of our -era, when the Western Empire was overrun by hordes of warlike intruders -pressing down from the north, and the Alani, the Vandals, and the Suevi -made their way over the Pyrenees, and took possession of Spain. They -were followed by the Visigoths, when the Vandals and most of the Alani -went on to Africa, the Suevi remaining in Galicia and part of Old -Castile, and the Gothic monarchy of Spain was established. These Goths -held the Romanised Celts in subjection, and lived among them as an -aristocracy, but soon adopted their language, when the two peoples -blended into one. - -Three centuries passed away, and then another race of conquerors -appeared. The Arabs, under the influence of the religion of Mohamed, had -overrun Egypt and the whole northern coast of Africa to the Atlantic -ocean, converting everywhere the people to their faith. In the second -decade of the eighth century one of their armies passed from Africa by -way of Gibraltar into Spain, and speedily overran the whole peninsula -except the Basque territory in the north. For a long series of years -they were not harsh conquerors, and by their love of learning, their -splendid schools, and the beauty of their architecture unquestionably -did much to improve the subject people. The Christians were not -compelled to renounce their religion, and their persons and property -were protected by the law. For a time the country was subject to the -caliph of Damascus, and later to an independent caliph of Cordova, but -at length, in the first years of the eleventh century, the Mohamedan -government broke into fragments, and an era of misrule and fanaticism on -both sides commenced. The Gothic nobles from the first had chafed under -foreign supremacy, and within fifty years of the conquest the little -Christian state of the north had begun to expand. Now a struggle between -the Christians and the Mohamedans set in, a struggle which lasted for -centuries and which drenched the land with blood, which spread -desolation far and wide, but created a people inspired with boundless -energy and prepared to undertake the most formidable enterprises. The -Mohamedans were aided by fanatics from Africa, mostly of Berber blood, -and large numbers of crusaders, among whom were many Englishmen, came to -the assistance of the Christians. - -[Sidenote: The Kingdom of Portugal.] - -A number of little Christian states, sometimes united under one head, at -other times independent of each other, came into existence in the -northern part of the peninsula, and in A.D. 1095 a small section of the -present territory of Portugal, that had been recovered from the -Mohamedans by Alfonso, king of Leon and Castile, was formed into a -county for the benefit of a Burgundian noble named Henrique, who married -Theresa, a natural daughter of the king. The county was called Portugal, -from o Porto, the Port, at the mouth of the river Douro. With this event -the history of Portugal, as distinct from the other sections of the -Spanish peninsula, commences. The county certainly remained a fief of -Leon until the 25th of July 1139, on which day the memorable battle of -Ourique was fought. Affonso, who had succeeded his father Henrique as -count of Portugal, crossed the Tagus, marched far into the Moslem -domains, and defeated with great slaughter five emirs who had united -their forces against him. The old Portuguese historians assert that -after the victory Affonso was proclaimed king by his army, and that a -cortes which assembled at Lamego confirmed the title, but recent -criticism throws doubt upon these statements as being merely legendary. -The latest writers assert that it was in war with his suzerain that -Affonso acquired his independence, and that the cortes did not meet at -Lamego until 1211. At any rate, it is certain that the son of Henrique -styled himself king in 1140, and that in 1143 Pope Innocent the Second -confirmed the title. - -After this the waves of war rolled backward and forward over the land, -but in 1147 Affonso got possession of the important city of Santarem, -which was never again lost. In the same year also, with the aid of a -strong body of English crusaders, he seized Lisbon, though it was not -made the national capital until the reign of João I. During the -remainder of his life and that of his son Sancho, who succeeded him, the -Tagus was the southern boundary of Portugal, and the province of -Alemtejo was a debatable land, sometimes overrun by one party, sometimes -by the other. In 1211 Sancho died, and was succeeded by his son Affonso -II, and he again in 1223 by his son Sancho II, during whose reigns a -steady though slow and frequently interrupted advance was made in the -conquest of Alemtejo. Sancho II was despoiled of his kingdom by his -brother Affonso III, and in 1248 died in exile. In 1250 the emirate of -the Algarves was overrun, and was held as a fief of Castile until 1263, -when it was ceded to Portugal in full sovereignty. The country then for -the first time after a struggle of one hundred and sixty-eight years -from the formation of the northern county, acquired its present -dimensions, which it has retained inviolate ever since. The title King -of Portugal and of the Algarves, assumed by Affonso III, was -subsequently borne by all the monarchs of the country. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -In 1279 Affonso III was succeeded by his son Diniz, who died in 1325, -and was followed on the throne by his son Affonso IV. He was succeeded -in 1357 by his son Pedro, who was followed in 1367 by his son Fernando, -the last monarch of the Burgundian dynasty, who died on the 22nd of -October 1383. Under the government of these kings the Portuguese had -become a fairly wealthy and prosperous commercial people, without losing -any of the martial spirit or fierce energy that they had acquired during -their long wars with the Mohamedans. Fernando died without male heirs, -and his daughter, being married to the king of Castile, was by a -fundamental law excluded from the crown. His widow, the infamous Dona -Leonor, asserted a claim to act as regent for her daughter, but owing to -her profligate habits and her remorseless cruelty she was detested by -the people, who were extremely averse to union or even association with -Castile, and she was expelled. - -The leader of the popular party was Dom João, Grand Master of the Order -of Saint Benedict of Avis, a man of remarkable ability, who was an -illegitimate son of King Pedro by Theresa Lourenço. The Castilian -monarch invaded Portugal with a great army and laid siege to Lisbon, but -pestilence broke out in his camp, and he was driven back with heavy -loss. On the 6th of April 1385 the cortes, which had assembled at -Coimbra, the ancient capital, elected the Grand Master of the Order of -Avis king of Portugal. Still the sovereign of Castile might have -succeeded in conquering the country if John of Gaunt, son of Edward III -of England, had not come to its aid with five thousand men. The marriage -of King João with Philippa, eldest daughter of John of Gaunt, cemented -his alliance with England, with which country he had concluded a treaty -of close friendship. Thus the illustrious dynasty of Avis, under whose -leadership the little kingdom held such a proud position in Europe, came -to occupy the throne of Portugal. - -[Sidenote: The Dynasty of Avis.] - -During the long reign of João I the kingdom continued to prosper. The -policy pursued was to maintain a firm alliance with England, to carry on -commerce with that country, and to avoid connection of any kind with the -other states of the peninsula. Learning was encouraged by the king, and -Portuguese literature may be said to date from this period. If the -martial ardour of the people was relaxing by long peace, it was revived -in 1415 by the prosecution of war with the Moors on the North African -coast, when the strong position of Ceuta, opposite Gibraltar, was taken. -João I died in 1433, and was succeeded by his eldest legitimate son, -Duarte by name. Affonso, an illegitimate son by Ines Pires, who was -created count of Barcellos by his father, and duke of Bragança by his -nephew Affonso V, was the ancestor of the sovereigns of Portugal from -1640 to 1910. - -Duarte was an excellent king, but his short reign was marked by a great -disaster. In 1437 an attack upon Tangier failed, and the fourth -legitimate son of João I, Dom Fernando, became a prisoner. As he could -only obtain his liberty by the restoration of Ceuta to the Moors, he -remained a captive, and died at Fez in 1443. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -King Duarte died in 1438, when his son and heir, Affonso V, was only six -years of age. Dom Pedro, duke of Coimbra, second son of João I and -Philippa of Lancaster, then became regent, but ten years later the young -king took the government into his own hands. He was a scholar and a -patron of literature, but was somewhat reckless and unstable in -character. He carried on war with the Moors of Northern Africa, and took -several towns from them, after which he turned his arms against Castile, -in hope of obtaining possession of that kingdom, but was utterly -defeated in 1476 in the battle of Toro, and in 1481 died, leaving the -throne of Portugal to his son João II. - -The new king was twenty-six years of age when he succeeded his father. -Though inclined to be a despot, he was one of the wisest and ablest -princes that ever sat on the throne of Portugal. His great object was to -reduce the power of the nobles, who under the feudal system of -government were really masters of the country, and he therefore -instituted an inquiry into the nature of their tenures, which provoked -their resentment. First among them was the third duke of Bragança, who -was lord of many towns, and owned more than one-fourth of the whole -territory of the kingdom. He was arrested, and after a trial for -treasonable correspondence with a foreign state, was executed. This was -followed by the death of the duke of Viseu, who was stabbed by the -king’s own hand, of the bishop of Evora, who was thrown down a well, and -by the execution of about eighty of the most powerful noblemen in the -country. Their estates were confiscated, though in some instances -partially restored to their heirs, the vast authority they had possessed -was broken for ever, and João II became an absolute monarch, though a -benevolent and excellent one. He was a patron of learned men, a promoter -of commerce, a just administrator, and in every way open to him he -endeavoured to improve the condition of the people. He died at Alvor in -the Algarves on the 25th of October 1495, to the grief of his subjects, -who termed him the perfect king. - -[Sidenote: Defective Knowledge of Europeans.] - -It was during the reigns of the sovereigns of the dynasty of Avis that -the Portuguese led the way in those geographical discoveries which have -conferred such lustre upon the little kingdom. When João I ascended the -throne Europeans knew far less of the western coast of Africa than was -known by the Carthaginians five centuries before the Christian era, and -of the southern and eastern coasts they were absolutely ignorant. The -Arabs, Persians, and Indians were far more enlightened in this respect -than were the people of Europe. Whether there were other writings in -ancient times upon the shores of the Indian ocean than the _Voyage of -Nearchus_ and the _Periplus of the Erythrean Sea_ is very doubtful, for -if there were they would most likely have been in the great library of -Alexandria,[2] to which Ptolemy had access, and of South-Eastern Africa -he knew nothing at all. There is the most conclusive evidence that in -very ancient times some nations frequented the eastern shore of the -continent at least as far down as Cape Correntes,[3] but no accounts of -their discoveries were extant in the fifteenth century, nor are there -any to-day. The writings of even the Arabs and Persians after the time -of Mohamed appear to have been unknown in Western Europe when the -Portuguese commenced their explorations, so that to them, if the -imperfect information contained in the geography of Ptolemy be excepted, -all that was beyond Cape Nun from the Atlantic to the Indian ocean was a -vast blank which it might be hazardous in the extreme to attempt to -examine. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -The ships of the fifteenth century were ill-fitted also for long -voyages. Though capable of withstanding heavy seas, they were clumsily -rigged, and were without the mechanical appliances of the present day. -In proportion to their tonnage they needed so many men to work them that -a great deal of space was taken up with food and fresh water, and of -comfort on board there was none. They could make the passage from Lisbon -to London with fruit and wine without difficulty, but it was a very -different thing to sail along an unknown coast, with no harbour in front -where fresh provisions and water could be obtained. The compass, which -is believed to have been in use in an imperfect form in China as far -back as two thousand six hundred years before Christ, had recently -become known in Western Europe, and about the beginning of the -fourteenth century had been so greatly improved by Flavio Gioja, of -Amalphi, that navigation had benefited greatly by it. But the compass, -though enabling ships to steer safely between frequented ports, was not -of much assistance in the exploration of seas never visited before, -though it might be on the return passage. The instrument for determining -latitudes at sea was exceedingly crude and imperfect, and for -ascertaining longitudes no means whatever were known, so that it was -only by computing the direction and the distance run that a navigator -could form an opinion as to where he was. Add to this the current belief -of seamen that the sun’s heat in the south was so great that it caused -the water to boil and thick vapour to obscure the sky, which was always -as dark as night. There was a legend that the crew of a ship that had -made the venture had actually seen the region of eternal gloom, and had -got away from it only by a miracle. In the minds of common mariners the -ocean beyond Cape Nun was as wild and dreadful as that beyond Cape -Correntes was to the Arabs of the eastern coast. Thus it was a task not -only of discomfort, but of peril and dread, to proceed beyond the known -part of the coast. - -[Sidenote: Prince Henry the Navigator.] - -The discoveries of the Portuguese were largely the result of the genius -and ability of a prince of their royal house, Henrique by name, known in -European history as Henry the Navigator. He was the third son of João I -and Philippa of Lancaster, and was therefore a nephew of Henry IV of -England. Two objects engrossed the attention of the Infante Dom -Henrique: the conversion of the heathen to Christianity, and the -discovery of unknown lands, the last of which he believed would greatly -facilitate the former. As a gallant knight he took part in the -expedition against Ceuta in 1415, and there he learned that trade was -carried on with the country south of the Sahara by means of caravans of -camels, and that the coast of the Atlantic in that direction was often -visited. Then he thought that the same coast could more easily be -reached by sea, and he resolved to attempt to do it. In 1418 he took up -his residence at Sagres, close to Cape Saint Vincent, in the Algarves, -the south-western point of Portugal and the very best position in Europe -as a basis for exploration. He was then twenty-four years of age. At -Sagres he built an observatory, established a school of navigation, and -invited the most expert astronomers, mathematicians, and sea-captains -that he could hear of to visit him, that he might consult with them as -to the best means of prosecuting discovery. He was possessed of much -wealth, as he had been created duke of Viseu, to which title large -estates were attached, and he was also Master of the Order of Christ and -governor of the Algarves. His own revenues he spent entirely in the -promotion of his designs, and he was most liberally aided with means by -his father and his brothers.[4] - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -The first exploring expedition sent out is said to have been under the -command of Bartholomeu Perestrello, who discovered the island of Porto -Santo in 1418 or 1419, but the early accounts of this voyage do not -agree with each other, and nothing connected with it is certain. - -In 1419 Perestrello was sent again, and with him were two other ships -commanded by João Gonçalves Zarco and Tristão Vas, who had instructions -from Dom Henrique to establish a station on Porto Santo and plant a -garden for the use of future navigators. Perestrello returned to -Portugal from the island, but the other captains planted a plot of -ground, and in 1420 went on to Madeira, which received its name from -them on account of the trees with which it was covered. They then -returned to Porto Santo, and thence to Portugal. Unfortunately they had -put ashore a rabbit with young, and its progeny increased so rapidly -that the continued cultivation of the ground became impossible, so that -Porto Santo was not permanently colonised until several years later. The -accounts of this voyage are also vague and unreliable. In 1425 a -commencement was made in colonising Madeira, and among other useful -plants the vine and the sugar cane were introduced.[5] - -[Sidenote: Progress of Discovery.] - -In 1432 Gonçalo Velho Cabral, Commander of the Order of Christ, -discovered and named the island Santa Maria in the Azores. - -It was most probably in 1434 that an expedition under Gil Eannes doubled -Cape Bojador, though some of the ancient writers assign the date 1428 -for this achievement, others 1432, and others again 1433. This was a -great step in advance, for on finding the sea south of the dreaded -headland to be as easily navigated as that on the north, the old terror -of the common people was dispelled, and it was no longer difficult to -obtain men to work the ships. It is not easy therefore to account for -the various dates assigned for this achievement, but exact chronology -does not seem to have been regarded as of much importance when the -chronicles were prepared from oral testimony years after the events took -place. In 1435 the same captain Gil Eannes reached the mouth of the -river do Ouro, to which he gave this name. - -In 1441 Nuno Tristão reached Cape Blanco. In 1443 he visited the bay of -Arguim, and returned to Portugal with a number of negro slaves, who were -gladly received as labourers. In 1444 or 1445 Cape Verde was discovered -and named by Diniz Dias. - -From this time onward many small vessels left Portugal every year to -trade on the African coast for gold dust, ivory, and particularly for -slaves. All the features of the shore became thoroughly well known, and -were marked on charts as far south as the Rio Grande, but for fifteen -years, until after the death of Dom Henrique--13th of November -1460--discovery practically ceased. The lucrative slave trade occupied -the minds of the sea captains, and ships freighted with negroes taken -captive in raids, or purchased from conquering chiefs, frequently -entered the harbours of Portugal. The commerce in human flesh was -regarded as highly meritorious, because it brought heathens to a -knowledge of Christianity. But never has a mistake or a crime led to -more disastrous results, for to the introduction of negroes as labourers -on the great estates belonging to the nobles and religious orders in -Alemtejo and the Algarves the decline of the kingdom in power and -importance is mainly due. The effects were not visible for many years, -but no one can come in contact with the lower classes in Southern -Portugal to-day without being impressed with the fact that both the -Europeans and the Africans have been ruined by mixture of their blood. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -The exploring expeditions which Dom Henrique never ceased to encourage, -but which the greed of those who were in his service had turned into -slave-hunting voyages, were resumed after his death. In 1461, Pedro de -Cinta, who was sent out by Affonso V, reached the coast of the present -republic of Liberia, and in 1471 Fernando Po crossed the equator. - -King João II was as resolute as his grand-uncle the Navigator in -endeavouring to discover an ocean road to India. He had not indeed any -idea of the great consequences that would follow, his object being -simply to divert the eastern trade from Venice to Lisbon, which would be -effected if an unbroken sea route could be found. In 1484 he sent out a -ship under Diogo Cam, which reached the mouth of the Congo, and in the -following year the same officer made a greater advance than any previous -explorer could boast of, for he pushed on southward as far as Cape -Cross, latitude 22°, on the coast of what is now German South-West -Africa, where the marble pillar which he set up to mark the extent of -his voyage remained standing more than four hundred years. - -[Sidenote: Expedition under Bartholomeu Dias.] - -The next expedition sent in the same direction solved the secret -concerning the meridional extent of the African continent. It was under -the chief command of an officer named Bartholomeu Dias, of whose -previous career unfortunately nothing can now be ascertained except that -he was a gentleman of the king’s household and receiver of customs at -Lisbon when the appointment was conferred upon him, and that he had at -some former time taken part in exploring the coast. The historian João -de Barros states that at the end of August 1486[6] he sailed from the -Tagus with two vessels of about fifty tons each, according to the -Portuguese measurement of the time, though they would probably be rated -much higher now. He had also a small storeship with him, for previous -expeditions had often been obliged to turn back from want of food. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -The officers who were to serve under him were carefully selected, and -were skilful in their professions. They were: Leitão (probably a -nickname) sailing master, and Pedro d’Alanquer pilot of the flag ship; -João Infante captain, João Grego sailing master, and Alvaro Martins -pilot of the São Pantaleão; and Pedro Dias, brother of the commodore, -captain, João Alves sailing master, and João de Santiago pilot of the -storeship. On board the squadron were four negresses--convicts--from the -coast of Guinea, who were to be set ashore at different places to make -discoveries and report to the next white men they should see. This was a -common practice at the time, the persons selected being criminals under -sentence of death, who were glad to escape immediate execution by -risking anything that might befall them in an unknown and barbarous -country. In this instance women were chosen, as it was considered likely -they would be protected by the natives. It was hoped that through their -means a powerful Christian prince called Prester John,[7] who was -believed to reside in the interior, might come to learn of the greatness -of the Portuguese monarchy and that efforts were being made to reach -him, so that he might send messengers to the coast to communicate with -the explorers. King João and his courtiers believed that if this -mythical Prester John could be found, he would point out the way to -India. - -Dias, like all preceding explorers, kept close to the coast on his way -southward. Somewhere near the equator he left the storeship with nine -men to look after her, and then continued his course until he reached an -inlet or small harbour with a group of islets at its entrance, the one -now called Angra Pequena or Little Bay by the English, Luderitzbucht by -the Germans, in whose possession it is at present, but which he named -Angra dos Ilheos, the bay of the Islets. The latitude was believed to be -24° south, but in reality it was 26½°, so imperfect were the means then -known for determining it. There he cast anchor, and for the first time -Christian men trod the soil of Africa south of the tropic. - -[Sidenote: Visit to Angra Pequena.] - -A more desolate place than that on which the weary seamen landed could -hardly be, and no mention is made by the early Portuguese historians of -any sign of human life being observed as far as the explorers wandered. -Unfortunately the original journal or log-book of the expedition has -long since disappeared, so that much that would be intensely interesting -now can never be known. But this is certain, that refreshment there -could have been none, except fish, the flesh of sea-fowl that made their -nests on the islets, and possibly eggs if the breeding season was not -far advanced, though even that would be welcomed by men long accustomed -only to salted food. There was no fresh water, so it was no place in -which to tarry long. Before he left, Dias set up a marble cross some two -metres or so in height, on an eminence that he named Serra Parda, the -Grey Mountain, as a token that he had taken possession of the country -for his king. For more than three hundred years that cross stood there -above the dreary waste just as the brave Portuguese explorer erected -it.[8] The place where it stood so long is called Pedestal Point. Here -one of the negresses was left, almost certainly to perish, when the -expedition moved onward. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -From Angra Pequena Dias tried to keep the land in sight, but as it was -the season of the south-east winds, which were contrary, he could not -make rapid progress. At length by repeatedly tacking he reached an inlet -or bend in the coast to which he gave the name Angra das Voltas, the Bay -of the Turnings. There is a curve in the land in the position indicated, -29° south, but the latitudes given are not to be depended upon, and the -expedition may have been far from it and farther still from the point at -the mouth of the Orange river called by modern geographers Cape Voltas, -in remembrance of that event. At Angra das Voltas, wherever it was, Dias -remained five days, as the weather was unfavourable for sailing, and -before he left another of the negresses was set ashore. - -[Sidenote: Visit to Mossel Bay.] - -After making sail again heavy weather was encountered and a boisterous -sea, such as ships often experience in that part of the ocean, and which -is caused by the cold Antarctic current being slightly deflected by some -means from its usual course and striking the hot Mozambique current at a -right angle off the Cape of Good Hope. Very miserable Dias and his -companions must have been in their tiny vessels among the tremendous -billows, with the sails close reefed, and hardly a hope of escape from -being lost. But after thirteen days the weather moderated, and then they -steered eastward, expecting soon to see the coast again. For several -days they sailed in this direction, but as no land appeared Dias -concluded that he must either have passed the extremity of the continent -or be in some deep gulf like that of Guinea. The first surmise was -correct, for on turning to the north he reached the shore at an inlet -which he named Angra dos Vaqueiros, the Bay of the Herdsmen, on account -of the numerous droves of cattle which he saw grazing on its shores. It -was probably the same inlet that was named by the next expedition the -Watering Place of São Bras, and which since 1601 has been known as -Mossel Bay. The inhabitants gazed with astonishment upon the strange -apparition coming over the sea, and then fled inland with their cattle, -so that it was not found possible to have any intercourse with the wild -people. Thus no information concerning the inhabitants of the South -African coast, except that they had domestic cattle in their possession, -was obtained by this expedition. - -How long Dias remained at Angra dos Vaqueiros is not known, but his -vessels, good sea-boats as they had proved to be, must have needed some -refitting, so he was probably there several days at least. He and his -officers were in high spirits, as unless they were in another deep bay -like the gulf of Guinea, they had solved the question of the extent -southward of the African continent. As far as their eyes could reach, -the shore stretched east and west, so, sailing again, they continued -along it until they came to an uninhabited islet in latitude 33¾° south. -This islet is in Algoa Bay as now termed--the Bahia da Lagoa of the -Portuguese after the middle of the sixteenth century,--and still bears -in the French form of St. Croix the name Ilheo da Santa Cruz, the islet -of the Holy Cross, which he gave it on account of the pillar bearing a -cross and the arms of Portugal which he erected upon it. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -Dias visited the mainland, where he observed two women gathering -shellfish, who were left unmolested, as the king had issued instructions -that no cause of offence should be given to the inhabitants of any -countries discovered. Here the last of the negresses was set ashore as -one had died on the passage. The coast was examined some distance to the -eastward, and to a prominent rock upon it the name Penedo das Fontes, -the Rock of the Fountains, was given by some of the people, because two -springs of water were found there. - -Here the seamen protested against going farther. They complained that -their supply of food was running short, and the storeship was far -behind, so that there was danger of perishing from hunger. They thought -they had surely done sufficient in one voyage, for they were two -thousand six hundred kilometres beyond the terminus of the preceding -expedition, and no one had ever taken such tidings to Portugal as they -would carry back. Further, from the trending of the coast it was evident -there must be some great headland behind them, and therefore they were -of opinion it would be better to turn about and look for it. One can -hardly blame them for their protest, considering the fatigue and peril -they had gone through and the wretchedly uncomfortable life they must -have been leading. - -[Sidenote: Extent of the Voyage.] - -Dias, after hearing these statements, took the officers and some of the -principal seamen on shore, where he administered an oath to them, after -which he asked their opinion as to what was the best course to pursue -for the service of the king. They replied with one voice, to return -home, whereupon he caused them to sign a document to that effect. He -then begged of them to continue only two or three days’ sail farther, -and promised that if they should find nothing within that time to -encourage them to proceed on an easterly course, he would put about. The -crews consented, but in the time agreed upon they advanced only to the -mouth of a river to which the commander gave the name Infante, owing to -João Infante, captain of the _São Pantaleão_, being the first to leap -ashore. The river was probably the Fish, but may have been either the -Kowie or the Keiskama as known to us. Its mouth was stated to be -twenty-five leagues from the islet of the Cross, and to be in latitude -32⅔° S., which was very incorrect. - -But now, notwithstanding this error, there should have been no doubt in -any mind that they had reached the end of the southern seaboard, which -in a distance of over nine hundred kilometres does not vary a hundred -and seventy kilometres in latitude. The coast before them trended away -to the north-east in a bold, clear line, free of the haze that almost -always hung over the western shore. And down it, only a short distance -from the land, flowed a swift ocean current many degrees warmer than the -water on either side, and revealing itself even to a careless eye by its -deeper blue. That current could only come from a heated sea in the -north, and so they might have known that the eastern side of Africa had -surely been reached. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -Whether the explorers observed these signs the Portuguese writers who -recorded their deeds, though in a manner so incomplete as to cause -nothing but regret to-day, do not inform us,[9] but from the river -Infante the expedition turned back. At Santa Cruz Dias landed again, and -bade farewell to the cross which he had set up there with as much sorrow -as if he was parting with a son banished for life. In returning, the -great headland was discovered, to which the commander gave the name Cabo -Tormentoso--the Stormy Cape--afterwards changed by the king to Cabo de -Boa Esperança--Cape of Good Hope--owing to the fair prospect which he -could now entertain of India being at last reached by this route. What -particular part of the peninsula Dias landed upon is unknown, but -somewhere on it he set up another of the marble pillars he had brought -from Portugal, to which he gave the name São Philippe. The country about -it he did not explore, as his provisions were so scanty that he was -anxious to get away. Keeping along the coast, after nine months’ absence -the storeship was rejoined, when only three men were found on board of -her, and of these, one, Fernão Colaça by name, died of joy upon seeing -his countrymen again. The other six had been murdered by negroes with -whom they were trading. Having replenished his scanty stock of -provisions, Dias set fire to the storeship, as she was in need of -refitting, and he had not men to work her; and then sailed to Prince’s -Island in the bight of Biafra, where he found some Portuguese in -distress. A gentleman of the king’s household, named Duarte Pacheco, had -been sent to explore the rivers on that part of the coast, but had lost -his vessel, and was then lying ill at the island with part of the crew -who had escaped from the wreck. Dias took them all on board, being very -glad not only to relieve his countrymen but to obtain more men to work -his ships, so many of those who sailed with him from Portugal having -died, and, pursuing his course in a north-westerly direction, touched at -a river where trade was carried on, and also at the fort of São Jorge da -Mina, an established Portuguese factory,[10] of which João Fogaça was -then commander. Here he took charge of the gold that had been collected, -after which he proceeded on his way to Lisbon, where he arrived in -December 1487, sixteen months and seventeen days from the time of his -setting out. - -[Sidenote: Return of Dias to Portugal.] - -No other dates than those mentioned are given by the early Portuguese -historians, thus the exact time of the discovery of the Cape of Good -Hope and the coast onward to the mouth of the Infante river is doubtful, -and it can only be stated as having occurred in the early months of -1487. The voyage surely was a memorable one, and nothing but regret can -be expressed that more of its details cannot be recovered. Of the three -pillars set up by Dias, two--those of the Holy Cross and São -Philippe--disappeared, no one has ever been able to ascertain when or -how; that of São Thiago at Angra Pequena remained where it was placed -until it was broken down by some unknown vandals about the commencement -of the nineteenth century. - -Meantime the king sent two men named Affonso de Paiva, of Castelbranco, -and João Pires,[11] of Covilhão, in another direction to search for -Prester John. For this purpose they left Santarem on the 7th of May -1487, and being well provided with money, they proceeded first to -Naples, then to the island of Rhodes, and thence to Alexandria. They -were both conversant with the Arabic language, and had no difficulty in -passing for Moors. At Alexandria they were detained some time by -illness, but upon recovering they proceeded to Cairo, and thence in the -disguise of merchants to Tor, Suakin, and Aden. Here they separated, -Affonso de Paiva having resolved to visit Abyssinia to ascertain if the -monarch of that country was not the potentate they were in search of, -and João Pires taking passage in a vessel bound to Cananor on the -Malabar coast. They arranged, however, to meet again in Cairo at a time -fixed upon. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -João Pires reached Cananor in safety, and went down the coast as far as -Calicut, after which he proceeded upwards to Goa. Here he embarked in a -vessel bound to Sofala, and having visited that port, he returned to -Aden, and at the time appointed was back in Cairo, where he learned that -Affonso de Paiva had died not long before. At Cairo he found two -Portuguese Jews, Rabbi Habrão, of Beja, and Josepe, a shoemaker of -Lamego. Josepe had been in Bagdad, on the Euphrates, some years -previously, and had there heard of Ormuz, at the mouth of the Persian -gulf, and of its being the warehouse of the Indian trade and the point -of departure for caravans to Aleppo and Damascus. He had returned to -Portugal and informed the king of what he had learned, who thereupon -sent him and Habrão with letters of instruction to Affonso de Paiva and -João Pires, directing them if they had not already found Prester John, -to proceed to Ormuz and gather all the information they could there. - -[Sidenote: Travels of João Pires.] - -Upon receiving this order João Pires drew up an account of what he had -seen and learned in India and on the African coast, which he gave to -Josepe to convey to the king, and taking Habrão with him, he proceeded -to Aden and thence to Ormuz. From Ormuz Habrão set out with a caravan -for Aleppo on his way back to Portugal with a duplicate of the narrative -sent to the king by Josepe. None of the early Portuguese historians who -had access to the records of the country ever saw this narrative, so -that probably neither of the Jews lived to deliver his charge. Not a -single date is given in the early accounts of this journey, except that -of the departure from Santarem, which De Goes fixes as May 1486[12] and -Castanheda and De Barros as the 7th of May 1487. There is no trace of -any knowledge in Portugal of the commerce of Sofala before the return of -Vasco da Gama in 1499, but as such a journey as that described must in -the fifteenth century have occupied several years, it is just possible -that Josepe or Habrão reached Lisbon after that date. - -João Pires went from Ormuz by way of Aden to Abyssinia, where he was -well received by the ruler of that country. Here, after all his -wanderings he found a home, for as he was not permitted to leave again, -he married and had children, living upon property given to him by the -government. In 1515 Dom Rodrigo de Lima arrived in Abyssinia as -ambassador of the king of Portugal, and found him still alive. With the -embassy was a priest, Francisco Alvares by name, who wrote an account of -the mission and of the statement made to him by João Pires, and also -gave such information on his return home as enabled the Portuguese -historians to place on record the above details. As far as actual result -in increase of geographical knowledge is concerned, this expedition of -Affonso de Paiva and João Pires therefore effected nothing. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - - In the laudable spirit of modern times, prompted by a desire to - rectify error, men do not hesitate to question the accuracy of even - the most renowned writers of old. But the great authority of De - Barros requires that very substantial proof should be supplied - before any date given by him is overturned, especially when that - date is given three different times, and is indirectly corroborated - by other contemporary historians. In an article entitled _The - Voyages of Diogo Cão and Bartholomeu Dias 1482-88_, by E. G. - Ravenstein, in the _Geographical Journal_, Vol. XVI, July to - December 1900, page 625, an attempt is made to substitute other - dates for the voyages of Diogo Cam and Bartholomeu Dias than those - given by João de Barros, but the arguments supplied do not seem to - me to be of much weight. - - This is what Mr. Ravenstein says: - - “We do not know whether Cão was given the command of one or of more - vessels, nor have the names of any of his officers been placed on - record. - - “Cão was the first to carry padrões, or pillars of stone, on an - exploring voyage. Up to his time the Portuguese had been content to - erect perishable wooden crosses, or to carve inscriptions into - trees to mark the progress of their discoveries. King John - conceived the happy idea of introducing stone pillars surmounted by - a cross, and bearing, in addition to the royal arms, an inscription - recording in Portuguese, and sometimes also in Latin, the date, the - name of the king by whose order the voyage was made and the name of - the commander. The four padrões set up by Cão on his two voyages - have been discovered in situ, and the inscriptions upon two of them - (one for each voyage) are still legible, notwithstanding the lapse - of four centuries and have been deciphered. - - “During the first voyage two padrões were set up--one at the Congo - mouth, the other on the Cabo do Lobo in latitude 13° 26 S., now - known as Cape St. Mary. The latter has been recovered intact. It - consists of a shaft 1.69 m. high and 0.73 m. in circumference, - surmounted by a cube of 0.47 m. in height and .33 in breadth. Shaft - and cube are cut out of a single block of liaz, a kind of limestone - or coarse marble common in the environs of Lisbon. The cross has - disappeared, with the exception of a stump, from which it is seen - that it also was of stone, and fixed by means of lead. - - “The arms of Portugal carved upon the face of the cube are those in - use up to 1486; in which year João II, being then at Beja, caused - the green cross of the Order of Avis, which had been improperly - introduced by his grandfather, who had been master of that order, - to be withdrawn and the position of the quinas, or five - escutcheons, to be changed. - - [Sidenote: Criticisms of the Account by Barros.] - - “The inscription covers the three other sides of the cube. It is in - Gothic letters and in Portuguese, and reads as follows: ‘In the - year 6681 of the World, and in that of 1482 since the birth of our - Lord Jesus Christ, the most serene, most excellent and potent - prince, King D. João II. of Portugal did order (_mandou_) this land - to be discovered and these padrões to be set up by Dº Cão, an - esquire (_escudeiro_) of his household.’ There is no inscription in - Latin. - - “As the year 6681 of Eusebius begins on September 1, 1481, we - gather from this inscription that the order for the expedition was - given between January and August, 1482. Of course the departure may - have been delayed, but the delay cannot have been a long one, as - Cão was home again before April, 1484. - - “Cão came back to Lisbon probably in the beginning of 1484, and - certainly before April of that year. The king, first of all, made - him a ‘cavalleiro’ of his household. He then, on April 8, 1484, ‘in - consideration of the services rendered in the course of a voyage of - discovery to Guinea, from which he had now returned,’ granted him - an annuity of ten thousand reals, to be continued to one surviving - son; and a few days afterwards, on April 14, he separated his - ‘cavalier’ from the common herd and made him noble, and gave him a - coat-of-arms charged with the two padrões which he had erected on - the coast of Africa. - - * * * * * - - “Far more useful for our purpose is the pillar which formerly stood - on Cape Cross, and which Captain Becker of the Falke carried off to - Kiel[13] in 1893. Dr. Scheppig has fully described the pillar. - - “The Portuguese inscription says--‘In the year 6685 of the creation - of the world, and of Christ 485, the excellent, illustrious King D. - João II. of Portugal did direct this land to be discovered, and - this padrão to be set up by Dº Cão, a cavalleiro (knight) of his - household.’ - - “As the year 6685 of the Eusebian era begins on September 1, 1485, - Cão must have departed after that day, and before the close of the - year. As he had returned from his first voyage before April, 1484, - his departure must have been delayed for reasons not known to us. - - - “THE VOYAGE OF BARTHOLOMEU DIAS, 1487-88. - - “No sooner had Cão’s vessels returned to the Tagus than King John, - whose curiosity had been excited by the reports about the supposed - Prester John, brought home by d’Aveiro, determined to fit out - another expedition to go in quest of him by doubling Africa, Friar - Antonio of Lisbon and Pero of Montaroyo having already been - despatched on the same errand by way of Jerusalem and Egypt. The - command of this expedition was conferred upon Bartholomeu Dias de - Novaes, a cavalier of the king’s household.... It certainly was our - Bartholomew who commanded one of the vessels despatched in 1481 - with Diogo d’Azambuja to the Gold Coast. - - [Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - - “The appointment seems to have been made in October, 1486, for on - the 10th of that month King John, ‘in consideration of services - which he hoped to receive,’ conferred upon Bartholomeu Dias, the - ‘patron’ of the _S. Christovão_, a royal vessel, an annuity of - 6,000 reis. - - “The account which João de Barros has transmitted to us of the - remarkable expedition which resulted in the discovery of the Cape - of Good Hope is fragmentary, and on some points undoubtedly - erroneous. Unfortunately, up till now no official report of the - expedition has been discovered; but there are a few incidental - references to it, which enable us to amplify, and in some measure - to correct, the version put forward by the great Portuguese - historian. - - “Most important among these independent witnesses is a marginal - note on fol. 13 of a copy of Pierre d’Ailly’s _Imago mundi_, which - was the property of Christopher Columbus, and is still in the - Columbine Library at Seville. This ‘note’ reads as follows:-- - - “‘Note, that in December of this year, 1488, there landed at Lisbon - Bartholomeu Didacus [Dias], the commander of three caravels, whom - the King of Portugal had sent to Guinea to seek out the land, and - who reported that he had sailed 600 leagues beyond the furthest - reached hitherto, that is, 450 leagues to the south and then 150 - leagues to the north, as far as a cape named by him the Cape of - Good Hope, which cape we judge to be in Agisimba, its latitude, as - determined by the astrolabe, being 45° S., and its distance from - Lisbon 3100 leagues. This voyage he [Dias] had depicted and - described from league to league upon a chart, so that he might show - it to the king; at all of which I was present (_in quibus omnibus - interfui_).’ - - “The same voyage is referred to in a second ‘note’ discovered in - the margin of the _Historia rerum ubique gestarum_ of Pope Pius - II., printed at Venice in 1477. From this second note we learn that - ‘one of the captains whom the most serene King of Portugal sent - forth to seek out the land in Guinea brought back word in 1488 that - he had sailed 45° beyond the equinoctial line.’ - - “Las Casas (_Historia de las Indias_, lib. i. c. 7) assumed these - notes to have been written by Bartholomew Columbus, whom, as the - result of a misconception of the meaning of the concluding words of - the note, he supposed to have taken part in this voyage. These - assumptions, however, are absolutely inadmissible, for as early as - February 10, 1488, Bartholomew had completed at London a map of the - world for Henry VII. If we remember that Bartholomew was detained - by pirates for several weeks before he reached England, he must - have left Lisbon towards the end of 1487. He did not return to that - place until many years afterwards. - - “On the other hand, the note is unhesitatingly recognized as in the - handwriting of Christopher by such competent authorities as - Varnhagen, d’Avezac, H. Harrisse, Asensio, and Cesare de Lollis. - - [Sidenote: Criticism of the Account by Barros.] - - “And if Christopher is the author of these notes, they must have - been written in 1488, for it was in March, 1488, that King Manuel, - in response to an application, cordially invited his ‘especial - friend,’ Christopher Columbus, to come to Lisbon, promising him - protection against all criminal and civil proceedings that might be - taken against him. Columbus, when he received this royal - invitation, was at Seville, where his son Ferdinand was born unto - him on September 28, 1488. If he left Seville soon afterwards, he - may certainly have been present on the memorable occasion, in - December, 1488, when Bartholomeu Dias rendered an account to the - king of the results of his hope-inspiring voyage. - - “If then, Bartholomeu Dias returned in December, 1488, after an - absence (according to De Barros) of sixteen months and seventeen - days, he must have started towards the end of July or in the - beginning of August, 1487; and if the Bartholomeu Dias referred to - in the royal rescript of October 10, 1486, is the discoverer of the - Cape, which hardly admits of a doubt, he cannot have started in - July, 1486, as usually assumed. He cannot have been in Lisbon in - December, 1487. - - “This date (namely 1488) is further confirmed by Duarte Pacheco - Pereira, the ‘Achilles Lusitano’ of Camoens, for in his _Esmeraldo - de Situ Orbis_, written soon after 1505, but only published in - 1892, we are told that the Cape was discovered in 1488. And Pacheco - is a very competent witness, for Dias, on his homeward voyage, met - him at the Ilha do Principe. - - “A further statement respecting the date of the discovery of the - Cape appears in the _Parecer_, or ‘Opinion,’ of the Spanish - astronomers and pilots already referred to. They say, ‘And beyond - this [the Sierra Parda, where Cão died], Bartolomé Diaz, in the - year 1488, discovered as far as the Cabo d’El-Rei, a distance of - 350 leagues; and thence to the Cabo de boa Esperança, 250 leagues; - and thence D. Vasco da Gama discovered 600 leagues.’” - - This evidence does not seem to me to be by any means conclusive. - - The marginal note supposed to have been made by Christopher - Columbus I reject at once, as I cannot believe that the latitude - named in it was given by Dias or recorded by Columbus. - - As for the work of Duarte Pacheco, it cannot for a moment be placed - in the scale against Barros. Its author was born in Lisbon about - 1451, and is believed to have died in poverty some time between the - years 1524 and 1553. It was he who was rescued at Prince’s Island - and taken to Lisbon, so that he must have been acquainted with the - correct date, but as his original manuscript has perished and the - copy made from it was done carelessly and certainly contains - transcriber’s errors, I do not think much dependence can be placed - on his statements. There are two manuscript copies of his work in - existence. The oldest, now in the library at Evora, is supposed - from the style of the writing to have been made about the close of - the sixteenth century, and the other, now in the National Library - in Lisbon, is merely a transcript of the first made at a much later - date. The work was published at Lisbon in 1892 in a foolscap folio - volume of xxxv+125 pages, and is divided into four books. It is - entitled _Esmeraldo de Situ Orbis, por Duarte Pacheco Pereira. - Edição commemorativa da Descoberta da America por Christovão - Colombo no seu quarto centenario, sob a direcção de Raphael Eduardo - de Azevedo Basta, Conservador do Real Archivo da Torre do Tombo_. - - [Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - - I give here the two references to the voyage of Dias, from which - the reader can see how little this work of Duarte Pacheco is to be - depended upon. In a reference to the first voyage of Diogo Cam he - states, as in the second of these, that the inscription on the - cross was in three languages: Latin, Portuguese, and Arabic. That - identical cross is still in existence, and there is no Arabic upon - it. See also the confusion between the Penedo das Fontes and the - Ilheo da Santa Cruz. - - Terceyro Liuro, pagina 90. - - Nom sem muita rasam se poz nome a este promontorio cabo da boa - esperança por que Bartholomeu Dias que o descobrio por mandado - delRey Dom Joham que Deos tem no anno de nosso senhor de mil - quatrocentos & oitenta & oito annos veendo que esta costa & Ribeira - do mar voltaua daly em diante ao norte & ao nordest.... - - Terceyro Liuro, pagina 94. - - Item; sinco leguoas adiante dangra do Rico esta hum Ilheo pouco - mais de mea leguoa de terra que se chama ho penedo das fontes o - qual nome Ihe pos Bertholameu Dias que esta terra descobrio por - mandado delRey Dom Joham que Deos tem por que achou aly duas fontes - de muito boa augua doce & por outro nome se chama este penedo ho - Ilheo da Cruz por que o mesmo Bertholameu Dias pos aly hum padram - de pedra pouco mais alto que hum homem com huma cruz em sima & este - padram tem tres letreyros.s. hum em latim & outro em harabiguo & - outro em nossa lingua portugueza & todos tres dizem huma cousa.s. - como elRey Dom Joham no anno de nosso senhor Jesus cristo de mil - CCCC & oytenta & oyto annos & em tantos annos da creaçam do mundo - mandou descobrir esta costa por Bertholameu Dias capitam de seus - nauios; ... - - The remaining references seem to me equally weak, and until - something more conclusive comes to light I think it would be well - to adhere to the dates of Barros. I notice, however, that Mr. K. G. - Jayne, in his _Vasco da Gama and his Successors_, has adopted the - dates of Mr. Ravenstein. - - - - -II. - - -_First Voyages of the French and English to the Eastern Seas. And a -Sketch of the Early History of the Netherlands and of the Establishment -of the Dutch in India._ - - - - -SKETCH II. - - -I. - -FIRST VOYAGES OF THE FRENCH AND ENGLISH TO INDIA. EARLY HISTORY OF THE -NETHERLANDS. - -The debt which the world owes to the Portuguese for weakening the -Mohamedan power and thus preventing the subjugation of a larger portion -of Eastern Europe than was actually overrun by the Turks should not be -forgotten, but long before the close of the sixteenth century they had -ceased to be participants in the great progressive movement of the -Caucasian race. Upon a conquering nation rests an enormous -responsibility: no less than that of benefiting the world at large. Was -Portugal doing this in her eastern possessions to such an extent as to -make her displacement there a matter deserving universal regret? -Probably her own people would reply that she was, for every nation -regards its own acts as better than those of others; but beyond her -borders the answer unquestionably would be that she was not. Rapacity, -cruelty, corruption, have all been laid to her charge at this period, -and not without sufficient reason. But apart from these vices, her -weakness under the Castilian kings was such that she was incapable of -doing any good. When an individual is too infirm and decrepit to manage -his affairs, a robust man takes his place, and so it is with States. The -weak one may cry out that might is not right, but such a cry finds a -very feeble echo. India was not held by the Portuguese under the only -indefeasible tenure: that of making the best use of it; and thus it -could be seized by a stronger power without Christian nations feeling -that a wrong was being done. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -Before recounting in brief the rise of the Northern Netherlands to a -proud position among European states, and the commencement of the Dutch -conquests in the eastern seas, a glance may be given to the earliest -acts of other nations, and especially to those of our own countrymen, in -those distant regions. - -The French were the first to follow the Portuguese round the Cape of -Good Hope to India. As early as 1507 a corsair of that nation, named -Mondragon, made his appearance in the Mozambique channel[14] with two -armed vessels, and plundered a ship commanded by Job Queimado. He also -captured and robbed another Indiaman nearer home. On the 18th of January -1509 a fleet commanded by Duarte Pacheco Pereira fell in with him off -Cape Finisterre, and after a warm engagement sank one of his ships and -captured the other. Mondragon was taken a prisoner to Lisbon, where he -found means of making his peace with the king, and he was then permitted -to return to France. - -Twenty years later three ships, fitted out by a merchant named Jean -Ango, sailed from Dieppe for India. The accounts of this expedition are -so conflicting that it is impossible to relate the occurrences attending -it with absolute accuracy. It is certain, however, that one of the ships -never reached her destination. Another was wrecked on the coast of -Sumatra, where her crew were all murdered. The third reached Diu in July -1527. She had a crew of forty Frenchmen, but was commanded by a -Portuguese named Estevão Dias, nicknamed Brigas, who had fled from his -native country on account of misdeeds committed there, and had taken -service with the strangers. The ruler of Diu regarded this ship with -great hostility, and as he was unable to seize her openly, he practised -deceit to get her crew within his power. Professing friendship, he gave -Dias permission to trade in his territory, but took advantage of the -first opportunity to arrest him and his crew. They were handed over as -captives to the paramount Mohamedan ruler, and were obliged to embrace -his creed to preserve their lives. They were then taken into his service -and remained in India. - -[Sidenote: Early Voyages of the French.] - -Early in 1529 two ships commanded by Jean and Raoul Parmentier, fitted -out partly by Jean Ango, partly by merchants of Rouen, sailed from -Dieppe. In October of the same year they reached Sumatra, but on account -of great loss of life from sickness, on the 22nd of January 1530 they -turned homeward. As they avoided the Portuguese settlements, nothing was -known at Goa of their proceedings except what was told by a sailor who -was left behind at Madagascar and was afterwards found there. This -expedition was almost as unsuccessful as the preceding one. On their -return passage the ships were greatly damaged in violent storms, and -they reached Europe with difficulty. - -From that time until 1601 there is no trace of a French vessel having -passed the Cape of Good Hope. In May of this year the _Corbin_ and -_Croissant_, two ships fitted out by some merchants of Laval and Vitré, -sailed from St. Malo. They reached the Maldives safely, but there the -_Corbin_ was lost in July 1602, and her commander was unable to return -to France until ten years had gone by. The _Croissant_ was lost on the -Spanish coast on her homeward passage. - -On the 1st of June 1604 a French East India Company was established on -paper, but it did not get further. In 1615 it was reorganised, and in -1617 the first successful expedition to India under the French flag -sailed from a port in Normandy. From that date onward ships of this -nation were frequently seen in the eastern seas. But the French made no -attempt to form a settlement in South Africa, and their only connection -with this country was that towards the middle of the seventeenth century -a vessel was sent occasionally from Rochelle to collect a cargo of -sealskins and oil at the islands in and near the present Saldanha Bay. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -The English were the next to appear in Indian waters. A few individuals -of this nation may have served in Portuguese ships, and among the -missionaries, especially of the Company of Jesus, who went out to -convert the heathen, it is not unlikely that there were several. One at -least, Thomas Stephens by name, was rector of the Jesuit college at -Salsette. A letter written by him from Goa in 1579, and printed in the -second volume of Hakluyt’s work, is the earliest account extant of an -English voyager to that part of the world.[15] It contains no -information of importance. - -The famous sea captain Francis Drake, of Tavistock in Devon, sailed from -Plymouth on the 13th of December 1577, with the intention of exploring -the Pacific ocean. His fleet consisted of five vessels, carrying in all -one hundred and sixty-four men. His own ship, named the Pelican, was of -one hundred and twenty tons burden. The others were the _Elizabeth_, -eighty tons, the _Marigold_, thirty tons, a pinnace of twelve tons, and -a storeship of fifty tons burden. The last named was set on fire as soon -as her cargo was transferred to the others, the pinnace was abandoned, -the _Marigold_ was lost in a storm, the _Elizabeth_, after reaching the -Pacific, turned back through the straits of Magellan, and the _Pelican_ -alone continued the voyage. She was the first English ship that sailed -round the world. Captain Drake reached England again on the 3rd of -November 1580, and soon afterwards was made a knight by Queen Elizabeth -on board his ship. The _Pelican_ did not touch at any part of the South -African coast, but there is the following paragraph in the account of -the voyage:-- - -[Sidenote: First Englishmen in the East.] - -“We ran hard aboard the Cape, finding the report of the Portuguese to be -most false, who affirm that it is the most dangerous cape of the world, -never without intolerable storms and present danger to travellers who -come near the same. This cape is a most stately thing, and the fairest -cape we saw in the whole circumference of the earth, and we passed by it -on the 18th of June.” - -In 1583 four English traders in precious stones, acting partly on their -own account and partly as agents for merchants in London, made their way -by the Tigris and the Persian gulf to Ormuz, where at that time people -of various nationalities were engaged in commerce. John Newbery, the -leader of the party, had been there before. The others were named Ralph -Fitch, William Leades, and James Story. Shortly after their arrival at -Ormuz they were arrested by the Portuguese authorities on the double -charge of being heretics and spies of the prior Dom Antonio, who was a -claimant to the throne of Portugal, and under these pretences they were -sent prisoners to Goa. There they managed to clear themselves of the -first of the charges, Story entered a convent, and the others, on -finding bail not to leave the city, were set at liberty in December -1584, mainly through the instrumentality of the Jesuit father Stephens -and Jan Huyghen van Linscheten, of whom more will be related in the -following pages. Four months afterwards, being in fear of ill-treatment, -they managed to make their escape from Goa. After a time they separated, -and Fitch went on a tour through India, visiting many places before his -return to England in 1591. An account of his travels is extant in -Hakluyt’s collection, but there is not much information in it, and it -had no effect upon subsequent events. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -Thomas Candish sailed from Plymouth on the 21st of July 1586, with three -ships--the _Desire_, of one hundred and twenty tons, the _Content_, of -sixty tons, and the _Hugh Gallant_, of forty tons--carrying in all one -hundred and twenty-three souls. After sailing round the globe, he -arrived again in Plymouth on the 9th of September 1588, having passed -the Cape of Good Hope on the 16th of May. - -The first English ships that put into a harbour on the South African -coast were the _Penelope_, _Merchant Royal_, and _Edward Bonaventure_, -which sailed from Plymouth for India on the 10th of April 1591, under -command of Admiral George Raymond. This fleet put into the watering -place of Saldanha, now called Table Bay, at the end of July. The crews, -who were suffering from scurvy, were at once sent on shore, where they -obtained fresh food by shooting wild fowl and gathering mussels and -other shell-fish along the rocky beach. Some inhabitants had been seen -when the ships sailed in, but they appeared terrified, and at once moved -inland. Admiral Raymond visited Robben Island, where he found seals and -penguins in great numbers. One day some hunters caught a Hottentot, whom -they treated kindly, making him many presents and endeavouring to show -him by signs that they were in want of cattle. They then let him go, and -eight days afterwards he returned with thirty or forty others, bringing -forty oxen and as many sheep. Trade was at once commenced, the price of -an ox being two knives, that of a sheep one knife. So many men had died -of scurvy that it was considered advisable to send the _Merchant Royal_ -back to England weak handed. The _Penelope_, with one hundred and one -men, and the _Edward Bonaventure_, with ninety-seven men, sailed for -India on the 8th of September. On the 12th a gale was encountered, and -that night those in the _Edward Bonaventure_, whereof was master James -Lancaster--who was afterwards famous as an advocate of Arctic -exploration, and whose name was given by Bylot and Baffin to the sound -which terminated their discoveries in 1616--saw a great sea break over -the admiral’s ship, which put out her lights. After that she was never -seen or heard of again. - -[Sidenote: The Beginning of Dutch History.] - -The appearance of these rivals in the Indian seas caused much concern in -Spain and Portugal. There was as yet no apprehension of the loss of the -sources of the spice trade, but it was regarded as probable that English -ships would lie in wait at St. Helena for richly laden vessels homeward -bound, so in 1591 and again in 1593 the king directed the viceroy to -instruct the captains not to touch at that island. - -At this time a new state, the republic of the United Netherlands, had -recently come into existence in Europe. It was a state full of life and -vigour, though its territory was even smaller than that of Portugal. -Constantly battling with the ocean that threatened to submerge the land, -breathing an invigorating air, coming from an energetic and -self-respecting stock, its people were the hardiest and most industrious -of Europeans. They were also attached to freedom, and ready to part with -property and life itself rather than submit to tyranny or misrule. A -brief outline of their history will show how they came to contend with -Portugal at the close of the sixteenth century and the beginning of the -seventeenth for the commerce of the Indian seas.[16] - -The territory that now forms the kingdom of the Netherlands was the last -part of the continent of Europe to be occupied by human beings. For -untold ages the Rhine, the Maas, and the Schelde had been carrying down -earth and the ocean had been casting up sand, until at last a tract of -swampy but habitable ground appeared where previously waves had rolled. -That was not many centuries before the commencement of the Christian -era, and so no traces of palæolithic man are found there such as are -found in all other parts of Europe, and in great abundance in some parts -of modern Belgium close by. The most ancient relics of man discovered in -the northern Netherlands are comparatively recent flint implements, -tumuli containing funeral urns, and the so-called hunebedden, sepulchres -of men of note, roughly built of stone taken from boulders carried from -the Scandinavian peninsula by ice in glacial times, and deposited on the -banks not yet risen to the surface of the sea. These hunebedden are -found chiefly in the present province of Drenthe, and may not date much -further back than Roman times. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -The Batavi, a Nether Teuton tribe, driven westward by war, about a -century before the birth of Christ found their way into the island -enclosed by the North sea and the extreme forks of the Rhine, which was -then a waste of morasses, lakelets, and forests. It had previously been -occupied by a Celtic population, that had abandoned it not long before -on account of disasters from floods. The position of the forks of the -Rhine was probably different from what it is to-day, for the whole face -of the country has undergone a great change since the Batavians first -saw it. Large tracts of land have been reclaimed, and still larger -tracts have been lost by the sea washing over them. Thus in the -thirteenth century of our era the very heart of the country was torn out -by the ocean, and villages and towns and wide pastures were buried for -ever under the deep waters since termed the Zuider Zee. In 1277 the -Dollart was formed between Groningen and Hanover, and in 1421 the -Biesbosch between Brabant and Holland took the place of habitable land. - -[Sidenote: Different Races in the Netherlands.] - -Farther north than the Batavians, the Frisians, also a Nether Teuton -people, occupied a great extent of country, but it is impossible to say -when they first took possession of it. These Batavians and Frisians were -the nearest blood relations of the Angles and Saxons who at a later date -conquered England and part of Scotland, and their language was so nearly -the same that our great Alfred could with little difficulty have -understood it. - -The southern part of what is now the kingdom of Belgium and the -adjoining districts of France were inhabited at this time by a Celtic -people, who had long before replaced the early palæolithic savages. -Between them and the Batavians and Frisians was a broad tract occupied -by Teutons and Celts mixed together, who do not appear, however, to have -blended their blood to any great extent. This was the condition of the -country at the beginning of the Christian era, and it was its condition -more than fifteen centuries later, when Philippe II was king of Spain -and Elizabeth Tudor was queen of England. - -Cæsar conquered the Celts and compelled the Frisians to pay tribute, but -he admitted the Batavians to an alliance, and thereafter for hundreds of -years they voluntarily supplied the Roman army with its bravest -soldiers. They gave their blood for Rome, and in return received -civilisation. During this period they learned to construct dykes to -prevent the ocean and the rivers from overflowing the land, to dig -canals, to make highways, and to build bridges. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -Then came the outpouring of the northern nations upon the western -empire, and when it ceased the power that had overshadowed the earth had -gone. In its stead the Franks were masters of the Celtic portion of the -Netherlands, where the Latin tongue was spoken, and tribes akin to the -Frisian had mixed with the occupants of the north. The Batavians -remained, but their distinctive name had disappeared, and so the racial -division of the land was as it had been before. - -Some of the Frisians had been converted to Christianity by Anglo-Saxon -missionaries, and in A.D. 750 the whole of them, after a crushing defeat -by Charles Martel, accepted that religion. In A.D. 785 their conquest -was completed by Charlemagne, and the whole region then became a section -of the dominions of that able and powerful ruler. The bishopric of -Utrecht was founded at this time. Extensive domains were attached to the -see, and the bishop, besides the ecclesiastical authority which he -exercised over the whole of the Frisians, was temporal ruler of a -territory constantly varying in size, sometimes covering several of the -modern provinces. - -Charlemagne left the local customs of the people of the Netherlands -undisturbed, and sent officials to govern them according to their own -laws, though in his name. Under his feeble successors the country was -broken up into a number of practically petty sovereignties by the -descendants of his officials, who now claimed hereditary authority and -ruled as despots. They called themselves dukes, counts, marquises, or -lords, and often quarrelled with each other. Most of them nominally -admitted the precedence in rank of the head of the Holy Roman Empire, as -the counts of Flanders and Artois did that of the kings of France, but -this was the full extent of their submission. - -The Scandinavian pirates sailed up the rivers and made frequent attacks -upon the towns and villages on their banks, they plundered and murdered -many of the people, but they did not form permanent settlements as they -did in the more attractive lands of Normandy and Sicily. - -[Sidenote: Growth of the Towns.] - -The country not being capable of supporting its inhabitants by -agriculture and cattle breeding alone, manufactures and commerce were -necessary, and in addition the fisheries became a means of living for -many. They traded with England, buying wool, with the coast of the -Baltic, selling woollen and linen cloths, and with all north-western -Europe, selling Indian products, of which Bruges was the emporium for -the Italian merchants. So towns grew and prospered, and in course of -time obtained municipal charters from their sovereigns. In A.D. 1217 the -first of these in the present kingdom of the Netherlands was granted by -Count William the First of Holland and Countess Joanna of Flanders to -the town of Middelburg in Zeeland. It did not indeed confer great -privileges, but it was the beginning of a system which had most -important effects upon the country. The crusades tended to hasten this -movement. The petty sovereigns who took part in them were very willing -to sell privileges for ready money, which they needed for their -equipment, and their subjects were quite as willing to buy. - -So the towns grew in number and in size, and succeeded in obtaining, -usually by purchase, a large amount of self-government and the right of -sending deputies to the estates or parliaments, who sat with the nobles -to confer upon general affairs. Just as the various kings of the Saxon -states in England, the petty sovereigns were continually quarrelling -with each other, and their number varied from time to time, as one or -other got the mastery over his neighbours. Not the least prominent or -quarrelsome among them was the bishop of Utrecht, whose dominions -contracted or expanded with the fortunes of diplomacy or war. The -estates of his province consisted of deputies from the towns, the -nobles, and abbots, over whom he presided as a sovereign. In some of the -little dominions the privileges of the towns were much greater than in -others, in several indeed the cities were practically little short of -being independent republics. Unfortunately they were so jealous of each -other that they could not unite in carrying out any policy that would -have benefited the whole province, and there was no tie whatever that -bound the different provinces together. Each city with a little domain -around it stood alone, and though it might enjoy self-government, its -position was precarious, for it could not depend upon anything outside -of itself to assist it if necessary to maintain its rights against an -aggressor. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -This was the condition of affairs political when, owing partly to the -extinction of some of the ruling families, partly to purchase, and -partly to fraud and force, in 1437 a majority of the provinces--among -them Holland and Zeeland--came under the dominion of Philippe, the -powerful duke of Burgundy. They continued, however, to be independent of -each other, and were governed by him as distinct states, of one of which -he was termed duke, of another count, and so on, though he established a -council at Mechlin, which acted as a court of appeal for them all. He -was married to the youngest daughter of João I of Portugal and Philippa -of Lancaster, Isabella by name, whose nephew, Affonso V, in 1466 made -her a present of the Azores or Western Islands. A considerable number of -families from the Netherlands, whose descendants can still be -distinguished there, then migrated to the Flemish islands, as they were -long thereafter termed. These dependencies shared the fate of the other -dominions of the house of Burgundy until 1640, when they reverted to -Portugal. - -Philippe suppressed much of the freedom that had been gained, but he -encouraged and protected commerce and manufactures, and under his rule -the provinces increased greatly in material wealth. He died in 1467, -and was succeeded by his son Charles the Headstrong, a perfectly -reckless and unprincipled ruler, who endeavoured to crush out all the -acquired freedom of the people, and nearly succeeded in establishing -himself as an absolute despot. His first wife was Catherine of Valois, -by whom he had only one daughter. After her death he married, on the 3rd -of July 1468, Margaret of York, sister of Edward IV of England, but had -no children by her. Like his father, he governed the Netherlands by -means of officials termed stadholders, who acted as his representatives -and carried out his instructions. The first standing army in the country -was stationed there by him. Charles was killed in battle with the Swiss -in 1477, and as he left no son, his daughter, Mary of Burgundy, claimed -the right of succeeding him as sovereign of all the provinces he had -ruled over. - -[Sidenote: Privileges of the Towns.] - -Louis XI of France, however, on the ground that the Salic law was -applicable in this case, took possession of Burgundy, and cast longing -eyes on the Netherlands as well. In this hour of danger, the estates of -all the provinces came together at Ghent, when the lady Mary voluntarily -restored all the privileges and rights that her father and grandfather -had annulled. She even went further, and granted the “Groot Privilegie,” -which conferred such extensive authority upon the estates that under its -clauses despotism or even misgovernment would be impossible, for no -taxes could be imposed and no war undertaken without their consent, and -edicts of the sovereign were to be invalid if they conflicted with the -privileges of the towns. Only natives of the particular province could -be appointed to offices in any of them, thus a native of Brabant or -Namur could not fill an office in Flanders or Holland. Persons charged -with crime were to be brought to trial speedily, and no citizen could be -arbitrarily imprisoned by the ruler. A more liberal constitution could -hardly have been imagined at that time nor indeed even at present. - -The estates were then ready to support the lady Mary, they acknowledged -her as their sovereign, and with their approval she married Maximilian -of Hapsburg, son of the German emperor. Five years later she was killed -by a fall from her horse, leaving a son, Philippe by name, then four -years of age, as heir to her sovereignty of the Netherlands. Maximilian -claimed to act as regent and guardian of his son, and was accepted as -such by all of the provinces subject to Burgundy except Flanders, which -he got possession of by force. He disowned the “Great Privilege,” as did -his son Philippe, when in 1494 at seventeen years of age he assumed the -government. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -In 1496 Philippe married Joanna, eldest daughter of Ferdinand of Aragon -and Isabella of Castile. Her sister Catherine was destined at a later -date to play an important part in English history as the spouse of King -Henry the Eighth. From the union of Philippe and Joanna was born in the -year 1500 a son, who as the emperor Charles V was the most powerful -monarch in Europe. From his mother he inherited the sovereignty of -Spain, of portions of Italy, and of the greater part of the New World, -with the title of king, from his father he inherited the sovereignty of -all the Netherlands except Gelderland, Utrecht, the Frisian provinces, -and Liege, with the titles of count and duke, and by election of the -German princes he became the head of the Holy Roman Empire, with the -title of emperor. His father Philippe died in 1506, and the Netherlands -became the first portion of his vast inheritance that fell to him. To -those provinces that had been dependencies of Burgundy, he was able to -add Friesland in 1524, Utrecht and Overyssel in 1528, and Groningen and -Drenthe in 1536, all obtained by cession after long civil war, when the -bishop of Utrecht, who was unable to protect himself from the duke of -Gelderland, resigned his temporal authority. In 1543 he conquered -Gelderland, and in the following year he compelled the king of France, -to whom his father Philippe had done homage for Flanders and Artois, to -renounce the suzerainty of those provinces, so that the entire country, -Liege only excepted, came under his undisputed sovereignty. In this -manner the provinces became united with Spain under one ruler, though -their governments remained distinct. - -[Sidenote: Rule of Charles V.] - -Under Charles just as much or as little freedom as he pleased was left -to the people of the Netherlands, for he regarded his edicts as superior -in authority to all charters or customs, and he inflicted terrible -vengeance upon the city of Ghent, his own birthplace, for daring to -resist the payment of an amount of money that he arbitrarily demanded. -He professed to regard the provinces with favour, but he drew largely -upon their resources to enable him to carry on wars in which they had no -interest whatever. - -And now another factor came into play, which tended very greatly to -increase the bitterness of the people at the diminution of freedom. The -reformation had commenced, and its principles were spreading in the -Netherlands. Charles, who regarded schism as even more criminal than -rebellion, attempted to stamp out the new teaching, and for this purpose -introduced the inquisition. His sister Mary, dowager queen of Hungary, -acted as regent of the country for twenty-five years, and carried out -his instructions in letter and in spirit. Many thousands of people -perished by various forms of death, but wretched as the condition of the -unhappy Netherlanders was, a still darker day was about to dawn upon -them. - -It is generally affirmed that there were seventeen distinct provinces at -this time, but in fact the number seventeen was derived from the titles -of the sovereign and the accidental circumstance that there were -seventeen separate estates present at the abdication of Charles V,[17] -though these did not correspond exactly with the titles. For instance, -one of the titles was count of Zutphen, but Zutphen had for centuries -been part of Gelderland; another of the titles was marquis of Anvers or -Antwerp, but Antwerp was a city of Brabant. On the other hand Lille with -Douai and Orchies, though cities of Flanders, had separate estates, but -did not furnish a title, the same was the case with Valenciennes, a city -of Hainaut, while Mechlin, in the very heart of Brabant, had separate -estates and furnished the title lord of Malines or Mechlin. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -What would be termed provinces to-day were the duchies of Gelderland, -Brabant, Limburg, and Luxemburg, the counties of Holland, Zeeland, -Flanders, Namur or Namen, Hainaut or Henegouwen, and Artois, and the -lordships of Utrecht, Friesland, Groningen with Drenthe, Overyssel, and -Mechlin or Malines.[18] To make seventeen, the county of Zutphen and the -marquisate of Antwerp must be added if titles alone are considered, or -if states present at the abdication of Charles V be taken as a guide, -Lille with Douai and Orchies and Tournai with the Tournaisis[19] must -be included. Only five of these--Holland, Utrecht, Friesland, Groningen, -and Overyssel--remain on the map to-day as they were in the middle of -the sixteenth century. Of them all, Brabant was the most important at -that time, Flanders came next, and Holland, soon to take the leading -place, was regarded as only the third.[20] - -[Sidenote: Accession of Philippe II.] - -On the 25th of October 1555 in presence of the estates of seventeen -provinces assembled at Brussels, the emperor Charles the Fifth, worn out -with disease and infirmity, abdicated the sovereignty, and his son -Philippe became ruler in his stead. The change was all for the worse. -Charles had been a despot, it is true, but he was by birth a -Netherlander, he spoke the language of the people, and took an interest -in their commerce and their manufactures; Philippe was a Spaniard, -ignorant of Flemish (_i.e._ Dutch) and of French, and without a particle -of sympathy with them in any particular. - -For the first four years of his reign Philippe resided in the -Netherlands, though he appointed the duke of Savoy regent of the -country. They were years of war between Spain and France, and the -Netherlands were obliged to aid their sovereign very largely with money -and with men. Under the count of Egmont as their general, the combined -Spanish and Flemish forces won the great battles of Saint Quentin and -Gravelines, but the French were compensated by taking Calais from the -English, for Queen Mary Tudor had provoked attack by giving assistance -in the war to her husband King Philippe. - -Peace having been concluded, in 1559 the king prepared to return to -Spain, where his surroundings would be much more congenial. He appointed -Margaret of Parma, a natural daughter of the emperor Charles the Fifth -and consequently his own half sister, regent of the Netherlands, but all -real authority was confided to the bishop of Arras, afterwards widely -known as Cardinal Granvelle. This man was a staunch absolutist in -politics, and could be depended upon to carry out the king’s wishes to -the utmost of his ability. And the dearest wish of the king was to -extirpate the new doctrines in religion, which he clearly saw would tend -to produce a far more liberal system of government than he approved of. -Among the appointments made before he left was that of William prince of -Orange to be stadholder of the provinces of Holland, Zeeland, and -Utrecht, but subject to the authority of the duchess of Parma, who was -to be guided by the bishop of Arras. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -Against the entreaties and protests of the estates, Philippe left in the -Netherlands four thousand Spanish soldiers, the most highly disciplined -troops in Europe at that time. - -Previous to this date, excepting the sovereign bishop of Liege,[21] -whose territory was independent and therefore not then included in the -provinces, there had only been four bishops in the whole of the -Netherlands: one in Utrecht in what is now the kingdom of Holland, one -at Tournai in the present kingdom of Belgium, and two at Arras and -Cambrai in territory since annexed to France. Philippe obtained from the -pope a bull increasing the number to three archbishops and fifteen -bishops, of whom one archbishop at Utrecht and six bishops at Haarlem, -Middelburg, Leeuwarden, Groningen, Deventer, and ’s Hertogenbosch, were -to be stationed in the northern provinces, now the kingdom of Holland. -Each was to have inquisitors serving under him. - -[Sidenote: Dissatisfaction of the People.] - -These measures gave intense dissatisfaction to the whole body of the -people, nobles, burghers, and artisans alike. There was not a single -Protestant noble in the country at the time, and the great majority of -the people were still adherents of the Roman church, but Catholics and -Calvinists alike were opposed to persecution in matters of faith and to -the erection of ecclesiastical power upon the ruins of civil liberty. -Still the king[22] would not yield, and the people were as yet -indisposed to resist in arms. Perhaps they did not know their own -strength, and over-estimated that opposed to them. There was no such -thing either as political union among them. Seventeen states jealous of -each other, and each important state containing rival towns, presented -to a despot a field that could be easily worked. Still greater suffering -was needed before the people could unite against the murderous hand that -was raised to crush them. - -After a time the Spanish soldiers, who were needed elsewhere, were -withdrawn, but matters went on no better afterwards. The whole hatred of -the country was turned against Cardinal Granvelle, who was believed to -be the instigator of all the evil, and at length the duchess Margaret -grew to detest him also, so that Philippe was obliged to recall him. He -left the Netherlands in March 1564, and after a short period of -retirement, was employed by the king in still higher offices. - -The government of the duchess Margaret was corrupt, though perhaps not -more so than that of some other administrations of the time. Offices -were sold to the highest bidder by her secretary, and she as well as he -profited by such transactions. Under such circumstances the courts of -law were venal, and judgment in civil cases was usually in favour of him -who had the longest purse. A man who had to pay a large sum of money for -his office was obliged to try to recover his capital by some means, and -as that could not be done honestly, he was open to receive bribes. In -the great agony caused by the inquisition, however, this evil was hardly -considered as one of importance, and is only casually referred to by the -chroniclers of the time. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -The great number of persons burnt, buried alive, and strangled by the -inquisitors had the opposite effect to that which King Philippe -intended. Instead of stamping out the reformation, its doctrines were -spreading more rapidly month after month, until mass meetings of -thousands of people were openly held in the fields outside the towns to -listen to the preaching of some earnest and eloquent reformer. The men -on such occasions usually went armed and determined to defend their -pastors and themselves, but if need should be, they were ready to face -death in its most appalling forms for the sake of what they believed to -be truth. - -Another effect of the inquisition was to destroy the material prosperity -of the country. Flanders had long been the leading cloth manufactory of -Europe, it was there that wool, imported chiefly from England, was -converted by spinning wheels and handlooms into the choicest cloths. -Nowhere else were spinning, weaving, dyeing, and pressing so well -understood or so skilfully practised as in the Flemish towns. But now -persecution drove those industrious artisans out of the country. They -fled to England, where Queen Elizabeth permitted them to settle, and it -was they who in East Anglia gave to the country that adopted and -protected them the preëminence in woollen manufactures which she retains -to this day. A very few years later, instead of exporting raw wool and -importing cloth, England was sending to Flanders the products of -Anglo-Flemish looms. This was not the only industry that persecution -drove from the provinces to other lands, but it was the most important. - -[Sidenote: Destruction of Church Property.] - -All parties in politics and in religion find it necessary to adopt an -expressive name, under which their adherents can rally, and it was at -this time that the opponents of despotic government took to themselves -the renowned title of Beggars, that was to be heard as a war cry on land -and sea long years afterwards. On the 8th of April 1566 three hundred -gentlemen presented a petition to the duchess Margaret, when a member of -her council spoke of them as beggars. That evening at a banquet Count -Brederode proposed that the title should be adopted, which was -enthusiastically agreed to by those present, and quickly spread over the -provinces. At first it had no religious signification, for both -Catholics and Protestants who favoured the preservation of -constitutional rights termed themselves Gueux, but in course of time it -was applied almost exclusively to the adherents of the reformed or -Calvinistic faith. - -In such circumstances as those in which the Netherlands were then -placed, excesses are usually committed by the most fanatical section of -the suffering party, and it was so in this instance. In August 1566 a -disorderly mob took possession of the great cathedral of Antwerp, one of -the most beautiful and stately buildings in Europe, threw down all the -statues in it, broke the stained glass windows, demolished the ornaments -of every kind, and generally wrecked the interior of the edifice. Only a -few hundred men were actually engaged in the work of destruction, but -many thousands looked on with indifference, and many more with -satisfaction, accounting the decorations of the cathedral as symbols of -the terrible inquisition. This example was followed throughout the -southern provinces, and a great number of churches were treated in the -same manner as Antwerp cathedral had been. Yet there was not a single -instance of violence offered to any individual, or of plunder of any -article whatever. The gold and silver implements of the churches were -battered and made useless, but were then thrown on the floors and left. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -The fury of Philippe was now thoroughly aroused, and means were -forwarded to the regent Margaret to raise a body of troops and suppress -disorder. The most powerful of the southern nobles ranged themselves on -the side of despotism. On the 13th of March 1567 a body of three -thousand Beggars who were posted near Antwerp was utterly annihilated, -and on the 23rd of the same month the ancient city of Valenciennes, -which had defied the government, was taken and reduced to submission. -The factions in Antwerp were ready to spring at each other’s throats, -but were induced by the prince of Orange to keep the peace. The regent -Margaret agreed to conditions which gave the Protestants some -protection, but her word was not to be depended upon, and much less was -that of King Philippe, who was the very incarnation of deceit and -treachery. For a few weeks now there was an appearance of calm, but it -was only the prelude to the most terrible storm that ever swept over any -portion of modern Europe. - -Ten thousand veteran Spanish troops, the most highly disciplined and -best armed soldiers in the world, were sent by Philippe as the nucleus -of a powerful army to subjugate the Netherlands. At their head was the -bloodthirsty duke of Alva, then sixty years of age, whose life had been -spent in war, and who was the most skilful strategist of his day. Alva! -what a curse rests upon his name in all countries where men set a value -upon justice and freedom! As pitiless as Tshaka in South Africa, as -treacherous as Dingan, he stands out in the history of the Netherlands -as a cold-blooded murderer, a malignant fiend in human form. His -commission as the king’s captain-general was issued on the 31st of -January 1567, and his instructions were in keeping with his disposition -and character. - -The nucleus or advance guard of the army was assembled in Italy, and -marched by way of Mont Cenis and through Savoy, Burgundy, and Lorraine -to Thionville, then a town of the Netherlands, now included in France. -In August 1567 it crossed the border, and continued its march to -Brussels, meeting with no opposition on the way. Alva at once placed -garrisons in the principal towns, and commenced the erection of -fortresses to overawe them, the principal of which was the famous -citadel of Antwerp. He sent letters to the different cities, signed by -the king, commanding them to render absolute obedience to him. The next -step was the arrest and close confinement of as many of the nobles as he -could get hold of who had at any time opposed any arbitrary act of the -sovereign. The counts Egmont and Hoorn were entrapped by letters to them -from the king, praising their conduct and declaring his confidence in -them. Conscious of having done no wrong, and lulled into a feeling of -security by these assurances from Philippe, they placed themselves in -the power of Alva, and found themselves his prisoners. - -[Sidenote: Proceedings of the Duke of Alva.] - -Then was established that murderous mockery of a tribunal, known as the -Council of Blood. It was composed of a number of creatures of Alva, some -of whom were Flemish nobles of the worst type ready to pour out the -blood of their countrymen at his bidding, others Spaniards of the same -character. It dispensed with legal formalities, and made nought of -charters and privileges. The whole population of the Netherlands was at -its mercy. Its agents sent in lists of names, and with hardly a pretence -of examination, men, scores of men at a time, were sentenced to -confiscation of all their property and death on the scaffold. This -infamous Council of Blood met for the first time on the 20th of -September 1567 in an apartment of Alva’s residence in Brussels. His -intention was to crush out all opposition to absolutism, to exterminate -all adherents of the reformed religion, and to raise a large revenue by -confiscation of property. - -Everyone who valued freedom and could flee from the provinces did so now -without delay. The neighbouring German states were crowded with -refugees, and in many Flemish and Dutch towns industry entirely ceased, -for artisans and mechanics had abandoned them in despair. It is highly -probable that the larger number of those so-called Germans who settled -in South Africa in later years were really descendants of Netherlanders -who left their fatherland at this time. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -Margaret of Parma was nominally regent still, but on the 9th of December -1567 she resigned, and the monster Alva became governor-general of the -provinces. - -The prince of Orange, his brothers Louis and Adolf of Nassau, Count -Hoogstraaten, and several other nobles of less note had retired into -Germany before the arrival of the Spanish troops. Alva confiscated their -property in the Netherlands, but they had possessions beyond the border -which he could not reach. They had been faithful subjects of Philippe to -this time, though they had striven by peaceful means to preserve the -constitutions of the provinces, but now they could not look calmly on -while the very life was being trampled out of their country. In April -1568 Orange engaged troops in Germany, and sent three small armies into -the Netherlands in hope that the people would rise in a body and assist -to drive the Spaniards out. But he was disappointed. The people were for -the moment completely cowed. Two of his armies were utterly annihilated -by the disciplined Spanish troops, and though the third, commanded by -his brother Louis, gained a victory at Heiligerlee, near Winschoten, in -the province of Groningen, it led to no substantial result. Count Adolf -of Nassau fell in this battle. So the war for freedom began, a war that -was carried on without intermission for forty-one years. - -Alva with an overpowering force marched against Count Louis, and on the -21st of July 1568 attacked him at Jemmingen, a village on the left bank -of the Ems near its entrance into the Dollart, within the German border. -It was not so much a battle as a slaughter that followed. Of ten -thousand men under his command, the count lost seven thousand slain, and -with difficulty made his escape from the disastrous field while the -remainder were scattering in every direction. Alva then proceeded to -Utrecht, where he reviewed an army of thirty thousand infantry and seven -thousand cavalry, a force that he believed sufficient to overawe the -whole of the northern provinces. - -[Sidenote: Successes of Alva.] - -Early in October the prince of Orange invaded Brabant from Germany with -thirty thousand men, of whom nine thousand were cavalry. Many of these -were undisciplined refugees, but some were trained German soldiers. -Several smaller bands joined the prince subsequently, though not a city -opened its gates to him, so great was the terror that Alva inspired. The -difficulty of providing food for such a number of men for any length of -time was insurmountable, and the Spanish general therefore did not -choose to risk an engagement, but watched his opponent closely. On one -occasion, on the 20th of October, he was able to cut off a rearguard of -three thousand men under Count Hoogstraaten, and nearly exterminated -them. Hoogstraaten himself escaped, but died of a wound a few days -afterwards. The prince of Orange, disappointed in his expectation of a -general rising, and without a single stronghold as a base of operations, -was obliged to retreat to Germany and disband his troops. He had spent -all the money he could raise, and was heavily in debt. Nothing could -have been gloomier than the prospect then before him, but he still -cherished hope and trusted in God. He had passed through different -stages of religious belief, but did not openly join the Calvinist church -until October 1573. - -The first campaign in the war of freedom had thus terminated entirely in -favour of the Spaniards. - -On the 5th of June of this year 1568 an event took place which more than -all the blood of humble citizens that had been shed drew the attention -of civilised Europe to what was transpiring in the Netherlands. This was -the death on the scaffold in the great square of Brussels of the counts -Egmont and Hoorn, who had been condemned by the Council of Blood for -having been somewhat dilatory in upholding despotism. They were both -earnest Catholics, and Egmont in particular had rendered great services -to the king. He was the general who had won the victories of Saint -Quentin and Gravelines. But the death of these prominent noblemen was -resolved upon by Philippe, because it would strike terror into all -classes, and would prove that the least hesitation to carry out any of -his wishes would meet with the most terrible punishment. All their -possessions were confiscated. Their death had no effect upon the -patriotic cause, except for the horror which it created abroad, as they -were not the men to throw in their lot with William of Orange in -resistance to tyranny. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -The baron Montigny, brother of Count Hoorn, had been sent with the -marquis Berghen to Madrid in May 1566 by the regent Margaret of Parma to -represent to Philippe the ruin which the inquisition was bringing upon -the Netherlands and the difficulty caused by it to her administration. -They were instructed to suggest its abolition and the modification of -the king’s edicts. Both of these noblemen were devout Catholics, and -were most faithful subjects of their sovereign. They might have reasoned -that if his sister and representative was compelled by force of -circumstances to pause in the deadly work, they could not be blamed for -acting under her instructions. The king received them apparently in a -friendly manner. But they were not permitted to return, and after a time -were placed in confinement. Berghen died, it was reported of home -sickness, but many believed by violent means. Montigny was kept a -prisoner more than four years, was then in his absence condemned to -death by the Council of Blood for favouring heresy, and on the 16th of -October 1570 was strangled privately by order of the king. - -An awful calamity, but not by the hand of man, overtook the Northern -Netherlands in the year 1570. In a gale of tremendous violence on the -first and second of November of this year the sea was driven high upon -the coast, the dykes burst in many places, and the waters poured over -the land. Fully a hundred thousand persons were drowned, and property to -an immense amount was destroyed. - -[Sidenote: Imposition of Heavy Taxes.] - -And now came another trouble. Alva had been disappointed in his -expectations of an abundant revenue from the confiscation of property, -for much as he gathered by that means, the cost of maintenance of his -army and the charges of his administration were so enormous that his -treasury was always empty, and creditors had become clamorous. To remedy -this defect, he imposed taxes of one per cent of the value of all -property in the country, to be paid only once, of five per cent transfer -duty on all land and houses sold thereafter, and of ten per cent on -every movable article that should be sold. This last tax was regarded by -the people as equivalent to a prohibition to carry on trade of any kind, -it affected every one, and in many of the towns the shops as well as the -wholesale stores, even the breweries, the butcheries, and the bakeries -were closed. The streets swarmed with mendicants, and riots were only -suppressed by military force. If he had tried to compel the people to -take part with William of Orange, the governor-general could not have -devised a more efficient plan. - - - - -II. - -THE WAR IN THE NETHERLANDS TO THE UNION OF UTRECHT. - - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -Many of the men who had been obliged to leave their homes had turned to -the sea for refuge. Legitimate commerce could not absorb them all, even -if it had been flourishing as formerly, and so in their desperate -condition they became buccaneers. The prince of Orange took advantage of -this, and issued a commission to a reckless fugitive noble named William -de la Marck to act as his admiral and attack Spanish ships wherever he -could find them. De la Marck was a distant relative of Egmont, and had -sworn not to clip his hair or beard till he had avenged the count’s -death. In March 1572 he was lying at anchor at Dover with a fleet of -twenty-four vessels, when by order of Queen Elizabeth all supplies of -provisions were refused to him. He was then compelled to do something -desperate at once, or starve, so he resolved to sail to Enkhuizen, and -try to get possession of that port. The wind failed him, however, so on -the 1st of April he put into the Maas and anchored in front of Brill -(Brielle), a walled and fortified town on the island of Voorne. The -Spanish garrison had just been sent to Utrecht. The Sea Beggars were -only a few hundred in number, but Pieter Koppelstok, who was sent by De -la Marck to demand the surrender of the town, when questioned as to -their strength replied about five thousand. The authorities and -adherents of the government fled in fear, and the half-famished rovers -battered in the gates and took possession of the place. This was the -beginning of the second campaign against the Spaniards. - -It could not be expected that the Sea Beggars, after their wrongs and -their sufferings, would act very gently with their opponents, but the -ferocity which they displayed on this occasion cannot be excused or -passed lightly over. They broke all the altars, statues, and ornaments -in the churches, dressed themselves in clerical robes, and barbarously -put to death thirteen priests and monks who had not been able to make -their escape. A Spanish force was sent from Utrecht to recover Brill, -but was beaten off with considerable loss. De la Marck was then of -opinion that the place should be abandoned, but Captain Treslong, whose -father had once been governor of the town, induced him to continue to -hold it and to rally the patriots around him there, who quickly came in -and joined him. - -[Sidenote: Successes of the Sea Beggars.] - -As soon as intelligence of the repulse of the Spaniards from Brill -reached Flushing (Vlissingen), that important town declared for the -prince of Orange, and sent to De la Marck to beg for assistance. Two -hundred Sea Beggars, all in clerical garments, were thereupon forwarded -in three vessels, and quickly reached their destination. Here also an -act of inexcusable barbarity took place. The engineer who had -constructed the citadel of Antwerp, Pacheco by name, had just arrived in -Flushing to erect a fortress there. He was seized and at once hanged -with two other Spanish officers. With the town half the island of -Walcheren went over to the patriot cause, and very shortly a strong -force of Beggars, aided by some French soldiers and English volunteers, -assembled there to protect it. - -The example thus set was speedily followed by most of the towns that -were not overawed by powerful Spanish garrisons in the provinces of -Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, Gelderland, Overyssel, and Friesland. -Amsterdam, Middelburg, Goes, Arnemuide, Utrecht, and a few others were -too strongly garrisoned to be able to rise. In some of the towns the -change was made without bloodshed, in others the most barbarous -cruelties were practised on both sides, for passion had taken the place -of reason and charity. The revolted towns declared that they remained -faithful to King Philippe as count of Holland, etc., that the ancient -charters conferring rights and privileges were restored, that there was -perfect freedom for both the Roman Catholic and Reformed religions, that -they accepted the prince of Orange as stadholder for the sovereign of -the provinces of Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, and Friesland, and that they -repudiated the duke of Alva, the inquisition, and the tax on commerce. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -Other successes awaited the patriot cause. On the 24th of May 1572 Count -Louis of Nassau with a small band obtained possession of the important -town of Mons in Hainaut. And on the 10th of June a richly laden Spanish -fleet from Lisbon arrived at Flushing and cast anchor, being unaware of -what had occurred there. Most of the ships were captured, a thousand -Spanish soldiers on board were made prisoners, five hundred thousand -crowns of gold sent by Philippe for his army chest and a large quantity -of ammunition became prize to the Beggars, and much spice and other -valuable merchandise was secured. - -On the 15th of July the estates of Holland, consisting of the nobles and -deputies from eight cities, met at Dordrecht. The prince of Orange was -in Germany, where he had engaged an army of fifteen thousand infantry -and seven thousand cavalry, besides three thousand refugee Walloons. The -estates adopted measures for raising all the money that they could to -pay these troops for three months, and Orange then entered the southern -provinces. His first object was to relieve Mons, which was besieged by a -strong Spanish army, and to effect a junction with Admiral Coligny, who -with the approval of the king of France was to aid him with ten thousand -Huguenots. After crossing the border, town after town opened its gates -to him, and received the garrisons he placed in them. Everything looked -bright before him, when suddenly, without the slightest warning, a -thunderbolt fell which utterly destroyed his hopes and those of the -patriot party. - -A contingent of Huguenots was cut to pieces when attempting to enter -Mons, but the main body under Coligny was believed to be ready to -advance, when tidings were received of the fearful Massacre of Saint -Bartholomew on the 24th, 25th, and 26th of August 1572. The treacherous -Charles IX of France, by an act of savage cruelty without parallel in a -Christian state, had betrayed the cause it was his interest to favour, -and had murdered a hundred thousand of his Protestant subjects. Admiral -Coligny was among the victims. Orange realised at once that his cause -was shattered, his German troops had not been fully paid, and were -almost mutinous, so he was obliged to retire and disband them. The towns -that had welcomed him now hastened to disown him, and returned to their -obedience to Alva. On the 20th of September Mons capitulated on -honourable terms, which were not, however, faithfully observed by the -conquerors, and all the southern provinces were again under the Spanish -yoke. - -[Sidenote: Sack of Mechlin.] - -Alva had reinforced his army very largely with German mercenaries, the -same class of men that Orange had raised his forces from, and he had -enlisted a great many Walloons. He was without money to pay either them -or his Spanish veterans. He gave them instead the city of Mechlin to -plunder for three days, the Spaniards to have it for the first day, the -Germans for the second, and the Walloons for the third. Mechlin was -almost entirely a Catholic city, but it had welcomed the prince of -Orange, and had received a garrison from him. This was to be its -punishment by Alva. The horrors of the sack of the doomed city cannot be -fully told, but they can be imagined. The Spaniards knew that the -richest spoil would be found in the churches, and they resolved not to -leave it for others. In their lust for spoil the churches, the -monasteries, and the convents of Mechlin were treated by these Catholics -as the cathedral of Antwerp had been by the fanatic Protestants. Then -the citizens were tortured and murdered, and nameless horrors were -perpetrated upon females, until the first day ended. On the second day -the Germans, and on the third the debased Walloons, followed in the sack -of Mechlin, leaving it desolate, plundered, and utterly forlorn. Such -was Alva’s punishment of a disobedient city. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -The tide of fortune was now setting as strong against the patriot cause -as it had been in its favour during the earlier months of the year. On -the 26th of August the Beggars laid siege to Goes in Zeeland, which was -defended by a Spanish garrison, but must have fallen if it had not been -relieved on the 21st of October by an army that had made a wonderful -march through shallow water. The besiegers were then obliged to flee, -but they were pursued, and their rearguard was completely destroyed. - -Alva now sent a strong army under his son Don Frederic de Toledo to -reduce the northern provinces to subjection. Don Frederic directed his -march to Gelderland, where the town of Zutphen attempted to resist him. -It was easily taken, however, when all its adult male inhabitants were -put to the sword, and most of its buildings were destroyed by fire. The -whole of the provinces east and south of the Zuider Zee now submitted to -Alva, only Holland and Zeeland still holding out, and even of these the -largest towns--Amsterdam and Middelburg--were occupied by Spanish -garrisons. There was no national army in existence, and each town was -politically isolated from all the others, a condition of things which -made defence extremely difficult. - -Don Frederic now marched towards North Holland, meeting no opposition -until he reached the little town of Naarden, on the shore of the Zuider -Zee, south-east of Amsterdam. Naarden offered a feeble resistance, but -on a verbal promise from General Julian Romero that life and property -would be spared, it surrendered. Every man in the place and nearly every -woman was put to death, and the little town was set on fire and razed to -the ground. - -A more memorable siege than any which had yet taken place was that of -the town of Haarlem. On the 11th of December 1572 Haarlem was -beleaguered by an army of thirty thousand Spaniards, Germans, and -Walloons, commanded by Don Frederic de Toledo. The duke of Alva had his -headquarters in the neighbouring city of Amsterdam, whence supplies of -provisions, ammunition, and whatever else was needed could be forwarded -to the camps without delay. Within the walls of the town were only four -thousand fighting men, so that the Spanish commander could reasonably -hope that a few days would suffice for its reduction. But the people of -Haarlem were stouthearted as ever were Greeks in the olden time, they -hated the Spanish yoke as that of the foul fiend, and they had made up -their minds to resist to the very last. Assault after assault was made -upon their walls, and whenever a breach was effected the enemy came -storming upon it, but only to be beaten back. In the night the breaches -were repaired, the women and children assisting in the work. A band of -three hundred women, led by the widow Kenau Hasselaer, did as much and -as splendid service fighting in the breaches and on the walls as any men -could have done. The children too did what they could by carrying powder -and food from place to place. - -[Sidenote: Siege of Haarlem.] - -So month after month passed away, and heroic Haarlem still held out. The -prince of Orange from Delft used almost superhuman exertions to get men -together and to throw reinforcements and provisions into the beleaguered -town, but they all failed in getting through the encircling bands. At -last food, even of the most disgusting kind, entirely failed, and when -many had died of actual starvation, those who could no longer fight from -weakness submitted on a promise of lenient treatment. It was on the 12th -of July 1573, seven months and two days after the commencement of the -siege, that Haarlem fell. The promise of lenity was kept by the plunder -of the town being commuted for a sum of money to be paid in four -instalments, so that the horrors which Mechlin had witnessed were spared -to Haarlem, but two thousand three hundred of the inhabitants were put -to death after the surrender. The besiegers had paid dearly for the -town, for they had lost no fewer than twelve thousand men in combat or -by disease in those seven months of desperate fighting. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -Alkmaar, a small though important town in North Holland, was then -summoned to submit, but declined to do so. The prince of Orange had -managed to obtain eight hundred soldiers, who were sent to assist the -burghers, thirteen hundred in number, to defend it. On the 21st of -August 1573 Don Frederic de Toledo invested the town with sixteen -thousand veteran troops, and immediately began to attempt to batter down -part of the wall. On three occasions breaches were made, and storming -parties tried to effect an entrance, but were driven back by boiling -oil, tarred and burning hoops, and other missiles of the kind being -thrown upon them. The soldiers then refused to storm again, and the only -course left was to wait for famine to do its work. But some letters of -the prince of Orange fell into Don Frederic’s hands, from which he -learned that the dykes were to be cut and the land flooded, when he -resolved to raise the siege rather than risk the loss of his whole army -by drowning. On the 8th of October the people of Alkmaar had the -happiness of seeing from their walls the Spanish army with all its -appurtenances in full retreat towards Amsterdam. - -Another triumph for the patriot cause followed quickly, to Alva’s -intense discomfiture. He had purchased some ships and built others at -Amsterdam, until he had a fleet of thirty men-of-war, which he equipped -in the most efficient manner known in those days. The largest carried -thirty-two cannon, and was manned by one hundred and fifty seamen, -besides having on board over two hundred veteran Spanish soldiers under -the captains Alonzo de Conquera and Fernando Lopez. She was named the -_Inquisitie_, and carried the flag of Admiral Maximilian de Henniu, -count of Bossu. This fleet was intended by Alva to command the Zuider -Zee, and was regarded by him as an invincible armada. - -The Sea Beggars, to oppose this formidable armament, collected together -twenty-four vessels of inferior size, which were placed under the -command of a valiant seaman named Cornelis the son of Dirk, who was -styled admiral of North Holland. - -[Sidenote: First Victory at Sea.] - -Bossu plundered and laid waste some villages along the coast, but at -length the son of Dirk resolved boldly to attack him. He tried to keep -the Sea Beggars at a distance and destroy them with his artillery, while -they, who were but ill supplied with cannon or powder, were determined -to grapple with his ships and fight him hand to hand. In the first and -second days’ manœuvring they succeeded in this manner in -overmastering one of his ships, when they made the officers prisoners, -and put to death all the others on board. Then for more than a week the -weather prevented anything further being done, and both parties remained -inactive. - -On the 11th of October 1573 the great battle took place. The Sea Beggars -closed with their opponents, and after desperate fighting succeeded in -sinking one of Bossu’s ships and overmastering five others. They had -grappled with the _Inquisitie_ herself, when the remainder of the fleet -gave up the contest and set sail for Amsterdam, throwing their cannon -overboard to enable them to pass some shoals. Night was setting in, and -there were so many wounded in the patriot ships that it was considered -imprudent to follow the fugitives. Four small vessels were made fast to -Bossu’s ship. One was beaten off, but the other three clung to her like -leeches. She drifted on a sandbank off Hoorn, but so fierce was the -fighting that no one seemed to notice that they were no longer in -motion. Bossu in a coat of mail stood on her deck and directed the -soldiers, and the Sea Beggars scrambled up her sides and attacked like -demons. Boats put out from Hoorn bringing volunteers to aid in the -struggle, and taking the wounded ashore to be cared for. At short -intervals for twenty-eight hours the hand to hand contest lasted on the -deck of the _Inquisitie_, till only fourteen or fifteen men remained -unwounded to defend her. Bossu could hold out no longer. He surrendered -on condition that he and his officers should be honourably treated as -captives, and that the soldiers and sailors should either be exchanged -or pay only one month’s wages as ransom. The prisoners were taken to -Hoorn, and were kept as hostages, which prevented the putting to death -of many prominent patriots then in the power of the Spanish authorities. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -Such was the first important battle on the sea won by the sturdy -Hollanders, and it was to be a beginning of a series of victories which -in later years shed deathless renown on them and the land they so -bravely fought for. Surnames had not then come into common use for -humble folk, and it is only as Cornelis the son of Dirk that the valiant -admiral of North Holland can be mentioned in history. - -The sanguinary government of Alva in the Netherlands now drew to its -close. He had requested to be relieved, and the king was not unwilling -to try if some one else could not manage affairs better, or at least -without such constant demands upon the revenue of Spain. On the 17th of -November 1573 his successor Don Luis de Requesens y Cuniga, Grand -Commander of St. Iago, and recently governor of Milan, arrived in -Brussels, and on the 29th of the same month assumed duty as governor and -captain-general of the Netherlands. - -The complete absence of honour or principle in Alva was illustrated by -the manner in which he left Amsterdam. He was heavily in debt in that -city both privately and for the government, so he called for all -accounts to be sent in on a certain day, and during the preceding night -departed stealthily. On the 18th of December he left the Netherlands, -taking with him the curses of the unhappy people. It was reported, -though perhaps incorrectly, that he boasted of having caused through his -infamous Council of Blood eighteen thousand six hundred people to lose -their lives at the stake or on the scaffold during the six years of his -administration.[23] No wonder that successive generations of -Netherlanders taught their children to regard him, not as a man, but as -an absolute devil in human form, the incarnation of all that was false, -and treacherous, and cruel. - -[Sidenote: Philippe’s Conditions of Peace.] - -The condition of affairs in the Netherlands when the Grand Commander -Requesens assumed the administration was about as bad as well could be. -Only parts of the provinces of Holland and Zeeland were in open revolt, -but everywhere the country was seething with discontent. There was a -standing army of sixty-two thousand men--Spaniards, German mercenaries, -and Walloons--engaged in suppressing the disposition to rise in arms, -£1,300,000 was due to them as arrears of pay, the cost of maintaining -them was £120,000 a month, and there was not a single sixpence in the -treasury. Already £8,000,000 had been received from Spain, and had been -spent to no purpose. So many soldiers were needed to garrison the towns -that only a sufficient number could be spared to besiege Leyden, none -were available to reduce any of the other revolted towns or even to -relieve Middelburg, which was beleaguered by the patriots. The mighty -Spanish empire, with the gold and silver of America at its disposal, -with some of the fairest provinces of Italy at its command, was held at -bay by parts of two little provinces, under the direction of William -prince of Orange. - -Under these circumstances the king spoke of his willingness to bring -about a reconciliation of the people to his rule and to pardon them for -their past resistance, but he laid down two indispensable conditions; -that they should admit his absolute authority, and that they should -return to the Roman Catholic faith. - -The patriots too were desirous of putting an end to the long and bitter -strife, but they also claimed conditions which they could not forego: -the recognition of constitutional rights, entire freedom of conscience, -and the withdrawal of all foreign troops from the country. The two -positions were irreconcilable, and so the war went on. Holland and -Zeeland now contained very few Catholics, for Alva had made the religion -that he professed almost as hateful as he was himself. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -Middelburg, the principal city in the province of Zeeland, was besieged -by the patriots and such troops as the prince of Orange could engage in -his cause; but was defended with the utmost skill and bravery by the -Spanish garrison under Colonel Christopher Mondragon. Provisions, -however, were running short, and it became evident that if relief was -not speedily afforded, the place would be lost to the king. Requesens -therefore collected seventy-five ships of different sizes at Bergen op -Zoom and thirty more at Antwerp, which were laden with stores of food -and munitions of war, all the soldiers that he could engage or spare -with any degree of prudence were embarked in them, and they were -directed to drop down to Flushing, to unite there, and to succour -Middelburg. By the time they were ready the soldiers and townspeople -were in the utmost extremity of hunger. - -While Requesens was thus engaged, the prince of Orange and the Sea -Beggars were not idle. A fleet was collected at Flushing, and was placed -under the command of Louis Boisot, a Zeelander of noble birth and a -brother of the governor of the town. He had the title of admiral of -Zeeland conferred upon him. Boisot did not wait to be attacked, but on -the 20th of January 1574 sailed up the Schelde to meet the larger of the -two squadrons, which was commanded by Julian Romero, and which had just -set sail when he met it. He at once grappled with his opponents, and a -desperate combat took place, which lasted two hours. One of Romero’s -vessels was sunk, another was blown up, and fifteen were captured. -Twelve hundred of his sailors and soldiers were killed fighting, or were -thrown overboard and drowned, and it would have gone hard with the -others if they had not put back to Bergen op Zoom. Requesens, standing -on a dyke at Bergen, was a spectator of the discomfiture of his fleet. -The patriots’ loss was much less than that of their enemy, but several -of the captains were killed and Boisot himself received a wound in the -face which deprived him of an eye. - -[Sidenote: Great Disaster.] - -The Antwerp squadron, commanded by Sancho d’Avila, had meantime arrived -off Flushing, but when intelligence of Romero’s defeat was received, it -at once put about and returned. - -This event decided the fate of Middelburg. The last cat and dog in the -town had been eaten, when on the 18th of February 1574 Mondragon -capitulated on condition that his troops should be permitted to leave -with their arms and personal property, and the town gave in its adhesion -to the prince of Orange. - -On both sides now great exertions were made to raise troops, the -difficulty in the way being the want of money. Men in any number could -always be had in Germany, provided the means of equipping and paying -them were forthcoming. The jealousy of Spain which pervaded the French -court enabled Louis of Nassau to obtain a considerable sum, with which -he enrolled an army of three thousand cavalry and six thousand infantry, -and entered the province of Limburg. His intention was to take -possession of Maastricht, and then to effect a junction with his brother -the prince of Orange, who had collected six thousand infantry at the -isle of Bommel. - -But a terrible disaster overtook Count Louis. Requesens was able to -engage some Germans, and he drew every man that was available from the -Netherlands garrisons. Even the siege of Leyden was raised, and the -troops that had beleaguered that city since the 31st of October 1573 -broke up their camps an the 21st of March 1574, and joined the main -army. The garrison of Maastricht was strengthened, and the way was -blocked by which the junction of the two forces in the service of -Orange could be effected. The cavalry of Count Louis began to desert, -and soon that arm of his force was reduced to two thousand men. On the -14th of April 1574 a battle was fought at a little village named -Mookerheyde, on the bank of the Maas, in which the army of Count Louis -was utterly defeated, and it was annihilated by a massacre after the -engagement was over. Both Count Louis and his younger brother Count -Hendrik perished, no one knew exactly when or how, for their bodies were -never seen again. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -Requesens, however, was unable to gather the full harvest of the -victory, for the day after the battle the Spanish troops mutinied. Their -pay was three years in arrear. They marched to Antwerp, which city they -took possession of on the 26th of April, and quartered themselves on the -wealthiest inhabitants. There they remained until the municipal -authorities provided Requesens with money to pay them their arrears, -when he granted them a full amnesty, and they returned to obedience. -Just as this was effected Admiral Boisot made his appearance at Antwerp, -and burned or sank fourteen ships of Sancho d’Avila’s squadron that had -returned from Flushing three months before. - -Requesens was now able to resume the siege of Leyden, and on the 26th of -May 1574 the second investment was commenced by General Francisco Valdez -with eight thousand German and Walloon soldiers. Spanish and Italian -troops afterwards arrived, and a chain of forts was completed right -round the walls, which prevented ingress or egress. The villages in the -neighbourhood were also occupied, and Leyden was completely isolated -from the rest of the country. The residents knew that if the city was -taken, the whole of Holland must fall, and they had resolved to die -rather than surrender. There was no possibility of raising an army to -relieve them. - -The prince of Orange took up his headquarters at Delft, and bent all his -energy to save the devoted city in the only way in which it could be -done. He got together more than two hundred flat-bottomed vessels, the -largest drawing when laden not more than two feet of water, armed some -of them with such cannons as were then in use, and provided all of them -with oars for rowing. The relief of Leyden was to be entrusted to the -Sea Beggars, the men who knew no fear, who hated the Spaniards with such -a deadly loathing that they would neither ask nor give quarter. On the -1st of September Admiral Louis Boisot arrived from Flushing to take -command of the flotilla, and with him came forty officers and eight -hundred of the hardiest and roughest of the Zeeland Beggars, burning -with a desire to harpoon Spanish soldiers as if they were devil-fish. -Already two thousand four hundred men, mostly sailors or canal workers, -but a few French and German soldiers with even a sprinkling of -Englishmen and Scotchmen, were on board, and a large quantity of -provisions had been shipped. With Boisot’s arrival all was complete. - -[Sidenote: Siege of Leyden.] - -The outer dyke was now cut, and the sea rushed over the land, sweeping -away farmhouses and cultivated fields and rich meadows, but opening a -way towards Leyden. On went Boisot with the flotilla till the next of -the dykes which lay between him and Leyden was reached. He had expected -to find it defended, but the Spaniards had neglected it, and so it was -cut and he went farther on. The next dyke was held by the Spaniards, but -the fierce Zeelanders drove them from it and harpooned them to their -hearts’ content. - -Meantime the heroic defenders of Leyden were in the very last stage of -distress. Everything that under ordinary circumstances would be -considered eatable had been consumed, and nothing remained but dried -hides, rats, mice, the leaves of the trees, and the weeds of the ground. -They were dying of hunger, and pestilence arising from want of food -carried off from six to seven thousand of them. But still they held out. -A few indeed in their despair upbraided the burgomaster Van der Werf -with consigning them to death, but when he replied that he would never -surrender Leyden, though they might cut him to pieces and eat him if -they chose, they desisted and even applauded him. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -The flotilla was aground, and a strong easterly wind was blowing, which -drove the waters back and day after day caused Boisot and his gallant -followers almost to abandon hope of success. A great and apparently -impregnable fortress was in front of them, and it would have to be -passed before the starving city could be reached. Then in man’s deepest -extremity came God’s hand to aid the cause of freedom. During the night -of the 1st of October a violent gale set in from the north-west, which -drove gigantic waves along the coast of Holland, then the wind veered -round to the south-west and sent the heaped up water through the broken -dykes, and soon the flotilla was free again. Valdez was a brave soldier, -but he felt unequal to a contest with the rising flood and the Sea -Beggars on their own element. During the night of the 2nd of October he -abandoned his camps, withdrew the garrison from the great fort Lemmen, -and fled in the darkness. That same night part of the city wall fell -down with a crash, which would have given him an entrance had it -happened a few hours sooner. - -In the early morning of the 3rd of October 1574 Boisot, finding all -impediments removed, swept with his flotilla into the canals of Leyden, -and the city after its great agony was saved. He had lost only forty men -in this marvellous feat, surely one of the most wonderful events -recorded in history, while of his enemy over a thousand were slain or -drowned. Property to the value of over a million gulden--£83,333--had -been destroyed by cutting the dykes, but what was that compared with the -rescue of Leyden from the Spaniards! - -The relief of Leyden gave renewed hope to the patriot cause. On the 12th -of November 1574 the estates of Holland, assembled at Delft, conferred -almost dictatorial power upon the prince of Orange, and voted him as -large a sum of money as they could raise to carry on the war. That -amount was only £45,000 a year, but it was a very considerable sum for -one small province to contribute, especially when it is considered that -the cities of Amsterdam and Haarlem were in the hands of the Spaniards, -and Leyden, with the territory adjoining it, was too impoverished to -give any aid. On the 4th of June 1575 the province of Zeeland united -with Holland in a kind of loose confederation, the principal bond being -that the prince of Orange was the head of both. - -[Sidenote: Siege of Zierikzee.] - -An attempt to bring about a state of peace was made again, and -commissioners from both sides sat at Breda from the 3rd of March to the -13th of July 1575; but as Philippe would only allow those of the -reformed religion to sell their property and leave the country, the -negotiations came to nothing. Bigotry and intolerance were not confined -to one side, however. Some revolting cruelties practised by Diederik -Sonoy, governor of North Holland, upon Roman Catholics at Alkmaar, -equalled, if they did not surpass, the most fiendish tortures of the -inquisition. The prince of Orange did everything in his power to -suppress such barbarities, while Philippe countenanced them: otherwise -one party was as vindictive as the other. - -On the 19th of July 1575 the little town of Oudewater in South Holland, -close to the border of Utrecht, was besieged by a Spanish force, and was -taken by assault on the 7th of August. The men were all butchered, the -women met with a worse fate, and the houses, after being pillaged, were -burned to the ground. - -The memorable siege of Zierikzee, the principal town on the island of -Schouwen, in Zeeland, followed. The island of Tholen was the only part -of Zeeland held by the Spaniards, and there a force of three thousand -men was got together, who during the night of the 27th of September 1575 -actually waded across the channel that separates Tholen from Duiveland. -There were some French, English, and Scotch troops in the service of -Orange at Duiveland, but they retreated at once, and threw themselves -into Zierikzee. The invaders, consisting of Spanish, German, and Walloon -soldiers, followed quickly, and laid siege to the town. The villages of -Brouwershaven and Bommenede on the same island of Schouwen were also -attacked, and for a time were wiped out of existence. Then the whole -force, under Colonel Mondragon, sat down and pressed the siege of -Zierikzee. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -Requesens had no money with which to raise more troops, and Orange was -in the same position, so the siege dragged on month after month. On the -15th of June 1576 Admiral Louis Boisot with a few ships tried to force a -passage through a barrier into the harbour, but his own vessel, that was -leading the way, ran aground, and the others drew off. The ship was got -afloat again, but was sunk by a Spanish battery, when three hundred of -her crew went down.[24] The admiral and the remainder of the crew jumped -overboard, and tried to escape by swimming. Some of them succeeded in -doing so, but the gallant Boisot, to the great loss of the patriot -cause, was drowned. Zierikzee held out until the 21st of June 1576, when -it capitulated on honourable terms, and escaped being sacked and burned -by the payment of a ransom of £16,666. The Spaniards did not long remain -in possession of it. - -To the prince of Orange it had now become apparent that the only chance -of securing constitutional government and freedom of conscience was the -renunciation of Philippe and the choice of some other sovereign able to -protect the country. The farce of fighting against the count of Holland -and at the same time of transacting all business in his name could no -longer be carried on. On the 1st of October 1575 the estates of Holland -and Zeeland met at Rotterdam, when the prince laid a proposal to this -effect before them. They adjourned for a few days in order to consult -the cities, and then assembled again at Delft and unanimously adopted -the prince’s proposal. Then commenced a long series of negotiations with -Elizabeth of England and a brother of the king of France, but all -failed, because it was generally believed that if either accepted, he or -she would at once have the other, combined with Spain, as an enemy. So -the struggle had to be carried on unaided, except with a little secret -assistance given now and then. - -[Sidenote: Mutiny of the Spanish Troops.] - -On the 5th of March 1576 the Grand Commander Requesens died after only -four days’ illness, and the Council of State, a weak and vacillating -body, assumed the administration until a successor should be appointed. -This Council was at the head of affairs when a fresh disaster fell upon -the country. - -Immediately after the fall of Zierikzee the Spanish and Walloon troops -who had so long been investing that town broke out in open mutiny. They -demanded their arrear pay, and when this was not forthcoming they -deposed their officers, elected others, and levied contributions upon -the country just as a band of avowed robbers would do. From Zeeland they -marched into Brabant, where they took possession of the little town of -Herenthals, and after consuming everything there, directed their -devastating course southward to the environs of Brussels. The -inhabitants of the capital were in great alarm, but they prepared for -defence with such spirit that the mutineers did not attack them. They -seized instead the little town of Assche close by, and next the larger -town of Alost. Here they committed frightful atrocities, murdering every -one who resisted them. - -On the 26th of July the mutineers were declared outlaws by the Council -of State, but this had no effect upon them, and now the garrisons of -other towns began to join hands with them. Like robber bands, which -indeed they were, they marched about, levying contributions wherever -they chose, and murdering all who opposed them. Their discipline was so -perfect that in every encounter with parties of citizens, however large, -they came off victorious. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -The city of Antwerp, with a population of two hundred thousand souls, -was the commercial metropolis of Europe. It was adorned with beautiful -buildings, among which the cathedral and the townhouse were considered -as rivalling the most stately structures in Christendom. The citadel -built by Alva was an impregnable fortress, and at this time the renowned -Sancho d’Avila was in command of it. He sided with the mutineers, and -became their head, but his troops, who were partly German mercenaries, -were divided in opinion, and one strong regiment remained faithful. Upon -this wealthy and beautiful city the mutineers now cast their eyes. The -Council of State collected as many soldiers as could be obtained, and -five thousand infantry and twelve hundred cavalry, mostly Walloons, were -sent to aid in the defence. - -In the morning of Sunday the 4th of November 1576 the Spanish troops -from various quarters arrived at Antwerp, and stormed a barricade which -the citizens had hastily thrown up. The Walloons, who had been sent to -aid in the defence, fled almost without attempting to resist, and upon -the citizens and the faithful German regiment devolved the almost -impossible task of protecting the city. They fought splendidly, but -could not hold their ground. Driven from the streets they took refuge in -houses, which were at once set on fire by the Spaniards, and presently a -vast conflagration raged in the fairest part of the city. The -magnificent town house was reduced to bare and blackened walls. When -night fell resistance had ceased, and the Spanish fiends were in -possession of Antwerp. Throughout Monday and Tuesday the work of pillage -was carried on, when those who were suspected of having concealed money -or valuables were tortured till they died or produced the treasure, all -kinds of horrors were perpetrated, Catholic priest and Protestant maid -were treated alike with brutal ferocity, and every restraint was set -aside. In those three days of horrors eight thousand people perished, -property to the value of half a million pounds sterling was destroyed by -fire, and at least as much more was taken possession of by the Spanish -demons. The event was ever afterwards known as the Spanish Fury of -Antwerp. The soldiers of Philippe had obtained their arrears, and -thereafter returned to obedience. - -[Sidenote: The Pacification of Ghent.] - -The conduct of the mutinous Spanish troops had the effect of drawing the -different provinces together more closely than ever before. By advice of -the prince of Orange, deputies were appointed by a number of the estates -and cities, who met with the representatives of Holland and Zeeland, and -debated upon what had best be done. They soon arrived at a decision, and -on the 8th of November 1576 the important arrangement thereafter known -as the Pacification of Ghent was signed by Holland and Zeeland on one -side, and by the representatives of the provinces of Brabant, Flanders, -Artois, Hainaut, and eight cities, of which Utrecht was one, on the -other. It provided for a close and faithful friendship between them all, -for the expulsion of the Spanish forces from the Netherlands, for an -assemblage of the estates-general of all the provinces as soon as the -foreigners were out of the country, for the suppression of persecution -for religion and the suspension of all edicts relating to this subject, -and for the abstention by Holland and Zeeland of interference with the -Roman Catholic religion in the other fifteen provinces. Throughout the -whole country this arrangement was received with acclamation, and the -seventeen provinces, without in any degree becoming amalgamated into -one, were yet united for the purpose of expelling the foreign troops, -and to that extent were all in rebellion against the king of Spain. The -prince of Orange was the soul of this movement, though he remained only -stadholder of Holland and Zeeland. - -Another actor appeared at this time on the scene. This was Don John of -Austria, a natural son of the emperor Charles V, who had been appointed -by Philippe governor-general of the Netherlands. Don John, though still -a young man, had acquired great renown as a commander in war, having -crushed the revolt of the Moors in Granada and destroyed the Turkish -fleet in the famous battle of Lepanto. He arrived at Luxemburg -unattended by troops on the 3rd of November 1576, and learning there -what was taking place in the provinces, he sent to Brussels to demand -hostages for his personal safety before he proceeded farther. He had -been instructed by the king to conciliate the Netherlands, and was at -liberty to make any concessions, provided the absolute authority of the -crown and the exclusive practice of the Roman Catholic worship should be -strictly conformed to. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -By advice of the prince of Orange, the representatives then at Brussels -resolved to demand conditions from Don John before they should -acknowledge him as governor. These were the immediate departure of all -foreign troops from the country, an oath to maintain all the rights and -privileges of the provinces and towns, the appointment of a new council -of state by the estates-general, the right of the estates-general to -meet whenever they chose, and to regulate all affairs, the demolition of -the citadels that had been built to overawe the towns, and the -maintenance of the Pacification of Ghent. A deputation was sent to -Luxemburg with these demands, which were presented to Don John on the -6th of December. No decision was arrived at then, and negotiations were -continued for months thereafter, though the conditions laid down by the -king and those of the estates seemed to be irreconcilable. - -Early in January 1577 another document, termed the Union of Brussels, -came into existence. It was a compact to expel the Spaniards immediately -and to uphold the Pacification of Ghent, to maintain the Catholic as the -state religion in the fifteen provinces not under the government of -Orange, to acknowledge the king’s authority as a constitutional -sovereign, and to defend the various charters. This document was -generally signed by people of every class throughout all the provinces -except Luxemburg. It marks another stage in the struggle between -despotism and liberty. - -[Sidenote: The Perpetual Edict.] - -Towards the close of this month Don John removed from Luxemburg to the -little town of Huy, on the right bank of the Maas, in the province of -Liege, hoping that by placing himself thus chivalrously in the power of -the people he would command their respect. At the same time it must not -be forgotten that there was a party of considerable strength in the -southern provinces, consisting of the nobles and their adherents, who -were as much opposed to popular liberty as Philippe himself was, and -that Don John could rely upon them to support him. - -The negotiations were now so far successful that on the 12th of February -1577 an agreement was signed by Don John, and on the 17th of the same -month received the signatures also of the authorities in Brussels. It -ratified the Pacification of Ghent, it required all foreign troops to be -sent out of the country without delay, but the estates-general were to -pay the German soldiers before leaving. All the privileges, charters, -and constitutions of the Netherlands were to be maintained, as was also -the Catholic religion. The estates were to disband the troops in their -service, and Don John was to be received as governor-general immediately -after the departure of the Spanish and Italian soldiers. This agreement -was confirmed by Philippe, and took the name of the Perpetual Edict. It -was not, however, approved by the estates of Holland and Zeeland, nor by -the prince of Orange, who put no confidence in the promises, written or -verbal, of either the king or his representatives. - -Don John now moved from Huy to Louvain, near Brussels, and towards the -close of April 1577 the Spanish and Italian troops set out on their -march from the Netherlands to Lombardy. That condition having been -carried out, the governor-general entered Brussels, and on the 3rd of -May took the oaths of office, just six months after his arrival on the -frontier. There were still from ten to fifteen thousand German mercenary -soldiers in the king’s service in the country, and the southern nobles -were at his beck and call, so that the patriotic party soon had cause -for alarm. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -Don John, after a residence of less than two months in Brussels, became -apprehensive for his personal safety, and fled first to Mechlin, and -then to Namur, a town at the confluence of the Sambre and the Maas, not -far from the frontier of France. There was a strong fortress in Namur, -which the governor-general got possession of by stratagem, and in which -he placed a garrison when he went to reside there. He next made an -attempt to get possession of the citadel of Antwerp, but failed, and the -German troops who occupied it fled on the approach of a fleet of the Sea -Beggars and surrendered to the estates. - -On the 26th of August the estates addressed a demand to Don John, in -which they called upon him to disband all the troops in his service and -to send the German mercenaries instantly out of the country, to dismiss -every foreigner from office, whether civil or military, and to renounce -his secret alliance with the duke of Guise, the head of the Catholic -League in France. They required him to govern thenceforth only with the -advice and consent of the Council of State, to carry out whatever should -be determined on by a majority of that body, and to regard neither -measures as binding nor despatches as authentic unless decided upon or -drawn up in that Council. This was a demand for parliamentary or what is -now termed responsible government in its widest sense, and the -representative of King Philippe could not agree to it. - -The inhabitants of Antwerp now rose in a body and razed to the ground -the side of the citadel which commanded the city, so that it was no -longer a menace to them. The people of Ghent also broke down their -castle, and remodelled the government of that city in a democratic -manner. The estates invited the prince of Orange to visit Brussels and -give them advice, and on the 23rd of September he made his appearance -there. - -[Sidenote: Action of Queen Elizabeth.] - -Don John now retired from Namur to Luxemburg, and waited in that city -until the king should provide him with an army strong enough to conquer -the country. The estates on their part commenced to levy troops, for -negotiations had quite ceased. On the 7th of December they declared Don -John no longer governor-general, but an enemy of the Netherlands. - -The prince of Orange was elected ruward of Brabant, a post which gave -him great power in that province, and his influence was enormous -throughout the whole country. By his advice a new act of union was -signed at Brussels on the 10th of December, by which the adherents of -the Roman Catholic church and the Protestants bound themselves to -respect each other and to protect one another from all enemies whatever. -But this was a step too far in advance of the times to be permanent, for -it was an age of bitter intolerance. - -Queen Elizabeth of England, fearing that French influence would prevail -in the Netherlands if she did not aid the struggling country at this -critical time, resolved to give the estates some assistance. On the 7th -of January 1578 she entered into an engagement in London to endorse -their obligations to the extent of one hundred thousand pounds sterling, -and to supply five thousand infantry and one thousand cavalry, who -should, however, be paid by them. This was not regarded as making war -against Spain, because at the same time the Catholic League in France -was sending a much greater number of well trained men to assist Don John -of Austria. - -While the armies on both sides were gathering, another factor, that -might have caused much confusion, was introduced. A party of nobles, in -order to thwart the prince of Orange, invited the archduke Matthias of -Hapsburg, brother of the emperor, to fill the post of governor-general. -The young man accepted the invitation, and came to the Netherlands, but -the prince of Orange and his adherents managed things so adroitly that -Matthias, though inaugurated as governor-general on the 18th of January -1578, had really no power conferred upon him, and Orange himself as -lieutenant-general retained all authority. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -Both parties had by this time collected considerable forces, Don John at -Luxemburg, the estates at Namur, but the armies were very differently -composed. Philippe had sent several veteran regiments of Spaniards and -Italians, the most highly disciplined troops in the world, commanded by -Alexander Farnese, prince of Parma, and to these had been added some -well-trained French battalions, making altogether a compact army of -about twenty thousand men. The army of the estates was equal in number, -but was a motley assemblage of Germans, French, Netherlanders, English, -and Scotch. - -On the 31st of January 1578 these forces met at Gemblours, fourteen -kilometres from Namur, and the result was the total annihilation of the -States army, with hardly any loss at all on Don John’s side. Seven or -eight thousand men were killed on the field, six hundred were made -prisoners and were immediately hanged or drowned, and the remainder were -dispersed. All their baggage, ammunition, weapons, and stores of every -kind fell into the hands of the victors, and the patriot cause seemed -doomed to ruin. - -A great many small towns in the southern provinces were immediately -occupied by the king’s troops, terrible atrocities being perpetrated -wherever resistance was offered. Brussels, however, the seat of -government, was put in a thorough condition for defence, and the States -set about organising another army as rapidly as possible. - -On the other hand, in the north, a great augmentation of the power of -the prince of Orange was taking place. Haarlem had been recovered for -the patriot cause, the province of Utrecht had accepted the prince as -stadholder, and on the 8th of February 1578 the important city of -Amsterdam was gained, so that the provinces of Holland, Zeeland, and -Utrecht were wholly animated by the same spirit. Then, on the 11th of -March the estates of Gelderland elected as governor of that province -Count John of Nassau, the only surviving brother of William of Orange, -which was almost equivalent to electing the prince himself. The Reformed -religion was making very rapid progress in Utrecht and Gelderland, but -was not yet as exclusively the faith of the people as in Holland and -Zeeland. In June of this year 1578 the second provincial synod of the -Reformed churches was held at Dordrecht, the first having met at Hoorn -in 1572, a proof how entirely the inquisition had failed to extirpate -freedom of conscience in that part of the country. - -[Sidenote: Rivalry between England and France.] - -The cord that bound the seventeen provinces together was so weak that it -was liable to snap at any time, and it was therefore rather to foreign -assistance than to their own unaided exertions that the leading men -looked to rescue the land from Spanish tyranny. They had appointed the -emperor’s brother Matthias their governor-general in name, but that had -not brought them the material aid which they needed. A considerable -number of the nobles were now intriguing with the worthless duke of -Anjou, brother of the king of France, leading him to believe that if he -would bring a strong army into the field they would elect him their -sovereign in place of Philippe. Even the prince of Orange favoured this -scheme, and Anjou actually invaded the country and occupied Mons with a -considerable force. The effect was that Queen Elizabeth of England, in -her jealousy of France, gave greater assistance in men and money than -before, and Anjou disbanded his troops and returned to Paris. - -Don John was again helpless for want of money. Philippe had sent him -nearly £400,000 from Spain with the troops under Alexander Farnese, and -had promised him more, but the money was expended, and the promise was -unfulfilled. Without the means of procuring the material of war he could -do nothing. Then a pestilence broke out in his main army, and in a few -weeks over a thousand men died. Worn out with care and anxiety, after a -severe attack of illness, on the 1st of October 1578 Don John of Austria -expired in his camp near Namur, after appointing on his deathbed -Alexander Farnese, prince of Parma, his successor until the king’s -pleasure should be known. The temporary appointment was confirmed, and -the ablest of all of Philippe’s representatives was free to try what he -could do towards settling the great controversy between despotism and -liberty in the Netherlands. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -Alexander Farnese was the only son of the duke of Parma and Piacenza and -of the regent Margaret, who preceded Alva in the administration. He was -thirty-three years of age, and had been left a widower by the decease of -his wife, a princess of Portugal. He found the country distracted with -religious feuds, in which the Protestants were as violent as the -Catholics. In Ghent the turbulence of a fanatical party was -uncontrollable even by the prince of Orange, and the destruction of -statues and ornaments in the churches was accompanied with such -atrocious treatment of the leading adherents of the ancient faith that -the Walloon provinces of the south, which were ardently Catholic, were -exasperated to the last degree. On the 6th of January 1579 an alliance -between Hainaut, Artois, and Lille with Douai and Orchies was entered -into for the defence and exclusive maintenance of the Catholic church. -The nobles in these provinces were timeservers, and Parma soon found -that they could easily be bribed by offices and money to abandon the -patriot interests. For this purpose Philippe could open his purse -widely, though he neglected to pay his soldiers. - -On the 17th of May 1579 the estates of the three provinces above named -signed at Arras a formal treaty of reconciliation with the king of -Spain, and were for ever lost to the Netherlands cause. Several towns -in Brabant and Flanders shortly afterwards followed this example. The -question of religion being settled to Philippe’s satisfaction, they were -allowed to retain their charters subject to the prerogative of the -sovereign. - -[Sidenote: The Union of Utrecht.] - -On the other hand, on the 23rd of January 1579 the foundation of the -Netherlands Republic was laid by an agreement termed the Union of -Utrecht, which was proclaimed on the 29th of the same month. The union -was a loose one, for it left to each province and each city its own -constitution unaltered, and only provided for a general assembly of -deputies from the estates of the different provinces, in which each -should have the same voting power, no matter how many deputies it should -send. The object was defence against a common foe. It guaranteed to -every man liberty of conscience, but it could not secure liberty of -public worship where passion was running high, it could merely prevent -inquisition whether Catholic or Protestant. It founded a new State, but -the men who concluded it did not realise that this would be the result, -they professed that they still adhered to the agreement with the other -provinces, only making that agreement a little more binding in their own -case. No supreme head was appointed, though Orange was practically in -that position, and Matthias was not deprived of his title of -governor-general, nor was Philippe formally deposed as sovereign of the -provinces outside of Holland and Zeeland. The bishopric of Utrecht now -ceased to exist. - -The Union of Utrecht was signed by Count John of Nassau for himself and -as stadholder of Gelderland, by the deputies of Holland, Zeeland, and -Utrecht, by the deputies of the province of Groningen excluding the -capital, by the deputies of Brill and the land of Voorne as a particular -district though united with Holland, and further by a minority of the -deputies of Friesland, the majority objecting to it. It was open to any -other provinces or towns to join the Union, and on the 1st of March -1580 Overyssel gave in its adhesion, but the town of Groningen did not -do so until 1595, and the complete province of Friesland not before -1598. Various nobles subsequently joined the Union, as did also the city -of Ghent on the 4th of February 1579, the city of Antwerp on the 28th of -July 1579, the city of Bruges on the 1st of February 1580, and several -others later. Each city came to be practically an independent unit in -the province in which it was situated, and could therefore make what -alliances it chose. But owing to this circumstance the government of the -Union was exceedingly weak, for no resolutions of the states-general -were binding upon any town whose deputies did not agree to them. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -The provinces Holland, Zeeland, since enlarged by the addition of a -small part of Flanders, the northern part of Gelderland including the -county of Zutphen, Overyssel, Friesland, and Groningen, together with -Drenthe, cover the whole territory of the present kingdom of the -Netherlands except North Brabant and Limburg. Drenthe was a dependency -of the bishopric of Utrecht from 1024 to 1537, when it became a direct -fief to the emperor Charles V. It remained subject to the Spanish -government until 1594, when it was overrun by the States forces, and -thereafter it was a dependency of either Friesland or Groningen until -1813, when it became a separate province of the kingdom of the -Netherlands. - - - - -III. - -CONTINUATION OF THE WAR IN THE NETHERLANDS UNTIL 1606. - - -[Sidenote: Continuation of the War.] - -The most exciting part of the scene now changes to the town of -Maastricht, an important strategical position in the present province of -Limburg. Maastricht contained thirty-four thousand inhabitants, and -there was a garrison of a thousand soldiers within its walls. On the -12th of March 1579 Parma laid siege to the town with an army of twenty -to twenty-five thousand men, and completely enclosed it. Two or three -thousand peasants of both sexes, whose homes had been ravaged, managed -to get in before it was surrounded, and they were of great service in -the defence. The resistance was desperate, men and women fighting side -by side whenever breaches were made in the walls and the soldiers tried -to enter, as also in excavating passages by which the Spanish mines were -destroyed. The carnage on both sides was frightful. On one occasion five -hundred soldiers were hurled into the air and killed by a single -explosion of a mine. An attempt to relieve the town was made by the -prince of Orange, but it failed, for it was impossible to raise an army -strong enough for the purpose. At last, on the 29th of June, Maastricht -was taken, and then an indiscriminate massacre followed. On the first -day four thousand men and women were butchered, and their dead bodies -were flung into the streets. Three days the massacre continued, and then -the few survivors fled from their old homes and tried to find a refuge -in the country. Maastricht was depopulated, and after everything of -value had been removed, it was repeopled by strangers. - -Possession of Mechlin was obtained by Parma through the treachery of its -governor De Bours, who introduced Spanish troops secretly, but six -months later it was recovered by surprise by Van der Tympel, governor of -Brussels. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -Another serious disaster befel the patriot cause in the far north. In -November 1579 Joris Lalain, count of Renneberg, stadholder of Groningen -and its dependency Drenthe, sold himself to Parma for office and a sum -of money. During the night of the 3rd of March 1580 he caused all the -leading men of the patriot party in the town of Groningen to be arrested -in their beds and committed to prison, and before dawn on the 4th his -adherents were in possession of the town. The States tried to recover -the place, and a small army laid siege to it, but Parma sent a stronger -force to the north, by which the patriots were almost annihilated. Then -for some time there was a series of petty operations in the Frisian -districts, in which nothing decisive was effected on either side, but -much property was destroyed, and much misery was caused. - -In 1580 Philippe II added Portugal to his dominions. At the time there -was no thought that by this union the Portuguese possessions in the -eastern seas would be laid open to conquest by the Netherlands, but that -was the result. Before the close of the century the provinces within the -Union of Utrecht were destined to become the foremost sea power of the -world, and then the addition of Portugal to their foes was simply the -addition of a vast amount of valuable spoil for them to gather. Meantime -much that is interesting and instructive was to transpire in the -provinces. - -On the 15th of March 1580 Philippe, by advice of Cardinal Granvelle, -issued a ban declaring the prince of Orange an outlaw, and offering -twenty-five thousand crowns of gold, pardon for any crime however great, -and a title of nobility to anyone who should assassinate him. He was -regarded as the very soul of the struggle for liberty of conscience and -political freedom, as indeed he was, and if he could be got out of the -way, the king believed that the fourteen still defiant provinces would -return like Artois, Hainaut, and Lille to the Catholic church and to -perfect obedience. - -[Sidenote: Election of the Duke of Anjou as Sovereign.] - -This was the final grievance which led to the absolute renunciation of -the sovereignty of Philippe by the disaffected provinces. Hitherto, -though they were fighting against him, all acts of government were -carried out in his name except in Holland and Zeeland, but on the 26th -of July 1581 their estates, assembled at the Hague, formally and -solemnly abjured him. His seals were broken, and every one was absolved -from oaths of allegiance taken to him. - -But there was no intention on the part of the people to change the form -of their government, what they desired was to preserve their ancient -charters, not to destroy them. The bond of union between the provinces -was that one individual had been sovereign of them all, and now that -Philippe had been abjured they must choose another in his stead, or -break into fragments. The general choice fell upon the prince of Orange, -but he emphatically refused to accept the position, because he would not -have it said that personal ambition had influenced his conduct. Holland -and Zeeland, however, would have no other, and after much hesitation he -consented to become their head temporarily. The archduke Matthias, who -was of no account, laid down his office as governor-general, and shortly -afterwards retired to Germany. - -By the influence of Orange the worthless duke of Anjou was chosen -sovereign of the other twelve provinces. He was a brother of the king of -France, who promised to assist him with money and men to defend the -country against Spain. It was believed that he was about to wed Queen -Elizabeth of England, and she certainly did all that she could to favour -his election by the estates. He agreed to all the conditions required of -him, though they bound him to constitutional government as closely as -the king of England is bound to-day. He would have agreed to anything at -all, in fact, but his promise, or his signature, or his oath was of no -value whatever. Fortunately for England his insignificant person and his -repulsive features prevented the great queen from espousing him. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -He was in England when the final arrangements were made, but on the 10th -of February 1582 he arrived at Flushing with a brilliant train of -English and French noblemen. The queen had requested that he might be -treated with the same respect as herself, and so he was received with -all possible honour. On the 17th of the same month he reached Antwerp, -and was inaugurated with much ceremony as sovereign duke of Brabant. In -July he was installed at Bruges as sovereign count of Flanders, and at -the same time the estates of Gelderland formally accepted him as duke of -that province, and those of Friesland pledged him obedience as their -lord. He did not visit the other provinces in order to be installed with -ceremony, but took up his residence at Antwerp, and was generally -accepted as sovereign. To support him he had a strong French army, which -was supposed to be a movable force, while troops raised by the States -were stationed as garrisons in the towns. - -The prince of Parma meantime was far from idle. Reinforcements of -Spanish and Italian troops were constantly arriving, until at the end of -August 1582 he was at the head of an army fully sixty thousand strong -and largely composed of veteran soldiers. Using the obedient provinces -of Artois and Hainaut as a base of operations, he sent out detachments -to surprise cities that were not thoroughly on their guard, and as he -had bribed many of the nobles, he was always well-informed on this -point. So he got possession among various places of Oudenarde in -Flanders on the 5th of July 1582, and a little later of Steenwyk in -Friesland, of Eindhoven in Brabant, and of Nieuwpoort in Flanders. - -The duke of Anjou had sworn to maintain the constitutions of the -provinces and freedom of conscience, but the brother of the king of -France and the son of Catherine of Medici could not long bear restraint. -He wished to make himself an absolute sovereign and to suppress -Protestantism, and without reflecting what the consequence must be of -attempting to oppose Parma and the people of the Netherlands at the same -time, on the 15th of January 1583 by his order detachments of French -troops took possession of Dunkirk, Ostend, Dixmuyde, Denremonde, Alost, -and Vilvoorde, and ejected the Netherlands garrisons. A similar attempt -upon Bruges failed, as the city authorities closed the gates in time -against the French soldiers. - -[Sidenote: Treachery of Anjou.] - -The duke resided in Antwerp, and at Borgerhout close by there was a camp -of French troops. On the 17th of January at mid-day he rode through the -gate leading to Borgerhout, when his bodyguard attacked the burgher -watch, killed every man of them, and took possession of the archway and -the drawbridge. Six hundred cavalry and three thousand infantry from -Borgerhout then poured into the city, where they divided, and some began -to plunder. But the burghers sprang quickly to arms, the leading -sections of the French were overwhelmed, and those behind commenced to -retreat in a panic. The burghers pressed on, killed over two thousand of -the French, and made prisoners of all the others. Fewer than a hundred -burghers lost their lives on this occasion. - -Anjou fled with the remainder of his troops from Borgerhout, but a dyke -was cut in his passage, and another thousand soldiers were drowned. He -succeeded, however, in escaping to a place of safety, where he collected -various scattered detachments about him, and formed a new camp. There he -entered into correspondence with Parma on one side and with the States -on the other, trying to make terms with each. - -The position was one of extreme peril. Owing to the jealousy between the -provinces and the cities and to the rivalry between Catholics and -Protestants, they could not stand alone. To pursue the miscreant Anjou -any further would be to incur the hostility of France, and that would -most certainly bring ruin upon the country. Queen Elizabeth wrote -strongly urging a reconciliation with him, and that was also in the -opinion of the prince of Orange the wisest course to adopt. So an -arrangement was made with him, by which on the 28th of March 1583 he -surrendered the cities that he had seized, and the States released their -French prisoners and restored to him the plate and furniture he had left -behind in Antwerp. He was to wait at Dunkirk until some plan could be -devised by which he might be restored to the dignity he had forfeited, -but on the 28th of June he left to visit Paris, and never returned. He -died in France on the 10th of June 1584. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -The treachery of Anjou was imitated by more than one of the Netherlands -nobles. On the 22nd of September 1583 the town of Zutphen in Gelderland -was betrayed to the Spaniards by Count Van den Berg, and on the 20th of -May 1584 Bruges in Flanders was given up to Parma by the prince of -Chimay, who was governor of that important city. Then Ypres in Flanders -was besieged and forced to surrender, and as in Bruges all Protestants -were expelled. Most of these took refuge in the northern provinces, so -that the line of separation between the two opposing religions was -constantly becoming more clearly defined. - -At this critical time in the history of the provinces the great man -whose name will ever be associated with all that is best and noblest in -their struggle for liberty was taken from them by the pistol of an -assassin. The ban of Philippe II had at last produced the effect for -which it was designed. There had been many attempts to murder the prince -of Orange and secure the king’s reward, but hitherto all had failed. The -most serious of these took place on the 18th of March 1582, when he had -been wounded, at first it was believed mortally, but he had recovered, -though his wife died from the shock. And now, on the 10th of July 1584, -in his own house at Delft he was shot by a fanatic Burgundian Catholic -named Balthazar Gérard, who under pretence of being a Calvinist in -distress had obtained admittance to his service. The Father of his -Country, as he was deservedly called, expired almost immediately. The -murderer was seized, and died under the most excruciating tortures that -the ingenuity of man could devise, but he remained callous to the last. -The sorrowing people laid the corpse of him they had such good reason to -mourn for in the new church at Delft, and raised a stately tomb over it, -where few Dutch speaking South Africans who visit Europe fail to pay -their respects to the memory of the illustrious dead. Thus William of -Orange passed away. - -[Sidenote: Murder of the Prince of Orange.] - -The real murderer, Philippe the Second of Spain, rewarded the parents of -his tool with patents of nobility and with three seignories or rich -estates in Franche Comté, taken from the confiscated property of his -victim. - -For a short time the country was paralysed by the death of its great -leader, but soon in the northern provinces a general resolution was -taken to prosecute the war more vigorously than ever. It now became -almost purely a strife of religion. The prince of Orange had favoured -toleration, but when he was removed the enmity between the Catholics and -the Protestants showed itself so strong that a united country was no -longer possible. It was not recognised at the time, but it can now be -seen, that the position of the dividing line was the object striven for, -and consequently the central provinces, Flanders, Brabant, Mechlin, -Gelderland, and Limburg, where the Teutons and Celts were intermixed, -were to be the principal scene of operations. - -The states-general, exercising supreme power, appointed an executive -council to raise forces and carry on the war until a sovereign should be -chosen. This council consisted of eighteen members, four representing -Holland, three Zeeland, three Friesland, three Brabant, two Utrecht, -two Flanders, and one Mechlin. As its president the states-general -appointed Maurits of Nassau, second son of the murdered prince of -Orange, his eldest son Philip having long been a prisoner in Spain. It -was a clumsy instrument for carrying on a war, with a president only -seventeen years of age, and depending for funds upon the states-general, -that it was required to convoke at least twice a year; but it was the -only possible machinery that could be created at the time. The States’ -movable army consisted of three thousand infantry and two thousand five -hundred cavalry, the burghers being relied upon for the defence of the -towns. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -On the other side was the astute and active Parma, with a field force of -over eighteen thousand veterans, besides garrisons in all the towns he -had taken. He was provided with gold to bribe the corrupt nobles, and he -was skilful in using it. The disparity between the two parties was so -great that it was not surprising that towns of mixed population should -waver when plausible overtures were made to them, rather than risk being -attacked and treated as Maastricht had been. Dendermonde was the first -to give way. On the 17th of August 1584 it was reconciled to the Spanish -king, and lost for ever to the patriot cause. The fatal example was -followed by Vilvoorde on the 7th of September, and on the 17th of the -same month by the all-important city of Ghent. The terms of -reconciliation were that the municipal institutions were to be -respected, and that the Protestants were to be allowed two years within -which either to conform to the Catholic worship or to dispose of their -property and go into exile. This was at least much better than to be -burnt or buried alive. Emigration to Holland and Zeeland followed on a -very large scale, and before the expiration of the two years Ghent in -particular lost nearly half of its former inhabitants. Thus -Protestantism gained in the north and Catholicism in the south of the -country. - -The eyes of the great powers of Europe were now more intently fixed upon -the Netherlands than ever before, but it was difficult to assist them. -Neither Germany, France, nor England was willing to enter openly into -war with the powerful Spanish empire in order to preserve constitutional -government and Calvinistic doctrine. The states actually offered the -sovereignty of the provinces to the contemptible Henry III, who sat upon -the throne of France, if he would pledge his word to maintain their -charters and their religion, and he declined to accept the offer, though -he had every reason to be hostile to Spain. Elizabeth of England -favoured a joint protectorate of the Netherlands by France and herself, -but was naturally unwilling to see them absorbed by her neighbour, and -was not inclined to assist them alone. And so in their time of greatest -need they had only themselves to depend upon. - -[Sidenote: Designs of the Prince of Parma.] - -It was fortunate for the northern provinces that Parma was not receiving -reinforcements, or the whole country would soon have been overrun. -Philippe was closely engaged in fomenting civil war in France and in -planning the conquest of England, subjects which occupied his mind and -drew upon his purse to such an extent that he neglected the Netherlands -and failed to furnish money to maintain and pay even the limited number -of soldiers he had there. He was the real head of the so-called holy -league, that under the nominal leadership of the duke of Guise was in -arms to establish absolutism and extirpate Protestantism in Europe. -Parma was left mainly to his own resources, but he possessed military -and diplomatic ability of the highest order, and could do with his -slender army what ordinary generals could not have done with forces -twice as strong. - -If he could obtain possession of Brussels and Antwerp the backbone of -the rebellion would be broken, he believed, and in the autumn of 1584 he -commenced operations to that end. His plan was to construct a fortified -bridge over the Schelde below Antwerp, which would prevent succour -being sent up the river from Zeeland, and thus the cities would be -starved out, for the open country was in his hands. There was one way by -which this plan could be frustrated, and that was by cutting the great -dykes and letting the sea roll over the land, but the patriots hesitated -to destroy so much property. When at last they tried to do it they were -too late, for Parma had fortified the dykes and held them with an iron -hand. During the winter of 1584-5 famine was so severe in Brussels that -people died of hunger, and on the 13th of March 1585 the city -capitulated. Mechlin held out until the 19th of July, when it too fell. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -The siege of Antwerp was one of the most celebrated events in the -history of the Netherlands. The city was then much less populous than it -had formerly been, but it still contained ninety thousand inhabitants, -the most turbulent though the most energetic and industrious in Europe. -It was the most important commercial city in the country. If there had -been union of counsel and obedience to a single authority, Antwerp need -not have feared anything that Parma with his eleven or twelve thousand -soldiers could do, but all was discord and confusion within the walls. -And without was one strong clear-headed man, with a genius for war, in -command of soldiers devoted to him, a man who could construct a strong -fortified bridge seven hundred and thirty-two metres in length over a -deep tidal river in the winter season and in the face of a far superior -number of combatants, a feat deemed by most people utterly impossible -until it was accomplished. The sufferings of Antwerp were less than -those of Leyden, but on the 17th of August 1585 the city capitulated. -Life and property were to be respected, a ransom of only £33,000 was to -be paid, no other than the Roman Catholic worship was to be publicly -observed, but Protestants were allowed two years in which to dispose of -their property and leave. - -Immediately a stream of emigration set out towards the north. Amsterdam -especially benefited by refugee merchants and artisans from Antwerp -settling there, and very shortly became the first commercial city of -Europe. Middelburg too and many other towns of Holland and Zeeland -received a large access of population from the fugitive Protestants of -Brabant and Flanders. The old cities immediately lost their former -importance, Antwerp sank into a small place, the citadel was rebuilt and -a foreign garrison was stationed in it, but beyond the soldiers and the -members of the Company of Jesus who were stationed there as instructors -of the young, no new residents were attracted to take the place of the -Protestants who moved away. - -[Sidenote: Treaty with Queen Elizabeth.] - -During the siege of Antwerp the states-general were making every effort -in their power to obtain assistance from England. Queen Elizabeth -realised the necessity of supporting the Netherlands against Philippe -II, who was her enemy as well as theirs, but she was unwilling to give -more than was absolutely necessary. She had to be on her guard against -other enemies than Spain, and she could not afford to spend money -freely. The states offered her the sovereignty of the provinces, which -she declined, and the negotiations for an alliance were so protracted -that when an agreement was finally arrived at, it was too late to save -Antwerp. - -On the 10th of August 1585 a treaty between the queen and the states was -signed, by the terms of which Elizabeth was to furnish and pay during -the war five thousand infantry and one thousand cavalry to assist in the -defence of the provinces,[25] and was to receive the town of Flushing -and the fortress of Rammekens in Zeeland and the town of Brill and two -fortresses in Holland as pledges for the payment of all expenses when -the war was over. She was to provide these places with suitable -garrisons, but was not to interfere in any way with the civil government -or the customs and privileges of the inhabitants. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -The earl of Leicester was appointed lieutenant-general of the English -forces, and with a brilliant staff of nobles landed at Flushing on the -19th of December 1585. The chivalrous and virtuous Sir Philip Sidney was -placed in command of the English garrison of Flushing. - -The states-general, realising that under the existing form of government -it was impossible to act with vigour against the enemy, appointed -Leicester governor and captain-general of the united provinces, and on -the 4th of February 1586 he was inaugurated at the Hague in that -capacity. On the 6th a proclamation was issued by the states,[26] giving -him “supreme command and absolute authority over all the affairs of war -by sea and land, ... the administration and direction of government and -justice over all the said united provinces, cities, and associated -members, ... and special power to levy, receive, and administer all the -contributions granted and appointed for carrying on the war.” The queen, -however, was incensed by his acceptance of such extensive power, and he -did not afterwards receive her support as freely as before. In -particular the English soldiers in the Netherlands were left without pay -or proper maintenance, and it might have gone hard with them if Parma’s -forces had not been in the same condition. Philippe, who was hastening -on the preparation of the great armada which he intended for the -invasion and conquest of England, was trying to gain time and conceal -his operations by pretending to enter into negotiations for peace, and -so nothing decisive was done on either side. - -What was effected during the year 1586 was more advantageous to the -Spaniards than to the Dutch and English. In January of this year Parma -laid siege to the town of Grave, on the Brabant bank of the Maas, and -though in April the garrison was strengthened and a great quantity of -provisions thrown in by the patriots, on the 7th of June the place was -surrendered by its weak-minded commandant. On the same day Megen and -Batenburg were given up to Parma, and on the 28th of June Venlo -capitulated, when only the towns of Geertruidenberg, Heusden, Bergen op -Zoom, and Willemstad were left in Brabant to the patriot cause. All the -territory south of the lower Schelde had now been recovered by the -Spaniards except a little slip in the north of Flanders and along the -seacoast. This little slip was slightly enlarged, however, by the -seizure on the 17th of July of the fortified town of Axel by a combined -English and Dutch expedition. - -[Sidenote: Death of Sir Philip Sidney.] - -In Gelderland Nymegen on the Waal and Zutphen on the Yssel with some -villages in the neighbourhood of each were held by the Spaniards, and -Leicester resolved to attempt to get possession of them. On the 12th of -September after a short siege he occupied Doesburg, eight kilometres -from Zutphen, and then proceeded to beleaguer the city. Parma, with six -thousand five hundred soldiers, immediately marched to its relief, and -on the 2nd of October succeeded in forcing a way in with a great convoy -of provisions. In the action when endeavouring to prevent him from doing -so, the chivalrous Sir Philip Sidney received a wound from which he -died. Parma, after strengthening the garrison, marched to disperse some -German troops in the service of the States, and Leicester, having placed -large garrisons in Deventer, Doesburg, and a very strong fort close to -Zutphen, retired to the Hague. On the 24th of November he left the -Netherlands to return to England, but did not resign his office, thus -causing great confusion. - -He had been at variance with the states-general, and had been disposed -to carry out his views with a high hand, though he was exceedingly -generous with his wealth and spent large sums of money of his own in the -service of the country. Two parties had arisen: one, that may be termed -oligarchal, favouring the existing form of town and provincial -governments and wide toleration in matters of religion; the other, that -called itself democratic, appealing to the sovereignty of the people at -large, but without explaining how that sovereignty was to be manifested, -and desiring to exclude rigidly all religious practices except those of -the Reformed church. The earl of Leicester was the head of the last -named of these parties. He left Sir John Norris in command of the -English troops in the Netherlands, and professedly delegated his own -authority to the state council, though secretly he issued commissions -that greatly impaired the power of that body and of the English general. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -Soon after his departure a series of deplorable events occurred. Sir -William Stanley, who was in command of the garrison of Deventer, -betrayed that important city to Colonel Tassis, who held Zutphen for -Parma, and with an Irish regiment under his orders went over to the -service of Spain. On the same day, 29th of January 1587, Colonel Rowland -York betrayed to Tassis the great fortress close to Zutphen, of which he -was in command. The northern provinces were thus cut in two, and the -Spaniards were able to ravage large portions of Gelderland and -Overyssel. Then Wauw, a castle about four kilometres from Bergen op -Zoom, was sold to Parma by its commandant, and a little later the town -of Gelder was similarly sold by Commandant Aristotle Patton. - -These acts of treachery created a strong feeling of distrust of the -whole of the English forces in the country, especially as it was known -that Queen Elizabeth was extremely desirous of concluding peace with -Spain, and was at this very time corresponding with the duke of Parma on -the subject. The states-general took advantage of this feeling and -attempted to recover the authority which they had ceded to the earl of -Leicester, but did not fully succeed in doing so. - -[Sidenote: Action of Sir Francis Drake.] - -The preparations of Philippe for the invasion of England were rapidly -advancing, and it had been arranged between him and Parma that a -powerful army was to be massed in Flanders and Brabant, which should be -embarked in small vessels and convoyed across the straits by a great -fleet to be sent from Spain. Until all was ready, the queen was to be -kept unsuspicious of danger by pretended negotiations for peace, which -were never to be more than a blind. - -To carry out this scheme Parma needed a capacious and convenient -harbour. Those he possessed were useless for his purpose, because the -English held Flushing at the mouth of the Schelde and Dutch armed ships -were constantly cruising almost up to Antwerp, so at the beginning of -June 1587 he laid siege to Sluis in north-western Flanders with all the -forces he could muster. The town had a garrison of eight hundred English -and eight hundred Dutch soldiers, and not only the burghers but the -women aided heroically in its defence. The importance of preventing such -a harbour from falling into the hands of the Spaniards was realised at -once in England, and Leicester was directed to return to the Netherlands -without delay. On the 7th of July he reached Flushing with three -thousand raw recruits, but the bickering between him and the states was -so great that united action was impossible, and his attempt to relieve -Sluis was an utter failure. The garrison was so reduced in number that -it could resist no longer, and the burghers and women were quite worn -out, when at the beginning of August Sluis capitulated on honourable -terms, and Parma came into possession of an excellent base for the -invasion of England. - -That invasion, however, was deferred for a time, and the pretence of -negotiating for peace was to be continued many months longer, owing to -the action of the daring sea captain Sir Francis Drake. Drake sailed -from Plymouth on the 2nd of April 1587 with four men-of-war and -twenty-four ships fitted out by private adventurers, and seventeen days -later entered the harbour of Cadiz and pillaged, burned, and destroyed -some hundred and fifty vessels that he found there. He then sailed to -Lisbon, and destroyed a hundred transports and provision ships that were -lying in the Tagus. At first sight this looks something like piracy, for -there had been no declaration of war between England and Spain. But what -were all those vessels lying off Cadiz and Lisbon destined for? For the -invasion of England, and this it was that justified Drake in destroying -them as he so bravely did. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -Leicester remained nearly six months in the Netherlands on his second -visit, and then, finding it impossible to recover his former authority, -he returned to England. On the 27th of December 1587 he attached his -name to a document resigning his office, but it did not reach the -states-general until April 1588. In the interim a condition of affairs -that can almost be termed civil war prevailed. The officials and -commanders of garrisons who had taken an oath of fidelity to Leicester -refused to obey any other authority, and young Maurits of Nassau, who -had been appointed by the states captain-general, was obliged to coerce -them by force of arms. At last Leicester’s resignation was received, and -on the 12th of April 1588 the states-general issued a placaat[27] -absolving all persons from their oaths of fidelity to him, when -something like harmony was restored. The baron Willoughby now became the -commander of the English troops in the Netherlands. - -Warlike operations in that country were, however, almost stayed for a -while, owing to Parma’s whole attention being occupied with preparations -for the invasion of England and deceiving the English commissioners who -were treating for peace. He was building great numbers of small -transports, collecting vast stores of provisions and munitions of war, -and providing for sixty thousand soldiers, some of whom were intended -to hold his conquests during his absence and others to go with him to -England when the invincible armada should arrive from Spain with -additional forces and convoy his vessels across the channel. - -[Sidenote: The Invincible Armada.] - -At last in July 1588 the armada, consisting of a hundred and thirty-four -ships of war, with twenty thousand soldiers on board, sailed from -Coruña, and on the 29th of that month came in sight of the English -coast. Never in the world’s history were more important issues in the -balance than those dependent on that mighty fleet. Absolutism or -political liberty, iron bound religious conformity or freedom of -conscience, these were the issues at stake, not only for England and -Holland, but for mighty nations still unborn. It is not necessary to -relate the history of the armada here, every schoolboy knows how it came -to anchor in Calais roads, how the Sea Beggars of Holland and Zeeland -prevented Parma from joining it, how the English fleet under Howard and -Drake and Hawkins and other ocean heroes followed and worried it, how -they sent fireships that frightened it in confusion from Calais roads, -how it fled into the North sea with the English grappling every galleon -that lagged behind, how God sent a great storm that dispersed it, and -how finally only fifty-three out of the hundred and thirty-four huge -fighting ships reached the Spanish coast again, and these little better -than disabled wrecks. The invincible armada was no more, and England and -Holland were saved. - -Parma had a great army under his command, but sickness was wasting it -away, and he had not the means of maintaining it properly. So much had -been expended upon the armada that it was impossible for Philippe to -send him the money he needed. He was in chronic ill-health and seemed to -have lost heart too by the failure of the mighty effort that had been -made, and so for a time took no action commensurate with what might have -been expected of him. He indeed laid siege to Bergen op Zoom, which was -garrisoned by five thousand Dutch and English soldiers under Colonel -Morgan, but he did not press it with his old vigour, and during the -night of the 12th of November 1588 he abandoned it. Then for months he -did nothing, until on the 10th of April 1589 he obtained possession of -Geertruidenberg, a town on the Brabant side of the Maas. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -Philippe’s views were now directed more to France than to the -Netherlands. After the assassination of Henry III the two parties in -that kingdom appealed to arms, and Parma was directed to assist the duke -of Mayenne, who was at the head of the Catholic league, against Henry of -Navarre, then a Huguenot, the legitimate heir to the throne. -Accordingly, in March 1590 he began to send troops to Mayenne, and in -August he followed in person with twelve thousand infantry and three -thousand cavalry, but after breaking the blockade of Paris, then -besieged by Navarre, he returned to the Netherlands, leaving a strong -division of his forces in France. His soldiers were dying rapidly from -disease, they were unpaid and half mutinous, and neither money nor -sufficient provisions could be obtained in the exhausted Spanish -provinces. Under these circumstances Parma, notwithstanding the large -number of men nominally at his disposal, was really almost helpless. - -Maurits was not slow to take advantage of this condition of things. He -had a regular army of only ten thousand infantry and two thousand -cavalry, but his troops were properly paid and well disciplined, and he -was rapidly advancing in military knowledge and skill. He had also the -assistance of a small English contingent. On the 4th of March 1590 he -got possession of the important town of Breda in Brabant. During the -night of the 3rd seventy Hollanders concealed in a turf boat gained -entrance to the castle, and attacked the garrison of Italian soldiers -six times their number, who were seized with a panic and fled into the -town. Before dawn of the 4th a body of patriot troops, with Maurits at -their head, arrived, and Breda was gained. Within a few months eight -other towns in Brabant, though all of less importance than Breda, were -wrested from the Spaniards. - -[Sidenote: Death of the Duke of Parma.] - -During 1591 some great successes were gained by Maurits. On the 23rd of -May the great fort at Zutphen was taken, and on the 30th the town -capitulated. On the 10th of June Deventer was surrendered, and thus the -important cities lost by the treachery of Stanley and York were -recovered. On the 2nd of July Delfzyl, far north in Groningen, -capitulated, and on the 24th of September Hulst, in the north of -Flanders, was obliged to do the same. On the 21st of October Nymegen was -taken, so that the year was a most fortunate one for the patriot cause. -The Spanish garrisons of all these towns had made a stout resistance, -and some had held out for a long time, but none of those scenes of -massacre that characterised Spanish victories obscured the successes of -Maurits. The soldiers were permitted to march away unharmed, and the -result was that afterwards they did not fight so desperately as they -would have done if they had believed that to submit would be followed by -their butchery. As to religion, the same system was introduced in the -recovered towns as was observed in South Africa during the greater part -of the rule of the East India Company: only the Reformed worship could -be practised publicly, but there was no inquisition in matters of -conscience, and in their own houses men could worship as they pleased. - -During 1592 less was accomplished. From January to June Parma was in -France, and when he left that country his ill health prevented him from -making much exertion. Philippe, without the slightest cause, had become -suspicious of his fidelity, and had resolved to disgrace him. From this -indignity he was spared by his death at Arras on the 3rd of December -1592. The old count Pieter Ernest Mansfeld then acted as -governor-general of the submissive Netherlands until January 1594, when -the archduke Ernest, brother of the emperor of Germany and nephew of -King Philippe, arrived at Brussels and assumed the duty. He was a man -of no account, and played a very unimportant part until his death on the -20th of February 1595. The count of Fuentes then acted as head of -affairs until the 29th of January 1596, when the cardinal archduke -Albert, youngest brother of the late Ernest, took over the charge. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -At this time the war against Spain was chiefly confined to France, where -both the English and the Dutch were aiding the king of Navarre against -Philippe and the Catholic league. In July 1593 the king of Navarre was -reconciled to the Catholic church, and on the 26th of February 1594 was -crowned at Chartres as Henry IV, king of France. Still the English and -Dutch continued to help him against Spain, and the Spanish forces, -except the garrisons of the towns, were withdrawn from the Netherlands -to oppose him, so that Maurits was able with his little army and a few -English auxiliaries to do something. He laid siege to Steenwyk, in the -north of Overyssel, which surrendered on the 4th of July 1592, and to -Koevorden, in Drenthe, which capitulated on the 12th of September of the -same year. Next he laid siege to Geertruidenberg, which capitulated on -the 22nd of June 1593, and to Groningen, which fell into his hands on -the 22nd of July 1594. The remainder of the district, then termed the -Ommelanden, was already a party to the union of Utrecht, and the city -now at once gave in its adhesion, so that the province of Groningen -thereafter took rank as a sister state of Holland and the others. - -In 1595 nothing of much note occurred, and in 1596 the most important -military event was the recovery of Hulst by the archduke on the 18th of -August. But in this year an act of the king of Spain had very serious -consequences for the Netherlands. This was the repudiation by Philippe -of the public debt of his empire, which at this time was actually so -great that nearly the whole of his revenue was needed to pay the -interest alone. So reckless was the expenditure of the lord of Spain, -Portugal, Italy, the obedient Netherlands, America, and India! Twice -before, in 1557 and 1575, he had suspended payment to the national -creditors, and now, on the 20th of November 1596, he freed himself of -the whole burden by simply disowning it. The ruin of his creditors was -not more complete than the ruin of his credit thereafter. The obedient -provinces were so exhausted that the cardinal archduke could not raise -sufficient revenue from them to meet the cost of administration, much -less maintain the army, and the soldiers at once lost all heart. - -[Sidenote: Successes of Prince Maurits.] - -On the 31st of October of this year 1596 a treaty of alliance between -Henry IV of France, Elizabeth of England, and the States-General of the -seven United Provinces--Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, Gelderland, -Overyssel, Friesland, and Groningen with Drenthe--was entered into at -the Hague, to defend themselves against Spain.[28] The oligarchal -republic was thus formally admitted into the sisterhood of nations. - -There were four thousand of the very best of the Spanish infantry and -several squadrons of cavalry encamped at Turnhout in Brabant, where on -the 24th of January 1597 Maurits with a much inferior force attacked -them. They actually fled in a panic, and in the pursuit two thousand -were slain and five hundred were made prisoners. It was the most notable -victory ever won over Spanish veterans. Turnhout was occupied by the -patriots, and Maurits began to prepare for an extensive campaign. - -In August 1597 he attacked the Spanish garrisons in the towns along the -Rhine on the eastern border of the United Provinces, and by the end of -October he had reduced nine of them. Five thousand Spanish soldiers -surrendered, who were allowed to march away unharmed, to add to the -troubles of the cardinal archduke, whose army was now and long -afterwards in a state of organised mutiny and a terror to the obedient -provinces. The patriot cause would have made great progress at this -time, but on the 2nd of May 1598 Henry IV seceded from the triple -alliance between England, France, and the United Provinces, and signed a -treaty of peace with Spain. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -Four days after the conclusion of this treaty, on the 6th of May 1598, -Philippe II transferred the sovereignty of the Netherlands to his -favourite daughter Isabella, who was to marry the cardinal archduke -Albert. He was physically unable to carry on the government longer -himself, and on the 13th of September 1598 he died of a loathsome and -painful disease. On his deathbed he declared that he did not know of -ever having done anyone a wrong, so firmly convinced was he that all the -murders committed and all the blood that had been shed by his orders -tended to the glory of God and the promotion of true religion. Such a -man in his position is a greater enemy to mankind than an avowed infidel -could be, whether he gives others the choice of the koran or the sword, -adherence to any form of Christianity or death. He arrogates to himself -the power of defining the will of the Almighty God in matters of faith, -and of compelling others to profess to believe as he does, surely a -position that angels might shudder to take. The dead king was succeeded -by his son, Philippe III of Spain, who had none of his father’s patience -or industry, who was satisfied with his title, and left the -administration entirely to his favourite the duke of Lerma, the real -master of the Spanish realms. - -The cession of the Netherlands to Isabella nominally severed the -provinces from Spain, but if she should leave no issue, it was provided -that they should return to their former condition. She was to have all -the assistance that Spain could afford to give, so that practically the -position was not greatly altered. - -The republic was now left to defend itself almost unaided, for on the -16th of August 1598 a treaty of alliance with England was concluded at -Westminster, which provided for the payment of £800,000 to the queen for -the expenses incurred by her, and for her keeping eleven hundred and -fifty soldiers in the cautionary towns until the debt should be paid. -The second article of the treaty was: “The foresaid Lords the States, -confiding in the good Affection and Favour of her Majesty, for the -Preservation of the State of the foresaid _United Provinces_, shall be -contented with such aids as her Majesty shall please to give them, and -to continue the War, with the Assistance of God, the best they can.”[29] - -[Sidenote: Battle of Nieuwpoort.] - -Very little that was of permanent importance transpired in the -Netherlands for some time after the conclusion of this treaty. The -cardinal archduke was without money, and his soldiers were mutinous, so -that he could not undertake any military operations. He was preparing -too to become a layman and to wed the infanta Isabella, which event took -place in April 1599. - -The Dutch, as henceforth the people of the republic of the United -Netherlands can be termed in contradistinction to the Belgians, or the -inhabitants of the obedient provinces, were superior to the Spaniards on -the sea, and were victorious in every naval engagement where the enemy -was not more than three to one against them, still privateers under the -Spanish flag frequently made sudden darts from Dunkirk and Nieuwpoort -and did much damage to Dutch trading vessels and fishing smacks. To -prevent this, the states-general resolved to send a strong expedition -against those places. Accordingly, in June 1600 Maurits with an army -thirteen thousand six hundred strong invaded Flanders and marched to -Nieuwpoort. The archduke Albert upon this appealed in stirring words to -his mutinous troops, and made such promises to them that twelve thousand -veterans agreed to return to duty. They reached the environs of -Nieuwpoort a few hours after Maurits, and there in the sand dunes on the -2nd of July 1600 was fought a pitched battle, which, though the Dutch -lost very heavily in a preliminary encounter, ended in a complete -victory in their favour. Three thousand Spaniards were killed, and six -hundred were made prisoners, among whom was the ferocious admiral of -Aragon. The Dutch lost two thousand men killed. Nieuwpoort, however, was -so strongly garrisoned that Maurits did not think it prudent to lay -siege to it, and so he returned to Zeeland. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -Ostend was the only place on the coast of Flanders held by the Dutch, -and as soon as the archduke could get a sufficient force together he -laid siege to it. It was only a fishing village of three thousand -inhabitants, but as it formed a base from which expeditions could be -sent to any part of Flanders, it was an important position. Its siege -was one of the most memorable events of the long war, for it lasted over -three years, from the 5th of July 1601 to the 20th of September 1604. -Being open to Dutch shipping, reinforcements of men and supplies of -provisions were constantly thrown in, while on the other side every -soldier that the archduke Albert could engage was employed in the siege. -During those three years more than a hundred thousand men lost their -lives by pestilence or in the attack or defence of that village. The -struggle would have continued even longer, had it not been that a -Genoese volunteer of immense wealth and a perfect genius for war offered -his services and his money to Philippe III on condition of having the -supreme command of the army in Flanders, which offer had been accepted. -In October 1603 the marquis Ambrose Spinola took command at Ostend, and -he it was who brought the siege to a conclusion. He gained possession of -heaps of rubbish, but not a single building intact, and when the -garrison retired with the remnant of the fishing population, only one -man and one woman remained where Ostend had been. - -In the meantime Maurits took advantage of the archduke’s whole attention -being occupied with Ostend to recover Grave, which surrendered to him -after a siege lasting from the 18th of July to the 18th of September -1602, and Sluis--a much more important place than Ostend--which fell -into his hands by capitulation on the 18th of August 1604. - -[Sidenote: Action of James I of England.] - -The death of Queen Elizabeth on the 24th of March 1603 was a great loss -to the republic. She had always realised that the Dutch cause against -Spain was England’s cause also, and though she had not given much -assistance of late, she had afforded some, and down to the fall of -Ostend a considerable number of Englishmen fought and fell side by side -with the sturdy republicans. Her successor, James I, was without her -ability. Soon after his accession he promised indeed to follow her -policy, but very shortly a project of alliance between the royal houses -of Spain and England took possession of his mind, and then he adopted -the opposite course. On the 30th of July 1603 at Hampton Court he signed -a treaty of alliance with Henry IV of France for the defence of the -United Provinces against Spain, and in the following year, 1604, he -entered into a treaty of perpetual peace and alliance with Philippe III -of Spain and the archduke and archduchess Albert and Isabella,[30] in -which he abandoned the Dutch cause. Thereafter his subjects were -strictly prohibited from aiding the enemies of Spain in any manner -whatever. He kept possession of the cautionary towns until June 1616, -when a compromise was made regarding the debt, and they were restored to -the republic. - -No military event of any importance occurred after this until Spinola’s -sudden dash upon the eastern border, and the surrender to him of Grol or -Groenlo in Gelderland on the 14th of August 1606. Spinola’s funds were -now exhausted, and as means for carrying on the war could not be raised -either in the Belgic provinces or in Spain, hostilities on land -practically ceased. - - - - -IV. - -THE WAR ON THE SEA BETWEEN SPAIN AND THE NETHERLANDS. - - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -It was on the ocean that the Dutch were carrying on the war, and that -with marvellous success, for they were already beginning to drive the -Portuguese from their most valuable possessions in the eastern seas and -to found for themselves a vast colonial realm. - -During the early years of the war trade was carried on between them and -the Spaniards just as in times of peace. The Hollanders and Zeelanders -indeed regarded Philippe’s subjects in Spain and Italy as their best -customers, and relied upon the profit on commerce with them for means to -carry on the war. On various occasions the king tried to check this -trade, and the English were loud in denouncing it, still it went on, -though always diminishing in bulk, until 1598, when an edict was issued -by Philippe declaring all Dutch ships found in his ports confiscated and -their crews prisoners. - -For some time this had been foreseen, and the merchants of Amsterdam and -Middelburg were intent upon seeking new markets to replace the old ones -that would be lost. They were of opinion that a short passage to China -might be found by way of the sea north of Europe and Asia, and a man -thoroughly qualified to make the effort to look for it was soon found in -the person of Willem Barendszoon, a seaman of great courage, patience, -and skill. On the 5th of June 1594 Barendszoon sailed from Texel with -three ships fitted out respectively by the cities of Amsterdam and -Enkhuizen and the province of Zeeland. He was also provided with a yacht -to explore in advance of the larger vessels. With him as supercargo of -the Enkhuizen ship was Jan Huyghen van Linschoten, of whom much will -presently be said. Barendszoon sailed north of Nova Zembla with the -Amsterdam ship and the yacht, while the other two vessels tried to pass -through the Waigats between Nova Zembla and the mainland. But ice -blocked the passage of them all, and they were obliged to return -unsuccessful to Amsterdam, where they arrived on the 16th of -September.[31] - -[Sidenote: Voyages of Willem Barendszoon.] - -The states-general then resolved to send another expedition to prosecute -the search for a passage, and on the 2nd of July 1595 seven ships sailed -from the Maas for that purpose under the leadership of the dauntless -Willem Barendszoon. There was another man in that fleet whose name -stands high on the roll of Dutch heroes, Jacob van Heemskerk, who went -on this occasion as supercargo of a ship of Amsterdam. But ice again -obstructed the passage, and having done all that was possible to get -through it, the explorers were compelled to put about and entered the -Maas on the 18th of November. - -Barendszoon was now of opinion that by sailing much farther north an -open sea might be found, and as several geographers and travellers of -note supported him in this view, the city of Amsterdam fitted out two -ships, in which he and Heemskerk sailed from Vlieland on the 18th of May -1596. On this occasion Barendszoon visited Spitzbergen and reached 80° -north latitude, but ice still blocked the road to China. One of the -ships then returned home, the other was frozen fast and wrecked on the -coast of Nova Zembla. The crew built a hut on the shore, and passed the -winter in it, living largely on Arctic foxes and using the skins for -clothing. In the spring they launched their two boats, in which they -fortunately reached a Russian settlement on the mainland, and -ultimately Heemskerk and eleven others reached the Maas, 29th of October -1597. Brave Willem Barendszoon died of exhaustion on the journey. In our -own time the hut on Nova Zembla was found intact, having stood nearly -three centuries on the frozen shore, and the relics it contained are now -preserved in the national museum. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -When the first of these expeditions had failed, and while the result of -the second was still unknown, some merchants of Amsterdam fitted out a -fleet of four vessels, which in the year 1595 sailed to India by way of -the Cape of Good Hope. Before this date, however, a few Netherlanders -had visited the eastern seas in the Portuguese service, and among them -was one in particular whose writings had great influence at that period -and for more than half a century afterwards. - -Jan Huyghen van Linschoten was born at Haarlem, in the province of -Holland. He received a good general education, but from an early age he -gave himself up with ardour to the special study of geography and -history, and eagerly read such books of travel as were within his reach. -In 1579 he obtained permission from his parents, who were then residing -at Enkhuizen, to proceed to Seville, where his two elder brothers were -pushing their fortunes. He was at Seville when the cardinal king -Henrique of Portugal died, leaving the succession to the throne in -dispute. The duke of Alva with a strong Spanish army won it for his -master, and shortly afterwards Linschoten removed to Lisbon, where he -was a clerk in a merchant’s office when Philippe made his triumphal -entry and when Alva died. - -Two years later he entered the service of a Dominican friar, by name -Vicente da Fonseca, who had been appointed by Philippe primate of India, -the see of Goa having been raised to an archbishopric in 1557. In April -1583 with his employer he sailed from Lisbon, and after touching at -Mozambique--where he remained from the 5th to the 20th of August, -diligently seeking information on that part of the world--he arrived at -Goa in September of the same year. He remained in India until January -1589. When returning to Europe in the ship _Santa Cruz_ from Cochin, he -passed through a quantity of wreckage from the ill-fated _São Thomé_, -which had sailed from the same port five days before he left, and he -visited several islands in the Atlantic, at one of which--Terceira--he -was detained a long time. He reached Lisbon again in January 1592, and -eight months later rejoined his family at Enkhuizen, after an absence of -nearly thirteen years. - -[Sidenote: Work of Jan Huyghen van Linschoten.] - -Early in 1595 the first of Linschoten’s books was published, in which an -account is given of the sailing directions followed by the Portuguese in -their navigation of the eastern waters, drawn from the treatises of -their most experienced pilots. This work shows the highest knowledge of -navigation that Europeans had then acquired. They had still no better -instrument for determining latitudes than the astrolabe and the cross -staff, and no means whatever for ascertaining longitudes other than by -dead reckoning. The vicinity of the Cape of Good Hope was known by the -appearance of the sea-birds called Cape pigeons and the great drifting -plants that are yet to be seen any day on the shores of the Cape -peninsula. The different kinds of ground that adhered to the tallow of -the sounding leads to some extent indicated the position, as did also -the variation of the magnetic needle, but whether a ship was fifty or a -hundred nautical miles from any given point could not be ascertained by -either of these means. When close to the shore, however, the position -was known by the appearance of the land, the form of the hills and -mountains, and the patches of sand and thicket, all of which had been -carefully delineated and laid down in the sailing directions. - -Linschoten’s first book was followed in 1596 by a description of the -Indies, and by several geographical treatises drawn from Portuguese -sources, all profusely illustrated with maps and plates. Of Mozambique -an ample account was given from personal observation and inquiry. Dom -Pedro de Castro had just been succeeded as captain by Nuno Velho -Pereira, who informed the archbishop that in his three years’ term of -office he would realise a fortune of about nine tons of gold, or £75,000 -sterling, derived chiefly from the trade in the precious metal carried -on at Sofala and in the territory of the monomotapa. Fort São Sebastio -had then no other garrison than the servants and attendants of the -captain, in addition to whom there were only forty or at most fifty -Portuguese and half-breed male residents on the island capable of -assisting in its defence. There were three or four hundred huts occupied -by negroes, some of whom were professed Christians, others Mohamedans, -and still others heathens. The exports to India were gold, ivory, -ambergris, ebony, and slaves. African slaves, being much stronger in -body than the natives of Hindostan, were used to perform the hardest and -coarsest work in the eastern possessions of Portugal, and--though -Linschoten does not state this--they were employed in considerable -numbers in the trading ships to relieve the European seamen from the -heavy labour of pumping, hauling, stowing and unstowing cargo, -cleansing, and so forth. These slaves were chiefly procured from the -lands to the northward, and very few, if any of them, were obtained in -the country south of the Zambesi. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -It serves to show how carefully and minutely Linschoten elicited -information at Mozambique, that he mentions a harbour on the coast which -is not named by any of the Portuguese writers of the time except Dos -Santos, whose book was not then published, and who only refers to it -incidentally, though it is now known to be the best port between -Inhambane and the Zambesi. This is Beira, as at present termed, then -known to the sailors of the pangayos that traded to the southward as -Porto Bango. Linschoten gives its latitude as 19½°, half a league north -of Sofala. He mentions also Delagoa Bay, that is the present Algoa Bay, -and gives its latitude as 33½°. He describes the monsoons of the Indian -ocean, and states that ships from Portugal availed themselves of these -periodical winds by waiting at Mozambique until the 1st of August, and -never leaving after the middle of September, thus securing a safe and -easy passage to the coast of Hindostan. - -[Sidenote: First Voyage of the Dutch to India.] - -He frequently refers to the gold of Sofala and the country of the -monomotapa, of which he had heard just such reports as Vasco da Gama had -eagerly listened to eighty-six years before. Yet he did not magnify the -importance of these rumours as the Portuguese had done, though it was -mainly from his writings that his countrymen became possessed of that -spirit of cupidity which induced them a few years later to make -strenuous efforts to become masters of South-Eastern Africa. - -Linschoten’s treatises were collected and published in a single large -volume, and the work was at once received as a text-book, a position -which its merits entitled it to occupy. The most defective portion of -the whole is that referring to South Africa: and for this reason, that -it was then impossible to get any correct information about the interior -of the continent below the Zambesi west of the part frequented by the -Portuguese. Linschoten himself saw no more of it than a fleeting glimpse -of False Cape afforded on his outward passage, and his description was -of necessity based upon the faulty maps of the geographers of his time, -so that it was full of errors. But his account of India and of the way -to reach its several ports was so correct that it could serve the -purpose of a guide-book, and his treatise on the mode of navigation by -the Portuguese was thus used by the commander of the first Dutch fleet -that appeared in the eastern seas. - -The four vessels which left Texel on the 2nd of April 1595 were under -the general direction of an officer named Cornelis Houtman. In the -afternoon of the 2nd of August the Cape of Good Hope was seen, and next -day, after passing Agulhas, the fleet kept close to the land, the little -_Duifke_ sailing in front and looking for a harbour. On the 4th the bay -called by the Portuguese Agoada de São Bras was discovered, and as the -Duifke found good holding ground in nine or ten fathoms of water, the -_Mauritius_, _Hollandia_, and _Amsterdam_ entered and dropped their -anchors.[32] - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -Here the fleet remained until the 11th, when sail was again set for the -East. During the interval a supply of fresh water was taken in, and some -oxen and sheep were purchased from the inhabitants for knives, old -tools, and pieces of iron. The Europeans were surprised to find the -sheep covered with hair instead of wool, and with enormous tails of pure -fat. No women or habitations were seen. The appearance of the -Hottentots, their clothing, their assagais, their method of making a -fire by twirling a piece of wood rapidly round in the socket of another -piece, their filthiness in eating, and the clicking of their language, -are all correctly described; but it was surmised that they were -cannibals, because they were observed to eat the half-raw intestines of -animals, and a fable commonly believed in Europe was repeated concerning -their mutilation in a peculiar manner of the bodies of conquered -enemies. The intercourse with the few Hottentots seen was friendly, -though at times each suspected the other of evil intentions. - -A chart of the inlet was made,[33] from which it is seen to be the one -now called Mossel Bay. A little island in it was covered with seals and -penguins, some of each of which were killed and eaten. The variation of -the compass was observed to be so trifling that the needle might be said -to point to the north. - -[Sidenote: Account by John Davis.] - -From the watering place of São Bras Houtman continued his voyage, and -reached Sumatra safely. He next visited Bantam in the island of Java, -where, owing to the influence of Portuguese traders, he and several of -his attendants were made prisoners and were only released on payment of -a ransom of £400. Some other ports of Java were visited, as were also -Madura and Bali, and a small quantity of spice was purchased, but there -were many quarrels and some combats with the natives. So many men died -that it was necessary to burn the _Amsterdam_, which ship was much -decayed, and strengthen the crews of the other three vessels. Houtman -then left to return home, and reached Texel on the 14th of August 1597, -after an absence of over twenty-eight months. - -Financially the first venture of the Dutch to the Indies was not a -success, but the spirit of enterprise was excited by it, and immediately -trading companies began to be formed in different towns of Holland and -Zeeland, and fleets were fitted out with the object of opening up an -eastern trade. It will not be necessary to give an account of all these -companies, but mention must be made of some of the fleets. - -On the 15th of March 1598 two ships, the _Leeuw_ and the _Leeuwin_, -sailed from Vlissingen under command of Cornelis Houtman. In the _Leeuw_ -the famous English seaman John Davis was chief pilot, that is sailing -master. They put into the watering place of Saldanha for refreshment, -where Davis, in his account of the voyage, says that the Hottentots fell -by surprise upon the men who were ashore bartering cattle, and killed -thirteen of them. In his narrative Davis says that at Cape Agulhas the -magnetic needle was without variation, but in his sailing directions, -written after another voyage to India, he says: “At False Cape there is -no variation that I can find by observing south from it. The variation -of Cape Agulhas is thirty minutes from north to west. And at the Cape of -Good Hope the compass is varied from north to east five and twenty -minutes.” At Atchin about a hundred and fifty tons of pepper were -purchased and taken in, but on the 1st of September 1599 a party of -Sumatrans went on board the two ships and suddenly drew their weapons -and murdered Cornelis Houtman and many others. In both ships they were -ultimately driven off with heavy loss. Some men were on shore at the -time, and they also were attacked, when eight were made prisoners and -the others were killed. Altogether sixty white men lost their lives on -this occasion. There was no further attempt to trade or to explore, and -after a voyage marked by loss the expedition reached home again on the -29th of July 1600. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -On the 1st of May 1598 Jacob van Nek sailed from Texel with six large -ships and two yachts. Second in command was Wybrand van Waerwyk, and -third in rank was Jacob van Heemskerk, who had only returned from his -terrible sojourn in the polar sea six months before. This voyage was an -eminently successful one. Four of the ships were speedily sent home -fully laden with pepper and valuable spices obtained at Bantam; two -others purchased cargoes at Banda, and when they sailed left twenty men -behind with money and goods to trade until the arrival of another fleet; -and the remaining two procured cargoes at Ternate, and left six men -there to trade when they sailed. All reached home in safety, with the -most valuable cargoes that had ever entered a Netherlands port. - -On the 13th of September 1598 Olivier van Noort sailed from Goeree with -two ships and two yachts, having in all two hundred and forty-eight -souls on board, with the intention of ascertaining whether a western -route to India would not be preferable to that round the Cape of Good -Hope. It was necessary to burn one of the yachts on the passage, and one -of the ships parted company after passing through the straits of -Magellan and was never seen again. On the western coast of South -America Van Noort destroyed several trading vessels, and then set his -course for Manilla. Off that harbour, on the 14th of December 1600, two -large galleons attacked him, when the yacht _Eendracht_ sailed away, -drawing one of the galleons in pursuit. The _Mauritius_ engaged the -other, and after a stubborn combat succeeded in sinking her. As she was -going down some two hundred men jumped overboard, but instead of -attempting to rescue them, the crew of the _Mauritius_ pushed those who -swam alongside their ship underneath the water with poles. After the -engagement there were only forty-eight men left in the Dutch ship. The -yacht escaped, and reached Ternate, from which island her crew proceeded -to Bantam. Van Noort continued his westward course, and was the first -Netherlander to sail round the world. He reached Rotterdam on the 12th -of August 1601. - -[Sidenote: The First Dutch Fort in India.] - -On the 26th of April 1599 Stephen van der Hagen sailed from Texel with -three ships, the _Zon_, the _Maan_, and the _Morgen Ster_. The people of -Amboina were then at war with the Portuguese, and Van der Hagen entered -into an agreement with their ruler to assist him in return for a -monopoly of the sale of cloves at a fixed price. In accordance with this -agreement, in September 1600 under Van der Hagen’s direction a fort was -built at Amboina, and when he sailed he left twenty-seven Dutch -volunteers under Jan Dirkszoon Sonneberg to aid in guarding it. - -No fresh discoveries on the African coast were made by any of the fleets -sent out at this time, but to some of the bays new names were given. - -In December 1599 four ships fitted out by an association at Amsterdam -calling itself the New Brabant Company sailed from Texel for the Indies, -under command of Pieter Both. Two of them returned early in 1601, -leaving the _Vereenigde Landen_ and the _Hof van Holland_ under charge -of Paulus van Caerden to follow as soon as they could obtain cargoes. -On the 8th of July 1601 Van Caerden put into the watering place of São -Bras on the South African coast, for the purpose of repairing one of his -ships which was in a leaky condition. The commander, with twenty -soldiers, went a short distance inland to endeavour to find people from -whom he could obtain some cattle, but though he came across a party of -eight individuals he did not succeed in getting any oxen or sheep. A -supply of fresh water was taken in, but no refreshment except mussels -could be procured, on account of which Van Caerden gave the inlet the -name Mossel Bay, which it has ever since retained. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -On the 14th the _Hof van Holland_ having been repaired, the two ships -sailed, but two days later, as they were making no progress against a -head wind, they put into another bay. Here some Hottentots were found, -from whom the voyagers obtained for pieces of iron as many horned cattle -and sheep as they could consume fresh or had salt to preserve. For this -reason the commander gave it the name Flesh Bay. - -On the 21st sail was set, but the _Hof van Holland_ being found leaky -again, on the 23rd another bay was entered, where her damages were -repaired. On account of a westerly gale the ships were detained here -until the 30th, when they sailed, but finding the wind contrary outside, -they returned to anchor. No inhabitants were seen, but the commander -visited a river near by, where he encountered a party from whom he -obtained five sheep in exchange for bits of iron. In the river were -numerous hippopotami. Abundance of fine fish having been secured here, -the commander gave the inlet the name Fish Bay. - -On the 2nd of August the ships sailed, and on the 27th passed the Cape -of Good Hope, to the great joy of all on board, who had begun to fear -that they might be detained much longer on the eastern side by adverse -winds. - -On the 5th of May 1601 a fleet of three vessels, named the _Ram_, the -_Schaap_, and the _Lam_, sailed for the Indies from Vere in Zeeland, -under command of Joris van Spilbergen. On the 15th of November the fleet -put into St. Helena Bay, where no inhabitants were seen, though smoke -rising from many fires was observed inland. The only refreshment -procurable was fish, which were caught in great quantities. - -[Sidenote: Naming of Table Bay.] - -On the 20th Spilbergen sailed from St. Helena Bay, and beating against a -head wind, in the evening of the 28th he anchored off an island, to -which he gave the name Elizabeth. Four years later Sir Edward -Michelburne termed it Cony Island, which name, under the Dutch form of -Dassen, it still bears. Seals in great numbers, sea-birds of different -kinds, and conies were found. At this place he remained only twenty-four -hours. On the 2nd of December he cast anchor close to another island, -which he named Cornelia. It was the Robben Island of the present day. -Here were found seals and penguins in great numbers, but no conies. The -next day at noon Spilbergen reached the watering place of Saldanha, the -anchorage in front of Table Mountain, and gave it the name Table Bay, -which it still bears. - -The sick were conveyed to land, where a hospital was established. A few -inhabitants were met, to whom presents of beads were made, and who were -understood to make signs that they would bring cattle for sale, but they -went away and did not return. Abundance of fish was obtained with a -seine at the mouth of a stream which Spilbergen named the Jacqueline, -now Salt River; but, as meat was wanted, the smallest of the vessels was -sent to Elizabeth Island, where a great number of penguins and conies -were killed and salted in. The fleet remained in Table Bay until the -23rd of December. When passing Cornelia Island, a couple of conies were -set on shore, and seven or eight sheep, which had been left there by -some previous voyagers, were shot, and their carcases taken on board. -Off the Cape of Good Hope the two French ships of which mention has been -made were seen. - -Spilbergen kept along the coast, noticing the formation of the land and -the numerous streams falling into the sea, but was sorely hindered in -his progress by the Agulhas current, which was found setting so strong -to the south-westward that at times he could make no way against it even -with the breeze in his favour. On the 17th of January 1602, owing to -this cause, he stood off from the coast, and did not see it again. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -On the 23rd of April 1601 Wolfert Hermanszoon sailed for the Indies with -a fleet of five ships. On reaching Palembang in Sumatra he learned from -the Chinese crew of a trading vessel that a Portuguese fleet of eight -large galleons and twenty-two smaller ships, under André Furtado de -Mendoça, was besieging Bantam with a view of punishing its ruler for -having traded with the Dutch. Mendoça was a man of renown in the -East,[34] having been a successful commander in many wars, and his force -was apparently so enormous in comparison with that under Hermanszoon -that at first sight it would seem foolhardy to contend with it. But the -Sea Beggars were not given to be afraid of anything on their own -element, and they realised the importance of relieving Bantam and -establishing their reputation for valour in the eyes of the Indian -rulers. Accordingly Hermanszoon prepared his ships for action, sailed to -Bantam, and on the 25th of December 1601 boldly attacked the great -galleons. - -It was soon seen that the battle was not such an unequal one after all. -Mendoça had eight hundred Portuguese soldiers in his fleet, but the -crews of his ships were all lascars or slaves, who were almost useless -in battle. Hermanszoon could choose his position, deliver his fire, and -then stand off and prepare for another attack. His ships, clumsy as they -would appear to our eyes, were to those of the Portuguese like what -modern gunboats under steam would be to three-deckers of the last -century. At nightfall Mendoça drew his ships close together under an -island, and arranged them to act as a great fort. On the 26th the -weather was stormy, so that nothing could be done. On the 27th -Hermanszoon attacked again, and succeeded in overmastering and burning -two of the smaller ships of war after nearly every one on board was -killed. Mendoça used three more of his frigates as fire ships, but the -Dutch vessels were too swift for him and were out of harm’s way before -they exploded. He did not wait to be attacked again, and on the morning -of the 28th his armada was seen to be in full flight and Bantam was -relieved. - -[Sidenote: Success of the Dutch at Bantam.] - -The Dutch were received with transports of joy by the ruler and people -of the place, and a commercial treaty greatly to their advantage was -entered into. At Banda also a similar treaty was concluded. When -returning home, a Portuguese carrack or freight ship of the largest -size, with a valuable cargo on board, was captured off St. Helena, so -that the voyage was a very profitable one. - -Mendoça, after his flight from Bantam, directed his course to Amboina, -where he inflicted heavy punishment upon the natives for trading with -the Dutch, and cut down all the clove trees in the neighbourhood of the -principal town. He then placed a garrison in the fort there, and took -his departure. - -Jacob van Heemskerk left Holland in company with Hermanszoon on the 23rd -of April 1601 on his second voyage to India as admiral of a fleet of -eight ships. In June 1603 he captured a carrack very richly laden with -silk, porcelain, and other Chinese productions, on her way from Macao to -Malacca. A few weeks later another carrack similarly laden was captured -at Macao without resistance by a fleet under Cornelis van Veen. - -Altogether between 1595 and 1602 sixty-five ships sailed from Holland -and Zeeland for India, of which only fifty-four returned. By this time -it had become evident that large armed fleets were necessary to secure -safety and to cope with the Portuguese there if a permanent trade was -to be established. The rivalry too between the little companies was -raising the price of spices so greatly in the East and lowering it in -Europe that it was feared there would soon be no profit left. For these -reasons, and to conduct the Indian trade in a manner the most beneficial -to the people of the whole republic, the states-general resolved to -unite all the small trading associations in one great company with many -privileges and large powers. The first step to this end was to -amalgamate the various companies in each town, and when this was -effected, to bring them all under one directorate. The charter, or terms -upon which the consolidated Company came into existence, was dated at -the Hague on the 20th of March 1602, and contained forty-six clauses, -the principal of which were as follows:-- - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -All of the inhabitants of the United Netherlands had the right given to -them to subscribe to the capital in as small or as large sums as they -might choose, with this proviso, that if more money should be tendered -than was needed, those applying for shares of over two thousand five -hundred pounds sterling should receive less, so that the applicants for -smaller shares might have the full amounts asked for allotted to them. - -The chambers, or offices for the transaction of business, were to -participate in the following proportion: that of Amsterdam one-half, -that of Middelburg in Zeeland one-quarter, those of Delft and Rotterdam, -otherwise called of the Maas, together one-eighth, and those of Hoorn -and Enkhuizen, otherwise called those of the North Quarter or sometimes -those of North Holland and West Friesland, together the remaining -eighth. - -The general directory was to consist of seventeen persons, eight of whom -were to represent the chamber of Amsterdam, four that of Middelburg, two -those of the Maas, two those of the North Quarter, and the seventeenth -was to be chosen alternately by all of these except the chamber of -Amsterdam. The place of meeting of the general directory was fixed at -Amsterdam for six successive years, then at Middelburg for two years, -then at Amsterdam again for six years, and so on. - -[Sidenote: Charter of the East India Company.] - -The directors of each chamber were named in the charter, being the -individuals who were the directors of the companies previously -established in those towns, and it was provided that no others should be -appointed until these should be reduced by death or resignation: in the -chamber of Amsterdam to twenty persons, in that of Zeeland to twelve, -and in those of Delft, Rotterdam, Hoorn, and Enkhuizen each to seven. -After that, whenever a vacancy should occur, the remaining directors -were to nominate three qualified individuals, of whom the states of the -province in which the chamber was situated were to select one. - -To qualify an individual to be a director in the chambers of the North -Quarter it was necessary to own shares to the value of £250 sterling, -and double that amount to be a director in any of the other chambers. -The directors were to be bound by oath to be faithful in the -administration of the duties entrusted to them, and not to favour a -majority of the shareholders at the expense of a minority. Directors -were prohibited from selling anything whatever to the Company without -previously obtaining the sanction of the states provincial or the -authorities of the city in which the chamber that they represented was -situated. - -All inhabitants of the United Provinces other than this Company were -prohibited from trading beyond the Straits of Magellan, or to the -eastward of the Cape of Good Hope, during the period of twenty-one -years, for which the charter was granted, under penalty of forfeiture of -ship and cargo. Within these limits the East India Company was empowered -to enter into treaties and make contracts in the name of the -states-general, to build fortresses, to appoint governors, military -commanders, judges, and other necessary officers, who were all, however, -to take oaths of fidelity to the states-general or high authorities of -the Netherlands, who were not to be prevented from making complaints to -the states-general, and whose appointments were to be reported to the -states-general for confirmation. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -For these privileges the Company was to pay £12,500 sterling, which -amount the states-general subscribed towards the capital, for the profit -and at the risk of the general government of the provinces. The capital -was nominally furnished in the following proportions: Amsterdam -one-half, Zeeland one-fourth, the Maas one-eighth, and the North Quarter -one-eighth; but in reality it was contributed as under:-- - - £ _s._ _d._ - Amsterdam 307,202 10 0 - Zeeland 106,304 10 0 - The Maas {Delft 38,880 3 4 - {Rotterdam 14,546 16 8 - The North Quarter {Hoorn 22,369 3 4 - {Enkhuizen 47,380 3 4 - ------------------------ - Total working capital 536,683 6 8 - The share of the states-general 12,500 0 0 - ------------------------ - Total nominal capital 549,183 6 8 - -The capital was divided into shares of £250 sterling each. The shares, -often sub-divided into fractions, were negotiable like any other -property, and rose or fell in value according to the position of the -Company at any time. - -The advantage which the State derived from the establishment of this -great association was apparent. The sums received in payment of import -dues would have been contributed to an equal extent by individual -traders. The amounts paid for the renewal of the charter--in 1647 the -Company paid £133,333 6_s._ 8_d._ for its renewal for twenty-five years, -and still larger sums were paid subsequently--might have been derived -from trading licenses. The Company frequently aided the Republic with -loans of large amount when the State was in temporary need, but loans -could then have been raised in the modern method whenever necessary. -Apart from these services, however, there was one supreme advantage -gained by the creation of the East India Company which could not have -been obtained from individual traders. A powerful navy was called into -existence, great armed fleets working in unison and subject to the same -control were always ready to assist the State. What must otherwise have -been an element of weakness, a vast number of merchant ships scattered -over the ocean and ready to fall a prey to an enemy’s cruisers, was -turned into a bulwark of strength. - -[Sidenote: Influence of Amsterdam.] - -In course of time several modifications took place in the constitution -of the Company, and the different provinces as well as various cities -were granted the privilege of having representatives in one or other of -the chambers. Thus the provinces Gelderland, Utrecht, and Friesland, and -the cities Dordrecht, Haarlem, Leiden, and Gouda had each a -representative in the chamber of Amsterdam; Groningen had a -representative in the chamber of Zeeland; Overyssel one in the chamber -of Delft, &c. The object of this was to make the Company represent the -whole Republic. - -Notwithstanding such regulations, however, the city of Amsterdam soon -came to exercise an immoderate influence in the direction. In 1672 it -was estimated that shares equal to three-fourths of the whole capital -were owned there, and of the twenty-five directors of the local chamber, -eighteen were chosen by the burgomasters of the city. Fortunately, the -charter secured to the other chambers a stated proportion of patronage -and trade. - -Such was the constitution of the Company which set itself the task of -destroying the Portuguese power in the East and securing for itself the -lucrative spice trade. It had no difficulty in obtaining as many men as -were needed, for the German states--not then as now united in one great -empire--formed an almost inexhaustible reservoir to draw soldiers from, -and the Dutch seaports, together with Norway, Sweden, and Denmark, -furnished an adequate supply of excellent seamen. It sent out strong and -well-armed fleets, capable of meeting any force the enemy had to oppose -them, and of driving him from the open seas. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -The first of these fleets was sent out in two divisions, one of three -large ships, under Sebald de Weert, which sailed on the 31st of March -1602, and the other of eleven large ships and a yacht, under Wybrand van -Waerwyk, which followed on the 17th of June. Sebald de Weert directed -his course to the island of Ceylon, and cast anchor in the harbour of -Batticaloa on the eastern shore. The maharaja of Kandy was then the most -powerful ruler in the island, and was at war with the Portuguese. -Spilbergen had been to visit him, and now De Weert followed, he and his -attendants riding inland on elephants. He was received with great state -by the maharaja and the people. An agreement was made of close -friendship and commercial intercourse, and a plan of operations against -the Portuguese was arranged. De Weert returned to Batticaloa, and -proceeded to Atchin for assistance, from which place he came back with -seven ships. - -But now a great blunder was made. No meat was to be purchased, and as -some cows were seen a party of men went ashore and shot them, in -absolute ignorance of the Buddhist belief in the transmigration of souls -and the commandment not to take life.[35] Full payment was offered, but -was indignantly refused, and a complete revulsion of feeling towards the -Dutch took place. De Weert could not imagine the cause of this, but -prepared to give the maharaja, who was on his way to the coast, a -splendid reception on board his ship. Meantime four Portuguese vessels -were captured, and their crews were released and sent away. One of the -maharaja’s sons was a prisoner in the hands of the Portuguese, and he -thought to obtain his liberty in exchange for the Portuguese officers. -When the captives were released without an exchange having been effected -the prince’s rage knew no bounds. On the 1st of June 1603 De Weert and -forty-six others went ashore unsuspicious of danger, when they were -suddenly attacked by the maharaja’s order, and all were put to death. -This ended commercial intercourse for a time, but in 1610 another treaty -of friendship was entered into with the ruler of Kandy. - -[Sidenote: Establishment at Bantam.] - -Wybrand van Waerwyk with the principal division of the fleet cast anchor -before Bantam in the island of Java, and in August 1603 concluded an -arrangement with the sultan for the establishment of a permanent factory -or trading station in that town. A strong stone building was procured -for the purpose, goods were landed and stored, and an officer named -François Wittert was placed in charge with a staff of assistants. This -factory at Bantam was for several years thereafter regarded as the -principal establishment of the Dutch in India. Another, but much smaller -one, was soon afterwards formed at Grésik in the same island. - -Though the Dutch were soon in almost undisputed possession of the -valuable Spice islands, they were never able to eject the Portuguese -from the comparatively worthless coast of South-Eastern Africa. That -coast would only have been an encumbrance to them, if they had secured -it, for its commerce was never worth much more than the cost of its -maintenance until the highlands of the interior were occupied by -Europeans, and the terrible mortality caused by its malaria would have -been a serious misfortune to them. It was out of their ocean highway -too, for they steered across south of Madagascar, instead of keeping -along the African shore. But they were drawn on by rumours of the gold -which was to be had, and so they resolved to make themselves masters of -Mozambique, and with that island of all the Portuguese possessions -subordinate to it. In Lisbon their intentions were suspected, and in -January 1601 the king issued instructions that Dom Alvaro d’Abranches, -Nuno da Cunha’s successor as captain of Mozambique, was on no account to -absent himself from the island, as it might at any time be attacked by -either the Turks or the Dutch. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -On the 18th of December 1603 Steven van der Hagen left Holland for India -with a strong armed fleet, consisting of the _Vereenigde Provincien_, -_Amsterdam_, _Dordrecht_, _Hoorn_, and _West Friesland_, each of three -hundred and fifty tons burden, the _Gelderland_ and _Zeelandia_, each of -two hundred and fifty tons, the _Hof van Holland_, of one hundred and -eighty tons, the _Delft_ and _Enkhuizen_, each of one hundred and fifty -tons, the _Medenblik_, of one hundred and twenty-five tons, and a -despatch boat named the _Duifken_, of thirty tons burden. In those days -such a fleet was regarded as, and actually was, a very formidable force, -for though there were no ships in it of the size of the great galleons -of Spain and Portugal, each one was much less unwieldy, and had its -artillery better placed. There were twelve hundred men on board, and the -equipment cost no less than £184,947 6_s._ 8_d._ - -Van der Hagen arrived before Mozambique on the 17th of June 1604. Fort -São Sebastião had not at the time its ordinary garrison of one hundred -soldiers, owing to a disaster that had recently occurred. A great horde -of barbarians, called the Cabires by the Portuguese, had entered the -territory of the monomotapa, and were laying it waste, so the captain -Lourenço de Brito went to the assistance of the Kalanga chief, but was -defeated and lost ten or twelve Portuguese and part of his stores. -Sebastião de Macedo was then in command at Mozambique. He sent a vessel -with fifty soldiers to De Brito’s assistance, but on the passage she was -lost with all on board. None had yet arrived to replace them, but the -resident inhabitants of the island had retired to the fort with -everything of value that they could remove, so Van der Hagen considered -it too strong to be attacked and therefore proceeded to blockade it. -There was a carrack at anchor, waiting for some others from Lisbon to -sail in company to Goa. The boats of the Dutch fleet cut her out, in -spite of the heavy fire of the fort upon them. She had on board a -quantity of ivory collected at Sofala and other places on the East -African coast, but nothing else of much value. - -[Sidenote: First Siege of Mozambique.] - -On the 30th of June a small vessel from one of the factories, laden with -rice and ivory, came running up to the island, and was too near to -escape when she discovered her danger. She was turned into a tender, and -named the _Mozambique_. Then, for five weeks, the blockade continued, -without any noteworthy incident. On the 5th of August five pangayos -arrived, laden with rice and millet, and were of course seized. Three -days later Van der Hagen landed on the island with one hundred and fifty -men, but found no sign of hunger, and saw that the prospect of the -surrender of the fort was remote. He did no other damage than setting -fire to a single house, and as night drew on he returned on board. - -He was now anxious to proceed to India, so on the 12th of August he set -fire to the captured carrack, and sailed, leaving the _Delft_, -_Enkhuizen_, and _Duifken_, to wait for the ships expected from Lisbon. -These vessels rejoined him, but without having made any prizes, soon -after his arrival at Amboina, which was assigned as the place of -meeting. He then attacked the Portuguese fort on that island, which was -surrendered to him on the 23rd of February 1605. Having placed a Dutch -garrison in the fort, and thus secured possession of this valuable -island, he sailed to Tidor, where the Portuguese had a fortress. This -stronghold he gained in May 1605, but in March 1606 it was recovered by -the Portuguese, who at the same time overran a great part of the island -of Ternate, where Van der Hagen had obtained trading privileges. In -1605 a factory was also established by the Dutch on the island of Banda. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -On the 12th of May 1605 Cornelis Matelief sailed with eleven ships for -India. One of the most important strongholds of the Portuguese in the -East was Malacca, as it commanded the navigation of the strait of the -same name. Matelief entered into a treaty with the sultan of Johor at -the southern extremity of the Malay peninsula, and with his assistance -endeavoured to obtain possession of the stronghold, which was bravely -defended by André Furtado de Mendoça. The first blockade of Malacca -lasted four months, and ended by Matelief’s being obliged to retire from -a very superior naval force sent from Goa. The second blockade was -shorter, but though seven Portuguese ships were taken and five hundred -Portuguese soldiers were killed, it was unsuccessful. At Amboina, -Matelief strengthened the garrison of the Dutch fort, and gave the -soldiers and sailors there permission to marry native women. He did not -get possession of the Portuguese castle on Ternate, but he built Fort -Orange on another part of the island, and left an effective garrison in -it. - -On the 28th of January 1608 Matelief sailed from Bantam in the _Oranje_ -to return home. On the 12th of April he put into Table Bay, as he was -badly in want of meat, and hoped to obtain as much as he needed here. In -this he succeeded, for he bartered thirty-four oxen, five calves, and a -hundred and seventy-three sheep from the Hottentots for pieces of old -iron hoop and rings, valued at less than a halfpenny for each animal. -His description of the Hottentots is one of the best of that time, and -is accurate in all its details. The greatest plague in Table Valley he -found to be the flies, which from this and other accounts appear to have -been even more troublesome then than they are to-day. On Robben Island -he killed about a hundred seals for the sake of their skins, and as he -had more sheep than he needed, he left twenty there to breed. He -remained in Table Bay longer than two months, and with a crew thoroughly -refreshed he set sail for Holland on the 22nd of June. - -[Sidenote: Second Siege of Mozambique.] - -Another attempt to get possession of Mozambique was made in 1607. On the -29th of March of that year a Dutch fleet of eight large ships--the -_Banda_, _Bantam_, _Ceylon_, _Walcheren_, _Ter Veere_, _Zierikzee_, -_China_, and _Patane_,--carrying one thousand and sixty men, commanded -by Paulus van Caerden, appeared before the island. The Portuguese -historian of this event represents that the fortress was at the time -badly in want of repair, that it was insufficiently provided with -cannon, and that there were no artillerymen nor indeed regular soldiers -of any branch of the service in it, its defence being undertaken by -seventy male inhabitants of the town, who were the only persons on the -island capable of bearing arms. But this statement does not agree either -with the Dutch narrative or with the account given by Dos Santos, from -which it appears that there were between soldiers and residents of the -island one hundred and forty-five men in the fortress. It was commanded -by an officer--Dom Estevão d’Ataide by name--who deserves a place among -the bravest of his countrymen. He divided his force into four companies, -to each of which he gave a bastion in charge. To one, under Martim Gomes -de Carvalho, was committed the defence of the bastion São João, another, -under Antonio Monteiro Corte Real, had a similar charge in the bastion -Santo Antonio, the bastion Nossa Senhora was confided to the care of -André de Alpoim de Brito, while the bastion São Gabriel, which was the -one most exposed to assault on the land side and where the stoutest -resistance would have to be made, was entrusted to the company under -Diogo de Carvalho. The people of the town abandoned their houses and -hastily took shelter within the fortress, carrying their most valuable -effects with them. Van Caerden, in the _Banda_, led the way right under -the guns of São Sebastião to the anchorage, where the Sofala packet and -two carracks were lying. A heavy fire was opened on both sides, but, -though the ships were slightly damaged, as the ramparts were of great -height and the Portuguese guns could not be depressed to command the -Dutch position thoroughly, no one except the master of the _Ceylon_ was -wounded. Two of the vessels at anchor were partly burned, but all were -made prizes after their crews had escaped to the shore. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -On the 1st of April Van Caerden landed with seven hundred men and seven -heavy guns, several of them twenty-eight-pounders, in order to lay siege -to Fort São Sebastião. The Portuguese set fire to the town, in order to -prevent their enemy from getting possession of spoil, though in this -object they were unsuccessful, as a heavy fall of rain extinguished the -flames before much damage was done. The Dutch commander took possession -of the abandoned buildings without opposition, and made the Dominican -convent his headquarters, lodging his people in the best houses. He -commenced at once making trenches in which the fortress could be -approached by men under shelter from its fire, and on the 6th his first -battery was completed. The blacks, excepting the able-bodied, being -considered an encumbrance by both combatants, D’Ataide expelled those -who were in the fort, and Van Caerden caused all who were within his -reach to be transported to the mainland. - -From the batteries, which were mere earthen mounds with level surfaces, -protected on the exposed sides with boxes, casks, and bags filled with -soil, a heavy fire was opened, by which the parapet of the bastion Santo -Antonio was broken down, but it was repaired at night by the defenders, -the women and others incapable of bearing arms giving assistance in this -labour. The musketeers on the walls, in return, caused some loss to -their opponents by shooting any who exposed themselves. The Portuguese -historian makes special mention of one Dutch officer in a suit of white -armour, who went about recklessly in full view, encouraging his men, and -apparently regardless of danger, until he was killed by a musket ball. - -[Sidenote: Second Siege of Mozambique.] - -The trenches were at length within thirty paces of the bastion São -Gabriel, and a battery was constructed there, which could not be injured -by the cannon on the fortress owing to their great elevation, while from -it the walls could be battered with twenty-eight pound shot as long as -the artillerymen took care not to show themselves to the musketeers on -the ramparts. The Dutch commander then proposed a parley and D’Ataide -having consented, he demanded the surrender of the fortress. He stated -that the Portuguese could expect no assistance from either Europe or -India, as the mother country was exhausted and the viceroy Dom Martim -Affonso de Castro had been defeated in a naval engagement, besides which -nearly all the strongholds of the East were lost to them. It would -therefore be better to capitulate while it could be done in safety than -to expose the lives of the garrison to the fury of men who would carry -the place by storm. Further, even if the walls proved too massive for -cannon, hunger must soon reduce the fortress, as there could not be more -than three months’ provisions in it. The Portuguese replied with taunts -and bravado, and defied the besiegers to do their worst. They would have -no other intercourse with rebels, they said, than that of arms. - -During the night of the 17th some of the garrison made a sortie for the -purpose of destroying a drawbridge, which they effected, and then -retired, after having killed two men according to their own account, -though only having wounded one according to the Dutch statement. A -trench was now made close up to the wall of the bastion São Gabriel, and -was covered with movable shields of timber of such thickness that they -could not be destroyed by anything thrown upon them from the ramparts. -During the night of the 29th, however, the garrison made a second -sortie, in which they killed five Hollanders and wounded many more, and -on the following day they succeeded in destroying the wooden shields by -fire. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -In the meantime fever and dysentery had attacked Van Caerden’s people, -and the prospect was becoming gloomy in the extreme. The fire from the -batteries and ships had not damaged the walls of the fortress below the -parapet, and sickness was increasing so fast that the Dutch commander -could not wait for famine to give him the prize. He therefore resolved -to raise the siege, and on the 6th of May he removed his cannon. - -War between nations of different creeds in those days was carried on in -a merciless manner. On the 7th of May Van Caerden wrote to Captain -d’Ataide that he intended to burn and destroy all the churches, -convents, houses, and palm groves on the island and the buildings and -plantations on the mainland, unless they were ransomed; but offered to -make terms if messengers were sent to him with that object. A truce was -entered into for the purpose of correspondence, and six Hollanders -dressed in Spanish costume went with a letter to the foot of the wall, -where it was fastened to a string and drawn up. D’Ataide declined the -proposal, however, and replied that he had no instructions from his -superiors, nor intention of his own, except to do all that was possible -with his weapons. He believed that if he ransomed the town on this -occasion, he would only expose it to similar treatment every time a -strong Dutch fleet should pass that way. - -Van Caerden then burned all the boats, canoes, and houses, cut down all -the cocoa-nut trees, sent a party of men to the mainland, who destroyed -everything of value that they could reach there, and finally, just -before embarking he set fire to the Dominican convent and the church of -São Gabriel. What was more to be deplored, adds the Portuguese historian -Barbuda, “the perfidious heretics burned with abominable fury all the -images that were in the churches, after which they treated them with a -thousand barbarous indignities.” The walls of the great church and of -some other buildings were too massive to be destroyed by the flames, but -everything that was combustible was utterly ruined. - -[Sidenote: Retirement of Van Caerden.] - -On the morning of the 16th of May, before daylight, the Dutch fleet set -sail. As the ships were passing Fort São Sebastião every gun that could -be got to bear was brought into use on both sides, when the _Zierikzee_ -had her tiller shot away, and ran aground. Her crew and the most -valuable effects on board were rescued, however, by the boats of the -rest of the fleet, though many men were wounded by the fire from the -fort. The wreck was given to the flames. - -In the second attempt to get possession of Mozambique the Dutch lost -forty men, either killed by the enemy or carried off by fever, and they -took many sick and wounded away. The Portuguese asserted that they had -only thirteen men killed during the siege, and they magnified their -slain opponents to over three hundred. - -After his arrival in India Van Caerden obtained possession of a couple -of Portuguese forts of small importance, but on the 17th of September -1608 he was taken prisoner in a naval battle, and was long detained in -captivity. - -As soon as their opponents were out of sight of Mozambique the -Portuguese set about repairing the damage that had been done. In this -they were assisted by the crews of three ships, under command of Dom -Jeronymo Coutinho, that called on their way from Lisbon to Goa. The -batteries were removed, the trenches were levelled, the walls of the -ruined Dominican convent were broken down, and the fortress was repaired -and provided with a good supply of food and munitions of war. Its -garrison also was strengthened with one hundred soldiers landed from the -ships. The inhabitants of the town returned to the ruins of their former -habitations, and endeavoured to make new homes for themselves. These -efforts to retrieve their disasters had hardly been made when the -island was attacked by another and more formidable fleet. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -It consisted of the ships _Geunieerde Provintien_, _Hollandia_, -_Amsterdam_, _Roode Leeuw met Pylen_, _Middelburg_, _Zeelandia_, -_Delft_, _Rotterdam_, _Hoorn_, _Arend_, _Paauw_, _Valk_, and -_Griffioen_, carrying in all between eighteen and nineteen hundred men, -and was under the command of Pieter Willemszoon Verhoeff, an officer who -had greatly distinguished himself after Admiral Heemskerk’s death in the -famous battle in Gibraltar Bay. Verhoeff left the Netherlands on the -22nd of December 1607, and after a long stay at the island of St. Helena -where he waited for the westerly winds to take him past the Cape of Good -Hope, on the 28th of July 1608 arrived at Mozambique. He was under the -impression that Van Caerden had certainly obtained possession of the -fortress, and his object was to lie in wait for Portuguese ships in the -Channel; but he was undeceived when his signals were answered with -cannon balls and a flag of defiance was hoisted over the ramparts. - -In the port were lying four coasting vessels and a carrack with a -valuable cargo on board, ready to sail for Goa. In endeavouring to -escape, the carrack ran aground under the guns of the fort, where the -Dutch got possession of her, and made thirty-four of the crew prisoners. -These were removed, but before much of the cargo could be got out the -Portuguese from the fortress made a gallant dash, retook the carrack, -and burned her to the water’s edge. Two of the coasters were made -prizes, the other two were in a position where they could not be -attacked. - -Within a few hours of his arrival Verhoeff landed a strong force, and -formed a camp on the site of the destroyed Dominican convent. Next -morning he commenced making trenches towards the fortress, by digging -ditches and filling bags with earth, of which banks were then made. The -Portuguese of the town had retired within the fortress in such haste -that they were unable to remove any of their effects, and the blacks, as -during the preceding siege, were now sent over to the mainland to be out -of the way. Some of the ships were directed to cruise off the port, the -others were anchored out of cannon range. A regular siege of the -fortress was commenced. - -[Sidenote: _Third Siege of Mozambique._] - -In the mode of attack this siege differed little from that by Van -Caerden, as trenches and batteries were made in the same manner and -almost in the same places. But there were some incidents connected with -it that deserve to be mentioned. At its commencement an accident -occurred in the fortress, which nearly had disastrous consequences. A -soldier, through carelessness, let a lighted fuse fall in a quantity of -gunpowder, and by the explosion that resulted several men were killed -and a fire was kindled which for a short time threatened the destruction -of the storehouses, but which was extinguished before much harm was -done. - -On the second day after the batteries were in full working order the -wall of the fortress between the bastions Santo Antonio and São Gabriel -was partly broken down, and, according to the Portuguese account, a -breach was opened through which a storming party might have entered. -“If,” says the historian Barbuda, “they had been Portuguese, no doubt -they would have stormed; but as the Dutch are nothing more than good -artillerymen, and beyond this are of no account except to be burned as -desperate heretics, they had not courage to rush through the ruin of the -wall.” That this was said of men who had fought under Heemskerk leads -one to suspect that probably the breach was not of great size, and the -more so as the garrison was able to repair it during the following -night. It is not mentioned in the Dutch account, in which the bravery of -their opponents is fully recognised. - -On the 4th of August Verhoeff sent a trumpeter with a letter demanding -the surrender of the fortress. D’Ataide would not even write a reply. -He said that as he had compelled Van Caerden to abandon the siege he -hoped to be able to do the same with his present opponent. The captain -of the bastion São Gabriel, however, wrote that the castle had been -confided by the king to the commandant, who was not the kind of cat to -be taken without gloves. Verhoeff believed that the garrison was ill -supplied with food, so his trumpeter was well entertained, and on -several occasions goats and pigs were driven out of the gateway in a -spirit of bravado. - -[Sidenote: _Historical Sketches._] - -Sorties were frequently made by the besieged, who had the advantage of -being able to observe from the ramparts the movements of the Dutch. In -one of these a soldier named Moraria distinguished himself by attacking -singly with his lance three pikemen in armour at a distance from their -batteries, killing two of them and wounding the other. - -D’Ataide was made acquainted with his enemy’s plans by a French -deserter, who claimed his protection on the ground of being of the same -religion. Four others subsequently deserted from the Dutch camp, and -were received in the fortress on the same plea. Verhoeff demanded that -they should be surrendered to him, and threatened that if they were not -given up he would put to death the thirty-four prisoners he had taken in -the carrack. D’Ataide replied that if the prisoners were thirty-four -thousand he would not betray men who were catholics and who had claimed -his protection, but if the Portuguese captives were murdered their blood -would certainly be avenged. Verhoeff relates in his journal that the -whole of the prisoners were then brought out in sight of the garrison -and shot, regarding the act in the spirit of the time as rather -creditable than otherwise; but the version of the Portuguese historian -may be correct, in which it is stated that six men with their hands -bound were shot in sight of their countrymen, and that the others, -though threatened, were spared. Until the 18th of August the siege was -continued. Twelve hundred and fifty cannon balls had been fired against -the fortress, without effect as far as its reduction was concerned. -Thirty of Verhoeff’s men had been killed and eighty were wounded. He -therefore abandoned the effort, and embarked his force, after destroying -what remained of the town. - -[Sidenote: Third Siege of Mozambique.] - -On the 21st a great galleon approached the island so close that the -ships in the harbour could be counted from her deck, but put about the -moment the Dutch flag was distinguished. Verhoeff sent the ships -_Arend_, _Griffioen_, and _Valk_ in pursuit, and she was soon overtaken. -According to the Dutch account she made hardly any resistance, but in a -letter to the king from her captain, Francisco de Sodre Pereira, which -is still preserved, he claims to have made a gallant stand for the -honour of his flag. The galleon was poorly armed, but he says that he -fought till his ammunition was all expended, and even then would not -consent to surrender, though the ship was so riddled with cannon balls -that she was in danger of going down. He preferred, he said to those -around him, to sink with his colours flying. The purser, however, -lowered the ensign without orders, and a moment afterwards the Dutch, -who had closed in, took possession. The prize proved to be the _Bom -Jesus_, from Lisbon, which had got separated from a fleet on the way to -Goa, under command of the newly appointed viceroy, the count De Feira. -She had a crew of one hundred and eighty men. The officers were detained -as prisoners, the others were put ashore on the island Saint George with -provisions sufficient to last them two days. - -On the 23rd of August the fleet sailed from Mozambique for India. There -can be little question that this defeat of the Dutch was more -advantageous to them than victory would have been, for if their design -had succeeded a very heavy tax upon their resources and their energy -would have been entailed thereafter. After this siege Fort São -Sebastião was provided with a garrison of one hundred and fifty men, and -some small armed vessels were kept on the coast to endeavour to prevent -the Dutch from communicating with the inhabitants or obtaining -provisions and water, but their ships kept the Portuguese stations in -constant alarm. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -On his arrival in India Verhoeff entered into a treaty of alliance with -the ruler of Calicut against the Portuguese, in which he secured -commercial privileges. In May 1609 he and twenty-nine of his principal -officers, when holding a conference with some Bandanese, were murdered -on the island of Neira, and all the Dutch at Lonthor shared the same -fate. This led immediately to the conquest of Neira, and the erection of -the strong fort Nassau in a commanding position on the island. On the -10th of August 1609 a treaty of peace was concluded with the Bandanese -government, in which the sovereignty of Neira was ceded to the Dutch, -and a monopoly of the spice trade in all the islands dependent on Banda -was secured. In June 1609 a treaty was concluded with the ruler of -Ternate, by which that island and all its dependencies came under the -protection of the Dutch, and a monopoly of the spice trade was secured. -In September 1609 a factory was established at Firato in Japan, where -the Dutch obtained from the emperor liberty to trade. On the 25th of -November 1609 the Portuguese fort on Batjan, one of the Molucca islands, -was taken, and became thereafter Fort Barneveld. - - - - -V. - -THE TRUCE WITH SPAIN AND ENGLISH RIVALRY. - - -[Sidenote: Conquest and Trade in the East.] - -By this time the Dutch had factories or trading stations at Masulipatam, -Pulikat, and two smaller places on the eastern coast of Hindostan, they -had liberty to trade at Calicut, they had entered into a new treaty with -the maharaja of Kandy in Ceylon, they had factories at Bantam and Grésik -in Java, and in November 1610 they entered into a treaty with the ruler -of Jakatra in the same island, in which they secured the site of the -future city of Batavia, they held the protectorate of Ternate, although -the Portuguese still had a fort there, Neira was theirs with a monopoly -of the spice trade of all the Banda islands, Batjan was theirs also, as -was Amboina, they had factories at Patani on the eastern coast of the -Malay peninsula, established in 1604, and at Johor at its southern -extremity, also at Achin in Sumatra, at Landok in Borneo, on the island -of Celebes, and in the empire of Japan. The foundation of the vast realm -which they subsequently acquired in the eastern seas was thus -established on the ruins of the gigantic dominions of Portugal, though -much fighting was still to be done before it should be fully built up. - -A great defect appeared to be the want of some local authority to -control the conquests and supervise the trade. To meet this want the -assembly of seventeen resolved to establish a strong government in the -East, though the seat of authority was not fixed upon. On the 21st of -November 1609 Pieter Both was appointed first governor-general of -Netherlands India, and councillors, consisting of the principal -officials, were named to assist him. He left Texel on the 30th of -January 1610 with a fleet of eight ships. In a great storm off the Cape -his ship got separated from the others, so he put into Table Bay to -repair some damages to the mainmast and to refresh his men. In July 1610 -Captain Nicholas Downton called at the same port in an English vessel, -and found Governor-General Both’s ship lying at anchor and also two -homeward bound Dutch ships taking in train oil that had been collected -at Robben Island. The governor-general arrived at Bantam on the 19th of -December 1610, and in the factory at that place, in a town belonging to -an independent though friendly sovereign, an authority, soon to eclipse -that of any Indian prince, was first established. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -The great successes of the Dutch in the eastern seas caused the -Spaniards to desire peace, and they were prepared to acknowledge the -independence of the United Provinces if two conditions only could be -obtained: the right of Roman Catholics to worship in public and the -prohibition of the Indian trade. The archduke Albert made the first -advance by sending two secret agents to the Hague at the close of 1606. -The Dutch people were divided in opinion: one party, under the -leadership of the prominent statesman Johan van Olden-Barneveld, -favoured peace on reasonable terms, the other, under Maurits of Nassau, -desired to continue the war until Spain should be thoroughly humiliated. -The peace party was in the majority, and as the other European -governments were urgent that hostilities should be brought to an end, in -April 1607 an armistice was agreed to for eight months from the 4th of -May, in order that negotiations might be entered into. - -Just at this time an event occurred which greatly promoted the desire of -the Spaniards for peace. A fleet of twenty-six small ships of war and -four tenders, under Admiral Jacob van Heemskerk, had recently been sent -by the states-general to cruise in the Atlantic. Heemskerk came to learn -that a Spanish war fleet of ten great galleons and eleven smaller -vessels, under command of Don Juan Alvarez d’Avila, was lying at anchor -in Gibraltar Bay under the guns of the fortress. Notwithstanding the -tremendous disparity of force, he determined to attack the enemy, and on -the 25th of April 1607 he stood into the bay and boldly grappled with -the monster galleons. It was like a fight between giants and pygmies, -but so daring were the Dutch sailors that every galleon was destroyed. -Before nightfall nothing of the Spanish fleet but burning fragments -could be seen floating in the bay or stranded on the shore. It was one -of the most brilliant naval victories ever recorded, and it was won -against such odds that it seemed to be due to God alone. Heemskerk fell -in the battle, killed by a cannon ball, leaving a deathless name of -glory behind him. The Spanish admiral also was killed in the engagement. -Unfortunately the victory was tarnished by a ferocious massacre of all -the Spaniards that could be laid hold of, for which barbarous act Pieter -Willemszoon Verhoeff, captain of the admiral’s ship, was chiefly -responsible. - -[Sidenote: Conclusion of a Long Truce.] - -The Dutch now rejected the two Spanish conditions with disdain, and had -it not been for the intervention of the agents of other governments, the -negotiations would have been broken off. As it was, they were continued, -but such difficulties were experienced in coming to terms that it was -necessary to prolong the armistice from time to time, and it was not -until the 9th of April 1609 that matters were finally arranged and a -treaty was signed at Antwerp. Even then it was not a final peace that -was concluded, but only a truce for twelve years, during which time each -party was to retain whatever territory it possessed on that day, and -could carry on commerce freely with the other. - -The republic of the United Netherlands thereafter consisted of the -provinces of Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, Friesland, Groningen, Overyssel -with Drenthe except the town of Oldenzaal, which was held by the -archduke, and about three quarters of ancient Gelderland, which retained -that name. In this, however, the town of Groenlo or Grol was held by the -archduke. South of the Schelde the republic was in possession of Sluis -and Axel, with the forts along the river in Flanders, which with -Flushing gave it control of the navigation of the stream and enabled it -to stifle Antwerp. South of the Maas it possessed in Brabant all the -territory belonging to the marquisate of Bergen op Zoom, the barony of -Breda, and the land of Grave with Kuik. This territory in Flanders and -Brabant was governed directly by the states-general, being of course -detached from the provinces to which it properly belonged. The seven -provinces were in one sense seven sovereign states, as they voted -separately in the states-general, and no one of them was bound by any -act to which it did not individually consent. It was the weakest form of -a federal government, being rather a loose alliance than a firm union. -That was its great defect, which, however, was not remedied until nearly -two centuries more had passed away. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -The provinces that remained under the government of Albert and Isabella -covered much more ground than the present kingdom of Belgium.[36] France -always coveted them, and never lost an opportunity to gnaw portions of -them away. By the treaty of the Pyrenees on the 7th of November 1659 -Louis XIV obtained a strip of territory containing Thionville, Montmedi, -Damvilliers, Ivoix, and Marville. By the treaty of Aix la Chapelle on -the 2nd of May 1668 he obtained Lille, Douai, Courtrai, and Charleroi. -On the 17th of March 1677 Valenciennes was taken by the French, and on -the 5th of April 1677 Cambrai fell into their hands. By the treaty of -Nymegen on the 17th of September 1678 France was recognised as the owner -of a slice of Belgian territory containing these cities, and by the -treaty of Ratisbon on the 15th of August 1684 she acquired part of -Luxemburg. - -[Sidenote: Partition of Belgian Territory.] - -Thus before the close of the seventeenth century Belgium had lost to -France two entire provinces--Artois and Lille with Douai and -Orchies--and part of Flanders containing Dunkirk, Gravelines, and -Menior, part of Hainaut, containing Valenciennes, Bavay, Maubeuge, -Conde, Marienbourg, and Philippeville, part of Namur containing -Charlemont, part of Luxemburg containing Thionville and Montmedi, and -the city and bishopric of Cambrai, which then ranked as a duchy. The -present boundary between France and Belgium was not fixed until 1814. - -By the treaty of Utrecht the portion of Gelderland that remained subject -to Albert and Isabella in 1609, excepting the town of Venlo, which -passed to the republic, and the town and district of Roermonde, which -went to Austria, was ceded to Prussia and became the circle of -Düsseldorf. Roermonde was added to the kingdom of the Netherlands in -1831. Luxemburg was divided into two portions by the treaty of London in -1839, one of which is now part of the German empire, and the other -remains a province of Belgium. By the same treaty Limburg was divided -into two sections, one of which remained to Belgium, the other became -part of the kingdom of the Netherlands. - -By the treaty of Munster on the 30th of January 1648, in which the king -of Spain recognised the independence of the United Netherlands, the -present province of North Brabant went to the republic,[37] as did also -the city and jurisdiction of Maastricht and a small portion of Flanders. -A map of Belgium as it is to-day is thus very different from one in -1610, but it contains the province of Liege, which did not then belong -to it. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -The trade of the Dutch with India now increased rapidly, but South -Africa was hardly affected by it, except through the visits of passing -ships and occasionally the residence of parties of Europeans for a short -time on its shores. - -In May 1611 the Dutch skipper Isaac le Maire, after whom the straits of -Le Maire are named, called at Table Bay. When he sailed, he left behind -his son Jacob and a party of seamen, who resided in Table Valley for -several months. Their object was to kill seals on Robben Island, and to -harpoon whales, which were then very abundant in South African waters in -the winter season. They also tried to open up a trade for skins of -animals with the Hottentots in the neighbourhood, but in this met with -no success, as those barbarians needed all the peltry they could obtain -for their own use. - -In 1616 the assembly of seventeen resolved that its outward bound fleets -should always put into Table Bay to refresh the crews, and from that -time onward Dutch ships touched there almost every season. A kind of -post office was established by marking the dates of arrivals and -departures on stones, and burying letters in places indicated. But no -attempt was made to explore the country, and no port south of the -Zambesi except Table Bay was frequented by Netherlanders, so that down -to the middle of the century nothing more concerning it was known than -the Portuguese had placed on record. - -The Dutch had now to fear the competition of the English in the East -much more than that of the Portuguese. Our countrymen were equally -enterprising and courageous, and however friendly the two nations might -be in Europe, in distant lands they were animated by a spirit of rivalry -which on some occasions went so far as to cause them to act -unscrupulously towards each other. It will not be necessary to relate -here the proceedings of the English in the eastern seas, but some -references to their visits to Table Bay in those early times must be -made. - -[Sidenote: English Visitors to South Africa.] - -They too had established an East India Company, whose first fleet, -consisting of the _Dragon_, of six hundred tons, the _Hector_, of three -hundred tons, the _Ascension_, of two hundred and sixty tons, and the -_Susan_, of two hundred and forty tons burden, sailed from Torbay on the -22nd of April 1601. The admiral was James Lancaster, the same who had -commanded the _Edward Bonaventure_ ten years earlier. The chief pilot -was John Davis, who had only returned from the Indies nine months -before. On the 9th of September the fleet came to anchor in Table Bay, -by which time the crews of all except the admiral’s ship were so -terribly afflicted with scurvy that they were unable to drop their -anchors. The admiral had kept his men in a tolerable state of health by -supplying them with a small quantity of limejuice daily. After his ship -was anchored he was obliged to get out his boats and go to the -assistance of the others. Sails were then taken on shore to serve as -tents, and the sick were landed as soon as possible. Trade was commenced -with the Hottentots and in the course of a few days forty-two oxen and a -thousand sheep were obtained for pieces of iron hoop. The fleet remained -in Table Bay nearly seven weeks, during which time most of the sick men -recovered. - -On the 5th of December 1604 the _Tiger_--a ship of two hundred and forty -tons--and a pinnace called the _Tiger’s Whelp_ set sail from Cowes for -the Indies. The expedition was under command of Sir Edward Michelburne, -and next to him in rank was Captain John Davis. It was the last voyage -that this famous seaman was destined to make, for he was killed in an -encounter with Japanese pirates on the 27th of December 1605. The -journal of the voyage contains the following paragraph:-- - -“The 3rd of April 1605 we sailed by a little island which Captain John -Davis took to be one that stands some five or six leagues from -Saldanha. Whereupon our general, Sir Edward Michelburne, desirous to see -the island, took his skiff, accompanied by no more than the master’s -mate, the purser, myself, and four men that did row the boat, and so -putting off from the ship we came on land. While we were on shore they -in the ship had a storm, which drove them out of sight of the island; -and we were two days and two nights before we could recover our ship. -Upon the said island is abundance of great conies and seals, whereupon -we called it Cony Island.” - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -On the 9th of April they anchored in Table Bay, where they remained -until the 3rd of the following month refreshing themselves. - -On the 14th of March 1608 the East India Company’s ships _Ascension_ and -_Union_ sailed from England, and on the 14th of July put into Table Bay -to obtain refreshments and to build a small vessel for which they had -brought out the materials ready prepared. The crews constructed a fort -to protect themselves, by raising an earthen wall in the form of a -square and mounting a cannon on each angle. They found a few Hottentots -on the shore, to whom they made known by signs their want of oxen and -sheep, which three days afterwards were brought for barter in such -numbers that they procured as much meat as they needed. They gave a yard -(91·4 centimetres) of iron hoop for an ox, and half that length for a -sheep. After bartering them, the Hottentots whistled some away and then -brought them for sale again, which was not resented, as the English -officers were desirous of remaining on friendly terms with the rude -people. For the same reason no notice was taken of the theft of various -articles of trifling value. - -Boats were sent to Robben Island to capture seals, as oil was needed, -and many of these animals were killed and brought to the fort. After -cutting off the oily parts the carcases were carried to a distance as -useless, but for fifteen days the Hottentots feasted upon the flesh, -which they merely heated on embers, though before the expiration of that -time it had become so putrid and the odour so offensive that the -Europeans were obliged to keep at a great distance from it. - -[Sidenote: English Visitors to South Africa.] - -Great quantities of steenbras were obtained with a seine at the mouth of -Salt River, and three thousand five hundred mullets were caught and -taken on board for consumption after leaving. The object of refreshing -was thus fully carried out, as was also that of putting together the -little vessel, which was even made larger than the original design, and -which when launched was named the _Good Hope_. - -Mr. John Jourdain, an official of the East India Company, who was a -passenger in the _Ascension_, and from whose journal this account is -taken, with some others ascended Table Mountain. From its summit they -saw the same sheet of water on the flats which Antonio de Saldanha a -hundred and five years before had mistaken for the mouth of a great -river, and which Mr. Jourdain now mistook for an inland harbour with an -opening to the sea by which ships might enter it. He, however, unlike -his Portuguese predecessor, had an opportunity afterwards of visiting -the big pond and ascertaining that his conjecture was incorrect. - -Mr. Jourdain was of opinion that a settlement of great utility might be -formed in Table Valley. In words almost identical with those of Jansen -and Proot forty years later he spoke of its capabilities for producing -grain and fruit, of the hides, sealskins, and oil that could be obtained -to reduce the expense, of the possibility of opening up a trade in -ivory, as he had seen many footprints of elephants, and of bringing the -Hottentots first to “civility,” and then to a knowledge of God. - -After a stay of little more than two months, on the 19th of September -the _Ascension_ and _Union_ sailed again, with the _Good Hope_ in their -company. - -From this date onward the fleets of the English East India Company made -Table Bay a port of call and refreshment, and usually procured in barter -from the Hottentots as many cattle as they needed. In 1614 the board of -directors sent a ship with as many spare men as she could carry, a -quantity of provisions, and some naval stores to Table Bay to wait for -the homeward bound fleet, and, while delayed, to carry on a whale and -seal fishery as a means of partly meeting the expense. The plan was -found to answer fairly well, and it was continued for several years. The -relieving vessels left England between October and February, in order to -be at the Cape in May, when the homeward bound fleets usually arrived -from India. If men were much needed, the victualler--which was commonly -an old vessel--was then abandoned, otherwise an ordinary crew was left -in her to capture whales, or she proceeded to some port in the East, -according to circumstances. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -The advantage of a place of refreshment in South Africa was obvious, and -as early as 1613 enterprising individuals in the service of the East -India Company drew the attention of the directors to the advisability of -forming a settlement in Table Valley. Still earlier it was rumoured that -the king of Spain and Portugal had such a design in contemplation, with -the object of cutting off thereby the intercourse of all other nations -with the Indian seas, so that the strategical value of the Cape was -already recognised. The directors discussed the matter on several -occasions, but their views in those days were very limited, and the -scheme seemed too large for them to attempt alone. - -In their fleets were officers of a much more enterprising spirit, as -they were without responsibility in regard to the cost of any new -undertaking. In 1620 some of these proclaimed King James I sovereign of -the territory extending from Table Bay to the dominions of the nearest -Christian prince. The records of this event are interesting, as they -not only give the particulars of the proclamation and the reasons that -led to it, but show that there must often have been a good deal of -bustle in Table Valley in those days. - -[Sidenote: English Visitors to South Africa.] - -On the 24th of June 1620 four ships bound to Surat under command of -Andrew Shillinge, put into Table Bay, and were joined when entering by -two others bound to Bantam, under command of Humphrey Fitzherbert. The -Dutch had at this time the greater part of the commerce of the East in -their hands, and nine large ships under their flag were found at anchor. -The English vessel _Lion_ was also there. Commodore Fitzherbert made the -acquaintance of some of the Dutch officers, and was informed by them -that they had inspected the country around, as their Company intended to -form a settlement in Table Valley the following year. Thereupon he -consulted with Commodore Shillinge, who agreed with him that it was -advisable to try to frustrate the project of the Hollanders. On the 25th -the Dutch fleet sailed for Bantam, and the _Lion_ left at the same time, -but the _Schiedam_, from Delft, arrived and cast anchor. - -On the 1st of July the principal English officers, twenty-one in -number,--among them the Arctic navigator William Baffin,--met in -council, and resolved to proclaim the sovereignty of King James I over -the whole country. They placed on record their reasons for this -decision, which were, that they were of opinion a few men only would be -needed to keep possession of Table Valley, that a plantation would be of -great service for the refreshment of the fleets, that the soil was -fruitful and the climate pleasant, that the Hottentots would become -willing subjects in time and they hoped would also become servants of -God, that the whale fishery would be a source of profit, but, above all, -that they regarded it as more fitting for the Dutch when ashore there to -be subjects of the king of England than for Englishmen to be subject to -them or anyone else. “Rule Britannia” was a very strong sentiment, -evidently, with that party of adventurous seamen. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -On the 3rd of July a proclamation of sovereignty was read in presence of -as many men of the six ships as could go ashore for the purpose of -taking part in the ceremony. Skipper Jan Cornelis Kunst, of the -_Schiedam_, and some of his officers were also present, and raised no -objection. On the Lion’s rump, or King James’s mount as Fitzherbert and -Shillinge named it, the flag of St. George was hoisted, and was saluted, -the spot being afterwards marked by a mound of stones. A small flag was -then given to the Hottentots to preserve and exhibit to visitors, which -it was believed they would do most carefully. - -After going through this ceremony with the object of frustrating the -designs of the Dutch, the English officers buried a packet of despatches -beside a stone slab in the valley, on which were engraved the letters V -O C, they being in perfect ignorance of the fact that those symbols -denoted prior possession taken for the Dutch East India Company. On the -25th of July the Surat fleet sailed, and on the next day Fitzherbert’s -two ships followed, leaving at anchor in the bay only the English ship -_Bear_, which had arrived on the 10th. - -The proceeding of Fitzherbert and Shillinge, which was entirely -unauthorised, was not confirmed by the directors of the East India -Company or by the government of England, and nothing whatever came of -it. At that time the ocean commerce of England was small, and as she had -just entered upon the work of colonising North America, she was not -prepared to attempt to form a settlement in South Africa also. Her king -and the directors of her India Company had no higher ambition than to -enter into a close alliance with the Dutch Company, and to secure by -this means a stated proportion of the trade of the East. In the -Netherlands also a large and influential party was in favour of either -forming a federated company, or of a binding union of some kind, so as -to put it out of the power of the Spaniards and Portuguese to harm -them. From 1613 onward this matter was frequently discussed on both -sides of the Channel, and delegates went backward and forward, but it -was almost impossible to arrange terms. - -[Sidenote: Proposed Alliance of English and Dutch.] - -The Dutch had many fortresses which they had either built or taken from -the Portuguese in Java and the Spice islands, and the English had none, -so that the conditions of the two parties were unequal. In 1617, -however, the king of France sent ships to the eastern seas, and in the -following year the king of Denmark embarked in the same enterprise, when -a possibility arose that one or other of them might unite with Holland -or England. Accordingly each party was more willing than before to make -concessions, and on the 2nd of June 1619 a treaty of close alliance was -entered into at London between the two Companies, which was ratified by -their respective governments.[38] - -It provided that all past differences should be forgotten, and all -persons, ships, and goods detained by either side be immediately -released. That the servants of each Company should act in the most -friendly manner towards those of the other, and give them assistance -when needed. That commerce in all parts of India should be free to both. -That joint efforts should be made to reduce the price of products in -India to a fixed and reasonable rate, and that a selling price in Europe -should be agreed upon from time to time, below which it should not be -lawful for either party to dispose of them. That pepper should only be -purchased in Java by a commission representing both parties, and be -equally divided afterwards between the two Companies. That the Dutch -Company should have two-thirds of the trade at the Moluccas, Banda, and -Amboina, and the English one-third. That twenty ships of war from six to -eight hundred tons burden, armed with thirty heavy cannon, and carrying -one hundred and fifty men each, should be maintained in the eastern seas -for the protection of commerce, half by each Company. And that a council -of defence should be established, consisting of four of the principal -officers on each side, to appoint stations for the ships and to engage -and pay land forces. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -There were thirty-one articles in all, of which the above were the -principal, the others referring to matters of less importance, but -dealing with them in the same spirit. The treaty was intended to bring -the two East India Companies into as close a union as that existing -between the different provinces of the Netherlands republic. - -The rivalry, however,--bordering closely on animosity--between the -servants of the two companies in distant lands prevented any agreement -of this nature made in Europe being carried out, and though in 1623 -another treaty of alliance was entered into, in the following year it -was dissolved. Thereafter the great success of the Dutch in the East -placed them beyond the desire of partnership with competitors. - -While these negotiations were in progress, a proposal was made from -Holland that a refreshment station should be established in South Africa -for the joint use of the fleets of the two nations, and the English -directors received it favourably. They undertook to cause a search for a -proper place to be made by the next ship sent to the Cape with relief -for the returning fleet, and left the Dutch at liberty to make a similar -search in any convenient way. Accordingly on the 30th of November 1619 -the assembly of seventeen issued instructions to the commander of the -fleet then about to sail to examine the coast carefully from Saldanha -Bay to a hundred or a hundred and fifty nautical miles east of the Cape -of Good Hope, in order that the best harbour for the purpose might be -selected. This was done, and an opinion was pronounced in favour of -Table Bay. In 1622 a portion of the coast was inspected for the same -purpose by Captain Johnson, in the English ship _Rose_, but his opinion -of Table Bay and the other places which he visited was such that he -would not recommend any of them. The tenor of his report mattered -little, however, for with the failure of the close alliance between the -two companies, the design of establishing a refreshment station in South -Africa was abandoned by both. - -[Sidenote: Disasters in Table Valley.] - -Perhaps the ill opinion of Table Bay formed by Captain Johnson may have -arisen from an occurrence that took place on its shore during the -previous voyage of the _Rose_. That ship arrived in the bay on the 28th -of January 1620, and on the following day eight of her crew went ashore -with a seine to catch fish near the mouth of Salt River. They never -returned, but the bodies of four were afterwards found and buried, and -it was believed that the Hottentots had either carried the other four -away as prisoners or had murdered them and concealed their corpses. - -This was not the only occurrence of the kind, for in March 1632 -twenty-three men belonging to a Dutch ship that put into Table Bay lost -their lives in conflict with the inhabitants. The cause of these -quarrels is not known with certainty, but at the time it was believed -they were brought on by the Europeans attempting to rob the Hottentots -of cattle. - -An experiment was once made with a view of trying to secure a firm -friend among the Hottentots, and impressing those people with respect -for the wonders of civilisation. In 1613 two Hottentots were taken from -Table Valley on board a ship returning from India, one of whom died of -grief soon after leaving his home.[39] The other, who was named Cory, -reached England, where he resided six months and learned to understand -and speak a little English. He was made a great deal of, and received -many rich and valuable presents from benevolent people. Sir Thomas -Smythe, the governor of the East India Company, was particularly kind to -him, and gave him among other things a complete suit of brass armour. He -returned to South Africa with Captain Nicholas Downton in the ship _New -Year’s Gift_, and in June 1614 landed in Table Valley with all his -treasures. But Captain Downton, who thought that he was overflowing with -gratitude, saw him no more. Cory returned to his former habits of -living, and instead of acting as was anticipated, taught his countrymen -to despise bits of copper in exchange for their cattle, so that for a -long time afterwards it was impossible for ships that called to obtain a -supply of fresh meat. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -Mr. John Jourdain, when returning from India to England, put into Table -Bay on the 25th of February 1617. A few lean calves were obtained on the -day the ships anchored, but nothing whatever afterwards, though at one -time about ten thousand head of cattle were in sight. Mr. Jourdain and a -party of sixty armed men went a short distance into the country, and he -was of opinion that through the roguery of “that dogge Cory” they would -have been drawn into a conflict with some five thousand Hottentots if -they had not prudently retired. Thereafter he believed no cattle would -be obtained except at dear rates, for the Hottentots no longer esteemed -iron hoops, copper, or even shining brass. A fort, he considered, would -be the only means of bringing them to “civility.” On this occasion Mr. -Jourdain remained in Table Bay eighteen days, of which only four were -calm and fine. - -According to a statement made by a Welshman who was in Table Bay in -August 1627, and who kept a journal, part of which has been -preserved,[40] Cory came to an evil end. The entry reads: “They” (the -Hottentots) “hate the duchmen since they hanged one of the blackes -called Cary who was in England & upon refusall of fresh victuals they -put him to death.” - -[Sidenote: English Convicts sent to Table Valley.] - -It has been seen what use the Portuguese made of convicts when they were -exploring unknown countries, or when there were duties of a particularly -hazardous or unpleasant nature to be performed. The English employed -criminals in the same manner. In January 1615 the governor of the East -India Company obtained permission from the king to transport some men -under sentence of death to countries occupied by savages, where, it was -supposed, they would be the means of procuring provisions, making -discoveries, and creating trade. The records in existence--unless there -are documents in some unknown place--furnish too scanty material for a -complete account of the manner in which this design was carried out. -Only the following can be ascertained with certainty. A few days after -the consent of the king was given, the sheriffs of London sent seventeen -men from Newgate on board ships bound to the Indies, and these were -voluntarily accompanied by three others, who appear to have been -convicted criminals, but not under sentence of death. The proceeding was -regarded as “a very charitable deed and a means to bring them to God by -giving them time for repentance, to crave pardon for their sins, and -reconcile themselves unto His favour.” On the 5th of June, after a -passage from the Thames of one hundred and thirty-two days, the four -ships comprising the fleet arrived in Table Bay, and on the 16th nine of -the condemned men were set ashore with their own free will. A boat was -left for their use, and to each a gun with some ammunition and a -quantity of provisions was given. - -Of some of these convicts the afterlife is known. Two were taken on to -India by Sir Thomas Roe, one of whom, Duffield by name, returned with -him to England, where he requited the kindness shown to him by stealing -some plate and running away. Of those set ashore in Table Valley, one, -named Cross, committed some offence against the Hottentots shortly after -the ships sailed, and was killed by them. The other _seven_[41] escaped -to Robben Island, where their boat was wrecked. They lived five or six -months on the island, when an English ship put into the bay, and four of -them made a raft and tried to get to her, but were drowned on the way. -The next day the ship sent a boat to the island, and took off the other -three. They behaved badly on board, commenced to steal again as soon as -they reached England, and were apprehended and executed in accordance -with their old sentences. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -In one of the ships that brought these convicts in 1615 Sir Thomas Roe, -English envoy to the great Mogul, was a passenger. A pillar bearing an -inscription of his embassy was set up in Table Valley, and fifteen or -twenty kilogrammes weight of stone which he believed to contain -quicksilver and vermilion was taken away to be assayed in England, but -of particulars that would be much more interesting now no information -whatever is to be had from the records of his journey. - -Again, in June 1616, three condemned men were set ashore in Table Valley -from a fleet under Commodore Joseph on its way to the East. A letter -signed by them is extant, in which they acknowledge the clemency of King -James in granting them their forfeited lives, and promise to do his -Majesty good and acceptable service. Terry, who was an eye witness, says -that before they were set ashore they begged the commodore rather to -hang them than to abandon them, but he left them behind. The _Swan_, one -of the vessels of the fleet, however, was detained in Table Bay a day or -two longer than her consorts, and she took them on to Bantam in Java. - -[Sidenote: Scanty Information supplied by Englishmen.] - -There may have been other instances of the kind, of which no record is -in existence now, but this seems unlikely. It is certain that no -information upon the country, its inhabitants, or its resources was ever -obtained from criminals set ashore here. - -No further effort was made by the English at this time to form a -connection with the inhabitants of South Africa, though their ships -continued to call at Table Bay for the purpose of taking in water and -getting such other refreshment as was obtainable. They did not attempt -to explore the country or to correct the charts of its coasts, nor did -they frequent any of its ports except Table Bay, and very rarely Mossel -Bay, until a much later date. A few remarks in ships’ journals, and a -few pages of observations and opinions in a book of travels such as that -of Sir Thomas Herbert, from none of which can any reliable information -be obtained that is not also to be drawn from earlier Portuguese -writers, are all the contributions to a knowledge of South Africa made -by Englishmen during the early years of the seventeenth century. Though -our countrymen were behind no others in energy and daring, as Drake, -Raleigh, Gilbert, Davis, Hawkins, and a host of others had proved so -well, not forgetting either the memorable story of the Revenge, which -Jan Huyghen van Linschoten handed down for a modern historian to write -in more thrilling words, England had not yet entered fully upon her -destined career either of discovery or of commerce, the time when “the -ocean wave should be her home” was still in the days to come. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -The Danes were the next to make their appearance in the Indian seas. -Their first fleet, fitted out by King Christian IV, consisted of six -ships, under Ove Giedde as admiral. On the 8th of July 1619 this fleet -put into Table Bay, where eight English ships were found at anchor, -whose officers treated the Danes with hospitality. Admiral Giedde -remained here until the 5th of August, when his people were sufficiently -refreshed to proceed on their voyage. On the 30th of August 1621 he -reached Table Bay again in the ship _Elephant_ on his return passage -from Ceylon and India, and remained until the 12th of September. Before -leaving he had an inscription cut on a stone, in which the dates of both -his visits were recorded. - - - - -III. - -_Governor Willem Adriaan van der Stel. A History of the Successful -Struggle of a few Hollanders and Huguenots against Tyranny and -Corruption._ - - - - -SKETCH III. - -I. - -GOVERNOR WILLEM ADRIAAN VAN DER STEL. - - -The days of John the son of Peter and Peter the son of John were passing -away, though not quite entirely gone, and surnames such as are now in -use were becoming generally adopted by working people, when one Adriaan -van der Stel, otherwise Adriaan the son of Simon, is found among the -citizens of the town of Dordrecht in the province of South Holland. He -was by occupation a cooper, and like many of his energetic countrymen at -that time he tried to improve his position by entering the service of -the East India Company and going abroad. Accordingly he engaged as -cooper and junior assistant or clerk, a combination of duties by no -means uncommon in the Company’s service in the early days, and in 1623 -went to India in the yacht _Star_. He was engaged at a salary of ten -guldens or 16_s._ 8_d._ a month, besides his maintenance, but there were -little privileges allowed to men in his position, which often were of -greater value than the wage received. - -This Adriaan van der Stel was a man of ability, and as early as the 28th -of March 1624 was promoted in the service and had his pay increased to -eighteen guldens or £1 10_s._ a month. Time went on, and by 1638, under -the governor-generalship of Anthonie van Diemen, he had advanced so far -that he was chosen to succeed Pieter de Goyer as commander of the island -of Mauritius. This island, which was uninhabited, had recently been -taken possession of by the East India Company, and De Goyer had been -sent to occupy it with a small party of men. The position was not -indeed a very dignified one, corresponding as it did to that of ensign -in charge of a little military outpost, but his selection to fill it was -proof that the high Indian authorities placed confidence in him. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -He had followed a custom prevalent in India ever since 1607, when the -Dutch commander-in-chief Cornelis Matelief gave his soldiers and sailors -permission to form alliances with native women, with a view of raising a -class of mixed breeds who would form a link between the European and -Asiatic races. The Portuguese had set the example in this, and the -advantage of it to them was evident, as they could not have continued to -hold a single station in the East without the assistance of the large -Eurasian element in the population of their settlements. If not actually -encouraged by the Dutch, this practice was by no means looked upon with -disfavour in the seventeenth century, and a half-breed, if at all -worthy, was as certain of employment and promotion as a white man. And -as the form of marriage could not be gone through when the woman was not -a professed Christian, looser alliances were regarded as throwing little -or no discredit upon either father or child. - -Adriaan van der Stel formed a connection of this kind with an Indian -woman named Monica of the Coast, who accompanied him to Mauritius, and -there on the 14th of November 1639 bore him a son, whom he named Simon. -After serving for a time satisfactorily at Mauritius, where no one -wished to remain long, he was removed to Batavia, and shortly afterwards -was transferred to Ceylon in a military capacity as commander of a body -of troops. Such changes of occupation are constantly met with in -following the careers of men in the East India Company’s service, and -some of the ablest officials were alike skilful as diplomatists, as -traders, and as commanders in war on sea or on land. - -At this time, which was shortly after Cornelis van der Lyn became -governor-general, the Portuguese were making a desperate effort to -retain their last strongholds on the western coast of Ceylon. Their most -important possession on the island was Colombo, which they retained -until May 1656, and when it surrendered the Dutch had the seaboard -entirely to themselves. There was indeed peace in Europe between the -Netherlands and Portugal, now independent of Spain once more, but that -did not prevent the continuance of the struggle in the East. The chief -Dutch stronghold was Galle, in the south of the island. The king of -Kandy, Raja Singha Rajoc, was styled emperor of Ceylon, but had really -lost all authority over the coast-lands, which were subject either to -the Dutch or the Portuguese. His policy was to keep them pitted against -each other, and occasionally to assist whichever appeared weakest, for -he bore neither of them any love. And in point of fact he was able -whenever he chose to fall upon one or the other with impunity, as that -one was unable to retort by falling upon him. A few years later, after -the Portuguese had been expelled, the condition of things was of course -very different. - -[Sidenote: Death of Adriaan van der Stel.] - -Commander Adriaan van der Stel was directed with a considerable body of -troops to occupy a certain position in territory claimed by the Dutch. -On the march he was surrounded by a Cingalese army, and his whole force, -only four men excepted, was destroyed, 19th of May 1646. His head was -fixed on a stake and exhibited in triumph, and was then rolled in silk -and sent to Joan Maatzuiker, the Dutch governor of Galle.[42] - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -Simon van der Stel was not seven years old at the time of his father’s -death. Kolbe says that he was in Ceylon and saw the head of his parent -after the disaster, but nothing is more unlikely. The strong probability -is that upon the arrival of Adriaan van der Stel at Batavia from -Mauritius, or shortly afterwards, he sent his son to Holland to be -educated, as was then the custom, though there is no actual proof of -this. At any rate, at a very early age he was at school in Amsterdam, -and was baptized either there or in Batavia when he was about five years -old. His mother, Monica of the Coast, can no longer be traced, and -whether she had died or remained in Batavia is quite uncertain. The -property accumulated by his father was invested by the orphanmasters for -his benefit, but it was inconsiderable, and he might have been destitute -had not the directors of the East India Company regarded him as their -protégé on account of his parent’s losing his life in their service. The -Indian blood in his veins was no detriment whatever to him. - -[Sidenote: Early Life of Simon van der Stel.] - -Like most mixed breeds he was exceedingly proud of the nationality of -his father, and as he advanced in stature was inclined in everything to -be more intensely Dutch than anyone of pure blood born in the -Netherlands could be. Yet as he possessed a large share of sound common -sense, he never made such a silly display of his proclivities in this -respect as most half-breeds are in the habit of doing. Who has not been -irritated by the forwardness and foolish remarks of such people? At -breakfast one morning recently in a London hotel, a hideous mulatto -woman at one of the tables provoked the disgust of all the others seated -in the same room by finding fault with everything, and asserting in very -broad Scotch that “we do this very differently in Scotland.” Of such -conduct Simon van der Stel was never guilty. He grew up to be a man -under the medium stature, and of a dark complexion, with an open -cheerful countenance, but no other indications of his personal -appearance can now be found. - -He married Johanna Jacoba, daughter of Willem Six and his wife Catharina -Hinlopen, a respectable family of Amsterdam, by whom he became the -father of six children: Willem Adriaan, prominent in Cape history, -Adriaan, who became governor of Amboina and the adjacent islands, -Catharina, Frans, Hendrik, and Cornelis. The last named left the Cape -for Batavia in January 1694 in the _Ridderschap_, and was never again -heard of, but it was supposed that the ship was wrecked on the coast of -Madagascar and that he had perished there. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -The directors of the East India Company assisted their protégé as much -as they could in Holland, and at length when the situation of head of -the Cape settlement was vacant, they offered it to him. He accepted the -offer gladly, for it gave him a promise of financial improvement, and -with his four eldest sons he embarked in the ship _Vrije Zee_ and -reached South Africa in October 1679, when he was nearly forty years of -age. His lady with his daughter and his youngest son remained behind in -Amsterdam, and he never saw his wife or daughter again. - -The system of the East India Company of paying its officials was a bad -one, for their salaries were very small indeed, and they depended upon -perquisites to put by anything. And at the Cape there were not so many -opportunities of making money by perquisites as in India, so that few -men of ability cared to stay here long. When Simon van der Stel arrived -in South Africa he had only the rank of a commander, which carried with -it a salary in money less than a junior clerk receives to-day, but he -had a furnished residence, a table allowance besides ample rations of -food and even delicacies, slaves provided for servants, horses and a -carriage free of charge, and he had liberty to trade in certain articles -on his own account. Thus he could purchase a bale of calico or a crate -of crockery from the captain of one ship and sell it to the captain of -another, but he was not at liberty to deal in a single nutmeg or a pound -of pepper, the traffic in spices being strictly reserved for the Company -itself. He was prohibited also from carrying on farming operations or -speculating in cattle, as the Company was desirous of encouraging -colonists. - -[Sidenote: Abuses in India.] - -When Simon van der Stel became commander the settlement comprised only -the cultivated ground at the foot of Table Mountain, two little outposts -of the Company at Saldanha Bay and Hottentots-Holland, a cattle station -of the Company at the Tigerberg, and land beyond the isthmus on which -seven burghers were experimenting in cattle breeding. He is almost as -much entitled to be termed the founder of the colony as Van Riebeek is, -for Stellenbosch, the Paarl, Drakenstein, and French Hoek were occupied -under his supervision. Of course in neither case was what they did a -mere act of their own will: they simply carried out honestly and -faithfully the instructions of the directors of the Company, who -provided the people and the means that were needed. But to those who -maintain that no good can be accomplished by men of mixed European and -Asiatic blood, it may be pointed out that Simon van der Stel was a model -ruler, able, industrious, energetic, honest, and absolutely faithful to -the trust reposed in him. The only glaring fault in his character, and -even that did not become conspicuous until he was advanced in years, was -an inordinate love of money and a readiness to adopt measures to obtain -it that to men of the present day seem beneath the dignity of a high -official. But to Netherlanders of those times it did not appear -incorrect for a man of position to make money in any way not legally -wrong. - -At this time so many abuses had crept into the administration of the -Company’s affairs in Hindostan and Ceylon that the directors considered -it advisable to adopt very drastic measures to rectify them. For this -purpose they appointed a commission of three members to examine into -matters there, and at its head they placed the very ablest officer in -their service, a man in whose integrity they could implicitly rely, to -whom they gave all the powers of a dictator. His name was Hendrik -Adriaan van Rheede tot Drakenstein, but he was more commonly known by -his title of lord of Mydrecht. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -Before he left Europe he was requested to visit the Cape settlement -also, and had supreme power conferred upon him while here. Only twice -during the whole term of the East India Company’s rule in South Africa -has any one with the authority of the lord of Mydrecht visited the -colony: on this occasion and in 1792-3, when the high commissioners -Nederburgh and Frykenius exercised an unqualified dictatorship. It was a -tremendous trust to bestow upon any individual. Under the commission or -general power of attorney which he held, the lord of Mydrecht could -appoint or displace any officials, create any new office or dispense -with any old one, suspend or alter any law or regulation, and issue new -laws, with the assurance that all he might do in this respect would be -confirmed and ratified by the Assembly of Seventeen. - -The lord of Mydrecht was in Capetown from the 19th of April to the 16th -of July 1685, and during that time he made many new laws, most of which -proved to be beneficial, though a few were not in accordance with the -spirit of our day.[44] These, however, need not be referred to here: -what is necessary to be mentioned is his making a grant of land to Simon -van der Stel. He found that official performing excellent service, and -throwing his whole heart into his duty, while receiving only the -trifling salary and the emoluments of a commander. If he had raised his -salary and increased his emoluments, every other official of similar -rank in the service would have claimed to be dealt with in the same way, -and he did not see fit to promote him to the rank of governor and give -him the larger income which that office carried with it. Instead of -doing this, he suspended the orders of the directors of the 26th of -April 1668, which forbade the commander and the members of the council -from cultivating more ground than a little garden and owning more cattle -than they needed for their own use,[45] and on the 13th of July 1685 he -granted to Simon van der Stel eight hundred and ninety-one morgen and a -fraction of ground just beyond Wynberg in full property. This estate the -commander named Constantia, and it has been so called ever since. - -[Sidenote: Promotion of Simon van der Stel.] - -The circumstances of this grant were peculiar. Simon van der Stel and -some of the other officials deserved encouragement, and the lord of -Mydrecht regarded this as the easiest way of rewarding them, though no -one but the commander availed himself of it. The Huguenot and Dutch -immigrants of a few years later were still unthought of, and the demand -for produce of all kinds was so much greater than the few colonists then -in the country could meet that there was not the slightest fear of the -officials competing with the burghers. The land granted too was so close -to the castle that it could be reached in little more than an hour, so -that the owner need never be absent from his duty or pass a night away -from his residence. For these reasons the directors confirmed the grant, -but they took the precaution of announcing a few years later that it was -an exceptional one and that the law of 1668 was still in full force. - -Simon van der Stel, promoted to be governor in June 1691, with a salary -of £16 13_s._ 4_d._ a month, and in 1692 to be councillor extraordinary -of Netherlands India, a position which added to his emoluments as well -as to his dignity, remained at the head of the administration of the -Cape Colony until February 1699, when at his own request, made in 1696, -he retired, and he spent the remainder of his life upon his farm -Constantia, where he died on the 24th of June 1712. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -As a mark of the estimation in which he was held by the directors, on -the 26th of September 1697 they appointed his eldest son, Willem Adriaan -van der Stel, to be his successor, with the full title, salary, and -emoluments which the retiring official had earned by his long and -faithful services.[46] On the 31st of July 1698 the newly appointed -governor received at Amsterdam his final instructions from the -directors, and parted from them with their good wishes for his welfare. -He and his family left Holland with the first ship that sailed -thereafter for India, and in January 1699 reached Capetown, but he was -not installed in office until the 11th of February. - -What kind of man Willem Adriaan van der Stel was in person cannot be -ascertained from any document in the archives of the Netherlands or of -the Cape Colony, or from anything contained in the vast mass of printed -matter of the period concerning him. He may have been tall and stout or -he may have been small, he may have been darker coloured than his -father, for atavism sometimes plays curious freaks in this respect, or -he may have been as light skinned as a pure Netherlander: there are no -means of getting information on this now. But one thing can be said of -him with certainty: that before he became governor of the Cape Colony he -had borne a good character, and had not displayed those vices which at a -later date made his name infamous. There is a Dutch proverb _De -gelegenheid dieven en moordenaars maakt_, Opportunity makes thieves and -murderers, and in his case the opportunity was wanting as long as he -resided in Amsterdam. He had been an official in that city for ten -years, had even been a schepen, and if his conduct had not been -upright--outwardly at least--he would not have secured the favour of the -directors of the East India Company, men who knew him well personally. - -[Sidenote: Condition of the Settlement.] - -The condition of the settlement was at this time very different from -what it had been when his father arrived. The Huguenot refugees had come -from Europe and been located in the lovely valleys where so many of -their descendants still reside. An even greater number of Dutch families -and orphan girls had migrated to South Africa, and had been located side -by side with the French or by themselves around the Tigerberg, so that -all the land as far as the Groeneberg beyond the present village of -Wellington was occupied, though sparsely. There were three separate -congregations in the settlement, though as yet there was a church -building at Stellenbosch only. In Capetown divine service was still held -in a hall in the castle, and at Drakenstein in a farmer’s house or under -an improvised screen. Wheatfields, vineyards, orchards, and gardens were -scattered over the land, each with a thatched cottage on its border, -cattle and sheep grazed on the hill sides, and here and there young oaks -were beginning to beautify the scene. The view was fair, but concord was -wanting in the settlement. Between the Dutch and the French there was -little goodwill, for national prejudices kept them from being real -friends, though a few intermarriages had already taken place. - -The Dutch reformed--identical with the French evangelical--was the state -church, and all officials were required to be members of it. No other -public worship was tolerated. But there was no inquisition, and in a -man’s own house he was free to worship God in any manner he pleased. -This was the system of the Northern Netherlands, and it was the system -of the Cape Colony. No Roman Catholic was sent out as an emigrant, but -there were some of that creed in the Company’s service, and when any of -these took their discharge in South Africa they were not interfered -with, provided they exercised their devotions within doors. By their -fellow citizens, however, they were not favourably regarded, for their -tenets were supposed to be dangerous to freedom. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -The farmers knew no want of plain wholesome food, but they were fain to -be content with few luxuries. Their dwellings were in general small and -to modern ideas scantily furnished, as they had not been here long -enough to acquire the means to provide more than was barely necessary -for shelter and the simplest needs. The picturesque and commodious -houses with their ornamented gables and high stoeps, now so much -admired, only made their appearance when more than half a century from -the arrival of Willem Adriaan van der Stel had passed away, and with -them was first seen the massive furniture still occasionally met with. -Lying in the loft or on the beams of most of the cottages was a coffin, -kept in readiness for its eventual purpose, but used in the mean time as -a receptacle for odds and ends.[47] - -The farming utensils were extremely crude, the plough especially, with -but one stilt, being as clumsy as it well could be. Black slaves had -been introduced, but were not yet numerous, and Hottentots in -considerable bands still roamed over the pastures beyond the settlement, -some of whom occasionally took service with the colonists in order to -obtain tobacco and strong drink. - -The country people were almost exclusively occupied in agricultural or -pastoral pursuits. One of the Huguenot immigrants, Isaac Taillefer by -name, found time from the care of his vineyard to manufacture coarse -felt hats, and some of the women spun yarn and knitted socks and -stockings. What leather was needed was tanned by the farmers themselves, -whose womenfolk also made what soap and candles were required for home -use. Here and there one acted as a blacksmith, a waggonmaker, a -carpenter, or a shoemaker, in addition to looking after his farm, but as -yet there was no scope for mechanical industry on a large scale. The -farmers were in the habit of visiting each others’ houses frequently, -and on such occasions the men were entertained with wine and tobacco and -the women with coffee or tea.[48] At meal times visitors were invited to -partake as a matter of course. - -[Sidenote: Life in the Cape Colony.] - -It was a simple condition of life, not favourable to great expansion of -the mind, and not free from care, but not necessarily attended with -unhappiness. - -Mixed with these worthy colonists was a sprinkling of men of loose -habits, mostly deserters from the garrison in Capetown or from ships, or -who had been discharged from the Company’s service without proper -caution. These men professed to desire to take service with the farmers, -but were in general vagabonds and a pest to the community. Yet no one -cared to give them up to justice, for it was regarded as the duty of the -government, not of the colonists, to apprehend them and punish them for -crime or expel them from the country as vagrants. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -The directors of the East India Company were desirous of increasing the -number of colonists, as they required larger supplies of provisions than -had hitherto been obtainable at the Cape, and they also wished to -strengthen the defensive force here in case of an attack by an enemy. -They were still sending out a few Huguenots almost every year, mixed -with a larger number of Dutch, but the ill-feeling between the two -nationalities in the colony, and more than this the menacing attitude of -the French king towards the Netherlands, with the suspicion that perhaps -the refugees might not prove loyal to a country that gave shelter and -religious dominance indeed, but that in language, customs, and form of -government was foreign and strange,[49] caused them to alter their plans -soon after the new governor was installed in office. On the 16th of June -1700 they appointed a commission to consider the matter, and in -conformity with the report sent in, on the 22nd of the same month they -adopted a resolution to authorise the different chambers to send out -men, women, and children, providing them with free passages, but taking -care that they were either Dutch citizens or subjects of a German state -not carrying on commerce by sea, that they were either of the reformed -or of the Lutheran faith, and that they were agriculturists or -vinedressers; but not to send out any more French.[50] - -[Sidenote: Emigration to South Africa.] - -Emigration to South Africa, according to the terms of this resolution, -continued until the 15th of July 1707, when it was stopped,[51] and from -that date onward the European population of the colony was increased -only by natural means and by the discharge of servants of the Company. - -On the 27th of June 1699 the directors had strictly prohibited the -members of the council of policy and of the high court of justice from -trading in cattle in any way,[52] so that the interests of the colonists -seemed to them to be firmly secured. The chief officials, forbidden to -carry on agriculture or cattle breeding on their own account and to -speculate in oxen and sheep, could not do any damage to the farmers by -competing with them. In the large garden in Table Valley experiments -were being made at the Company’s expense in the cultivation of foreign -and indigenous plants, so that the colonists could learn without cost -what was most proper to cultivate and how to cultivate it. More -favourable terms could hardly be offered to suitable emigrants: free -transport, grant of land in freehold without charge, security against -competition. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -Unfortunately the colonists were ignorant of the last of these -conditions, for the orders of the directors were kept concealed from -them. Every member of the council of policy was sworn to secrecy, and -the contents of no document were made known without the governor’s -order. With our knowledge, now that the old records are open for -examination, it is with a feeling akin to amazement that we observe in -the struggle for justice about to be recorded that the burghers made no -use of a weapon which would at once have demolished their opponent, and -employed only instruments feebler in every way because they were not so -capable of being handled. More than once during the administration of -the Dutch East India Company in South Africa, the burghers complained, -and with reason, that they did not know by what laws they were governed. -Here was a case in point. A wise and salutary law, a law making -provision against gross oppression and wrong, was a dead letter for -years because it was kept concealed in inaccessible archives, and could -therefore be violated with impunity by faithless officials. - - - - -II. - -ORDINARY EVENTS DURING THE ADMINISTRATION OF GOVERNOR WILLEM ADRIAAN VAN -DER STEL. - - -[Sidenote: Governor Willem Adriaan van der Stel.] - -Willem Adriaan--or Wilhem Adriaen as he wrote his given name--van der -Stel, councillor extraordinary of Netherlands India and governor of the -Cape Colony and its dependency the island of Mauritius, had resided here -for several years after his arrival with his father in October 1679, and -had held different situations in the public service, so that he was well -acquainted with the condition of the country. In the proceedings of the -council of policy he is mentioned on the 16th of December 1680 as -receiving the appointments of secretary of the orphan chamber and of the -matrimonial court, on the 19th of April 1682 as having acted as issuer -of stores and as being then promoted to be a book-keeper, and on the -26th of December 1682 as being issuer of stores and then promoted to be -treasurer.[53] After a sojourn here of several years he returned to -Amsterdam, but the exact date of his removal is unknown. He was -accompanied to South Africa when he became governor by his wife, Maria -de Haase by name, and several children. - -Notwithstanding the pains taken by the late governor to promote -tree-planting, there was a scarcity of timber and fuel at the Cape. It -was a difficult matter to supply the ships with firewood. Some skippers -reported that in passing by two islands, named Dina and Marseveen, in -latitude 41° or 42° south, and about four hundred sea miles from the -Cape, they had observed fine forests, which they suggested should be -examined. The master of the galiot _Wezel_ was thereupon instructed to -proceed to the locality indicated, to inspect the forests carefully, and -ascertain what quantity of timber was to be had. The _Wezel_ sailed from -Table Bay on the 31st of March 1699, but returned on the 13th of May -with a report that the search for the islands had been fruitless. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -The governor had instructions from the directors to attend more -carefully to arboriculture than had yet been done, and they complained -that if a sufficient number of trees had been planted in earlier years -there would be no necessity to send timber from Europe for housebuilding -purposes and no want of fuel for the ships. These instructions he -carried out, and during the first winter after his arrival twenty -thousand young oaks were planted in the kloofs at Stellenbosch and -Drakenstein, where the native forests had been exhausted, and over ten -thousand were set out in the Cape peninsula. In the winter of 1701 a -further supply was sent to Stellenbosch from the nursery in Table -Valley, and the landdrost was instructed to have them planted along the -streets. - -On the 23rd of November 1699 the governor with a party of attendants set -out on a tour of inspection of the settlement. He visited Stellenbosch, -Drakenstein, and the farms about the Tigerberg, where he found some -persons to whom no ground had yet been allotted. The country was -inhabited by Europeans, though thinly, nearly as far as the present -village of Hermon. Small Hottentot kraals were scattered about, of which -the occupants were found to be very poor and very lazy. - -Keeping down the Berg river, the range of mountains on the right was -reported to be tenanted by Bushmen, who were in the habit of descending -from their fastnesses and plundering the burghers and Hottentots below. -The range was on this account known as the Obiqua mountains. The -governor crossed over at a place since termed the Roodezand pass, just -beyond the gorge through which the Little Berg river flows, and entered -the valley now called the Tulbagh basin. - -[Sidenote: Description of the Tulbagh Basin.] - -Though not greatly elevated, this basin is in the second of the steps by -which the mainland of South Africa rises from the ocean to the central -plain. If a cane with a large round head be laid upon soft ground, the -mark will give an idea of its form. The hollow caused by the head of the -cane will represent the basin, the long narrow groove will indicate the -valley between the Obiqua mountains and a parallel range ten or eleven -kilometres farther inland. The Breede river has its source in the third -terrace, and, rushing down a gorge in the interior range, now called -Michell’s pass, flows south-eastward through the valley. Close to -Michell’s pass the mountain retires, but shortly sweeps round and joins -the Obiqua range, the keystone of the arch thus formed being the Great -Winterhoek, two thousand and eighty-five metres in height, the loftiest -peak visible from Capetown. - -It was the basin thus enclosed that the governor and his party entered. -It was found to be drained by the Little Berg river and its numerous -tributary rills, whose waters escape through a gorge in the Obiqua -mountains, and flow north-westward. The watershed between the Breede and -Little Berg rivers is merely a gentle swell in the surface of the -ground. At the foot of Michell’s pass, at the present day, a mill-race -is led out of the Breede and turned into the Little Berg, and thus a few -shovelsful of earth can divert water from the Indian to the Atlantic -Ocean. - -The basin excels all other parts of South Africa in the variety and -beauty of its wild flowers, which in early spring almost conceal the -ground. It was too late in the season for the governor’s party to see it -at its best, still the visitors were charmed with its appearance. Very -few Hottentots were found. In the recesses of the mountains were -forests of magnificent trees, and although the timber could not be -removed to the Cape, it would be of great use to residents. Immigrants -were arriving in every fleet from the Netherlands, so the governor -resolved to form a settlement in the valley, where cattle breeding could -be carried on to advantage. Agriculture, except to supply the wants of -residents, could not be pursued with profit, owing to the difficulty of -transport. The governor named the basin the Land of Waveren, in honour -of a family of position in Amsterdam. The range of mountains enclosing -the valley on the inland side and stretching away as far as the eye -could reach, as yet without a name, he called the Witsenberg, after the -justly-esteemed burgomaster Nicolaas Witsen of Amsterdam. The land of -Waveren has long since become the Tulbagh basin, but one may be allowed -to hope that the Witsenberg will always be known by the honoured name it -has borne since 1699. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -Several burghers who had been living at Drakenstein were now permitted -to graze their cattle at Riebeek’s Kasteel, and on the 31st of July 1700 -some recent immigrants from Europe were sent to occupy the land of -Waveren. As it was the rainy season, the families of the immigrants -remained at the Cape until rough cottages could be put up for their -accommodation. At the same time a corporal and six soldiers were sent to -form a military post in the valley for the protection of the colonists. -This post was termed the Waveren outstation, and was maintained for many -years. On the 16th of October several additional families were forwarded -to the new district to obtain a living as graziers. - -For a time after his arrival the Company’s garden in Table Valley was -kept by the new governor in the same state of cultivation as that in -which his father left it. To its former attractions he added a -museum--chiefly of skeletons and stuffed animals--and a small menagerie -of wild animals of the country, to which purposes one of the enclosed -spaces at the upper end was devoted. Near the centre of the garden he -erected a lodge for the reception of distinguished visitors and for his -own recreation, which building by enlargement and alterations in later -years became the governor’s town residence. - -[Sidenote: Illegal Cattle Trade.] - -As the garden in Capetown was thus reduced in size, and that at -Rondebosch did not produce as large a quantity of vegetables and fruit -as was required for the hospital, the garrison, and the ships, in the -winter of 1700 Governor Willem Adriaan van der Stel caused a new one to -be laid out a short distance beyond Rustenburg, and spent much money in -its ornamentation. As originally planned, this garden and the -plantations attached to it covered forty morgen of ground; but in course -of time from twenty to thirty morgen more were added to it. A -superintendent was stationed here with assistants and a strong party of -slaves, by whose labour the place soon became exceedingly attractive. In -this garden, which bore the name of Newlands, a small lodge was erected, -which grew half a century later into the favourite country residence of -the governors. - -Ever since 1658 trade between the burghers and the Hottentots was -strictly forbidden. The chief object was to prevent any act that might -bring on a collision with the nomadic people or irritate them in any -way. In opposition to the law, however, parties of deserters and other -persons of loose character carried on a cattle trade, and were often -guilty of conduct that cannot be distinguished from robbery. Governor -Simon van der Stel thought to check this by threatening more severe -punishment, and on the 19th of October 1697 he issued a placaat in which -the barter of cattle from Hottentots was prohibited, under penalty of -whipping, branding, banishment, and confiscation of property. - -The directors disapproved of this. They wished to encourage the -colonists, and for that purpose they had already, on the 14th of July -1695, issued instructions that their own farming operations should be -gradually discontinued, and that the cultivation of the vine and wheat -together with the rearing of cattle should be left entirely to the -burghers. They were now disposed to allow the colonists to purchase -cattle from the Hottentots and fatten them for sale to such persons as -would contract to supply the hospital, the garrison, and the ships with -beef and mutton. They therefore annulled the placaat, and on the 27th of -June 1699 issued instructions that the cattle trade should be thrown -open, care being taken that the Hottentots suffered no ill-treatment in -connection with it. Servants of the Company having seats in the council -of policy or in the court of justice were excluded from this trade, and -forbidden to supply meat for the public service.[54] - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -This order reached Capetown by the flute _De Boer_ on the 24th of -November, but the governor, who paid little regard to the instructions -of the directors when they clashed with his own interests, did not make -it known at the time. After long delay tenders were called for, and in -February 1700 the burgher Henning Huising entered into a contract to -supply the garrison, hospital, and Company’s fleets with beef and mutton -at 5½d. a kilogramme, he to have the use of the Company’s slaughter -houses, and as a cattle run the whole of the district of Groenekloof -that was not occupied by Hottentots. The contract was signed -provisionally for ten years, but the directors reduced it to five. With -this transaction the Company designed to relinquish sending out -expeditions to purchase cattle, as had been the custom for nearly half -a century; and henceforth it was only when working oxen were needed in -greater numbers than the burghers could supply that military bartering -parties went out. By a placaat of the council of policy presided over by -the commissioner Wouter Valckenier, on the 28th of February 1700 the -trade was thrown open to the burghers, with such restrictions as were -considered necessary to prevent its abuse. - -[Sidenote: Training of the Colonists.] - -From this date cattle-breeding became a favourite pursuit with yearly -increasing numbers or colonists. There was as much to be made by it as -by agriculture, and it was attended with less expense and less anxiety. -The government gave permission to applicants to use land for grazing -purposes at some defined locality north or north-east of Stellenbosch, -but if the pasture failed or did not prove as good as was anticipated, -the occupiers did not hesitate to seek other and better places. East of -the Hottentots-Holland mountains permission was not given to the -burghers in general to graze oxen and sheep until after the governor’s -recall in 1707, as he kept the pastures there as far as the Ziekenhuis -in one direction and Zoetendal’s Vlei in another for his own use and -that of one of his brothers. In defiance of the instructions or the 27th -of June 1699 and of the avowed policy of the Company at the time, he -himself was rapidly becoming a cattle farmer on a very extensive scale. - -Many men and women were thus undergoing a special training for pushing -their way deeper into the continent. They were learning to relish a diet -of little else than animal food, and to use the flesh of game largely in -order to spare their flocks and herds. They were becoming accustomed -also to live in tent waggons for months together, so that the want of -houses soon ceased to be regarded as a matter of much hardship by these -dwellers in the wilds. They were acquiring a fondness for the healthy -life of the open country, with its freedom from care and restraint, and -its simple pleasures. For the town, with its government officials and -law agents and tradesmen and speculators of many kinds always seeking to -take advantage of their simplicity, they acquired such a dislike that -they never visited it when they could avoid doing so. They took with -them no other books than the bible and the psalms in metre, so their -children came to regard education in secular subjects as entirely -unnecessary. In self-reliance, however, they were receiving the most -complete training possible. The tastes and habits which were thus formed -were transmitted to their offspring, and in a few generations there was -a body of frontiersmen adapted, as no other Europeans ever were, for -acting as the pioneers of civilisation in such a country as South -Africa. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -To encourage the cattle breeders, no rent for ground was charged until -1714, and no other tax than the one for district purposes was laid upon -their stock. A little experience proved that occasional change of -pasture was advantageous in the rearing of oxen and sheep, and the -authorities made no objection to the graziers going yearly for three or -four months to a tract of land far from that on which they lived at -other times. This grew into a custom for each one to select as winter -grazing ground a particular part of the karoo on the third terrace -upward from the sea, his right to which was respected by all the others, -though it was not directly recognised by the government. - -With the enlargement of the settlement, fresh troubles arose with the -Bushmen. In March 1701 a band of those people drove off forty head of -cattle from Gerrit Cloete’s farm at Riebeek’s Kasteel. A commando of ten -soldiers and thirty burghers was sent after the depredators, but was -unable to find them. A temporary military post was then established at -Vogelvlei, at the foot of the Obiqua mountains. - -This protection soon proved insufficient. In April Gerrit Cloete was -again robbed, and eleven head of cattle were lifted from the Waveren -post. A commando of twelve soldiers and fifty burghers was then -organised to clear the country of Bushmen, but did not succeed in -effecting its object. It was hardly disbanded when one hundred and -thirty-seven head of cattle were lifted within sight of the Vogelvlei -post. Upon this a reinforcement of six mounted soldiers was sent to each -of the two posts already occupied, and twelve men were stationed at -Riebeek’s Kasteel. - -[Sidenote: Strife with the Bushmen.] - -The Goringhaiqua and Cochoqua Hottentots now tendered their services to -assist the Europeans against the Bushmen, and requested that the captain -Kees, who was then living at Groenekloof, might be recognised as their -leader in the expedition. But it was discovered that Kees, who had -suffered severely from the Bushmen, had already joined a commando of -Gerrit Cloete’s friends, and that the joint force was scouring the -Obiqua mountains. On receipt of this information, the governor sent -instructions to the landdrost of Stellenbosch to have Cloete arrested -and brought to trial for waging war without leave, and to ascertain and -send in the names of those who had joined him in the expedition. - -The prosecution fell through, and the governor thought it best after -this to send out only parties of soldiers against the robbers. In -September one of these parties recovered a hundred and twenty head of -cattle belonging partly to burghers and partly to Hottentots; but in the -following month more than two hundred head belonging to the contractor -Henning Huising were lifted at Groenekloof, and a patrol of thirty-five -soldiers was obliged to fall back from Piketberg, where the Bushmen made -a resolute stand. - -In November a sergeant and ten men were sent to form a permanent -military post at Groenekloof. In the land of Waveren forty head of -cattle, mostly belonging to Etienne Terreblanche, were seized by -Bushmen, and one of the soldiers who tried to recover them was killed. -Two hundred and seventy-four head belonging to Hottentot kraals at -Riebeek’s Kasteel were driven off, but a party of soldiers followed the -robbers to Twenty-four Rivers, and retook most of the spoil. In trying -to afford protection, no distinction was made by the government between -burghers and Hottentots, the officers at the outposts being instructed -to do their utmost to recover cattle stolen by Bushmen and deliver them -to their proper owners, whoever these might be. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -In 1702 the military patrols were kept busy on behalf of the Hottentots, -for no complaints of depredations were made by burghers. A large number -of cattle were recovered and restored to various kraals, and so many -Bushmen were shot that those who were left seem to have been terrified. -At any rate they gave less trouble during the next few years, though -occasionally it was considered necessary to chastise them. The sergeants -and corporals in command of the outposts were directed to endeavour to -induce the Bushmen to keep the peace. When those wild people committed -depredations they were to be followed up and punished, but under no -circumstances were they to be attacked without provocation. The ruthless -nature of the warfare pursued by the Bushmen was exemplified in February -1702, when a Hottentot captain came to the castle and reported that they -had killed five of his wives and every one of his children. - -There is little else on record concerning the Hottentots at this period. -Some of them made such complaints of the rapacity and violence of -burgher trading parties that the council of policy provisionally -suspended the liberty of free barter, and, owing to the governor’s -representations, in 1703 the assembly of seventeen withdrew the -privilege. Commercial intercourse between the two races was again made -illegal, and the European graziers were chiefly depended upon to provide -as many cattle as were needed. - -In September 1704 several Namaqua captains visited the Cape, when an -agreement of friendship was made with them. This tribe, like the others -with which the Europeans had come in contact, at once accepted as a -matter of course the position of vassals. This was shown in October -1705, when three Namaqua captains came to the castle for the purpose of -requesting the governor to confirm their authority. They were kindly -treated, their request was complied with, and they left carrying with -them presents of beads and other trifles and copper-headed canes upon -which the new names given to them--Plato, Jason, and Vulcan--were -inscribed. Thenceforth they were termed allies of the honourable -Company. The number of captains mentioned as having applied for staffs -is an indication that the tribes were now more broken up than formerly. -Sometimes a clan requested the appointment of a regent, as its -hereditary captain was a minor. There are instances of clans applying -for a brother of a deceased captain to be appointed in his stead, but in -such cases they always gave as a reason that the dead chief had left no -children. Feuds between clans of the same tribe caused frequent -disturbances, though these same clans usually acted together against the -adjoining tribe. - -[Sidenote: Ecclesiastical Matters.] - -After the removal in 1694 of the reverend Pierre Simond to Drakenstein, -there was no resident clergyman at Stellenbosch for nearly six years. -Once in three months the clergyman of the Cape visited the vacant church -and administered the sacraments, and occasionally Mr. Simond attended -for the same purpose. On the remaining Sundays the sick-comforter -conducted the services. At length the assembly of seventeen appointed -the reverend Hercules van Loon, who had once been acting clergyman of -the Cape, resident clergyman of Stellenbosch. He arrived from the -Netherlands on the 11th of April 1700. - -In April 1678 the foundation of a church in Table Valley had been laid, -but with that the work had ceased. For another quarter of a century -services were conducted in a large hall within the castle. But in course -of time the poor funds accumulated to a considerable amount, and the -consistory then consented to apply a sum equal to £2,200 of our money -to the erection of the building. As the original plan was now considered -too small, it was enlarged, and a new foundation stone was laid by the -governor on the 28th of December 1700. By the close of the year 1703 the -edifice was finished, except the tower. The first service in it was held -on the 6th of January 1704, the reverend Petrus Kalden being the -preacher. Of the building then constructed the tower and one of the end -walls still remain, the last forming part of the eastern wall of the -present church. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -At Drakenstein service was conducted sometimes in the front room of a -farmer’s house, sometimes in a large barn, or under a screen, there -being as yet no church building. There was a French clergyman, who was -assisted by a French sick-comforter. In April 1700 a sick-comforter and -schoolmaster was first appointed for the Dutch portion of the -congregation, that had previously been neglected. An able and zealous -man named Jacobus de Groot, who was returning from India to Europe, was -detained here for the purpose. - -The reverend Mr. Simond had prepared a new version in metre of the -psalms of David, which he was desirous of submitting to a synod of the -French churches, as great interest had been taken in the work by the -Huguenots in Europe. He therefore tendered his resignation, to the -regret of the Drakenstein people, and requested permission to return to -the Netherlands. The assembly of seventeen consented to his request, on -condition of his remaining until the arrival of the reverend Hendrik -Bek, whom they appointed to succeed him. Mr. Bek reached the Cape in -April 1702, and was installed at Drakenstein a few weeks later. - -There was a desire on the part of the directors that in the families of -the Huguenot immigrants the French language should be superseded by the -Dutch as speedily as possible. It was only a question of time, for the -proportion of French-speaking people was too small compared with those -of Dutch and German descent for their language to remain long in use in -the mixed community. To expedite its decay the new clergyman was -directed to conduct the public services in Dutch, though he had been -selected because he was conversant with French and could therefore -admonish, comfort, and pray with the aged Huguenots who understood no -other tongue. Instructions were at the same time sent out that the -school children were to be taught to read and write Dutch only. The -sick-comforter Paul Roux was not prevented, however, from ministering to -the Huguenots of any age in whichever tongue was most familiar to them. - -[Sidenote: Ecclesiastical Matters.] - -This arrangement created much dissatisfaction. The French immigrants -sent in a memorial requesting that Mr. Bek should be instructed to -preach in their language once a fortnight. They stated that they -comprised over a hundred adults, not more than twenty-five of whom -understood sufficient Dutch to gather the meaning of a sermon. There was -also even a larger number of children of their nationality. The council -of policy recommended the memorial to the favourable consideration of -the assembly of seventeen; but before action could be taken upon it, Mr. -Bek requested to be removed to Stellenbosch as successor to Mr. Van -Loon, who died by his own hand on the 27th of June 1704. The directors -then appointed the reverend Engelbertus Franciscus le Boucq[55] -clergyman of Drakenstein, and gave instructions that upon his arrival -from Batavia Mr. Bek should be transferred to Stellenbosch. They gave -the council of policy permission to allow the French language to be -used alternately with the Dutch in the church services at Drakenstein, -if it should seem advisable to do so. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -The newly appointed minister did not reach the Cape until the 30th of -March 1707. Mr. Bek then took charge of the Stellenbosch congregation, -which had been for nearly three years without a clergyman, except once -in three months when he had preached and administered the sacraments. -Mr. Le Boucq should have taken up the duties in the parish to which he -had been appointed, but instead of doing so, he got into difficulties at -the Cape, as will be related in another chapter, and Drakenstein was for -several years without a resident clergyman. - -In the evening of the 3rd of April 1702 the outward bound ship -_Meresteyn_, an Indiaman of the first class, ran ashore on Jutten -Island, and in less than an hour broke into little pieces. Her skipper -was endeavouring to reach Saldanha Bay, and the ship was in a heavy surf -before any one on board suspected danger. The majority of her crew were -lost, as also were two women and five children passengers for the Cape. -Ninety-nine persons managed to reach the shore. - -In March 1702 a marauding party, consisting of forty-five white men and -the same number of Hottentots, whose deeds were afterwards prominently -brought to light, left Stellenbosch, and remained away seven months. -They travelled eastward until they reached the neighbourhood of the Fish -river, where at daylight one morning they were attacked unexpectedly and -without provocation by a band of Xosa warriors who were fugitives from -their own country and were living in friendship with the Hottentots. The -assailants were beaten off, followed up, and when they turned and made -another stand, were defeated again, losing many men. One European was -killed. The party then commenced a career of robbery, excusing their -acts to themselves under the plea that they were undertaken in -retaliation. They fell upon the Gonaquas and other Hottentot hordes, -shot many of them, and drove off their cattle. - -The perpetrators of these scandalous acts were not brought to justice. -In after years when the governor and the colonists were at variance, and -each party was endeavouring to blacken the reputation of the other, the -governor stated that they were in league with the colonists and were too -numerous to be punished without ruining half the settlement. This -statement was, however, indignantly contradicted by the most respectable -burghers, who asserted that the marauding Europeans were miscreants -without families or homes, being chiefly fugitives from justice and men -of loose character who had been imprudently discharged from the -Company’s service. The burghers maintained that they ought to have been -punished, and that the real reason why they were not prosecuted was that -the governor’s agents had obtained cattle for him in the same manner, -which would be brought to light at a trial. The names of the forty-five -white men who formed the robber band are given. Forty of them are quite -unknown in South Africa at the present day, and the remaining five are -of that class that cannot be distinguished with certainty, so that the -statements of the burghers are strongly borne out. - -[Sidenote: Expedition to Natal.] - -Owing chiefly to the scarcity of timber and fuel, in 1705 it was -resolved to send an expedition to Natal and the adjoining coast, to make -an inspection of the country and particularly of the forests there. The -schooner _Centaurus_, which had been built at Natal in 1686-7, -principally of timber growing on the shore of the inlet, was a proof -that the wood was valuable, for she had been in use nearly fourteen -years before needing repair. The galiot _Postlooper_ was made ready for -the expedition. Her master, Theunis van der Schelling, had visited Natal -when he was mate of the _Noord_ in 1689 and 1690, and therefore knew the -harbour. He was instructed to make a thorough exploration of the -forests, and to frame a chart of the coast. A sailor who was expert in -drawing pictures was sent to take sketches of the scenery. - -The _Postlooper_ sailed from Table Bay on the 20th of November 1705. She -reached Natal on the 29th of December, and found the bar so silted up -that she could only cross at high water. There were not so many cattle -in the neighbourhood as there had been sixteen years before. Wood still -remained on the shores of the inlet in considerable quantities. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -In December 1689 a purchase of the inlet and surrounding land had been -made from the chief then living at Port Natal, and had been recorded in -a formal contract, two copies of which had been drawn up. The one kept -by the Dutch officers was lost when the _Noord_ was wrecked in January -1690, and the master of the _Postlooper_ had therefore received -instructions to endeavour to procure the other, that had been left with -the chief, in order that a notarial copy might be made. The chief who -sold the ground was dead, and his son was now the head of the tribe or -clan, whichever it may have been. Upon Skipper Van der Schelling making -inquiry of him concerning the document, the chief stated that he knew -nothing about it, and supposed it had been buried with his father’s -other effects. It was evident that he did not recognise the sale as -binding upon him or his people. - -At Natal an Englishman was found who gave his name as Vaughan Goodwin, -and who stated that he was a native of London. He had two wives and -several children. His story was that he arrived in February 1699 in a -vessel named the _Fidele_, and with two others had been left behind by -Captain Stadis, who intended to form a settlement there. They were to -purchase ivory from the blacks, for which purpose goods had been left -with them, and were to keep possession of the place until Captain Stadis -should return, which he promised them would certainly be within three -years; but he had not yet made his appearance. In 1700 the blacks some -distance inland had killed the other white men on account of their -having become robbers. - -The life which Goodwin was leading seemed so attractive to two of the -_Postlooper’s_ crew that they ran away from the vessel. When crossing -the bar in leaving Natal the galiot lurched, and the tiller struck the -skipper in the chest and hurt him so badly that he became unfit for -duty. There was no one on board who could take his place, so the vessel -returned to the Cape without any further attempt at exploration being -made. She dropped anchor again in Table Bay on the 8th of March 1706. - -[Sidenote: Failure to introduce Woolled Sheep.] - -The directors were desirous of procuring sheep’s wool from South Africa, -as some samples sent to Europe were pronounced of excellent quality. -They were of opinion that if it could be produced at seventeen pence -halfpenny a kilogramme, they would be able to make a good profit from -it, and the colonists would have another reliable source of income. -Instructions were sent to the government to have this industry taken in -hand by the burghers. But it was not a pursuit that commended itself to -South African farmers at that time. Although a good many European sheep -had been imported in former years, there were very few of pure breed -left, nearly all having been crossed with the large tailed animal. It -was commonly believed that woolled sheep were more subject to scab than -others, and the havoc created by that disease was so great that the -farmers were in constant dread of it. Then there was the expense of -separate herds. Further the carcase of the woolled sheep was not so -valuable as that of the other, so that the graziers who bred for -slaughter could not be induced even to make experiments. - -In 1700 the government sent home one hundred and twenty-nine kilogrammes -of wool shorn from sheep belonging to the Company. This was received -with favour, but instead of increasing, the quantity fell off in -succeeding years. In 1703 one small bale was all that could be obtained. -It realised about thirty-two pence English money a kilogramme on the -market in Amsterdam. In 1704 a very small quantity was procured, in 1705 -none at all, and in 1706 fifty-two kilogrammes. In the meantime the -governor took the matter in hand as a private speculation. He collected -all the wool-bearing sheep in the settlement at a farm of his own, wrote -to Europe for rams and ewes of good breed and to Java for some Persian -sheep, and was about to give the industry a fair trial when he was -recalled. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -The governor had previously endeavoured to encourage the production of -silk. He made experiments with the white mulberry, which was found to -grow and thrive well, but the silkworms which he obtained from imported -eggs all died. He then gave up the trial, being of opinion that the -mulberry was in leaf at the wrong season of the year for worms from the -south of Europe. - -A less important but more successful experiment made by this governor -was placing partridges and pheasants on Robben Island to breed. - -From 1698 to 1705 the seasons were very unfavourable for farming, and no -wheat could be exported. In 1700 it became necessary to import rice from -Java, as there was not sufficient grain in the country for the -consumption of the people and the supply of fresh bread to the crews of -ships. In 1705 the long drought broke up, and the crops were very good; -but as the wheat was being reaped heavy rains set in and greatly damaged -it. There was, however, a surplus above the requirements of the country, -and in 1706 exportation was resumed, and fourteen hundred muids were -sent to Batavia. - -The population of the colony was at this time increasing rapidly. The -families of the burghers were generally large, they married at an early -age, and no young women remained single. From Europe every year a few -settlers were received. A custom had come into vogue of allowing -soldiers and convalescent sailors to engage for short periods as -servants to burghers, their wages and cost of maintenance being thus -saved to the Company, while they were at hand in case of need. From a -hundred to a hundred and fifty of the garrison and seamen were commonly -out at service. A great many slaves were being introduced from -Madagascar and Mozambique. - -[Sidenote: Condition of Affairs in India.] - -The bad seasons tended to produce a spirit of restlessness among the -farming population, which was increased by the conduct of the principal -officers of the government. Between Willem Adriaan van der Stel and the -colonists of South Africa there was not the slightest feeling of -sympathy, nor could there be between men who had a difficulty in making -more than a frugal livelihood and a governor who was unscrupulous in his -manner of acquiring wealth, and who regarded their interests as entirely -subordinate to his own. In all the official documents of the period -during which he was at the head of affairs, and the quantity is great, -there is not a single expression like “our own Netherlanders” of his -father. He requested the directors, indeed, to send out industrious -Zeeland farmers and no more French cadets, but the sentence displays as -little affection for the one as for the other. - -The condition of things in the country districts was one of discontent, -mingled with indignation towards the governor and some others, the -reasons for which will presently be explained. In Capetown it was -different. The people there could more easily be kept in restraint, and -were less affected by the causes which at this time tended to produce -intense dissatisfaction among the farmers. Those causes were not -trifling ones, as will be seen in the following pages. - -The East India Company had now been a century in existence, and the -honesty and rectitude of conduct which distinguished its officials in -early times were no longer noticeable except in a very few instances. -Its mode of paying its servants, largely by perquisites, had tended to -create a spirit of greed, and most of them were actuated more by the -desire of acquiring wealth with which to retire than of advancing the -interests of the association that employed them. To such an extent was -private trading carried on in the East that the Company feared its -utter ruin would be the result. There were even instances of Indian -produce being sent to Europe in its own ships, and transferred to -smuggling vessels off the coast of Holland, when it was landed and sold -stealthily at rates with which the legitimate trade could not compete. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -In November 1699 the directors found it necessary to instruct the -governor-general and council of India to appoint two of the ablest men -they could find to proceed to the various stations and check the abuses. -They were to be empowered to dismiss from the service all of the -Company’s officials who should be found guilty of abusing their trust, -and to confiscate summarily all goods found in their possession which -they were not entitled to have according to the regulations. They did -not then imagine that the man whom they had recently appointed governor -of the Cape settlement would in coming years prove to be the foremost of -all the offenders in this respect. - - - - -III. - -FAITHLESS CONDUCT OF THE GOVERNOR. - - -[Sidenote: _Faithless Conduct of the Governor._] - -Willem Adriaan van der Stel, as soon as he assumed the administration, -looked around for some means of acquiring money. The Cape settlement did -not offer such facilities for this purpose as an Indian island or -province would have done, still there were means for making large -profits on trade even here. One plan that he adopted was by -obtaining--purchasing as he termed it, constraining them to sell, as the -burghers called it--from the poorer viticulturists their wines at from -£3 2_s._ 6_d._ to £4 3_s._ 4_d._ the legger, and selling it to English -and Dutch ships at £28 15_s._ or more. When these transactions were -brought to light in later years, his explanation was that he had -naturally purchased at as low a rate as he could, and that the ships’ -people were willing to pay more for wines which he had improved by his -skill than for those which the burghers made quite carelessly.[56] The -farmers asserted that until his own vineyards were productive he bought -and sold in this manner about one hundred leggers yearly; in the _Korte -Deductie_, a kind of excuse for his conduct which he published after his -dismissal, he stated that he had not bought and sold twenty leggers -altogether, and there are no means now of ascertaining which statement -is correct. There may have been nothing actually criminal in dealings of -this kind, but they certainly did not tend to create respect, much less -affection, for a governor who could act in this manner. - -This was, however, a small matter compared with the governor’s conduct -in carrying on farming operations on a very large scale on his own -account, in disregard of the Company’s desire to favour the colonists by -relinquishing the breeding of cattle and the cultivation of wheat and -the vine in order that they might have better means of making a living, -and in direct opposition to the express orders of the directors of the -26th of April 1668, the 14th of July 1695, and the 27th of June 1699. In -the first of these instructions the directors had forbidden the members -of the council to have larger gardens or a greater number of cattle than -they required for the use of their own households, and this order had -never been cancelled. The high commissioner Hendrik Adriaan van Rheede, -lord of Mydrecht, had indeed made a grant of Constantia after that date -to the governor’s father, Simon van der Stel, but he possessed very -great and special powers, and the ground was given under circumstances -which no longer existed. No one except the directors themselves or some -official possessing equal authority to that of the lord of Mydrecht -could legally grant land to a governor of the colony. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -In February 1700, when Willem Adriaan van der Stel had been a year at -the head of affairs, a commissioner, Wouter Valckenier by name, holding -authority from the governor-general and council of India to inspect -matters at the Cape and rectify anything that was wrong, on his way from -Batavia to Europe called here, and during his stay took precedence of -all the local officials.[57] What representations were made to him -cannot be ascertained, for there is nothing concerning the matter in the -Cape archives or those at the Hague, but at any rate he made a grant to -the governor of four hundred morgen of ground at Hottentots-Holland, and -signed a title-deed of it. He could not have foreseen the consequences, -for he knew that the policy of the Company at the time was directly -opposed to the head of the government being engaged in farming, and he -could not have imagined that an official, whose duties required his -presence at the castle almost constantly, would so far forget his -obligations as to leave his post and devote his time and attention to -private affairs. Probably he thought that the possession of a tract of -land at such a distance could signify very little, but he realised -afterwards that he had made a great mistake, for he was one of the -directors of the Company when the grant was annulled on the ground of -its having been improperly and fraudulently obtained. - -[Sidenote: Farms held by Heads of the Government.] - -Of the two precedents for heads of the government holding farms--not -mere gardens--at the Cape,[58] both dated from a time when the -settlement was very small, and the land assigned was so close to Table -Valley that it could be cultivated without detriment to the public -service. There was no precedent for a grant to a commander or a governor -at such a distance from the fort or the castle that it could not be -visited in a couple of hours. The policy of the directors recently made -known was entirely opposed to such grants, and Willem Adriaan van der -Stel was perfectly acquainted with that fact, as has already been shown. -This policy remained unaltered ever afterwards. It was again impressed -upon the governor in the strongest language in a despatch from the -directors dated the 28th of October 1705, in which instructions were -given that all the burghers should be permitted to tender for the supply -of the beef and mutton required by the Company, that this should be -regarded as a right belonging exclusively to them, and that no servant -of the Company, the governor included, should be allowed to supply any -meat to the ships, the hospital, etc., directly or indirectly.[59] - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -The farm at Hottentots-Holland the governor named Vergelegen. He lost no -time in turning it to account, for he immediately began to build upon -it, to break up and cultivate the ground, and to adorn it in every -possible way. The choicest plants from the Company’s gardens were -removed to it, and the Company’s master gardener, Jan Hertog by name, -was sent there to lay out the grounds and superintend the work.[60] -Great gangs of slaves and a large number of soldiers and convalescent -sailors, who were skilful agriculturists or mechanics,[61] were -constantly at work there, until the farm, which he expanded to six -hundred and thirteen morgen, assumed the appearance of the most highly -cultivated ground in South Africa. - -[Sidenote: Extensive Farming Operations.] - -On it were planted over four hundred thousand vines, or fully one-fourth -of the whole number in the colony in 1706. Groves, orchards, and corn -lands were laid out to a corresponding extent.[62] On the estate were -built a very commodious dwelling-house, 82·4 by 74 English feet or 25·11 -by 22·55 metres in size and with walls 19½ English feet or 5·94 metres -in height, forming a storey and a half as it is termed at the Cape, a -flour mill, a leather tannery, a workshop for making wooden water pipes, -wine and grain stores, an overseer’s cottage, a slave lodge, and very -extensive out-buildings. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -Beyond the mountains he had eighteen cattle stations or runs, on which -he kept fully a thousand head of horned cattle and over eighteen -thousand sheep.[63] - -With the instructions of the directors before him, it is difficult to -imagine how a sane man could have embarked in such an enterprise. If it -should become known, he must be ruined, for his friends and connections -in Amsterdam, though influential, could not support him in opposing the -highest authority. His only hope must therefore have been that his -transactions would never be known in Holland. No ships’ officers were -likely to see, or perhaps even to hear of, Vergelegen and the cattle -stations, and no one in South Africa, he must have thought, would be -likely to report upon it. The burghers knew nothing of the orders that -had been issued--that is very evident,--and probably he thought that -they supposed he was permitted to farm on such a scale. No information -was ever sent by him to the directors concerning Vergelegen, and the -utmost care was taken that in no official document of any kind, of which -duplicates had to be sent to Europe or India, was mention made of the -place or of any of the governor’s farming transactions. Actually for -more than five years the whole thing was kept secret, and it might have -been so for an indefinite time if the governor had not provoked the -burghers to complain of him. - -His inordinate desire to acquire wealth had stifled all feeling of -fidelity to the trust reposed in him by the authorities in Holland. On -the 15th of March 1701 the directors wrote to him and the council that -Carlos II, king of Spain, had died childless, leaving by will his crown -to Philippe duke of Anjou, grandson of the king of France, that Louis -XIV had thereupon sent troops into the Spanish Netherlands and -garrisoned the principal cities to the very border of the republic, -which had caused the greatest apprehension of danger. The country was -being placed in a condition of defence, and the emperor and the king of -England were preparing for eventualities. The governor and the council -were enjoined to be on their guard.[64] - -[Sidenote: War of the Spanish Succession.] - -In another despatch from the directors, dated the 18th of February 1702, -the governor and council were informed that there was every probability -of the outbreak of hostilities. Spain had accepted Philippe as her king, -which was regarded as equivalent to her becoming subject to Louis XIV. -And on the 15th of May 1702 England, Holland, and the Empire issued a -declaration of war against France, Bavaria, and Spain, when the great -contest known in history as the war of the Spanish Succession commenced, -in which our English Marlborough won so much renown. As far as England -and Holland were concerned, the war continued until the 11th of April -1711, when the treaty of Utrecht was signed, so that nearly the whole -term of office of Governor Willem Adriaan van der Stel was a period of -hostilities. - -He was entrusted with the care of what was rightly regarded in Holland -as the frontier fortress of India. He was directed to reflect every -night when he retired to rest that when he awoke in the morning he might -find an enemy ready for attack before the gate of the castle, if due -precautions were not taken. The officer in command of the garrison, Olof -Bergh, was only a captain in rank, and was required to carry out his -instructions. Every evening after prayers it was his duty to give the -password and countersign for the night, to issue directions where -sentries were to be placed, and to ascertain that everything connected -with the military department was in proper order. He only could call out -the burghers to aid in the defence of the colony. It was a post of -extreme importance, which required the strictest attention to the -obligations of duty. Tidings frequently came of English or Dutch ships -being captured by French men-of-war and privateers in the Indian sea as -well as in European waters, and although the captures of French ships by -the allies were more numerous, there was nothing extravagant in the -supposition that a few men-of-war with a strong body of troops on board -might sail from some port of France or Spain and attempt to get -possession of the castle of Good Hope. The temptation to do so was very -great. The colony was not thought of, for that was of small importance -in the great war. But if the castle of Good Hope was occupied by a -French garrison, the ships of the Dutch East India Company could be all -seized as they came with their rich cargoes from the East, and one of -the sources of that wealth which enabled the Netherlands republic to -supply the funds for carrying on the war would be cut off. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -Avarice is the blindest of vices, and the eyes of Willem Adriaan van der -Stel were closed to everything except the money that flowed into his -coffers from an estate built upon and cultivated almost entirely at the -Company’s expense,[65] and from flocks and herds practically pillaged -from the Hottentots. The trust confided to him the governor disregarded -to such an extent that he was frequently absent at his farm Vergelegen -for two to six weeks at a time as the burghers asserted, six or seven -days he himself admitted in his _Korte Deductie_,[66] surely the weakest -attempt as an excuse for such conduct that ever was penned. It was a -journey of twelve hours by a single span of horses from the castle to -Vergelegen, but by keeping relays of fresh teams along the road, as he -did, it could be done in six hours. What might not have happened in even -six hours if a French fleet had sailed into the bay? Fortunately for the -colony, none appeared. But the burghers were certainly justified in the -fear which they expressed that the governor was imperilling the very -existence of the settlement and exposing it to foreign conquest by -absenting himself from his duty. - -[Sidenote: Faithlessness of the Governor.] - -If there were no other charges against him than this one alone, an -honest historian, whose duty it is to expose to scorn the evil deeds of -ignoble men as well as to hold up to admiration the good deeds of the -upright, would be compelled to pronounce Willem Adriaan van der Stel -one of the most faithless and contemptible men of whom the records of -any nation, ancient or modern, furnish an example. Many a governor has -lost his head for crimes less glaring than his reckless neglect of duty -for the sake of private interest. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -The governor was not the only official of the Company in South Africa -who was farming on his own account, though he was the most prominent of -them all, and his operations were far more extensive than those of any -of the others. The secunde, Samuel Elsevier, an old and somewhat -weak-minded man, had obtained a grant of the farm Elsenburg, near -Klapmuts, from Governor Simon van der Stel,[67] which brought him in -about £250 yearly after all expenses were paid. He might have cultivated -it without reproach from the burghers if he had not always submitted his -will to that of the governor. In the council he was regarded as a -nonentity, simply giving his vote in accordance with the wishes of the -head of the government. Two other members of the council of policy, the -fiscal Johan Blesius and the military captain Olof Bergh, had also -obtained grants of land, but were so moderate in their use that the -burghers did not complain of them. - -The reverend Petrus Kalden, clergyman of Capetown, had also obtained a -grant of a farm, Zandvliet, between Stellenbosch and the head of False -Bay. He spent a good deal of time there, but he afterwards proved to the -satisfaction of the authorities in Holland that his object in doing so -was not purely mercenary, but was mainly a wish to acquire a perfect -knowledge of the Hottentot language, in order that he might attempt to -teach those people the doctrines of Christianity, and so improve their -condition.[68] The yearly income he derived from it cannot be -ascertained, but the ground with the buildings which he erected upon it -realised £1424 by public auction after his recall. - -[Sidenote: Spirit of the Country Districts.] - -The governor’s brother, Frans van der Stel, who was not in the Company’s -service, had a farm at Hottentots-Holland. He was intensely disliked by -the other burghers, on account of his assuming an air of superiority -over them, and, depending upon his relative’s support, doing pretty much -as he liked. He was in the habit of requiring them to plough his land, -to convey his produce to town, and perform other work for him, under -threats that if they did not he would see that they should regret it. - -There have never been people less inclined to submit quietly to -grievances, real or imaginary, than the early colonists of Stellenbosch -and Drakenstein. Even at this infant stage of the settlement’s existence -they showed that great difference from the inhabitants of Capetown which -is observable to the present day. They did not know it then, but it was -they who were destined to impart that spirit of hostility to oppression -and wrong which has ever since marked the country people of South -Africa. It is not without reason that the farmers of the distant north -and east to-day regard Stellenbosch and Drakenstein as the mother -settlements of the country, and look upon Capetown almost as a foreign -city. The spirit of the town is widely different from that of the -country. And in 1705, when the first great struggle against tyranny and -corruption commenced, the very best men of Stellenbosch and Drakenstein, -those who had filled the posts of elders and deacons in the church, of -heemraden in the district court, and of officers in the militia, were -those who threw themselves into it. Among them was Jan Willem -Grevenbroek, the most learned man in South Africa at the time, who had -retired from the Company’s service, and had recently been an elder at -Stellenbosch. His name should command the respect of students of -ethnology, though his work has been to some extent distorted by a later -writer. He took as active a part in the movement against the governor as -was consistent with his character as a modest and godfearing student, -though his name does not appear on the principal memorial that will -presently be referred to. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -The farmers did not know that instructions in their favour had been sent -out by the directors, which the governor had disregarded, but they saw -plainly that nothing but ruin was before them if matters went on longer -as they were then going. The governor was turning every possible source -of profit to his own account and that of his relatives and friends. He -had eighteen different cattle stations or enormous grazing farms beyond -the mountains, and would allow no one but himself and his brother to use -the pasture there. His horned cattle numbered, as afterwards -ascertained, fully a thousand head, and his sheep were eighteen thousand -eight hundred all told. He had a vineyard sixty-one morgen and a half in -extent at Vergelegen, and besides his plantations and cornlands there, -he had taken possession of another tract of land nearly a hundred and -nineteen morgen in extent, upon which he was growing wheat. His -expenditure was very small, for he made use of the Company’s servants -largely to do his work, and he paid no tithes of his grain to the -Company, as the burghers were obliged to do.[69] - -The governor had the first entry into the market, and high prices from -foreign ships went into his pocket. Then his brother Frans at -Hottentots-Holland, his father at Contantia, and the secunde at -Elsenburg followed, and by the time all their produce was disposed of -little indeed was left that the burghers of Stellenbosch and Drakenstein -could sell to good account. In another way too the governor’s conduct -was believed to be such as to forfeit the respect of the burghers, who -were godfearing men. In his domestic life he was said to follow closely -the example of our Charles II, and it was asserted that he had given -strict orders that the ten commandments were not to be read in the -church when he was present.[70] There is no way of either proving or -disproving these charges against him, but the fact that they were made -shows in how little esteem he was held. - -[Sidenote: Grievances of the Burghers.] - -In 1705 some of the farmers determined to complain to the Indian -authorities, and they succeeded in forwarding to the governor-general -and council at Batavia a list of charges against him. It was a dangerous -thing to do, for if their names should become known, and no redress be -afforded, they knew, that they would be made to feel the governor’s -vengeance. The council was not regarded as any check upon him, and the -military power was entirely at his disposal, so that to brave his anger -was an act requiring more than ordinary moral courage. It was the -commencement of the struggle against corruption and tyranny by the -burghers of Stellenbosch and Drakenstein. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -At Batavia no immediate action was taken in the matter, but a copy of -the complaints, without the signatures to the document, was forwarded to -the governor, who was required to answer to them. While the complainants -were awaiting a reply from the Indian authorities, one of them, Adam Tas -by name, a respectable burgher and a deacon of the Stellenbosch church, -drew up a memorial to the directors in Holland. Tas was a native of the -city of Amsterdam, who had received a good commercial education, and had -come to Capetown in the capacity of bookkeeper in the service of the -contractor Henning Huising, whose wife, Maria Lindenhof, was a sister of -Tas’s mother. After serving as a bookkeeper for some time, Tas married a -widow named Elizabeth van Brakel, whose former husband had left her a -well-cultivated farm in the Stellenbosch district, and he then went to -reside there. He had thus the qualifications and much of the knowledge -necessary for the task he had taken in hand, but as he was ignorant of -the instructions of the directors, the document which he drew up was in -some points very much weaker than it might have been made if the -official documents had been open for his inspection as they are now for -ours. On the other hand, for the same reason some of the charges were -perhaps slightly overdrawn, but the governor was subsequently unable to -prove that the most serious of them were without solid foundation. - -[Sidenote: Articles of Complaint.] - -In this document the directors were informed of the governor’s extensive -farming operations, and of his employment of the Company’s servants and -slaves and of the use of the Company’s materials for his private -service. He was accused of obtaining cattle by violent means from the -Hottentots, who were provoked to retaliate upon innocent people for the -wrongs done to them.[71] He was also accused of extorting cattle from -burghers by improper means. He was stated to have been frequently absent -at Vergelegen from two to six weeks at a time, when his public duties -were neglected. He was charged with selecting all the best timber and -staves for casks out of the Company’s stores, and paying less than the -burghers had to pay for what was left; of preventing free trade in wine, -and then extorting it from poor farmers at a very low price and selling -it to foreign ships at an enormous profit; of monopolising all trade -with foreigners; of requiring farmers to convey materials to Vergelegen -without payment; of compelling the bakers, by threats of his displeasure -if they did not, to buy his wheat at high prices; of defrauding the -Company by not paying tithes of his wheat; of commandeering--to use an -expressive colonial word--over four hundred woolled sheep from them -without payment; of requiring to be bribed before he would issue -title-deeds to farms; and of arranging the wine and slaughter licenses -in such a manner that the holders could obtain what they needed at very -low prices from the farmers by paying him very high prices for what he -had to sell. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -There were some other charges against him, but they were of less -importance than these, and they need not be mentioned. - -The secunde, Samuel Elsevier, and the clergyman, Petrus Kalden, were -charged with being occupied with agriculture to a very large extent, and -of neglecting their duties in consequence. Frans van der Stel, the -governor’s brother, was declared to be a perfect pest to the settlement. - -This memorial was dated the 5th of January 1706, and was signed by Jan -Rotterdam, Henning Huising, Abraham Diemer, Nicolaas Diepenauw, Jan van -Meerland, Jacob de Savoye, Willem Mensink, Stephanus Vermey, Guillaume -du Toit, Pieter van der Byl, Adam Tas, Jacob van Brakel, Jacob Plunes, -Hercules du Pré, Jacobus van der Heiden, Wessel Pretorius, Jan Elberts, -Hans Jacob Conterman, Nicolaas Elberts, Jean le Roux, Ary van Wyk, -Pieter de Mont, Pierre Meyer, Reinier van de Zande, Jacobus Louw, Daniel -Sevenhofen, Ferdinandus Appel, Matthys Greef, Willem van Zyl, Daniel -Hugo, Jacques Theron, Etienne Niel, Jean du Buis, Jacques Malan, Douwe -Frederiks, Christiaan Wynoch, François du Toit, Claude Marais, Arend -Gildenhuis, Cornelis van Niekerk, Nicolaas van der Westhuizen, Pierre de -Villiers, Paul Couvret, Abraham Vivier, Abraham Bleusel, Jacques -Pienard, Pierre Vivier, Esaias Costeux, Pierre Mouy, Etienne Bruere, -David Senekal, J. le Roux, Jacob Vivier, Pierre Rousseau, Salomon de -Gourney, Pierre Cronje, Coenraad Cyffer, Charles Marais, Louis le Riche, -Nicolaas Meyboom, Jacob Cloete, and Jan Hendrik Styger. - -In a volume published by the governor some time afterwards, as well as -in his statements to the directors and the Indian authorities,[72] he -attempted to explain away some of these charges, and he succeeded so far -that several must be pronounced not proven, while in some others he -established his innocence, but in all that related to his extensive -farming operations and to his making use of the Company’s servants, -slaves, and materials, he failed completely in overthrowing the charges -made against him. He does not refer to his not having paid tithes of his -grain, for he certainly could not refute that charge. - -[Sidenote: Action of the Indian Authorities.] - -During the night of the 3rd of February 1706 the first five ships of the -return fleet of that year, which sailed from the roads of Batavia on the -2nd of December 1705, cast anchor in Table Bay, and they were followed -in the morning of the 4th by five others, all under the flag of -Commander Jan de Wit. They had orders to remain here until the arrival -of three ships from Ceylon and two others to be despatched later from -Batavia, that all might sail together for Europe. It had been arranged -with the English authorities in India that their return ships should -also call at Table Bay, in order to proceed farther with the Dutch -fleet, so that there might be a very strong force to oppose any French -cruisers in the Atlantic. - -With these ships the governor received a despatch from the Indian -authorities enclosing a copy of the document in which he was accused of -malpractices, that had been sent to Batavia in the previous year. He -immediately concluded that similar charges would be forwarded to the -Netherlands, and that a memorial embodying them must be in existence; -but he was unable to learn where it was, or who were parties to it. The -danger of his position, which he at once realised, now drove him to -acts of extreme folly as well as of the grossest tyranny. To prevent the -knowledge of his farming operations reaching the directors became the -object of highest importance to him. If that could be done, he might -still be safe, but if it could not, it would matter little what -additional charges were brought against him, for in any case all would -be lost. There is no other way of accounting for the absurd and violent -measures that he now resorted to, for he cannot be regarded as insane, -though the remark of one of his opponents that avarice had intoxicated -him was doubtlessly true. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -He now caused a certificate to be drawn up, in which he was credited -with the highest virtues, and the utmost satisfaction was expressed with -his administration. The male residents of Capetown were then invited to -the castle, and were there requested to sign the certificate. His -servants were sent out to collect in turn all the mechanics and -labourers of every description in the town and all the fishermen, white -and black, and to bring them to the castle to drink wine and beer and to -smoke a pipe of tobacco at his expense. They mustered there party after -party, and after making merry, allowed their names to be attached to the -document, probably without knowing or caring what its contents were. - -The landdrost of Stellenbosch, Jan Starrenburg by name, a mere tool of -the governor, who had held office since July 1705, was directed to -proceed with an armed band from house to house in the country, and -require the residents there to sign it also. This was a much more -difficult matter to effect than to get the signatures of the town’s -people. Many of the farmers refused, even under the landdrost’s threats -that they would be marked men if they did not. Not a few of the -respectable names found on that extraordinary document are certainly not -genuine, for they appear with a cross, though the men that they -professed to represent could write letters and sign other papers as well -as the governor himself could do. Of the two hundred and forty names -found on it, less than one hundred are known in South Africa to-day, and -of these, as already stated, many must have been placed there -fraudulently. Surely no such means of obtaining a certificate of good -conduct was ever resorted to by any other officer of rank in a -colony.[73] - -[Sidenote: Violent Conduct of the Governor.] - -The governor suspected that a memorial to the directors concerning his -conduct had been prepared to be sent to the Netherlands by some officer -in the return fleet, and that Adam Tas, as a competent penman, had most -likely written it. To get possession of his papers, an act of extreme -violence, contrary to all law and justice, was then resolved upon. The -landdrost of Stellenbosch was directed to arrest Tas, and without a -warrant or any legal authority whatever, with a strong armed party he -surrounded the house of that burgher at early dawn in the morning of -Sunday, the 28th of February 1706, arrested him, sent him a prisoner to -Capetown, searched his house, and carried away his writing desk. After -this outrage there could be no truce whatever between the governor and -his opponents, for if a burgher could be treated in this manner, upon -mere suspicion of having drawn up a memorial to the high authorities, no -man’s liberty would be safe. Bail was immediately offered for the -appearance of Tas before a court of justice, but was refused. He was -committed to prison, where he was kept nearly fourteen months in close -confinement, without his wife or friends being permitted to see him, -without writing materials, and even when his little son died, without -being allowed to see the corpse. - -In his desk was found the draft from which the memorial to the directors -had been copied. It was unsigned, but a list containing a number of -names and various letters which were with it indicated several of those -who had taken part in the compilation. The completed memorial, with -sixty-two names, thirty-one of which were those of Frenchmen, attached -to it, was at the time in the house of a burgher in Capetown, where it -was intended to be kept until it could be sent away with the return -fleet. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -The governor thus became acquainted with the nature and terms of the -charges against him. On the 4th of March a number of ships’ officers -were invited to assist in the deliberations of the council of policy, -and some of the retired and acting burgher councillors were summoned to -give evidence. These answered a few questions put to them by the -governor, in a manner favourable to him. The broad council then -consented to the issue of a placaat, in which all persons were forbidden -to take part in any conspiracy or to sign any malicious or slanderous -document against the authorities of the country, under pain of severe -punishment. The ringleaders in such acts were threatened with death or -corporal chastisement. The fiscal and the landdrost were authorised to -seize persons suspected of such offences, and to commit them to prison. -This placaat was on the following Sunday affixed to the door of the -Stellenbosch church. - -Within the next few days the governor caused the burghers Wessel -Pretorius and Jacobus van der Heiden to be arrested and committed to -prison, the retired burgher councillor Jan Rotterdam to be banished to -Batavia, and the burghers Pieter van der Byl, Henning Huising, -Ferdinandus Appel, and Jan van Meerland to be put on board a ship bound -to Amsterdam. Jan Rotterdam was seventy years of age, and afflicted with -diabetes, a disease that made it difficult for him to rise quickly from -his seat. He was respected by every one, but the governor had taken a -dislike to him because he did not rise in church when his Excellency -entered, and only saluted by taking off his hat and bowing when seated -on a stoep and his Excellency passed by. This was termed by the governor -insolence, malice, and disrespect, and formed the principal complaint -against him.[74] To this offence he had added, as had the others named, -by signing the memorial. These men had no time given to them to arrange -their affairs, but were hurried out of the country as if they had been -malefactors. They were informed that they must answer before the supreme -authorities at the places of their destination to the charges of -sedition and conspiracy that would be forwarded by the Cape council, and -if they had any complaints they might make them there also. - -[Sidenote: Illegal Imprisonment of Burghers.] - -By these high-handed proceedings, which were hardly ever equalled by the -most despotic monarch in Europe, and which were in direct opposition to -the laws and customs of the Netherlands,[75] though indeed more than -once violated there in times of popular uprisings, the governor hoped to -terrify his opponents into signing the certificate in his favour and -denying the truth of the charges against him. But not one of those who -were confined on board the ships in the bay faltered for a moment. Their -wives petitioned that the prisoners should be brought to trial at once -before a proper court of justice, which was their right as free-born -Netherlanders, and when it was hinted that if they would induce their -husbands to do what was desired, release would follow, these -true-hearted women indignantly refused. - -The arrest and committal to prison of Nicolaas van der Westhuizen, -Christiaan Wynoch, Hans Jacob Conterman, and Nicolaas Meyboom followed -shortly. The governor felt sure now that the complaints of the burghers -would reach Holland by some means or other, and therefore on the 31st of -March 1706 he and the council addressed a letter to the directors, in -which a very unfavourable description of the burghers who signed the -memorial was given, and their conduct in doing so was styled conspiracy, -sedition, mutiny, and rebellion.[76] With this letter was sent an -attested copy of the certificate in his favour, as if it had been a -voluntary and spontaneous act on the part of those whose names or marks -were attached to it. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches] - -In the meantime the memorial had been committed to the care of Abraham -Bogaert, a physician in the return fleet, who was refreshing himself on -shore, and who had warm sympathy with the oppressed burghers. He -afterwards wrote a history of these events, which is one of the best -ever published, and which agrees in all respects with the records in the -Cape archives. The Ceylon ships did not reach Table Bay until the 5th -and 6th of March, and the two from Batavia only on the 24th and 26th of -that month. The last arrival required a few days’ delay for refreshment, -but at length all were ready for sea, as were the English ships that had -been waiting to sail in their company. On Sunday, the 4th of April 1706, -the anchors were raised, and the fifteen Dutch and nine English Indiamen -stood out to sea with a favouring breeze. What a gallant sight it must -have been for all but the four banished men, who were forced to leave -all that was dear to them here in Africa, and their farms to be looked -after by their wives alone! When the fleet was at sea and all fear of -search was over, Bogaert delivered the memorial to Henning Huising. - -The anchors of the ships were being raised and the topsails being -sheeted home when the governor must have reflected that he was making a -mistake in sending four of the burghers to Europe. In great haste he -embarked in a galiot and followed the fleet as far as Robben Island. In -the official records it is stated that he did this to show respect to -the admiral, but no such method of showing respect was practised here -before or since, and his opponents were probably right when they -asserted that his object was to overtake the ship in which the burghers -were, and release them. He did not succeed in doing this, however. - -[Sidenote: Treatment of Imprisoned Burghers.] - -Within a week or two further arrests were made, when Jacob de Savoye, -Pierre Meyer, Jacob Cloete, Jacob Louw, and one or two others were -placed in detention. The health of some of the prisoners broke down -under the rigorous treatment to which they were subjected: one--Jacobus -van der Heiden--was confined for twenty-seven days in a foul dungeon, -with a black criminal as his companion. Thirteen of them then, with a -hope of obtaining liberty and the companionship of their families as an -inducement on one side, and the horrible suffering of confinement on -coarse and scanty fare in dark and noisome dungeons and debarred from -the visits of relatives or friends on the other, gave way to the -temptation, and replied to questions put to them disowning the truth of -the assertions in the memorial and expressing contrition for having -signed it. Among these thirteen was Adam Tas, and the circumstance of -his having done so is certainly a blemish upon his reputation, though it -would not be fair to speak harshly of him, considering the position in -which he was placed. His recantation, however, was of no service, for -the governor was devoid of anything like compassion towards him. These -declarations, as they were termed, which were really of no more value -than the confessions of men on the rack, were obtained at different -dates from the 8th of March to the 7th of May 1706. The men who made -them excused themselves afterwards for so doing by stating that it could -not affect the charges against the governor and the other officials, -which would be brought before the directors by those who were then on -the way to Europe. And so, after an imprisonment varying in duration -from a few days to a few weeks, all were released except Adam Tas and -Jacob Louw. - -On the 24th of June 1706 the governor and council of policy wrote again -to the directors, vilifying in very strong language the burghers who had -signed the memorial, enclosing copies of the declarations of those who -had been terrified into denying the truth of their former assertions, -and asking that a special commissioner should be sent out to inspect -matters of every kind and report upon them. This request must have been -made with the object of gaining time, for the governor knew well that -his conduct would not bear such an inquiry. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -For a short time matters were now quiet, but on the governor coming to -learn the names of some more of his opponents, Willem van Zyl, François -du Toit, Guillaume du Toit, Hercules du Pré, Cornelis van Niekerk, -Martin van Staden, Jacobus van Brakel, Jan Elberts, and Nicolaas Elberts -were cited to appear before the court of justice. These came to a -resolution not to obey the summons before the decision of the directors -should be known, and so they failed to attend. They were cited by -placaat, but in vain. In consequence, on the 9th of August, by a -majority of the court of justice sitting with closed doors each of them -was sentenced for contumacy to be banished to Mauritius for five years -and to pay a fine of £41 13_s_. 4_d_., half for the landdrost as -prosecutor and half for the court. They were at the same time declared -incapable of ever holding any political or military office in the -colony. - -This sentence was made public on the 23rd of August, and it tended to -increase the hostility to the government. The whole of the Stellenbosch -and Drakenstein district was now in a state of commotion. Work on the -farms practically ceased, for no man or woman could tell what might not -happen from hour to hour, and no one considered himself safe. The -military outposts, excepting those at Waveren, Klapmuts, Groenekloof, -and Saldanha Bay, at which twenty-four men in all were stationed, had -been broken up before this date, so the burghers felt free to act. In -the early morning of the 18th of September the farmers of Waveren, -Riebeek’s Kasteel, and Drakenstein rode armed into the village of -Stellenbosch, and at beat of drum drew up near the landdrost’s office. -Starrenburg went out to them, and requested the drummer to be still; but -that individual, who was a Frenchman, kept on beating, only observing -that he did not understand Dutch. Some persons, to show their contempt -for the landdrost, began to dance round the drum. Others inquired why -there was to be no fair this year, such as there had always been since -1686. Starrenburg replied that the Indian authorities had prohibited it; -but they would not believe him, and laid the blame upon the Cape -government. Yet it was correct that the Indian authorities were solely -responsible in this matter, as with a view to save expense, on the 29th -of November 1705 they had instructed the council of policy not to -contribute longer towards the prizes or to furnish wine and ale at the -cost of the Company. There was thus no kermis or fair in 1706 and later. - -[Sidenote: Disorder at Stellenbosch.] - -After this the women expressed their views. The wives of Pieter van der -Byl and Wessel Pretorius, speaking for all, informed the landdrost that -they had no intention of submitting to his tyranny, but were resolved to -maintain their rights. The spirit of the women of the country districts -was thoroughly roused, and their opposition was as formidable as that of -their husbands.[77] Starrenburg was obliged to return to his house in -humiliation. The burghers remained in the village the whole day, setting -him at defiance, but otherwise preserving perfect order. - -A few days later two of the persons sentenced to banishment appeared in -Stellenbosch without any support, and jeered at the landdrost, who dared -not attempt to arrest them, as he could not even depend upon his -subordinates. All respect for the government was gone. - -It was now arranged between the governor and the landdrost that during -the night of the 28th of September, after the closing of the castle -gate, a party of mounted soldiers should march secretly to the Kuilen. -At two o’clock in the morning of the 29th the landdrost was to meet them -there, and was then before daylight to arrest those who were believed to -be the leaders of the defiant party. But a petty official at the Kuilen, -who sympathised with the burghers, managed to detain the party for a -time, and when they at length left to try to seize Cornelis van Niekerk -in his bed, the alarm had been given. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -Daylight broke, no one had been captured, and there was nothing left for -the landdrost and the soldiers but to retire to the village of -Stellenbosch. No one there would give any information or sell a particle -of food to the troops, and the landdrost was obliged to kill his own -goats for their use until provisions could be sent from Capetown. -Starrenburg having now soldiers at his back, the burghers sentenced to -exile fled to Twenty-four Rivers, where they concealed themselves. The -landdrost did his best to capture them, and on the 4th of February 1707 -succeeded in arresting Hercules du Pré and Jacobus van Brakel, who were -sent on board the Mauritius packet then lying in Table Bay. A month -later Guillaume du Toit was arrested also and sent on board the same -vessel. During this time the governor dismissed the heemraden and other -officers who had been elected in the legitimate manner, and arbitrarily -appointed creatures of his own to the vacant places. - -On the 20th of February 1707 the frigate _Pieter en Paul_ arrived in -Table Bay. She had left Texel on the 2nd of November, and brought -letters to some of the burghers, in which they were informed that their -case had been decided favourably by the directors. She brought no -official despatches, however, and the governor, who affected to -disbelieve the assertions of the burghers, continued his tyranny as -before. - -[Sidenote: Return of Jan Rotterdam.] - -On the 3rd of March five ships from Ceylon dropped their anchors in -Table Bay, and were followed, 31st of March to 6th of April by six -others from Batavia, forming the return fleet of that year, under -Admiral Meynderts de Boer. In one of the ships from Batavia was Jan -Rotterdam, who returned to South Africa in triumph. Upon the receipt of -the complaints from the Cape concerning him and the governor’s comments -upon what had occurred, the governor-general and council of India -appointed a commission consisting of the ordinary councillor Pieter de -Vos and the councillor extraordinary Hendrik Bekker to investigate the -matter, and take Rotterdam’s evidence. On the 18th of September 1706 -these gentlemen sent in a report, of which there is a copy in the Cape -archives. On this the governor-general and council decided, on the 5th -of October, to send all the papers to the Netherlands, that the -directors might take what action they chose in the matter. On the 31st -of August they had decided to give Rotterdam a free passage to Holland, -with liberty on his arrival at the Cape to request permission to remain -here to attend to his affairs, if he chose to do so.[78] There was no -necessity for him to make any request, as before the fleet left Table -Bay the tyranny of the governor was at an end. - - - - -IV. - -PROCEEDINGS IN THE NETHERLANDS REGARDING GOVERNOR WILLEM ADRIAAN VAN DER -STEL. - - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -While these events were taking place in South Africa, a commission in -Amsterdam was actually making inquiries into the conduct of Governor -Willem Adriaan van der Stel. He knew nothing of this, nor did the -burghers know how information concerning his conduct had reached the -Netherlands.[79] By some means, however, which cannot be ascertained -now, the directors had obtained an inkling of the state of affairs, and -on the 26th of October 1705 they appointed the members of the chamber of -Amsterdam a commission to inquire into the matter and report upon it. -This commission had the official correspondence from the Cape before it, -but no mention could be found in that of either Vergelegen or the -governor’s movements. It would seem from it as if everything was going -on smoothly and satisfactorily at the Cape, and the governor was doing -his duty as an honest man. - -Other tidings reached Amsterdam, however, in the course of the next few -months which caused the directors to become alarmed. What these reports -were exactly it is not now possible to discover, nor can the channels be -ascertained by which they were conveyed, but it cannot be far wrong to -conclude that they referred to the governor’s frequent visits to -Vergelegen and his long sojourns there, when the castle and the -garrison were left to take care of themselves. With a governor so -faithless, if what they heard was true, they might lose the half way -house to India any day, and so on the 8th of March 1706 they appointed a -special committee representing all the chambers and including their two -advocates to devise measures for the security of the settlement.[80] - -[Sidenote: Examination into the Governor’s Conduct.] - -Meantime, on the 15th of February 1706 the chamber of Amsterdam had -appointed a committee, consisting of Messrs. Bas, Van Castricum, De -Witt, Lestevenon, and Trip, with Advocate Scott, to examine thoroughly -into the complaints against the governor and bring up a report on the -subject.[81] So there can be no doubt that even if the charges drawn up -by Adam Tas and sent to Holland by the return fleet of 1706 had not -reached the directors, the circumstances connected with Vergelegen would -have become known, and the faithless and rapacious governor have met -with his deserts. But as the material upon which to form a judgment was -not as perfect in Holland as could be wished, the arrival of the fleet -then on its way from India to Europe was looked forward to with some -anxiety by both the committees, as it would probably bring despatches -from the governor and council of policy that would assist them to come -to a decision. - -On the 27th of July 1706 that fleet which, as has been recorded, sailed -from Table Bay on the 4th of April under Admiral Jan de Wit, reached -Texel in safety. There was then no lack of evidence as to what had -transpired at the Cape, it was to hand in fact in superabundance. As -soon therefore as the directors had read the official despatches from -the governor, including the testimonial in his favour which he had -caused to be drawn up and which must have excited their contempt for a -man who could adopt such a measure in face of his treachery that could -no longer be concealed, they sent the whole to the chamber of Amsterdam. -Of the four burghers exiled to Europe, one, Jan van Meerland, died on -the passage. The others, as soon as they could do so after their arrival -in Amsterdam, presented to the directors the memorial that Tas had drawn -up, with the various documents attached to it. After being read by them, -it also was sent to the chamber of Amsterdam. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -But now a great change in the attitude of the East India Company towards -the nature of the various offences committed by the governor took place. -His defiance of their orders not to cultivate ground or own cattle, his -treachery in leaving his duty and residing frequently at Vergelegen, -thus exposing the colony to the utmost danger, and his use of their -materials and their workpeople at Vergelegen and elsewhere, robbery as -it was, was permitted to fall into the background, and his lawless -violence towards the burghers who had complained of his misdeeds became -the most prominent subject enquired into. The whole of the tyranny -displayed by him was not indeed known, but sufficient had transpired -before the departure of the fleet from Table Bay to rouse the -indignation of the free Netherlanders, and the directors, even if they -had not been disposed to do justice themselves, dared not provoke an -outcry that one of the most cherished rights of a citizen was being -violated in their dependency at the Cape. The opponents of the Company, -the men who wanted something in its place in which they should have a -personal interest, would certainly make use of such an outcry to attack -it in the States-General, and therefore this charge must be attended to -before any other. - -[Sidenote: Lame Excuses of the Governor.] - -The committee of the chamber of Amsterdam investigated the matter very -thoroughly. Unfortunately the debates were not recorded, and only the -resolutions were preserved, just as in the proceedings of a legislative -body to-day. But these resolutions show that all possible trouble was -taken to arrive at the truth, and notwithstanding the urgency of the -case, there was no undue haste, for it was only on the 11th of October -1706 that a report to the chamber was sent in.[82] In addition to the -documents examined by the committee, it had taken the evidence of the -exiled burghers and of the ships’ officers who had been two months at -the Cape. Some of these had lived on shore during that time, and had -witnessed the violent acts that had put the whole settlement into -confusion and the manner in which signatures to the certificate in the -governor’s favour were obtained, so that document was held as of no -weight whatever. The governor’s comments upon the charges against him -also were so weak that they were utterly valueless.[83] - -For instance, his only excuse for his possession of Vergelegen was that -if the Company’s servants had no land they, himself included, would be -obliged to buy what grain, cattle, wine, vegetables, fruit, and other -necessaries they required from unreasonable farmers at whatever rates -might be demanded, and might even be at the mercy of those farmers to be -supplied or not. This would surely, he said, be intolerable to officials -of rank. That was the best and indeed the only excuse he could make for -having in his possession, in opposition to the direct orders of the -directors, a thousand head of horned cattle and eighteen thousand eight -hundred sheep, for producing eleven hundred muids of wheat and fifty-six -leggers of wine yearly. And that too when he was provided by the Company -with rations[84] on an exceedingly liberal scale, when he was legally -and honestly entitled to whatever vegetables and fruit he needed for his -own family’s use out of the Company’s gardens in Capetown, at -Rustenburg, and at Newlands, when he had an adequate table allowance in -money to purchase anything else that was needed, as may be seen in the -yearly accounts, and when he was provided with twenty slaves as -domestics, who were entirely maintained by the Company. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -As for the woolled sheep that he was accused of taking from the farmers -without payment, his defence was that he had sent out two men to obtain -them either in exchange for others or for money, that they had returned -with one hundred and seventy-eight, and that he thought he had paid for -them. He denied positively that he had taken bribes for giving -title-deeds to ground, but it was proved conclusively that he had -received large presents and had made extensive purchases without payment -from those whom be favoured. The whole defence was as weak as these -examples, except in a few particulars, and with the oral evidence -against him, the committee could only come to one conclusion. - -[Sidenote: Report of the Chamber of Amsterdam.] - -The chamber of Amsterdam approved of the report of its committee, and -requested the members to go over it again carefully and draw it up in -such a form that it could be presented in the name of the full body to -the assembly of seventeen. On the 25th of October accordingly the report -was brought before the full chamber and adopted, when it was signed by -all the members present, sixteen in number, and was then forwarded to -the directors. Among those who signed it was the same Wouter -Valckenier[85] who had granted Vergelegen to Van der Stel, who was then -a member of the chamber of Amsterdam, and immediately afterwards was -elected to a seat in the directorate. - -In this report the burghers who signed the complaints against Van der -Stel and others were acquitted of sedition, conspiracy, or treason, and -the action of the governor towards them was consequently declared to -have been unjust. - -It was recommended - -That all those banished from the Cape should be restored to their homes -at the Company’s expense, and all those imprisoned be liberated. - -That recompense should be made to the banished men for the damages -sustained by them, either by giving contracts to them or allowing them -to take anything they needed to the Cape free of charge for freight. - -That the governor Willem Adriaan van der Stel, the secunde Samuel -Elsevier, the clergyman Petrus Kalden, and the landdrost Jan Starrenburg -should be recalled at once, but be permitted to retain their salaries -and rank, though without any authority. - -That Frans van der Stel should be required to remove from the Company’s -possessions. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -That the estate Vergelegen at Hottentots-Holland, as acquired wrongfully -and without proper authority, and for the possession of which approval -was never obtained, should be restored to the Company with all the -plants on it, and that the buildings should be taken over on a -valuation. - -That enquiry should be made into the manner in which the retired -governor Simon van der Stel became possessed of his landed property, -especially of the Great Rietland or Zeekoe Valley, and a report thereon -be sent to the Assembly of Seventeen. - -That thereafter no servant of the Company should be permitted to hold -any land in property or on lease, or possess any cattle, or traffic in -cattle, corn, or wine, directly or indirectly. - -That every colonist should be free to slaughter and sell cattle, and -that contracts should be made to supply the Company’s passing ships with -flesh at thirteen duiten a pound. - -That the license to sell wine should be disposed of in four parts. - -And finally that emigration to the Cape should cease. - -This report was adopted by the assembly of seventeen on the 26th of -October, and four days later, 30th of October 1706, a letter signed by -the directors was delivered to the master of the ship _Kattendyk_, then -lying at Texel ready for sea, with orders to deliver it to the governor -Willem Adriaan van der Stel in presence of witnesses.[86] The -_Kattendyk_ with four other Indiamen left Texel on the 25th of December -1706 under convoy of four ships of war, but after leaving the Channel -she lost sight of the rest of the fleet, so she came on alone, -fortunately without falling in with French cruisers, and anchored in -Table Bay in the morning of the 16th of April 1707. The skipper took -the letter on shore, and delivered it to the governor as directed. - -[Sidenote: Recall of the Governor.] - -On Sunday the 17th the council of policy assembled, when the despatch of -the directors was read. It announced that the governor Willem Adriaan -van der Stel, the secunde Samuel Elsevier, the clergyman Petrus Kalden, -and the landdrost Jan Starrenburg were removed from office and ordered -to proceed to Europe with the least possible delay. That everything -might be conducted fairly and justly with regard to them, however, they -were allowed to retain their rank and pay until they should have an -opportunity of clearing themselves from the charges against them, if -that was possible. The governor’s brother, Frans van der Stel, was to -betake himself to some place outside of the Company’s possessions. The -burghers were acquitted of the absurd charge of conspiracy, sedition, -mutiny, and rebellion, they were reinstated in all their former rights -and privileges, the three sent to Europe were restored to their homes at -the Company’s expense, and orders were given that if any were in prison -in the colony they should immediately be released. The governor was -ordered to pay out of his own pocket at the rate of 6_s._ 8_d._ each for -the woolled sheep he had acquired, and the wine and slaughter licenses -were to be issued at once in the same manner as had been the custom -before he altered them to suit his own purposes. - -It was announced that Louis van Assenburgh, who had previously been an -officer in the army of the German emperor, had been appointed governor, -and Johan Cornelis d’Ableing, recently commander at Palembang, secunde. -In case neither of these should arrive in the colony at an early date, -the administration was to be assumed by the independent fiscal Johan -Blesius and the other members of the council of policy acting as a -commission.[87] - -The Mauritius packet had not yet sailed, and the fiscal, who was -directed by the assembly of seventeen to carry out their instructions, -at once set at liberty the five burghers Adam Tas, Jacob Louw, Jacobus -van Brakel, Hercules du Pré, and Guillaume du Toit. Tidings that they -were to be released and that the tyranny of the governor was at an end -had reached the townspeople, and the principal inhabitants assembled on -the open ground before the castle to welcome their countrymen as they -landed on the jetty or came from the dungeons in which they had been -confined, and great was the joy and sincere were the thanks poured out -to the God of heaven, mingled with gratitude to the directors, that -justice had triumphed and oppression and misrule were things of the -past. Of what occurred at Stellenbosch and Drakenstein when the glad -tidings reached those places no information is given in our archives, -but it may be taken as certain that the joy there was at least as great -and deepfelt as it was in Capetown. To the men of those districts it was -due that tyranny and corruption had been overthrown, and from that time -forward Stellenbosch and Drakenstein have been the centres of Dutch -South African thought and action to a much greater extent than any other -parts of the country. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -There is a legend that the man who suffered most from violence -henceforth called his farm Libertas, to signify that freedom had been -won, or, as he wittily explained to inquirers as to the meaning of the -term, to denote that Tas was free. The place is still so called. - -The council resolved that the administration should be transferred to -the fiscal and others on the 15th of May, if the newly-appointed -secunde, who was on his way out, should not arrive before that date. It -was Sunday, and the reverend Mr. Kalden preached twice in the church. - -During the week an arrangement was made by which the reverend Messrs. Le -Boucq and Bek should conduct the services on alternate Sundays in -Capetown, and Mr. Kalden ceased to officiate. Starrenburg, whose last -report was that the mutineers were constantly reviling him and that -only a Masaniello was wanting to produce an open outbreak, was sent by -the fiscal on board a ship in the return fleet. An officer named Samuel -Martin de Meurs was appointed to act provisionally as landdrost. - -[Sidenote: Views of the Directors.] - -Johan Cornelis d’Ableing, the newly-appointed secunde, arrived on the -6th of May 1707. He was a nephew of the recalled governor Van der Stel, -and, under pretence that the books required to be balanced, postponed -taking over the administration until the 3rd of June. The recalled -officials could not then leave for Europe before the arrival of the -homeward bound fleet of the following year. - -From the vast quantity of contemporaneous printed and manuscript matter -relating to the conduct of Willem Adriaan van der Stel, the views of the -directors and of the colonists concerning the government of the country -and the rights of its people can be gathered with great precision. In -the Netherlands at that period representative institutions, such as are -now believed to be indispensable to liberty, were unknown. Yet the -people were free in reality as well as in name. There is not a word -expressing a wish on the part of the burghers for an alteration in the -form of government, what they desired being merely that the -administration should be placed in honest hands, and that their rights -should be respected. - -The directors desired to have here a large body of freemen in -comfortable circumstances, loyal to the fatherland, ready and willing to -assist in the defence of the colony if attacked, enjoying the same -rights as their peers in Europe, and without much diversity of rank or -position. They stated clearly and distinctly that the closer the -equality between the burghers could be preserved the more satisfactory -it would be to them. Positive orders were issued that large tracts of -land, upon which several families could obtain a living, were not to be -granted to any individual. - -In giving directions concerning Vergelegen, they stated that as its -grant by the commissioner Valckenier to the governor was improper and -had never been reported to them and much less had their approval been -requested or given, they resumed possession of the ground. The large -dwelling-house upon it, being adapted for ostentation and not for the -use of a farmer, must be broken down. The late governor could sell the -materials for his own benefit. The other buildings could be fairly -valued, and the amount be paid to Mr. Van der Stel, or he could break -them down and dispose of the materials if he preferred to do so. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -An estate such as Vergelegen would by many people to-day be considered -useful as a model. Van der Stel had laid it out with the choicest vines, -plants, and trees, and was making extensive experiments there. The -ground was the most skilfully tilled in the whole country. But the -directors held that such a farm as this, owned by one individual and -cultivated chiefly by slave labour, could not be of the same advantage -to the infant colony as a number of smaller ones, each in possession of -a sturdy European proprietor. It was therefore not to be sold as a -single estate, but was to be divided into several farms, each of which -was to be disposed of by public auction separately from the others. - -Frans van der Stel was required to sell his property and remove to some -country not included in the Company’s charter. The former governor Simon -van der Stel was left in possession of his farm Constantia, but -directions were given that upon his death the other land which he held -should revert to the Company. - -Emphatic instructions were issued that for the future, in accordance -with the orders of the 26th of April 1668, no servant of the Company, -from the highest to the lowest, was to own or lease land in the colony, -or to trade directly or indirectly in corn, wine, or cattle. Those who -had landed property could sell it, but if they should not do so within a -reasonable period, it would be confiscated. The burghers were not to be -molested in their right to dispose of their cattle or the produce of -their ground in any way that suited them. They were to be governed in -accordance with law and justice. - -[Sidenote: Views of the Colonists.] - -On their part, the colonists claimed exactly the same rights as if they -were still living in the fatherland. They held that any restrictions to -which the early burghers had agreed were of a temporary nature, and -affected only those who had consented to them. In their opinion they had -forfeited nothing by removal to a dependency, and the violence displayed -by the governor towards Adam Tas and his associates was as outrageous as -if it had taken place in the city of Amsterdam. They asserted their -undoubted right to personal liberty, to exemption from arrest unless -under reasonable suspicion of crime, to admission to bail, to speedy -trial before a proper court of justice, to freedom to sell to anyone, -burgher or foreigner, whatever their land produced, after the tithes had -been paid and the Company’s needs had been supplied, except under -special circumstances when restriction was needed for the good of the -community. And these claims, made in as explicit terms as they could be -to-day by an Englishman living in a crown colony, were not challenged by -the directors or the Indian authorities, but were accepted by every one -as unquestioned. They were the ideals of the proper working and spirit -of government held by the great bulk of the people of the Netherlands at -the beginning of the eighteenth century, before democratic principles or -socialistic views had gained ground among the labouring classes or were -even dimly foreshadowed in the minds of men who toiled with their hands -for their bread. Such a system answered admirably in the fatherland, and -the Cape burghers desired to maintain it unimpaired in South Africa. - -Mr. Van der Stel retired to Vergelegen, and began arranging matters so -that he could leave the country with as little pecuniary loss as -possible. His friends and connections in Amsterdam were numerous and -influential, and he cherished the hope that through their agency the -directors might be induced to leave him in possession of the estate. He -does not seem to have realised how serious his offences had been and how -impossible it was that he should be forgiven. But as he had now only his -own servants and slaves to work with, it was necessary to contract his -farming operations, and under any circumstances it would be wise to -dispose of his great flocks and herds with the least possible delay. For -this, so unlike the case of the men whom he had hurried out of the -colony, he had ample time. There is very little information in the -archives of occurrences at Vergelegen during those months, though -several commissions visited the place, so nothing beyond what is here -mentioned can be related. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -On the 25th of January 1708 Governor Louis van Assenburgh arrived. He -had been eight months on the passage from Holland, and had been obliged -to put into a port on the coast of Brazil. In the same ship with the -governor was Henning Huising, one of the deported burghers, who had -entered into a contract with the directors for the supply of half the -meat required by the Company at the Cape during the next three years, -the object of dividing the contract being to secure competition in -purchasing cattle from the burghers. Pieter van der Byl and Ferdinandus -Appel had reached the colony seven months before. - -When the arrival of the governor was known at Vergelegen, Mr. Van der -Stel sent a petition to the council of policy requesting that he might -be allowed to retain the estate a few months longer, as he had hopes -that by the next fleet from Europe intelligence would be received that -the directors had mitigated their decision. As compliance with this -request would have been directly opposed to the orders of the 30th of -October 1706, a matter which he seemed to regard as of little -importance, but which the new governor decidedly objected to, the -council refused to entertain it, and the utmost that he could obtain was -permission to press the grapes then ripening and dispose of half the -wine on his own account, the other half to be for the Company. The -quantity pressed was fifty-six leggers of five hundred and seventy-six -litres each. - -[Sidenote: Dismissal of the Governor.] - -On the 23rd of February 1708 Henning Huising summoned Mr. Van der Stel -before the court of justice for £3,056 in addition to the value of nine -thousand sheep. This gave the late governor an opportunity to request -the council of policy to allow him to remain in South Africa another -year, in order to get evidence to defend himself in this case; but upon -Huising stating that he preferred bringing the action in Holland to -being the means of keeping Van der Stel longer in the colony, the -council declined to accede to his request. - -On the 23rd of April 1708 the return fleet of this year sailed from -Table Bay for Europe, having on board the late governor, secunde, and -clergyman of Capetown with their families. Upon their arrival at -Amsterdam Van der Stel and Elsevier were dismissed from the Company’s -service. They had left agents in the colony to wind up their affairs and -to transmit the proceeds to them. Mr. Kalden was more fortunate, for, -though his possession of a farm was not approved of, he did not come in -the same category as members of the council and of the court of justice, -and he was able to make a good defence as far as his motives were -concerned. He was retained in the service, and several years afterwards -was sent as a chaplain to India. - -Vergelegen was divided into four farms, which were sold by auction in -October 1709. The cultivated land was found on measurement to be six -hundred and thirteen morgen in extent. The large dwelling-house was -broken down, and the material was sold for Van der Stel’s benefit. The -other buildings were taken over by the Company for £625, though the -materials of which they were constructed were appraised at a much higher -sum. The four farms brought £1,695 at public sale, the purchasers being -Barend Gildenhuis, Jacobus van der Heiden, Jacob Malan, and the widow of -Gerrit Cloete. - -Frans van der Stel returned to Europe in the same fleet with his -brother, and took up his residence in Amsterdam. His wife, Johanna -Wessels, was a daughter of one of the leading burghers of the colony. -She remained behind with her parents to dispose of the property to the -best advantage, and did not leave to rejoin her husband until April -1717. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -After his dismissal from the Company’s service, Willem Adriaan van der -Stel was in the most unenviable position that can be imagined, though he -was now possessed of considerable wealth. In the city of Amsterdam, -where he had once been a magistrate and where he had numerous -respectable relatives and connections, he was a disgraced man. In order -to try to make his conduct appear less reprehensible in the eyes of the -public, he prepared and published the volume called the _Korte -Deductie_, in which the most serious of his offences were entirely -ignored, and the certificate in his favour and the forced declarations -from several burghers that have been described were set forth as proofs -of his innocence with regard to others. As may well be believed, such a -volume completely failed in its object. The burghers in South Africa -were under no necessity to reply to it, for its weakness was evident to -every one, but two of them did so, and in their _Contra Deductie_ -published such a number of depositions made under oath as utterly to -destroy it. - -There is one circumstance in connection with this matter that has been -commented upon by several historians, notably by the late Judge -Watermeyer in his _Lectures_, that is the lightness of the punishment -inflicted on Van der Stel. Mr. Watermeyer attributed it to the assembly -of seventeen not feeling aversion towards his tyranny. But that view is -not borne out by the documents of the time when minutely examined, for -the directors certainly did express the strongest disapprobation of his -conduct in trampling on law and justice. Nor was the leniency of their -treatment of him altogether due to their wish to avoid irritating his -influential relatives, though that may have had something to do with -it. The main cause was simply that Mr. Wouter Valckenier, who was one of -the directors at the time, could not absolve himself from all blame in -the matter, for he had granted part of Vergelegen to Van der Stel, -without reflecting upon what the consequences might be. The governor had -abused his confidence, still he was not free of blame. And so nothing -but the ground was resumed, and the delinquent was not even compelled to -make good to the Company the amount which he had defrauded it of. - -[Sidenote: One Effect of the Governor’s Tyranny.] - -The punishment of Willem Adriaan van der Stel, though mild, had the -effect of securing to the Cape colonists good government, as it was then -held to be, for more than half a century after his recall. The spirit of -the burghers was not broken, as it would have been if he had remained in -power, and a liberty loving people had time, in God’s good providence, -to secure a firm foothold in South Africa. - -There was an effect upon the South African colonists that these troubles -produced which makes them memorable in our history. They blended the -different nationalities together so firmly that thereafter they were -absolutely inseparable. There is nothing that tends more to make men and -women sympathise with each other than suffering in a common cause, and -in this instance Hollander and Huguenot alike had resisted and felt the -vengeance of the tyrant. When Du Toit and Du Pré, liberated from the -vessel that was to have taken them into exile at Mauritius, met Tas and -Louw, staggering from the dungeons in which they had been so long -confined, can anyone doubt that they greeted each other as brothers? Our -archives tell us nothing of that scene on the parade ground before the -castle, but they do tell us very plainly that from that day onward there -was no jealousy, no ill-feeling of any kind, between Dutchmen and -Frenchmen in the colony. Thereafter all were Afrikanders. - -How could it be otherwise? It is not too much for even a historian -seeking only for truth to assume that the sisterhood of the women also -had been cemented by their common misery, that Mevrouw Van der Byl, for -instance, would feel an affection stronger far than mere sympathy for -Madame Du Toit, who, like herself, had seen her husband torn from her -and sent into banishment, probably for ever unless God and the directors -should curb the merciless oppressor’s will. The names on the memorial -show an equal number of French and Dutch, and among them are those of -the heads of many of the best families in South Africa at the present -day. They can look back with pride to the action of their ancestors in -resisting corruption so gross and tyranny so outrageous as that of -Willem Adriaan van der Stel, and in thinking of the suffering those -brave men and women endured, they can thank God that it was not in vain, -since it was productive of so much good. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -The Van der Stel family attained its highest point of celebrity in the -time of the sons of Simon, the grandsons of Adriaan who went to India in -1623. According to Van der Aa, Willem Adriaan, after his dismissal, -purchased the estates of Old and New Vossemeer, and died on the 1st of -July 1723, leaving five children. Adriaan became governor of Amboina and -councillor extraordinary of India, and left three children. Hendrik was -warehouse keeper at Malacca in 1705, but nothing more is known of him. -It is a saying in the United States that the stage from shirt sleeve to -shirt sleeve is usually covered in only three generations, and the -observation would seem to be correct in this case. Van der Aa could find -no one of the name of Van der Stel worthy of notice after the third -generation had passed away, except A. van der Stel, who drew plates for -a work on natural history published in 1754, and a woman of the name who -was an actress and stage dancer in the middle of the eighteenth -century.[88] - - - - -IV. - -_Chronicles of Two Leaders of the Great Emigration, Louis Triegard and -Pieter Uys._ - - - - -SKETCH IV. - -I. - -CHRONICLES OF TWO LEADERS OF THE GREAT EMIGRATION, LOUIS TRIEGARD AND -PIETER UYS. - - -No history has yet been written that cannot be improved upon. In the -opinion of most students the greatest work of this kind in the English -language is _The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire_, but if Gibbon -were now alive he could certainly improve that masterpiece by means of -discoveries that have been made since he last revised it. If this can be -said of volumes prepared by a man of means, who was able to devote his -whole time and thought to his work, it is infinitely more true of such a -book as my _History of South Africa_, which has been produced under -difficulties little short of being insurmountable. - -Half a century has passed away since I commenced to gather materials for -my history, but during all that time I have had to toil for my bread, -and whenever I have gained a point of advantage I have found myself -speedily hurled from it. In a country like South Africa, where racial -prejudice has always been passionate, one who would try, as I have done, -to write impartially must expect to meet with opposition from the -extreme wings of both sections of the community, and unfortunately for -me that opposition, or more properly speaking animosity, has frequently -been sufficient to deprive me for a time of the power of making -researches or continuing my work. - -And so great is the quantity of material to be examined for the -preparation of a history of South Africa, so scattered is it, and so -disordered is the manuscript portion, that fifty years, even if devoted -entirely to the work, would not be too long to master it all. Many -languages have to be learned, and libraries and archive departments -visited and worked in half over Europe as well as in South Africa. I am -speaking now only of the period since the discovery of the Cape of Good -Hope by the Portuguese, if one wants to go further back a knowledge of -Arabic and prolonged visits to many eastern towns would be -indispensable. This I was prevented from even attempting. In Indian -literature also much important information may possibly--even -probably--be found, for beyond a doubt there was intercourse between -Hindostan and Eastern Africa in ancient times. No man could grapple with -all this single-handed, and if any one were to try to do it, at the end -of fifty years he would find a very great deal still to be done. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -Owing to this cause--the vast amount of research that was needed and the -many interruptions I met with--my history, though correct, is defective, -that is there is nothing untruthful or misleading in it, but there are -sections that could be enlarged to advantage. Among such sections are -the deeds of Louis Triegard and Pieter Uys. I commenced my study of the -great emigration by getting accounts of it from numerous men and women -who had taken part in it. I soon found--as every one else has done who -has attempted to collect such materials--that the various relations did -not agree, and that something more reliable was needed to base a -description upon. I then read whatever was to be found in printed books -and the newspapers of the period, and as soon as I had an opportunity of -doing so I examined all the manuscripts that I could find in the Cape -archives bearing on the subject. - -It is a quarter of a century since I published a volume containing the -history of the emigration, the first book on the subject prepared in -South Africa. The facts as related by me have never been disputed, but -there are some who profess to believe that they are described in a -spirit too favourable to the emigrants, and others that they are just -the reverse. I shall not alter a single word owing to such opinions, -but when I find new and reliable materials that enable me to enlarge my -former accounts, I shall certainly make use of them. Such materials have -recently come to hand with regard to Louis Triegard and Pieter Uys in a -collection of important documents made by Governor Sir Benjamin D’Urban, -taken by him to England, and preserved in the archives of his family -until 1911, when they were most generously presented by his grandson -through me to the Union government. - -[Sidenote: Occupation of the Eastern Districts.] - -Two centuries lacking less than two decades had passed away since -European farmers first made homes for themselves on the banks of the -Liesbeek river, near the foot of Table Mountain, and in 1835 white men -were cultivating ground and pasturing their flocks and herds as far away -as the banks of the Kat and the Fish in one direction and the great -plain bordering on the Orange in another. The area they had spread over -was thus wide and long, though its occupation had been slower than that -of any other settlement of Europeans possessing a tithe of its -attractions. In most parts of the districts beyond the coast belt it was -very sparsely peopled, the farms, which might with greater propriety -have been termed cattle-runs, being seldom less than five or six -thousand English acres in extent, and often carrying only a single -family upon them. - -The small district of Albany was an exception to this general statement. -It was occupied chiefly by British settlers, who had originally plots of -ground only one hundred acres in size allotted to them, but these had -proved insufficient for the maintenance of a family, and most of them -had been abandoned. Those that remained occupied had then been enlarged, -though not to the extent of the great cattle-runs which the older -Dutch-speaking colonists considered necessary for their subsistence. - -There was a marked difference in disposition between the Dutch-speaking -and the English-speaking colonists. The former, being cattle-breeders by -descent through several generations, were strongly attached to country -life, and disliked residence in a village or town, where they seldom -remained longer than a few hours. Restraint of any kind was exceedingly -irksome to them, even the slight restraint of conforming to urban -conditions. Their ideal of a happy life was a life on a farm where a man -could look north, south, east, and west, and see nothing that was not -his own, where a few fruit trees and vines provided him with peaches and -oranges, apples and grapes, and a little garden, irrigated from a -running stream or a fountain, yielded him all the vegetables he needed, -and where his horned cattle, horses, and sheep throve and increased. Cry -down such a life as one will, call it unprogressive, devoid of culture, -wanting in refinement, destructive of energy, it cannot be denied that -it was a happy life and one that brought man into closer communion with -nature and with God than if he passed his existence in a town or a -village. Except in the most secluded districts there is no longer room -for such a life in South Africa, though some there are even in the more -fertile parts who strive to cling to it still, but in the fourth decade -of the nineteenth century it was the ideal which nearly every -Dutch-speaking colonist in the eastern districts of the Cape settlement -kept constantly before his eyes. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -The English settler as a rule viewed life differently. He disliked a -lonely country home, where there was no opportunity of exercising his -spirit of enterprise, where the means of giving his children an -education in books were lacking, and where companionship with his -species was uncertain and scanty. He preferred to reside in a town, -where he would have greater scope for his abilities, and where he could -have more of such comforts and enjoyments as he desired. There were -indeed Englishmen to be found among the leading farmers, but the great -majority of them were traders or mechanics. Besides this in most cases -they had not the means to purchase stock to commence cattle-breeding -with, even if they had the disposition to do so, and they had no heart -to face the privations that many a Dutch-speaking youth underwent as a -matter of course to obtain a few sheep and cows to make a beginning -with. An Englishman could not, for instance, live almost entirely on -game for years, as they often did, to spare their domestic cattle and -allow them to increase. And so in Albany a town speedily rose, which -contained a large proportion of the British settlers, and which was by -far the most important centre of population in the eastern districts of -the Cape Colony. Grahamstown it was called, and it was as purely English -as if it stood in Kent or in Sussex. - -[Sidenote: Causes of Discontent.] - -For several years there had been great discontent throughout the -settlement. In England the party that wished to undo the errors of the -past, to atone for the crime of slave-trading in which earlier -generations had been deeply involved, and to make strenuous efforts for -the elevation of the coloured races, sunk in barbarism and heathenism -throughout the world, had been steadily growing in numbers and in -influence until at length it had become the dominant power in the state. -Its leaders were earnest well-meaning men, but they did not realise that -improvement to be most effective should be gradual rather than sudden. -They acted as did the men of the French revolution, and in both cases an -enormous amount of misery was the immediate consequence, though as time -went on the good that they did gradually came to surpass the evil which -was at first the result of too much haste. They did not study the -condition of things in South Africa, and the parliament at Westminster -applied laws to this country that were quite unsuitable to it. - -They placed the Hottentots on a perfect political equality with the -European colonists and refused to sanction a vagrant act, thereby -creating a host of idlers and wanderers, that only time and missionary -effort could reduce to order. They emancipated the slaves of a sudden, -paying one-third of their appraised value as compensation, and by doing -so brought utter ruin upon many of the best families in the country and -deep distress upon nearly all. The gradual emancipation which the -colonists favoured they rejected, simply because it would take a -generation to work out, though all possible protection against ill-usage -of the slaves could have been secured under it, and the negroes as a -whole would have been better prepared for freedom. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -There were other causes of dissatisfaction among the Dutch-speaking -colonists. The suppression of their language in courts of law and -official documents was one. Another was the change of land tenure from -leases renewable yearly to perpetual quitrent, necessitating heavy -charges for surveying and much larger annual payments. This measure, by -giving security of tenure and permitting transfer on sale, was -undoubtedly beneficial, but the frontier farmers and graziers, -accustomed to the old system, regarded the new one as a plan for -extorting money from them, especially as in most instances the charges -for surveying were paid years before the issue of titles. The great -extent of the magisterial districts prevented the government officials -from explaining the real object of such changes to the farmers, and this -could not be remedied for want of funds. - -Still another cause of dissatisfaction was owing to the swarms of -barbarians that of recent years had entered the colony from the north -and the east, who were a menace to the cattle farmers, from whom they -demanded food which, if not given at once, was taken by force. These -barbarians were the remnants of various Betshuana tribes that had been -nearly exterminated in the wars that originated with Tshaka and -Umsilikazi,[89] to whom was added a large section of the Tembu tribe -driven westward by Matiwane, himself a fugitive from the Zulu spears. -The government did what it could, without actual violence, to induce -these invaders to remove beyond the borders, but without success, and -public opinion in England would not admit of sterner measures being -resorted to, such as the cattle farmers desired. - -But more than all that has been mentioned, the greatest cause of -irritation was due to the tone of the missionary and so-called -philanthropic press. By it the farmers were vilified as if they were -cruel tyrants who treated the coloured people as mere animals, and all -their misfortunes, which were diminished to next to nothing, were -alleged to be due to themselves. Extracts from books and pamphlets of -this tone found their way to the farms and were discussed whenever -individuals met, until a general feeling of indignation was aroused. By -no one was it disputed that in South Africa, as in all other countries -of the world, there were violent men to be found, and that instances of -extreme cruelty to coloured dependents could be pointed out; but that a -whole community should be branded with infamy on account of the misdeeds -of a few individuals seemed to be as unjust as if the inhabitants of -London should be termed murderers because occasionally a terrible crime -was committed there. - -[Sidenote: Causes of Discontent.] - -And now in the closing days of 1834 a calamity more dreadful than any -that preceded it had overtaken the English settlers of Albany and the -Dutch-speaking farmers of Somerset, and had reduced them all alike to a -condition of the direst distress.[90] Without notice, without anything -that a European can regard as sufficient provocation, great bands of -Xosas suddenly crossed the border and spread over these frontier -districts, murdering all the male inhabitants who had not time to escape -to places where they could defend themselves and their families, burning -their farmhouses and outbuildings, and driving off the horses, horned -cattle, sheep, and goats. The whole frontier, with the exception of -Grahamstown and a few of the most important villages which were left -like oases, was reduced to an absolute desert. Seven thousand -individuals, the majority of whom had previously been in comfortable -circumstances, were reduced to such destitution that the government was -obliged to supply them with food, or they must have starved. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -By dint of great exertion the burgher forces, with two regiments of -British infantry and a strong contingent of Hottentots, drove the Xosas -out of the colony and reduced them to partial subjection in the -territory between the Keiskama and Kei rivers. A British and colonial -army penetrated the country beyond the Kei, captured some thousands of -cattle, and released the Fingoes from subjection to the Xosas. These -Fingoes were the remnants of tribes that had lived in Natal, where they -were all but exterminated in the wars of Tshaka. They were brought -westward, and were located chiefly in what is now the district of -Peddie, that they might become a kind of buffer between the colonists -and the Xosas. Then the territory between the Keiskama and Kei rivers -was proclaimed a British possession, under the name of the Province of -Queen Adelaide. - -Sir Benjamin D’Urban, the governor, enjoyed the esteem and affection of -a great majority of the colonists, English and Dutch-speaking alike, in -a larger degree than any one before him had done, and Colonel H. G. -Smith, who was stationed at King-Williamstown as the governor’s -representative in the new province, was deservedly popular with all but -a few persons of malignant disposition. A more energetic man never -lived, nor one who had the happiness of the people committed to his -charge more at heart. The Xosa chiefs were permitted to govern their -dependents in their old way, though they were now officially termed -British magistrates, fieldcornets, &c., but they were supposed to act -under the supervision of English commissioners, and the most serious -crimes were legally punishable only after trial before European courts. -Missionary effort was encouraged, and respectable traders were permitted -to settle at selected stations, but traffic in munitions of war or in -intoxicating liquor was strictly prohibited. - -[Sidenote: Plans of Sir Benjamin D’Urban.] - -There were no colonists so simple as to believe that this measure would -immediately put an end to depredations by the Xosas, or that it would in -some almost miraculous way turn barbarians suddenly into civilised men. -But it was generally supposed that under the circumstances then existing -this system was better than any other that could be adopted, and that it -really offered some hope that in course of time a great improvement in -the condition of the Xosas might take place. A small section of the -missionary party thought differently, however, as in their view the -system placed too much restraint upon the black people. With this -trifling exception Sir Benjamin D’Urban’s plans in general were heartily -approved of by nearly every frontier colonist, though many of them -feared that the settlement of the Fingoes on the border might prove to -be a mistake. - -Looking back now after the experience of three-quarters of a century, we -can say positively that Sir Benjamin D’Urban’s policy was wise and -benevolent. It might have been better if the Fingoes had not been -located where they were, but this was at the time the best thing that -could be done with them. We can see too that Colonel Smith was over -confident in his influence with the people,--he even believed that he -could depose the chiefs at his will,--for he did not know, as we do, the -cause of the fidelity of the commoners to them. But upon the whole -things were working well, infinitely better indeed than ever before as -far as the European colonists were concerned, while the blacks were in a -position where improvement was much more easy than it had previously -been. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -The party in power in England, however, was decidedly of opinion that a -great wrong of some kind or other must have been done to the Xosas, or -they would not have made war upon the colony. The white people, -consequently, must have been at fault. Lord Glenelg, then secretary of -state for the colonies, in whose hands the destiny of South Africa was -at the time, held this opinion, and issued instructions that British -rule was to be withdrawn from the Province of Queen Adelaide, all the -land east of the Fish and Kat rivers be abandoned to the Xosas, and -treaties of friendship be entered into with the chiefs as independent -and sovereign powers. An officer who was not favourably regarded at that -time by the farmers, though in later years he performed eminent services -for the country, was appointed to carry out these measures, and it was -announced that he would leave England at once. When this information -reached South Africa, the last ray of hope died out in the hearts of the -Dutch-speaking farmers in the eastern districts of the Cape Colony, and -there was a general resolution to abandon the land of their birth and -seek a new home somewhere beyond the border. The British government had -repeatedly announced its fixed determination not to enlarge its domain -in this part of the world, so they believed that upon their removal they -would be free and independent. - -The enormous destruction of human life in the wars of Tshaka and -Moselekatse had left wide tracts of land in South Africa almost--in some -instances quite--uninhabited, and although the extent of these wastes -was unknown, the farmers were cognisant of the fact that there were -unoccupied areas where, they thought, they might settle without doing -wrong to any one. One of these nearly vacant tracts was the country -called Natal, which at that time was taken to signify the land between -the Tugela and Umzimvubu rivers, the Kathlamba mountains and the sea. It -was the most beautiful and most fertile part of South Africa, rising in -steps from the ocean to the great wall that bounds the interior plain, -and thus embracing a variety of climates. It was abundantly watered by -the rains driven up from the Indian ocean, and was well drained by -rivers and rivulets that carried the surplus moisture to the sea. Every -one who saw the land spoke of it with enthusiasm, as being one of the -fairest regions on earth, and one of the best adapted to make -comfortable homes in. - -[Sidenote: Condition of Natal.] - -Some forty Englishmen had settled on the shore of the inlet called Port -Natal, where they made a living chiefly by hunting elephants and -buffaloes and trading with the Zulu chief for ivory. Some of them were -living more like barbarians than civilised men, and were the only -acknowledged heads or chiefs of little bands of fugitives from Zululand, -who placed themselves under the white men’s guidance and protection. A -petty chief named Umnini, who with a few followers lived in a thicket -adjoining the Bluff, and who had concealed himself during the Zulu -invasions, was also a dependent of the white people.[91] On the 23rd of -June 1835 fourteen of these men under the guidance of Captain Allen F. -Gardiner, recently of the royal navy, who was then on a visit to the -country with a view of preparing for the establishment of missions -among the Zulus, signed a petition to Sir Benjamin D’Urban, requesting -him to forward it to the authorities in England, asking that the -territory might be annexed and a proper government be established in it. -They estimated the number of Bantu inhabitants at not less than three -thousand.[92] As some of these men were hunters who knew every inch of -the country, this number might be accepted as at least approximately -correct, though from the observations of others perhaps five or even six -thousand would be more accurate. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -This low estimate is supported by such an amount of trustworthy -testimony that only those who refuse to accept any evidence that is in -conflict with their prejudices can reject it. Nathaniel Isaacs’ _Travels -and Adventures in Eastern Africa, with a Sketch of Natal_, two volumes, -London, 1836,[93] and Gardiner’s _Narrative of a Journey to the Zoolu -Country in South Africa_, London, 1836,[94] support it in general -terms. Mr. Henry Fynn, who lived in Natal from 1824 to 1834, writing in -1838, says: “The number now under the management of the Europeans at -Port Natal amounts to nearly six thousand souls, who would all be -massacred if the Europeans were to be withdrawn from the Port.”[95] All -the documents of the next five years in which mention is made of the -number of black people in Natal agree with it. Only a few years ago Mr. -G. M. Rudolph, when giving evidence before the last Native Affairs -Commission, stated that he did not think there were more than three -thousand natives (_i.e._ Bantu) in Natal when he as a boy nine years of -age went there with the first voortrekkers. A party of farmers, one of -whom was Pieter Lavras Uys, travelled through Kaffraria in 1834 with -fourteen waggons to Port Natal, and after thoroughly inspecting the -uplands as well as the coast belt and the harbour, returned to the Cape -Colony highly satisfied with the country as a desirable locality to -migrate to. - -[Sidenote: Betshuana Refugees.] - -Of the vast regions north of the Orange river that had been swept nearly -clean by war the farmers knew very little except from the statements of -Betshuana refugees, whose intelligence was vague and often -contradictory. No one of them seemed to know anything beyond the fate of -the particular tribe or clan to which he belonged, and there was always -so much that was fabulous mixed with their accounts that in general no -credence was given to them. Then they could only be spoken to through -interpreters, who were rarely obtainable and whose knowledge of any -other language than their own was usually very defective. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -This was the condition of things on the frontier of the Cape Colony when -the emigration of the Dutch-speaking farmers commenced, an emigration -without parallel in any other dependency of Great Britain. The farmers -formed themselves in little bands and moved away together, under the -leadership of an elected commandant, whose authority, however, was very -limited. - -The first band to leave the colony with the intention of never returning -to it had as its head a man named Louis Triegard, fifty-three years of -age, who had been living in the district of Somerset. He was the -grandson of a Swede, who came to South Africa in the service of the -Dutch East India Company, and married here in 1744. His father, Carel -Johannes Triegard, was one of those farmers of Bruintjes Hoogte who in -1796 were most opposed to the recognition of British authority in -Graaff-Reinet, and he inherited his parent’s prejudice in this respect. -He was married to Martha Elizabeth Susanna Bouwer, and had a family of -five children. - -Triegard had received only an elementary education from an itinerant -schoolmaster, just sufficient to enable him to write a letter or keep a -journal in such a way that his meaning could be made out, but his -understanding was by no means defective. He had a passionate temper, -though he was usually able to keep it under control. Among the farmers -he was regarded as a wealthy man, and his establishment was much larger -than those of his neighbours. - -In June 1834 Louis Triegard moved away from the district of Somerset, -and camped out for a time on the banks of the White Kei river, beyond -the border of the colony. According to the declaration of one of his -slaves, who ran away from him there, and who appeared before the civil -commissioner of Albany at Grahamstown on the 10th of September, he had -previously purchased from a storekeeper in that place one large and two -small kegs of gunpowder, which he had taken with him. On the banks of -the White Kei about thirty emigrant families were then living, among -whom were those of Adriaan de Lange, his four sons Adriaan, Hans, -Robert, and Gerrit, Frans van Aardt, Hans van der Merwe, and Sybrand van -Dyk. Triegard had three female and seven men slaves, but the others had -only five slaves among them all. While in the colony Triegard was a mild -master, but when he got beyond the border his conduct changed, and he -became harsh. - -[Sidenote: Conduct of Louis Triegard.] - -On the 21st of November 1834 the civil commissioner reported that all of -Triegard’s slaves and four of the others had run away and reached -Grahamstown safely, only one, belonging to Frans van Aardt, remaining at -the White Kei. By removing them beyond the border, their masters had -forfeited their right to them,[96] so they were all declared emancipated -without any further action, and were permitted to take service as free -persons with any individuals in the town who might care to employ them. - -At the close of this year the sixth Kaffir war commenced, and the Rarabe -clans held out until September 1835. When negotiations for peace were -being conducted, the chief Tyali stated that Louis Triegard had -persuaded the Xosas to continue hostilities so long, but there is no -other positive evidence to this effect. It is difficult to believe that -he would have tried to bring evil upon his own countrymen, but there is -the incriminating fact against him that he moved northward with the -notorious robber captain Jalusa, who carried on a career of violence and -indiscriminate plunder until his entire band of between a thousand and -twelve hundred individuals, with only eight exceptions, was exterminated -in September 1836 by the Basuto of Moshesh. The authorities on the -frontier in the meantime, being convinced that he was doing much harm, -but being unable to arrest him in his retreat beyond the border, were -making secret inquiries into his conduct and movements, of which very -likely he came to learn, for early in September 1835 he crossed the -Orange river and became the leader of the first band of emigrants into -the then unknown interior. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -He had with him his wife and four children, his son Carel with wife and -two children, Pieter Johannes Hendrik Botha with wife and five children, -J. Pretorius with wife and four children, G. Scheepers with wife and -nine children, H. Strydom with wife and five children, an old man named -Daniel Pfeffer who made his living as a schoolmaster, and a Frenchman -named Isaac Albacht, who had a coloured woman as a consort and five -children. - -This party was joined before it crossed the Orange river by another of -equal size, consisting of Jan van Rensburg as leader, with wife and four -children, S. Bronkhorst with wife and six children, G. Bronkhorst the -elder with wife and one child, G. Bronkhorst the younger with wife, -Jacobus de Wet with wife, F. van Wyk with wife and two children, P. -Viljoen with wife and six children, H. Aucamp with wife and three -children, N. Prins with wife and eight children, and M. Prins. - -Together they had thirty waggons. After crossing the Orange they -continued their course northward, travelling just as suited their -inclination or convenience until they reached the place now known as -Potgieter’s Rust, in the Zoutpansberg, where they arrived in May 1836. -In passing through the vast almost uninhabited waste beyond the Orange -river they had escaped the observation of Moselekatse’s warriors, and -had met so few blacks that they considered themselves quite secure. The -men hunted game constantly on horseback, and had seen vast areas of land -suited for settlement, but as they wished to open communication with the -outer world through Delagoa Bay, they had gone on until they believed -themselves to be in the latitude of that port. - -[Sidenote: Fate of Rensburg’s Party.] - -At the Zoutpansberg they halted while the young men explored the country -around, which they considered admirably adapted for stock-breeding and -agriculture. They were in ignorance that Moselekatse’s kraals were only -four hundred kilometres or two hundred and fifty English miles to the -south-west, and of the ferocity of the Matabele they likewise knew -nothing, or they would not have been so satisfied with the locality. -They were almost at the mouth of a lion’s den, and yet were so utterly -careless that in July 1836 the families composing Rensburg’s division, -consisting of forty-nine individuals, left the others with the object of -proceeding to Delagoa Bay to open up communication and trade with the -Portuguese who had recently rebuilt a fort there. From that time nothing -definite is known of these people. A report reached Triegard some months -afterwards that they had all been murdered by a band of Magwamba -robbers, and this was confirmed in later years by the accounts of -various blacks, but just when and where it occurred could never be -ascertained. - -It was commonly believed in the Transvaal Republic a generation later, -and the newspapers circulated the statement widely, that in August 1867 -a white man and woman, who spoke no language but that of the Eastern -Bantu, and whose habits were those of barbarians, were sent to -Commandant Coetzer, of Lydenburg, by a Swazi chief who had obtained them -from the Magwamba. They could tell nothing of their history except that -they believed they had always lived among Bantu; but as they had never -seen other whites that they could remember, it was concluded that they -were the sole survivors of Rensburg’s party, and that they were very -young when their relatives were murdered. For some time they had lived -as man and wife, and had two children when they were handed over to -Commandant Coetzer. This was the tale generally accepted as correct at -the time, but the man and woman believed to be Europeans were in -reality albinos of pure Bantu blood.[97] - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -From a journal kept by Triegard, a fragment of which, commencing on the -25th of January 1837 and ending on the 1st of May 1838, has fortunately -been preserved, the history of those who were left behind at the -Zoutpansberg is known. On the 11th of May 1837 Triegard wrote to the -authorities at Lourenço Marques that the party was in great want of -clothing and ammunition, and asking if horned cattle, wethers, wool, and -hides would be received in barter. They were then seven families of -forty-six souls, only nine of whom were males capable of bearing arms. -This letter was sent by Gabriel Buys, accompanied by a Knobnose black -named Waiwai. Buys was a son of the notorious freebooter Coenraad du -Buis, who had fled from the eastern frontier of the Cape Colony many -years before, and after carrying on extensive depredations in Southern -Betshuanaland, at the head of a band of ruffians, had become afraid that -ministers of justice might be sent to apprehend him there, so had moved -on to the Zoutpansberg and become the first European resident in the -present Transvaal province. As he had done at the Keiskama he did in his -new home in the north: he took to himself a harem of Bantu women, by -whom he had numerous children. Among these were Gabriel and an elder -brother named Doris, who attached themselves temporarily to Triegard’s -party, and as they spoke Dutch and Setshuana, were of great service. -Doris remained behind as interpreter and general servant when Gabriel -proceeded to Delagoa Bay with the letter. - -[Sidenote: Life at the Zoutpansberg.] - -They had over five hundred head of horned cattle and a flock of sheep -and goats, the care of which occupied most of their attention. Game was -plentiful, and they obtained some millet and sweet cane from the blacks -who were thinly scattered about in their neighbourhood, so that there -was no want of plain food, but the women missed greatly such articles as -coffee and sugar. The men had accustomed themselves to the use of millet -beer, and Triegard was always pleased to receive a calabash filled with -it as a present from the head of a Bantu kraal, using the precaution, -however, of requiring the donor according to the custom of the -barbarians to take the first draught. As they had used all their lead, -they cast bullets of copper and of tin, both of which metals were -obtainable, though no information is given as to how or through whose -means they were procured. Occasionally, though very rarely, they were -able to get in barter a piece of calico that had passed through the -country from Delagoa Bay, being handed on from one clan to another for -sale. It is interesting to read in Triegard’s journal that, rough a life -as they were leading, they observed Sunday as well as they could, and -that a school was kept for the children. It is to be noted also that -even in this little party there was a spirit of disagreement, and that -Triegard’s leadership, owing to the feeling of absolute equality among -the different heads of families, was hardly even nominal, much less -real. - -On the 7th of August Gabriel Buys and the Knobnose Waiwai returned from -Delagoa Bay. No one there could read Triegard’s letter, but the -Portuguese officer in command of the fort, understanding that the -emigrants wished to visit him, sent two black soldiers to show them the -way. Accordingly on the 23rd of that month they broke up their camp, -and set out on the journey to the coast, with the intention, however, of -returning and settling permanently in the goodly locality they had -found. From Gabriel Buys and the men who accompanied him they obtained -only a vague idea of the distance they would have to travel or of the -obstacles in their way. They were in reality about three hundred and -thirty-six kilometres or two hundred and ten English miles in a straight -line from Lourenço Marques, which lay almost due south-east, for without -knowing it they had gone fully a hundred and ninety kilometres farther -north than its latitude. So far they had enjoyed excellent health, as -after passing the Stormberg they had been on the high plateau, and -travelling from south to north they had not met with any serious -obstacles. They were now to have a very different experience. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -They travelled past the mountains, since so famous as the strongholds of -the Bapedi, where Sekwati, who was then a very petty chief, was living, -and who sent them a kindly greeting. They came next to the great range, -which lay between them and the coast terraces, where trouble of no -ordinary kind was before them. The black Portuguese soldiers had -traversed the range on foot, and had no conception of waggon traffic, so -they were absolutely useless as guides. A road had to be made, and they -managed to obtain some Bantu labourers by paying them in sheep, but when -it was completed it was just passable in most places and so dangerous at -one spot that some of the party rather than venture on it preferred to -take their waggons to pieces and lower the separate parts down the face -of a precipice. - -In the mountains their cattle were attacked by the tsetse, an insect a -little larger than a common fly, but though they had once before -suffered loss from this destructive pest, they did not pay much -attention to it at first. They were doubtful of its being the same as -that they had formerly seen, but soon their oxen began to pine away and -die, when they found themselves in a deplorable condition. Still they -pushed on, and by dint of almost superhuman exertions, managed to get -through the Lebombo, the last range on their way. The cattle were dying -fast, when on the 8th of April 1838, to their great joy, they were met -by a messenger from the commandant of the Portuguese fort at Lourenço -Marques. This messenger had come up the river Umbelosi in a boat, and -had brought a present of provisions, rum, medicines, and even some -articles of clothing, which were most acceptable. - -[Sidenote: Suffering at Delagoa Bay.] - -Triegard now transferred his ivory and other heavy effects to the boat, -and with his lightened waggons pushed on to the fort, which he reached -on the 15th of April 1838, two hundred and thirty-five days after -leaving Makapan’s Poort at the Zoutpansberg. The party then consisted of -fifty-seven individuals, namely five married men and their wives, two -widowers, one widow, eight lads over sixteen years of age, fourteen lads -under sixteen years of age, four girls over sixteen years of age, seven -girls under sixteen years of age, four half-caste children of Albacht, -and seven Betshuana and Bushman servants. - -The Portuguese received them with much kindness, though they were -required at first to give up their guns. These, however, were soon -restored to them, and whatever could be thought of to make them -comfortable was done. Triegard informed the commandant of the fort that -he had left the Cape Colony because the frontier had been ruined by the -Xosas, the slaves had been set free by the English, and the government -desired to make soldiers of the Afrikanders. It was evident that they -could not return to the Zoutpansberg, but they had not decided what next -to undertake when they were attacked by fever. The first to die was old. -Daniel Pfeffer, who expired on the 21st of April, at the age of 78 -years. He was followed on the 29th of April by P. J. Hendrik Botha, who -was 37 years of age. Next came Louis Triegard’s wife, who died on the -1st of May. When she fell ill the Portuguese commandant had her carried -into the best room in the fort, and his own wife tended her day after -day with the utmost kindness until she died. With a great cry of anguish -over his terrible loss Triegard closed his journal, and no particulars -can be ascertained of occurrences during the next fifteen months that -the party remained at Lourenço Marques. Months of intense suffering, -physical and mental, they must have been, of this there can be no doubt. -Actual hunger may have been averted by the kindness of the Portuguese -officers, but the resources of these good people were very limited, and -such food as was obtainable must have consisted mainly, if not entirely, -of millet and other produce of the gardens of the Bantu. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -Their number was constantly diminishing by fever, till at length the -emigrants who had settled in Natal, hearing where and in what condition -they were, chartered the schooner _Mazeppa_ to proceed to Delagoa Bay to -their relief, and in July 1839 the remnant of the party, consisting of -Mrs. H. Botha and five children, Mrs. G. Scheepers and five children, -Mrs. J. Pretorius and two children, three young men, and seven orphan -children, were landed at Durban. One young man, son of Louis Triegard, -had gone to Mozambique in a Portuguese vessel before the _Mazeppa_ -reached the bay, but in the following year he managed to travel overland -to his friends in Natal. Thus of the ninety-eight individuals who formed -the first party of emigrants all had perished except the twenty-six who -reached Natal in a state of utter destitution. - - - - -II. - -PIETER LAVRAS UYS. - - -[Sidenote: Progress of Emigration.] - -The second party to leave the colony was under the leadership of Andries -Hendrik Potgieter, and consisted of farmers whose religious tendencies -were towards the separatist--equivalent to the Scottish -Covenanter--section of the church. They migrated chiefly from the Tarka. -A full account of their wanderings and actions, of their sufferings from -the Matabele and their heroic conduct until Moselekatse was compelled to -flee northward to the territory now called Rhodesia, together with the -adventures of the party from Colesberg under Carel Cilliers that joined -them is given in my _History of South Africa_, and it is unnecessary to -repeat it here. - -The third party was under the leadership of Gerrit Marthinus Maritz, and -went from the neighbourhood of Graaff-Reinet. It was much larger than -the one under Potgieter. On the 2nd of December 1836 these parties, who -were then in the neighbourhood of Thaba Ntshu, attempted to establish a -government and elected a court of justice, with Maritz as landdrost or -president. Various small parties and even single families now arrived, -and joined either Potgieter or Maritz according to the section of the -church that they preferred. - -The next large party was headed by Pieter Retief, and went from the -Winterberg. On the 17th of April 1837 a meeting of the emigrants was -held in the camp of Maritz,[98] when Pieter Retief was elected -administrative head, but he was not then installed in office, as the -section under Potgieter took no part in the proceedings, and the others -hoped that they might be induced to join in course of time. Potgieter -and Maritz had quarrelled, and from this time forward harmony among the -emigrants was rarely seen. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -On the 6th of June 1837 Mr. Retief was formally installed in office as -governor and commandant-general, a volksraad of six members was elected -and entrusted with full legislative power, and a provisional -constitution of nine articles was adopted. Whether these proceedings -were not premature may be open to doubt. The number of emigrants north -of the Orange was then not very great, many more were known to be on -their way, and for these few to exercise the power of modelling the -future government and appointing the chief executive officer seemed -unjustifiable to most of those who arrived afterwards. There was no -question as to the ability of Pieter Retief and his fitness for the -highest office, but that he should be appointed to it by a section of -the community and the others be required simply to concur was regarded -as a grievance. - -Mr. Retief’s first proceeding proved him to be a man of tact. He -actually succeeded in inducing Hendrik Potgieter, the representative of -the separatist or Covenanter section of the church, to meet in a -friendly manner Gerrit Maritz, the representative of the larger section -of the church,[99] a man accused by his opponents of ambitious views and -not very conciliatory in demeanour. It is true that these men had once -fought side by side, when Maritz generously assisted the other to -recover the spoil taken by the Matabele in August 1836 in their -murderous onslaughts on the camps north of the Vaal, but the -constitution of mind of the Covenanter seems to differ from that of -other men so much as to make concord difficult except under unusual -circumstances. It need not be asked whether his views are more or less -praiseworthy than those of his neighbours, but it must be admitted that -as a rule he looks upon most matters from a different standpoint. And so -the good feeling between the two leaders brought about by Mr. Retief was -only temporary, and from the first Potgieter resolutely declined to give -in his adherence to the political faction led by Maritz. - -[Sidenote: Progress of Emigration.] - -The fifth large party arrived at Thaba Ntshu at this time. It was under -the leadership of Mr. Pieter Jacobs, and went from the district of -Beaufort West, being composed largely of families connected with the -Slachter’s Nek insurrection. These people joined the adherents of Retief -and Maritz, though they continued to form a separate camp. - -Next to cross the Orange was a large party from Oliphants Hoek, under -the leadership of Pieter Lavras Uys, though his father, Jacobus Johannes -Uys, was nominally its head. The old man was nearly seventy years of -age, and the party was entirely composed of his immediate descendants -and connections by marriage. It is of Pieter Lavras Uys, and the part he -took in the emigration, that the remainder of this paper will deal, the -information being largely drawn from the documents contained in the -D’Urban collection. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -He was descended from Cornelis Uys, who with his wife and three children -migrated from Leyden in Holland as colonists at the beginning of the -eighteenth century, when the Dutch East India Company was sending to the -Cape settlement as many industrious families accustomed to agriculture -as it could obtain. Dirk, one of the three children of Cornelis, was -born at Leyden, but grew up in South Africa, and in 1722 married Dina le -Roux, daughter of a Huguenot refugee from Provence. The fifth child of -this marriage, Cornelis Janse by name, in 1766 married Alida Maria -Swart, and from this union eleven children were born, the second of -whom, Jacobus Johannes by name, in 1793 married Susanna Margaretha -Moolman. When grown up, this Jacobus Johannes Uys went to reside in -Oliphants Hoek in what became later the district of Uitenhage, and there -in 1797 his third child, Pieter Lavras, was born.[100] - -Any one who will take the trouble to watch the career of South African -students at European universities, say at Leyden or Edinburgh, will find -that they occupy prominent places in their classes. The sons of men -whose ancestors for many generations had received very little education -from books on their farms are found intellectually able to compete in -study with the sons of Europeans who have long enjoyed the greatest -facilities for acquiring knowledge. This is a most hopeful sign for the -future of South Africa. If with vastly increased knowledge our young men -only adhere to the sterling virtues and strong confidence in God that -characterised their ancestors, there need be no fear for this country in -the time to come. - -It is true that there are in South Africa many poor white people, some -of whom seem to have lost both the power and the inclination to raise -themselves in the social scale. But with education, industrial training, -and opportunities to acquire property, the great majority of these would -undoubtedly rise again, and the residue are at least more capable of -improvement than the unemployables in a European city. In all countries -of the world there are weak-minded people of different degrees of -imbecility, but in South Africa the number of these is very small, and -white men and women with criminal instincts are almost unknown. If an -average be taken the old colonists need not fear a comparison of -intellect with the inhabitants of any country in Europe. - -[Sidenote: Character of Pieter Uys.] - -Pieter Uys was of the best stamp of man to be found in South Africa. He -had not the advantage of a university training or even of a good school -education, but he had the capacity of drawing information from every -source within his reach, and putting it to the best use. He could write -a letter or draw up a document in clear and concise Cape Dutch, and he -was acquainted with what was going on over the sea. His upright conduct, -his religious convictions, and his kindly disposition caused him to be -held in general esteem, not only by his Dutch-speaking neighbours, but -by the English settlers of Albany, with whom he was brought into close -contact during the Kaffir war of 1835. - -When the farmers were temporarily released from duty in the field in -order to get crops in the ground, he found himself so thwarted by the -unruly conduct of the apprentices, late slaves and Betshuana refugees -alike, that he addressed a memorial to the authorities, representing the -insufficiency of the existing laws for their correction, and praying for -the interference and protection of the government.[101] It was -impossible for Sir Benjamin D’Urban to give him any relief, but even if -it had been otherwise, he would probably have left the colony, for he -had been charmed with the appearance of Natal, the almost uninhabited -territory that he had visited in the preceding year. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -It is impossible to give even approximately the number of those who had -left the Cape Colony before this time. The government called for returns -from the civil commissioners of the different districts, and in July -1837 these officials reported that one thousand and sixty-seven persons -had left and two hundred and sixty others were about to follow. But -these numbers are certainly much too low, though the estimate of Mr. Uys -given in his letter of the 7th of August is probably too large. - -It was the intention of the party under Uys to proceed to Natal, but not -to attempt to go through Kaffraria. He had found such difficulties in -travelling there in 1834 that he thought a better road might be found by -moving northward over the Orange river, and then seeking a pass through -the Drakensbergen that would lead him to the beautiful land below. This -was the route that he followed, and at the beginning of August 1837 he -and his party were on the northern bank of the Great river, without -having met with any accident on the way. On the 7th of that month he -addressed a letter to Sir Benjamin D’Urban, of which a literal -translation made for the governor’s use and preserved among his papers -is given here _in extenso_: - -RIGHT -“Orange River, 7th August 1837. - - “SIR,--I beg to submit to your Excellency a statement of what I - have observed since I left Capetown and set out on my journey - beyond the Orange river. I there met more than three thousand - persons, lately inhabitants of the Colony, who have left their - country and gone to a foreign land, even to a desert. I have spoken - to many old men amongst them, with the view of ascertaining their - reasons for leaving their native country, and they give the - following as the principal causes: - - “1. The laws made for this colony by Parliament, however - inapplicable to the people and their condition, must be implicitly - obeyed. - - [Sidenote: Causes of the Emigration.] - - “2. We were put to great expense for the measurement, of our farms - prior to their grant, and for a small farm must pay an annual rent - of from forty to two hundred rixdollars. (£3 to £15.) - - “3. All power of domestic coercion of our apprentices in our houses - and on our farms has been taken away from us, which has brought the - apprentices into such a state of insubordination as to expose us to - the risk of the loss of property and even life. Neither have we the - right to defend ourselves against these people who live at our - expense, and if they think proper go to a magistrate and make a - false oath, without witnesses, upon which we are seized by black - and white constables, in the same manner as murderers, and brought - before the court, to the great injury of our reputation; whilst if - they lose their cause, then the costs are paid from the government - chest, to which we must pay heavy taxes annually; and if we are - condemned, we must then pay a fine out of our own pockets or be - sent to prison. On this point your Excellency is aware how I myself - was treated in the late Kaffir war and whilst I was in presence of - the enemy and my property left unprotected;[102] which vexatious - treatment has also had great influence on many of the inhabitants. - - “4. The, slaves who were our property, who cost us much money, and - for whom we paid every government due, have been taken from us upon - an appraisement made by order of Parliament, and have become free - for a third part of the money at which they were valued, and our - power of maintaining order and discipline having been taken away, - the masters and mistresses are scandalously treated. - - [Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - - “5. The last Kaffir invasion is also one of the causes. The Kaffirs - have for many years murdered and plundered the inhabitants, and - government has always held out hopes of improvement in this - respect, if we would remain at peace with them; and now, to crown - the whole, we are accused of being the cause of the war, and must - lose all our cattle, as well as put up with our other losses. - - “I have stated but a few of the points upon which the greatest - stress is laid by the colonists who have emigrated. To state every - point would go too much into detail; but these will be sufficient - to show why the people are discontented. - - “The inhabitants asked for a vagrant law, but that was refused. - They asked for power to punish their insubordinate apprentices, but - this was also refused. Many of them prayed to be relieved from - taxes for the first year after the war, but this was not acceded - to. Their waggons, oxen, and horses were used for the purposes of - the war, but they received no satisfactory remuneration. Several - other things are also stated, too many to be mentioned here. - - “I hope your Excellency will be convinced of the truth of what I - have here said, and I do not doubt that if it had been in your - power, our country would now be in a prosperous state; but, as it - is, our country is ruined, for we see that everything taken by you - from the enemy has been restored to them, which will more encourage - them. - - “To make the country yet more unfortunate, we see with astonishment - a governor who could do much good by the existing laws, and we see - other persons, such as missionaries and other prejudiced writers, - who are believed, whilst what this governor writes is not attended - to. - - [Sidenote: Political Attitude of Uys.] - - “We address memorials to the governor and to parliament, but we - find no change. Now we see the mischievous effects to the - inhabitants, and we are thus obliged to quit the colony. It is not - our fault that we leave our native land; we have begged and prayed - for a change, and none is made. We therefore emigrate, but we - shall, notwithstanding, not yet separate ourselves from our - respected governor, who endeavoured to do us good; and whenever we - can be of any assistance, we shall not fail to afford it. - - “If I can be of any use to your Excellency, or any report of mine - be of service to a governor whom I so much esteem, I shall spare no - trouble; and I remain, etc. - -RIGHT -“P. L. UYS, Commandant.” - - - -The political position, or the attitude assumed by Pieter Uys and his -party towards the emigrants who had preceded them, was one of -independence. As well he thought might he assert authority over Mr. -Retief as Mr. Retief over him. The time had not yet come for framing a -constitution, which should be deferred until the tide of emigration had -slackened, when it could be done with the consent of the whole body of -the people, and not merely of a small section of them. Accordingly on -the 14th of August 1837 a series of resolutions were drawn up and -signed, placing their attitude clearly before their countrymen. These -resolutions literally translated were as follows: - -RIGHT -“Caledon River, 14th August 1837. - - “Resolutions adopted by us, the undersigned travellers and exiles - from the colony of the Cape of Good Hope, now on our journey - between the Orange and Vet rivers. We make known to our countrymen - in advance with what object and intention we have undertaken our - journey, and that our unanimous wish is: - - “1. To select the country called the Bay of Port Natal as our - seaport. - - [Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - - “2. To inspect the extent of country joining the same inland, as - far as we shall deem necessary. - - “3. That we have placed ourselves under certain chiefs as field - commandants, as protecting leaders over us, to investigate and - redress all grievances that may take place on our journey. - - “4. We place our dependence on the Allwise Ruler of heaven and - earth, and are resolved to adhere to the sure foundation of our - reformed Christian religion, entertaining the hope that when we - have reached the place of our destination we shall live a better - and safer life. - - “5. As regards the establishment and execution of legal authority - as exercised by some of our countrymen, we must unanimously declare - that we entirely disapprove thereof; and we shall only regulate - ourselves in the wilderness by the old burgher regulations and - duties, and all differences which may arise shall be adjusted in - accordance with those burgher regulations. - - “6. We have come to the final determination not to submit to any - laws that may have been established by a few individuals, and which - we conceive have a tendency to reduce us from a state of banishment - to a state of slavery. - - “7. When we shall have attained our object and have arrived at the - place of our destination, we trust to see the whole of our - countrymen assembled together, then by the public voice to proceed - to the election and appointment of our chief rulers and the framing - of proper laws, and in general to consider what is useful both for - the country and the people. - - “8. The judicial appointments and laws as now established will not - be noticed by us in the slightest degree, but are considered as of - no value. - - “9. We trust that every burgher will participate in these - sentiments, in order to be placed in the situation of a free - citizen. - - “10. We purpose to establish our settlement on the same principles - of liberty as those adopted by the United States of America, - carrying into effect, as far as practicable, our burgher laws. - Every person agreeing herewith will therefore attach his signature - for the information of those who are still in doubt on the subject. - - “P. L. UYS, - J. J. UYS, - J. P. MOOLMAN, - H. J. POTGIETER, - J. LANDMAN, - And 165 others.” - -[Sidenote: Action of Pieter Retief.] - -At this time Mr. Retief was preparing to send an expedition against -Moselekatse, to follow up the blow struck at Mosega in January 1837 by -the commandos under Gerrit Maritz and Hendrik Potgieter. The Matabele -had provoked hostilities by the robbery and massacre of a hunting party -under Fieldcornet Stephanus Petrus Erasmus, of the Kraai river,[103] and -of many emigrant families belonging to the party of Potgieter who had -imprudently ventured across the Vaal. But this expedition was not -carried out, Mr. Retief’s partisans assigning as a reason that they -believed the Griquas under Adam Kok and Andries Waterboer would attack -the camps while so many of the men were away, but the real cause -probably being the dissensions between the emigrants themselves. - -In October 1837 Mr. Retief, having found a pass in the Drakensbergen, -with some of his followers went down into Natal, and Messrs. Potgieter -and Uys determined to carry out the plan of attacking the Matabele -again. Uys had no personal interest in the matter, for he had resolved -to settle in Natal, but his sympathy with his countrymen led him to -assist them against the barbarians who had done them so much injury. On -the 19th of this month he concluded an agreement of friendship with -Moroko, chief of the principal section of the Barolong at Thaba Ntshu, -and immediately afterwards the two commandos set out from the camps on -the border of the Caledon and at Winburg. One of the most important -campaigns yet entered upon in South Africa between Europeans and Bantu -had commenced. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -An account of this campaign has been given in my _History of South -Africa_, and Dr. J. C. Voigt has entered even more fully into the -details of the nine days’ struggle on the Marikwa than I did.[104] The -result of this expedition was the flight of the whole Matabele tribe to -the country north of the Limpopo, the opening of the territory now -comprised in the Transvaal Province and the Orange Free State to -European settlers, and the relief of the remnants of the Betshuana -tribes from the misery in which they had been existing. It would be -difficult to exaggerate the importance of the victory on the Marikwa in -November 1837 to civilisation and the happiness of both white and black -people in South Africa. And yet Pieter Lavras Uys, one of the leaders of -the little band of brave men who risked their lives against terrible -odds and won it, is well nigh forgotten in the land he served so well. - -On the 21st of July 1837 Mr. Retief had written to Sir Benjamin D’Urban -a letter of which the following is a translation: - - “The undersigned Pieter Retief, as conductor-in-chief of the united - encampments, most humbly sheweth, - - “That we as subjects of the British government during our - distressed circumstances submitted our grievances to his Majesty - the King; but as all our endeavours proved fruitless, we have - ultimately found ourselves compelled to quit the land of our birth - in order that we might not become guilty of opposition or rebellion - against our government. - - [Sidenote: Letter of Pieter Retief.] - - “That this abandonment of our native country has occasioned us - enormous and incalculable losses, but that notwithstanding this we - on our side will not show any enmity towards the British nation. - - “That consequently all trade and commerce between us and the - British merchants will on our part be free and uninterrupted, as - with all other nations, with this understanding that we desire to - be considered as a free and independent people. - - “That we have learnt with grief that almost all the native tribes - by whom we are now surrounded have been instigated to attack us; - but although we feel ourselves fully able to resist all our - enemies, we would however beg of your Excellency to prevent, as far - as lies in your power, such hostilities, so that we may not be - compelled to spill human blood, which has already been the case - with Moselekatse. - - “That we will prove to the world by our conduct that it never has - been our intention unlawfully to molest any nation or people; but - that on the contrary we have no greater satisfaction than in the - general peace and amity of all mankind. - - “That, finally, we confidently trust that the British government - will allow us to receive the amount of all the just claims and - demands which we still have within the colony. I have &c. - -RIGHT -“P. RETIEF.” - - - -This letter seems to have taken a long time to reach the governor. On -the 25th of October 1837 he wrote the following note upon it: - - “A little time must be suffered to elapse before any answer be sent - to this, and this of necessity, because there are three contending - chiefs: Retief, Maritz (_sic_, it should be Potgieter), and Uys; - and although Retief has now the greatest influence, yet it does not - extend over the whole of the emigrants, nor is there any positive - certainty that it will continue. Before the government condescends - to treat with them at all, it must at least be certain that it - treats with an acknowledged and undivided authority; this matter - must lay by, therefore, for a while, which also may afford time for - an answer to the dispatch of July last, in which the question is - asked of his Majesty’s government ‘What are the relations to be in - future kept between the emigrants and the colonial government?’ And - in the meanwhile the emigrants are moving far out of contact with - the Colony, to the eastward, so that there can arise in the interim - no collision between them and the colonial authorities or - inhabitants.--B. D’URBAN.” - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -Of Pieter Retief’s negotiations with the Zulu chief Dingan, of the -removal to Natal of the whole of the party that adhered to him, and of -the terrible massacres of the emigrants by the Zulus, nothing needs to -be stated here.[105] These events are fully recorded in my _History of -South Africa_ and in Mr. G. S. Preller’s _Piet Retief: Lewenskets van -die Grote Voortrekker_, (6de druk), a demi octavo volume of one hundred -and ninety-four pages, published at Pretoria in 1909. - -[Sidenote: Visit of Pieter Uys to Natal.] - -It was the intention of Mr. Potgieter to settle on the highlands of the -interior and to endeavour to open communication with the outer world if -possible through the Portuguese harbour of Delagoa Bay. Mr. Uys, on the -other hand, had from the first resolved to make homes for himself and -his party in the neighbourhood of Port Natal. But he was not in a hurry -to move over the mountains, especially as the pasture around his -temporary camp was good, and the cattle, large and small, would be the -better of a long rest after their journey from Oliphants Hoek. With a -few companions on horseback, however, he rode over to inspect the -country again, and on the 15th of December 1837 arrived in the first of -the camps under Retief and Maritz on the Bushman’s river in Natal. - -There the question of the form and personnel of the government was the -topic of discussion again, and it became evident to Mr. Uys that he and -his adherents would be in a minority in Natal. He therefore stated that -after his party had arrived and settled on farms he would be prepared to -abide by the decision of a majority of the whole community, but he could -not be induced to sign a document pledging fidelity to Mr. Retief as -governor and commandant-general, which was pressed upon him. After a -short visit he returned to his camp on the highlands, and was there when -the heartrending tidings reached him of the treacherous massacre of Mr. -Retief and his companions at Dingan’s kraal on the 6th of February 1838 -and of the even more atrocious massacre of men, women, and children -alike, near the present village of Weenen on the 17th of the same month. - -All political differences disappeared at once on receipt of this sad -intelligence, and as soon as possible Uys and his men were on their way -to the assistance of their sorely afflicted countrymen and women who -were still alive in Natal. So quickly was the commando got together and -so rapidly did it ride that it arrived at the camp on the 1st of March -1838. Potgieter also assembled his men as speedily as he could, and went -down into Natal with the same intention. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -The condition of things there was wretched. The survivors of the -massacre were huddled together in lagers, each under a commandant, but -all close together to ensure their safety, and recognising Mr. Maritz as -commandant-general and president of the council of war. Every day they -were expecting another attack from Dingan’s army. Constant watch had -therefore to be kept, and the men did not venture to move about unarmed, -while the women were confined to the precincts of the lagers. - -The accession of strength derived from the commandos of Uys and -Potgieter made it unnecessary to act solely on the defensive any longer. -Offensive operations were decided upon, not only with a view of -punishing the Zulus, but of proving to them that the arms and tactics of -Europeans were so superior that a prolonged conflict would be averted, -and peace based upon the white man’s supremacy be secured. But the -emigrants had still much to learn. The heavy firelocks that they carried -were indeed more formidable weapons than the Zulu stabbing spears, but -were far short of being as efficient as modern rifles. To load them it -was necessary to pour a certain quantity of powder from a horn into the -barrel, to insert a wad and beat it down with a ramrod, then to put in -the slugs or a ball and wad down again, and finally to put priming in -the pan and adjust the flint and lock. All this took time, even with the -most expert and practised man, and while the gun was being loaded its -owner was practically unarmed. The difference between a modern military -rifle and a gun used by a South African farmer in 1838 is vastly greater -in point of efficiency in conflict than that between such a gun and a -Zulu stabbing spear. - -Then as to military tactics. The farmer considered himself superior, -simply because he was a civilised man. He was accustomed to circumvent -game, and used the same methods in war that he used in the chase. But he -had yet to learn that many a Zulu induna as well as the wily chief of -the mountain, who was even then gathering strength at Thaba Bosigo, was -greatly his superior in military skill. The almost naked black man, -whose general knowledge was so defective that he might be regarded as -intellectually little superior to a child, in all that relates to -tactics and strategy was in advance of the ordinary untrained European. - -[Sidenote: Arrangements to punish Dingan.] - -It was arranged that Uys and Potgieter with all the men they could -muster should advance towards Dingan’s residence from the camp on the -Bushman’s river, and that the English chiefs with their warriors should -cross the Tugela much nearer its mouth and press on towards the same -point. It was hoped in this way to divide Dingan’s forces, and it was -certain that the black army of Natal, as the English chiefs called their -followers, would fight desperately, as their existence depended upon -victory over the Zulus. Several hundreds of them were armed with -muskets, which their chiefs had imported and paid for with ivory, and -their leaders were brave and capable men. But this really formidable -force was drawn into an ambush by the strategy of the Zulu commander who -was sent to oppose it, and after such a battle as is only fought by men -who know that they must conquer or die, it was almost annihilated.[106] - -As neither Potgieter nor Uys would serve under Maritz, who may have been -wanting in tact and was certainly charged with being overbearing in his -manner, though no man could have been more devoted to the public welfare -than he, it was resolved that he should remain to protect the camps in -case of attack, and that they should lead their respective adherents in -separate commandos, but acting in concert with each other, to attack -Dingan in his principal kraal Umkungunklovu. The two commandos, when -finally mustered, numbered three hundred and forty-seven men, exclusive -of a few coloured attendants. Their commissariat and spare ammunition -was taken with them on pack horses. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -Neither of the leaders had a full conception of the hazardous nature of -their expedition. A much smaller force than that under their command -could have marched anywhere in the Xosa or Tembu country, and by keeping -on open plains or ridges have been perfectly safe. They had served in -the Kaffir war, and knew this. Then their decisive defeat of the -Matabele had inspired them with the belief that they were invincible. -They did not reflect that perhaps the field of operations against Dingan -might not be so favourable to them as that against Moselekatse had been, -and so they rode on in unbounded confidence. For five days they saw -hardly any people, as the inhabitants had removed by order of Dingan to -places of greater safety. - -On the 11th of April 1838 they were close to the spot where eight months -and five days later in the same year the battle was fought that gave to -the stream from which they drank the name Blood River and to the date of -the memorable engagement the name Dingan’s Day. Here for the first time -since they left the camp they saw what appeared to them to be a small -Zulu army. They drew hastily into battle order, and then dashed forward -to charge, Potgieter with his men on one wing of the enemy, and Uys with -his on the centre. The Zulus did not wait to meet the shock, but fled as -fast as they could, and the farmers pursued them. Uys and his followers -were too eager in the chase to act with proper caution, and did not -observe that they were riding into a defile between two parallel chains -of hills until a great Zulu army, that had been lying there concealed, -suddenly showed itself on each side and in front of them. Its horns were -even closing in behind before they realised that they were in an -ambuscade and in the utmost danger.[107] - -[Sidenote: Death of Pieter Uys.] - -There was no possibility now of carrying out the tactics they had -adopted against the Matabele: of firing a volley, riding back and -reloading their guns, and then charging again. There were no better -horsemen in the world than these farmers, for they had been accustomed -from early youth to ride and to hunt the game which then abounded in the -country they came from. But the din caused by the Zulus striking their -shields with their short spear shafts was so great that the horses -became almost unmanageable, and for an instant it seemed as if all was -lost. Then realising that there was one chance left, they directed all -their fire upon the horns of the Zulu army, that had closed in, shot -down hundreds, and dashed through the opening thus made. - -Commandant Uys was wounded by a spear thrust, but as he fell from his -horse he called out to his followers to leave him and fight their way -out, for he must die. All except ten of them escaped by the road that -had been opened, but the pack horses, baggage, and spare ammunition had -to be left behind. Of the ten who died there, one was Commandant Pieter -Lavras Uys. Another was his gallant son Dirk Cornelis Uys, a boy only -fifteen years of age, who could have escaped, but seeing his father on -the ground and a Zulu raising a spear to stab him, he turned to assist -his parent, and fell by his side. The others who lost their lives were -David, Jacobus, and Jan Malan, Louis, Pieter, and Theunis Nel, Joseph -Kruger, and Frans Labuschagne. Potgieter’s division retreated in time, -on finding that it was being drawn into broken ground, and got safely -away. The expedition then, being unable to keep the field owing to the -loss of all the stores of the division under Uys, fell back to the camp -on the Bushman’s river, and Potgieter and his men shortly afterwards -returned to Winburg. - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -The aged father of Pieter Uys survived him only three months. He went -down into Natal with the other members of the party, and in July died -there. Mr. Maritz too, broken in health by anxiety and trouble, died on -the 23rd of September of the same year. Thus of the most prominent -leaders of the emigration, all had passed away in this short time except -Mr. Potgieter, who lived until 1853. - - - - -SYNOPTICAL INDEX. - - -SKETCH I. - -Alfonso, son of the Burgundian Count Henrique: assumes the title of king -of Portugal, 7; which in A.D. 1143 is confirmed by Pope Innocent II, -ib.; in 1147 he obtains possession of Santarem and Lisbon, and extends -the boundary of Portugal southward to the Tagus, ib. - -Africa: is almost entirely unexplored by Europeans in the early years of -the fifteenth century, 4 - -Alani, the: in the fifth century of our era invade the Iberian -peninsula, but most of them are afterwards driven by the Visigoths into -Africa, 6 - -Alexandria: before A.D. 1500 is the chief market in which Europeans -obtain Indian products, 3 - -Alexandrian libraries: destruction of, 11 - -Algarves, emirate of the: in 1250 is conquered by the Christians, and in -1263 is annexed to Portugal, which thus acquires its present dimensions, -8 - -America: is entirely unknown to Europeans in the early years of the -fifteenth century, 4 - -Arabs, the: before A.D. 1500 know more than Europeans of the geography -of Africa, 11; in the eighth century of our era conquer the whole of the -Iberian peninsula except the territory held by the Basques, 6; their -rule at first is mild, ib.; in the eleventh century of our era the -caliphate is broken into fragments, ib.; when a struggle with the -Christian population commences which lasts for centuries, ib.; gradually -a number of little independent Christian states come into existence, 7; -among which in A.D. 1095 is a county that afterwards expands into the -kingdom of Portugal, ib. - -Arnold’s _History of Rome_: reference to, 4 - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -Australia: in the fifteenth century is entirely unknown to Europeans, 4 - -d’Azambuja, Diogo: in January 1482 founds São Jorge da Mina, 25 - - -de Barros, João: _Da Asia_, reference to, 14 - -Basques, the: occupy the Iberian peninsula, 4; are exterminated or -driven by the Celts into the Pyrenees, 5 - -Beazley’s _Prince Henry the Navigator, the Hero of Portugal and of -Modern Discovery_: reference to, 14 - -Belief of seamen at the beginning of the fifteenth century as to the -ocean beyond Cape Nun, 13 - -Bragança: creation of the first duke of by Affonso V, 9 - -Busk’s _History of Spain and Portugal_: reference to, 4 - - -Cabral, Gonçalo Velho: in 1432 discovers the island Santa Maria in the -Azores, 15 - -Caliph of Cordova: is for a time the supreme authority in the Iberian -peninsula, 6 - -Caliph of Damascus: for a time is ruler of the Iberian peninsula, 6 - -Cam, Diogo: in 1484 reaches the mouth of the Congo, 16; in 1485 sets up -a marble pillar on Cape Cross in latitude 22° S., ib. - -Cape Blanco: in 1441 is reached by Nuno Tristão, 15 - -Cape Bojador: in 1434 is passed by Gil Eannes, 15 - -Cape Correntes: before A.D. 1500 is the southern terminus of ordinary -navigation by the Persians and Arabs, owing to fear of danger beyond it, -11 - -Cape Nun: belief of seamen as to the ocean beyond, 13 - -Cape Verde: in 1444 or 1445 is discovered and named by Diniz Dias, 15 - -Carthaginians: occupy stations in the southern part of the Iberian -peninsula, 5; from which in B.C. 206 they are expelled by the Romans, 5 - -de Castanheda, Fernão Lopes: _Descobrimento e Conquista da India pelos -Portuguezes_, reference to, 17 - -Celts: occupation of the Iberian peninsula by, 5 - -Ceuta, opposite Gibraltar: in 1415 is taken by the Portuguese from the -Moors, 9 - -de Cinta, Pedro: in 1461 reaches Cape Palmas, 16 - -[Sidenote: Synoptical Index.] - -Commerce between Europe and India before A.D. 1500: mode of conducting, -3 - -Compass, the: use of in Western Europe in the early years of the -fifteenth century, 12 - -Convicts: use made of by the Portuguese, 18 - -Cross set up by Bartholomeu Dias at Angra Pequena: destruction of, 20 - - -Dias, Bartholomeu: in August 1486 sails from the Tagus, 17; near the -equator leaves his storeship behind, 19; reaches Angra dos Ilheos, now -called Angra Pequena, where he sets up a marble pillar, ib.; touches -next at Angra das Voltas, 20; passes the Cape of Good Hope without -knowing it, 21; and reaches Angra dos Vaqueiros, probably the present -Mossel Bay, ib.; where he sees Hottentots with cattle, but cannot -communicate with them, as they flee inland in fear, ib.; sails eastward -and reaches an island in the bay now called Algoa, on which he erects a -cross, 22; visits the mainland and examines it eastward to a prominent -rock, which receives the name Penedo das Fontes on account of two -springs of water found there, ib.; here the seamen protest against going -farther, but he induces them to persevere a little longer, 23; reaches -the mouth of a river which he names the Infante, ib.; there the -expedition turns back, 24; when returning he discovers the Cape of Good -Hope, and erects a cross somewhere on the Cape peninsula, ib.; rejoins -his storeship, which he burns, ib.; touches next at Prince’s Island in -the bight of Biafra, 25; where he finds some Portuguese in distress, and -takes them on board his ship, ib.; visits São Jorge da Mina, where he -takes some gold on board, ib.; and in December 1487 reaches Lisbon -again, ib. - -Discovery of an ocean route between Europe and India: effect of, 3 - - -Eastern Asia: in the early years of the fifteenth century is very -imperfectly known to Europeans, 4 - -Edrisi: incorrect map of South Africa of, 4 - -Egypt: before A.D. 1517 is independent, but in that year is reduced to -be a Turkish province, 3 - -English crusaders: assist the Portuguese against the Moslems, 7 - - -Fogaça, João: in 1487 is commander of São Jorge da Mina, 25 - - -Genoese: visit Madeira and even the Canary islands before the -Portuguese, 15 - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -Geographical ignorance in Europe in the early years of the fifteenth -century, 4 - -Gibbon’s _Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire_: references to, 4 and 11 - -de Goes, Damião: _Chronica do Felicissimo Rei Dom Emanuel da Gloriosa -Memoria_, reference to, 17 - -Goths: see Visigoths - -Greeks: are supposed to have formed trading stations on the coast of -Portugal, 5 - - -Habrão, Rabbi: travels of, 26 - -Henrique, a Burgundian noble, in A.D. 1095 becomes first count of -Portugal, 7 - -Henrique, the Infante Dom, commonly known to Englishmen as Prince Henry -the Navigator: is third son of King João I and Philippa of Lancaster, -13; prosecutes maritime exploration as much as possible, ib.; -establishes himself at Sagres with this object, 14; in 1460 dies, 16 - - -Indian commerce with Europe: route of before A.D. 1500, 3 - -Indians: in early times knew more than Europeans of the geography of -Africa, 11 - -_Indice Chronologico das Navegações, Viagens, Descobrimentos, e -Conquistas dos Portuguezes nos Paizes Ultramarinos desde o Principio do -Seculo XV_: references to, 14 and 26 - - -Jayne, K. G.: _Vasco da Gama and his Successors_: reference to, 32 - -João I, grand master of the order of Saint Benedict of Avis: in A.D. -1385 is elected by the cortes king of Portugal, 9; is assisted against -Castile by John of Gaunt, whose daughter he marries, ib.; enters into a -treaty of close friendship with England, ib. - -João II: breaks the power of the feudal nobles of Portugal, and becomes -an absolute monarch, 10 - -Josepe, a Portuguese Jew: travels of, 26 - - -Kings of Portugal before A.D. 1500, succession of: Affonso I, Sancho I, -Affonso II, Sancho II, Affonso III, Diniz, Affonso IV, Pedro, Fernando, -with whom the Burgundian dynasty came to an end; João I, of the dynasty -of Avis, Duarte, Affonso V, João II, Emanuel. - -[Sidenote: Synoptical Index.] - - -Legends of vessels having been carried by storms and currents from the -Indian to the Atlantic ocean, 12 - -de Lima, Dom Rodrigo: in 1515 proceeds to Abyssinia as ambassador of the -king of Portugal, 27 - -Lisbon: is supposed by some historians to have been founded by a -Hellenic colony, 5 - - -Madeira: in 1420 is visited by Portuguese explorers, 14; in 1425 a -commencement in colonising the island is made, 15 - -Major’s _Discoveries of Prince Henry the Navigator and their Results_: -reference to, 14 - -Maps of South Africa by Ptolemy and Edrisi: incorrectness of, 4 - -Mozambique current: at Cape Correntes runs southward with great -velocity, 11 - - -_Narrative of Voyages to explore the Shores of Africa, Arabia and -Madagascar, performed in H.M. Ships Leven and Barracouta under the -direction of Captain W. F. W. Owen, R.N._: reference to, 20 - -Negro slaves: in 1443 the first are brought to Portugal by Nuno Tristão, -15 - - -Ocean route between Europe and India: effect of the discovery of, 3 - -Ourique: battle of, 7 - - -de Paiva, Affonso: in May 1487 leaves Santarem to search for Prester -John, 26; proceeds to Naples, Rhodes, Alexandria, Cairo, Tor, Suakin, -and Aden, and then to Abyssinia, ib.; dies in the East, ib. - -Palæolithic men in Portugal: relics of, 4 - -Pereira, Duarte Pacheco: is found by Bartholomeu Dias in distress at -Prince’s Island, and is taken by him to Lisbon, 25; is author of a -volume termed _Esmeraldo de Situ Orbis_, 31 and 32 - -Perestrello, Bartholomeu: voyages of, 14 - -_Periplus of the Erythrean Sea_: reference to, 11 - -Persians: before A.D. 1500 know more than Europeans of the geography of -Africa, 11 - -Phœnicians: occupy stations in the southern part of the Iberian -peninsula, 5 - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -Pires, João, of Covilhão: in May 1487 leaves Santarem to search for -Prester John, 26; proceeds to Naples, Rhodes, Alexandria, Cairo, Tor, -Suakin, and Aden, then crosses the Indian ocean to Cananor, Calicut, and -Goa, passes over to Sofala, and back to Aden and Cairo, ib.; where he -receives further orders from Portugal, and proceeds to Aden and Ormuz, -thence back by way of Aden to Abyssinia, where he is detained till his -death, 27 - -Po, Fernando: in 1471 crosses the equator, 16 - -Porto Santo: discovery of, 14 - -Portugal: outline of the early history of, 4; primitive inhabitants of, -ib.; is occupied by the Basques, ib.; who are followed by the Celts, 5; -the country is conquered by the Romans, ib.; and becomes Romanised in -civilisation, religion, and language, ib.; in the fifth century of our -era is overrun by the Visigoths, who establish themselves as an -aristocracy in the country, 6; in the eighth century the Arabs conquer -the whole peninsula except the territory occupied by the Basques, ib.; -in A.D. 1095 the northern portion of Portugal becomes independent of the -Arabs, 7; and in 1143 is acknowledged by Pope Innocent II as an -independent kingdom, ib.; it is called Portugal from o Porto, the port -at the mouth of the Douro, ib.; it is gradually enlarged until 1263, -when it attains its present dimensions, 8; it is favourably situated for -prosecuting discovery by sea, 4; but in the early years of the fifteenth -century it has not much shipping, ib. - -Prester John, a mythical potentate: reference to, 18 - -Ptolemy: incorrect map of South Africa of, 4 and 24 - - -Ravenstein, E. G.: paper in the _Geographical Journal_ by, entitled _The -Voyages of Diogo Cão and Bartholomeu Dias_, 1482-88, 28 _et seq._ - -Romans: establish their authority in the Iberian peninsula, 5 - - -São Jorge da Mina: is established in January 1482, and is the first -permanent settlement of the Portuguese on the western coast of Africa. -It is now called Elmina, and is a British possession, 25 - -Ships of the fifteenth century: description of, 12 - -Slave trade: is ruinous to Portugal, 16 - -Stephens’ _History of Portugal_: reference to, 4 - -Stone implements: are found in Portugal of very crude workmanship, 4 - -Suevi, the: in the fifth century of our era invade the Iberian -peninsula, where their descendants still remain, 6 - -[Sidenote: Synoptical Index.] - - -Tangier: in 1437 the Portuguese are repulsed in an attack upon, 9 - -Toro: battle of, 10 - - -Vandals: in the fifth century of our era invade the Iberian peninsula, -but are afterwards driven by the Visigoths into Africa, 6 - -Vas, Tristão: voyage of, 14 - -Venetians: before A.D. 1500 are the distributors of Indian products over -Europe, 3 - -Vidal, Captain: reference to, 20 - -Visigoths, the: in the fifth century of our era occupy the Iberian -peninsula, where their descendants still remain, 6 - -_Voyage of Nearchus_: reference to, 11 - - -Zarco, João Gonçalves: voyage of, 14 - - -SKETCH II. - -Adolf of Nassau, brother of William prince of Orange: death of in -battle, 58 - -Agoada de São Bras of the Portuguese: is now called Mossel Bay, 122 - -Albert, Cardinal Archduke: in January 1596 becomes governor-general of -the submissive Netherlands, 110; administration of, ib. et seq.; in 1621 -dies, 152 - -Alkmaar: unsuccessful siege of by the Spaniards, 68 - -Alva, duke of: in 1567 is sent by Philippe II to the Netherlands with a -strong Spanish army, 56; murderous administration of, 56 to 70; in -December 1573 leaves the Netherlands, 70 - -Amsterdam, city of: on the 8th of February 1578 is gained by the -patriots, 87; in later years has a preponderating influence in the -government of the East India Company, 133 - -Ango, Jean: in 1527 sends three ships from Dieppe to India, 36; but they -are all lost, ib.; in 1529 assists in sending two others to India, 37; -but this venture is also unfortunate, ib. - -Anjou, duke of: in 1581 is elected their sovereign by twelve of the -Netherland provinces, 93; on the 17th of February 1582 is inaugurated at -Antwerp, 94; acts in a perfidious and violent manner, 95; is obliged to -flee from Antwerp, ib.; returns to Paris, and in June 1584 dies, 96 - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -Antwerp: description of the city, 80; in November 1576 it is pillaged by -Spanish troops, ib.; it is besieged by the duke of Parma, and on the -17th of August 1585 is obliged to capitulate, 100 - -Antwerp cathedral: in August 1566 is greatly injured by a party of -fanatics, 55 - -Antwerp citadel: is constructed by the duke of Alva to overawe the -townspeople, 57 - -Artois, count of: before 1544 admits the precedence in rank of the kings -of France, 44 - -Artois, province of: in 1544 comes under the government of the emperor -Charles V, 48; after taking part in the resistance to Spanish tyranny, -on the 17th of May 1579, with Hainaut and Lille, is reconciled to -Philippe II, and for ever lost to the patriot cause, 88 - -d’Ataide, Dom Estevão: in 1607 successfully defends Fort São Sebastião -at Mozambique against the Dutch under Paulus van Caerden, 139; and also -in 1608 against a stronger Dutch force under Pieter Willemszoon -Verhoeff, 146 - -_Atlas of Mercator and Hondius_: reference to, 50 - -_Atlas_ of Ortelius: reference to, 50 - -d’Avila, Don Juan Alvarez, Spanish admiral: on the 25th of April 1607 is -killed in the great battle in Gibraltar Bay, 151 - -Azores, the: in 1466 are presented by Affonso V of Portugal to his aunt -the duchess of Burgundy, 46; they are thereafter termed the Flemish -islands until 1640, when they revert to Portugal, ib. - - -Baffin, William, the famous Arctic navigator: in 1620 visits Table -Valley, 159 - -Bali: is visited by the first Dutch expedition to India, 123 - -Bantam: is visited by the first Dutch expedition to India, 123 - -Barendszoon, Willem: in 1594 explores the polar seas in search of a -passage to China, but finds the way blocked by ice, 116; in 1595 makes -another attempt, but again without success, 117; in 1596 tries again, -passes the winter in Nova Zembla, and dies when attempting to return -home, 117 and 118 - -Batavi, the, a Nether Teuton tribe: about a century before the Christian -era take possession of the territory between the extreme forks of the -Rhine, 42 - -Beggars: in 1566 the title is adopted by the patriot party in the -Netherlands, 55 - -[Sidenote: Synoptical Index.] - -_Begin ende Voortgangh van de Vereenighde Nederlantsche Geoctroyeerde -Oost Indische Compagnie_: references to, 117 and 122 - -Belgium: in 1624, after the death of the archduchess Isabella, passes -again under the direct rule of Spain, 152; successive diminutions of -territory since that date, ib.; on the 7th of September 1714 it is ceded -to the emperor Charles VI, ib. - -Bergen-op-Zoom: is besieged by Alexander Farnese, but in November 1588 -the siege is raised, 108 - -Biesbosch, the: in 1421 is formed, 43 - -Bilderdyk’s _Geschiedenis des Vaderlands_: reference to, 41 - -Bishops: are greatly increased in number in the Netherlands by Philippe -II of Spain, in order to extend the inquisition, 52 - -Blok’s _History of the People of the Netherlands_: references to, 41, -50, 52, and 71 - -Boisot, Louis, admiral of Zeeland: in January 1574 destroys a Spanish -flotilla in the Schelde, 72; and part of another Spanish flotilla at -Antwerp, 74; commands the flotilla that relieves Leyden, 75 and 76; in -June 1575 loses his life in attempting to relieve Zierikzee, 78 - -_Bom Jesus_, Portuguese galleon: in August 1608 is captured by the Dutch -near Mozambique, 147 - -Bossu, count of, admiral of a Spanish fleet: in October 1573 is defeated -by the Sea Beggars in a desperate battle in the Zuyder Zee, 69 - -Both, Pieter: in 1599 commands an expedition sent to India, 125; in -November 1609 is appointed first governor-general of Netherlands India, -149; and in December 1610 assumes the duty at Bantam, 150 - -Boulger’s _History of Belgium_: reference to, 42 - -Breda, town of: on the 4th of March 1590 is gained by the patriots, 108 - -Brill, town of: in 1572 is seized by the Sea Beggars under William de la -Marck, 62; when revolting cruelties are perpetrated upon their -opponents, 63; the town is thereafter held by the patriots, ib.; from -1585 to 1616 it is occupied by English troops as security for the -payment of money lent to the patriots by Queen Elizabeth, 101 and 115 - -Bruges: before A.D. 1500 is the emporium of the Italian merchants for -Indian products, 45; in May 1584 it is betrayed to the Spaniards, 96 - -Brussels: on the 13th of March 1585 capitulates to the Spaniards, 100 - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - - -Cabires: the horde of Bantu so called by the Portuguese invade the -territory of the monomotapa and lay it waste, 136; the Portuguese go to -the assistance of the Kalanga chief, but are defeated and obliged to -retire, ib. - -van Caerden, Paulus: in 1601 gives Mossel Bay its present name, 126; in -March 1607 with a strong force attacks Mozambique, 139; but in May is -obliged to give up the attempt to get possession of it, 143 - -Cæsar: conquers the Celtic portion of the Netherlands and also compels -the Frisians to pay tribute, but admits the Batavi to an alliance with -Rome, 43 - -Calais: is taken by the French from the English in the reign of Queen -Mary, 51 - -Candish, Thomas: in 1586-1588 sails round the world, 40 - -Charlemagne: in the eighth century of our era becomes sovereign of the -Netherlands, 44 - -Charles V, Emperor: from his Burgundian ancestors inherits the -sovereignty of all the Netherlands except Gelderland, Utrecht, the -Frisian provinces, Liege, Artois, and Flanders, 48; in 1524 he adds -Friesland to his dominions, in 1528 Overyssel and Utrecht, in 1536 -Groningen and Drenthe, in 1543 Gelderland, and in 1544 Flanders and -Artois, ib.; so that in and after 1544 the whole country, with the -exception of the bishopric of Liege, is united under one monarch with -Spain, 49; character of his government, ib.; in October 1555 he -abdicates, and his son Philippe II of Spain becomes sovereign of all the -Netherland provinces except Liege, 51 - -Churches in the Southern Netherlands: violation of, 55 - -Coligny, Admiral: murder of, 65 - -Commencement of the struggle of the Netherlands against Spain, 58 - -Convicts sent from England to South Africa: account of, 165 - -_Corbin_, the: in 1601 sails from St. Malo to India, but in July 1602 is -lost at the Maldives, 37 - -Cory, a Hottentot taken to England and made much of there: account of, -163 and 164 - -Council of Blood: is established at Brussels by the duke of Alva, 57 - -de Couto’s _Da Asia_: references to, 122 and 128 - -_Croissant_, the: in 1601 sails from St. Malo to India, but is lost on -her homeward passage, 37 - -Crusades, the: have a beneficial effect upon the Netherlands, 45 - -[Sidenote: Synoptical Index.] - - -Danish ships: in 1619 first visit Table Bay, 168 - -Dassen (Conies) Island: in 1605 receives its name, 156 - -Davis, John: in 1598 sails to India in the Dutch service, 123; in 1601 -visits Table Bay on his second voyage to India, 155; and again in 1605 -on his third outward passage, ib.; in December of this year he is killed -by Japanese pirates, ib. - -Dendermonde: on the 17th of August 1584 is reconciled to Philippe II, -and is thereafter lost to the patriot cause, 98 - -Deventer: on the 29th of January 1587 is betrayed by Sir William Stanley -to Spain, 104; on the 10th of June 1591 is recovered by the patriots, -109 - -Dias, Estevão: career of, 36 and 37 - -Dirkszoon, Cornelis: in October 1573 gains a great victory in a naval -battle with a Spanish fleet, 69 - -Disastrous encounters with Hottentots in Table Valley, 163 - -Dollart, the: in 1277 is formed, 43 - -Don John of Austria: in 1576 is appointed by Philippe II -governor-general of the Netherlands, 82; on the 3rd of May 1577 takes -the oaths of office at Brussels, 84; administration of, 84 to 88; on the -1st of October 1578 dies, 88 - -Drake, Sir Francis: in 1577-1580 makes his celebrated voyage round the -world, 38 and 39; in April 1587 destroys a great Spanish fleet in the -harbour of Cadiz and another in the Tagus, 106 - -Drenthe: particulars concerning the province of, 90 - -Dutch East India Company: causes of the formation of, 130; in March 1602 -comes into existence, ib.; conditions of the charter granted by the -states-general, ib.; capital of the Company, 132; its advantage to the -State, 132; later modifications of the charter, 133 - -Dutch ships in Spanish ports: in 1598 are seized and confiscated, 116 - - -Egmont, count of: wins the great battles of St. Quentin and Gravelines -for Philippe II, 51; execution of, 59 - -English convicts sent to South Africa: account of, 165 - -English ships: in 1591 for the first time visit Table Bay, 40 - -Ernest, archduke: in January 1594 becomes governor-general of the -submissive Netherlands, 109; on the 20th of February 1595 dies, 110 - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - - -Farnese, Alexander, prince of Parma: on the 31st of January 1578 -annihilates the patriot army at Gemblours, 86; in October 1578 becomes -governor-general of the Netherlands, 88; administration of, 88 to 109; -in 1590 goes to France with a strong army to assist the duke of Mayenne -against Henry of Navarre, 108; but after breaking the blockade of Paris -returns to the Netherlands, ib.; on the 3rd of December 1592 dies, 109 - -Fitch, Ralph: travels of, 39 and 40 - -Fitzherbert and Shillinge, two English commodores: in 1620 in Table -Valley proclaim the sovereignty of James I of England over Africa to the -dominions of another Christian prince, 159 and 160; but this is not -confirmed in England, 160 - -Flanders, count of: before 1544 admits the precedence in rank of the -kings of France, 44; in that year the province becomes subject to the -emperor Charles V, 48 - -Flushing: is the second town in the Netherlands to be seized and -permanently held by the patriots, 63; which event is followed by other -important successes, 64; from 1585 to 1616 it is occupied by English -troops as security for the payment of debt to England, 101 and 115 - -French, the: are the first to follow the Portuguese by sea to India, 36 - -French East India Company: in 1604 is established on paper, but gets no -further, 37; in 1615 it is reorganised, and in 1617 sends an expedition -to India, which is successful, ib. - -French ships: towards the middle of the seventeenth century occasionally -visit the islands in and near Saldanha Bay to procure sealskins and oil, -38 - -Frisians, the: in A.D. 750 accept Christianity, 44 - - -Gemblours: battle of, 86 - -_General Collection of Treatys, Manifesto’s, Contracts of Marriage, -Renunciations, and other Publick Papers, from the year 1495 to the year -1712_: references to, 101, 102, 106, 111, 113, 115, 153, and 161 - -Ghent: atrocious conduct of the fanatical party in the city, 88; on the -17th of September 1584 it is reconciled to Philippe II, and is -thereafter lost to the patriot cause, 98 - -Giedde, Ove, Danish admiral: in 1619 and again in 1621 visits Table Bay, -168 - -[Sidenote: Synoptical Index.] - -Granvelle, Cardinal: is agent of Philippe II in the Netherlands, 52; is -detested by the people, 53; in 1564 leaves the Netherlands, ib. - -Grave: in September 1602 is gained by the patriots, 114 - -Groen van Prinsterer’s _Handboek der Geschiedenis van het Vaderland_: -reference to, 42 - -Groningen, town of: in March 1580 is betrayed to the Spaniards, 92; on -the 22nd of July 1594 is recovered by the patriots, 110 - - -Haarlem, siege of, 67; on the 12th of July 1573 the city is taken by the -Spaniards, ib. - -van der Hagen, Steven: in 1599 commands an expedition sent to India, -125; in December 1603 leaves Holland for India as admiral of a powerful -fleet, 136; in June 1604 attacks Mozambique, ib.; but in August is -obliged to retire without success, 137; in February 1605 gets possession -of the Portuguese fort on Amboina, ib. - -Hainaut, Artois, and Lille, provinces of: on the 17th of May 1579 are -reconciled to Philippe II, and for ever lost to the patriot cause, 88 - -van Heemskerk, Jacob: in 1595 accompanies Willem Barendszoom on his -second polar expedition, 117; and again in 1596 on his third and last, -ib.; in 1598 goes to India in the fleet under Jacob van Nek, 124; in -April 1601 leaves Holland on his second voyage to India as admiral of a -fleet of eight ships, 129; captures a very richly laden carrack, ib.; on -the 25th of April 1607 with a greatly inferior force attacks a powerful -Spanish fleet in Gibraltar Bay, and utterly destroys it, 151; but is -killed in the engagement, ib. - -Hendrik of Nassau, brother of William prince of Orange: death of in -battle, 74 - -Hermanszoon, Wolfert: in 1601 commands a fleet sent to India, 128; -attacks a large Portuguese fleet under André Furtado de Mendoça -besieging Bantam, ib.; and compels Mendoça to retire, 129; enters into a -commercial treaty with the ruler of Bantam, ib.; and with the ruler of -Banda, ib. - -Holland and Zeeland, provinces of: in June 1575 unite in a kind of loose -confederation, 77; in October 1575 renounce allegiance to Philippe II, -79 - -Hoorn, Count: execution of, 59 - -Hottentots: dealings with by the first English visitors to South Africa, -40; are seen and described by the first Dutch voyagers to India, 122; -disgusting food of, 157 - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -Houtman, Cornelis: in 1595 is in command of the first Dutch expedition -to India, 121; in 1598 commands another expedition to India, 123; and is -murdered at Atchin, 124 - -Hunebedden: description of, 42 - - -Indian trade: number of Dutch ships engaged in before 1602, 129 - -Inquisition in the Netherlands: particulars concerning, 49, 53, and 54 - -Inundation: in 1570 causes terrible loss of life and property in the -Northern Netherlands, 60 - -Invincible Spanish Armada: in 1588 is destroyed, 107 - -Isabella, Archduchess, daughter of Philippe II: in May 1598 becomes -sovereign of the submissive Netherlands, and in April 1599 marries the -archduke Albert, 113; on the 30th of November 1623 dies, 152 - - -James I, king of England: for a short time after his accession favours -the Dutch, but in 1604 he enters into a treaty of peace and alliance -with Spain, 115 - -de Jonge’s _De Opkomst van het Nederlandsch Gezag in Oost Indie_: -reference to, 122 - -Jourdain, John: gives an account of his visits to Table Valley in 1608 -and 1617, 156, 157, and 164 - - -Lancaster, Captain James: in 1591 visits Table Bay, 41; as admiral of -the first fleet fitted out by the English East India Company in -September 1601 again calls at Table Bay, 155 - -Leades, William: travels of, 39 - -_Leeven en Daden der Doorlughtige Zee-Helden_: reference to, 78 - -Leicester, earl of: is appointed by Queen Elizabeth lieutenant-general -of the English forces in the Netherlands, and on the 19th of December -1585 arrives and assumes duty, 102; conduct of, 102 to 106; in December -1587 leaves the Netherlands, 106 - -Lepanto: battle of, 82 - -Leyden: first siege of, 73; second siege and heroic defence of from the -26th of May to the 3rd of October 1574, when the city is relieved by -Admiral Boisot, 74, 75, and 76 - -Liege, province of: particulars concerning, 51, 52, and 154 - -Lille, with Douai and Orchies, Artois, and Hainaut, provinces of: on the -17th of May 1579 are reconciled to Philippe II, and for ever lost to the -patriot cause, 88 - -[Sidenote: Synoptical Index.] - -van Linschoten, Jan Huyghen: in 1583 goes to India in the service of the -archbishop of Goa, 118; and remains there until January 1589, 119; after -his return to Holland publishes sailing directions, a description of the -Indies, &c., which serve as guides for his countrymen, ib.; in 1594 -accompanies Willem Barendszoon in his first polar voyage, 117 - -Louis of Nassau, brother of William prince of Orange: death of in -battle, 74 - - -Maastricht: siege and destruction of by Alexander Farnese, 91 - -Madura: is visited by the first Dutch expedition to India, 123 - -le Maire, Isaac: in May 1611 visits Table Bay, 154 - -Mandeville, Sir John: note on, 38 - -Manufactures: are driven from the Netherlands by persecution, 54 - -de la Marck, William: exploits of, 62 - -Margaret of Parma: in 1559 becomes regent of the Netherlands, 52; -administration of, 52 to 58 - -Massacre of Saint Bartholomew in August 1572: has disastrous effects on -the patriot cause in the Netherlands, 65 - -Matelief, Cornelis: in May 1605 leaves Holland for India as admiral of a -fleet, 138; attempts to get possession of Malacca, but without success, -ib.; builds Fort Orange on the island of Ternate, and places a garrison -in it, ib.; in April 1608 calls at Table Bay on his homeward passage, -and remains there till June, 139 - -Matthias of Hapsburg: in January 1578 becomes nominally governor-general -of the Netherlands provinces on the invitation of a party of nobles, but -has no real power, 86; in 1581 returns to Germany, 93 - -Maurits of Nassau, second son of William prince of Orange: in 1584 -commences his career, 98 - -Mechlin: a court of appeal for all the provinces is established here by -the duke of Burgundy, 46; ferocious treatment of the city by the duke of -Alva, 65; on the 19th of July 1585 it capitulates to the Spaniards, 100 - -de Mendoça, André Furtado: in 1601 is in command of a large Portuguese -fleet besieging Bantam, 128; when he is attacked by a puny Dutch fleet -under Wolfert Hermanszoon, ib.; which forces him to raise the blockade, -129; he causes great destruction at Amboina, ib.; successfully defends -Malacca against Cornelis Matelief, 138 - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -Michelburne, Sir Edward: in 1605 visits Table Bay, 155 - -Middelburg: in February 1574 after a long siege is surrendered to the -patriots by Colonel Christopher Mondragon, 73 - -Mondragon, a French corsair: in 1507 seizes a Portuguese ship in the -Mozambique channel, 36; in 1509 he is captured by the Portuguese and is -taken as a prisoner to Lisbon, ib.; where he manages to make his peace -with the king, ib. - -Montigny, Baron; murder of, 60 - -Mookerheyde: disastrous battle of in April 1574, 74 - -Mossel Bay: is touched at by the first Dutch expedition to India, 122; -in 1601 receives its present name from Paulus van Caerden, 126 - -Motley’s _Rise of the Dutch Republic_, and _History of the United -Netherlands to the Twelve Years’ Truce, 1609_: references to, 41 and 78 - -Mozambique: description of in 1583, 120; is coveted by the Dutch, owing -to rumours of the great quantity of gold to be had on the mainland, 135; -in June 1604 is attacked by Steven van der Hagen, 136; but in August he -is obliged to leave without success, 137; in March 1607 is attacked by -Paulus van Caerden, 139; Fort São Sebastião is bravely defended by Dom -Estevão d’Ataide, 141; and in May Van Caerden is obliged to abandon the -effort to take it, 143; in July 1608 it is attacked for the third time -by the Dutch under Pieter Willemszoon Verhoeff, 144; but in August the -siege is abandoned, 147 - -Municipal Charters: in A.D. 1217 the first of these in the Northern -Netherlands is obtained by the town of Middelburg in Zeeland, 45 - -Mutinies of Spanish troops: account of, 79 to 81, and 111 - - -Naarden: in 1572 is destroyed by the Spaniards, 66 - -Negotiations for the alliance of the Dutch and English East India -Companies: particulars concerning, 161 and 162 - -van Nek, Jacob: successful voyage to India of, 124 - -Netherlands: the territory of the Northern Provinces is the last -occupied on the continent of Europe, 42; no traces of palæolithic men -are found there, ib.; the Celts are the earliest known inhabitants, ib.; -the Batavi, a Nether Teuton tribe, come next, ib.; the Frisians occupy -the territory farther north, 43; palæolithic implements in great -abundance are found in the southern provinces, 42; which in the earliest -historical times are occupied by Celts, 43; at the time of the Roman -invasion the extreme north is occupied by Teutons, the extreme south by -Celts, and the centre by the two races intermingled, ib.; the country -is conquered by Cæsar and the Frisians are compelled to pay tribute, but -the Batavi are admitted to an alliance with Rome, ib.; some centuries -later on the fall of the Roman empire, other Teutonic tribes enter the -country, 44; when the Franks conquer the Romanised Celtic territory in -the south, ib.; in A.D. 785 the conquest of the whole country is -completed by Charlemagne, ib.; under his feeble successors it is broken -up into a number of petty states independent of each other, ib.; which -in course of time become prosperous through manufactures, commerce, and -the fisheries, 45; the towns are able to obtain, mostly by purchase from -their sovereigns, charters conferring extensive powers of self -government, ib.; in 1437 through various causes many of the provinces or -separate states come under the dominion of Philippe duke of Burgundy, -46; in 1477 the “Great Privilege” is granted by Mary of Burgundy, 47; -who marries Maximilian of Hapsburg, and leaves a son, Philippe by name, -as sovereign of the Burgundian Netherlands, 48; this Philippe marries -the eldest daughter of the Spanish monarchs Ferdinand of Aragon and -Isabella of Castile, and in 1500 has a son born to him, who becomes the -emperor Charles V, ib.; Charles inherits the sovereignty of all the -Netherland provinces except Gelderland, Utrecht, the Frisian provinces, -Liege, Flanders, and Artois, ib.; by 1544 all of the provinces except -Liege are under his rule, 49; enumeration of the provinces, 50; in 1555 -on the abdication of Charles V all of the provinces except Liege come -under the sovereignty of his son Philippe II of Spain, 51; under whose -rule they are treated with such cruelty that they rise in rebellion -against him, 51 et seq. - -[Sidenote: Synoptical Index.] - -Newbery, John: travels of, 39 - -Nieuwpoort: battle of, 113 - -van Noort, Olivier: in 1598-1601 is the first Netherlander to sail round -the world, 124 and 125 - -Nymegen: on the 21st of October 1591 surrenders to the patriots, 109 - - -Ostend: on the 5th of July 1601 is besieged by the archduke Albert, but -holds out till the 20th of September 1604, when it is taken by the -marquis Ambrose Spinola, 114 - -Oudewater: in July 1575 is destroyed by the Spaniards, 77 - - -Pacification of Ghent: particulars regarding the, 81 - -Parmentier, Jean: in 1529 commands a French ship sent to India, 37 - -Parmentier, Raoul: in 1529 commands a French ship sent to India, 37 - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -Pereira, Duarte Pacheco: in 1509 captures the French corsair Mondragon, -36 - -Perpetual Edict: particulars concerning the, 83 - -Philippe II of Spain: in 1555 becomes sovereign of all the Netherland -provinces except Liege, 51; his rule is so atrocious that the provinces -rise in rebellion, and in October 1575 the states of Holland and Zeeland -renounce allegiance to him, 79; on the 26th of July 1581 he is formally -abjured by the other provinces in arms against him, 93; on the 6th of -May 1598 he transfers the sovereignty of the Netherlands to his daughter -Isabella, 112; and on the 13th of September of the same year dies, ib. - -Philippe III: in September 1598 succeeds his father as king of Spain, -112 - -Pirenne’s _Histoire de Belgique_: reference to, 42 - -Portugal: in 1580 comes under the authority of Philippe II of Spain, 92 - -Portuguese: before the close of the sixteenth century cease to be -progressive, 35 - -Position of the Dutch in India at the time of the conclusion of the -truce with Spain, 149 - -Protestants: emigration of from the Southern to the Northern Netherland -provinces, 98 and 101 - - -Queen Elizabeth of England: in January 1578 commences to assist the -patriots in the Netherlands, 85; in August 1585 enters into a treaty -with the states, giving them material assistance, 101; on the 24th of -March 1603 dies, 115 - - -Rapid advance of the Dutch in India in 1609, 148 - -Reformation, the: spread of in the Netherlands, 49 and 54 - -Repudiation of the public debt by Philippe II, 110 - -de Requesens, Don Luis: in November 1573 becomes governor and -captain-general of the Netherlands, 70; administration of, 70 to 79; on -the 5th of March 1576 dies, 79 - -Roe, Sir Thomas: in 1615 visits Table Valley, 166 - -Romans, the: confer great benefits upon the Netherlands, 44 - - -Scandinavian pirates: plunder the Netherlands, but do not form -settlements in the country, 45 - -Sluis: is besieged, and in August 1587 is compelled to surrender to the -Spaniards, 105; in August 1604 is recovered by the patriots, 115 - -[Sidenote: Synoptical Index.] - -Sonoy, Diederik: atrocious conduct of at Alkmaar, 77 - -Spanish Fury of Antwerp: account of, 80 and 81 - -Spanish troops: mutinies of, 74 and 113 - -van Spilbergen, Joris: in 1601 commands an expedition sent to India, 127 - -Spinola, the marquis Ambrose: in 1603 becomes commander-in-chief of the -Spanish army in Flanders, 114 - -Stephens, Thomas, an Englishman: in 1579 is rector of the Jesuit college -at Salsette, 38 - -Story, James: travels of, 39 - -Sumatra: is visited by the first Dutch expedition to India, 123 - -Synod of the Reformed churches: in 1572 the first meets at Hoorn; in -1578 the second meets at Dordrecht, 87 - - -Table Bay: in 1601 receives its present name from Joris van Spilbergen, -127 - -Terry’s _Voyage to India_: references to, 163 and 166 - -Teutonic tribes: overrun the Netherlands, 44 - -Treaty of alliance between England, France, and the seven United -Provinces of the Netherlands: on the 31st of October 1596 is entered -into, 111; from which in May 1598 Henry IV of France withdraws, 112; on -the 16th of August 1598 a new treaty of alliance is entered into between -England and the free Netherlands, 112 - -Truce for twelve years between Spain and the Netherlands: on the 9th of -April 1609 is signed at Antwerp, 151 - -Turnhout: rout of a Spanish army at, 111 - - -Union of Brussels: particulars concerning the, 82 - -Union of Utrecht: particulars concerning the, 89 and 90 - -United Netherlands, republic of the: territory of in 1609, at the time -of the twelve years’ truce, 151 and 152 - -Utrecht, bishopric of: is founded by Charlemagne as a fief, 44; in 1579 -ceases to exist, 89 - - -Valenciennes: in 1567 is reduced to submission to Philippe II, 56 - -Valentijn’s _Oud en Nieuw Oost Indien_: reference to, 122 - -Variation of the compass: mention of, 123 and 124 - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -Verhoeff, Pieter Willemszoon: in December 1607 sails from Holland for -India as admiral of a very powerful fleet, 144; and in July 1608 makes -an attack upon Mozambique, ib.; but in August is compelled to abandon -the effort to get possession of Fort São Sebastião, 147; barbarity of -after the great victory in Gibraltar Bay, 151; in May 1609 he and -twenty-nine others are murdered on the island of Neira, 148 - - -van Waerwyk, Wybrand: in June 1602 leaves Holland for India as admiral -of a fleet, 134; in August 1603 establishes a permanent factory at -Bantam, 135; which for several years is regarded as the Dutch head -quarters in the East, ib. - -de Weert, Sebald: in March 1602 is admiral of the first fleet sent out -by the Dutch East India Company, 134; visits Ceylon and makes an -agreement of friendship with the ruler of Kandy, ib.; but commits the -great error of offending the religious feelings of the Cingalese, ib.; -with the result that he and forty-six others are surprised when on shore -and are all put to death, 135 - -William, prince of Orange: is appointed by Philippe II stadholder of -Holland, Zeeland, and Utrecht, 52; becomes the very soul of the struggle -of the provinces for liberty, 52 to 97; on the 15th of March 1580 is -declared an outlaw by Philippe II, and a great reward is offered to any -one who takes his life, 92; on the 10th of July 1584 is murdered at -Delft, 97 - - -Zeeland and Holland, provinces of: in June 1575 unite in a kind of loose -confederation, 77; in October 1575 renounce allegiance to Philippe II, -79 - -Zierikzee: in June 1576 is besieged and taken by the Spaniards, 78 - -Zutphen: treatment of by Don Frederic de Toledo, son of the duke of -Alva, 66; in September 1583 it is betrayed to the Spaniards, 96; on the -23rd of May 1591 it is recovered by the patriots, 109 - -Zuyder Zee: is formed in the thirteenth century of our era, 43 - - -SKETCH III. - -van der Aa’s _Biographisch Woordenboek der Nederlanden_: references to, -173 and 250 - -Appel, Ferdinandus: treatment of by Governor Willem Adriaan van der -Stel, 226; further mention of, 246 - -Arboriculture: instructions of the directors concerning, 188; which are -carried out by the governor, ib. - -[Sidenote: Synoptical Index.] - -van Assenburgh, Louis: is appointed to succeed Willem Adriaan van der -Stel as governor, 241; in January 1708 arrives and assumes the duty, 246 - - -Bek, Rev. Hendrik: in May 1702 becomes clergyman of Drakenstein, 198; in -April 1707 is transferred to Stellenbosch, 200 - -Bogaert, Abraham: takes charge of the document containing the complaints -of the burghers, 228 - -Bogaert’s _Historisch Verhaal_: reference to, 211 - -le Boucq, Rev. Engelbertus: account of, 199 - -van Brakel, Jacobus: treatment of by Governor Willem Adriaan van der -Stel, 230, 232, and 242 - -Bushmen: particulars concerning, 188, 194 et seq. - -van der Byl, Pieter: treatment of by Governor Willem Adriaan van der -Stel, 226; further mention of, 246 - - -Charges against Governor Willem Adriaan van der Stel: list of, 221 - -Church building: in January 1704 the first in Capetown is opened for -use, 198 - -Cloete, Jacob: treatment of by Governor Willem Adriaan van der Stel, 229 - -Colonists: at the beginning of the eighteenth century are rapidly -increasing in number, 204 - -Company’s garden in Capetown: particulars concerning, 190 - -Condition of the Cape settlement when Willem Adriaan van der Stel -becomes governor, 181 - -Constantia farm: on the 13th of July 1685 is granted to Commander Simon -van der Stel by the lord of Mydrecht, 179 - -Conterman, Hans Jacob: treatment of by Governor Willem Adriaan van der -Stel, 227 - -Corruption: at the beginning of the eighteenth century is generally -prevalent in the East India Company’s service, 205; means adopted to -prevent it, 206 - -Council of Policy: during the administration of Governor Willem Adriaan -van der Stel meetings are only held at long intervals, 215 - - -Drakenstein: is settled under Simon van der Stel’s supervision, 177 - -Du Bois’s _Vies des Gouverneurs Generaux_: reference to, 173 - -Dutch and German settlers: are sent to South Africa from 1700 to 1707, -when emigration is stopped, 185 - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - - -Ecclesiastical matters: particulars concerning, 197 et seq. - -Effect of Governor Willem Adriaan van der Stel’s tyranny in blending the -Dutch and French sections of the community, 249 - -Elberts, Jan: treatment of by Governor Willem Adriaan van der Stel, 230 - -Elberts, Nicolaas: treatment of by Governor Willem Adriaan van der Stel, -230 - -Elsevier, Samuel, the secunde: is in illegal possession of a tract of -land near Klapmuts, 216; is charged by the burghers with carrying on -farming and neglecting his duty, 222; is dismissed from office by the -directors, and in April 1708 leaves the colony, 247 - -Expedition to Natal in 1705: account of, 202 - -Extent of the Cape settlement when Simon van der Stel becomes commander, -177 - - -Fouché, Professor Leo: copies and publishes portions of the journal of -Adam Tas, 183 - -French Hoek: is settled under Simon van der Stel’s supervision, 177 - -French language in South Africa: particulars concerning, 198 - - -Goodwin, Vaughan, an Englishman: in 1705 is found living at Port Natal, -202 - -Grazing farms: occupation of, 193 - -Grevenbroek, Jan Willem: mention of, 218 - - -van der Heiden, Jacobus: treatment of by Governor Willem Adriaan van der -Stel, 226 - -van der Heiden and Tas’s _Contra Deductie_: references to, 210, 218, -219, and 248 - -Hertog, Jan, the Company’s master gardener: is in charge of Vergelegen, -210 - -Hottentots: particulars concerning, 195 and 221; trade with by colonists -is prohibited from 1658 to 1699, 191; is then thrown open by the -directors, 192; but in 1703 is again forbidden, 196 - -Huguenot settlers: are sent out in small numbers until 1700, when the -directors resolve not to send any more, 184 - -Huguenots: are in a difficult position in the countries that shelter -them, 184 - -[Sidenote: Synoptical Index.] - -Huising, Henning: in 1700 enters into the first contract to supply meat -to the East India Company, 192; treatment of by Governor Willem Adriaan -van der Stel, 226; is well treated by the directors, 246; further -mention of, 247 - - -Inducements to migrate to South Africa at the beginning of the -eighteenth century, 185 - -Islands of Dina and Marseveen: search for, 188 - - -Kalden, Rev. Petrus, clergyman of Capetown: is in possession of a farm, -216; is charged by the burghers with spending too much time on it and -neglecting his duty, 222; is recalled by the directors, and in April -1708 leaves the colony, 247 - -Kolbe’s _Caput Bonæ Spei_: reference to, 173 - - -van Loon, Rev. Hercules: in April 1700 becomes clergyman of -Stellenbosch, 197; in June 1704 commits suicide, 199 - -Louw, Jacob: treatment of by Governor Willem Adriaan van der Stel, 229 -and 242 - - -Marauding band of Europeans and Hottentots: account of, 200 - -Mauritius, island of: is uninhabited when the Dutch East India Company -sends a small party of men to take possession of it, 171 - -van Meerland, Jan: treatment of by Governor Willem Adriaan van der Stel, -226 - -_Meresteyn_, the: in April 1702 is wrecked on Jutten Island, when many -lives are lost, 200 - -Meyboom, Nicolaas: treatment of by Governor Willem Adriaan van der Stel, -227 - -Meyer, Pierre: treatment of by Governor Willem Adriaan van der Stel, 229 - - -Natal: in 1705 an expedition is sent to, 201 - -Newlands garden: in 1700 is planted by Governor Willem Adriaan van der -Stel, 191 - -van Niekerk, Cornelis: treatment of by Governor Willem Adriaan van der -Stel, 230 - - -Obiqua mountains: reason for being so called, 189 - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - - -du Pré, Hercules: treatment of by Governor Willem Adriaan van der Stel, -230, 232, and 242 - -Pretorius, Wessel: treatment of by Governor Willem Adriaan van der Stel, -226 - - -van Rheede, Hendrik Adriaan, lord of Mydrecht: is sent out by the -directors with all the powers of a dictator to correct abuses in -Hindostan and Ceylon, and has supreme authority conferred upon him while -at the Cape, 177; from the 19th of April to the 16th of July 1685 he is -in Capetown, 178; and three days before he leaves makes a grant to -Commander Simon van der Stel of the farm Constantia at Wynberg as a -reward for his good conduct, 179 - -Roman Catholics: position of in the Cape Colony under the Dutch -government, 182 - -Rotterdam, Jan: treatment of by Governor Willem Adriaan van der Stel, -226; account of his return from banishment, 233 - - -Saar’s _Account of Ceylon_: extract from, 174 - -de Savoye, Jacob: treatment of by Governor Willem Adriaan van der Stel, -229 - -Scarcity of timber and fuel at the Cape in 1699: mention of, 187 - -Seasons, the: from 1698 to 1705 are unfavourable for farming, 204 - -Sheep’s wool: efforts to produce in South Africa in the beginning of the -eighteenth century, 203 - -Silk: experiment in the production of, 204 - -Slaves: are being introduced from Madagascar and Mozambique, 205 - -Spoelstra’s _Bouwstoffen voor de Geschiedenis der -Nederduitsch-Gereformeerde Kerken in Zuid Afrika_: reference to, 217 - -van Staden, Martin: treatment of by Governor Willem Adriaan van der -Stel, 230 - -Starrenburg, Jan, landdrost of Stellenbosch: conduct of, 224; by order -of the directors he is dismissed from office and sent out of the colony, -243 - -van der Stel, Adriaan: in 1623 goes to India in the service of the Dutch -East India Company, 171; in 1638 becomes commander of the island of -Mauritius, ib.; becomes next a military commander, and in that capacity -is sent to Ceylon, 172; on the 19th of May 1646 falls in battle with a -Cingalese army, when nearly his whole force is destroyed, 173 - -[Sidenote: Synoptical Index.] - -van der Stel, Frans, farmer at the Cape and younger brother of the -governor Willem Adriaan van der Stel: makes himself greatly disliked by -the burghers, 217; is required by the directors to leave the colony, and -in April 1708 embarks for Europe, 248 - -van der Stel, Simon: on the 14th of November 1639 is born at Mauritius, -172; at a very early age is sent to Amsterdam to be educated, 175; is -regarded as their protégé by the directors of the East India Company, -ib.; when grown up marries and becomes the father of six children, ib.; -in 1679 is offered the situation of commander of the Cape settlement, -which he gladly accepts, and in October of that year assumes the duty, -176; like all the chief officials he is prohibited from carrying on -farming operations or speculating in cattle, ib.; he must be regarded as -a model ruler, 177; in 1691 he is promoted to be governor, and in 1692 -to be councillor extraordinary of Netherlands India, 179; in February -1699 retires from office, and is succeeded by his eldest son, 180; on -the 24th of June 1712 dies at Constantia, ib. - -van der Stel, Willem Adriaan: in February 1699 succeeds his father as -governor of the Cape Colony and councillor extraordinary of Netherlands -India, 180; has previously held various situations in the colony, 187; -in November 1699 sets out on a tour of inspection of the settlement, -188; makes large profits by dealing in wine, 207; in February 1700 -obtains an illegal grant of four hundred morgen of ground at -Hottentots-Holland from the Commissioner Wouter Valckenier, 208; which -farm he names Vergelegen, 210; and immediately begins to build upon and -cultivate it, ib.; using the Company’s materials and servants for the -purpose, ib.; until it becomes the most highly tilled ground in the -colony, 211; beyond the mountains he holds an immense tract of country, -on which he keeps a great number of horned cattle and sheep, 212; the -utmost care is taken that no information of these matters reaches the -directors, ib.; on the 15th of March 1701 the directors instruct him to -be on guard, as war with France is imminent, ib.; which order he -disobeys by frequent and long absence at Vergelegen, 215; in 1705 some -of the farmers send a complaint against him to the Indian authorities, -219; which is sent back to him for explanation, 220; on receiving it he -immediately concludes that similar charges will be sent to the directors -and that his farming operations will become known to them, 223; to -prevent this, if possible, he resorts to the most arbitrary and violent -measures, 224; at this very time a commission in Amsterdam is making -inquiry into his conduct, 234; and a committee appointed by the -directors is devising measures for the security of the Cape settlement -in case Vergelegen should not be a myth, 235; the commission of inquiry -investigates the matter very thoroughly, and sends in a report, 237; in -accordance with which the directors issue orders for the immediate -recall of the governor and the other unworthy officials, 241; in April -1708 he leaves the colony, 247; after his dismissal from the Company’s -service he publishes the _Korte Deductie_, as the best excuse he can -make for his conduct, 248; he purchases an estate in the Netherlands, -and in July 1723 dies there, 250 - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -van der Stel’s _Korte Deductie_: references to, 210, 211, 212, 214, and -248 - -Stellenbosch: is founded under Simon van der Stel’s supervision, 177; -defiant conduct of the residents, 231 - -System of the Dutch East India Company of paying its officials: is a -very bad one, 176 - - -Tas, Adam: draws up a memorial to the directors, complaining of the -governor, 220; is illegally arrested and committed to prison, 225; -further particulars of the treatment accorded to him, 229 and 242; -journal of, 183 - -Text of the orders of the directors of the 26th of April 1668 -prohibiting the high officials in the settlement from farming land or -dealing in cattle, 179 - -Text of the order of the directors of the 27th of June 1699 again -prohibiting the chief officials from trading in cattle, 192 - -Text of the resolution of the directors on the 22nd of June 1700 -concerning emigrants, 185 - -Text of the instructions of the directors to the governor on the 15th of -March 1701 to be on his guard against an attack by the French, 213 - -Text of the orders of the directors on the 28th of October 1705 -reiterating their previous commands that the officials should not -traffic in cattle, 210 - -Text of the resolution of the assembly of seventeen on the 8th of March -1706, 235 - -Theal’s _Abstract of the Debates and Resolutions of the Council of -Policy at the Cape from 1651 to 1687_: reference to, 187 - -Theal’s _Belangrijke Historische Dokumenten over Zuid Afrika_: -references to, 174, 178, 180, 185, 235, 237, 239, and 250 - -Timber and fuel: scarcity of in 1699 at the Cape, 187 - -du Toit, François: treatment of by Governor Willem Adriaan van der Stel, -230 - -[Sidenote: Synoptical Index.] - -du Toit, Guillaume: treatment of by Governor Willem Adriaan van der -Stel, 230, 232, and 242 - -Traffic of any kind in cattle is prohibited on the 27th of June 1699 to -the chief officials in the colony, 185 - -Training of the colonists, 193 - -Treaty of Utrecht: reference to, 213 - -Tulbagh Basin: in November 1699 is inspected by Governor Willem Adriaan -van der Stel, 189; description of the basin, ib.; receives from the -governor the name Land of Waveren, 190; in 1700 begins to be occupied, -ib. - - -Valckenier, Wouter: when returning from India to Holland acts as a -commissioner at the Cape, 208; and illegally makes a grant of land to -the governor, 209; is a member of the commission that condemns the -governor for having obtained Vergelegen in an improper manner, 239 - -Valentijn’s _Oud en Nieuw Oost Indien_: reference to, 173 - -Vergelegen: is illegally obtained by Governor Willem Adriaan van der -Stel, 209; the ground is resumed by the East India Company, 244; is -divided into four farms, which are sold separately, 247 - - -War of the Spanish Succession: reference to, 213 - -Waveren outstation: in 1700 is formed, 190 - -van der Westhuizen, Nicolaas: treatment of by Governor Willem Adriaan -van der Stel, 227 - -Witsenberg: is so named in honour of Nicolaas Witsen, of Amsterdam, 190 - -Wool; see Sheep’s wool - -Wynoch, Christiaan: treatment of by Governor Willem Adriaan van der -Stel, 227 - - -van Zyl, Willem: treatment of by Governor Willem Adriaan van der Stel, -230 - - -SKETCH IV. - -Albany: settlement of the district of, 255 - - -Barbarians: effect of the influx into the Cape Colony of, 258 - -Battle in which the army of Natal under English chiefs is almost -annihilated, 291 - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - -Betshuana refugees: can give very little information upon the interior -of the country, 265 - -Betshuana tribes: destruction of in the wars of Moselekatse, 258 - -Bird’s _Annals of Natal_: reference to, 293 - -du Buis, Coenraad, a notorious freebooter: account of, 270 - - -Cape Colony: extent of in 1835, 255 - -Causes of the great emigration from the Cape Colony: as given by Louis -Triegard, 273; as given by Pieter Uys, 281 - -Chase’s _Natal Papers_: reference to, 281 - - -Destruction of human life in the wars of Tshaka and Moselekatse: leaves -great tracts of land without inhabitants, 262 - -Discontent in South Africa in and before 1835: causes of, 257 - -D’Urban, Sir Benjamin, governor of the Cape Colony: the confidential -correspondence of is presented by his grandson to the Union government, -259 - -Dutch and English colonists: difference in disposition of, 255 - -Dutch language: the suppression of in the public offices and in the -courts of law is felt as a grievance by the old colonists, 258 - - -English and Dutch colonists: difference in disposition of, 255 - -Englishmen: in 1835 some forty are living in Natal, 263; list of their -names, 264; in June 1835 fourteen of them send a petition that the -territory may be annexed by Great Britain, ib.; in March 1836 Lord -Glenelg replies refusing to annex Natal, ib. - - -Fingoes, the: are brought by Sir Benjamin D’Urban from Kaffirland and -located in Peddie, 260 - -Futu, Bantu chief: particulars concerning, 264 - - -Gardiner’s _Narrative of a Journey to the Zoolu Country in South -Africa_: reference to, 264 - -_Geslacht Register de Oude Kaapsche Familien_: reference to, 278 - -Glenelg, Lord, secretary of state for the colonies: maintains that the -colonists are to blame for the Kaffir war of 1835, and abandons the -Province of Queen Adelaide, 262 - -Glenelg system of dealing with the Kaffirs: particulars concerning, 262 - -Grahamstown: description of, 257 - -[Sidenote: Synoptical Index.] - - -Hottentots: injudicious treatment of, 257 - - -Influx of barbarians into the Cape Colony: effect of, 258 - -Invasion of the Cape Colony by the Xosas in December 1834: particulars -concerning, 260 - -Isaacs’ _Travels and Adventures in Eastern Africa, with a Sketch of -Natal_: reference to, 264 - - -Jacobs, Pieter: is leader of the fifth party of emigrants from the Cape -Colony, 277 - -Jalusa, a Xosa robber captain: moves to the country north of the Orange -river, 267; in September 1836 his entire band is exterminated by the -Basuto, ib. - - -_Kaffir War of 1835_: origin of the volume so called, 259; reference to, -279 - - -Land tenure: the new system is not appreciated at first by the cattle -farmers, 258 - - -Maritz, Gerrit Marthinus: is leader of the third party of emigrants from -the Cape Colony, 275 - -Matiwane, chief of the Amangwane: drives a section of the Tembu tribe -into the Cape Colony, 258 - -Missionary and philanthropic press: tone of, 259 - -Moselekatse: effect of the wars of, 258 - - -Natal: description of, 263; number of Bantu residing in 1835, 264; -condition of the emigrant farmers in after the massacres by the Zulus, -290 - - -Potgieter, Andries Hendrik: is leader of the second party of emigrants -from the Cape Colony, 275; after the massacres by the Zulus goes with -his men to the assistance of the distressed people in Natal, 290; with -Pieter Uys marches into Zululand to attack Dingan, 292; on the 11th of -April 1838 encounters a great Zulu army, and is compelled to retire, -ib.; shortly afterwards leaves Natal and returns to Winburg, 294 - -Preller’s _Piet Retief, Lewenskets van die Grote Voortrekker_: reference -to, 288 - -Province of Queen Adelaide: is created by Sir Benjamin D’Urban, 260; is -abandoned by Lord Glenelg, 262 - -[Sidenote: Historical Sketches.] - - -van Rensburg, Jan: is leader of a small party of emigrants from the Cape -Colony, 268; in July 1833 leaves Louis Triegard’s party at the -Zoutpansberg to open up a road to Delagoa Bay, 269; and with every -individual in his company is murdered by blacks on the journey, ib. - -Resolutions adopted by Pieter Uys and those who agree with him, -asserting independence of Mr. Retief, 283 - -Retief, Pieter: is leader of the fourth party of emigrants from -the Cape Colony, 275; in June 1837 is installed as governor and -commandant-general of his own party and the one under Maritz, 276; on -the 21st of July 1837 writes to Sir Benjamin D’Urban desiring that the -emigrants may be acknowledged as an independent people, 286; in October -1837 goes over the Drakensberg into Natal, 285; on the 6th of February -1838 is murdered with all his companions at Dingan’s kraal, 280 - - -Sekwati, chief of the Bapedi: mention of, 272 - -Settlement of the Cape Colony by Europeans: slow progress of, 255 - -Slaves in the Cape Colony: hasty emancipation of, 257 - -Smit, Erasmus: reference to the journal of, 275 - -Smith, G. C. Moore, Esqre., M.A.: assistance rendered by, 260 - - -Tembu tribe: a section of is driven by the Amangwane under Matiwane into -the Cape Colony, 258 - -Triegard, Louis: family history of, 266; in June 1834 he moves from the -district of Somerset to the bank of the White Kei river beyond the -colonial border, ib.; where about thirty emigrant families are then -residing, 267; here all his slaves run away, ib.; he is believed by the -British officials on the frontier to have induced the Xosas to persevere -in the war against the colony, ib.; he moves northward with the -notorious robber captain Jalusa, ib.; in September 1835 crosses the -Orange river, and then with a number of other emigrants travels onward -to the Zoutpansberg, 268; which he reaches in May 1836, ib.; account of -his residence there until August 1837, when he and his party leave for -Delagoa Bay, 271; they encounter great difficulties on the way, 272; but -in April 1838 reach Lourenço Marques, 273; where they are received with -great kindness by the Portuguese, ib.; but are attacked by fever, from -which in course of time nearly the whole party, including Triegard -himself, dies, ib.; in July 1839 the remnant of the party is rescued and -taken to Natal, 274 - -Tsetse fly: destructive nature of, 272 - -Tshaka: effect of the wars of, 258 - -[Sidenote: Synoptical Index.] - - -Umnini, petty Bantu chief: particulars concerning, 263 - -Uys, Pieter Lavras: particulars concerning the family of, 278; personal -character of, 279; in 1834 visits and inspects Natal, 265; is leader of -the sixth party of emigrants from the Cape Colony, 277; travels -northward over the Orange river, with the intention of crossing the -Drakensberg into Natal, 280; on the 7th of August 1837 writes to Sir -Benjamin D’Urban, stating the causes of the emigration, ib.; he assumes -an attitude of independence as regards Mr. Retief, 283; in October 1837 -joins Commandant Potgieter in the campaign in which the Matabele are -driven far to the north, 286; in December 1837 visits Natal again, 289; -in February 1838 is in the present Orange Free State when tidings of the -fearful massacres by the Zulus reach him, ib.; he immediately collects -his men and goes down into Natal to the assistance of the distressed -people there, ib.; with Commandant Potgieter marches into Zululand to -attack Dingan, 292; on the 11th of April 1838 is drawn into an ambuscade -and is almost surrounded by a great Zulu army, ib.; when attempting to -retreat is killed with nine others, 293 - -Uys, Dirk Cornelis: heroic death of, 293 - - -Voigt’s _Fifty Years of the History of the Republic in South Africa_: -reference to, 286 - - -Xosa invasion of the Cape Colony in December 1834: particulars -concerning, 260 - -CENTER -THE END - -PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED, LONDON AND BECCLES. - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] Among the sources of information for the next few pages I must - mention particularly Arnold’s _History of Rome_, Gibbon’s _Decline and - Fall of the Roman Empire_, Busk’s _History of Spain and Portugal_, and - Stephens’ _History of Portugal_. - - [2] The old library of the Ptolemies was consumed in Cæsar’s - Alexandrian war. Marc Antony gave the whole collection of Pergamus - (200,000 volumes) to Cleopatra, as the foundation of the _new_ library - of Alexandria. It was kept in apartments of the great temple of - Serapis, which was broken down in A.D. 389 by Theophilus, archbishop - of Alexandria, “the perpetual enemy of peace and virtue, a bold, bad - man, whose hands were alternately polluted with gold and with blood.” - The valuable library was pillaged or destroyed. See Gibbon’s _Decline - and Fall of the Roman Empire_, Chapter XXVIII. - - [3] The Arabs, Persians, and Indians were found at the beginning - of the sixteenth century of our era to be well acquainted with the - eastern coast as far south as Cape Correntes, and the Arabs and - Persians had settlements along the whole of that seaboard. But of this - Europeans knew absolutely nothing. Beyond Cape Correntes, in latitude - 24° 4´ south, the Asiatics did not venture in their coir-sewn vessels. - Here the Mozambique current, from which the cape has its present name, - ran southward with great velocity, usually from two to five kilometres - an hour, according to the force and direction of the wind, but often - much faster. The cape had the reputation also of being a place of - storms, where the regular monsoons of the north could no longer be - depended upon, and where violent gusts from every quarter would almost - surely destroy the mariners who should be so foolhardy as to brave - them. The vivid Arab imagination further pictured danger of another - kind, for this was the chosen home of those mermaids--believed in also - by the Greeks of old--who lured unfortunate men to their doom. There - were legends of ships having been driven far beyond it in gales, and - having been carried by the current onward to a great ocean in the - west, from which they had only with the greatest difficulty returned. - The perils the crews had gone through and the hardships they had - suffered were magnified as a matter of course, and the dreadful sights - that had met their eyes were such as to make the boldest shudder. Of - the shore of that awful sea nothing was known, for no one had ever set - foot upon it. So Cape Correntes, with its real and fictitious perils, - was the terminus of Mohamedan enterprise to the south, though there - were men in Kilwa who sometimes wondered what was beyond it and half - made up their minds to go overland and ascertain. Had there been a - Bantu settlement beyond Inhambane there can be no doubt that their - eagerness to procure ivory would have led them on, but black men had - replaced the wild aborigines there so shortly before the arrival of - the Portuguese that there was not time to make the venture. - - [4] For information on the discoveries mentioned here I am indebted - chiefly to the _Indice Chronologico das Navegações, Viagens, - Descobrimentos, e Conquistas dos Portuguezes nos Paizes Ultramarinos - desde o Principio do Seculo XV_, the great history _Da Asia_ of João - de Barros, Major’s _Discoveries of Prince Henry the Navigator and - their Results_, and Beazley’s _Prince Henry the Navigator, the Hero of - Portugal and of Modern Discovery_. - - [5] These islands and even the Canaries had been visited by Genoese - ships before they were rediscovered by the Portuguese. But as no use - was made of them by the first visitors, and as knowledge concering - them was not communicated to the world in general, the Portuguese have - a fair claim to be regarded as the real discoverers. In the same way - Columbus is rightly credited with the discovery of America, though the - Northmen visited its north-eastern coast long before his time. - - [6] It would be interesting to know the exact day on which Dias - sailed, but I have not found it possible to ascertain it. As already - observed, before the entrance of Vasco da Gama into the Indian sea - the dates of the various discoveries given by Portuguese historians - are not implicitly to be relied upon, and as no original journals - or logbooks of the early voyages are now in existence, there are no - means of verifying them. João de Barros is the only historian known - to me who has placed on record the month and year of sailing and of - the return of Dias in this voyage, and he does not state the day of - departure from the Tagus. His words are: (ElRei Dom João) “determinou - de enviar logo neste anno de quatrocentos e oitenta e seis dobrados - navios per mar, e homens per terra, pera ver o fim destas cousas.” - ... “partiram no fim de Agosto do dito anno.” ... “onde chegáram em - Dezembro do anno de quatrocentos e oitenta e sete, havendo dezeseis - mezes, e dezesete dias que eram partidos delle.” Barros is the most - reliable of all the Portuguese historians of that time, and he - was in a position to obtain the particulars of this voyage, which - unfortunately he gives so scantily. Neither Damião de Goes in his - _Chronica do Felicissimo Rei Dom Emanuel da Gloriosa Memoria_ nor - Fernão Lopes de Castanheda in his _Descobrimento e Conquista da India - pelos Portuguezes_ mentions the date of the voyage, but both relate - other particulars which tend to confirm the opinion that it took place - at the time stated by Barros. For instance, Castanheda states that - Affonso de Paiva and João Pires de Covilhão commenced their journey - from Portugal after the departure of Dias, and he agrees with Barros - in giving the 7th of May 1487 as the date on which they left Santarem. - The exact dates of Dias passing the Cape of Good Hope eastward, of his - reaching the mouth of the Infante river, and of the erection of the - landmark São Philippe cannot be ascertained, but these events in all - probability occurred in 1487, as making allowance for his detentions - when leaving the storeship, at Angra dos Ilheos, and afterwards, Dias - can hardly have reached the latitude of the Cape before the beginning - of that year. See appendix. - - [7] See the numerous statements concerning this mythical monarch made - by the early Portuguese writers, copied by me and printed, together - with English translations, in volumes i, iii, v, vi, and vii of the - _Records of South-Eastern Africa_. Ultimately the name was applied to - the ruler of Abyssinia. Index, Prester John, in Vol. ix, page 474. - - [8] “On the 21st of November (1825) a heavy south-east gale set - in, before which we were carried with great velocity, and in the - afternoon saw the remains of the cross erected by Bartholomeu Dias - at the southern extremity of Angra Pequena. Passing by it we (H.M.S. - _Barracouta_) anchored in the bay, where, although the wind was - directly off shore, yet such was its violence that the whole surface - of the water was one vast sheet of foam. Some officers landed with - Captain Vidal, for the purpose of examining the cross, and obtaining - the latitude and longitude of the point. They found the sand very - painful to the eyes, being swept from the surface of the rocks, and - almost blinding them as they proceeded to the summit of the small - granite eminence on which Bartholomeu Dias erected his cross, as a - memento of his discovery of the place. This is said to have been - standing complete forty years back, but we found that it had been - cast down, evidently by design, as the part of the shaft that had - originally been buried in the rock remained unbroken, which never - could have been the case had it been overturned in any other way than - by lifting it from the foundation. The inducement to this disgraceful - act was probably to search for such coins as might have been buried - beneath the cross; and it is probable that the destroyers, in order - to make some little amende for their desolation, re-erected a portion - of the fragments, as we found a piece of the shaft, including the - part originally placed in the ground, altogether about six feet in - length, propped up by means of large stones, crossed at the top by a - broken fragment, which had originally formed the whole length of the - shaft. This was six feet above ground, and twenty-one inches beneath, - composed of marble rounded on one side, but left square on the other, - evidently for the inscription, which, however, the unsparing hand of - Time, in a lapse of nearly three centuries and a half, had rendered - illegible. In descending by a different and more craggy path, the - party suddenly came upon the cross; this was sixteen inches square, - of the same breadth and thickness as the shaft, and had on the centre - an inscription, but, like the other, almost obliterated.”--_Narrative - of Voyages to explore the Shores of Africa, Arabia, and Madagascar, - performed in H.M. Ships Leven and Barracouta under the direction of - Captain W. F. W. Owen, R.N._ Two demi octavo volumes, published in - London in 1833. The extract given above is to be found in Vol. II, - pages 269 and 270. Two fragments of the pillar are now in the museum - in Lisbon, and one is in the South African museum in Capetown. - - [9] The probabilities are that they did not, otherwise the information - they carried back would have been regarded as much more important - than it was considered to be by the king and by all the writers of - the time. Ptolemy’s map, on which Africa was made to turn like a horn - and project so far to the eastward as to enclose the Indian ocean, - was still treated with respect, and the discoveries of Dias seemed - at the time as if they tended rather to confirm than to refute this - geographical feature. According to the view of those who regarded - Ptolemy and Edrisi as safe guides, Dias had sailed along the southern - side of the horn, without finding its end, and therefore had not done - much more than Diogo Cam and other previous explorers. To-day, with - our knowledge, his feat is regarded very differently, but neither the - king nor the people considered at the time that it entitled him to any - special reward or mark of favour. - - [10] The factory of São Jorge da Mina was established in January 1482 - by Diogo d’Azambuja, and was the first permanent Portuguese settlement - on the western coast of Africa, and the centre of the trade in gold. - It was wrested from the Portuguese by the Dutch in 1637, and was - held by them until April 1872, when it was transferred to England in - exchange for some other territory on the coast. It is now known as - Elmina. - - [11] Called João Pires, of Covilhão, by Damião de Goes, Pedro de - Covilhão by Castanheda and Barros. Modern Portuguese writers follow - De Goes in the name. See the _Indice Chronologico das Navegações, - Viagens, Descobrimentos, e Conquistas dos Portuguezes nos Paizes - Ultramarinos desde o Principio do Seculo XV._ Lisboa, 1841. João Pires - on page 69. Barros says of him: “The king, seeing how necessary an - acquaintance with the Arabic tongue was for this journey, sent upon - this business one Pedro de Covilhão, a gentleman of his household who - was well acquainted with it, and in his company another named Affonso - de Paiva, and they were sent from Santarem on the 7th of May of the - year 1487.” - - [12] Probably a misprint. - - [13] The German Emperor has since caused an exact copy of it to be - erected, substituting granite for marble. - - [14] The particulars of this event cannot be ascertained, and it would - even be doubtful whether Mondragon really rounded the Cape of Good - Hope if it were not expressly stated in a summary of the directions - issued by the king for his capture that the robbery of Queimado’s ship - took place “no canal de Moçambique.” - - [15] I do not mention Sir John Mandeville in the text, because modern - criticism has proved that what he states concerning India in his - book _The Voiage and trauayle of syr John Maundeuille, knight, which - treateth of the way toward Hierusalem, and of maruayles of Inde, with - other Ilands and Countryes_ was compiled from earlier foreign writers, - though his work was regarded as genuine and trustworthy by Englishmen - until recently. Nothing is known of him from contemporary records, and - it is even regarded as possible that Mandeville was a pseudonym. In - his book he states that he was born at St. Albans, and travelled in - the east as far as China between the years 1322 and 1357. It is now - believed that he really visited Palestine, and his account of that - country is considered as partly based on personal observation, but - the remainder of the volume is spurious. The original was written in - French. See the _Encyclopedia Britannica_, article Mandeville. Of the - numerous copies of the book, in many languages, in the library of the - British Museum, the earliest was printed in 1480. - - [16] This sketch is drawn chiefly from Motley’s _Rise of the Dutch - Republic_ and his _History of the United Netherlands to the Twelve - Years’ Truce_--1609, the _Geschiedenis des Vaderlands_, by Mr. W. - Bilderdyk, edited by Professor H. W. Tydeman, seven octavo volumes, - issued at Amsterdam in 1832 to 1853, _History of the People of the - Netherlands_, by Petrus Johannes Blok, Ph.D., four demi octavo volumes - (English edition), published at New York and London, 1898 to 1907, - (another volume still to appear), _Handboek der Geschiedenis van het - Vaderland_, by Mr. G. Groen van Prinsterer, two octavo volumes (second - edition), issued at Amsterdam in 1852, _Histoire de Belgique_, by - Professor H. Pirenne, of the University of Ghent, second edition of - Vol. I published at Brussels in 1902, Vol. II published at the same - place in 1903, and Vol. III in 1907, (other volumes still to appear), - and _The History of Belgium_, by Demetrius C. Boulger, published at - London in 1902. Some other works consulted will be mentioned in notes. - - [17] “Belgium ofte Nederland werdt ghemeynelijck verdeelt in - zeventhien Provincien, meer om dat de Princen daer over regierende, - seventhien Tytelen van de selve hebben ghevoert, als om andere - merckelijcke redenen. Want op de ghemeyne vergaderinghen ende - by-een-comsten der Staten van den Lande, en pleghen de selve in - soodanighen ghetalle niet te verschijnen, maer sommighe sorteerden - onder andere, als by exempel: Het Hartoghdom van Limborch met syn - appendentien: item het Marck-Graeffschap des H. Rycx ofte van - Antwerpen stemden ende contribueerden onder Brabandt, ’t Graeffschap - Zutphen maeckte het vierde Quartier van Gelderland: Daer-en-tegens - Doornijck ende het Doornijcksche Landt: Item Rijssel, Douay ende - Orchies (synde andersints Steden ende Leden van Wals-Vlaenderen) - hadden hare stemmen in het bysonder, ende contribueerden apart: Het - selve gheschiede oock met Valencyn, dat nochtans een Stad ende Lidt - van Henegouwen is.” _Atlas of Mercator and Hondius_, edition published - at Amsterdam in 1633. This superb atlas contains a double page map of - all the provinces and no fewer than thirty maps of different sections. - A copy obtained by me in Holland is in the South African Public - Library. - - [18] See the superb _Atlas_ of Ortelius, published at Antwerp in 1570. - A copy obtained by me at the Hague is now in the South African Public - Library. This atlas contains a map of the whole provinces and separate - maps of Holland, Zeeland, the Frisian provinces, Flanders, and - Brabant. A comparison of the map of the provinces with one of Holland - and Belgium to-day will show the great changes that have taken place - in the interim. - - [19] See Blok’s _History of the People of the Netherlands_, Vol. II, - page 263. - - [20] There was in the south the large province of Liege, nominally - a fief of the Holy Roman Empire, under the government of a bishop, - but it was not counted with the others, though enclosed by some of - them. It had been conquered by Charles the Headstrong of Burgundy, - but on his death became independent again, and maintained a perfect - neutrality thereafter, though its borders were not always respected by - contending armies. It remained an independent principality until it - was annexed to France on the 1st of October 1795, and in 1814 for the - first time was joined to the other provinces to form the kingdom of - the Netherlands. When Belgium seceded and secured its independence in - 1831 Liege became one of its provinces. - - [21] The greatest of the southern dioceses was Liege, whose bishop was - first settled at Tongres, then at Maastricht, and from A.D. 708 at - Liege. In the tenth century the bishops of Liege and Cambrai obtained - rights as counts over extensive domains.--BLOK. - - [22] The word “king” is used as a convenient one, though Philippe was - not _king_ of the Netherlands. He was duke of one province, count of - another, lord of the next, and so on, but under these titles he was - sovereign of them all. - - [23] Blok gives the number, according to a statement of Requesens, as - six thousand. - - [24] This differs slightly in detail from the account given by Motley, - whose authority is so high that it is with reluctance I do not adhere - to it in every particular. In this instance I follow the Life of - Boisot, as given in _Leeven en Daden der Doorlughtige Zee-Helden_, a - quarto volume issued at Amsterdam in 1683. - - [25] The treaty contained thirty articles. It is to be found on - pages 83 to 88 of Volume II of _A General Collection of Treatys, - Manifesto’s, Contracts of Marriage, Renunciations, and other Publick - Papers, from the year 1495, to the year 1712_, second edition - published in London in 1732. - - [26] See pages 89 to 91 of the volume of _Treaties, etc._, already - referred to. - - [27] Page 92, Vol. II of the _Collection of Treaties, etc._, already - referred to. - - [28] _General Collection of Treaties, etc._, Vol. II, pages 103 to 119. - - [29] _General Collection of Treaties, etc._, Vol. II, pages 120 to 127. - - [30] _Collection of Treaties, etc._, Vol. II, pages 128 to 146. - - [31] The account of these voyages is taken from _Begin ende Voortgangh - van de Vereenighde Nederlantsche Geoctroyeerde Oost Indische - Compagnie, vervatende de voornaemste Reysen by de Inwoonderen - derselver Provincien derwaerts gedaen_. Two thick volumes, published - at Amsterdam in 1646. - - [32] The accounts of the voyages that follow have been taken by me - from the volumes _Begin ende Voortgangh_ already mentioned, and - François Valentijn’s _Oud en Nieuw Oost Indien_, five huge volumes - published at Amsterdam in 1726, checked by the narratives in the first - three volumes of J. K. J. de Jonge’s _De Opkomst van het Nederlandsch - Gezag in Oost Indie_, published at the Hague and Amsterdam in 1862-65. - I also made use of the last volume of Diogo de Couto’s _Da Asia_, in - order to get the Portuguese version of these events, but obtained very - little information in it. His work ends with an account of a Dutch - disaster at Achin before the principal voyages were undertaken. Of - course the Dutch were to him pirates and rebels. - - [33] It is attached to the original journals, now in the archives - of the Netherlands. I made a copy of it on tracing linen for the - Cape government, as it differs considerably from the chart in the - printed condensed journal of the voyage. In other respects also the - compilation of the printed journal has been very carelessly executed. - - [34] See the last two volumes of De Couto’s _Da Asia_. - - [35] The first Buddhist commandment, as given in _The Light of Asia_, - reads: - - “Kill not, for pity’s sake, and lest thou slay - The meanest creature on its upward way.” - - - [36] Albert died in 1621 and Isabella on the 30th of November 1623, - and as they left no children, in 1624 Belgium passed again under the - direct government of Spain. By the treaty of Baden on the 7th of - September 1714 it was ceded to the emperor Charles VI, and thereafter - was generally termed the Austrian Netherlands. - - [37] Sections III, XLIX, and L of the treaty of Munster, pages 335 to - 367 of Vol. II _General Collection of Treaties, &c._ - - [38] See pages 188 to 202 of Volume II of _A General Collection of - Treaties, &c._ - - [39] See _A Voyage to East India, &c._ by the Rev. Edward Terry. - London, 1655. - - [40] The name of the Welshman is not given in the _Report on - Manuscripts in the Welsh language_ by the Historical Manuscripts - Commission (Vol. I, Part 3), published in London in 1905, from which - this extract is taken. - - [41] _A Voyage to East India, wherein some things are taken notice of - in our passage thither, but many more in our abode there, within that - rich and most spacious Empire. Of the Great Mogols, &c., &c. Observed - by Edward Terry (then Chaplain to the Right Honorable Sr. Thomas Row, - Knight, Lord Ambassadour to the great Mogol) now Rector of the Church - at Grunford, in the County of Middlesex._ A foolscap octavo volume - of 545 pages, published in London in 1655. Terry says that he went - to India the year after Sir Thomas Roe in a fleet of six ships--the - _Charles_, of 1,000 tons, the _Unicorn_, almost as big, the _James_, a - large ship also, the _Globe_, the _Swan_, and the _Rose_, which were - smaller. The fleet left the Thames on the 3rd of February 1615 (old - style, 1616 it would be written now that the year commences on the 1st - of January), under command of Captain Benjamin Joseph as commodore, - and it rode at anchor in Table Bay from the 12th to the 28th of June. - His statement concerning the convicts sent out the previous year does - not fully agree with the records in the India Office in London, which - I consulted to obtain information on this subject, and which I follow - as far as they go, though they are defective. - - [42] See Valentyn’s great work on India, the last volume of which - contains the history of Ceylon and also of Mauritius. See also the - volume _Vies des Gouverneurs Generaux_, by J. P. I. du Bois. The - account of Pieter Kolbe, in his _Caput Bonæ Spei Hodiernum_, is so - distorted by his bitter animosity towards Simon van der Stel as well - as towards his son Willem Adriaan that no reliance can be placed upon - it. Van der Aa, in his _Biographisch Woordenboek der Nederlanden_, - says that Simon van der Stel, son of Adriaan van der Stel and - Monica da Costa, was born in Amsterdam, but that is a mistake, and - not the only one in the article. See _Biographisch Woordenboek der - Nederlanden_, door A. J. van der Aa, Zeventiende Deel, Tweede Stuk, - Haarlem, 1874. I copied the article on the Van der Stel family in - the above work, and published it in 1911 in the third part of my - _Belangrijke Historische Dokumenten over Zuid Afrika_. It will be - found on pages 11 and 12 of the volume. - - In Johan Saar’s _Account of Ceylon 1647-1657_, this event is related - as follows: “To pick a quarrel they (the Hollanders) seized upon four - of the best elephants of the King of Candi. He, as a sensible man, - sent word to the Hollanders that he had no intention to do anything - against them, and he expected them, for their part, to act likewise; - he had called them in as friends to be his allies against the - Portuguese, and he hoped therefore that they would not settle in his - territory. But the Hollanders from the beginning were bent upon war. - When the king saw that it could not be avoided, he collected by one of - his generals (a Saude, or what we should call a Count) about 60,000 - men, chiefly natives, besides a few Portuguese whom he had formerly - made captives, and who had entered his service. He would no longer - trust the Hollanders.... In the following year (Anno Christi 1646) - in the month of May, Mr. van der Stält (Van der Stel) received fresh - orders to march with 150 men (picked soldiers), plenty of ammunition, - powder, lead, and other materials of war, and also two field guns. He - met with the heathen Saude in a small clearing, but as the latter had - no orders to fight, because the king was still disinclined to go to - war, he withdrew into the forest. The Hollanders opened a heavy fire - from their field-guns and fire-arms, so that 400 were killed, and many - were wounded. As the Hollanders had taken the offensive, the Saude did - not care to act only on the defensive. He therefore came out of the - forest, and closing round our people, attacked them with such energy - that he cut off the head of Mr. Van der Stel, who had been carried - in a palanquin or litter, clad in red scarlet. Of our men, who had - numbered 150, they got 103 heads. The rest fled into the jungle and - hid themselves as best they could. When the King, who had been near, - heard of the onslaught he hurried to the spot, and although he was - told that his men had been forced to fight, he showed displeasure. At - once he ordered drums to be beaten and proclamation to be made that - none of the Hollanders who had fled into the jungle were to be killed, - but they were to be brought alive before him; that he would treat them - well; and that he would swear by his God that he was innocent of the - bloodshed. He then gave directions to have the head of Mr. Van der - Stel put into a silver bowl, and covered it with white cloth, and sent - it by one of the prisoners to their Captain in the great camp, to say - that this was the head of Mr. Van der Stel, and that the King would - see his body as well as the other 103 bodies decently buried.” - - [44] The instructions and orders of the lord of Mydrecht were copied - by me from the original document in the Cape archives, and were - published in 1896 in Deel I _Belangrijke Historische Dokumenten_. They - occupy pages 1 to 48 of that pamphlet. - - [45] “Wij cunnen geensints verstaen dat den Commandeur en die van - zijnen Raden voortaen haer eygen thuynen en bestiael sullen hebben - of houden, meer als hij off sij tot hun eygen gesin sullen van noden - hebben maer gehouden wesen haer daer van t’ ontledigen.” Despatch - dated at Amsterdam on the 26th of April 1668, and signed by all of the - seventeen directors. In the Cape archives, and copy in those at the - Hague. - - [46] See the Resolutions of the Assembly of Seventeen, copied by me - from the original volumes in the Archives at the Hague, and published - in Deel III _Belangrijke Historische Dokumenten over Zuid Afrika_, an - octavo volume of 435 pages, printed for the Union Government in 1911. - - [47] In secluded parts of South Africa, where it would not be possible - to have one made in time after death, this precaution is still taken, - but elsewhere the custom has died out. I have known instances of it in - Canada also. - - [48] Two fragments of a journal kept by Adam Tas have been preserved: - one from the 13th of June to the 14th of August 1705, in the archives - at the Hague, the other, from the 7th of December 1705 to the 27th of - February 1706, in the South African public library in Capetown, and - they give a graphic picture of life in the country districts at the - time. Whenever a friend came to his house or he went to a friend’s, - they at once sat down to chat and drink wine and smoke tobacco, when - if the party was large and included wives and daughters, playing cards - was resorted to as a pastime. The quantity of coffee and tea consumed - was very large. The vicious custom of returning incorrect numbers of - cattle and sheep for taxation purposes was already prevalent, and Tas, - who was certainly not a dishonest man in other matters, was unable to - see that this was a crime deserving punishment. Professor Leo Fouché, - of Pretoria, has copied these interesting fragments, and informs me - that he intends to publish them. - - [49] It was only natural that the Huguenot refugees should be warmly - attached to their native country, and long to be able to return to it. - It was noticed in England as well as in Holland and Prussia that the - French exiles had no hesitation in declaring that if Louis XIV would - only restore the edict of Henri IV and pledge himself to observe it - faithfully, they would return to the land of their birth and be his - most faithful subjects. It was believed that they would not return - and profess adherence to the state church while in their hearts - remaining Calvinists and secretly practising the Calvinistic form of - worship, as many of those who remained behind were doing, but the - governments of the countries in which they had taken refuge were at - this time suspicious of their attachment under all circumstances. In - South Africa the Dutch section of the population--or at least some of - them--believed that the Huguenots would not assist to repel a French - invasion. It was only when the children born in the lands of refuge - grew up that the strong attachment of the Huguenots to France died out. - - [50] “Op het rapport van de heeren commissarissen ingevolge van - de resolutie commissorial van den 16 deses, geëxamineerd hebbende - het wensch van de colonie van de Caap de Bonne Esperance, en het - senden van vrije luijden derwaarts breeder in voorn. resolutie ter - nedergestelt, is in conformite van ’t geadviseerde goetgevonden en - geresolveert de respectieve kameren te authoriseeren omme eenige vrije - luijden soo mannen vrouwen als kinderen vrij van kost en transport - gelt derwaarts te senden, mitsgaders zorg dragende en lettende dat - het soo veel doenlijk is mogen zijn Nederlanders of onderdaanen van - dese Staat of van Hoogduijtsch natien geen trafieq ter zee doende, - mitsgaders van de gereformeerde of Luyterse godsdienst, hun op de - lantbouw of culture der wijnen verstaende, dogh geen franschen, de - selve om redenen in voorn. als anders in ’t geheel excuserende.” - Résolution of the Assembly of Seventeen adopted on the 22nd of June - 1700, copied by me from the original records at the Hague, and - published in 1911 on page 2 of _Belangrijke Historische Dokumenten - over Zuid Afrika_, Deel III. - - [51] See resolution of that date on page 6 of the volume already - mentioned. - - [52] These instructions are given in the original on page 192. - - [53] See the original records of the council of policy in the Cape - archives, or my _Abstract of the Debates and Resolutions of the - Council of Policy at the Cape from 1651 to 1687_, an octavo volume of - 233 pages, published at Capetown in 1881. - - [54] “daerop hebben wij naegesien ’t geene wij bij onsen brieff van - den 14 Julij 1695 soo raeckende den Landtbouw als het bestiael beijde - van de Comp: hebben geschreven, en gemeijnt dat soo wel de voors: - Lantbouw, als het aenhouden van het bestiael, geensints een werck is, - de Comp: convenierende off dat die haer daermede behoort te bemoeijen, - maer dat deselve in tegendeel dat aen de vrijeluijen dient over te - laeten soo om die daer door te beter te doen subsisteren ... met - uijtsluytinge van Comps: dienaren die soo wel in den politicquen raed, - als in den raedt van justitie compareren, en Sessie in deselve hebben, - aen dewelcke wij verstaen, dat alle leverantie aen de Comp: sal werden - benomen, off haer ontseijt.”--Despatch to the governor and council of - policy at the Cape, dated at Amsterdam on the 27th of June 1699, and - signed by fifteen of the directors. - - [55] This clergyman was of French descent, was educated for the - ministry of the Roman catholic church, and had been a monk in the - abbey of Boneffe in Belgium. After becoming a Protestant he wrote a - book entitled _Dwalingen van het Pausdom_. He could converse in many - languages, and was unquestionably a man of high ability and learning, - but he was of irascible disposition and wherever he went was engaged - in strife. After he left South Africa he became a doctor of laws, - and died at a very advanced age at Batavia in 1748, after having - been during the preceding nineteen years minister of the Protestant - Portuguese congregation at that place. - - [56] See the report of the commissioners Pieter de Vos and Hendrik - Bekker, signed at Batavia on the 18th of September 1706. Copy in the - Cape archives. - - [57] As he was an ordinary councillor of India and admiral of the - return fleet he was higher in rank than the governor. His commission - from the Indian authorities directed him to see that the laws were - properly carried out, but he had no power given to him to make any - new laws, and of course none to annul or suspend any order of the - directors, which even the high Indian authorities could not do. - - [58] The first was a grant of the farm now occupied by the English - archbishop of Capetown to Commander Jan van Riebeek, before the order - of 1668 was issued, the second was the grant of Constantia already - mentioned. - - [59] “Alle de Coloniers (goet vlees leverende) sonder dese of geene - begunstighde daerinne boven anderen te prefereren, en sulex sonder - onderscheijt tot voors: leverantie sal hebben te admitteren. Dan - aengesien wij considereren dat voorsz: leverantie onder anderen - mede moet geaght werden te sijn een voorregt der vrije Ingesetenen - en Coloniers deselve privative competerende met uijtsluijtingh van - Comps: dienaren, die met haer Soldije en emolumenten moeten te vreden - sijn, en daermede oock genoeghsaem kunnen bestaen, soo verstaen en - begeeren wij dat niemant van Comps: dienaren, den gouverneur daer - onder mede begrepen, eenigh versch vlees aen Comps: schepen, hospitael - etc: sal mogen leveren, direct of indirect, maer ’t selve op den - ontfangst deses voortaen alleen door de vrije Ingesetenen moeten - geschieden.”--Despatch signed by fifteen of the directors, dated at - Middelburg on the 28th of October 1705. In the Cape archives and - copy in those of the Netherlands. This order was sent out, because - complaints had already been received in Holland that the governor was - disregarding the laws on the subject. - - [60] When trying to excuse his conduct to his friends after all this - was made known to the directors and he had been dismissed from the - service, the late governor admitted, as he could not deny it, that he - had occasionally taken Hertog with him to Vergelegen for the purpose - here mentioned. See the _Korte Deductie van Willem Adriaen van der - Stel: tot destructie ende wederlegginge van alle de klaghten, die - eenige vrijluijden van de voorsz Cabo aen de Edele Achtbare Heren - Bewinthebberen van de Oost Indische Compagnie over hem hadden gedaen_. - A foolscap folio volume of 172 pages, published in Holland--the name - of the town is not given--soon after his recall and dismissal from the - Company’s service. But his opponents proved conclusively that Hertog - was there for six or eight months at a time, while drawing pay from - the Company, and they published some of his written orders as manager - of the place. See the _Contra Deductie ofte Grondige Demonstratie van - de valsheit der witgegevene Deductie by den Ed: Heer Willem Adriaan - van der Stel, Geweezen Raad Extraordinaris van Nederlandsch India, - en Gouverneur aan Cabo de Goede Hoop, etc., etc., etc.; waar in niet - alleen begrepen is een nauwkeurig Historisch Verhaal, van al ’t geene - de Heer van der Stel in den jare 1706 heeft werkstellig gemaakt, on - de Vrijburgeren aan de Kaab t’ onder te brengen: maar ook een beknopt - Antwoort op alle in gemelde Deductie, en deszelfs schriftelijke - Verantwoordinge, voorgestelde naakte uitvluchten, abuseerende - bewysstukken, en andere zaken meer: strekkende tot Verificatie van’t - Klachtschrift, in den jare 1706 aan Haar Wel Edele Hoog Achtbaarheden, - de Heeren Bewinthebberen ter Illustre Vergadering van Zeventienen - afgezonden; zynde gesterkt door veele authenticque en gerecolleerde - Bewysstukken, waar van de origineele of authenticque Copyen in handen - hebben de twee Gemachtigden van eenige der Kaapsche Inwoonderen - Jacobus van der Heiden en Adam Tas_. A foolscap folio volume of - 318 pages, published at Amsterdam in 1712. This volume refutes the - statements made in the _Korte Deductie_, and contains some very strong - evidence given under oath. It is otherwise interesting, as being the - first book entirely prepared in South Africa. - - [61] In his _Korte Deductie_ the late governor asserted that he had - purchased over two hundred slaves for his private use. The Company - allowed him twenty of its male and female slaves as domestic servants - in his residence in the castle, and these he sent to his farm, - employing his own instead. He denied making use of other government - slaves than these for his private work. He stated that the soldiers - and sailors were temporarily detached from the public service, in - the manner usual in times of peace, and were paid and maintained by - him while they were in his service. The only other soldiers that he - admitted as having worked at Vergelegen were those who formed his - escort when he went there, and who, he asserted, might better have - been occupied during their stay at the farm than have been idle. But - see the note on page 218. - - [62] The quantity of wheat produced at Vergelegen is not given in the - archives, but is stated by Bogaert, who is a trustworthy authority, at - over eleven hundred muids yearly. - - [63] In his _Korte Deductie_ he stated that by purchasing from farmers - and by the natural increase of his stock he had some thousands of - sheep and some hundreds of horned cattle, but that he did not know the - exact number. Instead of eighteen stations, he asserted that he had - eight folds or kraals, but that part of his attempted excuse for his - conduct is so palpably misleading that it is of no value whatever. The - statistics given here are from those obtained after his recall. - - [64] “Ondertusschen sullen uE: haer mede op hoede hebben te - houden.”--Despatch signed by twelve of the directors, dated at - Amsterdam on the 15th of March 1701. - - [65] He was able to prove that he had paid for some timber drawn from - the Company’s magazine, but the evidence of the master of a ship shows - how articles could be obtained even where invoices and disbursements - were audited. The skipper of one of the Company’s vessels needed a - small quantity of iron for repairs, which he drew from the magazine. - Before he sailed he was required to sign a receipt for a very much - larger quantity, and on his remonstrating he was told that such was - the usual custom. He grumbled, but was at length induced to attach his - signature to the document. The receipt then became a voucher for the - use of so much iron in the Company’s service. Willem Adriaan van der - Stel was a poor man when he arrived in South Africa, and could not - have established Vergelegen with his own means, although he received - large bribes for favours granted. In Tas’s journal it is stated that - from the contractor Henning Huising he obtained three thousand sheep, - two slaves, and over £833, but no particulars are given as to the - nature of the transaction. The bribers may be morally as guilty as the - bribed, but with such a man as Willem Adriaan van der Stel there was - no other way of getting any business transacted. - - [66] Such extreme precaution was used to prevent the governor’s - movements from becoming known in Holland or India that it is now - impossible to ascertain from any documents in the archives which - of these statements is correct. The long intervals that frequently - occurred during his administration between the meetings of the council - of policy, however, prove that the periods named by the burghers - were quite possible. In 1700 there was one meeting in January, four - meetings in February, one in March, one in April, one in May, one on - the 28th of June, one on the 30th of August, and one on the 18th of - December. In 1701 there was one meeting in January, three meetings in - March, one on the 26th of May, one on the 29th of August, and one on - the 30th of December. In 1702 there were only six meetings in all, the - first being on the 23rd of May, in 1703 there were only five meetings, - and in 1704 the same number. In 1705 there were ten meetings, with an - interval of two months in one instance and of nearly three months in - another. This is not very important, however, as the time of absence - from his post admitted by himself is sufficient to convict him of - unfaithfulness to his trust. - - [67] This grant was of course illegal, as being in opposition to the - orders of the directors in 1668, and Elsevier’s making use of it - was the ground of his dismissal from the service when the directors - became acquainted with the circumstances. There is so little on record - concerning it that it is not now possible to say why Simon van der - Stel acted as he did, but he may have reasoned that as the lord of - Mydrecht would have given ground to the secunde in 1685, if the holder - of the situation at that time had chosen to accept it, it would not be - wrong to give it to another secunde. This is only supposition, but I - cannot think of anything else that would have caused the old governor - to overstep his authority in this manner. - - [68] See letter from the reverend Petrus Kalden to the Classis of - Amsterdam, dated 26th of April 1707, given in _Bouwstoffen voor de - Geschiedenis der Nederduitsch-Gereformeerde Kerken in Zuid Afrika_, - door C. Spoelstra, V.D.M. Volume I, page 56. - - [69] For these statistics see the sworn depositions of men who had - worked for him, printed in the _Contra Deductie_. The charge of not - paying the Company its legal dues he took no notice of in his attempt - to excuse his conduct, and there is not the slightest trace of such a - payment being made in the accounts or other records of the time. The - names of over sixty of the Company’s soldiers and sailors who worked - for him for considerable periods are given under oath in the _Contra - Deductie_, and of them he only accounted for twenty-eight as being - paid by him. There is positive proof of his using the Company’s slaves - on his farm, but the charge of taking twenty-five for himself and - causing them to be written off in the Company’s books as having died - must be regarded as doubtful. That the Company’s master gardener, Jan - Hertog, was the overseer at Vergelegen, that the workmen there were - under his direction, and that he was not away from the place for eight - months at a time, was fully proved. - - [70] See the _Contra Deductie_, pages 126, 180, and 279. Kolbe states - that his wife attempted to commit suicide on account of his conduct, - but I would be disinclined to accept the evidence of that author - unless it was well supported. Tas, however, in his journal, states - on information supplied to him that in December 1705 the governor’s - wife tried to drown herself by jumping into the fountain behind her - residence at the Cape, and that Mrs. Bergh sprang forward and drew her - out of the water. She complained that life was a misery to her, owing - to what she was obliged to see and hear daily. Of Mrs. Van der Stel - so little is known that it would not be right to express an opinion - as to whether her conduct towards her husband was or was not such - as to provoke him to neglect her for other women, but this can be - said with confidence, that the man who was utterly faithless towards - his country, his rulers, and one who was weak enough to trust him - as Wouter Valckenier had done, may without hesitation be pronounced - capable of being equally faithless towards the mother of his children, - the most unhappy woman in the settlement. - - [71] This charge can neither be proved nor disproved by any documents - in the Cape archives. But there is one circumstance in connection - with it that throws strong suspicion upon the governor, and under any - circumstances shows that he paid no attention to the instructions of - the authorities in Holland. Their orders of the 27th of June 1699, - throwing open to the burghers the cattle trade with the Hottentots, - reached Capetown on the 24th of November of the same year; having been - brought by the flute _De Boer_, which sailed from Texel on the 17th - of July. The governor did not return to the castle from his visit - to the Tulbagh basin until the 14th of December,--all his movements - when absent on duty are carefully recorded,--and a placaat announcing - the will of the directors ought to have been issued on the following - day. Instead of that, however, it was not published until the 28th of - February 1700, and then only owing to the presence of the commissioner - Wouter Valckenier. It was during these two months and a half, as - the burghers asserted, that the governor’s agents were engaged in - procuring horned cattle and sheep for him by fair means or by foul, - and that the Hottentots to a considerable distance from the Cape were - despoiled and exasperated. From his general character, as delineated - in the archives, one cannot say that he would scruple even at acts of - robbery. - - [72] See letters from the governor and council at the Cape to the - governor-general and council of India, dated 18th of March 1706, and - to the directors, dated 31st of March and 24th of June 1706, in the - Cape archives. The abuse heaped upon the burghers in these documents - is enormous, and indicates how weak the governor must have felt his - attempted defence to be. - - [73] This document is in the Cape archives. It is in as good a state - of preservation--excepting one leaf--as if it had been drawn up - yesterday. - - [74] See the letter of the governor and council at the Cape to the - governor-general and council of India, of the 18th of March 1706. - For this and subsequent events to the governor’s recall see the - Proceedings of the Council of Policy and the Cape Journal for 1706 and - 1707 in the Cape archives. - - [75] One of the chief privileges secured to the free Netherlanders - by their revolt against Spain and the long and successful war that - followed was security from confinement except as a punishment for - crime. A man suspected of having committed an offence could be - arrested on a warrant properly issued by a court of justice, and was - then either released on bail or speedily brought to trial, according - to the nature of the charge. - - [76] In a letter to the Indian authorities it is also termed blasphemy. - - [77] “Maar Edele Gestrenge Heer, de wyven zyn alsoo gevaarlyk als - de mans, en zyn niet stil.”--Extract from a letter of the landdrost - Starrenburg to the governor Willem Adriaan van der Stel, dated 18th of - September 1706. In the Cape archives. - - [78] See letter from the governor-general and council of India to the - governor and council at the Cape, dated 30th of November 1706. In the - Cape archives. - - [79] Tas mentions in his journal under date 19th of June 1705 that - he had heard of complaints about the governor having reached the - Netherlands, but gives no particulars. - - [80] “Tot het stellen van de nodige ordres voor de securiteijt van de - Caep de bonne Esperance, en daer toe soodanige middelen te adhiberen - en in ’t werck stellen, alsmede tot bereijkingh van dat ooghmerck - sal nodigh en dienstigh aghten, is goetgevonden te versoecken en - committeren, gelijck als versoght en gecommittert werden bij dese, - wegens de kamer Amsterdam de heeren Witsen en Hooft, wegens de kamer - Zeeland de heer d’Huijbert, en wegens de kameren van ’t zuijder en - noorder quartier de heeren van Blois en van Gent, beneffens beijde d’ - advocaten van de Compagnie.”--Resolution of the Assembly of Seventeen - adopted on the 8th of March 1706, copied by me from the original - volume in the archives at the Hague, and published in _Belangrijke - Historische Dokumenten over Zuid Afrika_, Deel III, page 3. - - [81] See _Belangrijke Historische Dokumenten over Zuid Afrika_, Deel - III, page 7. - - [82] See _Belangrijke Historische Dokumenten over Zuid Afrika_, Deel - III, page 7. - - [83] They can be seen in the letter of the governor and the council of - policy to the directors, dated 31st of March 1706, in the archives at - the Hague and copy in those at Capetown, also in the printed volume - called the _Korte Deductie_. - - [84] These rations included three hundred and sixty pounds of flour, a - still larger quantity of rice, fresh meat equal to four sheep, twenty - pounds of salted beef or pork, a very large quantity of European wine, - ale, and spirits, oil, vinegar, four pounds of pepper, two pounds of - spices, and twenty-five pounds of butter monthly, besides twenty-five - pounds of wax and tallow candles, and as much fuel as he needed. He - was supposed to entertain the masters of ships when they were ashore - on business, and was therefore provided for so liberally. He was - also required to give a dinner to all the principal officers of the - fleets returning from India, just before they sailed, which was termed - the afscheidmaal, but for this he was paid £41 13_s._ 4_d._ by the - Company. A carriage and horses were also provided for him free of - cost, so that he had no forage to purchase. Under these circumstances - his excuse seems to be as silly as it was impudent. His actual salary - was only two hundred gulden or £16 13_s._ 4_d._ a month, less than - that of a second class clerk in the public service to-day, but he had - various fees and perquisites. - - [85] The other members were Messrs. Lestevenon, De Vries, Corven, Bas, - Hooft, Van Dam, Velters, De Witt, Van der Waeijen, Van de Blocquerij, - Hoogeveen, Muijssart, Maarseveen, Trip, and Goudoeven. For the actual - text of the resolution see _Belangrijke Historische Dokumenten over - Zuid Afrika_, Deel III, pages 7, 8, and 9. - - [86] The original letter is now in the Cape archives, and the office - copy is in the archives of the Netherlands at the Hague. - - [87] This appointment of a military man as head of the government was - made specially to secure his constant presence in the castle in time - of war, as the directors were startled by the conduct of Van der Stel - in neglecting his duty as he had done. - - [88] _Biographisch Woordenboek der Nederlanden_, door A. J. van der - Aa, Zeventiende Deel, Tweede Stuk, published at Haarlem in 1874. - Copied by me and published in _Belangrijke Historische Dokumenten over - Zuid Afrika_, Deel III, pages 11 and 12. - - [89] Better known to English readers as Moselekatse, the Setshuana - form of his name. He was the father of the late chief Lobengula. - - [90] The private, confidential, and semi-official correspondence - between Governor Sir Benjamin D’Urban, Colonel H. G. Smith, - Lieutenant-Colonel H. Somerset, and many others, was fortunately - preserved by the governor and remained in his family’s possession - until 1911, when it was most kindly presented by his grandson W. S. - M. D’Urban, Esqre., of Exeter, through me to the government of the - Union of South Africa. I immediately published one volume of these - most valuable papers under the title of _The Kaffir War of 1835_, - which can be seen in several of the most important public libraries - in Great Britain and the Netherlands as well as in those of South - Africa. I copied sufficient for two volumes more, which can be seen - typewritten in the South African Public Library, Capetown, under - the title of _The Province of Queen Adelaide_, and finally I am now - preparing another packet, under the title of _The Emigration of the - Dutch Farmers from the Cape Colony_, which will also be deposited in - the same institution. It is from these papers that I have derived the - information which enables me to enlarge upon the accounts of Louis - Triegard and Pieter Lavras Uys which I have given in my _History of - South Africa_. I am also indebted to G. C. Moore Smith, Esqre., M.A., - of Sheffield, a great nephew of Colonel (afterwards Sir Harry) Smith, - for the use of many papers in his possession and for much kindly - assistance otherwise rendered to me. - - [91] He was a lineal descendant of the ruling family of the Amatuli - tribe, the remnant of which had been reduced to such a wretched - condition that they depended chiefly upon fish for subsistence. This - is an article of diet that would only be used by this section of the - Bantu in the last extremity of want, but they dared not make a garden - or even erect a hut before the arrival of Messrs. Farewell and Fynn - in 1824, for fear of attracting notice. Umnini was then a child, and - his uncle Matubana was regarded as the temporary head of the little - community of three or four hundred souls that had escaped when the - remainder of their tribe was destroyed. - - [92] The petition is in the archive department, a typewritten copy - in the South African Public Library. The names attached to it are - those of A. Gardiner, Henry Hogle (elsewhere written Ogle), Charles - J. Pickman, P. Kew, J. Francis, J. Mouncey, G. Lyons, Charles - Adams, James Collis, John Cane, R. Ward, Thomas Carden, Richard - King, J. Prince, and Daniel Toohey. On the 29th of March 1836 Lord - Glenelg replied refusing to annex Natal. Other European residents, - either permanent or occasional, at Port Natal at this time were C. - Blankenberg, Richard Wood, William Wood, Thomas Halstead, J. Pierce, - John Snelder, Alexander Biggar, Robert Biggar, George Biggar, John - Jones, Henry Batts, William Bottomley, John Campbell, Thomas Campbell, - Richard Lovedale, John Russell, Robert Russell, John Stubbs, Robert - Dunn, G. Britton, James Brown, George Duffy, Richard Duffy, Thomas - Lidwell, C. Rhoddam, and G. White. - - [93] When Mr. Isaacs lived in Natal--October 1825 to June 1831--the - Zulus occupied the territory between the Tugela and Tongati rivers, - but from this tract of country they were withdrawn in 1834 by Dingan. - In 1828 Tshaka was murdered at his residence there. At the port and - near the Umzimkulu the Bantu under European chiefs were living. The - remainder of the territory was uninhabited except by Bushmen on - the uplands and a few cannibals. Mr. Isaacs says: “our settlement, - which was somewhat circumscribed, contained upwards of two thousand - persons.”--_Travels and Adventures, &c._, Volume II, page 326. - - [94] The people under the chief Futu, some of whose kraals were found - by Captain Gardiner on the head waters of the Umkomanz river, should - not be included in the population of Natal at that time. They were - refugees from the north, and frequently moved from one locality to - another. Shortly after Captain Gardiner’s visit they retired to the - Umtamvuna. Their chief, Futu, was the son of Nombewu, who was killed - by Ncapayi, the ferocious leader of the Bacas. Captain Gardiner - estimated the people under Futu at different places in Natal at from - seven to eight thousand souls. See pages 312 _et seq._ of his volume. - - [95] See _The Annals of Natal_, by John Bird, Pietermaritzburg, 1888, - Vol. I, page 75. - - [96] By a Proclamation of the 11th of September 1834 the removal of a - slave beyond the border of the colony was punishable by the forfeiture - of the slave, a fine of £100, transportation, or imprisonment with - hard labour from three to five years. It was based upon an Imperial - _Act to amend and consolidate the Laws relating to the Abolition of - the Slave Trade_. - - [97] Mr. Willem Hendrik Neethling, afterwards landdrost of Klerksdorp, - who was living in Lydenburg in 1867 and was then twenty-three years - of age, in a communication to President F. W. Reitz which has been - kindly lent to me, says: “Wat betreft het verhaal re de twee Blanken - die te Lijdenburg aanlandden, is dat eene dwaling. Ik ben in staat - UEd. volkomen daarover in te lichten. Het waren geen Europeanen of - Caukassiers, maar wel Albinos van het neger ras. Zij waren man en - vrouw en twee kinderen. Het derde is te Lijdenburg geboren. De man - heette Tjaka, de alombekende slangen tegen-vergift maker. De man - was reeds op leeftijd, doch ik schatte de vrouw 27 of 28 jaren oud. - Toen het gerucht verspreid werd van de teruggevonden blanken heb ik - mij gehaast om ze zelven te zien, en vond uit dat zij Albinos waren, - zeer blank, doch met neger type, met de on-ontwikkelde neusbeen, en - kroeshaar. Zij kwamen van Kosi-baai, en zijn er weder heen vertrokken. - Ik heb se persoonlijk gesproken. Zij waren van staatswege gehaald op - geruchten.” - - [98] Since the publication of my _History of South Africa_, a journal - kept by Mr. Erasmus Smit from the 15th of November 1836 to the 31st - of January 1839 has been brought to light and in 1897 was printed in - Capetown. It forms an octavo pamphlet of one hundred and eight pages. - Mr. Smit, a native of Amsterdam, had once been a lay missionary in - the service of the London Society, later a schoolmaster at Oliphants - Hoek, and was married to a sister of Mr. Gerrit Maritz. He was a man - of fifty-eight years of age and infirm in health, but he joined his - brother-in-law’s party, and left the colony with it, being engaged - to perform religious services in the camp. During the stay of the - emigrants at Thaba Ntshu he was exceedingly jealous of the reverend - James Archbell, Wesleyan missionary there, whom he suspected of a - design of wishing to supplant him. On the 21st of May 1837 Mr. Retief - appointed him religious instructor of the emigrants, whereupon he - ordained himself and thereafter administered the sacraments and - performed all the duties of a clergyman. I have found nothing in - his journal that enables me to add to the account of the emigration - given in my _History_, but there are in it a few remarks that are of - assistance to me in the preparation of this paper. - - [99] The actual separation into two distinct communions, as we see - them to-day, had not then taken place, but the principles underlying - the movement were already at work, and had been for many years. There - was not as much difference between the two parties as there is in the - English episcopal church between the high and the low sections, but it - was sufficient to cause those with common sympathies to keep together - as much as they could. - - [100] See pages 451 to 455 of Volume III _Geslacht Register der Oude - Kaapsche Familien_, published at Capetown in 1894. The family Uys in - 1836 was a very large one, and was widely spread over the Cape Colony. - - [101] See page 302 of the printed volume of records entitled _The - Kaffir War of 1835_. - - [102] This refers to the following occurrence. During the war, while - Uys was in the field, a complaint, afterwards proved to be frivolous, - was made against his wife to the nearest special magistrate for the - protection of apprentices, who issued a warrant, and she was taken - to Port Elizabeth to be tried. Upon her innocence being clearly - established she was liberated, and an action was then brought - before the circuit court against the special magistrate for false - imprisonment. The chief justice, who was the circuit judge, and before - whom the case was tried, condemned the special magistrate to pay the - costs, but these were defrayed for him out of the district treasury, - on the ground that otherwise he would be deterred from doing his legal - duty when complaints were made to him.--See Chase’s _Natal Papers_. - - [103] Sir Benjamin D’Urban provisionally extended the boundary of - the colony to the Kraai river, and on the 6th of November 1835 - Lieutenant-Colonel Henry Somerset, who visited the north-eastern - districts as an agent of the governor, issued a notice that Stephanus - Petrus Erasmus was to be fieldcornet of the newly annexed ward. In - September of this year one hundred and sixty families were reported to - be living on the Stormberg spruit and the Kraai river. See the D’Urban - papers in the South African Public Library. A full account of the - massacres and robberies by the Matabele will be found in my _History - of South Africa_. - - [104] See his _Fifty Years of the History of the Republic in South - Africa (1795-1845)_, published in London in 1899, Volume II, pages 23 - to 28. - - [105] I am unable to add to or amend the accounts of these events - given by me a quarter of a century ago in my _History_, except in - one particular. The number of men and boys murdered at Umkungunhlovu - on the 6th of February 1838 (page 318, volume ii, _History of South - Africa since September 1795_) should be sixty-seven, not sixty-six, - and to the names should be added that of Pieter Retief, junior. This - is found in Mr. Boshof’s list, but not in most of those made shortly - after the event. These vary from each other, and some trouble must be - taken to verify many of the names. In a letter from Magdalena Johanna - de Wet, widow of Mr. Retief, to her brothers and sisters, dated at - Pietermaritzburg on the 7th of July 1840, published in Mr. Preller’s - work, she mentions the murder of her son Pieter Retief with his - father, and also of Abraham Greyling, her son by a former marriage, at - the same time. - - [106] For the particulars see my _History of South Africa since - September 1795_, Volume II, pages 323 to 326. - - [107] The difficulty of giving a reliable account of all the details - of this event is insurmountable, as it is impossible to reconcile - the narratives of those who took part in it with each other. I give - therefore only the leading features. Readers who may imagine that - every incident should be obtained by thorough research are requested - to consult the different statements given by Mr. Bird in his _Annals - of Natal_, and to believe that others consulted by me long before the - publication of that work are equally as conflicting. - - - - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's Willem Adriaan Van Der Stel, by George McCall Theal - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WILLEM ADRIAAN VAN DER STEL *** - -***** This file should be named 55781-0.txt or 55781-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/5/7/8/55781/ - -Produced by Chuck Greif, Christine D and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, -set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to -copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to -protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project -Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you -charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you -do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the -rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose -such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and -research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do -practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is -subject to the trademark license, especially commercial -redistribution. - - - -*** START: FULL LICENSE *** - -THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE -PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK - -To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free -distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work -(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project -Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project -Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at -http://gutenberg.org/license). - - -Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works - -1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to -and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property -(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all -the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy -all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. -If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the -terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or -entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. - -1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be -used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who -agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few -things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works -even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See -paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement -and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic -works. See paragraph 1.E below. - -1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" -or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the -collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an -individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are -located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from -copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative -works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg -are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project -Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by -freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of -this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with -the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by -keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project -Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. - -1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern -what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in -a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check -the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement -before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or -creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project -Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning -the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United -States. - -1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: - -1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate -access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently -whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the -phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project -Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, -copied or distributed: - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license - -1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived -from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is -posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied -and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees -or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work -with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the -work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 -through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the -Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or -1.E.9. - -1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted -with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution -must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional -terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked -to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the -permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. - -1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm -License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this -work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. - -1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this -electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without -prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with -active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project -Gutenberg-tm License. - -1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, -compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any -word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or -distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than -"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version -posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), -you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a -copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon -request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other -form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm -License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. - -1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, -performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works -unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. - -1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing -access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided -that - -- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from - the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method - you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is - owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he - has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the - Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments - must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you - prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax - returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and - sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the - address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to - the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." - -- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies - you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he - does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm - License. You must require such a user to return or - destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium - and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of - Project Gutenberg-tm works. - -- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any - money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the - electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days - of receipt of the work. - -- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free - distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. - -1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set -forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from -both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael -Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the -Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. - -1.F. - -1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable -effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread -public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm -collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic -works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain -"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or -corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual -property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a -computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by -your equipment. - -1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right -of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project -Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all -liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal -fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT -LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE -PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE -TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE -LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR -INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH -DAMAGE. - -1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a -defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can -receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a -written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you -received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with -your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with -the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a -refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity -providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to -receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy -is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further -opportunities to fix the problem. - -1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth -in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER -WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO -WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. - -1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied -warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. -If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the -law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be -interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by -the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any -provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. - -1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the -trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone -providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance -with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, -promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, -harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, -that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do -or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm -work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any -Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. - - -Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm - -Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of -electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers -including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists -because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from -people in all walks of life. - -Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the -assistance they need, are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's -goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will -remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure -and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. -To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation -and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 -and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org. - - -Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive -Foundation - -The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit -501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the -state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal -Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification -number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at -http://pglaf.org/fundraising. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg -Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent -permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. - -The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. -Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered -throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at -809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email -business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact -information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official -page at http://pglaf.org - -For additional contact information: - Dr. Gregory B. Newby - Chief Executive and Director - gbnewby@pglaf.org - - -Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg -Literary Archive Foundation - -Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide -spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of -increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be -freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest -array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations -($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt -status with the IRS. - -The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating -charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United -States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a -considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up -with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations -where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To -SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any -particular state visit http://pglaf.org - -While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we -have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition -against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who -approach us with offers to donate. - -International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make -any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from -outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. - -Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation -methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other -ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. -To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate - - -Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic -works. - -Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm -concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared -with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project -Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. - - -Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed -editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. -unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily -keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. - - -Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: - - http://www.gutenberg.org - -This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, -including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to -subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. diff --git a/old/55781-0.zip b/old/55781-0.zip Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 645a4f6..0000000 --- a/old/55781-0.zip +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/55781-h.zip b/old/55781-h.zip Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index d2dfc7c..0000000 --- a/old/55781-h.zip +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/55781-h/55781-h.htm b/old/55781-h/55781-h.htm deleted file mode 100644 index 00aa1a2..0000000 --- a/old/55781-h/55781-h.htm +++ /dev/null @@ -1,12459 +0,0 @@ -<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" -"http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> - -<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" lang="en" xml:lang="en"> - <head> <link rel="coverpage" href="images/cover.jpg" /> -<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=utf-8" /> -<title> - The Project Gutenberg eBook of -Willem Adriaan Van Der Stel, by George Mccall Theal. -</title> -<style type="text/css"> - p {margin-top:.2em;text-align:justify;margin-bottom:.2em;text-indent:4%;} - -.blockquot {margin-top:2%;margin-bottom:2%;} - -.c {text-align:center;text-indent:0%;} - -.cb {text-align:center;text-indent:0%;font-weight:bold;} - -.ast {letter-spacing:2em;text-align:center;text-indent:0%;} - -div.blksyn p{text-indent:-4%;margin-left:6%;} - -.hang {text-indent:-2%;margin-left:2%;} - -.lftspc {margin-left:.25em;} - -.nind {text-indent:0%;} - -.r {text-align:right;margin-right: 5%;} - -.rt {text-align:right;} - -.rtt {text-align:right;border-top:1px solid black;} - -.bl {border-left:1px solid black;padding-left:.2em;} - -small {font-size: 70%;} - -big {font-size: 130%;} - - h1 {margin-top:5%;text-align:center;clear:both; -font-weight:normal;line-height:1em;} - - h2 {margin-top:4%;margin-bottom:2%;text-align:center;clear:both; - font-size:120%;} - - h3,h4 {margin:4% auto 2% auto;text-align:center;clear:both;} - - hr {width:90%;margin:2em auto 2em auto;clear:both;color:black;} - - hr.full {width: 60%;margin:2% auto 2% auto;border-top:1px solid black; -padding:.1em;border-bottom:1px solid black;border-left:none;border-right:none;} - - table {margin-top:2%;margin-bottom:2%;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto;border:none;} - - body{margin-left:4%;margin-right:6%;background:#ffffff;color:black;font-family:"Times New Roman", serif;font-size:medium;} - -a:link {background-color:#ffffff;color:blue;text-decoration:none;} - - link {background-color:#ffffff;color:blue;text-decoration:none;} - -a:visited {background-color:#ffffff;color:purple;text-decoration:none;} - -a:hover {background-color:#ffffff;color:#FF0000;text-decoration:underline;} - -.smcap {font-variant:small-caps;font-size:100%;} - - img {border:none;} - - sup {font-size:75%;vertical-align:top;} - -.caption {font-weight:bold;} - -.figcenter {margin-top:3%;margin-bottom:3%;clear:both; -margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto;text-align:center;text-indent:0%;} - -.footnotes {border:dotted 3px gray;margin-top:5%;clear:both;} - -.footnote {width:95%;margin:auto 3% 1% auto;font-size:0.9em;position:relative;} - -.label {position:relative;left:-.5em;top:0;text-align:left;font-size:.8em;} - -.fnanchor {vertical-align:30%;font-size:.8em;} - -div.poetry {text-align:center;} -div.poem {font-size:90%;margin:auto auto;text-indent:0%; -display: inline-block; text-align: left;} -div.poem2 {font-size:90%;margin:auto auto auto 50%;text-indent:0%; -display: inline-block; text-align: left;} -.poem .stanza {margin-top: 1em;margin-bottom:1em;} -.poem span.i0 {display: block; margin-left: 0em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} -.poem span.i1 {display: block; margin-left: .45em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} - -.pagenum {font-style:normal;position:absolute; -left:95%;font-size:55%;text-align:right;color:gray; -background-color:#ffffff;font-variant:normal;font-style:normal;font-weight:normal;text-decoration:none;text-indent:0em;} -@media print, handheld -{.pagenum - {display: none;} - } - -.sidenote {width:15%;padding-bottom:.5em;padding-top:.5em; -padding-left:.5em;padding-right:.5em;margin-left:1em; -text-align:center; -float:right;clear:right;margin-top:1em;font-size:75%; -color:black;background:#eeeeee;border:dashed 1px;} - -@media print, handheld -{.sidenote {text-align:center;font-weight: bold; -margin:auto 15% auto 15%;} -} -</style> - </head> -<body> - - -<pre> - -Project Gutenberg's Willem Adriaan Van Der Stel, by George McCall Theal - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license - - -Title: Willem Adriaan Van Der Stel - And Other Historical Sketches - -Author: George McCall Theal - -Release Date: October 20, 2017 [EBook #55781] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WILLEM ADRIAAN VAN DER STEL *** - - - - -Produced by Chuck Greif, Christine D and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - -</pre> - -<hr class="full" /> - -<p class="cb"> -WILLEM ADRIAAN VAN DER STEL<br /> -AND OTHER HISTORICAL SKETCHES -</p> - -<p class="c"> -<img src="images/cover.jpg" width="347" height="500" alt="" title="" /> -</p> - -<h1> -<b>WILLEM ADRIAAN VAN <br /> -DER STEL</b><br /> -<br /> -<small><small>AND<br /> - -OTHER HISTORICAL SKETCHES</small></small></h1> - -<p class="c"> -BY<br /> - -GEORGE McCALL THEAL, <span class="smcap">Litt.D.</span>, LL.D.<br /> -<br /><br /><br /> -CAPETOWN<br /> -THOMAS MASKEW MILLER, PUBLISHER<br /> -1913<br /> -<br /><br /> -PRINTED BY<br /> -WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED<br /> -LONDON AND BECCLES<br /> -</p> - -<h3><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"></a>CONTENTS</h3> - -<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary=""> - -<tr><th colspan="3" class="c"><a href="#SKETCH_I">SKETCH I.</a></th></tr> - -<tr><td colspan="2"> </td><td class="rt"><small>PAGE</small></td></tr> -<tr><td colspan="2"><p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Exploration by the Portuguese of the Western Coast of<br /> -Africa and Discovery of the Cape of Good Hope</span></p></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_003">3</a></td></tr> - -<tr><th colspan="3" class="c"><a href="#SKETCH_II">SKETCH II.</a></th></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#I-2">I.</a></td><td> <span class="smcap">First Voyages of the French and English to India.<br /> -Early History of the Netherlands</span></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_035">35</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#II-2">II.</a></td><td> <span class="smcap">The War in the Netherlands to the Union of Utrecht</span></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_062">62</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#III-2">III.</a></td><td> <span class="smcap">Continuation of the War in the Netherlands until<br /> -1606</span></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_091">91</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#IV-2">IV.</a></td><td> <span class="smcap">The War on the Sea between Spain and the Netherlands</span></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_116">116</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#V-2">V.</a></td><td> <span class="smcap">The Truce with Spain and English Rivalry</span></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_149">149</a></td></tr> - -<tr><th colspan="3" class="c"><a href="#SKETCH_III">SKETCH III.</a></th></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#I-3">I.</a></td><td> <span class="smcap">Governor Willem Adriaan van der Stel</span></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_171">171</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#II-3">II.</a></td><td> <span class="smcap">Ordinary Events during the Administration of Governor<br /> -Willem Adriaan van der Stel</span></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_187">187</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#III-3">III.</a></td><td> <span class="smcap">Faithless Conduct of the Governor</span></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_207">207</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#IV-3">IV.</a></td><td> <span class="smcap">Proceedings in the Netherlands regarding Governor<br /> -Willem Adriaan van der Stel</span></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_234">234</a></td></tr> - -<tr><th colspan="3" class="c"><a href="#SKETCH_IV">SKETCH IV.</a></th></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#I-4">I.</a></td><td> <span class="smcap">Chronicles of Two Leaders of the Great Emigration,<br /> -Louis Triegard and Pieter Uys</span></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_253">253</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#II-4">II.</a></td><td> <span class="smcap">Pieter Lavras Uys</span></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_275">275</a></td></tr> - -<tr><th colspan="3" class="c"><a href="#SYNOPTICAL_INDEX">SYNOPTICAL INDEX.</a></th></tr> - -<tr><td colspan="2" valign="top"><a href="#SKETCH_I-s"><span class="smcap">Sketch I.</span></a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_295">295</a></td></tr> -<tr><td colspan="2" valign="top"><a href="#SKETCH_II-s"><span class="smcap">Sketch II.</span></a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_310">310</a></td></tr> -<tr><td colspan="2" valign="top"><a href="#SKETCH_III-s"><span class="smcap">Sketch III.</span></a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_314">314</a></td></tr> -<tr><td colspan="2" valign="top"><a href="#SKETCH_IV-s"><span class="smcap">Sketch IV.</span></a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_321">321</a></td></tr> -</table> - -<h2><a name="I-sect" id="I-sect"></a>I.<br /><br /> - -<i>Exploration by the Portuguese of the Western Coast of Africa and -Discovery of the Cape of Good Hope, including a short Sketch of the -early History of Portugal.</i></h2> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_002" id="page_002"></a>{2}</span> </p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_003" id="page_003"></a>{3}</span> </p> - -<h3><a name="HISTORICAL_SKETCHES" id="HISTORICAL_SKETCHES"></a>HISTORICAL SKETCHES.</h3> - -<h3><a name="SKETCH_I" id="SKETCH_I"></a>SKETCH I.<br /><br /> -<span class="smcap">Exploration by the Portuguese of the Western Coast of Africa and Discovery of the Cape of Good Hope.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">The</span> discovery of an ocean route from Europe to India, followed by the -establishment of the Portuguese as the preponderating power in the East, -is one of the greatest events in the history of the world. It is not too -much to say that every state of Central and Western Europe was affected -by it. The time was critical, for the Turks were then menacing -Christendom, and if they had secured a monopoly of the Indian trade -their wealth and strength would have been so augmented that it is -doubtful whether they might not have succeeded in entering Vienna in -1529. As yet the Moslem power was divided, for Egypt was still under the -independent Mameluke rulers, and the greater portion of the Indian -products that found their way to Europe was obtained by the Venetians at -Alexandria. To that city they were conveyed in boats down the Nile from -Cairo, after being carried by camels from the shore of the Red sea, -whither they were brought by ships from the coast of Malabar. From this -traffic Alexandria had thriven greatly, and from it too Venice,—whose -merchants distributed over Europe the silk and cotton fabrics, gems, -pepper, and spices of the East,—had become wealthy and powerful. That -portion of the Indian merchandise which was brought overland by caravans -from the Persian gulf to the Mediterranean coast was under the control -of the Turks, and a few years later, when in 1517 the sultan Selim -overthrew the Mamelukes and made Egypt a province of his<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_004" id="page_004"></a>{4}</span> dominions, the -whole would have been theirs if the Portuguese had not just in time -forestalled them.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>In the early years of the fifteenth century the Christian nations were -little acquainted with distant countries, America and Australia were -entirely unknown, Eastern Asia was very imperfectly laid down on the -maps, and the greater part of Africa had never been explored. This -continent might have terminated north of the equator, for anything that -the most learned men in Europe knew with certainty to the contrary. They -had only the map of Ptolemy and perhaps that of Edrisi as their guide, -and these were extremely vague as regards its southern part, and, as is -now known, were most incorrect.</p> - -<p>The little kingdom of Portugal at the south-western extremity of Europe -was more favourably situated than any other Christian state for -prosecuting discovery along the western coast of Africa, though its -shipping was small in quantity compared with that of either Venice, -Genoa, the Hanseatic league, or the Netherland dominions of the dukes of -Burgundy. A glance at its history may not be uninteresting, and will -show how it came to embark in maritime exploration.<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p> - -<p>In Portugal, as throughout Southern Europe, and as in South Africa, -great numbers of ancient stone implements are found of such rude -workmanship as to prove that the men who made and used them were savages -of a very low type, and there is further evidence that they were cave -dwellers. In South Africa the primitive race has continued to exist -until our own times, but in Portugal it disappeared ages ago, no one can -do more than conjecture how or when.</p> - -<p>Later, but still in the far distant past, the whole of the Iberian -peninsula came to be inhabited by the race of men of whom the Basques -are the present representatives, but whether they succeeded immediately -to the palæolithic savages, or whether some other people came between -them, is as yet<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_005" id="page_005"></a>{5}</span> unknown. The Basques in Europe correspond to the early -Egyptians and the light coloured men of the North African coast, so that -in speaking of them we are speaking of a race that led the van of -civilisation at a very remote period in the history of the world.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">The Romans in Spain.</div> - -<p>Next to appear in the Iberian peninsula were the Celts, by whom the -earlier inhabitants of the south and centre were destroyed, though -probably some few were incorporated. Those living in the mountainous -region in the north, particularly in the western part of the Pyrenees -and along the adjoining coast of the bay of Biscay, however, managed to -hold their own, and their descendants are found in those localities at -the present day. The Phœnicians and Carthaginians followed long -afterwards, and occupied many stations in the southern section of the -peninsula, but never succeeded in establishing their authority in the -northern part of the country. The Greeks also are believed by some -historians to have formed trading stations at the mouths of the rivers -on the western coast as well as on the Mediterranean shore, and it has -even been supposed that Lisbon was founded by a Hellenic colony, though -that seems to be extremely doubtful.</p> - -<p>In the Punic wars the Romans obtained assistance in Spain, by which name -the entire peninsula is meant, and in the year <small>B.C.</small> 206 the -Carthaginians were finally expelled from the country. But now the Romans -turned their arms against the Spaniards, and after a long struggle -succeeded in establishing their authority over the Celtic part of the -country, though insurrections were frequent, and it was only in the time -of Augustus that the Basque section was subdued and the whole peninsula -was reduced to perfect obedience.</p> - -<p>During the next four centuries Spain became thoroughly Romanised, to -such an extent indeed that not only the arts, customs, laws, and -municipal institutions, but even the language of Rome came into general -use, and that language is the basis of the tongue of the Celtic portion -of the people at the present day. The Christian religion also, which had -become that of the ruling power, was firmly adopted. No<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_006" id="page_006"></a>{6}</span> conquerors ever -left their impression upon a whole people more thoroughly than the -Romans left theirs upon the inhabitants of the greater portion of the -Spanish peninsula.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>So matters went on until the early years of the fifth century of our -era, when the Western Empire was overrun by hordes of warlike intruders -pressing down from the north, and the Alani, the Vandals, and the Suevi -made their way over the Pyrenees, and took possession of Spain. They -were followed by the Visigoths, when the Vandals and most of the Alani -went on to Africa, the Suevi remaining in Galicia and part of Old -Castile, and the Gothic monarchy of Spain was established. These Goths -held the Romanised Celts in subjection, and lived among them as an -aristocracy, but soon adopted their language, when the two peoples -blended into one.</p> - -<p>Three centuries passed away, and then another race of conquerors -appeared. The Arabs, under the influence of the religion of Mohamed, had -overrun Egypt and the whole northern coast of Africa to the Atlantic -ocean, converting everywhere the people to their faith. In the second -decade of the eighth century one of their armies passed from Africa by -way of Gibraltar into Spain, and speedily overran the whole peninsula -except the Basque territory in the north. For a long series of years -they were not harsh conquerors, and by their love of learning, their -splendid schools, and the beauty of their architecture unquestionably -did much to improve the subject people. The Christians were not -compelled to renounce their religion, and their persons and property -were protected by the law. For a time the country was subject to the -caliph of Damascus, and later to an independent caliph of Cordova, but -at length, in the first years of the eleventh century, the Mohamedan -government broke into fragments, and an era of misrule and fanaticism on -both sides commenced. The Gothic nobles from the first had chafed under -foreign supremacy, and within fifty years of the conquest the little -Christian state of the north had begun to expand. Now a struggle between -the Christians and the Mohamedans set in,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_007" id="page_007"></a>{7}</span> a struggle which lasted for -centuries and which drenched the land with blood, which spread -desolation far and wide, but created a people inspired with boundless -energy and prepared to undertake the most formidable enterprises. The -Mohamedans were aided by fanatics from Africa, mostly of Berber blood, -and large numbers of crusaders, among whom were many Englishmen, came to -the assistance of the Christians.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">The Kingdom of Portugal.</div> - -<p>A number of little Christian states, sometimes united under one head, at -other times independent of each other, came into existence in the -northern part of the peninsula, and in <small>A.D.</small> 1095 a small section of the -present territory of Portugal, that had been recovered from the -Mohamedans by Alfonso, king of Leon and Castile, was formed into a -county for the benefit of a Burgundian noble named Henrique, who married -Theresa, a natural daughter of the king. The county was called Portugal, -from o Porto, the Port, at the mouth of the river Douro. With this event -the history of Portugal, as distinct from the other sections of the -Spanish peninsula, commences. The county certainly remained a fief of -Leon until the 25th of July 1139, on which day the memorable battle of -Ourique was fought. Affonso, who had succeeded his father Henrique as -count of Portugal, crossed the Tagus, marched far into the Moslem -domains, and defeated with great slaughter five emirs who had united -their forces against him. The old Portuguese historians assert that -after the victory Affonso was proclaimed king by his army, and that a -cortes which assembled at Lamego confirmed the title, but recent -criticism throws doubt upon these statements as being merely legendary. -The latest writers assert that it was in war with his suzerain that -Affonso acquired his independence, and that the cortes did not meet at -Lamego until 1211. At any rate, it is certain that the son of Henrique -styled himself king in 1140, and that in 1143 Pope Innocent the Second -confirmed the title.</p> - -<p>After this the waves of war rolled backward and forward over the land, -but in 1147 Affonso got possession of the important city of Santarem, -which was never again lost. In the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_008" id="page_008"></a>{8}</span> same year also, with the aid of a -strong body of English crusaders, he seized Lisbon, though it was not -made the national capital until the reign of João I. During the -remainder of his life and that of his son Sancho, who succeeded him, the -Tagus was the southern boundary of Portugal, and the province of -Alemtejo was a debatable land, sometimes overrun by one party, sometimes -by the other. In 1211 Sancho died, and was succeeded by his son Affonso -II, and he again in 1223 by his son Sancho II, during whose reigns a -steady though slow and frequently interrupted advance was made in the -conquest of Alemtejo. Sancho II was despoiled of his kingdom by his -brother Affonso III, and in 1248 died in exile. In 1250 the emirate of -the Algarves was overrun, and was held as a fief of Castile until 1263, -when it was ceded to Portugal in full sovereignty. The country then for -the first time after a struggle of one hundred and sixty-eight years -from the formation of the northern county, acquired its present -dimensions, which it has retained inviolate ever since. The title King -of Portugal and of the Algarves, assumed by Affonso III, was -subsequently borne by all the monarchs of the country.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>In 1279 Affonso III was succeeded by his son Diniz, who died in 1325, -and was followed on the throne by his son Affonso IV. He was succeeded -in 1357 by his son Pedro, who was followed in 1367 by his son Fernando, -the last monarch of the Burgundian dynasty, who died on the 22nd of -October 1383. Under the government of these kings the Portuguese had -become a fairly wealthy and prosperous commercial people, without losing -any of the martial spirit or fierce energy that they had acquired during -their long wars with the Mohamedans. Fernando died without male heirs, -and his daughter, being married to the king of Castile, was by a -fundamental law excluded from the crown. His widow, the infamous Dona -Leonor, asserted a claim to act as regent for her daughter, but owing to -her profligate habits and her remorseless cruelty she was detested by -the people, who were extremely averse to union or even association with -Castile, and she was expelled.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_009" id="page_009"></a>{9}</span></p> - -<p>The leader of the popular party was Dom João, Grand Master of the Order -of Saint Benedict of Avis, a man of remarkable ability, who was an -illegitimate son of King Pedro by Theresa Lourenço. The Castilian -monarch invaded Portugal with a great army and laid siege to Lisbon, but -pestilence broke out in his camp, and he was driven back with heavy -loss. On the 6th of April 1385 the cortes, which had assembled at -Coimbra, the ancient capital, elected the Grand Master of the Order of -Avis king of Portugal. Still the sovereign of Castile might have -succeeded in conquering the country if John of Gaunt, son of Edward III -of England, had not come to its aid with five thousand men. The marriage -of King João with Philippa, eldest daughter of John of Gaunt, cemented -his alliance with England, with which country he had concluded a treaty -of close friendship. Thus the illustrious dynasty of Avis, under whose -leadership the little kingdom held such a proud position in Europe, came -to occupy the throne of Portugal.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">The Dynasty of Avis.</div> - -<p>During the long reign of João I the kingdom continued to prosper. The -policy pursued was to maintain a firm alliance with England, to carry on -commerce with that country, and to avoid connection of any kind with the -other states of the peninsula. Learning was encouraged by the king, and -Portuguese literature may be said to date from this period. If the -martial ardour of the people was relaxing by long peace, it was revived -in 1415 by the prosecution of war with the Moors on the North African -coast, when the strong position of Ceuta, opposite Gibraltar, was taken. -João I died in 1433, and was succeeded by his eldest legitimate son, -Duarte by name. Affonso, an illegitimate son by Ines Pires, who was -created count of Barcellos by his father, and duke of Bragança by his -nephew Affonso V, was the ancestor of the sovereigns of Portugal from -1640 to 1910.</p> - -<p>Duarte was an excellent king, but his short reign was marked by a great -disaster. In 1437 an attack upon Tangier failed, and the fourth -legitimate son of João I, Dom Fernando, became a prisoner. As he could -only obtain his liberty by<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_010" id="page_010"></a>{10}</span> the restoration of Ceuta to the Moors, he -remained a captive, and died at Fez in 1443.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>King Duarte died in 1438, when his son and heir, Affonso V, was only six -years of age. Dom Pedro, duke of Coimbra, second son of João I and -Philippa of Lancaster, then became regent, but ten years later the young -king took the government into his own hands. He was a scholar and a -patron of literature, but was somewhat reckless and unstable in -character. He carried on war with the Moors of Northern Africa, and took -several towns from them, after which he turned his arms against Castile, -in hope of obtaining possession of that kingdom, but was utterly -defeated in 1476 in the battle of Toro, and in 1481 died, leaving the -throne of Portugal to his son João II.</p> - -<p>The new king was twenty-six years of age when he succeeded his father. -Though inclined to be a despot, he was one of the wisest and ablest -princes that ever sat on the throne of Portugal. His great object was to -reduce the power of the nobles, who under the feudal system of -government were really masters of the country, and he therefore -instituted an inquiry into the nature of their tenures, which provoked -their resentment. First among them was the third duke of Bragança, who -was lord of many towns, and owned more than one-fourth of the whole -territory of the kingdom. He was arrested, and after a trial for -treasonable correspondence with a foreign state, was executed. This was -followed by the death of the duke of Viseu, who was stabbed by the -king’s own hand, of the bishop of Evora, who was thrown down a well, and -by the execution of about eighty of the most powerful noblemen in the -country. Their estates were confiscated, though in some instances -partially restored to their heirs, the vast authority they had possessed -was broken for ever, and João II became an absolute monarch, though a -benevolent and excellent one. He was a patron of learned men, a promoter -of commerce, a just administrator, and in every way open to him he -endeavoured to improve the condition of the people. He died at Alvor in -the Algarves on<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_011" id="page_011"></a>{11}</span> the 25th of October 1495, to the grief of his subjects, -who termed him the perfect king.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Defective Knowledge of Europeans.</div> - -<p>It was during the reigns of the sovereigns of the dynasty of Avis that -the Portuguese led the way in those geographical discoveries which have -conferred such lustre upon the little kingdom. When João I ascended the -throne Europeans knew far less of the western coast of Africa than was -known by the Carthaginians five centuries before the Christian era, and -of the southern and eastern coasts they were absolutely ignorant. The -Arabs, Persians, and Indians were far more enlightened in this respect -than were the people of Europe. Whether there were other writings in -ancient times upon the shores of the Indian ocean than the <i>Voyage of -Nearchus</i> and the <i>Periplus of the Erythrean Sea</i> is very doubtful, for -if there were they would most likely have been in the great library of -Alexandria,<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> to which Ptolemy had access, and of South-Eastern Africa -he knew nothing at all. There is the most conclusive evidence that in -very ancient times some nations frequented the eastern shore of the -continent at least as far down as Cape Correntes,<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> but no accounts of -their discoveries<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_012" id="page_012"></a>{12}</span> were extant in the fifteenth century, nor are there -any to-day. The writings of even the Arabs and Persians after the time -of Mohamed appear to have been unknown in Western Europe when the -Portuguese commenced their explorations, so that to them, if the -imperfect information contained in the geography of Ptolemy be excepted, -all that was beyond Cape Nun from the Atlantic to the Indian ocean was a -vast blank which it might be hazardous in the extreme to attempt to -examine.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>The ships of the fifteenth century were ill-fitted also for long -voyages. Though capable of withstanding heavy seas, they were clumsily -rigged, and were without the mechanical appliances of the present day. -In proportion to their tonnage they needed so many men to work them that -a great deal of space was taken up with food and fresh water, and of -comfort on board there was none. They could make the passage from Lisbon -to London with fruit and wine without difficulty, but it was a very -different thing to sail along an unknown coast, with no harbour in front -where fresh provisions and water could be obtained. The compass, which -is believed to have been in use in an imperfect form in China as far -back as two<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_013" id="page_013"></a>{13}</span> thousand six hundred years before Christ, had recently -become known in Western Europe, and about the beginning of the -fourteenth century had been so greatly improved by Flavio Gioja, of -Amalphi, that navigation had benefited greatly by it. But the compass, -though enabling ships to steer safely between frequented ports, was not -of much assistance in the exploration of seas never visited before, -though it might be on the return passage. The instrument for determining -latitudes at sea was exceedingly crude and imperfect, and for -ascertaining longitudes no means whatever were known, so that it was -only by computing the direction and the distance run that a navigator -could form an opinion as to where he was. Add to this the current belief -of seamen that the sun’s heat in the south was so great that it caused -the water to boil and thick vapour to obscure the sky, which was always -as dark as night. There was a legend that the crew of a ship that had -made the venture had actually seen the region of eternal gloom, and had -got away from it only by a miracle. In the minds of common mariners the -ocean beyond Cape Nun was as wild and dreadful as that beyond Cape -Correntes was to the Arabs of the eastern coast. Thus it was a task not -only of discomfort, but of peril and dread, to proceed beyond the known -part of the coast.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Prince Henry the Navigator.</div> - -<p>The discoveries of the Portuguese were largely the result of the genius -and ability of a prince of their royal house, Henrique by name, known in -European history as Henry the Navigator. He was the third son of João I -and Philippa of Lancaster, and was therefore a nephew of Henry IV of -England. Two objects engrossed the attention of the Infante Dom -Henrique: the conversion of the heathen to Christianity, and the -discovery of unknown lands, the last of which he believed would greatly -facilitate the former. As a gallant knight he took part in the -expedition against Ceuta in 1415, and there he learned that trade was -carried on with the country south of the Sahara by means of caravans of -camels, and that the coast of the Atlantic in that direction was often -visited. Then he thought that<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_014" id="page_014"></a>{14}</span> the same coast could more easily be -reached by sea, and he resolved to attempt to do it. In 1418 he took up -his residence at Sagres, close to Cape Saint Vincent, in the Algarves, -the south-western point of Portugal and the very best position in Europe -as a basis for exploration. He was then twenty-four years of age. At -Sagres he built an observatory, established a school of navigation, and -invited the most expert astronomers, mathematicians, and sea-captains -that he could hear of to visit him, that he might consult with them as -to the best means of prosecuting discovery. He was possessed of much -wealth, as he had been created duke of Viseu, to which title large -estates were attached, and he was also Master of the Order of Christ and -governor of the Algarves. His own revenues he spent entirely in the -promotion of his designs, and he was most liberally aided with means by -his father and his brothers.<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a></p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>The first exploring expedition sent out is said to have been under the -command of Bartholomeu Perestrello, who discovered the island of Porto -Santo in 1418 or 1419, but the early accounts of this voyage do not -agree with each other, and nothing connected with it is certain.</p> - -<p>In 1419 Perestrello was sent again, and with him were two other ships -commanded by João Gonçalves Zarco and Tristão Vas, who had instructions -from Dom Henrique to establish a station on Porto Santo and plant a -garden for the use of future navigators. Perestrello returned to -Portugal from the island, but the other captains planted a plot of -ground, and in 1420 went on to Madeira, which received its name from -them on account of the trees with which it was covered. They then -returned to Porto Santo, and thence to Portugal. Unfortunately they had -put ashore a rabbit with<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_015" id="page_015"></a>{15}</span> young, and its progeny increased so rapidly -that the continued cultivation of the ground became impossible, so that -Porto Santo was not permanently colonised until several years later. The -accounts of this voyage are also vague and unreliable. In 1425 a -commencement was made in colonising Madeira, and among other useful -plants the vine and the sugar cane were introduced.<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a></p> - -<div class="sidenote">Progress of Discovery.</div> - -<p>In 1432 Gonçalo Velho Cabral, Commander of the Order of Christ, -discovered and named the island Santa Maria in the Azores.</p> - -<p>It was most probably in 1434 that an expedition under Gil Eannes doubled -Cape Bojador, though some of the ancient writers assign the date 1428 -for this achievement, others 1432, and others again 1433. This was a -great step in advance, for on finding the sea south of the dreaded -headland to be as easily navigated as that on the north, the old terror -of the common people was dispelled, and it was no longer difficult to -obtain men to work the ships. It is not easy therefore to account for -the various dates assigned for this achievement, but exact chronology -does not seem to have been regarded as of much importance when the -chronicles were prepared from oral testimony years after the events took -place. In 1435 the same captain Gil Eannes reached the mouth of the -river do Ouro, to which he gave this name.</p> - -<p>In 1441 Nuno Tristão reached Cape Blanco. In 1443 he visited the bay of -Arguim, and returned to Portugal with a number of negro slaves, who were -gladly received as labourers. In 1444 or 1445 Cape Verde was discovered -and named by Diniz Dias.</p> - -<p>From this time onward many small vessels left Portugal every year to -trade on the African coast for gold dust, ivory,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_016" id="page_016"></a>{16}</span> and particularly for -slaves. All the features of the shore became thoroughly well known, and -were marked on charts as far south as the Rio Grande, but for fifteen -years, until after the death of Dom Henrique—13th of November -1460—discovery practically ceased. The lucrative slave trade occupied -the minds of the sea captains, and ships freighted with negroes taken -captive in raids, or purchased from conquering chiefs, frequently -entered the harbours of Portugal. The commerce in human flesh was -regarded as highly meritorious, because it brought heathens to a -knowledge of Christianity. But never has a mistake or a crime led to -more disastrous results, for to the introduction of negroes as labourers -on the great estates belonging to the nobles and religious orders in -Alemtejo and the Algarves the decline of the kingdom in power and -importance is mainly due. The effects were not visible for many years, -but no one can come in contact with the lower classes in Southern -Portugal to-day without being impressed with the fact that both the -Europeans and the Africans have been ruined by mixture of their blood.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>The exploring expeditions which Dom Henrique never ceased to encourage, -but which the greed of those who were in his service had turned into -slave-hunting voyages, were resumed after his death. In 1461, Pedro de -Cinta, who was sent out by Affonso V, reached the coast of the present -republic of Liberia, and in 1471 Fernando Po crossed the equator.</p> - -<p>King João II was as resolute as his grand-uncle the Navigator in -endeavouring to discover an ocean road to India. He had not indeed any -idea of the great consequences that would follow, his object being -simply to divert the eastern trade from Venice to Lisbon, which would be -effected if an unbroken sea route could be found. In 1484 he sent out a -ship under Diogo Cam, which reached the mouth of the Congo, and in the -following year the same officer made a greater advance than any previous -explorer could boast of, for he pushed on southward as far as Cape -Cross, latitude 22°, on the coast of what is now German South-West -Africa,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_017" id="page_017"></a>{17}</span> where the marble pillar which he set up to mark the extent of -his voyage remained standing more than four hundred years.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Expedition under Bartholomeu Dias.</div> - -<p>The next expedition sent in the same direction solved the secret -concerning the meridional extent of the African continent. It was under -the chief command of an officer named Bartholomeu Dias, of whose -previous career unfortunately nothing can now be ascertained except that -he was a gentleman of the king’s household and receiver of customs at -Lisbon when the appointment was conferred upon him, and that he had at -some former time taken part in exploring the coast. The historian João -de Barros states that at the end of August 1486<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> he sailed<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_018" id="page_018"></a>{18}</span> from the -Tagus with two vessels of about fifty tons each, according to the -Portuguese measurement of the time, though they would probably be rated -much higher now. He had also a small storeship with him, for previous -expeditions had often been obliged to turn back from want of food.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>The officers who were to serve under him were carefully selected, and -were skilful in their professions. They were: Leitão (probably a -nickname) sailing master, and Pedro d’Alanquer pilot of the flag ship; -João Infante captain, João Grego sailing master, and Alvaro Martins -pilot of the São Pantaleão; and Pedro Dias, brother of the commodore, -captain, João Alves sailing master, and João de Santiago pilot of the -storeship. On board the squadron were four negresses—convicts—from the -coast of Guinea, who were to be set ashore at different places to make -discoveries and report to the next white men they should see. This was a -common practice at the time, the persons selected being criminals under -sentence of death, who were glad to escape immediate execution by -risking anything that might befall them in an unknown and barbarous -country. In this instance women were chosen, as it was considered likely -they would be protected by the natives. It was hoped that through their -means a powerful Christian prince called Prester John,<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> who was -believed to reside in the interior, might come to learn of the greatness -of the Portuguese monarchy and that efforts were being made to reach -him, so that he might send messengers to the coast to communicate with -the explorers. King João and his courtiers believed that if this -mythical Prester John could be found, he would point out the way to -India.</p> - -<p>Dias, like all preceding explorers, kept close to the coast<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_019" id="page_019"></a>{19}</span> on his way -southward. Somewhere near the equator he left the storeship with nine -men to look after her, and then continued his course until he reached an -inlet or small harbour with a group of islets at its entrance, the one -now called Angra Pequena or Little Bay by the English, Luderitzbucht by -the Germans, in whose possession it is at present, but which he named -Angra dos Ilheos, the bay of the Islets. The latitude was believed to be -24° south, but in reality it was 26½°, so imperfect were the means then -known for determining it. There he cast anchor, and for the first time -Christian men trod the soil of Africa south of the tropic.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Visit to Angra Pequena.</div> - -<p>A more desolate place than that on which the weary seamen landed could -hardly be, and no mention is made by the early Portuguese historians of -any sign of human life being observed as far as the explorers wandered. -Unfortunately the original journal or log-book of the expedition has -long since disappeared, so that much that would be intensely interesting -now can never be known. But this is certain, that refreshment there -could have been none, except fish, the flesh of sea-fowl that made their -nests on the islets, and possibly eggs if the breeding season was not -far advanced, though even that would be welcomed by men long accustomed -only to salted food. There was no fresh water, so it was no place in -which to tarry long. Before he left, Dias set up a marble cross some two -metres or so in height, on an eminence that he named Serra Parda, the -Grey Mountain, as a token that he had taken possession of the country -for his king. For more than three hundred years that cross stood there -above the dreary waste just as the brave Portuguese explorer erected -it.<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> The place where it stood so long is<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_020" id="page_020"></a>{20}</span> called Pedestal Point. Here -one of the negresses was left, almost certainly to perish, when the -expedition moved onward.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>From Angra Pequena Dias tried to keep the land in sight, but as it was -the season of the south-east winds, which were contrary, he could not -make rapid progress. At length by repeatedly tacking he reached an inlet -or bend in the coast to which he gave the name Angra das Voltas, the Bay -of the Turnings. There is a curve in the land in the position indicated, -29° south, but the latitudes<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_021" id="page_021"></a>{21}</span> given are not to be depended upon, and the -expedition may have been far from it and farther still from the point at -the mouth of the Orange river called by modern geographers Cape Voltas, -in remembrance of that event. At Angra das Voltas, wherever it was, Dias -remained five days, as the weather was unfavourable for sailing, and -before he left another of the negresses was set ashore.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Visit to Mossel Bay.</div> - -<p>After making sail again heavy weather was encountered and a boisterous -sea, such as ships often experience in that part of the ocean, and which -is caused by the cold Antarctic current being slightly deflected by some -means from its usual course and striking the hot Mozambique current at a -right angle off the Cape of Good Hope. Very miserable Dias and his -companions must have been in their tiny vessels among the tremendous -billows, with the sails close reefed, and hardly a hope of escape from -being lost. But after thirteen days the weather moderated, and then they -steered eastward, expecting soon to see the coast again. For several -days they sailed in this direction, but as no land appeared Dias -concluded that he must either have passed the extremity of the continent -or be in some deep gulf like that of Guinea. The first surmise was -correct, for on turning to the north he reached the shore at an inlet -which he named Angra dos Vaqueiros, the Bay of the Herdsmen, on account -of the numerous droves of cattle which he saw grazing on its shores. It -was probably the same inlet that was named by the next expedition the -Watering Place of São Bras, and which since 1601 has been known as -Mossel Bay. The inhabitants gazed with astonishment upon the strange -apparition coming over the sea, and then fled inland with their cattle, -so that it was not found possible to have any intercourse with the wild -people. Thus no information concerning the inhabitants of the South -African coast, except that they had domestic cattle in their possession, -was obtained by this expedition.</p> - -<p>How long Dias remained at Angra dos Vaqueiros is<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_022" id="page_022"></a>{22}</span> not known, but his -vessels, good sea-boats as they had proved to be, must have needed some -refitting, so he was probably there several days at least. He and his -officers were in high spirits, as unless they were in another deep bay -like the gulf of Guinea, they had solved the question of the extent -southward of the African continent. As far as their eyes could reach, -the shore stretched east and west, so, sailing again, they continued -along it until they came to an uninhabited islet in latitude 33¾° south. -This islet is in Algoa Bay as now termed—the Bahia da Lagoa of the -Portuguese after the middle of the sixteenth century,—and still bears -in the French form of St. Croix the name Ilheo da Santa Cruz, the islet -of the Holy Cross, which he gave it on account of the pillar bearing a -cross and the arms of Portugal which he erected upon it.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>Dias visited the mainland, where he observed two women gathering -shellfish, who were left unmolested, as the king had issued instructions -that no cause of offence should be given to the inhabitants of any -countries discovered. Here the last of the negresses was set ashore as -one had died on the passage. The coast was examined some distance to the -eastward, and to a prominent rock upon it the name Penedo das Fontes, -the Rock of the Fountains, was given by some of the people, because two -springs of water were found there.</p> - -<p>Here the seamen protested against going farther. They complained that -their supply of food was running short, and the storeship was far -behind, so that there was danger of perishing from hunger. They thought -they had surely done sufficient in one voyage, for they were two -thousand six hundred kilometres beyond the terminus of the preceding -expedition, and no one had ever taken such tidings to Portugal as they -would carry back. Further, from the trending of the coast it was evident -there must be some great headland behind them, and therefore they were -of opinion it would be better to turn about and look for it. One can -hardly blame them for their protest,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_023" id="page_023"></a>{23}</span> considering the fatigue and peril -they had gone through and the wretchedly uncomfortable life they must -have been leading.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Extent of the Voyage.</div> - -<p>Dias, after hearing these statements, took the officers and some of the -principal seamen on shore, where he administered an oath to them, after -which he asked their opinion as to what was the best course to pursue -for the service of the king. They replied with one voice, to return -home, whereupon he caused them to sign a document to that effect. He -then begged of them to continue only two or three days’ sail farther, -and promised that if they should find nothing within that time to -encourage them to proceed on an easterly course, he would put about. The -crews consented, but in the time agreed upon they advanced only to the -mouth of a river to which the commander gave the name Infante, owing to -João Infante, captain of the <i>São Pantaleão</i>, being the first to leap -ashore. The river was probably the Fish, but may have been either the -Kowie or the Keiskama as known to us. Its mouth was stated to be -twenty-five leagues from the islet of the Cross, and to be in latitude -32⅔° S., which was very incorrect.</p> - -<p>But now, notwithstanding this error, there should have been no doubt in -any mind that they had reached the end of the southern seaboard, which -in a distance of over nine hundred kilometres does not vary a hundred -and seventy kilometres in latitude. The coast before them trended away -to the north-east in a bold, clear line, free of the haze that almost -always hung over the western shore. And down it, only a short distance -from the land, flowed a swift ocean current many degrees warmer than the -water on either side, and revealing itself even to a careless eye by its -deeper blue. That current could only come from a heated sea in the -north, and so they might have known that the eastern side of Africa had -surely been reached.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>Whether the explorers observed these signs the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_024" id="page_024"></a>{24}</span> Portuguese writers who -recorded their deeds, though in a manner so incomplete as to cause -nothing but regret to-day, do not inform us,<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> but from the river -Infante the expedition turned back. At Santa Cruz Dias landed again, and -bade farewell to the cross which he had set up there with as much sorrow -as if he was parting with a son banished for life. In returning, the -great headland was discovered, to which the commander gave the name Cabo -Tormentoso—the Stormy Cape—afterwards changed by the king to Cabo de -Boa Esperança—Cape of Good Hope—owing to the fair prospect which he -could now entertain of India being at last reached by this route. What -particular part of the peninsula Dias landed upon is unknown, but -somewhere on it he set up another of the marble pillars he had brought -from Portugal, to which he gave the name São Philippe. The country about -it he did not explore, as his provisions were so scanty that he was -anxious to get away. Keeping along the coast, after nine months’ absence -the storeship was rejoined, when only three men were found on board of -her, and of these, one, Fernão Colaça by name, died of joy upon seeing -his countrymen again. The other six had been murdered by negroes with -whom they were trading. Having replenished his scanty stock of -provisions, Dias set fire to the storeship, as she was in need of -refitting, and he had not men to work her; and then sailed to Prince’s -Island<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_025" id="page_025"></a>{25}</span> in the bight of Biafra, where he found some Portuguese in -distress. A gentleman of the king’s household, named Duarte Pacheco, had -been sent to explore the rivers on that part of the coast, but had lost -his vessel, and was then lying ill at the island with part of the crew -who had escaped from the wreck. Dias took them all on board, being very -glad not only to relieve his countrymen but to obtain more men to work -his ships, so many of those who sailed with him from Portugal having -died, and, pursuing his course in a north-westerly direction, touched at -a river where trade was carried on, and also at the fort of São Jorge da -Mina, an established Portuguese factory,<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> of which João Fogaça was -then commander. Here he took charge of the gold that had been collected, -after which he proceeded on his way to Lisbon, where he arrived in -December 1487, sixteen months and seventeen days from the time of his -setting out.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Return of Dias to Portugal.</div> - -<p>No other dates than those mentioned are given by the early Portuguese -historians, thus the exact time of the discovery of the Cape of Good -Hope and the coast onward to the mouth of the Infante river is doubtful, -and it can only be stated as having occurred in the early months of -1487. The voyage surely was a memorable one, and nothing but regret can -be expressed that more of its details cannot be recovered. Of the three -pillars set up by Dias, two—those of the Holy Cross and São -Philippe—disappeared, no one has ever been able to ascertain when or -how; that of São Thiago at Angra Pequena remained where it was placed -until it was broken down by some unknown vandals about the commencement -of the nineteenth century.</p> - -<p>Meantime the king sent two men named Affonso de<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_026" id="page_026"></a>{26}</span> Paiva, of Castelbranco, -and João Pires,<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> of Covilhão, in another direction to search for -Prester John. For this purpose they left Santarem on the 7th of May -1487, and being well provided with money, they proceeded first to -Naples, then to the island of Rhodes, and thence to Alexandria. They -were both conversant with the Arabic language, and had no difficulty in -passing for Moors. At Alexandria they were detained some time by -illness, but upon recovering they proceeded to Cairo, and thence in the -disguise of merchants to Tor, Suakin, and Aden. Here they separated, -Affonso de Paiva having resolved to visit Abyssinia to ascertain if the -monarch of that country was not the potentate they were in search of, -and João Pires taking passage in a vessel bound to Cananor on the -Malabar coast. They arranged, however, to meet again in Cairo at a time -fixed upon.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>João Pires reached Cananor in safety, and went down the coast as far as -Calicut, after which he proceeded upwards to Goa. Here he embarked in a -vessel bound to Sofala, and having visited that port, he returned to -Aden, and at the time appointed was back in Cairo, where he learned that -Affonso de Paiva had died not long before. At Cairo he found two -Portuguese Jews, Rabbi Habrão, of Beja, and Josepe, a shoemaker of -Lamego. Josepe had been in Bagdad, on the Euphrates, some years -previously, and had there heard of Ormuz, at the mouth of the Persian -gulf, and of its being the warehouse of the Indian trade and the point -of departure for caravans to Aleppo and Damascus. He had returned<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_027" id="page_027"></a>{27}</span> to -Portugal and informed the king of what he had learned, who thereupon -sent him and Habrão with letters of instruction to Affonso de Paiva and -João Pires, directing them if they had not already found Prester John, -to proceed to Ormuz and gather all the information they could there.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Travels of João Pires.</div> - -<p>Upon receiving this order João Pires drew up an account of what he had -seen and learned in India and on the African coast, which he gave to -Josepe to convey to the king, and taking Habrão with him, he proceeded -to Aden and thence to Ormuz. From Ormuz Habrão set out with a caravan -for Aleppo on his way back to Portugal with a duplicate of the narrative -sent to the king by Josepe. None of the early Portuguese historians who -had access to the records of the country ever saw this narrative, so -that probably neither of the Jews lived to deliver his charge. Not a -single date is given in the early accounts of this journey, except that -of the departure from Santarem, which De Goes fixes as May 1486<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> and -Castanheda and De Barros as the 7th of May 1487. There is no trace of -any knowledge in Portugal of the commerce of Sofala before the return of -Vasco da Gama in 1499, but as such a journey as that described must in -the fifteenth century have occupied several years, it is just possible -that Josepe or Habrão reached Lisbon after that date.</p> - -<p>João Pires went from Ormuz by way of Aden to Abyssinia, where he was -well received by the ruler of that country. Here, after all his -wanderings he found a home, for as he was not permitted to leave again, -he married and had children, living upon property given to him by the -government. In 1515 Dom Rodrigo de Lima arrived in Abyssinia as -ambassador of the king of Portugal, and found him still alive. With the -embassy was a priest, Francisco Alvares by name, who wrote an account of -the mission and of the statement made to<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_028" id="page_028"></a>{28}</span> him by João Pires, and also -gave such information on his return home as enabled the Portuguese -historians to place on record the above details. As far as actual result -in increase of geographical knowledge is concerned, this expedition of -Affonso de Paiva and João Pires therefore effected nothing.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>In the laudable spirit of modern times, prompted by a desire to -rectify error, men do not hesitate to question the accuracy of even -the most renowned writers of old. But the great authority of De -Barros requires that very substantial proof should be supplied -before any date given by him is overturned, especially when that -date is given three different times, and is indirectly corroborated -by other contemporary historians. In an article entitled <i>The -Voyages of Diogo Cão and Bartholomeu Dias 1482-88</i>, by E. G. -Ravenstein, in the <i>Geographical Journal</i>, Vol. XVI, July to -December 1900, page 625, an attempt is made to substitute other -dates for the voyages of Diogo Cam and Bartholomeu Dias than those -given by João de Barros, but the arguments supplied do not seem to -me to be of much weight.</p> - -<p>This is what Mr. Ravenstein says:</p> - -<p>“We do not know whether Cão was given the command of one or of more -vessels, nor have the names of any of his officers been placed on -record.</p> - -<p>“Cão was the first to carry padrões, or pillars of stone, on an -exploring voyage. Up to his time the Portuguese had been content to -erect perishable wooden crosses, or to carve inscriptions into -trees to mark the progress of their discoveries. King John -conceived the happy idea of introducing stone pillars surmounted by -a cross, and bearing, in addition to the royal arms, an inscription -recording in Portuguese, and sometimes also in Latin, the date, the -name of the king by whose order the voyage was made and the name of -the commander. The four padrões set up by Cão on his two voyages -have been discovered in situ, and the inscriptions upon two of them -(one for each voyage) are still legible, notwithstanding the lapse -of four centuries and have been deciphered.</p> - -<p>“During the first voyage two padrões were set up—one at the Congo -mouth, the other on the Cabo do Lobo in latitude 13° 26 S., now -known as Cape St. Mary. The latter has been recovered intact. It -consists of a shaft 1.69 m. high and 0.73 m. in circumference, -surmounted by a cube of 0.47 m. in height and .33 in breadth. Shaft -and cube are cut out of a single block of liaz, a kind of limestone -or coarse marble common in the environs of Lisbon. The cross has -disappeared, with the exception of a stump, from which it is seen -that it also was of stone, and fixed by means of lead.</p> - -<p>“The arms of Portugal carved upon the face of the cube are those in -use up to 1486; in which year João II, being then at Beja, caused -the green cross of the Order of Avis, which had been<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_029" id="page_029"></a>{29}</span> improperly -introduced by his grandfather, who had been master of that order, -to be withdrawn and the position of the quinas, or five -escutcheons, to be changed.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Criticisms of the Account by Barros.</div> - -<p>“The inscription covers the three other sides of the cube. It is in -Gothic letters and in Portuguese, and reads as follows: ‘In the -year 6681 of the World, and in that of 1482 since the birth of our -Lord Jesus Christ, the most serene, most excellent and potent -prince, King D. João II. of Portugal did order (<i>mandou</i>) this land -to be discovered and these padrões to be set up by Dº Cão, an -esquire (<i>escudeiro</i>) of his household.’ There is no inscription in -Latin.</p> - -<p>“As the year 6681 of Eusebius begins on September 1, 1481, we -gather from this inscription that the order for the expedition was -given between January and August, 1482. Of course the departure may -have been delayed, but the delay cannot have been a long one, as -Cão was home again before April, 1484.</p> - -<p>“Cão came back to Lisbon probably in the beginning of 1484, and -certainly before April of that year. The king, first of all, made -him a ‘cavalleiro’ of his household. He then, on April 8, 1484, ‘in -consideration of the services rendered in the course of a voyage of -discovery to Guinea, from which he had now returned,’ granted him -an annuity of ten thousand reals, to be continued to one surviving -son; and a few days afterwards, on April 14, he separated his -‘cavalier’ from the common herd and made him noble, and gave him a -coat-of-arms charged with the two padrões which he had erected on -the coast of Africa.</p> - -<p class="ast">* * * * *</p> - -<p>“Far more useful for our purpose is the pillar which formerly stood -on Cape Cross, and which Captain Becker of the Falke carried off to -Kiel<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> in 1893. Dr. Scheppig has fully described the pillar.</p> - -<p>“The Portuguese inscription says—‘In the year 6685 of the creation -of the world, and of Christ 485, the excellent, illustrious King D. -João II. of Portugal did direct this land to be discovered, and -this padrão to be set up by Dº Cão, a cavalleiro (knight) of his -household.’</p> - -<p>“As the year 6685 of the Eusebian era begins on September 1, 1485, -Cão must have departed after that day, and before the close of the -year. As he had returned from his first voyage before April, 1484, -his departure must have been delayed for reasons not known to us.</p> - -<p class="c">“<span class="smcap">The Voyage of Bartholomeu Dias, 1487-88.</span></p> - -<p>“No sooner had Cão’s vessels returned to the Tagus than King John, -whose curiosity had been excited by the reports about the supposed -Prester John, brought home by d’Aveiro, determined to fit out -another expedition to go in quest of him by doubling Africa, Friar -Antonio of Lisbon and Pero of Montaroyo having<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_030" id="page_030"></a>{30}</span> already been -despatched on the same errand by way of Jerusalem and Egypt. The -command of this expedition was conferred upon Bartholomeu Dias de -Novaes, a cavalier of the king’s household.... It certainly was our -Bartholomew who commanded one of the vessels despatched in 1481 -with Diogo d’Azambuja to the Gold Coast.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>“The appointment seems to have been made in October, 1486, for on -the 10th of that month King John, ‘in consideration of services -which he hoped to receive,’ conferred upon Bartholomeu Dias, the -‘patron’ of the <i>S. Christovão</i>, a royal vessel, an annuity of -6,000 reis.</p> - -<p>“The account which João de Barros has transmitted to us of the -remarkable expedition which resulted in the discovery of the Cape -of Good Hope is fragmentary, and on some points undoubtedly -erroneous. Unfortunately, up till now no official report of the -expedition has been discovered; but there are a few incidental -references to it, which enable us to amplify, and in some measure -to correct, the version put forward by the great Portuguese -historian.</p> - -<p>“Most important among these independent witnesses is a marginal -note on fol. 13 of a copy of Pierre d’Ailly’s <i>Imago mundi</i>, which -was the property of Christopher Columbus, and is still in the -Columbine Library at Seville. This ‘note’ reads as follows:—</p> - -<p>“<span class="lftspc">‘</span>Note, that in December of this year, 1488, there landed at Lisbon -Bartholomeu Didacus [Dias], the commander of three caravels, whom -the King of Portugal had sent to Guinea to seek out the land, and -who reported that he had sailed 600 leagues beyond the furthest -reached hitherto, that is, 450 leagues to the south and then 150 -leagues to the north, as far as a cape named by him the Cape of -Good Hope, which cape we judge to be in Agisimba, its latitude, as -determined by the astrolabe, being 45° S., and its distance from -Lisbon 3100 leagues. This voyage he [Dias] had depicted and -described from league to league upon a chart, so that he might show -it to the king; at all of which I was present (<i>in quibus omnibus -interfui</i>).’</p> - -<p>“The same voyage is referred to in a second ‘note’ discovered in -the margin of the <i>Historia rerum ubique gestarum</i> of Pope Pius -II., printed at Venice in 1477. From this second note we learn that -‘one of the captains whom the most serene King of Portugal sent -forth to seek out the land in Guinea brought back word in 1488 that -he had sailed 45° beyond the equinoctial line.’</p> - -<p>“Las Casas (<i>Historia de las Indias</i>, lib. i. c. 7) assumed these -notes to have been written by Bartholomew Columbus, whom, as the -result of a misconception of the meaning of the concluding words of -the note, he supposed to have taken part in this voyage. These -assumptions, however, are absolutely inadmissible, for as early as -February 10, 1488, Bartholomew had completed at London a map of the -world for Henry VII. If we remember that Bartholomew was detained -by pirates for several weeks before he reached England, he must -have left Lisbon towards the end of 1487. He did not return to that -place until many years afterwards.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_031" id="page_031"></a>{31}</span></p> - -<p>“On the other hand, the note is unhesitatingly recognized as in the -handwriting of Christopher by such competent authorities as -Varnhagen, d’Avezac, H. Harrisse, Asensio, and Cesare de Lollis.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Criticism of the Account by Barros.</div> - -<p>“And if Christopher is the author of these notes, they must have -been written in 1488, for it was in March, 1488, that King Manuel, -in response to an application, cordially invited his ‘especial -friend,’ Christopher Columbus, to come to Lisbon, promising him -protection against all criminal and civil proceedings that might be -taken against him. Columbus, when he received this royal -invitation, was at Seville, where his son Ferdinand was born unto -him on September 28, 1488. If he left Seville soon afterwards, he -may certainly have been present on the memorable occasion, in -December, 1488, when Bartholomeu Dias rendered an account to the -king of the results of his hope-inspiring voyage.</p> - -<p>“If then, Bartholomeu Dias returned in December, 1488, after an -absence (according to De Barros) of sixteen months and seventeen -days, he must have started towards the end of July or in the -beginning of August, 1487; and if the Bartholomeu Dias referred to -in the royal rescript of October 10, 1486, is the discoverer of the -Cape, which hardly admits of a doubt, he cannot have started in -July, 1486, as usually assumed. He cannot have been in Lisbon in -December, 1487.</p> - -<p>“This date (namely 1488) is further confirmed by Duarte Pacheco -Pereira, the ‘Achilles Lusitano’ of Camoens, for in his <i>Esmeraldo -de Situ Orbis</i>, written soon after 1505, but only published in -1892, we are told that the Cape was discovered in 1488. And Pacheco -is a very competent witness, for Dias, on his homeward voyage, met -him at the Ilha do Principe.</p> - -<p>“A further statement respecting the date of the discovery of the -Cape appears in the <i>Parecer</i>, or ‘Opinion,’ of the Spanish -astronomers and pilots already referred to. They say, ‘And beyond -this [the Sierra Parda, where Cão died], Bartolomé Diaz, in the -year 1488, discovered as far as the Cabo d’El-Rei, a distance of -350 leagues; and thence to the Cabo de boa Esperança, 250 leagues; -and thence D. Vasco da Gama discovered 600 leagues.’<span class="lftspc">”</span></p> - -<p>This evidence does not seem to me to be by any means conclusive.</p> - -<p>The marginal note supposed to have been made by Christopher -Columbus I reject at once, as I cannot believe that the latitude -named in it was given by Dias or recorded by Columbus.</p> - -<p>As for the work of Duarte Pacheco, it cannot for a moment be placed -in the scale against Barros. Its author was born in Lisbon about -1451, and is believed to have died in poverty some time between the -years 1524 and 1553. It was he who was rescued at Prince’s Island -and taken to Lisbon, so that he must have been acquainted with the -correct date, but as his original manuscript has perished and the -copy made from it was done carelessly and certainly contains -transcriber’s errors, I do not think much dependence can be placed -on his statements. There are two manuscript copies of his work in -existence. The oldest, now in the library at Evora, is supposed -from the style of the writing to have been made about the close of -the sixteenth century, and the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_032" id="page_032"></a>{32}</span> other, now in the National Library -in Lisbon, is merely a transcript of the first made at a much later -date. The work was published at Lisbon in 1892 in a foolscap folio -volume of xxxv+125 pages, and is divided into four books. It is -entitled <i>Esmeraldo de Situ Orbis, por Duarte Pacheco Pereira. -Edição commemorativa da Descoberta da America por Christovão -Colombo no seu quarto centenario, sob a direcção de Raphael Eduardo -de Azevedo Basta, Conservador do Real Archivo da Torre do Tombo</i>.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>I give here the two references to the voyage of Dias, from which -the reader can see how little this work of Duarte Pacheco is to be -depended upon. In a reference to the first voyage of Diogo Cam he -states, as in the second of these, that the inscription on the -cross was in three languages: Latin, Portuguese, and Arabic. That -identical cross is still in existence, and there is no Arabic upon -it. See also the confusion between the Penedo das Fontes and the -Ilheo da Santa Cruz.</p> - -<p>Terceyro Liuro, pagina 90.</p> - -<p>Nom sem muita rasam se poz nome a este promontorio cabo da boa -esperança por que Bartholomeu Dias que o descobrio por mandado -delRey Dom Joham que Deos tem no anno de nosso senhor de mil -quatrocentos & oitenta & oito annos veendo que esta costa & Ribeira -do mar voltaua daly em diante ao norte & ao nordest....</p> - -<p>Terceyro Liuro, pagina 94.</p> - -<p>Item; sinco leguoas adiante dangra do Rico esta hum Ilheo pouco -mais de mea leguoa de terra que se chama ho penedo das fontes o -qual nome Ihe pos Bertholameu Dias que esta terra descobrio por -mandado delRey Dom Joham que Deos tem por que achou aly duas fontes -de muito boa augua doce & por outro nome se chama este penedo ho -Ilheo da Cruz por que o mesmo Bertholameu Dias pos aly hum padram -de pedra pouco mais alto que hum homem com huma cruz em sima & este -padram tem tres letreyros.s. hum em latim & outro em harabiguo & -outro em nossa lingua portugueza & todos tres dizem huma cousa.s. -como elRey Dom Joham no anno de nosso senhor Jesus cristo de mil -CCCC & oytenta & oyto annos & em tantos annos da creaçam do mundo -mandou descobrir esta costa por Bertholameu Dias capitam de seus -nauios; ...</p> - -<p>The remaining references seem to me equally weak, and until -something more conclusive comes to light I think it would be well -to adhere to the dates of Barros. I notice, however, that Mr. K. G. -Jayne, in his <i>Vasco da Gama and his Successors</i>, has adopted the -dates of Mr. Ravenstein.</p></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_033" id="page_033"></a>{33}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="II-sect" id="II-sect"></a>II.</h2> - -<p><i>First Voyages of the French and English to the Eastern Seas. And a -Sketch of the Early History of the Netherlands and of the Establishment -of the Dutch in India.</i></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_034" id="page_034"></a>{34}</span> </p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_035" id="page_035"></a>{35}</span> </p> - -<h3><a name="SKETCH_II" id="SKETCH_II"></a>SKETCH II.</h3> - -<h4><a name="I-2" id="I-2"></a>I.</h4> - -<p><span class="smcap">First Voyages of the French and English to India. Early History of the -Netherlands.</span></p> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">The</span> debt which the world owes to the Portuguese for weakening the -Mohamedan power and thus preventing the subjugation of a larger portion -of Eastern Europe than was actually overrun by the Turks should not be -forgotten, but long before the close of the sixteenth century they had -ceased to be participants in the great progressive movement of the -Caucasian race. Upon a conquering nation rests an enormous -responsibility: no less than that of benefiting the world at large. Was -Portugal doing this in her eastern possessions to such an extent as to -make her displacement there a matter deserving universal regret? -Probably her own people would reply that she was, for every nation -regards its own acts as better than those of others; but beyond her -borders the answer unquestionably would be that she was not. Rapacity, -cruelty, corruption, have all been laid to her charge at this period, -and not without sufficient reason. But apart from these vices, her -weakness under the Castilian kings was such that she was incapable of -doing any good. When an individual is too infirm and decrepit to manage -his affairs, a robust man takes his place, and so it is with States. The -weak one may cry out that might is not right, but such a cry finds a -very feeble echo. India was not held by the Portuguese under the only -indefeasible tenure: that of making the best use of it; and thus it -could be seized by a stronger power<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_036" id="page_036"></a>{36}</span> without Christian nations feeling -that a wrong was being done.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>Before recounting in brief the rise of the Northern Netherlands to a -proud position among European states, and the commencement of the Dutch -conquests in the eastern seas, a glance may be given to the earliest -acts of other nations, and especially to those of our own countrymen, in -those distant regions.</p> - -<p>The French were the first to follow the Portuguese round the Cape of -Good Hope to India. As early as 1507 a corsair of that nation, named -Mondragon, made his appearance in the Mozambique channel<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> with two -armed vessels, and plundered a ship commanded by Job Queimado. He also -captured and robbed another Indiaman nearer home. On the 18th of January -1509 a fleet commanded by Duarte Pacheco Pereira fell in with him off -Cape Finisterre, and after a warm engagement sank one of his ships and -captured the other. Mondragon was taken a prisoner to Lisbon, where he -found means of making his peace with the king, and he was then permitted -to return to France.</p> - -<p>Twenty years later three ships, fitted out by a merchant named Jean -Ango, sailed from Dieppe for India. The accounts of this expedition are -so conflicting that it is impossible to relate the occurrences attending -it with absolute accuracy. It is certain, however, that one of the ships -never reached her destination. Another was wrecked on the coast of -Sumatra, where her crew were all murdered. The third reached Diu in July -1527. She had a crew of forty Frenchmen, but was commanded by a -Portuguese named Estevão Dias, nicknamed Brigas, who had fled from his -native country on account of misdeeds committed there, and had taken -service with the strangers.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_037" id="page_037"></a>{37}</span> The ruler of Diu regarded this ship with -great hostility, and as he was unable to seize her openly, he practised -deceit to get her crew within his power. Professing friendship, he gave -Dias permission to trade in his territory, but took advantage of the -first opportunity to arrest him and his crew. They were handed over as -captives to the paramount Mohamedan ruler, and were obliged to embrace -his creed to preserve their lives. They were then taken into his service -and remained in India.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Early Voyages of the French.</div> - -<p>Early in 1529 two ships commanded by Jean and Raoul Parmentier, fitted -out partly by Jean Ango, partly by merchants of Rouen, sailed from -Dieppe. In October of the same year they reached Sumatra, but on account -of great loss of life from sickness, on the 22nd of January 1530 they -turned homeward. As they avoided the Portuguese settlements, nothing was -known at Goa of their proceedings except what was told by a sailor who -was left behind at Madagascar and was afterwards found there. This -expedition was almost as unsuccessful as the preceding one. On their -return passage the ships were greatly damaged in violent storms, and -they reached Europe with difficulty.</p> - -<p>From that time until 1601 there is no trace of a French vessel having -passed the Cape of Good Hope. In May of this year the <i>Corbin</i> and -<i>Croissant</i>, two ships fitted out by some merchants of Laval and Vitré, -sailed from St. Malo. They reached the Maldives safely, but there the -<i>Corbin</i> was lost in July 1602, and her commander was unable to return -to France until ten years had gone by. The <i>Croissant</i> was lost on the -Spanish coast on her homeward passage.</p> - -<p>On the 1st of June 1604 a French East India Company was established on -paper, but it did not get further. In 1615 it was reorganised, and in -1617 the first successful expedition to India under the French flag -sailed from a port in Normandy. From that date onward ships of this -nation were frequently seen in the eastern seas. But<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_038" id="page_038"></a>{38}</span> the French made no -attempt to form a settlement in South Africa, and their only connection -with this country was that towards the middle of the seventeenth century -a vessel was sent occasionally from Rochelle to collect a cargo of -sealskins and oil at the islands in and near the present Saldanha Bay.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>The English were the next to appear in Indian waters. A few individuals -of this nation may have served in Portuguese ships, and among the -missionaries, especially of the Company of Jesus, who went out to -convert the heathen, it is not unlikely that there were several. One at -least, Thomas Stephens by name, was rector of the Jesuit college at -Salsette. A letter written by him from Goa in 1579, and printed in the -second volume of Hakluyt’s work, is the earliest account extant of an -English voyager to that part of the world.<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a> It contains no -information of importance.</p> - -<p>The famous sea captain Francis Drake, of Tavistock in Devon, sailed from -Plymouth on the 13th of December 1577, with the intention of exploring -the Pacific ocean. His fleet consisted of five vessels, carrying in all -one hundred and sixty-four men. His own ship, named the Pelican, was of -one hundred and twenty tons burden. The others were the <i>Elizabeth</i>, -eighty tons, the <i>Marigold</i>,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_039" id="page_039"></a>{39}</span> thirty tons, a pinnace of twelve tons, and -a storeship of fifty tons burden. The last named was set on fire as soon -as her cargo was transferred to the others, the pinnace was abandoned, -the <i>Marigold</i> was lost in a storm, the <i>Elizabeth</i>, after reaching the -Pacific, turned back through the straits of Magellan, and the <i>Pelican</i> -alone continued the voyage. She was the first English ship that sailed -round the world. Captain Drake reached England again on the 3rd of -November 1580, and soon afterwards was made a knight by Queen Elizabeth -on board his ship. The <i>Pelican</i> did not touch at any part of the South -African coast, but there is the following paragraph in the account of -the voyage:—</p> - -<div class="sidenote">First Englishmen in the East.</div> - -<p>“We ran hard aboard the Cape, finding the report of the Portuguese to be -most false, who affirm that it is the most dangerous cape of the world, -never without intolerable storms and present danger to travellers who -come near the same. This cape is a most stately thing, and the fairest -cape we saw in the whole circumference of the earth, and we passed by it -on the 18th of June.”</p> - -<p>In 1583 four English traders in precious stones, acting partly on their -own account and partly as agents for merchants in London, made their way -by the Tigris and the Persian gulf to Ormuz, where at that time people -of various nationalities were engaged in commerce. John Newbery, the -leader of the party, had been there before. The others were named Ralph -Fitch, William Leades, and James Story. Shortly after their arrival at -Ormuz they were arrested by the Portuguese authorities on the double -charge of being heretics and spies of the prior Dom Antonio, who was a -claimant to the throne of Portugal, and under these pretences they were -sent prisoners to Goa. There they managed to clear themselves of the -first of the charges, Story entered a convent, and the others, on -finding bail not to leave the city, were set at liberty in December -1584, mainly through the instrumentality of the Jesuit father Stephens -and Jan Huyghen<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_040" id="page_040"></a>{40}</span> van Linscheten, of whom more will be related in the -following pages. Four months afterwards, being in fear of ill-treatment, -they managed to make their escape from Goa. After a time they separated, -and Fitch went on a tour through India, visiting many places before his -return to England in 1591. An account of his travels is extant in -Hakluyt’s collection, but there is not much information in it, and it -had no effect upon subsequent events.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>Thomas Candish sailed from Plymouth on the 21st of July 1586, with three -ships—the <i>Desire</i>, of one hundred and twenty tons, the <i>Content</i>, of -sixty tons, and the <i>Hugh Gallant</i>, of forty tons—carrying in all one -hundred and twenty-three souls. After sailing round the globe, he -arrived again in Plymouth on the 9th of September 1588, having passed -the Cape of Good Hope on the 16th of May.</p> - -<p>The first English ships that put into a harbour on the South African -coast were the <i>Penelope</i>, <i>Merchant Royal</i>, and <i>Edward Bonaventure</i>, -which sailed from Plymouth for India on the 10th of April 1591, under -command of Admiral George Raymond. This fleet put into the watering -place of Saldanha, now called Table Bay, at the end of July. The crews, -who were suffering from scurvy, were at once sent on shore, where they -obtained fresh food by shooting wild fowl and gathering mussels and -other shell-fish along the rocky beach. Some inhabitants had been seen -when the ships sailed in, but they appeared terrified, and at once moved -inland. Admiral Raymond visited Robben Island, where he found seals and -penguins in great numbers. One day some hunters caught a Hottentot, whom -they treated kindly, making him many presents and endeavouring to show -him by signs that they were in want of cattle. They then let him go, and -eight days afterwards he returned with thirty or forty others, bringing -forty oxen and as many sheep. Trade was at once commenced, the price of -an ox being two knives, that of a sheep one knife. So many men had died -of scurvy that it was considered advisable to send<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_041" id="page_041"></a>{41}</span> the <i>Merchant Royal</i> -back to England weak handed. The <i>Penelope</i>, with one hundred and one -men, and the <i>Edward Bonaventure</i>, with ninety-seven men, sailed for -India on the 8th of September. On the 12th a gale was encountered, and -that night those in the <i>Edward Bonaventure</i>, whereof was master James -Lancaster—who was afterwards famous as an advocate of Arctic -exploration, and whose name was given by Bylot and Baffin to the sound -which terminated their discoveries in 1616—saw a great sea break over -the admiral’s ship, which put out her lights. After that she was never -seen or heard of again.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">The Beginning of Dutch History.</div> - -<p>The appearance of these rivals in the Indian seas caused much concern in -Spain and Portugal. There was as yet no apprehension of the loss of the -sources of the spice trade, but it was regarded as probable that English -ships would lie in wait at St. Helena for richly laden vessels homeward -bound, so in 1591 and again in 1593 the king directed the viceroy to -instruct the captains not to touch at that island.</p> - -<p>At this time a new state, the republic of the United Netherlands, had -recently come into existence in Europe. It was a state full of life and -vigour, though its territory was even smaller than that of Portugal. -Constantly battling with the ocean that threatened to submerge the land, -breathing an invigorating air, coming from an energetic and -self-respecting stock, its people were the hardiest and most industrious -of Europeans. They were also attached to freedom, and ready to part with -property and life itself rather than submit to tyranny or misrule. A -brief outline of their history will show how they came to contend with -Portugal at the close of the sixteenth century and the beginning of the -seventeenth for the commerce of the Indian seas.<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_042" id="page_042"></a>{42}</span></p> - -<p>The territory that now forms the kingdom of the Netherlands was the last -part of the continent of Europe to be occupied by human beings. For -untold ages the Rhine, the Maas, and the Schelde had been carrying down -earth and the ocean had been casting up sand, until at last a tract of -swampy but habitable ground appeared where previously waves had rolled. -That was not many centuries before the commencement of the Christian -era, and so no traces of palæolithic man are found there such as are -found in all other parts of Europe, and in great abundance in some parts -of modern Belgium close by. The most ancient relics of man discovered in -the northern Netherlands are comparatively recent flint implements, -tumuli containing funeral urns, and the so-called hunebedden, sepulchres -of men of note, roughly built of stone taken from boulders carried from -the Scandinavian peninsula by ice in glacial times, and deposited on the -banks not yet risen to the surface of the sea. These hunebedden are -found chiefly in the present province of Drenthe, and may not date much -further back than Roman times.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>The Batavi, a Nether Teuton tribe, driven westward by war, about a -century before the birth of Christ found their way into the island -enclosed by the North sea and the extreme forks of the Rhine, which was -then a waste of morasses, lakelets, and forests. It had previously been -occupied by a Celtic population, that had abandoned it not long before -on account of disasters from floods. The position of the forks of the -Rhine was probably different<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_043" id="page_043"></a>{43}</span> from what it is to-day, for the whole face -of the country has undergone a great change since the Batavians first -saw it. Large tracts of land have been reclaimed, and still larger -tracts have been lost by the sea washing over them. Thus in the -thirteenth century of our era the very heart of the country was torn out -by the ocean, and villages and towns and wide pastures were buried for -ever under the deep waters since termed the Zuider Zee. In 1277 the -Dollart was formed between Groningen and Hanover, and in 1421 the -Biesbosch between Brabant and Holland took the place of habitable land.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Different Races in the Netherlands.</div> - -<p>Farther north than the Batavians, the Frisians, also a Nether Teuton -people, occupied a great extent of country, but it is impossible to say -when they first took possession of it. These Batavians and Frisians were -the nearest blood relations of the Angles and Saxons who at a later date -conquered England and part of Scotland, and their language was so nearly -the same that our great Alfred could with little difficulty have -understood it.</p> - -<p>The southern part of what is now the kingdom of Belgium and the -adjoining districts of France were inhabited at this time by a Celtic -people, who had long before replaced the early palæolithic savages. -Between them and the Batavians and Frisians was a broad tract occupied -by Teutons and Celts mixed together, who do not appear, however, to have -blended their blood to any great extent. This was the condition of the -country at the beginning of the Christian era, and it was its condition -more than fifteen centuries later, when Philippe II was king of Spain -and Elizabeth Tudor was queen of England.</p> - -<p>Cæsar conquered the Celts and compelled the Frisians to pay tribute, but -he admitted the Batavians to an alliance, and thereafter for hundreds of -years they voluntarily supplied the Roman army with its bravest -soldiers. They gave their blood for Rome, and in return received -civilisation. During this period they learned to<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_044" id="page_044"></a>{44}</span> construct dykes to -prevent the ocean and the rivers from overflowing the land, to dig -canals, to make highways, and to build bridges.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>Then came the outpouring of the northern nations upon the western -empire, and when it ceased the power that had overshadowed the earth had -gone. In its stead the Franks were masters of the Celtic portion of the -Netherlands, where the Latin tongue was spoken, and tribes akin to the -Frisian had mixed with the occupants of the north. The Batavians -remained, but their distinctive name had disappeared, and so the racial -division of the land was as it had been before.</p> - -<p>Some of the Frisians had been converted to Christianity by Anglo-Saxon -missionaries, and in <small>A.D.</small> 750 the whole of them, after a crushing defeat -by Charles Martel, accepted that religion. In <small>A.D.</small> 785 their conquest -was completed by Charlemagne, and the whole region then became a section -of the dominions of that able and powerful ruler. The bishopric of -Utrecht was founded at this time. Extensive domains were attached to the -see, and the bishop, besides the ecclesiastical authority which he -exercised over the whole of the Frisians, was temporal ruler of a -territory constantly varying in size, sometimes covering several of the -modern provinces.</p> - -<p>Charlemagne left the local customs of the people of the Netherlands -undisturbed, and sent officials to govern them according to their own -laws, though in his name. Under his feeble successors the country was -broken up into a number of practically petty sovereignties by the -descendants of his officials, who now claimed hereditary authority and -ruled as despots. They called themselves dukes, counts, marquises, or -lords, and often quarrelled with each other. Most of them nominally -admitted the precedence in rank of the head of the Holy Roman Empire, as -the counts of Flanders and Artois did that of the kings of France, but -this was the full extent of their submission.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_045" id="page_045"></a>{45}</span></p> - -<p>The Scandinavian pirates sailed up the rivers and made frequent attacks -upon the towns and villages on their banks, they plundered and murdered -many of the people, but they did not form permanent settlements as they -did in the more attractive lands of Normandy and Sicily.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Growth of the Towns.</div> - -<p>The country not being capable of supporting its inhabitants by -agriculture and cattle breeding alone, manufactures and commerce were -necessary, and in addition the fisheries became a means of living for -many. They traded with England, buying wool, with the coast of the -Baltic, selling woollen and linen cloths, and with all north-western -Europe, selling Indian products, of which Bruges was the emporium for -the Italian merchants. So towns grew and prospered, and in course of -time obtained municipal charters from their sovereigns. In A.D. 1217 the -first of these in the present kingdom of the Netherlands was granted by -Count William the First of Holland and Countess Joanna of Flanders to -the town of Middelburg in Zeeland. It did not indeed confer great -privileges, but it was the beginning of a system which had most -important effects upon the country. The crusades tended to hasten this -movement. The petty sovereigns who took part in them were very willing -to sell privileges for ready money, which they needed for their -equipment, and their subjects were quite as willing to buy.</p> - -<p>So the towns grew in number and in size, and succeeded in obtaining, -usually by purchase, a large amount of self-government and the right of -sending deputies to the estates or parliaments, who sat with the nobles -to confer upon general affairs. Just as the various kings of the Saxon -states in England, the petty sovereigns were continually quarrelling -with each other, and their number varied from time to time, as one or -other got the mastery over his neighbours. Not the least prominent or -quarrelsome among them was the bishop of Utrecht, whose dominions -contracted or expanded with the fortunes of diplomacy or war. The -estates of his province consisted<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_046" id="page_046"></a>{46}</span> of deputies from the towns, the -nobles, and abbots, over whom he presided as a sovereign. In some of the -little dominions the privileges of the towns were much greater than in -others, in several indeed the cities were practically little short of -being independent republics. Unfortunately they were so jealous of each -other that they could not unite in carrying out any policy that would -have benefited the whole province, and there was no tie whatever that -bound the different provinces together. Each city with a little domain -around it stood alone, and though it might enjoy self-government, its -position was precarious, for it could not depend upon anything outside -of itself to assist it if necessary to maintain its rights against an -aggressor.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>This was the condition of affairs political when, owing partly to the -extinction of some of the ruling families, partly to purchase, and -partly to fraud and force, in 1437 a majority of the provinces—among -them Holland and Zeeland—came under the dominion of Philippe, the -powerful duke of Burgundy. They continued, however, to be independent of -each other, and were governed by him as distinct states, of one of which -he was termed duke, of another count, and so on, though he established a -council at Mechlin, which acted as a court of appeal for them all. He -was married to the youngest daughter of João I of Portugal and Philippa -of Lancaster, Isabella by name, whose nephew, Affonso V, in 1466 made -her a present of the Azores or Western Islands. A considerable number of -families from the Netherlands, whose descendants can still be -distinguished there, then migrated to the Flemish islands, as they were -long thereafter termed. These dependencies shared the fate of the other -dominions of the house of Burgundy until 1640, when they reverted to -Portugal.</p> - -<p>Philippe suppressed much of the freedom that had been gained, but he -encouraged and protected commerce and manufactures, and under his rule -the provinces increased greatly in material wealth. He died in 1467, -and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_047" id="page_047"></a>{47}</span> was succeeded by his son Charles the Headstrong, a perfectly -reckless and unprincipled ruler, who endeavoured to crush out all the -acquired freedom of the people, and nearly succeeded in establishing -himself as an absolute despot. His first wife was Catherine of Valois, -by whom he had only one daughter. After her death he married, on the 3rd -of July 1468, Margaret of York, sister of Edward IV of England, but had -no children by her. Like his father, he governed the Netherlands by -means of officials termed stadholders, who acted as his representatives -and carried out his instructions. The first standing army in the country -was stationed there by him. Charles was killed in battle with the Swiss -in 1477, and as he left no son, his daughter, Mary of Burgundy, claimed -the right of succeeding him as sovereign of all the provinces he had -ruled over.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Privileges of the Towns.</div> - -<p>Louis XI of France, however, on the ground that the Salic law was -applicable in this case, took possession of Burgundy, and cast longing -eyes on the Netherlands as well. In this hour of danger, the estates of -all the provinces came together at Ghent, when the lady Mary voluntarily -restored all the privileges and rights that her father and grandfather -had annulled. She even went further, and granted the “Groot Privilegie,” -which conferred such extensive authority upon the estates that under its -clauses despotism or even misgovernment would be impossible, for no -taxes could be imposed and no war undertaken without their consent, and -edicts of the sovereign were to be invalid if they conflicted with the -privileges of the towns. Only natives of the particular province could -be appointed to offices in any of them, thus a native of Brabant or -Namur could not fill an office in Flanders or Holland. Persons charged -with crime were to be brought to trial speedily, and no citizen could be -arbitrarily imprisoned by the ruler. A more liberal constitution could -hardly have been imagined at that time nor indeed even at present.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_048" id="page_048"></a>{48}</span></p> - -<p>The estates were then ready to support the lady Mary, they acknowledged -her as their sovereign, and with their approval she married Maximilian -of Hapsburg, son of the German emperor. Five years later she was killed -by a fall from her horse, leaving a son, Philippe by name, then four -years of age, as heir to her sovereignty of the Netherlands. Maximilian -claimed to act as regent and guardian of his son, and was accepted as -such by all of the provinces subject to Burgundy except Flanders, which -he got possession of by force. He disowned the “Great Privilege,” as did -his son Philippe, when in 1494 at seventeen years of age he assumed the -government.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>In 1496 Philippe married Joanna, eldest daughter of Ferdinand of Aragon -and Isabella of Castile. Her sister Catherine was destined at a later -date to play an important part in English history as the spouse of King -Henry the Eighth. From the union of Philippe and Joanna was born in the -year 1500 a son, who as the emperor Charles V was the most powerful -monarch in Europe. From his mother he inherited the sovereignty of -Spain, of portions of Italy, and of the greater part of the New World, -with the title of king, from his father he inherited the sovereignty of -all the Netherlands except Gelderland, Utrecht, the Frisian provinces, -and Liege, with the titles of count and duke, and by election of the -German princes he became the head of the Holy Roman Empire, with the -title of emperor. His father Philippe died in 1506, and the Netherlands -became the first portion of his vast inheritance that fell to him. To -those provinces that had been dependencies of Burgundy, he was able to -add Friesland in 1524, Utrecht and Overyssel in 1528, and Groningen and -Drenthe in 1536, all obtained by cession after long civil war, when the -bishop of Utrecht, who was unable to protect himself from the duke of -Gelderland, resigned his temporal authority. In 1543 he conquered -Gelderland, and in the following year he compelled the king of France, -to whom his father Philippe had done homage for Flanders and Artois, to<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_049" id="page_049"></a>{49}</span> -renounce the suzerainty of those provinces, so that the entire country, -Liege only excepted, came under his undisputed sovereignty. In this -manner the provinces became united with Spain under one ruler, though -their governments remained distinct.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Rule of Charles V.</div> - -<p>Under Charles just as much or as little freedom as he pleased was left -to the people of the Netherlands, for he regarded his edicts as superior -in authority to all charters or customs, and he inflicted terrible -vengeance upon the city of Ghent, his own birthplace, for daring to -resist the payment of an amount of money that he arbitrarily demanded. -He professed to regard the provinces with favour, but he drew largely -upon their resources to enable him to carry on wars in which they had no -interest whatever.</p> - -<p>And now another factor came into play, which tended very greatly to -increase the bitterness of the people at the diminution of freedom. The -reformation had commenced, and its principles were spreading in the -Netherlands. Charles, who regarded schism as even more criminal than -rebellion, attempted to stamp out the new teaching, and for this purpose -introduced the inquisition. His sister Mary, dowager queen of Hungary, -acted as regent of the country for twenty-five years, and carried out -his instructions in letter and in spirit. Many thousands of people -perished by various forms of death, but wretched as the condition of the -unhappy Netherlanders was, a still darker day was about to dawn upon -them.</p> - -<p>It is generally affirmed that there were seventeen distinct provinces at -this time, but in fact the number seventeen was derived from the titles -of the sovereign and the accidental circumstance that there were -seventeen separate estates present at the abdication of Charles V,<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_050" id="page_050"></a>{50}</span> -though these did not correspond exactly with the titles. For instance, -one of the titles was count of Zutphen, but Zutphen had for centuries -been part of Gelderland; another of the titles was marquis of Anvers or -Antwerp, but Antwerp was a city of Brabant. On the other hand Lille with -Douai and Orchies, though cities of Flanders, had separate estates, but -did not furnish a title, the same was the case with Valenciennes, a city -of Hainaut, while Mechlin, in the very heart of Brabant, had separate -estates and furnished the title lord of Malines or Mechlin.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>What would be termed provinces to-day were the duchies of Gelderland, -Brabant, Limburg, and Luxemburg, the counties of Holland, Zeeland, -Flanders, Namur or Namen, Hainaut or Henegouwen, and Artois, and the -lordships of Utrecht, Friesland, Groningen with Drenthe, Overyssel, and -Mechlin or Malines.<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> To make seventeen, the county of Zutphen and the -marquisate of Antwerp must be added if titles alone are considered, or -if states present at the abdication of Charles V be taken as a guide, -Lille with Douai and Orchies and Tournai with the Tournaisis<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_051" id="page_051"></a>{51}</span> must -be included. Only five of these—Holland, Utrecht, Friesland, Groningen, -and Overyssel—remain on the map to-day as they were in the middle of -the sixteenth century. Of them all, Brabant was the most important at -that time, Flanders came next, and Holland, soon to take the leading -place, was regarded as only the third.<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a></p> - -<div class="sidenote">Accession of Philippe II.</div> - -<p>On the 25th of October 1555 in presence of the estates of seventeen -provinces assembled at Brussels, the emperor Charles the Fifth, worn out -with disease and infirmity, abdicated the sovereignty, and his son -Philippe became ruler in his stead. The change was all for the worse. -Charles had been a despot, it is true, but he was by birth a -Netherlander, he spoke the language of the people, and took an interest -in their commerce and their manufactures; Philippe was a Spaniard, -ignorant of Flemish (<i>i.e.</i> Dutch) and of French, and without a particle -of sympathy with them in any particular.</p> - -<p>For the first four years of his reign Philippe resided in the -Netherlands, though he appointed the duke of Savoy regent of the -country. They were years of war between Spain and France, and the -Netherlands were obliged to aid their sovereign very largely with money -and with men. Under the count of Egmont as their general, the combined -Spanish and Flemish forces won the great battles of Saint Quentin and -Gravelines, but the French were compensated by taking Calais from the -English, for Queen Mary Tudor had provoked attack by giving assistance -in the war to her husband King Philippe.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_052" id="page_052"></a>{52}</span></p> - -<p>Peace having been concluded, in 1559 the king prepared to return to -Spain, where his surroundings would be much more congenial. He appointed -Margaret of Parma, a natural daughter of the emperor Charles the Fifth -and consequently his own half sister, regent of the Netherlands, but all -real authority was confided to the bishop of Arras, afterwards widely -known as Cardinal Granvelle. This man was a staunch absolutist in -politics, and could be depended upon to carry out the king’s wishes to -the utmost of his ability. And the dearest wish of the king was to -extirpate the new doctrines in religion, which he clearly saw would tend -to produce a far more liberal system of government than he approved of. -Among the appointments made before he left was that of William prince of -Orange to be stadholder of the provinces of Holland, Zeeland, and -Utrecht, but subject to the authority of the duchess of Parma, who was -to be guided by the bishop of Arras.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>Against the entreaties and protests of the estates, Philippe left in the -Netherlands four thousand Spanish soldiers, the most highly disciplined -troops in Europe at that time.</p> - -<p>Previous to this date, excepting the sovereign bishop of Liege,<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a> -whose territory was independent and therefore not then included in the -provinces, there had only been four bishops in the whole of the -Netherlands: one in Utrecht in what is now the kingdom of Holland, one -at Tournai in the present kingdom of Belgium, and two at Arras and -Cambrai in territory since annexed to France. Philippe obtained from the -pope a bull increasing the number to three archbishops and fifteen -bishops, of whom one archbishop at Utrecht and six bishops at Haarlem, -Middelburg, Leeuwarden, Groningen, Deventer, and ’s Hertogenbosch,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_053" id="page_053"></a>{53}</span> were -to be stationed in the northern provinces, now the kingdom of Holland. -Each was to have inquisitors serving under him.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Dissatisfaction of the People.</div> - -<p>These measures gave intense dissatisfaction to the whole body of the -people, nobles, burghers, and artisans alike. There was not a single -Protestant noble in the country at the time, and the great majority of -the people were still adherents of the Roman church, but Catholics and -Calvinists alike were opposed to persecution in matters of faith and to -the erection of ecclesiastical power upon the ruins of civil liberty. -Still the king<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> would not yield, and the people were as yet -indisposed to resist in arms. Perhaps they did not know their own -strength, and over-estimated that opposed to them. There was no such -thing either as political union among them. Seventeen states jealous of -each other, and each important state containing rival towns, presented -to a despot a field that could be easily worked. Still greater suffering -was needed before the people could unite against the murderous hand that -was raised to crush them.</p> - -<p>After a time the Spanish soldiers, who were needed elsewhere, were -withdrawn, but matters went on no better afterwards. The whole hatred of -the country was turned against Cardinal Granvelle, who was believed to -be the instigator of all the evil, and at length the duchess Margaret -grew to detest him also, so that Philippe was obliged to recall him. He -left the Netherlands in March 1564, and after a short period of -retirement, was employed by the king in still higher offices.</p> - -<p>The government of the duchess Margaret was corrupt, though perhaps not -more so than that of some other administrations of the time. Offices -were sold to the highest bidder by her secretary, and she as well as he -profited by such transactions. Under such circumstances the courts<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_054" id="page_054"></a>{54}</span> of -law were venal, and judgment in civil cases was usually in favour of him -who had the longest purse. A man who had to pay a large sum of money for -his office was obliged to try to recover his capital by some means, and -as that could not be done honestly, he was open to receive bribes. In -the great agony caused by the inquisition, however, this evil was hardly -considered as one of importance, and is only casually referred to by the -chroniclers of the time.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>The great number of persons burnt, buried alive, and strangled by the -inquisitors had the opposite effect to that which King Philippe -intended. Instead of stamping out the reformation, its doctrines were -spreading more rapidly month after month, until mass meetings of -thousands of people were openly held in the fields outside the towns to -listen to the preaching of some earnest and eloquent reformer. The men -on such occasions usually went armed and determined to defend their -pastors and themselves, but if need should be, they were ready to face -death in its most appalling forms for the sake of what they believed to -be truth.</p> - -<p>Another effect of the inquisition was to destroy the material prosperity -of the country. Flanders had long been the leading cloth manufactory of -Europe, it was there that wool, imported chiefly from England, was -converted by spinning wheels and handlooms into the choicest cloths. -Nowhere else were spinning, weaving, dyeing, and pressing so well -understood or so skilfully practised as in the Flemish towns. But now -persecution drove those industrious artisans out of the country. They -fled to England, where Queen Elizabeth permitted them to settle, and it -was they who in East Anglia gave to the country that adopted and -protected them the preëminence in woollen manufactures which she retains -to this day. A very few years later, instead of exporting raw wool and -importing cloth, England was sending to Flanders the products of -Anglo-Flemish looms. This was not the only industry that persecution<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_055" id="page_055"></a>{55}</span> -drove from the provinces to other lands, but it was the most important.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Destruction of Church Property.</div> - -<p>All parties in politics and in religion find it necessary to adopt an -expressive name, under which their adherents can rally, and it was at -this time that the opponents of despotic government took to themselves -the renowned title of Beggars, that was to be heard as a war cry on land -and sea long years afterwards. On the 8th of April 1566 three hundred -gentlemen presented a petition to the duchess Margaret, when a member of -her council spoke of them as beggars. That evening at a banquet Count -Brederode proposed that the title should be adopted, which was -enthusiastically agreed to by those present, and quickly spread over the -provinces. At first it had no religious signification, for both -Catholics and Protestants who favoured the preservation of -constitutional rights termed themselves Gueux, but in course of time it -was applied almost exclusively to the adherents of the reformed or -Calvinistic faith.</p> - -<p>In such circumstances as those in which the Netherlands were then -placed, excesses are usually committed by the most fanatical section of -the suffering party, and it was so in this instance. In August 1566 a -disorderly mob took possession of the great cathedral of Antwerp, one of -the most beautiful and stately buildings in Europe, threw down all the -statues in it, broke the stained glass windows, demolished the ornaments -of every kind, and generally wrecked the interior of the edifice. Only a -few hundred men were actually engaged in the work of destruction, but -many thousands looked on with indifference, and many more with -satisfaction, accounting the decorations of the cathedral as symbols of -the terrible inquisition. This example was followed throughout the -southern provinces, and a great number of churches were treated in the -same manner as Antwerp cathedral had been. Yet there was not a single -instance of violence offered to any individual, or of plunder of any -article whatever. The gold and silver<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_056" id="page_056"></a>{56}</span> implements of the churches were -battered and made useless, but were then thrown on the floors and left.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>The fury of Philippe was now thoroughly aroused, and means were -forwarded to the regent Margaret to raise a body of troops and suppress -disorder. The most powerful of the southern nobles ranged themselves on -the side of despotism. On the 13th of March 1567 a body of three -thousand Beggars who were posted near Antwerp was utterly annihilated, -and on the 23rd of the same month the ancient city of Valenciennes, -which had defied the government, was taken and reduced to submission. -The factions in Antwerp were ready to spring at each other’s throats, -but were induced by the prince of Orange to keep the peace. The regent -Margaret agreed to conditions which gave the Protestants some -protection, but her word was not to be depended upon, and much less was -that of King Philippe, who was the very incarnation of deceit and -treachery. For a few weeks now there was an appearance of calm, but it -was only the prelude to the most terrible storm that ever swept over any -portion of modern Europe.</p> - -<p>Ten thousand veteran Spanish troops, the most highly disciplined and -best armed soldiers in the world, were sent by Philippe as the nucleus -of a powerful army to subjugate the Netherlands. At their head was the -bloodthirsty duke of Alva, then sixty years of age, whose life had been -spent in war, and who was the most skilful strategist of his day. Alva! -what a curse rests upon his name in all countries where men set a value -upon justice and freedom! As pitiless as Tshaka in South Africa, as -treacherous as Dingan, he stands out in the history of the Netherlands -as a cold-blooded murderer, a malignant fiend in human form. His -commission as the king’s captain-general was issued on the 31st of -January 1567, and his instructions were in keeping with his disposition -and character.</p> - -<p>The nucleus or advance guard of the army was assembled in Italy, and -marched by way of Mont Cenis and through<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_057" id="page_057"></a>{57}</span> Savoy, Burgundy, and Lorraine -to Thionville, then a town of the Netherlands, now included in France. -In August 1567 it crossed the border, and continued its march to -Brussels, meeting with no opposition on the way. Alva at once placed -garrisons in the principal towns, and commenced the erection of -fortresses to overawe them, the principal of which was the famous -citadel of Antwerp. He sent letters to the different cities, signed by -the king, commanding them to render absolute obedience to him. The next -step was the arrest and close confinement of as many of the nobles as he -could get hold of who had at any time opposed any arbitrary act of the -sovereign. The counts Egmont and Hoorn were entrapped by letters to them -from the king, praising their conduct and declaring his confidence in -them. Conscious of having done no wrong, and lulled into a feeling of -security by these assurances from Philippe, they placed themselves in -the power of Alva, and found themselves his prisoners.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Proceedings of the Duke of Alva.</div> - -<p>Then was established that murderous mockery of a tribunal, known as the -Council of Blood. It was composed of a number of creatures of Alva, some -of whom were Flemish nobles of the worst type ready to pour out the -blood of their countrymen at his bidding, others Spaniards of the same -character. It dispensed with legal formalities, and made nought of -charters and privileges. The whole population of the Netherlands was at -its mercy. Its agents sent in lists of names, and with hardly a pretence -of examination, men, scores of men at a time, were sentenced to -confiscation of all their property and death on the scaffold. This -infamous Council of Blood met for the first time on the 20th of -September 1567 in an apartment of Alva’s residence in Brussels. His -intention was to crush out all opposition to absolutism, to exterminate -all adherents of the reformed religion, and to raise a large revenue by -confiscation of property.</p> - -<p>Everyone who valued freedom and could flee from the provinces did so now -without delay. The neighbouring<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_058" id="page_058"></a>{58}</span> German states were crowded with -refugees, and in many Flemish and Dutch towns industry entirely ceased, -for artisans and mechanics had abandoned them in despair. It is highly -probable that the larger number of those so-called Germans who settled -in South Africa in later years were really descendants of Netherlanders -who left their fatherland at this time.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>Margaret of Parma was nominally regent still, but on the 9th of December -1567 she resigned, and the monster Alva became governor-general of the -provinces.</p> - -<p>The prince of Orange, his brothers Louis and Adolf of Nassau, Count -Hoogstraaten, and several other nobles of less note had retired into -Germany before the arrival of the Spanish troops. Alva confiscated their -property in the Netherlands, but they had possessions beyond the border -which he could not reach. They had been faithful subjects of Philippe to -this time, though they had striven by peaceful means to preserve the -constitutions of the provinces, but now they could not look calmly on -while the very life was being trampled out of their country. In April -1568 Orange engaged troops in Germany, and sent three small armies into -the Netherlands in hope that the people would rise in a body and assist -to drive the Spaniards out. But he was disappointed. The people were for -the moment completely cowed. Two of his armies were utterly annihilated -by the disciplined Spanish troops, and though the third, commanded by -his brother Louis, gained a victory at Heiligerlee, near Winschoten, in -the province of Groningen, it led to no substantial result. Count Adolf -of Nassau fell in this battle. So the war for freedom began, a war that -was carried on without intermission for forty-one years.</p> - -<p>Alva with an overpowering force marched against Count Louis, and on the -21st of July 1568 attacked him at Jemmingen, a village on the left bank -of the Ems near its entrance into the Dollart, within the German border. -It was not so much a battle as a slaughter that followed.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_059" id="page_059"></a>{59}</span> Of ten -thousand men under his command, the count lost seven thousand slain, and -with difficulty made his escape from the disastrous field while the -remainder were scattering in every direction. Alva then proceeded to -Utrecht, where he reviewed an army of thirty thousand infantry and seven -thousand cavalry, a force that he believed sufficient to overawe the -whole of the northern provinces.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Successes of Alva.</div> - -<p>Early in October the prince of Orange invaded Brabant from Germany with -thirty thousand men, of whom nine thousand were cavalry. Many of these -were undisciplined refugees, but some were trained German soldiers. -Several smaller bands joined the prince subsequently, though not a city -opened its gates to him, so great was the terror that Alva inspired. The -difficulty of providing food for such a number of men for any length of -time was insurmountable, and the Spanish general therefore did not -choose to risk an engagement, but watched his opponent closely. On one -occasion, on the 20th of October, he was able to cut off a rearguard of -three thousand men under Count Hoogstraaten, and nearly exterminated -them. Hoogstraaten himself escaped, but died of a wound a few days -afterwards. The prince of Orange, disappointed in his expectation of a -general rising, and without a single stronghold as a base of operations, -was obliged to retreat to Germany and disband his troops. He had spent -all the money he could raise, and was heavily in debt. Nothing could -have been gloomier than the prospect then before him, but he still -cherished hope and trusted in God. He had passed through different -stages of religious belief, but did not openly join the Calvinist church -until October 1573.</p> - -<p>The first campaign in the war of freedom had thus terminated entirely in -favour of the Spaniards.</p> - -<p>On the 5th of June of this year 1568 an event took place which more than -all the blood of humble citizens that had been shed drew the attention -of civilised Europe to what was transpiring in the Netherlands. This was -the death on the scaffold in the great square of Brussels of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_060" id="page_060"></a>{60}</span> the counts -Egmont and Hoorn, who had been condemned by the Council of Blood for -having been somewhat dilatory in upholding despotism. They were both -earnest Catholics, and Egmont in particular had rendered great services -to the king. He was the general who had won the victories of Saint -Quentin and Gravelines. But the death of these prominent noblemen was -resolved upon by Philippe, because it would strike terror into all -classes, and would prove that the least hesitation to carry out any of -his wishes would meet with the most terrible punishment. All their -possessions were confiscated. Their death had no effect upon the -patriotic cause, except for the horror which it created abroad, as they -were not the men to throw in their lot with William of Orange in -resistance to tyranny.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>The baron Montigny, brother of Count Hoorn, had been sent with the -marquis Berghen to Madrid in May 1566 by the regent Margaret of Parma to -represent to Philippe the ruin which the inquisition was bringing upon -the Netherlands and the difficulty caused by it to her administration. -They were instructed to suggest its abolition and the modification of -the king’s edicts. Both of these noblemen were devout Catholics, and -were most faithful subjects of their sovereign. They might have reasoned -that if his sister and representative was compelled by force of -circumstances to pause in the deadly work, they could not be blamed for -acting under her instructions. The king received them apparently in a -friendly manner. But they were not permitted to return, and after a time -were placed in confinement. Berghen died, it was reported of home -sickness, but many believed by violent means. Montigny was kept a -prisoner more than four years, was then in his absence condemned to -death by the Council of Blood for favouring heresy, and on the 16th of -October 1570 was strangled privately by order of the king.</p> - -<p>An awful calamity, but not by the hand of man, overtook the Northern -Netherlands in the year 1570. In a gale of tremendous violence on the -first and second<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_061" id="page_061"></a>{61}</span> of November of this year the sea was driven high upon -the coast, the dykes burst in many places, and the waters poured over -the land. Fully a hundred thousand persons were drowned, and property to -an immense amount was destroyed.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Imposition of Heavy Taxes.</div> - -<p>And now came another trouble. Alva had been disappointed in his -expectations of an abundant revenue from the confiscation of property, -for much as he gathered by that means, the cost of maintenance of his -army and the charges of his administration were so enormous that his -treasury was always empty, and creditors had become clamorous. To remedy -this defect, he imposed taxes of one per cent of the value of all -property in the country, to be paid only once, of five per cent transfer -duty on all land and houses sold thereafter, and of ten per cent on -every movable article that should be sold. This last tax was regarded by -the people as equivalent to a prohibition to carry on trade of any kind, -it affected every one, and in many of the towns the shops as well as the -wholesale stores, even the breweries, the butcheries, and the bakeries -were closed. The streets swarmed with mendicants, and riots were only -suppressed by military force. If he had tried to compel the people to -take part with William of Orange, the governor-general could not have -devised a more efficient plan.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_062" id="page_062"></a>{62}</span></p> - -<h3><a name="II-2" id="II-2"></a>II.<br /><br /> -<span class="smcap">The War in the Netherlands to the Union of Utrecht.</span></h3> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>Many of the men who had been obliged to leave their homes had turned to -the sea for refuge. Legitimate commerce could not absorb them all, even -if it had been flourishing as formerly, and so in their desperate -condition they became buccaneers. The prince of Orange took advantage of -this, and issued a commission to a reckless fugitive noble named William -de la Marck to act as his admiral and attack Spanish ships wherever he -could find them. De la Marck was a distant relative of Egmont, and had -sworn not to clip his hair or beard till he had avenged the count’s -death. In March 1572 he was lying at anchor at Dover with a fleet of -twenty-four vessels, when by order of Queen Elizabeth all supplies of -provisions were refused to him. He was then compelled to do something -desperate at once, or starve, so he resolved to sail to Enkhuizen, and -try to get possession of that port. The wind failed him, however, so on -the 1st of April he put into the Maas and anchored in front of Brill -(Brielle), a walled and fortified town on the island of Voorne. The -Spanish garrison had just been sent to Utrecht. The Sea Beggars were -only a few hundred in number, but Pieter Koppelstok, who was sent by De -la Marck to demand the surrender of the town, when questioned as to -their strength replied about five thousand. The authorities and -adherents of the government fled in fear, and the half-famished rovers -battered in the gates and took possession of the place. This was the -beginning of the second campaign against the Spaniards.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_063" id="page_063"></a>{63}</span></p> - -<p>It could not be expected that the Sea Beggars, after their wrongs and -their sufferings, would act very gently with their opponents, but the -ferocity which they displayed on this occasion cannot be excused or -passed lightly over. They broke all the altars, statues, and ornaments -in the churches, dressed themselves in clerical robes, and barbarously -put to death thirteen priests and monks who had not been able to make -their escape. A Spanish force was sent from Utrecht to recover Brill, -but was beaten off with considerable loss. De la Marck was then of -opinion that the place should be abandoned, but Captain Treslong, whose -father had once been governor of the town, induced him to continue to -hold it and to rally the patriots around him there, who quickly came in -and joined him.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Successes of the Sea Beggars.</div> - -<p>As soon as intelligence of the repulse of the Spaniards from Brill -reached Flushing (Vlissingen), that important town declared for the -prince of Orange, and sent to De la Marck to beg for assistance. Two -hundred Sea Beggars, all in clerical garments, were thereupon forwarded -in three vessels, and quickly reached their destination. Here also an -act of inexcusable barbarity took place. The engineer who had -constructed the citadel of Antwerp, Pacheco by name, had just arrived in -Flushing to erect a fortress there. He was seized and at once hanged -with two other Spanish officers. With the town half the island of -Walcheren went over to the patriot cause, and very shortly a strong -force of Beggars, aided by some French soldiers and English volunteers, -assembled there to protect it.</p> - -<p>The example thus set was speedily followed by most of the towns that -were not overawed by powerful Spanish garrisons in the provinces of -Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, Gelderland, Overyssel, and Friesland. -Amsterdam, Middelburg, Goes, Arnemuide, Utrecht, and a few others were -too strongly garrisoned to be able to rise. In some of the towns the -change was made without bloodshed, in others the most barbarous -cruelties were practised on both sides, for passion had taken the place -of reason and charity.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_064" id="page_064"></a>{64}</span> The revolted towns declared that they remained -faithful to King Philippe as count of Holland, etc., that the ancient -charters conferring rights and privileges were restored, that there was -perfect freedom for both the Roman Catholic and Reformed religions, that -they accepted the prince of Orange as stadholder for the sovereign of -the provinces of Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, and Friesland, and that they -repudiated the duke of Alva, the inquisition, and the tax on commerce.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>Other successes awaited the patriot cause. On the 24th of May 1572 Count -Louis of Nassau with a small band obtained possession of the important -town of Mons in Hainaut. And on the 10th of June a richly laden Spanish -fleet from Lisbon arrived at Flushing and cast anchor, being unaware of -what had occurred there. Most of the ships were captured, a thousand -Spanish soldiers on board were made prisoners, five hundred thousand -crowns of gold sent by Philippe for his army chest and a large quantity -of ammunition became prize to the Beggars, and much spice and other -valuable merchandise was secured.</p> - -<p>On the 15th of July the estates of Holland, consisting of the nobles and -deputies from eight cities, met at Dordrecht. The prince of Orange was -in Germany, where he had engaged an army of fifteen thousand infantry -and seven thousand cavalry, besides three thousand refugee Walloons. The -estates adopted measures for raising all the money that they could to -pay these troops for three months, and Orange then entered the southern -provinces. His first object was to relieve Mons, which was besieged by a -strong Spanish army, and to effect a junction with Admiral Coligny, who -with the approval of the king of France was to aid him with ten thousand -Huguenots. After crossing the border, town after town opened its gates -to him, and received the garrisons he placed in them. Everything looked -bright before him, when suddenly, without the slightest warning, a -thunderbolt fell which utterly destroyed his hopes and those of the -patriot party.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_065" id="page_065"></a>{65}</span></p> - -<p>A contingent of Huguenots was cut to pieces when attempting to enter -Mons, but the main body under Coligny was believed to be ready to -advance, when tidings were received of the fearful Massacre of Saint -Bartholomew on the 24th, 25th, and 26th of August 1572. The treacherous -Charles IX of France, by an act of savage cruelty without parallel in a -Christian state, had betrayed the cause it was his interest to favour, -and had murdered a hundred thousand of his Protestant subjects. Admiral -Coligny was among the victims. Orange realised at once that his cause -was shattered, his German troops had not been fully paid, and were -almost mutinous, so he was obliged to retire and disband them. The towns -that had welcomed him now hastened to disown him, and returned to their -obedience to Alva. On the 20th of September Mons capitulated on -honourable terms, which were not, however, faithfully observed by the -conquerors, and all the southern provinces were again under the Spanish -yoke.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Sack of Mechlin.</div> - -<p>Alva had reinforced his army very largely with German mercenaries, the -same class of men that Orange had raised his forces from, and he had -enlisted a great many Walloons. He was without money to pay either them -or his Spanish veterans. He gave them instead the city of Mechlin to -plunder for three days, the Spaniards to have it for the first day, the -Germans for the second, and the Walloons for the third. Mechlin was -almost entirely a Catholic city, but it had welcomed the prince of -Orange, and had received a garrison from him. This was to be its -punishment by Alva. The horrors of the sack of the doomed city cannot be -fully told, but they can be imagined. The Spaniards knew that the -richest spoil would be found in the churches, and they resolved not to -leave it for others. In their lust for spoil the churches, the -monasteries, and the convents of Mechlin were treated by these Catholics -as the cathedral of Antwerp had been by the fanatic Protestants. Then -the citizens were tortured and murdered, and nameless horrors were -perpetrated upon females, until the first day<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_066" id="page_066"></a>{66}</span> ended. On the second day -the Germans, and on the third the debased Walloons, followed in the sack -of Mechlin, leaving it desolate, plundered, and utterly forlorn. Such -was Alva’s punishment of a disobedient city.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>The tide of fortune was now setting as strong against the patriot cause -as it had been in its favour during the earlier months of the year. On -the 26th of August the Beggars laid siege to Goes in Zeeland, which was -defended by a Spanish garrison, but must have fallen if it had not been -relieved on the 21st of October by an army that had made a wonderful -march through shallow water. The besiegers were then obliged to flee, -but they were pursued, and their rearguard was completely destroyed.</p> - -<p>Alva now sent a strong army under his son Don Frederic de Toledo to -reduce the northern provinces to subjection. Don Frederic directed his -march to Gelderland, where the town of Zutphen attempted to resist him. -It was easily taken, however, when all its adult male inhabitants were -put to the sword, and most of its buildings were destroyed by fire. The -whole of the provinces east and south of the Zuider Zee now submitted to -Alva, only Holland and Zeeland still holding out, and even of these the -largest towns—Amsterdam and Middelburg—were occupied by Spanish -garrisons. There was no national army in existence, and each town was -politically isolated from all the others, a condition of things which -made defence extremely difficult.</p> - -<p>Don Frederic now marched towards North Holland, meeting no opposition -until he reached the little town of Naarden, on the shore of the Zuider -Zee, south-east of Amsterdam. Naarden offered a feeble resistance, but -on a verbal promise from General Julian Romero that life and property -would be spared, it surrendered. Every man in the place and nearly every -woman was put to death, and the little town was set on fire and razed to -the ground.</p> - -<p>A more memorable siege than any which had yet taken place was that of -the town of Haarlem. On the 11th of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_067" id="page_067"></a>{67}</span> December 1572 Haarlem was -beleaguered by an army of thirty thousand Spaniards, Germans, and -Walloons, commanded by Don Frederic de Toledo. The duke of Alva had his -headquarters in the neighbouring city of Amsterdam, whence supplies of -provisions, ammunition, and whatever else was needed could be forwarded -to the camps without delay. Within the walls of the town were only four -thousand fighting men, so that the Spanish commander could reasonably -hope that a few days would suffice for its reduction. But the people of -Haarlem were stouthearted as ever were Greeks in the olden time, they -hated the Spanish yoke as that of the foul fiend, and they had made up -their minds to resist to the very last. Assault after assault was made -upon their walls, and whenever a breach was effected the enemy came -storming upon it, but only to be beaten back. In the night the breaches -were repaired, the women and children assisting in the work. A band of -three hundred women, led by the widow Kenau Hasselaer, did as much and -as splendid service fighting in the breaches and on the walls as any men -could have done. The children too did what they could by carrying powder -and food from place to place.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Siege of Haarlem.</div> - -<p>So month after month passed away, and heroic Haarlem still held out. The -prince of Orange from Delft used almost superhuman exertions to get men -together and to throw reinforcements and provisions into the beleaguered -town, but they all failed in getting through the encircling bands. At -last food, even of the most disgusting kind, entirely failed, and when -many had died of actual starvation, those who could no longer fight from -weakness submitted on a promise of lenient treatment. It was on the 12th -of July 1573, seven months and two days after the commencement of the -siege, that Haarlem fell. The promise of lenity was kept by the plunder -of the town being commuted for a sum of money to be paid in four -instalments, so that the horrors which Mechlin had witnessed were spared -to Haarlem, but two thousand three hundred<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_068" id="page_068"></a>{68}</span> of the inhabitants were put -to death after the surrender. The besiegers had paid dearly for the -town, for they had lost no fewer than twelve thousand men in combat or -by disease in those seven months of desperate fighting.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>Alkmaar, a small though important town in North Holland, was then -summoned to submit, but declined to do so. The prince of Orange had -managed to obtain eight hundred soldiers, who were sent to assist the -burghers, thirteen hundred in number, to defend it. On the 21st of -August 1573 Don Frederic de Toledo invested the town with sixteen -thousand veteran troops, and immediately began to attempt to batter down -part of the wall. On three occasions breaches were made, and storming -parties tried to effect an entrance, but were driven back by boiling -oil, tarred and burning hoops, and other missiles of the kind being -thrown upon them. The soldiers then refused to storm again, and the only -course left was to wait for famine to do its work. But some letters of -the prince of Orange fell into Don Frederic’s hands, from which he -learned that the dykes were to be cut and the land flooded, when he -resolved to raise the siege rather than risk the loss of his whole army -by drowning. On the 8th of October the people of Alkmaar had the -happiness of seeing from their walls the Spanish army with all its -appurtenances in full retreat towards Amsterdam.</p> - -<p>Another triumph for the patriot cause followed quickly, to Alva’s -intense discomfiture. He had purchased some ships and built others at -Amsterdam, until he had a fleet of thirty men-of-war, which he equipped -in the most efficient manner known in those days. The largest carried -thirty-two cannon, and was manned by one hundred and fifty seamen, -besides having on board over two hundred veteran Spanish soldiers under -the captains Alonzo de Conquera and Fernando Lopez. She was named the -<i>Inquisitie</i>, and carried the flag of Admiral Maximilian de Henniu, -count of Bossu. This fleet was intended by Alva to command the Zuider -Zee, and was regarded by him as an invincible armada.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_069" id="page_069"></a>{69}</span></p> - -<p>The Sea Beggars, to oppose this formidable armament, collected together -twenty-four vessels of inferior size, which were placed under the -command of a valiant seaman named Cornelis the son of Dirk, who was -styled admiral of North Holland.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">First Victory at Sea.</div> - -<p>Bossu plundered and laid waste some villages along the coast, but at -length the son of Dirk resolved boldly to attack him. He tried to keep -the Sea Beggars at a distance and destroy them with his artillery, while -they, who were but ill supplied with cannon or powder, were determined -to grapple with his ships and fight him hand to hand. In the first and -second days’ manœuvring they succeeded in this manner in -overmastering one of his ships, when they made the officers prisoners, -and put to death all the others on board. Then for more than a week the -weather prevented anything further being done, and both parties remained -inactive.</p> - -<p>On the 11th of October 1573 the great battle took place. The Sea Beggars -closed with their opponents, and after desperate fighting succeeded in -sinking one of Bossu’s ships and overmastering five others. They had -grappled with the <i>Inquisitie</i> herself, when the remainder of the fleet -gave up the contest and set sail for Amsterdam, throwing their cannon -overboard to enable them to pass some shoals. Night was setting in, and -there were so many wounded in the patriot ships that it was considered -imprudent to follow the fugitives. Four small vessels were made fast to -Bossu’s ship. One was beaten off, but the other three clung to her like -leeches. She drifted on a sandbank off Hoorn, but so fierce was the -fighting that no one seemed to notice that they were no longer in -motion. Bossu in a coat of mail stood on her deck and directed the -soldiers, and the Sea Beggars scrambled up her sides and attacked like -demons. Boats put out from Hoorn bringing volunteers to aid in the -struggle, and taking the wounded ashore to be cared for. At short -intervals for twenty-eight hours the hand to hand contest lasted on the -deck of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_070" id="page_070"></a>{70}</span> <i>Inquisitie</i>, till only fourteen or fifteen men remained -unwounded to defend her. Bossu could hold out no longer. He surrendered -on condition that he and his officers should be honourably treated as -captives, and that the soldiers and sailors should either be exchanged -or pay only one month’s wages as ransom. The prisoners were taken to -Hoorn, and were kept as hostages, which prevented the putting to death -of many prominent patriots then in the power of the Spanish authorities.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>Such was the first important battle on the sea won by the sturdy -Hollanders, and it was to be a beginning of a series of victories which -in later years shed deathless renown on them and the land they so -bravely fought for. Surnames had not then come into common use for -humble folk, and it is only as Cornelis the son of Dirk that the valiant -admiral of North Holland can be mentioned in history.</p> - -<p>The sanguinary government of Alva in the Netherlands now drew to its -close. He had requested to be relieved, and the king was not unwilling -to try if some one else could not manage affairs better, or at least -without such constant demands upon the revenue of Spain. On the 17th of -November 1573 his successor Don Luis de Requesens y Cuniga, Grand -Commander of St. Iago, and recently governor of Milan, arrived in -Brussels, and on the 29th of the same month assumed duty as governor and -captain-general of the Netherlands.</p> - -<p>The complete absence of honour or principle in Alva was illustrated by -the manner in which he left Amsterdam. He was heavily in debt in that -city both privately and for the government, so he called for all -accounts to be sent in on a certain day, and during the preceding night -departed stealthily. On the 18th of December he left the Netherlands, -taking with him the curses of the unhappy people. It was reported, -though perhaps incorrectly, that he boasted of having caused through his -infamous Council of Blood eighteen thousand six hundred people to lose<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_071" id="page_071"></a>{71}</span> -their lives at the stake or on the scaffold during the six years of his -administration.<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a> No wonder that successive generations of -Netherlanders taught their children to regard him, not as a man, but as -an absolute devil in human form, the incarnation of all that was false, -and treacherous, and cruel.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Philippe’s Conditions of Peace.</div> - -<p>The condition of affairs in the Netherlands when the Grand Commander -Requesens assumed the administration was about as bad as well could be. -Only parts of the provinces of Holland and Zeeland were in open revolt, -but everywhere the country was seething with discontent. There was a -standing army of sixty-two thousand men—Spaniards, German mercenaries, -and Walloons—engaged in suppressing the disposition to rise in arms, -£1,300,000 was due to them as arrears of pay, the cost of maintaining -them was £120,000 a month, and there was not a single sixpence in the -treasury. Already £8,000,000 had been received from Spain, and had been -spent to no purpose. So many soldiers were needed to garrison the towns -that only a sufficient number could be spared to besiege Leyden, none -were available to reduce any of the other revolted towns or even to -relieve Middelburg, which was beleaguered by the patriots. The mighty -Spanish empire, with the gold and silver of America at its disposal, -with some of the fairest provinces of Italy at its command, was held at -bay by parts of two little provinces, under the direction of William -prince of Orange.</p> - -<p>Under these circumstances the king spoke of his willingness to bring -about a reconciliation of the people to his rule and to pardon them for -their past resistance, but he laid down two indispensable conditions; -that they should admit his absolute authority, and that they should -return to the Roman Catholic faith.</p> - -<p>The patriots too were desirous of putting an end to the long and bitter -strife, but they also claimed conditions<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_072" id="page_072"></a>{72}</span> which they could not forego: -the recognition of constitutional rights, entire freedom of conscience, -and the withdrawal of all foreign troops from the country. The two -positions were irreconcilable, and so the war went on. Holland and -Zeeland now contained very few Catholics, for Alva had made the religion -that he professed almost as hateful as he was himself.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>Middelburg, the principal city in the province of Zeeland, was besieged -by the patriots and such troops as the prince of Orange could engage in -his cause; but was defended with the utmost skill and bravery by the -Spanish garrison under Colonel Christopher Mondragon. Provisions, -however, were running short, and it became evident that if relief was -not speedily afforded, the place would be lost to the king. Requesens -therefore collected seventy-five ships of different sizes at Bergen op -Zoom and thirty more at Antwerp, which were laden with stores of food -and munitions of war, all the soldiers that he could engage or spare -with any degree of prudence were embarked in them, and they were -directed to drop down to Flushing, to unite there, and to succour -Middelburg. By the time they were ready the soldiers and townspeople -were in the utmost extremity of hunger.</p> - -<p>While Requesens was thus engaged, the prince of Orange and the Sea -Beggars were not idle. A fleet was collected at Flushing, and was placed -under the command of Louis Boisot, a Zeelander of noble birth and a -brother of the governor of the town. He had the title of admiral of -Zeeland conferred upon him. Boisot did not wait to be attacked, but on -the 20th of January 1574 sailed up the Schelde to meet the larger of the -two squadrons, which was commanded by Julian Romero, and which had just -set sail when he met it. He at once grappled with his opponents, and a -desperate combat took place, which lasted two hours. One of Romero’s -vessels was sunk, another was blown up, and fifteen were captured. -Twelve hundred of his sailors and soldiers were killed fighting, or were -thrown<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_073" id="page_073"></a>{73}</span> overboard and drowned, and it would have gone hard with the -others if they had not put back to Bergen op Zoom. Requesens, standing -on a dyke at Bergen, was a spectator of the discomfiture of his fleet. -The patriots’ loss was much less than that of their enemy, but several -of the captains were killed and Boisot himself received a wound in the -face which deprived him of an eye.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Great Disaster.</div> - -<p>The Antwerp squadron, commanded by Sancho d’Avila, had meantime arrived -off Flushing, but when intelligence of Romero’s defeat was received, it -at once put about and returned.</p> - -<p>This event decided the fate of Middelburg. The last cat and dog in the -town had been eaten, when on the 18th of February 1574 Mondragon -capitulated on condition that his troops should be permitted to leave -with their arms and personal property, and the town gave in its adhesion -to the prince of Orange.</p> - -<p>On both sides now great exertions were made to raise troops, the -difficulty in the way being the want of money. Men in any number could -always be had in Germany, provided the means of equipping and paying -them were forthcoming. The jealousy of Spain which pervaded the French -court enabled Louis of Nassau to obtain a considerable sum, with which -he enrolled an army of three thousand cavalry and six thousand infantry, -and entered the province of Limburg. His intention was to take -possession of Maastricht, and then to effect a junction with his brother -the prince of Orange, who had collected six thousand infantry at the -isle of Bommel.</p> - -<p>But a terrible disaster overtook Count Louis. Requesens was able to -engage some Germans, and he drew every man that was available from the -Netherlands garrisons. Even the siege of Leyden was raised, and the -troops that had beleaguered that city since the 31st of October 1573 -broke up their camps an the 21st of March 1574, and joined the main -army. The garrison of Maastricht was strengthened, and the way was -blocked by which the junction of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_074" id="page_074"></a>{74}</span> two forces in the service of -Orange could be effected. The cavalry of Count Louis began to desert, -and soon that arm of his force was reduced to two thousand men. On the -14th of April 1574 a battle was fought at a little village named -Mookerheyde, on the bank of the Maas, in which the army of Count Louis -was utterly defeated, and it was annihilated by a massacre after the -engagement was over. Both Count Louis and his younger brother Count -Hendrik perished, no one knew exactly when or how, for their bodies were -never seen again.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>Requesens, however, was unable to gather the full harvest of the -victory, for the day after the battle the Spanish troops mutinied. Their -pay was three years in arrear. They marched to Antwerp, which city they -took possession of on the 26th of April, and quartered themselves on the -wealthiest inhabitants. There they remained until the municipal -authorities provided Requesens with money to pay them their arrears, -when he granted them a full amnesty, and they returned to obedience. -Just as this was effected Admiral Boisot made his appearance at Antwerp, -and burned or sank fourteen ships of Sancho d’Avila’s squadron that had -returned from Flushing three months before.</p> - -<p>Requesens was now able to resume the siege of Leyden, and on the 26th of -May 1574 the second investment was commenced by General Francisco Valdez -with eight thousand German and Walloon soldiers. Spanish and Italian -troops afterwards arrived, and a chain of forts was completed right -round the walls, which prevented ingress or egress. The villages in the -neighbourhood were also occupied, and Leyden was completely isolated -from the rest of the country. The residents knew that if the city was -taken, the whole of Holland must fall, and they had resolved to die -rather than surrender. There was no possibility of raising an army to -relieve them.</p> - -<p>The prince of Orange took up his headquarters at Delft, and bent all his -energy to save the devoted city in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_075" id="page_075"></a>{75}</span> only way in which it could be -done. He got together more than two hundred flat-bottomed vessels, the -largest drawing when laden not more than two feet of water, armed some -of them with such cannons as were then in use, and provided all of them -with oars for rowing. The relief of Leyden was to be entrusted to the -Sea Beggars, the men who knew no fear, who hated the Spaniards with such -a deadly loathing that they would neither ask nor give quarter. On the -1st of September Admiral Louis Boisot arrived from Flushing to take -command of the flotilla, and with him came forty officers and eight -hundred of the hardiest and roughest of the Zeeland Beggars, burning -with a desire to harpoon Spanish soldiers as if they were devil-fish. -Already two thousand four hundred men, mostly sailors or canal workers, -but a few French and German soldiers with even a sprinkling of -Englishmen and Scotchmen, were on board, and a large quantity of -provisions had been shipped. With Boisot’s arrival all was complete.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Siege of Leyden.</div> - -<p>The outer dyke was now cut, and the sea rushed over the land, sweeping -away farmhouses and cultivated fields and rich meadows, but opening a -way towards Leyden. On went Boisot with the flotilla till the next of -the dykes which lay between him and Leyden was reached. He had expected -to find it defended, but the Spaniards had neglected it, and so it was -cut and he went farther on. The next dyke was held by the Spaniards, but -the fierce Zeelanders drove them from it and harpooned them to their -hearts’ content.</p> - -<p>Meantime the heroic defenders of Leyden were in the very last stage of -distress. Everything that under ordinary circumstances would be -considered eatable had been consumed, and nothing remained but dried -hides, rats, mice, the leaves of the trees, and the weeds of the ground. -They were dying of hunger, and pestilence arising from want of food -carried off from six to seven thousand of them. But still they held out. -A few indeed in their despair<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_076" id="page_076"></a>{76}</span> upbraided the burgomaster Van der Werf -with consigning them to death, but when he replied that he would never -surrender Leyden, though they might cut him to pieces and eat him if -they chose, they desisted and even applauded him.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>The flotilla was aground, and a strong easterly wind was blowing, which -drove the waters back and day after day caused Boisot and his gallant -followers almost to abandon hope of success. A great and apparently -impregnable fortress was in front of them, and it would have to be -passed before the starving city could be reached. Then in man’s deepest -extremity came God’s hand to aid the cause of freedom. During the night -of the 1st of October a violent gale set in from the north-west, which -drove gigantic waves along the coast of Holland, then the wind veered -round to the south-west and sent the heaped up water through the broken -dykes, and soon the flotilla was free again. Valdez was a brave soldier, -but he felt unequal to a contest with the rising flood and the Sea -Beggars on their own element. During the night of the 2nd of October he -abandoned his camps, withdrew the garrison from the great fort Lemmen, -and fled in the darkness. That same night part of the city wall fell -down with a crash, which would have given him an entrance had it -happened a few hours sooner.</p> - -<p>In the early morning of the 3rd of October 1574 Boisot, finding all -impediments removed, swept with his flotilla into the canals of Leyden, -and the city after its great agony was saved. He had lost only forty men -in this marvellous feat, surely one of the most wonderful events -recorded in history, while of his enemy over a thousand were slain or -drowned. Property to the value of over a million gulden—£83,333—had -been destroyed by cutting the dykes, but what was that compared with the -rescue of Leyden from the Spaniards!</p> - -<p>The relief of Leyden gave renewed hope to the patriot cause. On the 12th -of November 1574 the estates of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_077" id="page_077"></a>{77}</span> Holland, assembled at Delft, conferred -almost dictatorial power upon the prince of Orange, and voted him as -large a sum of money as they could raise to carry on the war. That -amount was only £45,000 a year, but it was a very considerable sum for -one small province to contribute, especially when it is considered that -the cities of Amsterdam and Haarlem were in the hands of the Spaniards, -and Leyden, with the territory adjoining it, was too impoverished to -give any aid. On the 4th of June 1575 the province of Zeeland united -with Holland in a kind of loose confederation, the principal bond being -that the prince of Orange was the head of both.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Siege of Zierikzee.</div> - -<p>An attempt to bring about a state of peace was made again, and -commissioners from both sides sat at Breda from the 3rd of March to the -13th of July 1575; but as Philippe would only allow those of the -reformed religion to sell their property and leave the country, the -negotiations came to nothing. Bigotry and intolerance were not confined -to one side, however. Some revolting cruelties practised by Diederik -Sonoy, governor of North Holland, upon Roman Catholics at Alkmaar, -equalled, if they did not surpass, the most fiendish tortures of the -inquisition. The prince of Orange did everything in his power to -suppress such barbarities, while Philippe countenanced them: otherwise -one party was as vindictive as the other.</p> - -<p>On the 19th of July 1575 the little town of Oudewater in South Holland, -close to the border of Utrecht, was besieged by a Spanish force, and was -taken by assault on the 7th of August. The men were all butchered, the -women met with a worse fate, and the houses, after being pillaged, were -burned to the ground.</p> - -<p>The memorable siege of Zierikzee, the principal town on the island of -Schouwen, in Zeeland, followed. The island of Tholen was the only part -of Zeeland held by the Spaniards, and there a force of three thousand -men was got together, who during the night of the 27th of September 1575 -actually waded across the channel that separates<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_078" id="page_078"></a>{78}</span> Tholen from Duiveland. -There were some French, English, and Scotch troops in the service of -Orange at Duiveland, but they retreated at once, and threw themselves -into Zierikzee. The invaders, consisting of Spanish, German, and Walloon -soldiers, followed quickly, and laid siege to the town. The villages of -Brouwershaven and Bommenede on the same island of Schouwen were also -attacked, and for a time were wiped out of existence. Then the whole -force, under Colonel Mondragon, sat down and pressed the siege of -Zierikzee.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>Requesens had no money with which to raise more troops, and Orange was -in the same position, so the siege dragged on month after month. On the -15th of June 1576 Admiral Louis Boisot with a few ships tried to force a -passage through a barrier into the harbour, but his own vessel, that was -leading the way, ran aground, and the others drew off. The ship was got -afloat again, but was sunk by a Spanish battery, when three hundred of -her crew went down.<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id="FNanchor_24_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a> The admiral and the remainder of the crew jumped -overboard, and tried to escape by swimming. Some of them succeeded in -doing so, but the gallant Boisot, to the great loss of the patriot -cause, was drowned. Zierikzee held out until the 21st of June 1576, when -it capitulated on honourable terms, and escaped being sacked and burned -by the payment of a ransom of £16,666. The Spaniards did not long remain -in possession of it.</p> - -<p>To the prince of Orange it had now become apparent that the only chance -of securing constitutional government and freedom of conscience was the -renunciation of Philippe and the choice of some other sovereign able to -protect the country. The farce of fighting against the count of Holland -and at the same time of transacting all business in his name could no -longer be carried on. On the 1st<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_079" id="page_079"></a>{79}</span> of October 1575 the estates of Holland -and Zeeland met at Rotterdam, when the prince laid a proposal to this -effect before them. They adjourned for a few days in order to consult -the cities, and then assembled again at Delft and unanimously adopted -the prince’s proposal. Then commenced a long series of negotiations with -Elizabeth of England and a brother of the king of France, but all -failed, because it was generally believed that if either accepted, he or -she would at once have the other, combined with Spain, as an enemy. So -the struggle had to be carried on unaided, except with a little secret -assistance given now and then.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Mutiny of the Spanish Troops.</div> - -<p>On the 5th of March 1576 the Grand Commander Requesens died after only -four days’ illness, and the Council of State, a weak and vacillating -body, assumed the administration until a successor should be appointed. -This Council was at the head of affairs when a fresh disaster fell upon -the country.</p> - -<p>Immediately after the fall of Zierikzee the Spanish and Walloon troops -who had so long been investing that town broke out in open mutiny. They -demanded their arrear pay, and when this was not forthcoming they -deposed their officers, elected others, and levied contributions upon -the country just as a band of avowed robbers would do. From Zeeland they -marched into Brabant, where they took possession of the little town of -Herenthals, and after consuming everything there, directed their -devastating course southward to the environs of Brussels. The -inhabitants of the capital were in great alarm, but they prepared for -defence with such spirit that the mutineers did not attack them. They -seized instead the little town of Assche close by, and next the larger -town of Alost. Here they committed frightful atrocities, murdering every -one who resisted them.</p> - -<p>On the 26th of July the mutineers were declared outlaws by the Council -of State, but this had no effect upon them, and now the garrisons of -other towns began to join<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_080" id="page_080"></a>{80}</span> hands with them. Like robber bands, which -indeed they were, they marched about, levying contributions wherever -they chose, and murdering all who opposed them. Their discipline was so -perfect that in every encounter with parties of citizens, however large, -they came off victorious.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>The city of Antwerp, with a population of two hundred thousand souls, -was the commercial metropolis of Europe. It was adorned with beautiful -buildings, among which the cathedral and the townhouse were considered -as rivalling the most stately structures in Christendom. The citadel -built by Alva was an impregnable fortress, and at this time the renowned -Sancho d’Avila was in command of it. He sided with the mutineers, and -became their head, but his troops, who were partly German mercenaries, -were divided in opinion, and one strong regiment remained faithful. Upon -this wealthy and beautiful city the mutineers now cast their eyes. The -Council of State collected as many soldiers as could be obtained, and -five thousand infantry and twelve hundred cavalry, mostly Walloons, were -sent to aid in the defence.</p> - -<p>In the morning of Sunday the 4th of November 1576 the Spanish troops -from various quarters arrived at Antwerp, and stormed a barricade which -the citizens had hastily thrown up. The Walloons, who had been sent to -aid in the defence, fled almost without attempting to resist, and upon -the citizens and the faithful German regiment devolved the almost -impossible task of protecting the city. They fought splendidly, but -could not hold their ground. Driven from the streets they took refuge in -houses, which were at once set on fire by the Spaniards, and presently a -vast conflagration raged in the fairest part of the city. The -magnificent town house was reduced to bare and blackened walls. When -night fell resistance had ceased, and the Spanish fiends were in -possession of Antwerp. Throughout Monday and Tuesday the work of pillage -was carried on, when those who were suspected of having concealed money -or valuables were tortured till they died or produced the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_081" id="page_081"></a>{81}</span> treasure, all -kinds of horrors were perpetrated, Catholic priest and Protestant maid -were treated alike with brutal ferocity, and every restraint was set -aside. In those three days of horrors eight thousand people perished, -property to the value of half a million pounds sterling was destroyed by -fire, and at least as much more was taken possession of by the Spanish -demons. The event was ever afterwards known as the Spanish Fury of -Antwerp. The soldiers of Philippe had obtained their arrears, and -thereafter returned to obedience.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">The Pacification of Ghent.</div> - -<p>The conduct of the mutinous Spanish troops had the effect of drawing the -different provinces together more closely than ever before. By advice of -the prince of Orange, deputies were appointed by a number of the estates -and cities, who met with the representatives of Holland and Zeeland, and -debated upon what had best be done. They soon arrived at a decision, and -on the 8th of November 1576 the important arrangement thereafter known -as the Pacification of Ghent was signed by Holland and Zeeland on one -side, and by the representatives of the provinces of Brabant, Flanders, -Artois, Hainaut, and eight cities, of which Utrecht was one, on the -other. It provided for a close and faithful friendship between them all, -for the expulsion of the Spanish forces from the Netherlands, for an -assemblage of the estates-general of all the provinces as soon as the -foreigners were out of the country, for the suppression of persecution -for religion and the suspension of all edicts relating to this subject, -and for the abstention by Holland and Zeeland of interference with the -Roman Catholic religion in the other fifteen provinces. Throughout the -whole country this arrangement was received with acclamation, and the -seventeen provinces, without in any degree becoming amalgamated into -one, were yet united for the purpose of expelling the foreign troops, -and to that extent were all in rebellion against the king of Spain. The -prince of Orange was the soul of this movement, though he remained only -stadholder of Holland and Zeeland.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_082" id="page_082"></a>{82}</span></p> - -<p>Another actor appeared at this time on the scene. This was Don John of -Austria, a natural son of the emperor Charles V, who had been appointed -by Philippe governor-general of the Netherlands. Don John, though still -a young man, had acquired great renown as a commander in war, having -crushed the revolt of the Moors in Granada and destroyed the Turkish -fleet in the famous battle of Lepanto. He arrived at Luxemburg -unattended by troops on the 3rd of November 1576, and learning there -what was taking place in the provinces, he sent to Brussels to demand -hostages for his personal safety before he proceeded farther. He had -been instructed by the king to conciliate the Netherlands, and was at -liberty to make any concessions, provided the absolute authority of the -crown and the exclusive practice of the Roman Catholic worship should be -strictly conformed to.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>By advice of the prince of Orange, the representatives then at Brussels -resolved to demand conditions from Don John before they should -acknowledge him as governor. These were the immediate departure of all -foreign troops from the country, an oath to maintain all the rights and -privileges of the provinces and towns, the appointment of a new council -of state by the estates-general, the right of the estates-general to -meet whenever they chose, and to regulate all affairs, the demolition of -the citadels that had been built to overawe the towns, and the -maintenance of the Pacification of Ghent. A deputation was sent to -Luxemburg with these demands, which were presented to Don John on the -6th of December. No decision was arrived at then, and negotiations were -continued for months thereafter, though the conditions laid down by the -king and those of the estates seemed to be irreconcilable.</p> - -<p>Early in January 1577 another document, termed the Union of Brussels, -came into existence. It was a compact to expel the Spaniards immediately -and to uphold the Pacification of Ghent, to maintain the Catholic as the -state religion in the fifteen provinces not under the government<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_083" id="page_083"></a>{83}</span> of -Orange, to acknowledge the king’s authority as a constitutional -sovereign, and to defend the various charters. This document was -generally signed by people of every class throughout all the provinces -except Luxemburg. It marks another stage in the struggle between -despotism and liberty.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">The Perpetual Edict.</div> - -<p>Towards the close of this month Don John removed from Luxemburg to the -little town of Huy, on the right bank of the Maas, in the province of -Liege, hoping that by placing himself thus chivalrously in the power of -the people he would command their respect. At the same time it must not -be forgotten that there was a party of considerable strength in the -southern provinces, consisting of the nobles and their adherents, who -were as much opposed to popular liberty as Philippe himself was, and -that Don John could rely upon them to support him.</p> - -<p>The negotiations were now so far successful that on the 12th of February -1577 an agreement was signed by Don John, and on the 17th of the same -month received the signatures also of the authorities in Brussels. It -ratified the Pacification of Ghent, it required all foreign troops to be -sent out of the country without delay, but the estates-general were to -pay the German soldiers before leaving. All the privileges, charters, -and constitutions of the Netherlands were to be maintained, as was also -the Catholic religion. The estates were to disband the troops in their -service, and Don John was to be received as governor-general immediately -after the departure of the Spanish and Italian soldiers. This agreement -was confirmed by Philippe, and took the name of the Perpetual Edict. It -was not, however, approved by the estates of Holland and Zeeland, nor by -the prince of Orange, who put no confidence in the promises, written or -verbal, of either the king or his representatives.</p> - -<p>Don John now moved from Huy to Louvain, near Brussels, and towards the -close of April 1577 the Spanish and Italian troops set out on their -march from the Netherlands to Lombardy. That condition having been -carried<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_084" id="page_084"></a>{84}</span> out, the governor-general entered Brussels, and on the 3rd of -May took the oaths of office, just six months after his arrival on the -frontier. There were still from ten to fifteen thousand German mercenary -soldiers in the king’s service in the country, and the southern nobles -were at his beck and call, so that the patriotic party soon had cause -for alarm.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>Don John, after a residence of less than two months in Brussels, became -apprehensive for his personal safety, and fled first to Mechlin, and -then to Namur, a town at the confluence of the Sambre and the Maas, not -far from the frontier of France. There was a strong fortress in Namur, -which the governor-general got possession of by stratagem, and in which -he placed a garrison when he went to reside there. He next made an -attempt to get possession of the citadel of Antwerp, but failed, and the -German troops who occupied it fled on the approach of a fleet of the Sea -Beggars and surrendered to the estates.</p> - -<p>On the 26th of August the estates addressed a demand to Don John, in -which they called upon him to disband all the troops in his service and -to send the German mercenaries instantly out of the country, to dismiss -every foreigner from office, whether civil or military, and to renounce -his secret alliance with the duke of Guise, the head of the Catholic -League in France. They required him to govern thenceforth only with the -advice and consent of the Council of State, to carry out whatever should -be determined on by a majority of that body, and to regard neither -measures as binding nor despatches as authentic unless decided upon or -drawn up in that Council. This was a demand for parliamentary or what is -now termed responsible government in its widest sense, and the -representative of King Philippe could not agree to it.</p> - -<p>The inhabitants of Antwerp now rose in a body and razed to the ground -the side of the citadel which commanded the city, so that it was no -longer a menace to them. The people of Ghent also broke down their -castle,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_085" id="page_085"></a>{85}</span> and remodelled the government of that city in a democratic -manner. The estates invited the prince of Orange to visit Brussels and -give them advice, and on the 23rd of September he made his appearance -there.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Action of Queen Elizabeth.</div> - -<p>Don John now retired from Namur to Luxemburg, and waited in that city -until the king should provide him with an army strong enough to conquer -the country. The estates on their part commenced to levy troops, for -negotiations had quite ceased. On the 7th of December they declared Don -John no longer governor-general, but an enemy of the Netherlands.</p> - -<p>The prince of Orange was elected ruward of Brabant, a post which gave -him great power in that province, and his influence was enormous -throughout the whole country. By his advice a new act of union was -signed at Brussels on the 10th of December, by which the adherents of -the Roman Catholic church and the Protestants bound themselves to -respect each other and to protect one another from all enemies whatever. -But this was a step too far in advance of the times to be permanent, for -it was an age of bitter intolerance.</p> - -<p>Queen Elizabeth of England, fearing that French influence would prevail -in the Netherlands if she did not aid the struggling country at this -critical time, resolved to give the estates some assistance. On the 7th -of January 1578 she entered into an engagement in London to endorse -their obligations to the extent of one hundred thousand pounds sterling, -and to supply five thousand infantry and one thousand cavalry, who -should, however, be paid by them. This was not regarded as making war -against Spain, because at the same time the Catholic League in France -was sending a much greater number of well trained men to assist Don John -of Austria.</p> - -<p>While the armies on both sides were gathering, another factor, that -might have caused much confusion, was introduced. A party of nobles, in -order to thwart the prince of Orange, invited the archduke Matthias of -Hapsburg,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_086" id="page_086"></a>{86}</span> brother of the emperor, to fill the post of governor-general. -The young man accepted the invitation, and came to the Netherlands, but -the prince of Orange and his adherents managed things so adroitly that -Matthias, though inaugurated as governor-general on the 18th of January -1578, had really no power conferred upon him, and Orange himself as -lieutenant-general retained all authority.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>Both parties had by this time collected considerable forces, Don John at -Luxemburg, the estates at Namur, but the armies were very differently -composed. Philippe had sent several veteran regiments of Spaniards and -Italians, the most highly disciplined troops in the world, commanded by -Alexander Farnese, prince of Parma, and to these had been added some -well-trained French battalions, making altogether a compact army of -about twenty thousand men. The army of the estates was equal in number, -but was a motley assemblage of Germans, French, Netherlanders, English, -and Scotch.</p> - -<p>On the 31st of January 1578 these forces met at Gemblours, fourteen -kilometres from Namur, and the result was the total annihilation of the -States army, with hardly any loss at all on Don John’s side. Seven or -eight thousand men were killed on the field, six hundred were made -prisoners and were immediately hanged or drowned, and the remainder were -dispersed. All their baggage, ammunition, weapons, and stores of every -kind fell into the hands of the victors, and the patriot cause seemed -doomed to ruin.</p> - -<p>A great many small towns in the southern provinces were immediately -occupied by the king’s troops, terrible atrocities being perpetrated -wherever resistance was offered. Brussels, however, the seat of -government, was put in a thorough condition for defence, and the States -set about organising another army as rapidly as possible.</p> - -<p>On the other hand, in the north, a great augmentation of the power of -the prince of Orange was taking place. Haarlem had been recovered for -the patriot cause, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_087" id="page_087"></a>{87}</span> province of Utrecht had accepted the prince as -stadholder, and on the 8th of February 1578 the important city of -Amsterdam was gained, so that the provinces of Holland, Zeeland, and -Utrecht were wholly animated by the same spirit. Then, on the 11th of -March the estates of Gelderland elected as governor of that province -Count John of Nassau, the only surviving brother of William of Orange, -which was almost equivalent to electing the prince himself. The Reformed -religion was making very rapid progress in Utrecht and Gelderland, but -was not yet as exclusively the faith of the people as in Holland and -Zeeland. In June of this year 1578 the second provincial synod of the -Reformed churches was held at Dordrecht, the first having met at Hoorn -in 1572, a proof how entirely the inquisition had failed to extirpate -freedom of conscience in that part of the country.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Rivalry between England and France.</div> - -<p>The cord that bound the seventeen provinces together was so weak that it -was liable to snap at any time, and it was therefore rather to foreign -assistance than to their own unaided exertions that the leading men -looked to rescue the land from Spanish tyranny. They had appointed the -emperor’s brother Matthias their governor-general in name, but that had -not brought them the material aid which they needed. A considerable -number of the nobles were now intriguing with the worthless duke of -Anjou, brother of the king of France, leading him to believe that if he -would bring a strong army into the field they would elect him their -sovereign in place of Philippe. Even the prince of Orange favoured this -scheme, and Anjou actually invaded the country and occupied Mons with a -considerable force. The effect was that Queen Elizabeth of England, in -her jealousy of France, gave greater assistance in men and money than -before, and Anjou disbanded his troops and returned to Paris.</p> - -<p>Don John was again helpless for want of money. Philippe had sent him -nearly £400,000 from Spain with the troops under Alexander Farnese, and -had promised him more,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_088" id="page_088"></a>{88}</span> but the money was expended, and the promise was -unfulfilled. Without the means of procuring the material of war he could -do nothing. Then a pestilence broke out in his main army, and in a few -weeks over a thousand men died. Worn out with care and anxiety, after a -severe attack of illness, on the 1st of October 1578 Don John of Austria -expired in his camp near Namur, after appointing on his deathbed -Alexander Farnese, prince of Parma, his successor until the king’s -pleasure should be known. The temporary appointment was confirmed, and -the ablest of all of Philippe’s representatives was free to try what he -could do towards settling the great controversy between despotism and -liberty in the Netherlands.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>Alexander Farnese was the only son of the duke of Parma and Piacenza and -of the regent Margaret, who preceded Alva in the administration. He was -thirty-three years of age, and had been left a widower by the decease of -his wife, a princess of Portugal. He found the country distracted with -religious feuds, in which the Protestants were as violent as the -Catholics. In Ghent the turbulence of a fanatical party was -uncontrollable even by the prince of Orange, and the destruction of -statues and ornaments in the churches was accompanied with such -atrocious treatment of the leading adherents of the ancient faith that -the Walloon provinces of the south, which were ardently Catholic, were -exasperated to the last degree. On the 6th of January 1579 an alliance -between Hainaut, Artois, and Lille with Douai and Orchies was entered -into for the defence and exclusive maintenance of the Catholic church. -The nobles in these provinces were timeservers, and Parma soon found -that they could easily be bribed by offices and money to abandon the -patriot interests. For this purpose Philippe could open his purse -widely, though he neglected to pay his soldiers.</p> - -<p>On the 17th of May 1579 the estates of the three provinces above named -signed at Arras a formal treaty of reconciliation with the king of -Spain, and were for ever<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_089" id="page_089"></a>{89}</span> lost to the Netherlands cause. Several towns -in Brabant and Flanders shortly afterwards followed this example. The -question of religion being settled to Philippe’s satisfaction, they were -allowed to retain their charters subject to the prerogative of the -sovereign.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">The Union of Utrecht.</div> - -<p>On the other hand, on the 23rd of January 1579 the foundation of the -Netherlands Republic was laid by an agreement termed the Union of -Utrecht, which was proclaimed on the 29th of the same month. The union -was a loose one, for it left to each province and each city its own -constitution unaltered, and only provided for a general assembly of -deputies from the estates of the different provinces, in which each -should have the same voting power, no matter how many deputies it should -send. The object was defence against a common foe. It guaranteed to -every man liberty of conscience, but it could not secure liberty of -public worship where passion was running high, it could merely prevent -inquisition whether Catholic or Protestant. It founded a new State, but -the men who concluded it did not realise that this would be the result, -they professed that they still adhered to the agreement with the other -provinces, only making that agreement a little more binding in their own -case. No supreme head was appointed, though Orange was practically in -that position, and Matthias was not deprived of his title of -governor-general, nor was Philippe formally deposed as sovereign of the -provinces outside of Holland and Zeeland. The bishopric of Utrecht now -ceased to exist.</p> - -<p>The Union of Utrecht was signed by Count John of Nassau for himself and -as stadholder of Gelderland, by the deputies of Holland, Zeeland, and -Utrecht, by the deputies of the province of Groningen excluding the -capital, by the deputies of Brill and the land of Voorne as a particular -district though united with Holland, and further by a minority of the -deputies of Friesland, the majority objecting to it. It was open to any -other provinces or towns to join the Union, and on the 1st of March -1580<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_090" id="page_090"></a>{90}</span> Overyssel gave in its adhesion, but the town of Groningen did not -do so until 1595, and the complete province of Friesland not before -1598. Various nobles subsequently joined the Union, as did also the city -of Ghent on the 4th of February 1579, the city of Antwerp on the 28th of -July 1579, the city of Bruges on the 1st of February 1580, and several -others later. Each city came to be practically an independent unit in -the province in which it was situated, and could therefore make what -alliances it chose. But owing to this circumstance the government of the -Union was exceedingly weak, for no resolutions of the states-general -were binding upon any town whose deputies did not agree to them.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>The provinces Holland, Zeeland, since enlarged by the addition of a -small part of Flanders, the northern part of Gelderland including the -county of Zutphen, Overyssel, Friesland, and Groningen, together with -Drenthe, cover the whole territory of the present kingdom of the -Netherlands except North Brabant and Limburg. Drenthe was a dependency -of the bishopric of Utrecht from 1024 to 1537, when it became a direct -fief to the emperor Charles V. It remained subject to the Spanish -government until 1594, when it was overrun by the States forces, and -thereafter it was a dependency of either Friesland or Groningen until -1813, when it became a separate province of the kingdom of the -Netherlands.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_091" id="page_091"></a>{91}</span></p> - -<h3><a name="III-2" id="III-2"></a>III.<br /><br /> -<span class="smcap">Continuation of the War in the Netherlands until 1606.</span></h3> - -<div class="sidenote">Continuation of the War.</div> - -<p>The most exciting part of the scene now changes to the town of -Maastricht, an important strategical position in the present province of -Limburg. Maastricht contained thirty-four thousand inhabitants, and -there was a garrison of a thousand soldiers within its walls. On the -12th of March 1579 Parma laid siege to the town with an army of twenty -to twenty-five thousand men, and completely enclosed it. Two or three -thousand peasants of both sexes, whose homes had been ravaged, managed -to get in before it was surrounded, and they were of great service in -the defence. The resistance was desperate, men and women fighting side -by side whenever breaches were made in the walls and the soldiers tried -to enter, as also in excavating passages by which the Spanish mines were -destroyed. The carnage on both sides was frightful. On one occasion five -hundred soldiers were hurled into the air and killed by a single -explosion of a mine. An attempt to relieve the town was made by the -prince of Orange, but it failed, for it was impossible to raise an army -strong enough for the purpose. At last, on the 29th of June, Maastricht -was taken, and then an indiscriminate massacre followed. On the first -day four thousand men and women were butchered, and their dead bodies -were flung into the streets. Three days the massacre continued, and then -the few survivors fled from their old homes and tried to find a refuge -in the country. Maastricht was depopulated, and after everything of -value had been removed, it was repeopled by strangers.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_092" id="page_092"></a>{92}</span></p> - -<p>Possession of Mechlin was obtained by Parma through the treachery of its -governor De Bours, who introduced Spanish troops secretly, but six -months later it was recovered by surprise by Van der Tympel, governor of -Brussels.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>Another serious disaster befel the patriot cause in the far north. In -November 1579 Joris Lalain, count of Renneberg, stadholder of Groningen -and its dependency Drenthe, sold himself to Parma for office and a sum -of money. During the night of the 3rd of March 1580 he caused all the -leading men of the patriot party in the town of Groningen to be arrested -in their beds and committed to prison, and before dawn on the 4th his -adherents were in possession of the town. The States tried to recover -the place, and a small army laid siege to it, but Parma sent a stronger -force to the north, by which the patriots were almost annihilated. Then -for some time there was a series of petty operations in the Frisian -districts, in which nothing decisive was effected on either side, but -much property was destroyed, and much misery was caused.</p> - -<p>In 1580 Philippe II added Portugal to his dominions. At the time there -was no thought that by this union the Portuguese possessions in the -eastern seas would be laid open to conquest by the Netherlands, but that -was the result. Before the close of the century the provinces within the -Union of Utrecht were destined to become the foremost sea power of the -world, and then the addition of Portugal to their foes was simply the -addition of a vast amount of valuable spoil for them to gather. Meantime -much that is interesting and instructive was to transpire in the -provinces.</p> - -<p>On the 15th of March 1580 Philippe, by advice of Cardinal Granvelle, -issued a ban declaring the prince of Orange an outlaw, and offering -twenty-five thousand crowns of gold, pardon for any crime however great, -and a title of nobility to anyone who should assassinate him. He was -regarded as the very soul of the struggle for liberty of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_093" id="page_093"></a>{93}</span> conscience and -political freedom, as indeed he was, and if he could be got out of the -way, the king believed that the fourteen still defiant provinces would -return like Artois, Hainaut, and Lille to the Catholic church and to -perfect obedience.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Election of the Duke of Anjou as Sovereign.</div> - -<p>This was the final grievance which led to the absolute renunciation of -the sovereignty of Philippe by the disaffected provinces. Hitherto, -though they were fighting against him, all acts of government were -carried out in his name except in Holland and Zeeland, but on the 26th -of July 1581 their estates, assembled at the Hague, formally and -solemnly abjured him. His seals were broken, and every one was absolved -from oaths of allegiance taken to him.</p> - -<p>But there was no intention on the part of the people to change the form -of their government, what they desired was to preserve their ancient -charters, not to destroy them. The bond of union between the provinces -was that one individual had been sovereign of them all, and now that -Philippe had been abjured they must choose another in his stead, or -break into fragments. The general choice fell upon the prince of Orange, -but he emphatically refused to accept the position, because he would not -have it said that personal ambition had influenced his conduct. Holland -and Zeeland, however, would have no other, and after much hesitation he -consented to become their head temporarily. The archduke Matthias, who -was of no account, laid down his office as governor-general, and shortly -afterwards retired to Germany.</p> - -<p>By the influence of Orange the worthless duke of Anjou was chosen -sovereign of the other twelve provinces. He was a brother of the king of -France, who promised to assist him with money and men to defend the -country against Spain. It was believed that he was about to wed Queen -Elizabeth of England, and she certainly did all that she could to favour -his election by the estates. He agreed to all the conditions required of -him, though they bound<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_094" id="page_094"></a>{94}</span> him to constitutional government as closely as -the king of England is bound to-day. He would have agreed to anything at -all, in fact, but his promise, or his signature, or his oath was of no -value whatever. Fortunately for England his insignificant person and his -repulsive features prevented the great queen from espousing him.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>He was in England when the final arrangements were made, but on the 10th -of February 1582 he arrived at Flushing with a brilliant train of -English and French noblemen. The queen had requested that he might be -treated with the same respect as herself, and so he was received with -all possible honour. On the 17th of the same month he reached Antwerp, -and was inaugurated with much ceremony as sovereign duke of Brabant. In -July he was installed at Bruges as sovereign count of Flanders, and at -the same time the estates of Gelderland formally accepted him as duke of -that province, and those of Friesland pledged him obedience as their -lord. He did not visit the other provinces in order to be installed with -ceremony, but took up his residence at Antwerp, and was generally -accepted as sovereign. To support him he had a strong French army, which -was supposed to be a movable force, while troops raised by the States -were stationed as garrisons in the towns.</p> - -<p>The prince of Parma meantime was far from idle. Reinforcements of -Spanish and Italian troops were constantly arriving, until at the end of -August 1582 he was at the head of an army fully sixty thousand strong -and largely composed of veteran soldiers. Using the obedient provinces -of Artois and Hainaut as a base of operations, he sent out detachments -to surprise cities that were not thoroughly on their guard, and as he -had bribed many of the nobles, he was always well-informed on this -point. So he got possession among various places of Oudenarde in -Flanders on the 5th of July 1582, and a little later of Steenwyk in -Friesland, of Eindhoven in Brabant, and of Nieuwpoort in Flanders.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_095" id="page_095"></a>{95}</span></p> - -<p>The duke of Anjou had sworn to maintain the constitutions of the -provinces and freedom of conscience, but the brother of the king of -France and the son of Catherine of Medici could not long bear restraint. -He wished to make himself an absolute sovereign and to suppress -Protestantism, and without reflecting what the consequence must be of -attempting to oppose Parma and the people of the Netherlands at the same -time, on the 15th of January 1583 by his order detachments of French -troops took possession of Dunkirk, Ostend, Dixmuyde, Denremonde, Alost, -and Vilvoorde, and ejected the Netherlands garrisons. A similar attempt -upon Bruges failed, as the city authorities closed the gates in time -against the French soldiers.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Treachery of Anjou.</div> - -<p>The duke resided in Antwerp, and at Borgerhout close by there was a camp -of French troops. On the 17th of January at mid-day he rode through the -gate leading to Borgerhout, when his bodyguard attacked the burgher -watch, killed every man of them, and took possession of the archway and -the drawbridge. Six hundred cavalry and three thousand infantry from -Borgerhout then poured into the city, where they divided, and some began -to plunder. But the burghers sprang quickly to arms, the leading -sections of the French were overwhelmed, and those behind commenced to -retreat in a panic. The burghers pressed on, killed over two thousand of -the French, and made prisoners of all the others. Fewer than a hundred -burghers lost their lives on this occasion.</p> - -<p>Anjou fled with the remainder of his troops from Borgerhout, but a dyke -was cut in his passage, and another thousand soldiers were drowned. He -succeeded, however, in escaping to a place of safety, where he collected -various scattered detachments about him, and formed a new camp. There he -entered into correspondence with Parma on one side and with the States -on the other, trying to make terms with each.</p> - -<p>The position was one of extreme peril. Owing to the jealousy between the -provinces and the cities and to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_096" id="page_096"></a>{96}</span> rivalry between Catholics and -Protestants, they could not stand alone. To pursue the miscreant Anjou -any further would be to incur the hostility of France, and that would -most certainly bring ruin upon the country. Queen Elizabeth wrote -strongly urging a reconciliation with him, and that was also in the -opinion of the prince of Orange the wisest course to adopt. So an -arrangement was made with him, by which on the 28th of March 1583 he -surrendered the cities that he had seized, and the States released their -French prisoners and restored to him the plate and furniture he had left -behind in Antwerp. He was to wait at Dunkirk until some plan could be -devised by which he might be restored to the dignity he had forfeited, -but on the 28th of June he left to visit Paris, and never returned. He -died in France on the 10th of June 1584.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>The treachery of Anjou was imitated by more than one of the Netherlands -nobles. On the 22nd of September 1583 the town of Zutphen in Gelderland -was betrayed to the Spaniards by Count Van den Berg, and on the 20th of -May 1584 Bruges in Flanders was given up to Parma by the prince of -Chimay, who was governor of that important city. Then Ypres in Flanders -was besieged and forced to surrender, and as in Bruges all Protestants -were expelled. Most of these took refuge in the northern provinces, so -that the line of separation between the two opposing religions was -constantly becoming more clearly defined.</p> - -<p>At this critical time in the history of the provinces the great man -whose name will ever be associated with all that is best and noblest in -their struggle for liberty was taken from them by the pistol of an -assassin. The ban of Philippe II had at last produced the effect for -which it was designed. There had been many attempts to murder the prince -of Orange and secure the king’s reward, but hitherto all had failed. The -most serious of these took place on the 18th of March 1582, when he had -been wounded, at first it was believed mortally, but<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_097" id="page_097"></a>{97}</span> he had recovered, -though his wife died from the shock. And now, on the 10th of July 1584, -in his own house at Delft he was shot by a fanatic Burgundian Catholic -named Balthazar Gérard, who under pretence of being a Calvinist in -distress had obtained admittance to his service. The Father of his -Country, as he was deservedly called, expired almost immediately. The -murderer was seized, and died under the most excruciating tortures that -the ingenuity of man could devise, but he remained callous to the last. -The sorrowing people laid the corpse of him they had such good reason to -mourn for in the new church at Delft, and raised a stately tomb over it, -where few Dutch speaking South Africans who visit Europe fail to pay -their respects to the memory of the illustrious dead. Thus William of -Orange passed away.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Murder of the Prince of Orange.</div> - -<p>The real murderer, Philippe the Second of Spain, rewarded the parents of -his tool with patents of nobility and with three seignories or rich -estates in Franche Comté, taken from the confiscated property of his -victim.</p> - -<p>For a short time the country was paralysed by the death of its great -leader, but soon in the northern provinces a general resolution was -taken to prosecute the war more vigorously than ever. It now became -almost purely a strife of religion. The prince of Orange had favoured -toleration, but when he was removed the enmity between the Catholics and -the Protestants showed itself so strong that a united country was no -longer possible. It was not recognised at the time, but it can now be -seen, that the position of the dividing line was the object striven for, -and consequently the central provinces, Flanders, Brabant, Mechlin, -Gelderland, and Limburg, where the Teutons and Celts were intermixed, -were to be the principal scene of operations.</p> - -<p>The states-general, exercising supreme power, appointed an executive -council to raise forces and carry on the war until a sovereign should be -chosen. This council consisted of eighteen members, four representing -Holland, three<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_098" id="page_098"></a>{98}</span> Zeeland, three Friesland, three Brabant, two Utrecht, -two Flanders, and one Mechlin. As its president the states-general -appointed Maurits of Nassau, second son of the murdered prince of -Orange, his eldest son Philip having long been a prisoner in Spain. It -was a clumsy instrument for carrying on a war, with a president only -seventeen years of age, and depending for funds upon the states-general, -that it was required to convoke at least twice a year; but it was the -only possible machinery that could be created at the time. The States’ -movable army consisted of three thousand infantry and two thousand five -hundred cavalry, the burghers being relied upon for the defence of the -towns.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>On the other side was the astute and active Parma, with a field force of -over eighteen thousand veterans, besides garrisons in all the towns he -had taken. He was provided with gold to bribe the corrupt nobles, and he -was skilful in using it. The disparity between the two parties was so -great that it was not surprising that towns of mixed population should -waver when plausible overtures were made to them, rather than risk being -attacked and treated as Maastricht had been. Dendermonde was the first -to give way. On the 17th of August 1584 it was reconciled to the Spanish -king, and lost for ever to the patriot cause. The fatal example was -followed by Vilvoorde on the 7th of September, and on the 17th of the -same month by the all-important city of Ghent. The terms of -reconciliation were that the municipal institutions were to be -respected, and that the Protestants were to be allowed two years within -which either to conform to the Catholic worship or to dispose of their -property and go into exile. This was at least much better than to be -burnt or buried alive. Emigration to Holland and Zeeland followed on a -very large scale, and before the expiration of the two years Ghent in -particular lost nearly half of its former inhabitants. Thus -Protestantism gained in the north and Catholicism in the south of the -country.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_099" id="page_099"></a>{99}</span></p> - -<p>The eyes of the great powers of Europe were now more intently fixed upon -the Netherlands than ever before, but it was difficult to assist them. -Neither Germany, France, nor England was willing to enter openly into -war with the powerful Spanish empire in order to preserve constitutional -government and Calvinistic doctrine. The states actually offered the -sovereignty of the provinces to the contemptible Henry III, who sat upon -the throne of France, if he would pledge his word to maintain their -charters and their religion, and he declined to accept the offer, though -he had every reason to be hostile to Spain. Elizabeth of England -favoured a joint protectorate of the Netherlands by France and herself, -but was naturally unwilling to see them absorbed by her neighbour, and -was not inclined to assist them alone. And so in their time of greatest -need they had only themselves to depend upon.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Designs of the Prince of Parma.</div> - -<p>It was fortunate for the northern provinces that Parma was not receiving -reinforcements, or the whole country would soon have been overrun. -Philippe was closely engaged in fomenting civil war in France and in -planning the conquest of England, subjects which occupied his mind and -drew upon his purse to such an extent that he neglected the Netherlands -and failed to furnish money to maintain and pay even the limited number -of soldiers he had there. He was the real head of the so-called holy -league, that under the nominal leadership of the duke of Guise was in -arms to establish absolutism and extirpate Protestantism in Europe. -Parma was left mainly to his own resources, but he possessed military -and diplomatic ability of the highest order, and could do with his -slender army what ordinary generals could not have done with forces -twice as strong.</p> - -<p>If he could obtain possession of Brussels and Antwerp the backbone of -the rebellion would be broken, he believed, and in the autumn of 1584 he -commenced operations to that end. His plan was to construct a fortified -bridge<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_100" id="page_100"></a>{100}</span> over the Schelde below Antwerp, which would prevent succour -being sent up the river from Zeeland, and thus the cities would be -starved out, for the open country was in his hands. There was one way by -which this plan could be frustrated, and that was by cutting the great -dykes and letting the sea roll over the land, but the patriots hesitated -to destroy so much property. When at last they tried to do it they were -too late, for Parma had fortified the dykes and held them with an iron -hand. During the winter of 1584-5 famine was so severe in Brussels that -people died of hunger, and on the 13th of March 1585 the city -capitulated. Mechlin held out until the 19th of July, when it too fell.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>The siege of Antwerp was one of the most celebrated events in the -history of the Netherlands. The city was then much less populous than it -had formerly been, but it still contained ninety thousand inhabitants, -the most turbulent though the most energetic and industrious in Europe. -It was the most important commercial city in the country. If there had -been union of counsel and obedience to a single authority, Antwerp need -not have feared anything that Parma with his eleven or twelve thousand -soldiers could do, but all was discord and confusion within the walls. -And without was one strong clear-headed man, with a genius for war, in -command of soldiers devoted to him, a man who could construct a strong -fortified bridge seven hundred and thirty-two metres in length over a -deep tidal river in the winter season and in the face of a far superior -number of combatants, a feat deemed by most people utterly impossible -until it was accomplished. The sufferings of Antwerp were less than -those of Leyden, but on the 17th of August 1585 the city capitulated. -Life and property were to be respected, a ransom of only £33,000 was to -be paid, no other than the Roman Catholic worship was to be publicly -observed, but Protestants were allowed two years in which to dispose of -their property and leave.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_101" id="page_101"></a>{101}</span></p> - -<p>Immediately a stream of emigration set out towards the north. Amsterdam -especially benefited by refugee merchants and artisans from Antwerp -settling there, and very shortly became the first commercial city of -Europe. Middelburg too and many other towns of Holland and Zeeland -received a large access of population from the fugitive Protestants of -Brabant and Flanders. The old cities immediately lost their former -importance, Antwerp sank into a small place, the citadel was rebuilt and -a foreign garrison was stationed in it, but beyond the soldiers and the -members of the Company of Jesus who were stationed there as instructors -of the young, no new residents were attracted to take the place of the -Protestants who moved away.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Treaty with Queen Elizabeth.</div> - -<p>During the siege of Antwerp the states-general were making every effort -in their power to obtain assistance from England. Queen Elizabeth -realised the necessity of supporting the Netherlands against Philippe -II, who was her enemy as well as theirs, but she was unwilling to give -more than was absolutely necessary. She had to be on her guard against -other enemies than Spain, and she could not afford to spend money -freely. The states offered her the sovereignty of the provinces, which -she declined, and the negotiations for an alliance were so protracted -that when an agreement was finally arrived at, it was too late to save -Antwerp.</p> - -<p>On the 10th of August 1585 a treaty between the queen and the states was -signed, by the terms of which Elizabeth was to furnish and pay during -the war five thousand infantry and one thousand cavalry to assist in the -defence of the provinces,<a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a> and was to receive the town of Flushing -and the fortress of Rammekens in Zeeland<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_102" id="page_102"></a>{102}</span> and the town of Brill and two -fortresses in Holland as pledges for the payment of all expenses when -the war was over. She was to provide these places with suitable -garrisons, but was not to interfere in any way with the civil government -or the customs and privileges of the inhabitants.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>The earl of Leicester was appointed lieutenant-general of the English -forces, and with a brilliant staff of nobles landed at Flushing on the -19th of December 1585. The chivalrous and virtuous Sir Philip Sidney was -placed in command of the English garrison of Flushing.</p> - -<p>The states-general, realising that under the existing form of government -it was impossible to act with vigour against the enemy, appointed -Leicester governor and captain-general of the united provinces, and on -the 4th of February 1586 he was inaugurated at the Hague in that -capacity. On the 6th a proclamation was issued by the states,<a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a> giving -him “supreme command and absolute authority over all the affairs of war -by sea and land, ... the administration and direction of government and -justice over all the said united provinces, cities, and associated -members, ... and special power to levy, receive, and administer all the -contributions granted and appointed for carrying on the war.” The queen, -however, was incensed by his acceptance of such extensive power, and he -did not afterwards receive her support as freely as before. In -particular the English soldiers in the Netherlands were left without pay -or proper maintenance, and it might have gone hard with them if Parma’s -forces had not been in the same condition. Philippe, who was hastening -on the preparation of the great armada which he intended for the -invasion and conquest of England, was trying to gain time and conceal -his operations by pretending to enter into negotiations for peace, and -so nothing decisive was done on either side.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_103" id="page_103"></a>{103}</span></p> - -<p>What was effected during the year 1586 was more advantageous to the -Spaniards than to the Dutch and English. In January of this year Parma -laid siege to the town of Grave, on the Brabant bank of the Maas, and -though in April the garrison was strengthened and a great quantity of -provisions thrown in by the patriots, on the 7th of June the place was -surrendered by its weak-minded commandant. On the same day Megen and -Batenburg were given up to Parma, and on the 28th of June Venlo -capitulated, when only the towns of Geertruidenberg, Heusden, Bergen op -Zoom, and Willemstad were left in Brabant to the patriot cause. All the -territory south of the lower Schelde had now been recovered by the -Spaniards except a little slip in the north of Flanders and along the -seacoast. This little slip was slightly enlarged, however, by the -seizure on the 17th of July of the fortified town of Axel by a combined -English and Dutch expedition.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Death of Sir Philip Sidney.</div> - -<p>In Gelderland Nymegen on the Waal and Zutphen on the Yssel with some -villages in the neighbourhood of each were held by the Spaniards, and -Leicester resolved to attempt to get possession of them. On the 12th of -September after a short siege he occupied Doesburg, eight kilometres -from Zutphen, and then proceeded to beleaguer the city. Parma, with six -thousand five hundred soldiers, immediately marched to its relief, and -on the 2nd of October succeeded in forcing a way in with a great convoy -of provisions. In the action when endeavouring to prevent him from doing -so, the chivalrous Sir Philip Sidney received a wound from which he -died. Parma, after strengthening the garrison, marched to disperse some -German troops in the service of the States, and Leicester, having placed -large garrisons in Deventer, Doesburg, and a very strong fort close to -Zutphen, retired to the Hague. On the 24th of November he left the -Netherlands to return to England, but did not resign his office, thus -causing great confusion.</p> - -<p>He had been at variance with the states-general, and had been disposed -to carry out his views with a high<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_104" id="page_104"></a>{104}</span> hand, though he was exceedingly -generous with his wealth and spent large sums of money of his own in the -service of the country. Two parties had arisen: one, that may be termed -oligarchal, favouring the existing form of town and provincial -governments and wide toleration in matters of religion; the other, that -called itself democratic, appealing to the sovereignty of the people at -large, but without explaining how that sovereignty was to be manifested, -and desiring to exclude rigidly all religious practices except those of -the Reformed church. The earl of Leicester was the head of the last -named of these parties. He left Sir John Norris in command of the -English troops in the Netherlands, and professedly delegated his own -authority to the state council, though secretly he issued commissions -that greatly impaired the power of that body and of the English general.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>Soon after his departure a series of deplorable events occurred. Sir -William Stanley, who was in command of the garrison of Deventer, -betrayed that important city to Colonel Tassis, who held Zutphen for -Parma, and with an Irish regiment under his orders went over to the -service of Spain. On the same day, 29th of January 1587, Colonel Rowland -York betrayed to Tassis the great fortress close to Zutphen, of which he -was in command. The northern provinces were thus cut in two, and the -Spaniards were able to ravage large portions of Gelderland and -Overyssel. Then Wauw, a castle about four kilometres from Bergen op -Zoom, was sold to Parma by its commandant, and a little later the town -of Gelder was similarly sold by Commandant Aristotle Patton.</p> - -<p>These acts of treachery created a strong feeling of distrust of the -whole of the English forces in the country, especially as it was known -that Queen Elizabeth was extremely desirous of concluding peace with -Spain, and was at this very time corresponding with the duke of Parma on -the subject. The states-general took advantage of this feeling and -attempted to recover the authority which they<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_105" id="page_105"></a>{105}</span> had ceded to the earl of -Leicester, but did not fully succeed in doing so.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Action of Sir Francis Drake.</div> - -<p>The preparations of Philippe for the invasion of England were rapidly -advancing, and it had been arranged between him and Parma that a -powerful army was to be massed in Flanders and Brabant, which should be -embarked in small vessels and convoyed across the straits by a great -fleet to be sent from Spain. Until all was ready, the queen was to be -kept unsuspicious of danger by pretended negotiations for peace, which -were never to be more than a blind.</p> - -<p>To carry out this scheme Parma needed a capacious and convenient -harbour. Those he possessed were useless for his purpose, because the -English held Flushing at the mouth of the Schelde and Dutch armed ships -were constantly cruising almost up to Antwerp, so at the beginning of -June 1587 he laid siege to Sluis in north-western Flanders with all the -forces he could muster. The town had a garrison of eight hundred English -and eight hundred Dutch soldiers, and not only the burghers but the -women aided heroically in its defence. The importance of preventing such -a harbour from falling into the hands of the Spaniards was realised at -once in England, and Leicester was directed to return to the Netherlands -without delay. On the 7th of July he reached Flushing with three -thousand raw recruits, but the bickering between him and the states was -so great that united action was impossible, and his attempt to relieve -Sluis was an utter failure. The garrison was so reduced in number that -it could resist no longer, and the burghers and women were quite worn -out, when at the beginning of August Sluis capitulated on honourable -terms, and Parma came into possession of an excellent base for the -invasion of England.</p> - -<p>That invasion, however, was deferred for a time, and the pretence of -negotiating for peace was to be continued many months longer, owing to -the action of the daring sea captain Sir Francis Drake. Drake sailed -from Plymouth on the 2nd of April 1587 with four men-of-war and -twenty-four<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_106" id="page_106"></a>{106}</span> ships fitted out by private adventurers, and seventeen days -later entered the harbour of Cadiz and pillaged, burned, and destroyed -some hundred and fifty vessels that he found there. He then sailed to -Lisbon, and destroyed a hundred transports and provision ships that were -lying in the Tagus. At first sight this looks something like piracy, for -there had been no declaration of war between England and Spain. But what -were all those vessels lying off Cadiz and Lisbon destined for? For the -invasion of England, and this it was that justified Drake in destroying -them as he so bravely did.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>Leicester remained nearly six months in the Netherlands on his second -visit, and then, finding it impossible to recover his former authority, -he returned to England. On the 27th of December 1587 he attached his -name to a document resigning his office, but it did not reach the -states-general until April 1588. In the interim a condition of affairs -that can almost be termed civil war prevailed. The officials and -commanders of garrisons who had taken an oath of fidelity to Leicester -refused to obey any other authority, and young Maurits of Nassau, who -had been appointed by the states captain-general, was obliged to coerce -them by force of arms. At last Leicester’s resignation was received, and -on the 12th of April 1588 the states-general issued a placaat<a name="FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a> -absolving all persons from their oaths of fidelity to him, when -something like harmony was restored. The baron Willoughby now became the -commander of the English troops in the Netherlands.</p> - -<p>Warlike operations in that country were, however, almost stayed for a -while, owing to Parma’s whole attention being occupied with preparations -for the invasion of England and deceiving the English commissioners who -were treating for peace. He was building great numbers of small -transports, collecting vast stores of provisions and munitions of war, -and providing for sixty thousand soldiers, some of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_107" id="page_107"></a>{107}</span> whom were intended -to hold his conquests during his absence and others to go with him to -England when the invincible armada should arrive from Spain with -additional forces and convoy his vessels across the channel.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">The Invincible Armada.</div> - -<p>At last in July 1588 the armada, consisting of a hundred and thirty-four -ships of war, with twenty thousand soldiers on board, sailed from -Coruña, and on the 29th of that month came in sight of the English -coast. Never in the world’s history were more important issues in the -balance than those dependent on that mighty fleet. Absolutism or -political liberty, iron bound religious conformity or freedom of -conscience, these were the issues at stake, not only for England and -Holland, but for mighty nations still unborn. It is not necessary to -relate the history of the armada here, every schoolboy knows how it came -to anchor in Calais roads, how the Sea Beggars of Holland and Zeeland -prevented Parma from joining it, how the English fleet under Howard and -Drake and Hawkins and other ocean heroes followed and worried it, how -they sent fireships that frightened it in confusion from Calais roads, -how it fled into the North sea with the English grappling every galleon -that lagged behind, how God sent a great storm that dispersed it, and -how finally only fifty-three out of the hundred and thirty-four huge -fighting ships reached the Spanish coast again, and these little better -than disabled wrecks. The invincible armada was no more, and England and -Holland were saved.</p> - -<p>Parma had a great army under his command, but sickness was wasting it -away, and he had not the means of maintaining it properly. So much had -been expended upon the armada that it was impossible for Philippe to -send him the money he needed. He was in chronic ill-health and seemed to -have lost heart too by the failure of the mighty effort that had been -made, and so for a time took no action commensurate with what might have -been expected of him. He indeed laid siege to Bergen op Zoom, which was -garrisoned by five thousand Dutch and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_108" id="page_108"></a>{108}</span> English soldiers under Colonel -Morgan, but he did not press it with his old vigour, and during the -night of the 12th of November 1588 he abandoned it. Then for months he -did nothing, until on the 10th of April 1589 he obtained possession of -Geertruidenberg, a town on the Brabant side of the Maas.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>Philippe’s views were now directed more to France than to the -Netherlands. After the assassination of Henry III the two parties in -that kingdom appealed to arms, and Parma was directed to assist the duke -of Mayenne, who was at the head of the Catholic league, against Henry of -Navarre, then a Huguenot, the legitimate heir to the throne. -Accordingly, in March 1590 he began to send troops to Mayenne, and in -August he followed in person with twelve thousand infantry and three -thousand cavalry, but after breaking the blockade of Paris, then -besieged by Navarre, he returned to the Netherlands, leaving a strong -division of his forces in France. His soldiers were dying rapidly from -disease, they were unpaid and half mutinous, and neither money nor -sufficient provisions could be obtained in the exhausted Spanish -provinces. Under these circumstances Parma, notwithstanding the large -number of men nominally at his disposal, was really almost helpless.</p> - -<p>Maurits was not slow to take advantage of this condition of things. He -had a regular army of only ten thousand infantry and two thousand -cavalry, but his troops were properly paid and well disciplined, and he -was rapidly advancing in military knowledge and skill. He had also the -assistance of a small English contingent. On the 4th of March 1590 he -got possession of the important town of Breda in Brabant. During the -night of the 3rd seventy Hollanders concealed in a turf boat gained -entrance to the castle, and attacked the garrison of Italian soldiers -six times their number, who were seized with a panic and fled into the -town. Before dawn of the 4th a body of patriot troops, with Maurits at -their head, arrived, and Breda was gained. Within a few months eight -other towns in Brabant,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_109" id="page_109"></a>{109}</span> though all of less importance than Breda, were -wrested from the Spaniards.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Death of the Duke of Parma.</div> - -<p>During 1591 some great successes were gained by Maurits. On the 23rd of -May the great fort at Zutphen was taken, and on the 30th the town -capitulated. On the 10th of June Deventer was surrendered, and thus the -important cities lost by the treachery of Stanley and York were -recovered. On the 2nd of July Delfzyl, far north in Groningen, -capitulated, and on the 24th of September Hulst, in the north of -Flanders, was obliged to do the same. On the 21st of October Nymegen was -taken, so that the year was a most fortunate one for the patriot cause. -The Spanish garrisons of all these towns had made a stout resistance, -and some had held out for a long time, but none of those scenes of -massacre that characterised Spanish victories obscured the successes of -Maurits. The soldiers were permitted to march away unharmed, and the -result was that afterwards they did not fight so desperately as they -would have done if they had believed that to submit would be followed by -their butchery. As to religion, the same system was introduced in the -recovered towns as was observed in South Africa during the greater part -of the rule of the East India Company: only the Reformed worship could -be practised publicly, but there was no inquisition in matters of -conscience, and in their own houses men could worship as they pleased.</p> - -<p>During 1592 less was accomplished. From January to June Parma was in -France, and when he left that country his ill health prevented him from -making much exertion. Philippe, without the slightest cause, had become -suspicious of his fidelity, and had resolved to disgrace him. From this -indignity he was spared by his death at Arras on the 3rd of December -1592. The old count Pieter Ernest Mansfeld then acted as -governor-general of the submissive Netherlands until January 1594, when -the archduke Ernest, brother of the emperor of Germany and nephew of -King Philippe, arrived at Brussels and assumed the duty. He<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_110" id="page_110"></a>{110}</span> was a man -of no account, and played a very unimportant part until his death on the -20th of February 1595. The count of Fuentes then acted as head of -affairs until the 29th of January 1596, when the cardinal archduke -Albert, youngest brother of the late Ernest, took over the charge.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>At this time the war against Spain was chiefly confined to France, where -both the English and the Dutch were aiding the king of Navarre against -Philippe and the Catholic league. In July 1593 the king of Navarre was -reconciled to the Catholic church, and on the 26th of February 1594 was -crowned at Chartres as Henry IV, king of France. Still the English and -Dutch continued to help him against Spain, and the Spanish forces, -except the garrisons of the towns, were withdrawn from the Netherlands -to oppose him, so that Maurits was able with his little army and a few -English auxiliaries to do something. He laid siege to Steenwyk, in the -north of Overyssel, which surrendered on the 4th of July 1592, and to -Koevorden, in Drenthe, which capitulated on the 12th of September of the -same year. Next he laid siege to Geertruidenberg, which capitulated on -the 22nd of June 1593, and to Groningen, which fell into his hands on -the 22nd of July 1594. The remainder of the district, then termed the -Ommelanden, was already a party to the union of Utrecht, and the city -now at once gave in its adhesion, so that the province of Groningen -thereafter took rank as a sister state of Holland and the others.</p> - -<p>In 1595 nothing of much note occurred, and in 1596 the most important -military event was the recovery of Hulst by the archduke on the 18th of -August. But in this year an act of the king of Spain had very serious -consequences for the Netherlands. This was the repudiation by Philippe -of the public debt of his empire, which at this time was actually so -great that nearly the whole of his revenue was needed to pay the -interest alone. So reckless was the expenditure of the lord of Spain, -Portugal, Italy, the obedient Netherlands, America, and India!<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_111" id="page_111"></a>{111}</span> Twice -before, in 1557 and 1575, he had suspended payment to the national -creditors, and now, on the 20th of November 1596, he freed himself of -the whole burden by simply disowning it. The ruin of his creditors was -not more complete than the ruin of his credit thereafter. The obedient -provinces were so exhausted that the cardinal archduke could not raise -sufficient revenue from them to meet the cost of administration, much -less maintain the army, and the soldiers at once lost all heart.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Successes of Prince Maurits.</div> - -<p>On the 31st of October of this year 1596 a treaty of alliance between -Henry IV of France, Elizabeth of England, and the States-General of the -seven United Provinces—Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, Gelderland, -Overyssel, Friesland, and Groningen with Drenthe—was entered into at -the Hague, to defend themselves against Spain.<a name="FNanchor_28_28" id="FNanchor_28_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a> The oligarchal -republic was thus formally admitted into the sisterhood of nations.</p> - -<p>There were four thousand of the very best of the Spanish infantry and -several squadrons of cavalry encamped at Turnhout in Brabant, where on -the 24th of January 1597 Maurits with a much inferior force attacked -them. They actually fled in a panic, and in the pursuit two thousand -were slain and five hundred were made prisoners. It was the most notable -victory ever won over Spanish veterans. Turnhout was occupied by the -patriots, and Maurits began to prepare for an extensive campaign.</p> - -<p>In August 1597 he attacked the Spanish garrisons in the towns along the -Rhine on the eastern border of the United Provinces, and by the end of -October he had reduced nine of them. Five thousand Spanish soldiers -surrendered, who were allowed to march away unharmed, to add to the -troubles of the cardinal archduke, whose army was now and long -afterwards in a state of organised mutiny and a terror to the obedient -provinces. The patriot cause would have made great progress at this -time, but on the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_112" id="page_112"></a>{112}</span> 2nd of May 1598 Henry IV seceded from the triple -alliance between England, France, and the United Provinces, and signed a -treaty of peace with Spain.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>Four days after the conclusion of this treaty, on the 6th of May 1598, -Philippe II transferred the sovereignty of the Netherlands to his -favourite daughter Isabella, who was to marry the cardinal archduke -Albert. He was physically unable to carry on the government longer -himself, and on the 13th of September 1598 he died of a loathsome and -painful disease. On his deathbed he declared that he did not know of -ever having done anyone a wrong, so firmly convinced was he that all the -murders committed and all the blood that had been shed by his orders -tended to the glory of God and the promotion of true religion. Such a -man in his position is a greater enemy to mankind than an avowed infidel -could be, whether he gives others the choice of the koran or the sword, -adherence to any form of Christianity or death. He arrogates to himself -the power of defining the will of the Almighty God in matters of faith, -and of compelling others to profess to believe as he does, surely a -position that angels might shudder to take. The dead king was succeeded -by his son, Philippe III of Spain, who had none of his father’s patience -or industry, who was satisfied with his title, and left the -administration entirely to his favourite the duke of Lerma, the real -master of the Spanish realms.</p> - -<p>The cession of the Netherlands to Isabella nominally severed the -provinces from Spain, but if she should leave no issue, it was provided -that they should return to their former condition. She was to have all -the assistance that Spain could afford to give, so that practically the -position was not greatly altered.</p> - -<p>The republic was now left to defend itself almost unaided, for on the -16th of August 1598 a treaty of alliance with England was concluded at -Westminster, which provided for the payment of £800,000 to the queen for -the expenses incurred by her, and for her keeping eleven hundred and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_113" id="page_113"></a>{113}</span> -fifty soldiers in the cautionary towns until the debt should be paid. -The second article of the treaty was: “The foresaid Lords the States, -confiding in the good Affection and Favour of her Majesty, for the -Preservation of the State of the foresaid <i>United Provinces</i>, shall be -contented with such aids as her Majesty shall please to give them, and -to continue the War, with the Assistance of God, the best they can.”<a name="FNanchor_29_29" id="FNanchor_29_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a></p> - -<div class="sidenote">Battle of Nieuwpoort.</div> - -<p>Very little that was of permanent importance transpired in the -Netherlands for some time after the conclusion of this treaty. The -cardinal archduke was without money, and his soldiers were mutinous, so -that he could not undertake any military operations. He was preparing -too to become a layman and to wed the infanta Isabella, which event took -place in April 1599.</p> - -<p>The Dutch, as henceforth the people of the republic of the United -Netherlands can be termed in contradistinction to the Belgians, or the -inhabitants of the obedient provinces, were superior to the Spaniards on -the sea, and were victorious in every naval engagement where the enemy -was not more than three to one against them, still privateers under the -Spanish flag frequently made sudden darts from Dunkirk and Nieuwpoort -and did much damage to Dutch trading vessels and fishing smacks. To -prevent this, the states-general resolved to send a strong expedition -against those places. Accordingly, in June 1600 Maurits with an army -thirteen thousand six hundred strong invaded Flanders and marched to -Nieuwpoort. The archduke Albert upon this appealed in stirring words to -his mutinous troops, and made such promises to them that twelve thousand -veterans agreed to return to duty. They reached the environs of -Nieuwpoort a few hours after Maurits, and there in the sand dunes on the -2nd of July 1600 was fought a pitched battle, which, though the Dutch -lost very heavily in a preliminary encounter, ended in a complete -victory in their<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_114" id="page_114"></a>{114}</span> favour. Three thousand Spaniards were killed, and six -hundred were made prisoners, among whom was the ferocious admiral of -Aragon. The Dutch lost two thousand men killed. Nieuwpoort, however, was -so strongly garrisoned that Maurits did not think it prudent to lay -siege to it, and so he returned to Zeeland.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>Ostend was the only place on the coast of Flanders held by the Dutch, -and as soon as the archduke could get a sufficient force together he -laid siege to it. It was only a fishing village of three thousand -inhabitants, but as it formed a base from which expeditions could be -sent to any part of Flanders, it was an important position. Its siege -was one of the most memorable events of the long war, for it lasted over -three years, from the 5th of July 1601 to the 20th of September 1604. -Being open to Dutch shipping, reinforcements of men and supplies of -provisions were constantly thrown in, while on the other side every -soldier that the archduke Albert could engage was employed in the siege. -During those three years more than a hundred thousand men lost their -lives by pestilence or in the attack or defence of that village. The -struggle would have continued even longer, had it not been that a -Genoese volunteer of immense wealth and a perfect genius for war offered -his services and his money to Philippe III on condition of having the -supreme command of the army in Flanders, which offer had been accepted. -In October 1603 the marquis Ambrose Spinola took command at Ostend, and -he it was who brought the siege to a conclusion. He gained possession of -heaps of rubbish, but not a single building intact, and when the -garrison retired with the remnant of the fishing population, only one -man and one woman remained where Ostend had been.</p> - -<p>In the meantime Maurits took advantage of the archduke’s whole attention -being occupied with Ostend to recover Grave, which surrendered to him -after a siege lasting from the 18th of July to the 18th of September<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_115" id="page_115"></a>{115}</span> -1602, and Sluis—a much more important place than Ostend—which fell -into his hands by capitulation on the 18th of August 1604.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Action of James I of England.</div> - -<p>The death of Queen Elizabeth on the 24th of March 1603 was a great loss -to the republic. She had always realised that the Dutch cause against -Spain was England’s cause also, and though she had not given much -assistance of late, she had afforded some, and down to the fall of -Ostend a considerable number of Englishmen fought and fell side by side -with the sturdy republicans. Her successor, James I, was without her -ability. Soon after his accession he promised indeed to follow her -policy, but very shortly a project of alliance between the royal houses -of Spain and England took possession of his mind, and then he adopted -the opposite course. On the 30th of July 1603 at Hampton Court he signed -a treaty of alliance with Henry IV of France for the defence of the -United Provinces against Spain, and in the following year, 1604, he -entered into a treaty of perpetual peace and alliance with Philippe III -of Spain and the archduke and archduchess Albert and Isabella,<a name="FNanchor_30_30" id="FNanchor_30_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a> in -which he abandoned the Dutch cause. Thereafter his subjects were -strictly prohibited from aiding the enemies of Spain in any manner -whatever. He kept possession of the cautionary towns until June 1616, -when a compromise was made regarding the debt, and they were restored to -the republic.</p> - -<p>No military event of any importance occurred after this until Spinola’s -sudden dash upon the eastern border, and the surrender to him of Grol or -Groenlo in Gelderland on the 14th of August 1606. Spinola’s funds were -now exhausted, and as means for carrying on the war could not be raised -either in the Belgic provinces or in Spain, hostilities on land -practically ceased.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_116" id="page_116"></a>{116}</span></p> - -<h3><a name="IV-2" id="IV-2"></a>IV.<br /><br /> -<span class="smcap">The War on the Sea between Spain and the Netherlands.</span></h3> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>It was on the ocean that the Dutch were carrying on the war, and that -with marvellous success, for they were already beginning to drive the -Portuguese from their most valuable possessions in the eastern seas and -to found for themselves a vast colonial realm.</p> - -<p>During the early years of the war trade was carried on between them and -the Spaniards just as in times of peace. The Hollanders and Zeelanders -indeed regarded Philippe’s subjects in Spain and Italy as their best -customers, and relied upon the profit on commerce with them for means to -carry on the war. On various occasions the king tried to check this -trade, and the English were loud in denouncing it, still it went on, -though always diminishing in bulk, until 1598, when an edict was issued -by Philippe declaring all Dutch ships found in his ports confiscated and -their crews prisoners.</p> - -<p>For some time this had been foreseen, and the merchants of Amsterdam and -Middelburg were intent upon seeking new markets to replace the old ones -that would be lost. They were of opinion that a short passage to China -might be found by way of the sea north of Europe and Asia, and a man -thoroughly qualified to make the effort to look for it was soon found in -the person of Willem Barendszoon, a seaman of great courage, patience, -and skill. On the 5th of June 1594 Barendszoon sailed from Texel with -three ships fitted out respectively by the cities of Amsterdam and -Enkhuizen and the province of Zeeland. He was also provided with a yacht -to explore in advance of the larger vessels. With him as supercargo of -the Enkhuizen ship<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_117" id="page_117"></a>{117}</span> was Jan Huyghen van Linschoten, of whom much will -presently be said. Barendszoon sailed north of Nova Zembla with the -Amsterdam ship and the yacht, while the other two vessels tried to pass -through the Waigats between Nova Zembla and the mainland. But ice -blocked the passage of them all, and they were obliged to return -unsuccessful to Amsterdam, where they arrived on the 16th of -September.<a name="FNanchor_31_31" id="FNanchor_31_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a></p> - -<div class="sidenote">Voyages of Willem Barendszoon.</div> - -<p>The states-general then resolved to send another expedition to prosecute -the search for a passage, and on the 2nd of July 1595 seven ships sailed -from the Maas for that purpose under the leadership of the dauntless -Willem Barendszoon. There was another man in that fleet whose name -stands high on the roll of Dutch heroes, Jacob van Heemskerk, who went -on this occasion as supercargo of a ship of Amsterdam. But ice again -obstructed the passage, and having done all that was possible to get -through it, the explorers were compelled to put about and entered the -Maas on the 18th of November.</p> - -<p>Barendszoon was now of opinion that by sailing much farther north an -open sea might be found, and as several geographers and travellers of -note supported him in this view, the city of Amsterdam fitted out two -ships, in which he and Heemskerk sailed from Vlieland on the 18th of May -1596. On this occasion Barendszoon visited Spitzbergen and reached 80° -north latitude, but ice still blocked the road to China. One of the -ships then returned home, the other was frozen fast and wrecked on the -coast of Nova Zembla. The crew built a hut on the shore, and passed the -winter in it, living largely on Arctic foxes and using the skins for -clothing. In the spring they launched their two boats, in which they -fortunately reached a Russian settlement on<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_118" id="page_118"></a>{118}</span> the mainland, and -ultimately Heemskerk and eleven others reached the Maas, 29th of October -1597. Brave Willem Barendszoon died of exhaustion on the journey. In our -own time the hut on Nova Zembla was found intact, having stood nearly -three centuries on the frozen shore, and the relics it contained are now -preserved in the national museum.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>When the first of these expeditions had failed, and while the result of -the second was still unknown, some merchants of Amsterdam fitted out a -fleet of four vessels, which in the year 1595 sailed to India by way of -the Cape of Good Hope. Before this date, however, a few Netherlanders -had visited the eastern seas in the Portuguese service, and among them -was one in particular whose writings had great influence at that period -and for more than half a century afterwards.</p> - -<p>Jan Huyghen van Linschoten was born at Haarlem, in the province of -Holland. He received a good general education, but from an early age he -gave himself up with ardour to the special study of geography and -history, and eagerly read such books of travel as were within his reach. -In 1579 he obtained permission from his parents, who were then residing -at Enkhuizen, to proceed to Seville, where his two elder brothers were -pushing their fortunes. He was at Seville when the cardinal king -Henrique of Portugal died, leaving the succession to the throne in -dispute. The duke of Alva with a strong Spanish army won it for his -master, and shortly afterwards Linschoten removed to Lisbon, where he -was a clerk in a merchant’s office when Philippe made his triumphal -entry and when Alva died.</p> - -<p>Two years later he entered the service of a Dominican friar, by name -Vicente da Fonseca, who had been appointed by Philippe primate of India, -the see of Goa having been raised to an archbishopric in 1557. In April -1583 with his employer he sailed from Lisbon, and after touching at -Mozambique—where he remained from the 5th to the 20th of August, -diligently seeking information on that part of the world—he arrived at -Goa in September of the same year.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_119" id="page_119"></a>{119}</span> He remained in India until January -1589. When returning to Europe in the ship <i>Santa Cruz</i> from Cochin, he -passed through a quantity of wreckage from the ill-fated <i>São Thomé</i>, -which had sailed from the same port five days before he left, and he -visited several islands in the Atlantic, at one of which—Terceira—he -was detained a long time. He reached Lisbon again in January 1592, and -eight months later rejoined his family at Enkhuizen, after an absence of -nearly thirteen years.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Work of Jan Huyghen van Linschoten.</div> - -<p>Early in 1595 the first of Linschoten’s books was published, in which an -account is given of the sailing directions followed by the Portuguese in -their navigation of the eastern waters, drawn from the treatises of -their most experienced pilots. This work shows the highest knowledge of -navigation that Europeans had then acquired. They had still no better -instrument for determining latitudes than the astrolabe and the cross -staff, and no means whatever for ascertaining longitudes other than by -dead reckoning. The vicinity of the Cape of Good Hope was known by the -appearance of the sea-birds called Cape pigeons and the great drifting -plants that are yet to be seen any day on the shores of the Cape -peninsula. The different kinds of ground that adhered to the tallow of -the sounding leads to some extent indicated the position, as did also -the variation of the magnetic needle, but whether a ship was fifty or a -hundred nautical miles from any given point could not be ascertained by -either of these means. When close to the shore, however, the position -was known by the appearance of the land, the form of the hills and -mountains, and the patches of sand and thicket, all of which had been -carefully delineated and laid down in the sailing directions.</p> - -<p>Linschoten’s first book was followed in 1596 by a description of the -Indies, and by several geographical treatises drawn from Portuguese -sources, all profusely illustrated with maps and plates. Of Mozambique -an ample account was given from personal observation and inquiry. Dom<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_120" id="page_120"></a>{120}</span> -Pedro de Castro had just been succeeded as captain by Nuno Velho -Pereira, who informed the archbishop that in his three years’ term of -office he would realise a fortune of about nine tons of gold, or £75,000 -sterling, derived chiefly from the trade in the precious metal carried -on at Sofala and in the territory of the monomotapa. Fort São Sebastio -had then no other garrison than the servants and attendants of the -captain, in addition to whom there were only forty or at most fifty -Portuguese and half-breed male residents on the island capable of -assisting in its defence. There were three or four hundred huts occupied -by negroes, some of whom were professed Christians, others Mohamedans, -and still others heathens. The exports to India were gold, ivory, -ambergris, ebony, and slaves. African slaves, being much stronger in -body than the natives of Hindostan, were used to perform the hardest and -coarsest work in the eastern possessions of Portugal, and—though -Linschoten does not state this—they were employed in considerable -numbers in the trading ships to relieve the European seamen from the -heavy labour of pumping, hauling, stowing and unstowing cargo, -cleansing, and so forth. These slaves were chiefly procured from the -lands to the northward, and very few, if any of them, were obtained in -the country south of the Zambesi.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>It serves to show how carefully and minutely Linschoten elicited -information at Mozambique, that he mentions a harbour on the coast which -is not named by any of the Portuguese writers of the time except Dos -Santos, whose book was not then published, and who only refers to it -incidentally, though it is now known to be the best port between -Inhambane and the Zambesi. This is Beira, as at present termed, then -known to the sailors of the pangayos that traded to the southward as -Porto Bango. Linschoten gives its latitude as 19½°, half a league north -of Sofala. He mentions also Delagoa Bay, that is the present Algoa Bay, -and gives its latitude as 33½°. He describes the monsoons of the Indian -ocean, and states that ships<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_121" id="page_121"></a>{121}</span> from Portugal availed themselves of these -periodical winds by waiting at Mozambique until the 1st of August, and -never leaving after the middle of September, thus securing a safe and -easy passage to the coast of Hindostan.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">First Voyage of the Dutch to India.</div> - -<p>He frequently refers to the gold of Sofala and the country of the -monomotapa, of which he had heard just such reports as Vasco da Gama had -eagerly listened to eighty-six years before. Yet he did not magnify the -importance of these rumours as the Portuguese had done, though it was -mainly from his writings that his countrymen became possessed of that -spirit of cupidity which induced them a few years later to make -strenuous efforts to become masters of South-Eastern Africa.</p> - -<p>Linschoten’s treatises were collected and published in a single large -volume, and the work was at once received as a text-book, a position -which its merits entitled it to occupy. The most defective portion of -the whole is that referring to South Africa: and for this reason, that -it was then impossible to get any correct information about the interior -of the continent below the Zambesi west of the part frequented by the -Portuguese. Linschoten himself saw no more of it than a fleeting glimpse -of False Cape afforded on his outward passage, and his description was -of necessity based upon the faulty maps of the geographers of his time, -so that it was full of errors. But his account of India and of the way -to reach its several ports was so correct that it could serve the -purpose of a guide-book, and his treatise on the mode of navigation by -the Portuguese was thus used by the commander of the first Dutch fleet -that appeared in the eastern seas.</p> - -<p>The four vessels which left Texel on the 2nd of April 1595 were under -the general direction of an officer named Cornelis Houtman. In the -afternoon of the 2nd of August the Cape of Good Hope was seen, and next -day, after passing Agulhas, the fleet kept close to the land, the little -<i>Duifke</i> sailing in front and looking for a harbour. On the 4th the bay -called by the Portuguese Agoada de São Bras<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_122" id="page_122"></a>{122}</span> was discovered, and as the -Duifke found good holding ground in nine or ten fathoms of water, the -<i>Mauritius</i>, <i>Hollandia</i>, and <i>Amsterdam</i> entered and dropped their -anchors.<a name="FNanchor_32_32" id="FNanchor_32_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a></p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>Here the fleet remained until the 11th, when sail was again set for the -East. During the interval a supply of fresh water was taken in, and some -oxen and sheep were purchased from the inhabitants for knives, old -tools, and pieces of iron. The Europeans were surprised to find the -sheep covered with hair instead of wool, and with enormous tails of pure -fat. No women or habitations were seen. The appearance of the -Hottentots, their clothing, their assagais, their method of making a -fire by twirling a piece of wood rapidly round in the socket of another -piece, their filthiness in eating, and the clicking of their language, -are all correctly described; but it was surmised that they were -cannibals, because they were observed to eat the half-raw intestines of -animals, and a fable commonly believed in Europe was repeated concerning -their mutilation in a peculiar manner of the bodies of conquered -enemies. The intercourse with the few Hottentots seen was friendly, -though at times each suspected the other of evil intentions.</p> - -<p>A chart of the inlet was made,<a name="FNanchor_33_33" id="FNanchor_33_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a> from which it is seen to be the one -now called Mossel Bay. A little island in it was covered with seals and -penguins, some of each of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_123" id="page_123"></a>{123}</span> which were killed and eaten. The variation of -the compass was observed to be so trifling that the needle might be said -to point to the north.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Account by John Davis.</div> - -<p>From the watering place of São Bras Houtman continued his voyage, and -reached Sumatra safely. He next visited Bantam in the island of Java, -where, owing to the influence of Portuguese traders, he and several of -his attendants were made prisoners and were only released on payment of -a ransom of £400. Some other ports of Java were visited, as were also -Madura and Bali, and a small quantity of spice was purchased, but there -were many quarrels and some combats with the natives. So many men died -that it was necessary to burn the <i>Amsterdam</i>, which ship was much -decayed, and strengthen the crews of the other three vessels. Houtman -then left to return home, and reached Texel on the 14th of August 1597, -after an absence of over twenty-eight months.</p> - -<p>Financially the first venture of the Dutch to the Indies was not a -success, but the spirit of enterprise was excited by it, and immediately -trading companies began to be formed in different towns of Holland and -Zeeland, and fleets were fitted out with the object of opening up an -eastern trade. It will not be necessary to give an account of all these -companies, but mention must be made of some of the fleets.</p> - -<p>On the 15th of March 1598 two ships, the <i>Leeuw</i> and the <i>Leeuwin</i>, -sailed from Vlissingen under command of Cornelis Houtman. In the <i>Leeuw</i> -the famous English seaman John Davis was chief pilot, that is sailing -master. They put into the watering place of Saldanha for refreshment, -where Davis, in his account of the voyage, says that the Hottentots fell -by surprise upon the men who were ashore bartering cattle, and killed -thirteen of them. In his narrative Davis says that at Cape Agulhas the -magnetic needle was without variation, but in his sailing directions, -written after another voyage to India, he says: “At False Cape there is -no variation that I can find by observing<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_124" id="page_124"></a>{124}</span> south from it. The variation -of Cape Agulhas is thirty minutes from north to west. And at the Cape of -Good Hope the compass is varied from north to east five and twenty -minutes.” At Atchin about a hundred and fifty tons of pepper were -purchased and taken in, but on the 1st of September 1599 a party of -Sumatrans went on board the two ships and suddenly drew their weapons -and murdered Cornelis Houtman and many others. In both ships they were -ultimately driven off with heavy loss. Some men were on shore at the -time, and they also were attacked, when eight were made prisoners and -the others were killed. Altogether sixty white men lost their lives on -this occasion. There was no further attempt to trade or to explore, and -after a voyage marked by loss the expedition reached home again on the -29th of July 1600.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>On the 1st of May 1598 Jacob van Nek sailed from Texel with six large -ships and two yachts. Second in command was Wybrand van Waerwyk, and -third in rank was Jacob van Heemskerk, who had only returned from his -terrible sojourn in the polar sea six months before. This voyage was an -eminently successful one. Four of the ships were speedily sent home -fully laden with pepper and valuable spices obtained at Bantam; two -others purchased cargoes at Banda, and when they sailed left twenty men -behind with money and goods to trade until the arrival of another fleet; -and the remaining two procured cargoes at Ternate, and left six men -there to trade when they sailed. All reached home in safety, with the -most valuable cargoes that had ever entered a Netherlands port.</p> - -<p>On the 13th of September 1598 Olivier van Noort sailed from Goeree with -two ships and two yachts, having in all two hundred and forty-eight -souls on board, with the intention of ascertaining whether a western -route to India would not be preferable to that round the Cape of Good -Hope. It was necessary to burn one of the yachts on the passage, and one -of the ships parted company after passing through the straits of -Magellan and was<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_125" id="page_125"></a>{125}</span> never seen again. On the western coast of South -America Van Noort destroyed several trading vessels, and then set his -course for Manilla. Off that harbour, on the 14th of December 1600, two -large galleons attacked him, when the yacht <i>Eendracht</i> sailed away, -drawing one of the galleons in pursuit. The <i>Mauritius</i> engaged the -other, and after a stubborn combat succeeded in sinking her. As she was -going down some two hundred men jumped overboard, but instead of -attempting to rescue them, the crew of the <i>Mauritius</i> pushed those who -swam alongside their ship underneath the water with poles. After the -engagement there were only forty-eight men left in the Dutch ship. The -yacht escaped, and reached Ternate, from which island her crew proceeded -to Bantam. Van Noort continued his westward course, and was the first -Netherlander to sail round the world. He reached Rotterdam on the 12th -of August 1601.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">The First Dutch Fort in India.</div> - -<p>On the 26th of April 1599 Stephen van der Hagen sailed from Texel with -three ships, the <i>Zon</i>, the <i>Maan</i>, and the <i>Morgen Ster</i>. The people of -Amboina were then at war with the Portuguese, and Van der Hagen entered -into an agreement with their ruler to assist him in return for a -monopoly of the sale of cloves at a fixed price. In accordance with this -agreement, in September 1600 under Van der Hagen’s direction a fort was -built at Amboina, and when he sailed he left twenty-seven Dutch -volunteers under Jan Dirkszoon Sonneberg to aid in guarding it.</p> - -<p>No fresh discoveries on the African coast were made by any of the fleets -sent out at this time, but to some of the bays new names were given.</p> - -<p>In December 1599 four ships fitted out by an association at Amsterdam -calling itself the New Brabant Company sailed from Texel for the Indies, -under command of Pieter Both. Two of them returned early in 1601, -leaving the <i>Vereenigde Landen</i> and the <i>Hof van Holland</i> under charge -of Paulus van Caerden to follow as soon as they could<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_126" id="page_126"></a>{126}</span> obtain cargoes. -On the 8th of July 1601 Van Caerden put into the watering place of São -Bras on the South African coast, for the purpose of repairing one of his -ships which was in a leaky condition. The commander, with twenty -soldiers, went a short distance inland to endeavour to find people from -whom he could obtain some cattle, but though he came across a party of -eight individuals he did not succeed in getting any oxen or sheep. A -supply of fresh water was taken in, but no refreshment except mussels -could be procured, on account of which Van Caerden gave the inlet the -name Mossel Bay, which it has ever since retained.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>On the 14th the <i>Hof van Holland</i> having been repaired, the two ships -sailed, but two days later, as they were making no progress against a -head wind, they put into another bay. Here some Hottentots were found, -from whom the voyagers obtained for pieces of iron as many horned cattle -and sheep as they could consume fresh or had salt to preserve. For this -reason the commander gave it the name Flesh Bay.</p> - -<p>On the 21st sail was set, but the <i>Hof van Holland</i> being found leaky -again, on the 23rd another bay was entered, where her damages were -repaired. On account of a westerly gale the ships were detained here -until the 30th, when they sailed, but finding the wind contrary outside, -they returned to anchor. No inhabitants were seen, but the commander -visited a river near by, where he encountered a party from whom he -obtained five sheep in exchange for bits of iron. In the river were -numerous hippopotami. Abundance of fine fish having been secured here, -the commander gave the inlet the name Fish Bay.</p> - -<p>On the 2nd of August the ships sailed, and on the 27th passed the Cape -of Good Hope, to the great joy of all on board, who had begun to fear -that they might be detained much longer on the eastern side by adverse -winds.</p> - -<p>On the 5th of May 1601 a fleet of three vessels, named the <i>Ram</i>, the -<i>Schaap</i>, and the <i>Lam</i>, sailed for the Indies<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_127" id="page_127"></a>{127}</span> from Vere in Zeeland, -under command of Joris van Spilbergen. On the 15th of November the fleet -put into St. Helena Bay, where no inhabitants were seen, though smoke -rising from many fires was observed inland. The only refreshment -procurable was fish, which were caught in great quantities.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Naming of Table Bay.</div> - -<p>On the 20th Spilbergen sailed from St. Helena Bay, and beating against a -head wind, in the evening of the 28th he anchored off an island, to -which he gave the name Elizabeth. Four years later Sir Edward -Michelburne termed it Cony Island, which name, under the Dutch form of -Dassen, it still bears. Seals in great numbers, sea-birds of different -kinds, and conies were found. At this place he remained only twenty-four -hours. On the 2nd of December he cast anchor close to another island, -which he named Cornelia. It was the Robben Island of the present day. -Here were found seals and penguins in great numbers, but no conies. The -next day at noon Spilbergen reached the watering place of Saldanha, the -anchorage in front of Table Mountain, and gave it the name Table Bay, -which it still bears.</p> - -<p>The sick were conveyed to land, where a hospital was established. A few -inhabitants were met, to whom presents of beads were made, and who were -understood to make signs that they would bring cattle for sale, but they -went away and did not return. Abundance of fish was obtained with a -seine at the mouth of a stream which Spilbergen named the Jacqueline, -now Salt River; but, as meat was wanted, the smallest of the vessels was -sent to Elizabeth Island, where a great number of penguins and conies -were killed and salted in. The fleet remained in Table Bay until the -23rd of December. When passing Cornelia Island, a couple of conies were -set on shore, and seven or eight sheep, which had been left there by -some previous voyagers, were shot, and their carcases taken on board. -Off the Cape of Good Hope the two French ships of which mention has been -made were seen.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_128" id="page_128"></a>{128}</span></p> - -<p>Spilbergen kept along the coast, noticing the formation of the land and -the numerous streams falling into the sea, but was sorely hindered in -his progress by the Agulhas current, which was found setting so strong -to the south-westward that at times he could make no way against it even -with the breeze in his favour. On the 17th of January 1602, owing to -this cause, he stood off from the coast, and did not see it again.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>On the 23rd of April 1601 Wolfert Hermanszoon sailed for the Indies with -a fleet of five ships. On reaching Palembang in Sumatra he learned from -the Chinese crew of a trading vessel that a Portuguese fleet of eight -large galleons and twenty-two smaller ships, under André Furtado de -Mendoça, was besieging Bantam with a view of punishing its ruler for -having traded with the Dutch. Mendoça was a man of renown in the -East,<a name="FNanchor_34_34" id="FNanchor_34_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a> having been a successful commander in many wars, and his force -was apparently so enormous in comparison with that under Hermanszoon -that at first sight it would seem foolhardy to contend with it. But the -Sea Beggars were not given to be afraid of anything on their own -element, and they realised the importance of relieving Bantam and -establishing their reputation for valour in the eyes of the Indian -rulers. Accordingly Hermanszoon prepared his ships for action, sailed to -Bantam, and on the 25th of December 1601 boldly attacked the great -galleons.</p> - -<p>It was soon seen that the battle was not such an unequal one after all. -Mendoça had eight hundred Portuguese soldiers in his fleet, but the -crews of his ships were all lascars or slaves, who were almost useless -in battle. Hermanszoon could choose his position, deliver his fire, and -then stand off and prepare for another attack. His ships, clumsy as they -would appear to our eyes, were to those of the Portuguese like what -modern gunboats under steam would be to three-deckers of the last -century. At<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_129" id="page_129"></a>{129}</span> nightfall Mendoça drew his ships close together under an -island, and arranged them to act as a great fort. On the 26th the -weather was stormy, so that nothing could be done. On the 27th -Hermanszoon attacked again, and succeeded in overmastering and burning -two of the smaller ships of war after nearly every one on board was -killed. Mendoça used three more of his frigates as fire ships, but the -Dutch vessels were too swift for him and were out of harm’s way before -they exploded. He did not wait to be attacked again, and on the morning -of the 28th his armada was seen to be in full flight and Bantam was -relieved.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Success of the Dutch at Bantam.</div> - -<p>The Dutch were received with transports of joy by the ruler and people -of the place, and a commercial treaty greatly to their advantage was -entered into. At Banda also a similar treaty was concluded. When -returning home, a Portuguese carrack or freight ship of the largest -size, with a valuable cargo on board, was captured off St. Helena, so -that the voyage was a very profitable one.</p> - -<p>Mendoça, after his flight from Bantam, directed his course to Amboina, -where he inflicted heavy punishment upon the natives for trading with -the Dutch, and cut down all the clove trees in the neighbourhood of the -principal town. He then placed a garrison in the fort there, and took -his departure.</p> - -<p>Jacob van Heemskerk left Holland in company with Hermanszoon on the 23rd -of April 1601 on his second voyage to India as admiral of a fleet of -eight ships. In June 1603 he captured a carrack very richly laden with -silk, porcelain, and other Chinese productions, on her way from Macao to -Malacca. A few weeks later another carrack similarly laden was captured -at Macao without resistance by a fleet under Cornelis van Veen.</p> - -<p>Altogether between 1595 and 1602 sixty-five ships sailed from Holland -and Zeeland for India, of which only fifty-four returned. By this time -it had become evident that large armed fleets were necessary to secure -safety and to cope with the Portuguese there if a permanent trade was<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_130" id="page_130"></a>{130}</span> -to be established. The rivalry too between the little companies was -raising the price of spices so greatly in the East and lowering it in -Europe that it was feared there would soon be no profit left. For these -reasons, and to conduct the Indian trade in a manner the most beneficial -to the people of the whole republic, the states-general resolved to -unite all the small trading associations in one great company with many -privileges and large powers. The first step to this end was to -amalgamate the various companies in each town, and when this was -effected, to bring them all under one directorate. The charter, or terms -upon which the consolidated Company came into existence, was dated at -the Hague on the 20th of March 1602, and contained forty-six clauses, -the principal of which were as follows:—</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>All of the inhabitants of the United Netherlands had the right given to -them to subscribe to the capital in as small or as large sums as they -might choose, with this proviso, that if more money should be tendered -than was needed, those applying for shares of over two thousand five -hundred pounds sterling should receive less, so that the applicants for -smaller shares might have the full amounts asked for allotted to them.</p> - -<p>The chambers, or offices for the transaction of business, were to -participate in the following proportion: that of Amsterdam one-half, -that of Middelburg in Zeeland one-quarter, those of Delft and Rotterdam, -otherwise called of the Maas, together one-eighth, and those of Hoorn -and Enkhuizen, otherwise called those of the North Quarter or sometimes -those of North Holland and West Friesland, together the remaining -eighth.</p> - -<p>The general directory was to consist of seventeen persons, eight of whom -were to represent the chamber of Amsterdam, four that of Middelburg, two -those of the Maas, two those of the North Quarter, and the seventeenth -was to be chosen alternately by all of these except the chamber of -Amsterdam. The place of meeting of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_131" id="page_131"></a>{131}</span> general directory was fixed at -Amsterdam for six successive years, then at Middelburg for two years, -then at Amsterdam again for six years, and so on.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Charter of the East India Company.</div> - -<p>The directors of each chamber were named in the charter, being the -individuals who were the directors of the companies previously -established in those towns, and it was provided that no others should be -appointed until these should be reduced by death or resignation: in the -chamber of Amsterdam to twenty persons, in that of Zeeland to twelve, -and in those of Delft, Rotterdam, Hoorn, and Enkhuizen each to seven. -After that, whenever a vacancy should occur, the remaining directors -were to nominate three qualified individuals, of whom the states of the -province in which the chamber was situated were to select one.</p> - -<p>To qualify an individual to be a director in the chambers of the North -Quarter it was necessary to own shares to the value of £250 sterling, -and double that amount to be a director in any of the other chambers. -The directors were to be bound by oath to be faithful in the -administration of the duties entrusted to them, and not to favour a -majority of the shareholders at the expense of a minority. Directors -were prohibited from selling anything whatever to the Company without -previously obtaining the sanction of the states provincial or the -authorities of the city in which the chamber that they represented was -situated.</p> - -<p>All inhabitants of the United Provinces other than this Company were -prohibited from trading beyond the Straits of Magellan, or to the -eastward of the Cape of Good Hope, during the period of twenty-one -years, for which the charter was granted, under penalty of forfeiture of -ship and cargo. Within these limits the East India Company was empowered -to enter into treaties and make contracts in the name of the -states-general, to build fortresses, to appoint governors, military -commanders, judges, and other necessary officers, who were all, however, -to take oaths of fidelity to the states-general or high<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_132" id="page_132"></a>{132}</span> authorities of -the Netherlands, who were not to be prevented from making complaints to -the states-general, and whose appointments were to be reported to the -states-general for confirmation.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>For these privileges the Company was to pay £12,500 sterling, which -amount the states-general subscribed towards the capital, for the profit -and at the risk of the general government of the provinces. The capital -was nominally furnished in the following proportions: Amsterdam -one-half, Zeeland one-fourth, the Maas one-eighth, and the North Quarter -one-eighth; but in reality it was contributed as under:—</p> - - -<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary=""> -<tr><td> </td><td> </td><td class="c">£</td><td class="c"><i>s.</i></td> -<td class="c"><i>d.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td colspan="2">Amsterdam</td><td class="rt">307,202</td><td class="rt">10</td><td class="rt">0</td></tr> -<tr><td colspan="2">Zeeland</td><td class="rt">106,304</td><td class="rt">10</td><td class="rt">0</td></tr> -<tr><td rowspan="2" valign="middle">The Maas</td><td class="bl">Delft</td><td class="rt">38,880</td><td class="rt">3</td><td class="rt">4</td></tr> -<tr><td class="bl">Rotterdam</td><td class="rt">14,546</td><td class="rt">16</td><td class="rt">8</td></tr> -<tr><td> </td></tr> -<tr><td rowspan="2" valign="middle">The North Quarter</td><td class="bl"> Hoorn</td><td class="rt">22,369</td><td class="rt">3</td><td class="rt">4</td></tr> -<tr><td class="bl">Enkhuizen</td><td class="rt">47,380</td><td class="rt">3</td><td class="rt">4</td></tr> -<tr><td colspan="2">Total working capital</td> -<td class="rtt">536,683</td> -<td class="rtt">6</td> -<td class="rtt">8</td></tr> -<tr><td colspan="2">The share of the states-general</td><td> 12,500</td><td class="rt">0</td><td class="rt">0</td></tr> -<tr><td colspan="2">Total nominal capital</td> -<td class="rtt">549,183</td> -<td class="rtt">6</td> -<td class="rtt">8</td></tr> -</table> - - -<p>The capital was divided into shares of £250 sterling each. The shares, -often sub-divided into fractions, were negotiable like any other -property, and rose or fell in value according to the position of the -Company at any time.</p> - -<p>The advantage which the State derived from the establishment of this -great association was apparent. The sums received in payment of import -dues would have been contributed to an equal extent by individual -traders. The amounts paid for the renewal of the charter—in 1647 the -Company paid £133,333 6<i>s.</i> 8<i>d.</i> for its renewal for twenty-five years, -and still larger sums were paid subsequently—might have been derived -from trading licenses. The Company frequently aided the Republic with -loans of large amount when the State was in temporary need,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_133" id="page_133"></a>{133}</span> but loans -could then have been raised in the modern method whenever necessary. -Apart from these services, however, there was one supreme advantage -gained by the creation of the East India Company which could not have -been obtained from individual traders. A powerful navy was called into -existence, great armed fleets working in unison and subject to the same -control were always ready to assist the State. What must otherwise have -been an element of weakness, a vast number of merchant ships scattered -over the ocean and ready to fall a prey to an enemy’s cruisers, was -turned into a bulwark of strength.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Influence of Amsterdam.</div> - -<p>In course of time several modifications took place in the constitution -of the Company, and the different provinces as well as various cities -were granted the privilege of having representatives in one or other of -the chambers. Thus the provinces Gelderland, Utrecht, and Friesland, and -the cities Dordrecht, Haarlem, Leiden, and Gouda had each a -representative in the chamber of Amsterdam; Groningen had a -representative in the chamber of Zeeland; Overyssel one in the chamber -of Delft, &c. The object of this was to make the Company represent the -whole Republic.</p> - -<p>Notwithstanding such regulations, however, the city of Amsterdam soon -came to exercise an immoderate influence in the direction. In 1672 it -was estimated that shares equal to three-fourths of the whole capital -were owned there, and of the twenty-five directors of the local chamber, -eighteen were chosen by the burgomasters of the city. Fortunately, the -charter secured to the other chambers a stated proportion of patronage -and trade.</p> - -<p>Such was the constitution of the Company which set itself the task of -destroying the Portuguese power in the East and securing for itself the -lucrative spice trade. It had no difficulty in obtaining as many men as -were needed, for the German states—not then as now united in one great -empire—formed an almost inexhaustible reservoir<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_134" id="page_134"></a>{134}</span> to draw soldiers from, -and the Dutch seaports, together with Norway, Sweden, and Denmark, -furnished an adequate supply of excellent seamen. It sent out strong and -well-armed fleets, capable of meeting any force the enemy had to oppose -them, and of driving him from the open seas.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>The first of these fleets was sent out in two divisions, one of three -large ships, under Sebald de Weert, which sailed on the 31st of March -1602, and the other of eleven large ships and a yacht, under Wybrand van -Waerwyk, which followed on the 17th of June. Sebald de Weert directed -his course to the island of Ceylon, and cast anchor in the harbour of -Batticaloa on the eastern shore. The maharaja of Kandy was then the most -powerful ruler in the island, and was at war with the Portuguese. -Spilbergen had been to visit him, and now De Weert followed, he and his -attendants riding inland on elephants. He was received with great state -by the maharaja and the people. An agreement was made of close -friendship and commercial intercourse, and a plan of operations against -the Portuguese was arranged. De Weert returned to Batticaloa, and -proceeded to Atchin for assistance, from which place he came back with -seven ships.</p> - -<p>But now a great blunder was made. No meat was to be purchased, and as -some cows were seen a party of men went ashore and shot them, in -absolute ignorance of the Buddhist belief in the transmigration of souls -and the commandment not to take life.<a name="FNanchor_35_35" id="FNanchor_35_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a> Full payment was offered, but -was indignantly refused, and a complete revulsion of feeling towards the -Dutch took place. De Weert could not imagine the cause of this, but -prepared to give the maharaja, who was on his way to the coast, a -splendid reception on board his ship. Meantime four Portuguese vessels -were captured, and their crews were<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_135" id="page_135"></a>{135}</span> released and sent away. One of the -maharaja’s sons was a prisoner in the hands of the Portuguese, and he -thought to obtain his liberty in exchange for the Portuguese officers. -When the captives were released without an exchange having been effected -the prince’s rage knew no bounds. On the 1st of June 1603 De Weert and -forty-six others went ashore unsuspicious of danger, when they were -suddenly attacked by the maharaja’s order, and all were put to death. -This ended commercial intercourse for a time, but in 1610 another treaty -of friendship was entered into with the ruler of Kandy.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Establishment at Bantam.</div> - -<p>Wybrand van Waerwyk with the principal division of the fleet cast anchor -before Bantam in the island of Java, and in August 1603 concluded an -arrangement with the sultan for the establishment of a permanent factory -or trading station in that town. A strong stone building was procured -for the purpose, goods were landed and stored, and an officer named -François Wittert was placed in charge with a staff of assistants. This -factory at Bantam was for several years thereafter regarded as the -principal establishment of the Dutch in India. Another, but much smaller -one, was soon afterwards formed at Grésik in the same island.</p> - -<p>Though the Dutch were soon in almost undisputed possession of the -valuable Spice islands, they were never able to eject the Portuguese -from the comparatively worthless coast of South-Eastern Africa. That -coast would only have been an encumbrance to them, if they had secured -it, for its commerce was never worth much more than the cost of its -maintenance until the highlands of the interior were occupied by -Europeans, and the terrible mortality caused by its malaria would have -been a serious misfortune to them. It was out of their ocean highway -too, for they steered across south of Madagascar, instead of keeping -along the African shore. But they were drawn on by rumours of the gold -which was to be had, and so they resolved to make themselves masters of -Mozambique,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_136" id="page_136"></a>{136}</span> and with that island of all the Portuguese possessions -subordinate to it. In Lisbon their intentions were suspected, and in -January 1601 the king issued instructions that Dom Alvaro d’Abranches, -Nuno da Cunha’s successor as captain of Mozambique, was on no account to -absent himself from the island, as it might at any time be attacked by -either the Turks or the Dutch.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>On the 18th of December 1603 Steven van der Hagen left Holland for India -with a strong armed fleet, consisting of the <i>Vereenigde Provincien</i>, -<i>Amsterdam</i>, <i>Dordrecht</i>, <i>Hoorn</i>, and <i>West Friesland</i>, each of three -hundred and fifty tons burden, the <i>Gelderland</i> and <i>Zeelandia</i>, each of -two hundred and fifty tons, the <i>Hof van Holland</i>, of one hundred and -eighty tons, the <i>Delft</i> and <i>Enkhuizen</i>, each of one hundred and fifty -tons, the <i>Medenblik</i>, of one hundred and twenty-five tons, and a -despatch boat named the <i>Duifken</i>, of thirty tons burden. In those days -such a fleet was regarded as, and actually was, a very formidable force, -for though there were no ships in it of the size of the great galleons -of Spain and Portugal, each one was much less unwieldy, and had its -artillery better placed. There were twelve hundred men on board, and the -equipment cost no less than £184,947 6<i>s.</i> 8<i>d.</i></p> - -<p>Van der Hagen arrived before Mozambique on the 17th of June 1604. Fort -São Sebastião had not at the time its ordinary garrison of one hundred -soldiers, owing to a disaster that had recently occurred. A great horde -of barbarians, called the Cabires by the Portuguese, had entered the -territory of the monomotapa, and were laying it waste, so the captain -Lourenço de Brito went to the assistance of the Kalanga chief, but was -defeated and lost ten or twelve Portuguese and part of his stores. -Sebastião de Macedo was then in command at Mozambique. He sent a vessel -with fifty soldiers to De Brito’s assistance, but on the passage she was -lost with all on board. None had yet arrived to replace them, but the -resident inhabitants of the island had retired to the fort with<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_137" id="page_137"></a>{137}</span> -everything of value that they could remove, so Van der Hagen considered -it too strong to be attacked and therefore proceeded to blockade it. -There was a carrack at anchor, waiting for some others from Lisbon to -sail in company to Goa. The boats of the Dutch fleet cut her out, in -spite of the heavy fire of the fort upon them. She had on board a -quantity of ivory collected at Sofala and other places on the East -African coast, but nothing else of much value.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">First Siege of Mozambique.</div> - -<p>On the 30th of June a small vessel from one of the factories, laden with -rice and ivory, came running up to the island, and was too near to -escape when she discovered her danger. She was turned into a tender, and -named the <i>Mozambique</i>. Then, for five weeks, the blockade continued, -without any noteworthy incident. On the 5th of August five pangayos -arrived, laden with rice and millet, and were of course seized. Three -days later Van der Hagen landed on the island with one hundred and fifty -men, but found no sign of hunger, and saw that the prospect of the -surrender of the fort was remote. He did no other damage than setting -fire to a single house, and as night drew on he returned on board.</p> - -<p>He was now anxious to proceed to India, so on the 12th of August he set -fire to the captured carrack, and sailed, leaving the <i>Delft</i>, -<i>Enkhuizen</i>, and <i>Duifken</i>, to wait for the ships expected from Lisbon. -These vessels rejoined him, but without having made any prizes, soon -after his arrival at Amboina, which was assigned as the place of -meeting. He then attacked the Portuguese fort on that island, which was -surrendered to him on the 23rd of February 1605. Having placed a Dutch -garrison in the fort, and thus secured possession of this valuable -island, he sailed to Tidor, where the Portuguese had a fortress. This -stronghold he gained in May 1605, but in March 1606 it was recovered by -the Portuguese, who at the same time overran a great part of the island -of Ternate, where Van der Hagen had obtained trading<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_138" id="page_138"></a>{138}</span> privileges. In -1605 a factory was also established by the Dutch on the island of Banda.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>On the 12th of May 1605 Cornelis Matelief sailed with eleven ships for -India. One of the most important strongholds of the Portuguese in the -East was Malacca, as it commanded the navigation of the strait of the -same name. Matelief entered into a treaty with the sultan of Johor at -the southern extremity of the Malay peninsula, and with his assistance -endeavoured to obtain possession of the stronghold, which was bravely -defended by André Furtado de Mendoça. The first blockade of Malacca -lasted four months, and ended by Matelief’s being obliged to retire from -a very superior naval force sent from Goa. The second blockade was -shorter, but though seven Portuguese ships were taken and five hundred -Portuguese soldiers were killed, it was unsuccessful. At Amboina, -Matelief strengthened the garrison of the Dutch fort, and gave the -soldiers and sailors there permission to marry native women. He did not -get possession of the Portuguese castle on Ternate, but he built Fort -Orange on another part of the island, and left an effective garrison in -it.</p> - -<p>On the 28th of January 1608 Matelief sailed from Bantam in the <i>Oranje</i> -to return home. On the 12th of April he put into Table Bay, as he was -badly in want of meat, and hoped to obtain as much as he needed here. In -this he succeeded, for he bartered thirty-four oxen, five calves, and a -hundred and seventy-three sheep from the Hottentots for pieces of old -iron hoop and rings, valued at less than a halfpenny for each animal. -His description of the Hottentots is one of the best of that time, and -is accurate in all its details. The greatest plague in Table Valley he -found to be the flies, which from this and other accounts appear to have -been even more troublesome then than they are to-day. On Robben Island -he killed about a hundred seals for the sake of their skins, and as he -had more sheep than<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_139" id="page_139"></a>{139}</span> he needed, he left twenty there to breed. He -remained in Table Bay longer than two months, and with a crew thoroughly -refreshed he set sail for Holland on the 22nd of June.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Second Siege of Mozambique.</div> - -<p>Another attempt to get possession of Mozambique was made in 1607. On the -29th of March of that year a Dutch fleet of eight large ships—the -<i>Banda</i>, <i>Bantam</i>, <i>Ceylon</i>, <i>Walcheren</i>, <i>Ter Veere</i>, <i>Zierikzee</i>, -<i>China</i>, and <i>Patane</i>,—carrying one thousand and sixty men, commanded -by Paulus van Caerden, appeared before the island. The Portuguese -historian of this event represents that the fortress was at the time -badly in want of repair, that it was insufficiently provided with -cannon, and that there were no artillerymen nor indeed regular soldiers -of any branch of the service in it, its defence being undertaken by -seventy male inhabitants of the town, who were the only persons on the -island capable of bearing arms. But this statement does not agree either -with the Dutch narrative or with the account given by Dos Santos, from -which it appears that there were between soldiers and residents of the -island one hundred and forty-five men in the fortress. It was commanded -by an officer—Dom Estevão d’Ataide by name—who deserves a place among -the bravest of his countrymen. He divided his force into four companies, -to each of which he gave a bastion in charge. To one, under Martim Gomes -de Carvalho, was committed the defence of the bastion São João, another, -under Antonio Monteiro Corte Real, had a similar charge in the bastion -Santo Antonio, the bastion Nossa Senhora was confided to the care of -André de Alpoim de Brito, while the bastion São Gabriel, which was the -one most exposed to assault on the land side and where the stoutest -resistance would have to be made, was entrusted to the company under -Diogo de Carvalho. The people of the town abandoned their houses and -hastily took shelter within the fortress, carrying their most valuable -effects with them. Van Caerden, in the <i>Banda</i>, led the way right under<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_140" id="page_140"></a>{140}</span> -the guns of São Sebastião to the anchorage, where the Sofala packet and -two carracks were lying. A heavy fire was opened on both sides, but, -though the ships were slightly damaged, as the ramparts were of great -height and the Portuguese guns could not be depressed to command the -Dutch position thoroughly, no one except the master of the <i>Ceylon</i> was -wounded. Two of the vessels at anchor were partly burned, but all were -made prizes after their crews had escaped to the shore.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>On the 1st of April Van Caerden landed with seven hundred men and seven -heavy guns, several of them twenty-eight-pounders, in order to lay siege -to Fort São Sebastião. The Portuguese set fire to the town, in order to -prevent their enemy from getting possession of spoil, though in this -object they were unsuccessful, as a heavy fall of rain extinguished the -flames before much damage was done. The Dutch commander took possession -of the abandoned buildings without opposition, and made the Dominican -convent his headquarters, lodging his people in the best houses. He -commenced at once making trenches in which the fortress could be -approached by men under shelter from its fire, and on the 6th his first -battery was completed. The blacks, excepting the able-bodied, being -considered an encumbrance by both combatants, D’Ataide expelled those -who were in the fort, and Van Caerden caused all who were within his -reach to be transported to the mainland.</p> - -<p>From the batteries, which were mere earthen mounds with level surfaces, -protected on the exposed sides with boxes, casks, and bags filled with -soil, a heavy fire was opened, by which the parapet of the bastion Santo -Antonio was broken down, but it was repaired at night by the defenders, -the women and others incapable of bearing arms giving assistance in this -labour. The musketeers on the walls, in return, caused some loss to -their opponents by shooting any who exposed themselves. The Portuguese -historian makes special mention of one Dutch officer in a<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_141" id="page_141"></a>{141}</span> suit of white -armour, who went about recklessly in full view, encouraging his men, and -apparently regardless of danger, until he was killed by a musket ball.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Second Siege of Mozambique.</div> - -<p>The trenches were at length within thirty paces of the bastion São -Gabriel, and a battery was constructed there, which could not be injured -by the cannon on the fortress owing to their great elevation, while from -it the walls could be battered with twenty-eight pound shot as long as -the artillerymen took care not to show themselves to the musketeers on -the ramparts. The Dutch commander then proposed a parley and D’Ataide -having consented, he demanded the surrender of the fortress. He stated -that the Portuguese could expect no assistance from either Europe or -India, as the mother country was exhausted and the viceroy Dom Martim -Affonso de Castro had been defeated in a naval engagement, besides which -nearly all the strongholds of the East were lost to them. It would -therefore be better to capitulate while it could be done in safety than -to expose the lives of the garrison to the fury of men who would carry -the place by storm. Further, even if the walls proved too massive for -cannon, hunger must soon reduce the fortress, as there could not be more -than three months’ provisions in it. The Portuguese replied with taunts -and bravado, and defied the besiegers to do their worst. They would have -no other intercourse with rebels, they said, than that of arms.</p> - -<p>During the night of the 17th some of the garrison made a sortie for the -purpose of destroying a drawbridge, which they effected, and then -retired, after having killed two men according to their own account, -though only having wounded one according to the Dutch statement. A -trench was now made close up to the wall of the bastion São Gabriel, and -was covered with movable shields of timber of such thickness that they -could not be destroyed by anything thrown upon them from the ramparts. -During the night of the 29th, however, the garrison made a<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_142" id="page_142"></a>{142}</span> second -sortie, in which they killed five Hollanders and wounded many more, and -on the following day they succeeded in destroying the wooden shields by -fire.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>In the meantime fever and dysentery had attacked Van Caerden’s people, -and the prospect was becoming gloomy in the extreme. The fire from the -batteries and ships had not damaged the walls of the fortress below the -parapet, and sickness was increasing so fast that the Dutch commander -could not wait for famine to give him the prize. He therefore resolved -to raise the siege, and on the 6th of May he removed his cannon.</p> - -<p>War between nations of different creeds in those days was carried on in -a merciless manner. On the 7th of May Van Caerden wrote to Captain -d’Ataide that he intended to burn and destroy all the churches, -convents, houses, and palm groves on the island and the buildings and -plantations on the mainland, unless they were ransomed; but offered to -make terms if messengers were sent to him with that object. A truce was -entered into for the purpose of correspondence, and six Hollanders -dressed in Spanish costume went with a letter to the foot of the wall, -where it was fastened to a string and drawn up. D’Ataide declined the -proposal, however, and replied that he had no instructions from his -superiors, nor intention of his own, except to do all that was possible -with his weapons. He believed that if he ransomed the town on this -occasion, he would only expose it to similar treatment every time a -strong Dutch fleet should pass that way.</p> - -<p>Van Caerden then burned all the boats, canoes, and houses, cut down all -the cocoa-nut trees, sent a party of men to the mainland, who destroyed -everything of value that they could reach there, and finally, just -before embarking he set fire to the Dominican convent and the church of -São Gabriel. What was more to be deplored, adds the Portuguese historian -Barbuda, “the perfidious heretics burned with abominable fury all the -images that<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_143" id="page_143"></a>{143}</span> were in the churches, after which they treated them with a -thousand barbarous indignities.” The walls of the great church and of -some other buildings were too massive to be destroyed by the flames, but -everything that was combustible was utterly ruined.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Retirement of Van Caerden.</div> - -<p>On the morning of the 16th of May, before daylight, the Dutch fleet set -sail. As the ships were passing Fort São Sebastião every gun that could -be got to bear was brought into use on both sides, when the <i>Zierikzee</i> -had her tiller shot away, and ran aground. Her crew and the most -valuable effects on board were rescued, however, by the boats of the -rest of the fleet, though many men were wounded by the fire from the -fort. The wreck was given to the flames.</p> - -<p>In the second attempt to get possession of Mozambique the Dutch lost -forty men, either killed by the enemy or carried off by fever, and they -took many sick and wounded away. The Portuguese asserted that they had -only thirteen men killed during the siege, and they magnified their -slain opponents to over three hundred.</p> - -<p>After his arrival in India Van Caerden obtained possession of a couple -of Portuguese forts of small importance, but on the 17th of September -1608 he was taken prisoner in a naval battle, and was long detained in -captivity.</p> - -<p>As soon as their opponents were out of sight of Mozambique the -Portuguese set about repairing the damage that had been done. In this -they were assisted by the crews of three ships, under command of Dom -Jeronymo Coutinho, that called on their way from Lisbon to Goa. The -batteries were removed, the trenches were levelled, the walls of the -ruined Dominican convent were broken down, and the fortress was repaired -and provided with a good supply of food and munitions of war. Its -garrison also was strengthened with one hundred soldiers landed from the -ships. The inhabitants of the town returned to the ruins of their former -habitations, and endeavoured to make new homes for themselves. These -efforts to<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_144" id="page_144"></a>{144}</span> retrieve their disasters had hardly been made when the -island was attacked by another and more formidable fleet.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>It consisted of the ships <i>Geunieerde Provintien</i>, <i>Hollandia</i>, -<i>Amsterdam</i>, <i>Roode Leeuw met Pylen</i>, <i>Middelburg</i>, <i>Zeelandia</i>, -<i>Delft</i>, <i>Rotterdam</i>, <i>Hoorn</i>, <i>Arend</i>, <i>Paauw</i>, <i>Valk</i>, and -<i>Griffioen</i>, carrying in all between eighteen and nineteen hundred men, -and was under the command of Pieter Willemszoon Verhoeff, an officer who -had greatly distinguished himself after Admiral Heemskerk’s death in the -famous battle in Gibraltar Bay. Verhoeff left the Netherlands on the -22nd of December 1607, and after a long stay at the island of St. Helena -where he waited for the westerly winds to take him past the Cape of Good -Hope, on the 28th of July 1608 arrived at Mozambique. He was under the -impression that Van Caerden had certainly obtained possession of the -fortress, and his object was to lie in wait for Portuguese ships in the -Channel; but he was undeceived when his signals were answered with -cannon balls and a flag of defiance was hoisted over the ramparts.</p> - -<p>In the port were lying four coasting vessels and a carrack with a -valuable cargo on board, ready to sail for Goa. In endeavouring to -escape, the carrack ran aground under the guns of the fort, where the -Dutch got possession of her, and made thirty-four of the crew prisoners. -These were removed, but before much of the cargo could be got out the -Portuguese from the fortress made a gallant dash, retook the carrack, -and burned her to the water’s edge. Two of the coasters were made -prizes, the other two were in a position where they could not be -attacked.</p> - -<p>Within a few hours of his arrival Verhoeff landed a strong force, and -formed a camp on the site of the destroyed Dominican convent. Next -morning he commenced making trenches towards the fortress, by digging -ditches and filling bags with earth, of which banks were then made. The -Portuguese of the town had retired<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_145" id="page_145"></a>{145}</span> within the fortress in such haste -that they were unable to remove any of their effects, and the blacks, as -during the preceding siege, were now sent over to the mainland to be out -of the way. Some of the ships were directed to cruise off the port, the -others were anchored out of cannon range. A regular siege of the -fortress was commenced.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Third Siege of Mozambique.</i></div> - -<p>In the mode of attack this siege differed little from that by Van -Caerden, as trenches and batteries were made in the same manner and -almost in the same places. But there were some incidents connected with -it that deserve to be mentioned. At its commencement an accident -occurred in the fortress, which nearly had disastrous consequences. A -soldier, through carelessness, let a lighted fuse fall in a quantity of -gunpowder, and by the explosion that resulted several men were killed -and a fire was kindled which for a short time threatened the destruction -of the storehouses, but which was extinguished before much harm was -done.</p> - -<p>On the second day after the batteries were in full working order the -wall of the fortress between the bastions Santo Antonio and São Gabriel -was partly broken down, and, according to the Portuguese account, a -breach was opened through which a storming party might have entered. -“If,” says the historian Barbuda, “they had been Portuguese, no doubt -they would have stormed; but as the Dutch are nothing more than good -artillerymen, and beyond this are of no account except to be burned as -desperate heretics, they had not courage to rush through the ruin of the -wall.” That this was said of men who had fought under Heemskerk leads -one to suspect that probably the breach was not of great size, and the -more so as the garrison was able to repair it during the following -night. It is not mentioned in the Dutch account, in which the bravery of -their opponents is fully recognised.</p> - -<p>On the 4th of August Verhoeff sent a trumpeter with a letter demanding -the surrender of the fortress. D’Ataide<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_146" id="page_146"></a>{146}</span> would not even write a reply. -He said that as he had compelled Van Caerden to abandon the siege he -hoped to be able to do the same with his present opponent. The captain -of the bastion São Gabriel, however, wrote that the castle had been -confided by the king to the commandant, who was not the kind of cat to -be taken without gloves. Verhoeff believed that the garrison was ill -supplied with food, so his trumpeter was well entertained, and on -several occasions goats and pigs were driven out of the gateway in a -spirit of bravado.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Historical Sketches.</i></div> - -<p>Sorties were frequently made by the besieged, who had the advantage of -being able to observe from the ramparts the movements of the Dutch. In -one of these a soldier named Moraria distinguished himself by attacking -singly with his lance three pikemen in armour at a distance from their -batteries, killing two of them and wounding the other.</p> - -<p>D’Ataide was made acquainted with his enemy’s plans by a French -deserter, who claimed his protection on the ground of being of the same -religion. Four others subsequently deserted from the Dutch camp, and -were received in the fortress on the same plea. Verhoeff demanded that -they should be surrendered to him, and threatened that if they were not -given up he would put to death the thirty-four prisoners he had taken in -the carrack. D’Ataide replied that if the prisoners were thirty-four -thousand he would not betray men who were catholics and who had claimed -his protection, but if the Portuguese captives were murdered their blood -would certainly be avenged. Verhoeff relates in his journal that the -whole of the prisoners were then brought out in sight of the garrison -and shot, regarding the act in the spirit of the time as rather -creditable than otherwise; but the version of the Portuguese historian -may be correct, in which it is stated that six men with their hands -bound were shot in sight of their countrymen, and that the others, -though threatened, were spared.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_147" id="page_147"></a>{147}</span> Until the 18th of August the siege was -continued. Twelve hundred and fifty cannon balls had been fired against -the fortress, without effect as far as its reduction was concerned. -Thirty of Verhoeff’s men had been killed and eighty were wounded. He -therefore abandoned the effort, and embarked his force, after destroying -what remained of the town.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Third Siege of Mozambique.</div> - -<p>On the 21st a great galleon approached the island so close that the -ships in the harbour could be counted from her deck, but put about the -moment the Dutch flag was distinguished. Verhoeff sent the ships -<i>Arend</i>, <i>Griffioen</i>, and <i>Valk</i> in pursuit, and she was soon overtaken. -According to the Dutch account she made hardly any resistance, but in a -letter to the king from her captain, Francisco de Sodre Pereira, which -is still preserved, he claims to have made a gallant stand for the -honour of his flag. The galleon was poorly armed, but he says that he -fought till his ammunition was all expended, and even then would not -consent to surrender, though the ship was so riddled with cannon balls -that she was in danger of going down. He preferred, he said to those -around him, to sink with his colours flying. The purser, however, -lowered the ensign without orders, and a moment afterwards the Dutch, -who had closed in, took possession. The prize proved to be the <i>Bom -Jesus</i>, from Lisbon, which had got separated from a fleet on the way to -Goa, under command of the newly appointed viceroy, the count De Feira. -She had a crew of one hundred and eighty men. The officers were detained -as prisoners, the others were put ashore on the island Saint George with -provisions sufficient to last them two days.</p> - -<p>On the 23rd of August the fleet sailed from Mozambique for India. There -can be little question that this defeat of the Dutch was more -advantageous to them than victory would have been, for if their design -had succeeded a very heavy tax upon their resources and their energy -would have been entailed thereafter. After this<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_148" id="page_148"></a>{148}</span> siege Fort São -Sebastião was provided with a garrison of one hundred and fifty men, and -some small armed vessels were kept on the coast to endeavour to prevent -the Dutch from communicating with the inhabitants or obtaining -provisions and water, but their ships kept the Portuguese stations in -constant alarm.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>On his arrival in India Verhoeff entered into a treaty of alliance with -the ruler of Calicut against the Portuguese, in which he secured -commercial privileges. In May 1609 he and twenty-nine of his principal -officers, when holding a conference with some Bandanese, were murdered -on the island of Neira, and all the Dutch at Lonthor shared the same -fate. This led immediately to the conquest of Neira, and the erection of -the strong fort Nassau in a commanding position on the island. On the -10th of August 1609 a treaty of peace was concluded with the Bandanese -government, in which the sovereignty of Neira was ceded to the Dutch, -and a monopoly of the spice trade in all the islands dependent on Banda -was secured. In June 1609 a treaty was concluded with the ruler of -Ternate, by which that island and all its dependencies came under the -protection of the Dutch, and a monopoly of the spice trade was secured. -In September 1609 a factory was established at Firato in Japan, where -the Dutch obtained from the emperor liberty to trade. On the 25th of -November 1609 the Portuguese fort on Batjan, one of the Molucca islands, -was taken, and became thereafter Fort Barneveld.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_149" id="page_149"></a>{149}</span></p> - -<h3><a name="V-2" id="V-2"></a>V.<br /><br /> -<span class="smcap">The Truce with Spain and English Rivalry.</span></h3> - -<div class="sidenote">Conquest and Trade in the East.</div> - -<p>By this time the Dutch had factories or trading stations at Masulipatam, -Pulikat, and two smaller places on the eastern coast of Hindostan, they -had liberty to trade at Calicut, they had entered into a new treaty with -the maharaja of Kandy in Ceylon, they had factories at Bantam and Grésik -in Java, and in November 1610 they entered into a treaty with the ruler -of Jakatra in the same island, in which they secured the site of the -future city of Batavia, they held the protectorate of Ternate, although -the Portuguese still had a fort there, Neira was theirs with a monopoly -of the spice trade of all the Banda islands, Batjan was theirs also, as -was Amboina, they had factories at Patani on the eastern coast of the -Malay peninsula, established in 1604, and at Johor at its southern -extremity, also at Achin in Sumatra, at Landok in Borneo, on the island -of Celebes, and in the empire of Japan. The foundation of the vast realm -which they subsequently acquired in the eastern seas was thus -established on the ruins of the gigantic dominions of Portugal, though -much fighting was still to be done before it should be fully built up.</p> - -<p>A great defect appeared to be the want of some local authority to -control the conquests and supervise the trade. To meet this want the -assembly of seventeen resolved to establish a strong government in the -East, though the seat of authority was not fixed upon. On the 21st of -November 1609 Pieter Both was appointed first <span class="pagenum"><a name="page_150" id="page_150"></a>{150}</span>governor-general of -Netherlands India, and councillors, consisting of the principal -officials, were named to assist him. He left Texel on the 30th of -January 1610 with a fleet of eight ships. In a great storm off the Cape -his ship got separated from the others, so he put into Table Bay to -repair some damages to the mainmast and to refresh his men. In July 1610 -Captain Nicholas Downton called at the same port in an English vessel, -and found Governor-General Both’s ship lying at anchor and also two -homeward bound Dutch ships taking in train oil that had been collected -at Robben Island. The governor-general arrived at Bantam on the 19th of -December 1610, and in the factory at that place, in a town belonging to -an independent though friendly sovereign, an authority, soon to eclipse -that of any Indian prince, was first established.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>The great successes of the Dutch in the eastern seas caused the -Spaniards to desire peace, and they were prepared to acknowledge the -independence of the United Provinces if two conditions only could be -obtained: the right of Roman Catholics to worship in public and the -prohibition of the Indian trade. The archduke Albert made the first -advance by sending two secret agents to the Hague at the close of 1606. -The Dutch people were divided in opinion: one party, under the -leadership of the prominent statesman Johan van Olden-Barneveld, -favoured peace on reasonable terms, the other, under Maurits of Nassau, -desired to continue the war until Spain should be thoroughly humiliated. -The peace party was in the majority, and as the other European -governments were urgent that hostilities should be brought to an end, in -April 1607 an armistice was agreed to for eight months from the 4th of -May, in order that negotiations might be entered into.</p> - -<p>Just at this time an event occurred which greatly promoted the desire of -the Spaniards for peace. A fleet of twenty-six small ships of war and -four tenders, under Admiral Jacob van Heemskerk, had recently been sent<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_151" id="page_151"></a>{151}</span> -by the states-general to cruise in the Atlantic. Heemskerk came to learn -that a Spanish war fleet of ten great galleons and eleven smaller -vessels, under command of Don Juan Alvarez d’Avila, was lying at anchor -in Gibraltar Bay under the guns of the fortress. Notwithstanding the -tremendous disparity of force, he determined to attack the enemy, and on -the 25th of April 1607 he stood into the bay and boldly grappled with -the monster galleons. It was like a fight between giants and pygmies, -but so daring were the Dutch sailors that every galleon was destroyed. -Before nightfall nothing of the Spanish fleet but burning fragments -could be seen floating in the bay or stranded on the shore. It was one -of the most brilliant naval victories ever recorded, and it was won -against such odds that it seemed to be due to God alone. Heemskerk fell -in the battle, killed by a cannon ball, leaving a deathless name of -glory behind him. The Spanish admiral also was killed in the engagement. -Unfortunately the victory was tarnished by a ferocious massacre of all -the Spaniards that could be laid hold of, for which barbarous act Pieter -Willemszoon Verhoeff, captain of the admiral’s ship, was chiefly -responsible.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Conclusion of a Long Truce.</div> - -<p>The Dutch now rejected the two Spanish conditions with disdain, and had -it not been for the intervention of the agents of other governments, the -negotiations would have been broken off. As it was, they were continued, -but such difficulties were experienced in coming to terms that it was -necessary to prolong the armistice from time to time, and it was not -until the 9th of April 1609 that matters were finally arranged and a -treaty was signed at Antwerp. Even then it was not a final peace that -was concluded, but only a truce for twelve years, during which time each -party was to retain whatever territory it possessed on that day, and -could carry on commerce freely with the other.</p> - -<p>The republic of the United Netherlands thereafter consisted of the -provinces of Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, Friesland,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_152" id="page_152"></a>{152}</span> Groningen, Overyssel -with Drenthe except the town of Oldenzaal, which was held by the -archduke, and about three quarters of ancient Gelderland, which retained -that name. In this, however, the town of Groenlo or Grol was held by the -archduke. South of the Schelde the republic was in possession of Sluis -and Axel, with the forts along the river in Flanders, which with -Flushing gave it control of the navigation of the stream and enabled it -to stifle Antwerp. South of the Maas it possessed in Brabant all the -territory belonging to the marquisate of Bergen op Zoom, the barony of -Breda, and the land of Grave with Kuik. This territory in Flanders and -Brabant was governed directly by the states-general, being of course -detached from the provinces to which it properly belonged. The seven -provinces were in one sense seven sovereign states, as they voted -separately in the states-general, and no one of them was bound by any -act to which it did not individually consent. It was the weakest form of -a federal government, being rather a loose alliance than a firm union. -That was its great defect, which, however, was not remedied until nearly -two centuries more had passed away.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>The provinces that remained under the government of Albert and Isabella -covered much more ground than the present kingdom of Belgium.<a name="FNanchor_36_36" id="FNanchor_36_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a> France -always coveted them, and never lost an opportunity to gnaw portions of -them away. By the treaty of the Pyrenees on the 7th of November 1659 -Louis XIV obtained a strip of territory containing Thionville, Montmedi, -Damvilliers, Ivoix, and Marville. By the treaty of Aix la Chapelle on -the 2nd of May 1668 he obtained Lille, Douai, Courtrai, and Charleroi. -On the 17th of March 1677 Valenciennes was<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_153" id="page_153"></a>{153}</span> taken by the French, and on -the 5th of April 1677 Cambrai fell into their hands. By the treaty of -Nymegen on the 17th of September 1678 France was recognised as the owner -of a slice of Belgian territory containing these cities, and by the -treaty of Ratisbon on the 15th of August 1684 she acquired part of -Luxemburg.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Partition of Belgian Territory.</div> - -<p>Thus before the close of the seventeenth century Belgium had lost to -France two entire provinces—Artois and Lille with Douai and -Orchies—and part of Flanders containing Dunkirk, Gravelines, and -Menior, part of Hainaut, containing Valenciennes, Bavay, Maubeuge, -Conde, Marienbourg, and Philippeville, part of Namur containing -Charlemont, part of Luxemburg containing Thionville and Montmedi, and -the city and bishopric of Cambrai, which then ranked as a duchy. The -present boundary between France and Belgium was not fixed until 1814.</p> - -<p>By the treaty of Utrecht the portion of Gelderland that remained subject -to Albert and Isabella in 1609, excepting the town of Venlo, which -passed to the republic, and the town and district of Roermonde, which -went to Austria, was ceded to Prussia and became the circle of -Düsseldorf. Roermonde was added to the kingdom of the Netherlands in -1831. Luxemburg was divided into two portions by the treaty of London in -1839, one of which is now part of the German empire, and the other -remains a province of Belgium. By the same treaty Limburg was divided -into two sections, one of which remained to Belgium, the other became -part of the kingdom of the Netherlands.</p> - -<p>By the treaty of Munster on the 30th of January 1648, in which the king -of Spain recognised the independence of the United Netherlands, the -present province of North Brabant went to the republic,<a name="FNanchor_37_37" id="FNanchor_37_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_37_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a> as did also -the city and jurisdiction of Maastricht and a small portion of Flanders. -A map of Belgium as it is to-day is thus very different<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_154" id="page_154"></a>{154}</span> from one in -1610, but it contains the province of Liege, which did not then belong -to it.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>The trade of the Dutch with India now increased rapidly, but South -Africa was hardly affected by it, except through the visits of passing -ships and occasionally the residence of parties of Europeans for a short -time on its shores.</p> - -<p>In May 1611 the Dutch skipper Isaac le Maire, after whom the straits of -Le Maire are named, called at Table Bay. When he sailed, he left behind -his son Jacob and a party of seamen, who resided in Table Valley for -several months. Their object was to kill seals on Robben Island, and to -harpoon whales, which were then very abundant in South African waters in -the winter season. They also tried to open up a trade for skins of -animals with the Hottentots in the neighbourhood, but in this met with -no success, as those barbarians needed all the peltry they could obtain -for their own use.</p> - -<p>In 1616 the assembly of seventeen resolved that its outward bound fleets -should always put into Table Bay to refresh the crews, and from that -time onward Dutch ships touched there almost every season. A kind of -post office was established by marking the dates of arrivals and -departures on stones, and burying letters in places indicated. But no -attempt was made to explore the country, and no port south of the -Zambesi except Table Bay was frequented by Netherlanders, so that down -to the middle of the century nothing more concerning it was known than -the Portuguese had placed on record.</p> - -<p>The Dutch had now to fear the competition of the English in the East -much more than that of the Portuguese. Our countrymen were equally -enterprising and courageous, and however friendly the two nations might -be in Europe, in distant lands they were animated by a spirit of rivalry -which on some occasions went so far as to cause them to act -unscrupulously towards each other. It will not be necessary to relate -here the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_155" id="page_155"></a>{155}</span> proceedings of the English in the eastern seas, but some -references to their visits to Table Bay in those early times must be -made.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">English Visitors to South Africa.</div> - -<p>They too had established an East India Company, whose first fleet, -consisting of the <i>Dragon</i>, of six hundred tons, the <i>Hector</i>, of three -hundred tons, the <i>Ascension</i>, of two hundred and sixty tons, and the -<i>Susan</i>, of two hundred and forty tons burden, sailed from Torbay on the -22nd of April 1601. The admiral was James Lancaster, the same who had -commanded the <i>Edward Bonaventure</i> ten years earlier. The chief pilot -was John Davis, who had only returned from the Indies nine months -before. On the 9th of September the fleet came to anchor in Table Bay, -by which time the crews of all except the admiral’s ship were so -terribly afflicted with scurvy that they were unable to drop their -anchors. The admiral had kept his men in a tolerable state of health by -supplying them with a small quantity of limejuice daily. After his ship -was anchored he was obliged to get out his boats and go to the -assistance of the others. Sails were then taken on shore to serve as -tents, and the sick were landed as soon as possible. Trade was commenced -with the Hottentots and in the course of a few days forty-two oxen and a -thousand sheep were obtained for pieces of iron hoop. The fleet remained -in Table Bay nearly seven weeks, during which time most of the sick men -recovered.</p> - -<p>On the 5th of December 1604 the <i>Tiger</i>—a ship of two hundred and forty -tons—and a pinnace called the <i>Tiger’s Whelp</i> set sail from Cowes for -the Indies. The expedition was under command of Sir Edward Michelburne, -and next to him in rank was Captain John Davis. It was the last voyage -that this famous seaman was destined to make, for he was killed in an -encounter with Japanese pirates on the 27th of December 1605. The -journal of the voyage contains the following paragraph:—</p> - -<p>“The 3rd of April 1605 we sailed by a little island which Captain John -Davis took to be one that stands<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_156" id="page_156"></a>{156}</span> some five or six leagues from -Saldanha. Whereupon our general, Sir Edward Michelburne, desirous to see -the island, took his skiff, accompanied by no more than the master’s -mate, the purser, myself, and four men that did row the boat, and so -putting off from the ship we came on land. While we were on shore they -in the ship had a storm, which drove them out of sight of the island; -and we were two days and two nights before we could recover our ship. -Upon the said island is abundance of great conies and seals, whereupon -we called it Cony Island.”</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>On the 9th of April they anchored in Table Bay, where they remained -until the 3rd of the following month refreshing themselves.</p> - -<p>On the 14th of March 1608 the East India Company’s ships <i>Ascension</i> and -<i>Union</i> sailed from England, and on the 14th of July put into Table Bay -to obtain refreshments and to build a small vessel for which they had -brought out the materials ready prepared. The crews constructed a fort -to protect themselves, by raising an earthen wall in the form of a -square and mounting a cannon on each angle. They found a few Hottentots -on the shore, to whom they made known by signs their want of oxen and -sheep, which three days afterwards were brought for barter in such -numbers that they procured as much meat as they needed. They gave a yard -(91·4 centimetres) of iron hoop for an ox, and half that length for a -sheep. After bartering them, the Hottentots whistled some away and then -brought them for sale again, which was not resented, as the English -officers were desirous of remaining on friendly terms with the rude -people. For the same reason no notice was taken of the theft of various -articles of trifling value.</p> - -<p>Boats were sent to Robben Island to capture seals, as oil was needed, -and many of these animals were killed and brought to the fort. After -cutting off the oily parts the carcases were carried to a distance as -useless, but<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_157" id="page_157"></a>{157}</span> for fifteen days the Hottentots feasted upon the flesh, -which they merely heated on embers, though before the expiration of that -time it had become so putrid and the odour so offensive that the -Europeans were obliged to keep at a great distance from it.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">English Visitors to South Africa.</div> - -<p>Great quantities of steenbras were obtained with a seine at the mouth of -Salt River, and three thousand five hundred mullets were caught and -taken on board for consumption after leaving. The object of refreshing -was thus fully carried out, as was also that of putting together the -little vessel, which was even made larger than the original design, and -which when launched was named the <i>Good Hope</i>.</p> - -<p>Mr. John Jourdain, an official of the East India Company, who was a -passenger in the <i>Ascension</i>, and from whose journal this account is -taken, with some others ascended Table Mountain. From its summit they -saw the same sheet of water on the flats which Antonio de Saldanha a -hundred and five years before had mistaken for the mouth of a great -river, and which Mr. Jourdain now mistook for an inland harbour with an -opening to the sea by which ships might enter it. He, however, unlike -his Portuguese predecessor, had an opportunity afterwards of visiting -the big pond and ascertaining that his conjecture was incorrect.</p> - -<p>Mr. Jourdain was of opinion that a settlement of great utility might be -formed in Table Valley. In words almost identical with those of Jansen -and Proot forty years later he spoke of its capabilities for producing -grain and fruit, of the hides, sealskins, and oil that could be obtained -to reduce the expense, of the possibility of opening up a trade in -ivory, as he had seen many footprints of elephants, and of bringing the -Hottentots first to “civility,” and then to a knowledge of God.</p> - -<p>After a stay of little more than two months, on the 19th of September -the <i>Ascension</i> and <i>Union</i> sailed again, with the <i>Good Hope</i> in their -company.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_158" id="page_158"></a>{158}</span></p> - -<p>From this date onward the fleets of the English East India Company made -Table Bay a port of call and refreshment, and usually procured in barter -from the Hottentots as many cattle as they needed. In 1614 the board of -directors sent a ship with as many spare men as she could carry, a -quantity of provisions, and some naval stores to Table Bay to wait for -the homeward bound fleet, and, while delayed, to carry on a whale and -seal fishery as a means of partly meeting the expense. The plan was -found to answer fairly well, and it was continued for several years. The -relieving vessels left England between October and February, in order to -be at the Cape in May, when the homeward bound fleets usually arrived -from India. If men were much needed, the victualler—which was commonly -an old vessel—was then abandoned, otherwise an ordinary crew was left -in her to capture whales, or she proceeded to some port in the East, -according to circumstances.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>The advantage of a place of refreshment in South Africa was obvious, and -as early as 1613 enterprising individuals in the service of the East -India Company drew the attention of the directors to the advisability of -forming a settlement in Table Valley. Still earlier it was rumoured that -the king of Spain and Portugal had such a design in contemplation, with -the object of cutting off thereby the intercourse of all other nations -with the Indian seas, so that the strategical value of the Cape was -already recognised. The directors discussed the matter on several -occasions, but their views in those days were very limited, and the -scheme seemed too large for them to attempt alone.</p> - -<p>In their fleets were officers of a much more enterprising spirit, as -they were without responsibility in regard to the cost of any new -undertaking. In 1620 some of these proclaimed King James I sovereign of -the territory extending from Table Bay to the dominions of the nearest -Christian prince. The records of this event are interesting,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_159" id="page_159"></a>{159}</span> as they -not only give the particulars of the proclamation and the reasons that -led to it, but show that there must often have been a good deal of -bustle in Table Valley in those days.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">English Visitors to South Africa.</div> - -<p>On the 24th of June 1620 four ships bound to Surat under command of -Andrew Shillinge, put into Table Bay, and were joined when entering by -two others bound to Bantam, under command of Humphrey Fitzherbert. The -Dutch had at this time the greater part of the commerce of the East in -their hands, and nine large ships under their flag were found at anchor. -The English vessel <i>Lion</i> was also there. Commodore Fitzherbert made the -acquaintance of some of the Dutch officers, and was informed by them -that they had inspected the country around, as their Company intended to -form a settlement in Table Valley the following year. Thereupon he -consulted with Commodore Shillinge, who agreed with him that it was -advisable to try to frustrate the project of the Hollanders. On the 25th -the Dutch fleet sailed for Bantam, and the <i>Lion</i> left at the same time, -but the <i>Schiedam</i>, from Delft, arrived and cast anchor.</p> - -<p>On the 1st of July the principal English officers, twenty-one in -number,—among them the Arctic navigator William Baffin,—met in -council, and resolved to proclaim the sovereignty of King James I over -the whole country. They placed on record their reasons for this -decision, which were, that they were of opinion a few men only would be -needed to keep possession of Table Valley, that a plantation would be of -great service for the refreshment of the fleets, that the soil was -fruitful and the climate pleasant, that the Hottentots would become -willing subjects in time and they hoped would also become servants of -God, that the whale fishery would be a source of profit, but, above all, -that they regarded it as more fitting for the Dutch when ashore there to -be subjects of the king of England than for Englishmen to be subject to -them or anyone else. “Rule Britannia” was a very strong<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_160" id="page_160"></a>{160}</span> sentiment, -evidently, with that party of adventurous seamen.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>On the 3rd of July a proclamation of sovereignty was read in presence of -as many men of the six ships as could go ashore for the purpose of -taking part in the ceremony. Skipper Jan Cornelis Kunst, of the -<i>Schiedam</i>, and some of his officers were also present, and raised no -objection. On the Lion’s rump, or King James’s mount as Fitzherbert and -Shillinge named it, the flag of St. George was hoisted, and was saluted, -the spot being afterwards marked by a mound of stones. A small flag was -then given to the Hottentots to preserve and exhibit to visitors, which -it was believed they would do most carefully.</p> - -<p>After going through this ceremony with the object of frustrating the -designs of the Dutch, the English officers buried a packet of despatches -beside a stone slab in the valley, on which were engraved the letters V -O C, they being in perfect ignorance of the fact that those symbols -denoted prior possession taken for the Dutch East India Company. On the -25th of July the Surat fleet sailed, and on the next day Fitzherbert’s -two ships followed, leaving at anchor in the bay only the English ship -<i>Bear</i>, which had arrived on the 10th.</p> - -<p>The proceeding of Fitzherbert and Shillinge, which was entirely -unauthorised, was not confirmed by the directors of the East India -Company or by the government of England, and nothing whatever came of -it. At that time the ocean commerce of England was small, and as she had -just entered upon the work of colonising North America, she was not -prepared to attempt to form a settlement in South Africa also. Her king -and the directors of her India Company had no higher ambition than to -enter into a close alliance with the Dutch Company, and to secure by -this means a stated proportion of the trade of the East. In the -Netherlands also a large and influential party was in favour of either -forming a federated company, or of a binding union of some kind, so as -to<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_161" id="page_161"></a>{161}</span> put it out of the power of the Spaniards and Portuguese to harm -them. From 1613 onward this matter was frequently discussed on both -sides of the Channel, and delegates went backward and forward, but it -was almost impossible to arrange terms.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Proposed Alliance of English and Dutch.</div> - -<p>The Dutch had many fortresses which they had either built or taken from -the Portuguese in Java and the Spice islands, and the English had none, -so that the conditions of the two parties were unequal. In 1617, -however, the king of France sent ships to the eastern seas, and in the -following year the king of Denmark embarked in the same enterprise, when -a possibility arose that one or other of them might unite with Holland -or England. Accordingly each party was more willing than before to make -concessions, and on the 2nd of June 1619 a treaty of close alliance was -entered into at London between the two Companies, which was ratified by -their respective governments.<a name="FNanchor_38_38" id="FNanchor_38_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a></p> - -<p>It provided that all past differences should be forgotten, and all -persons, ships, and goods detained by either side be immediately -released. That the servants of each Company should act in the most -friendly manner towards those of the other, and give them assistance -when needed. That commerce in all parts of India should be free to both. -That joint efforts should be made to reduce the price of products in -India to a fixed and reasonable rate, and that a selling price in Europe -should be agreed upon from time to time, below which it should not be -lawful for either party to dispose of them. That pepper should only be -purchased in Java by a commission representing both parties, and be -equally divided afterwards between the two Companies. That the Dutch -Company should have two-thirds of the trade at the Moluccas, Banda, and -Amboina, and the English one-third. That twenty ships of war from six to -eight hundred tons burden, armed<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_162" id="page_162"></a>{162}</span> with thirty heavy cannon, and carrying -one hundred and fifty men each, should be maintained in the eastern seas -for the protection of commerce, half by each Company. And that a council -of defence should be established, consisting of four of the principal -officers on each side, to appoint stations for the ships and to engage -and pay land forces.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>There were thirty-one articles in all, of which the above were the -principal, the others referring to matters of less importance, but -dealing with them in the same spirit. The treaty was intended to bring -the two East India Companies into as close a union as that existing -between the different provinces of the Netherlands republic.</p> - -<p>The rivalry, however,—bordering closely on animosity—between the -servants of the two companies in distant lands prevented any agreement -of this nature made in Europe being carried out, and though in 1623 -another treaty of alliance was entered into, in the following year it -was dissolved. Thereafter the great success of the Dutch in the East -placed them beyond the desire of partnership with competitors.</p> - -<p>While these negotiations were in progress, a proposal was made from -Holland that a refreshment station should be established in South Africa -for the joint use of the fleets of the two nations, and the English -directors received it favourably. They undertook to cause a search for a -proper place to be made by the next ship sent to the Cape with relief -for the returning fleet, and left the Dutch at liberty to make a similar -search in any convenient way. Accordingly on the 30th of November 1619 -the assembly of seventeen issued instructions to the commander of the -fleet then about to sail to examine the coast carefully from Saldanha -Bay to a hundred or a hundred and fifty nautical miles east of the Cape -of Good Hope, in order that the best harbour for the purpose might be -selected. This was done, and an opinion was pronounced in favour of -Table Bay. In 1622 a portion<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_163" id="page_163"></a>{163}</span> of the coast was inspected for the same -purpose by Captain Johnson, in the English ship <i>Rose</i>, but his opinion -of Table Bay and the other places which he visited was such that he -would not recommend any of them. The tenor of his report mattered -little, however, for with the failure of the close alliance between the -two companies, the design of establishing a refreshment station in South -Africa was abandoned by both.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Disasters in Table Valley.</div> - -<p>Perhaps the ill opinion of Table Bay formed by Captain Johnson may have -arisen from an occurrence that took place on its shore during the -previous voyage of the <i>Rose</i>. That ship arrived in the bay on the 28th -of January 1620, and on the following day eight of her crew went ashore -with a seine to catch fish near the mouth of Salt River. They never -returned, but the bodies of four were afterwards found and buried, and -it was believed that the Hottentots had either carried the other four -away as prisoners or had murdered them and concealed their corpses.</p> - -<p>This was not the only occurrence of the kind, for in March 1632 -twenty-three men belonging to a Dutch ship that put into Table Bay lost -their lives in conflict with the inhabitants. The cause of these -quarrels is not known with certainty, but at the time it was believed -they were brought on by the Europeans attempting to rob the Hottentots -of cattle.</p> - -<p>An experiment was once made with a view of trying to secure a firm -friend among the Hottentots, and impressing those people with respect -for the wonders of civilisation. In 1613 two Hottentots were taken from -Table Valley on board a ship returning from India, one of whom died of -grief soon after leaving his home.<a name="FNanchor_39_39" id="FNanchor_39_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a> The other, who was named Cory, -reached England, where he resided six months and learned to understand -and speak a little English. He was made a great deal of, and received -many rich and valuable presents from benevolent people.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_164" id="page_164"></a>{164}</span> Sir Thomas -Smythe, the governor of the East India Company, was particularly kind to -him, and gave him among other things a complete suit of brass armour. He -returned to South Africa with Captain Nicholas Downton in the ship <i>New -Year’s Gift</i>, and in June 1614 landed in Table Valley with all his -treasures. But Captain Downton, who thought that he was overflowing with -gratitude, saw him no more. Cory returned to his former habits of -living, and instead of acting as was anticipated, taught his countrymen -to despise bits of copper in exchange for their cattle, so that for a -long time afterwards it was impossible for ships that called to obtain a -supply of fresh meat.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>Mr. John Jourdain, when returning from India to England, put into Table -Bay on the 25th of February 1617. A few lean calves were obtained on the -day the ships anchored, but nothing whatever afterwards, though at one -time about ten thousand head of cattle were in sight. Mr. Jourdain and a -party of sixty armed men went a short distance into the country, and he -was of opinion that through the roguery of “that dogge Cory” they would -have been drawn into a conflict with some five thousand Hottentots if -they had not prudently retired. Thereafter he believed no cattle would -be obtained except at dear rates, for the Hottentots no longer esteemed -iron hoops, copper, or even shining brass. A fort, he considered, would -be the only means of bringing them to “civility.” On this occasion Mr. -Jourdain remained in Table Bay eighteen days, of which only four were -calm and fine.</p> - -<p>According to a statement made by a Welshman who was in Table Bay in -August 1627, and who kept a journal, part of which has been -preserved,<a name="FNanchor_40_40" id="FNanchor_40_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_40_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a> Cory came<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_165" id="page_165"></a>{165}</span> to an evil end. The entry reads: “They” (the -Hottentots) “hate the duchmen since they hanged one of the blackes -called Cary who was in England & upon refusall of fresh victuals they -put him to death.”</p> - -<div class="sidenote">English Convicts sent to Table Valley.</div> - -<p>It has been seen what use the Portuguese made of convicts when they were -exploring unknown countries, or when there were duties of a particularly -hazardous or unpleasant nature to be performed. The English employed -criminals in the same manner. In January 1615 the governor of the East -India Company obtained permission from the king to transport some men -under sentence of death to countries occupied by savages, where, it was -supposed, they would be the means of procuring provisions, making -discoveries, and creating trade. The records in existence—unless there -are documents in some unknown place—furnish too scanty material for a -complete account of the manner in which this design was carried out. -Only the following can be ascertained with certainty. A few days after -the consent of the king was given, the sheriffs of London sent seventeen -men from Newgate on board ships bound to the Indies, and these were -voluntarily accompanied by three others, who appear to have been -convicted criminals, but not under sentence of death. The proceeding was -regarded as “a very charitable deed and a means to bring them to God by -giving them time for repentance, to crave pardon for their sins, and -reconcile themselves unto His favour.” On the 5th of June, after a -passage from the Thames of one hundred and thirty-two days, the four -ships comprising the fleet arrived in Table Bay, and on the 16th nine of -the condemned men were set ashore with their own free will. A boat was -left for their use, and to each a gun with some ammunition and a -quantity of provisions was given.</p> - -<p>Of some of these convicts the afterlife is known. Two were taken on to -India by Sir Thomas Roe, one of whom, Duffield by name, returned with -him to England, where he requited the kindness shown to him by stealing -some<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_166" id="page_166"></a>{166}</span> plate and running away. Of those set ashore in Table Valley, one, -named Cross, committed some offence against the Hottentots shortly after -the ships sailed, and was killed by them. The other <i>seven</i><a name="FNanchor_41_41" id="FNanchor_41_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_41_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a> escaped -to Robben Island, where their boat was wrecked. They lived five or six -months on the island, when an English ship put into the bay, and four of -them made a raft and tried to get to her, but were drowned on the way. -The next day the ship sent a boat to the island, and took off the other -three. They behaved badly on board, commenced to steal again as soon as -they reached England, and were apprehended and executed in accordance -with their old sentences.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>In one of the ships that brought these convicts in 1615 Sir Thomas Roe, -English envoy to the great Mogul, was a passenger. A pillar bearing an -inscription of his embassy was set up in Table Valley, and fifteen or -twenty kilogrammes weight of stone which he believed to contain -quicksilver and vermilion was taken away to be assayed in England, but -of particulars that would be much more interesting now no information -whatever is to be had from the records of his journey.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_167" id="page_167"></a>{167}</span></p> - -<p>Again, in June 1616, three condemned men were set ashore in Table Valley -from a fleet under Commodore Joseph on its way to the East. A letter -signed by them is extant, in which they acknowledge the clemency of King -James in granting them their forfeited lives, and promise to do his -Majesty good and acceptable service. Terry, who was an eye witness, says -that before they were set ashore they begged the commodore rather to -hang them than to abandon them, but he left them behind. The <i>Swan</i>, one -of the vessels of the fleet, however, was detained in Table Bay a day or -two longer than her consorts, and she took them on to Bantam in Java.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Scanty Information supplied by Englishmen.</div> - -<p>There may have been other instances of the kind, of which no record is -in existence now, but this seems unlikely. It is certain that no -information upon the country, its inhabitants, or its resources was ever -obtained from criminals set ashore here.</p> - -<p>No further effort was made by the English at this time to form a -connection with the inhabitants of South Africa, though their ships -continued to call at Table Bay for the purpose of taking in water and -getting such other refreshment as was obtainable. They did not attempt -to explore the country or to correct the charts of its coasts, nor did -they frequent any of its ports except Table Bay, and very rarely Mossel -Bay, until a much later date. A few remarks in ships’ journals, and a -few pages of observations and opinions in a book of travels such as that -of Sir Thomas Herbert, from none of which can any reliable information -be obtained that is not also to be drawn from earlier Portuguese -writers, are all the contributions to a knowledge of South Africa made -by Englishmen during the early years of the seventeenth century. Though -our countrymen were behind no others in energy and daring, as Drake, -Raleigh, Gilbert, Davis, Hawkins, and a host of others had proved so -well, not forgetting either the memorable story of the Revenge,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_168" id="page_168"></a>{168}</span> which -Jan Huyghen van Linschoten handed down for a modern historian to write -in more thrilling words, England had not yet entered fully upon her -destined career either of discovery or of commerce, the time when “the -ocean wave should be her home” was still in the days to come.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>The Danes were the next to make their appearance in the Indian seas. -Their first fleet, fitted out by King Christian IV, consisted of six -ships, under Ove Giedde as admiral. On the 8th of July 1619 this fleet -put into Table Bay, where eight English ships were found at anchor, -whose officers treated the Danes with hospitality. Admiral Giedde -remained here until the 5th of August, when his people were sufficiently -refreshed to proceed on their voyage. On the 30th of August 1621 he -reached Table Bay again in the ship <i>Elephant</i> on his return passage -from Ceylon and India, and remained until the 12th of September. Before -leaving he had an inscription cut on a stone, in which the dates of both -his visits were recorded.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_169" id="page_169"></a>{169}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="III" id="III"></a>III.<br /><br /> -<i>Governor Willem Adriaan van der Stel. A History of the Successful Struggle of a few Hollanders and Huguenots against Tyranny and Corruption.</i></h2> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_170" id="page_170"></a>{170}</span> </p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_171" id="page_171"></a>{171}</span> </p> - -<h3><a name="SKETCH_III" id="SKETCH_III"></a>SKETCH III.</h3> - -<h4><a name="I-3" id="I-3"></a>I.<br /><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Governor Willem Adriaan van der Stel.</span></h4> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">The</span> days of John the son of Peter and Peter the son of John were passing -away, though not quite entirely gone, and surnames such as are now in -use were becoming generally adopted by working people, when one Adriaan -van der Stel, otherwise Adriaan the son of Simon, is found among the -citizens of the town of Dordrecht in the province of South Holland. He -was by occupation a cooper, and like many of his energetic countrymen at -that time he tried to improve his position by entering the service of -the East India Company and going abroad. Accordingly he engaged as -cooper and junior assistant or clerk, a combination of duties by no -means uncommon in the Company’s service in the early days, and in 1623 -went to India in the yacht <i>Star</i>. He was engaged at a salary of ten -guldens or 16<i>s.</i> 8<i>d.</i> a month, besides his maintenance, but there were -little privileges allowed to men in his position, which often were of -greater value than the wage received.</p> - -<p>This Adriaan van der Stel was a man of ability, and as early as the 28th -of March 1624 was promoted in the service and had his pay increased to -eighteen guldens or £1 10<i>s.</i> a month. Time went on, and by 1638, under -the governor-generalship of Anthonie van Diemen, he had advanced so far -that he was chosen to succeed Pieter de Goyer as commander of the island -of Mauritius. This island, which was uninhabited, had recently been -taken possession of by the East India Company, and De Goyer had been -sent to occupy it with a small party of men.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_172" id="page_172"></a>{172}</span> The position was not -indeed a very dignified one, corresponding as it did to that of ensign -in charge of a little military outpost, but his selection to fill it was -proof that the high Indian authorities placed confidence in him.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>He had followed a custom prevalent in India ever since 1607, when the -Dutch commander-in-chief Cornelis Matelief gave his soldiers and sailors -permission to form alliances with native women, with a view of raising a -class of mixed breeds who would form a link between the European and -Asiatic races. The Portuguese had set the example in this, and the -advantage of it to them was evident, as they could not have continued to -hold a single station in the East without the assistance of the large -Eurasian element in the population of their settlements. If not actually -encouraged by the Dutch, this practice was by no means looked upon with -disfavour in the seventeenth century, and a half-breed, if at all -worthy, was as certain of employment and promotion as a white man. And -as the form of marriage could not be gone through when the woman was not -a professed Christian, looser alliances were regarded as throwing little -or no discredit upon either father or child.</p> - -<p>Adriaan van der Stel formed a connection of this kind with an Indian -woman named Monica of the Coast, who accompanied him to Mauritius, and -there on the 14th of November 1639 bore him a son, whom he named Simon. -After serving for a time satisfactorily at Mauritius, where no one -wished to remain long, he was removed to Batavia, and shortly afterwards -was transferred to Ceylon in a military capacity as commander of a body -of troops. Such changes of occupation are constantly met with in -following the careers of men in the East India Company’s service, and -some of the ablest officials were alike skilful as diplomatists, as -traders, and as commanders in war on sea or on land.</p> - -<p>At this time, which was shortly after Cornelis van der Lyn became -governor-general, the Portuguese were making<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_173" id="page_173"></a>{173}</span> a desperate effort to -retain their last strongholds on the western coast of Ceylon. Their most -important possession on the island was Colombo, which they retained -until May 1656, and when it surrendered the Dutch had the seaboard -entirely to themselves. There was indeed peace in Europe between the -Netherlands and Portugal, now independent of Spain once more, but that -did not prevent the continuance of the struggle in the East. The chief -Dutch stronghold was Galle, in the south of the island. The king of -Kandy, Raja Singha Rajoc, was styled emperor of Ceylon, but had really -lost all authority over the coast-lands, which were subject either to -the Dutch or the Portuguese. His policy was to keep them pitted against -each other, and occasionally to assist whichever appeared weakest, for -he bore neither of them any love. And in point of fact he was able -whenever he chose to fall upon one or the other with impunity, as that -one was unable to retort by falling upon him. A few years later, after -the Portuguese had been expelled, the condition of things was of course -very different.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Death of Adriaan van der Stel.</div> - -<p>Commander Adriaan van der Stel was directed with a considerable body of -troops to occupy a certain position in territory claimed by the Dutch. -On the march he was surrounded by a Cingalese army, and his whole force, -only four men excepted, was destroyed, 19th of May 1646. His head was -fixed on a stake and exhibited in triumph, and was then rolled in silk -and sent to Joan Maatzuiker, the Dutch governor of Galle.<a name="FNanchor_42_42" id="FNanchor_42_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_42_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_174" id="page_174"></a>{174}</span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>Simon van der Stel was not seven years old at the time of his father’s -death. Kolbe says that he was in Ceylon and saw the head of his parent -after the disaster, but nothing is more unlikely. The strong probability -is<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_175" id="page_175"></a>{175}</span> that upon the arrival of Adriaan van der Stel at Batavia from -Mauritius, or shortly afterwards, he sent his son to Holland to be -educated, as was then the custom, though there is no actual proof of -this. At any rate, at a very early age he was at school in Amsterdam, -and was baptized either there or in Batavia when he was about five years -old. His mother, Monica of the Coast, can no longer be traced, and -whether she had died or remained in Batavia is quite uncertain. The -property accumulated by his father was invested by the orphanmasters for -his benefit, but it was inconsiderable, and he might have been destitute -had not the directors of the East India Company regarded him as their -protégé on account of his parent’s losing his life in their service. The -Indian blood in his veins was no detriment whatever to him.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Early Life of Simon van der Stel.</div> - -<p>Like most mixed breeds he was exceedingly proud of the nationality of -his father, and as he advanced in stature was inclined in everything to -be more intensely Dutch than anyone of pure blood born in the -Netherlands could be. Yet as he possessed a large share of sound common -sense, he never made such a silly display of his proclivities in this -respect as most half-breeds are in the habit of doing. Who has not been -irritated by the forwardness and foolish remarks of such people? At -breakfast one morning recently in a London hotel, a hideous mulatto -woman at one of the tables provoked the disgust of all the others seated -in the same room by finding fault with everything, and asserting in very -broad Scotch that “we do this very differently in Scotland.” Of such -conduct Simon van der Stel was never guilty. He grew up to be a man -under the medium stature, and of a dark complexion, with an open -cheerful countenance, but no other indications of his personal -appearance can now be found.</p> - -<p>He married Johanna Jacoba, daughter of Willem Six and his wife Catharina -Hinlopen, a respectable family of Amsterdam, by whom he became the -father of six children:<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_176" id="page_176"></a>{176}</span> Willem Adriaan, prominent in Cape history, -Adriaan, who became governor of Amboina and the adjacent islands, -Catharina, Frans, Hendrik, and Cornelis. The last named left the Cape -for Batavia in January 1694 in the <i>Ridderschap</i>, and was never again -heard of, but it was supposed that the ship was wrecked on the coast of -Madagascar and that he had perished there.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>The directors of the East India Company assisted their protégé as much -as they could in Holland, and at length when the situation of head of -the Cape settlement was vacant, they offered it to him. He accepted the -offer gladly, for it gave him a promise of financial improvement, and -with his four eldest sons he embarked in the ship <i>Vrije Zee</i> and -reached South Africa in October 1679, when he was nearly forty years of -age. His lady with his daughter and his youngest son remained behind in -Amsterdam, and he never saw his wife or daughter again.</p> - -<p>The system of the East India Company of paying its officials was a bad -one, for their salaries were very small indeed, and they depended upon -perquisites to put by anything. And at the Cape there were not so many -opportunities of making money by perquisites as in India, so that few -men of ability cared to stay here long. When Simon van der Stel arrived -in South Africa he had only the rank of a commander, which carried with -it a salary in money less than a junior clerk receives to-day, but he -had a furnished residence, a table allowance besides ample rations of -food and even delicacies, slaves provided for servants, horses and a -carriage free of charge, and he had liberty to trade in certain articles -on his own account. Thus he could purchase a bale of calico or a crate -of crockery from the captain of one ship and sell it to the captain of -another, but he was not at liberty to deal in a single nutmeg or a pound -of pepper, the traffic in spices being strictly reserved for the Company -itself. He was prohibited also from carrying on farming operations or<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_177" id="page_177"></a>{177}</span> -speculating in cattle, as the Company was desirous of encouraging -colonists.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Abuses in India.</div> - -<p>When Simon van der Stel became commander the settlement comprised only -the cultivated ground at the foot of Table Mountain, two little outposts -of the Company at Saldanha Bay and Hottentots-Holland, a cattle station -of the Company at the Tigerberg, and land beyond the isthmus on which -seven burghers were experimenting in cattle breeding. He is almost as -much entitled to be termed the founder of the colony as Van Riebeek is, -for Stellenbosch, the Paarl, Drakenstein, and French Hoek were occupied -under his supervision. Of course in neither case was what they did a -mere act of their own will: they simply carried out honestly and -faithfully the instructions of the directors of the Company, who -provided the people and the means that were needed. But to those who -maintain that no good can be accomplished by men of mixed European and -Asiatic blood, it may be pointed out that Simon van der Stel was a model -ruler, able, industrious, energetic, honest, and absolutely faithful to -the trust reposed in him. The only glaring fault in his character, and -even that did not become conspicuous until he was advanced in years, was -an inordinate love of money and a readiness to adopt measures to obtain -it that to men of the present day seem beneath the dignity of a high -official. But to Netherlanders of those times it did not appear -incorrect for a man of position to make money in any way not legally -wrong.</p> - -<p>At this time so many abuses had crept into the administration of the -Company’s affairs in Hindostan and Ceylon that the directors considered -it advisable to adopt very drastic measures to rectify them. For this -purpose they appointed a commission of three members to examine into -matters there, and at its head they placed the very ablest officer in -their service, a man in whose integrity they could implicitly rely, to -whom they gave all the powers of a dictator. His name was Hendrik -Adriaan van Rheede<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_178" id="page_178"></a>{178}</span> tot Drakenstein, but he was more commonly known by -his title of lord of Mydrecht.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>Before he left Europe he was requested to visit the Cape settlement -also, and had supreme power conferred upon him while here. Only twice -during the whole term of the East India Company’s rule in South Africa -has any one with the authority of the lord of Mydrecht visited the -colony: on this occasion and in 1792-3, when the high commissioners -Nederburgh and Frykenius exercised an unqualified dictatorship. It was a -tremendous trust to bestow upon any individual. Under the commission or -general power of attorney which he held, the lord of Mydrecht could -appoint or displace any officials, create any new office or dispense -with any old one, suspend or alter any law or regulation, and issue new -laws, with the assurance that all he might do in this respect would be -confirmed and ratified by the Assembly of Seventeen.</p> - -<p>The lord of Mydrecht was in Capetown from the 19th of April to the 16th -of July 1685, and during that time he made many new laws, most of which -proved to be beneficial, though a few were not in accordance with the -spirit of our day.<a name="FNanchor_44_43" id="FNanchor_44_43"></a><a href="#Footnote_44_43" class="fnanchor">[44]</a> These, however, need not be referred to here: -what is necessary to be mentioned is his making a grant of land to Simon -van der Stel. He found that official performing excellent service, and -throwing his whole heart into his duty, while receiving only the -trifling salary and the emoluments of a commander. If he had raised his -salary and increased his emoluments, every other official of similar -rank in the service would have claimed to be dealt with in the same way, -and he did not see fit to promote him to the rank of governor and give -him the larger income which that office carried with it. Instead<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_179" id="page_179"></a>{179}</span> of -doing this, he suspended the orders of the directors of the 26th of -April 1668, which forbade the commander and the members of the council -from cultivating more ground than a little garden and owning more cattle -than they needed for their own use,<a name="FNanchor_45_44" id="FNanchor_45_44"></a><a href="#Footnote_45_44" class="fnanchor">[45]</a> and on the 13th of July 1685 he -granted to Simon van der Stel eight hundred and ninety-one morgen and a -fraction of ground just beyond Wynberg in full property. This estate the -commander named Constantia, and it has been so called ever since.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Promotion of Simon van der Stel.</div> - -<p>The circumstances of this grant were peculiar. Simon van der Stel and -some of the other officials deserved encouragement, and the lord of -Mydrecht regarded this as the easiest way of rewarding them, though no -one but the commander availed himself of it. The Huguenot and Dutch -immigrants of a few years later were still unthought of, and the demand -for produce of all kinds was so much greater than the few colonists then -in the country could meet that there was not the slightest fear of the -officials competing with the burghers. The land granted too was so close -to the castle that it could be reached in little more than an hour, so -that the owner need never be absent from his duty or pass a night away -from his residence. For these reasons the directors confirmed the grant, -but they took the precaution of announcing a few years later that it was -an exceptional one and that the law of 1668 was still in full force.</p> - -<p>Simon van der Stel, promoted to be governor in June 1691, with a salary -of £16 13<i>s.</i> 4<i>d.</i> a month, and in 1692 to be councillor extraordinary -of Netherlands India, a position which added to his emoluments as well -as to his<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_180" id="page_180"></a>{180}</span> dignity, remained at the head of the administration of the -Cape Colony until February 1699, when at his own request, made in 1696, -he retired, and he spent the remainder of his life upon his farm -Constantia, where he died on the 24th of June 1712.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>As a mark of the estimation in which he was held by the directors, on -the 26th of September 1697 they appointed his eldest son, Willem Adriaan -van der Stel, to be his successor, with the full title, salary, and -emoluments which the retiring official had earned by his long and -faithful services.<a name="FNanchor_46_45" id="FNanchor_46_45"></a><a href="#Footnote_46_45" class="fnanchor">[46]</a> On the 31st of July 1698 the newly appointed -governor received at Amsterdam his final instructions from the -directors, and parted from them with their good wishes for his welfare. -He and his family left Holland with the first ship that sailed -thereafter for India, and in January 1699 reached Capetown, but he was -not installed in office until the 11th of February.</p> - -<p>What kind of man Willem Adriaan van der Stel was in person cannot be -ascertained from any document in the archives of the Netherlands or of -the Cape Colony, or from anything contained in the vast mass of printed -matter of the period concerning him. He may have been tall and stout or -he may have been small, he may have been darker coloured than his -father, for atavism sometimes plays curious freaks in this respect, or -he may have been as light skinned as a pure Netherlander: there are no -means of getting information on this now. But one thing can be said of -him with certainty: that before he became governor of the Cape Colony he -had borne a good character, and had not displayed those vices which at a -later date made his name infamous. There is a Dutch proverb <i>De -gelegenheid dieven en moordenaars maakt</i>, Opportunity makes thieves and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_181" id="page_181"></a>{181}</span> -murderers, and in his case the opportunity was wanting as long as he -resided in Amsterdam. He had been an official in that city for ten -years, had even been a schepen, and if his conduct had not been -upright—outwardly at least—he would not have secured the favour of the -directors of the East India Company, men who knew him well personally.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Condition of the Settlement.</div> - -<p>The condition of the settlement was at this time very different from -what it had been when his father arrived. The Huguenot refugees had come -from Europe and been located in the lovely valleys where so many of -their descendants still reside. An even greater number of Dutch families -and orphan girls had migrated to South Africa, and had been located side -by side with the French or by themselves around the Tigerberg, so that -all the land as far as the Groeneberg beyond the present village of -Wellington was occupied, though sparsely. There were three separate -congregations in the settlement, though as yet there was a church -building at Stellenbosch only. In Capetown divine service was still held -in a hall in the castle, and at Drakenstein in a farmer’s house or under -an improvised screen. Wheatfields, vineyards, orchards, and gardens were -scattered over the land, each with a thatched cottage on its border, -cattle and sheep grazed on the hill sides, and here and there young oaks -were beginning to beautify the scene. The view was fair, but concord was -wanting in the settlement. Between the Dutch and the French there was -little goodwill, for national prejudices kept them from being real -friends, though a few intermarriages had already taken place.</p> - -<p>The Dutch reformed—identical with the French evangelical—was the state -church, and all officials were required to be members of it. No other -public worship was tolerated. But there was no inquisition, and in a -man’s own house he was free to worship God in any manner he pleased. -This was the system of the Northern Netherlands, and it was the system -of the Cape Colony. No Roman<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_182" id="page_182"></a>{182}</span> Catholic was sent out as an emigrant, but -there were some of that creed in the Company’s service, and when any of -these took their discharge in South Africa they were not interfered -with, provided they exercised their devotions within doors. By their -fellow citizens, however, they were not favourably regarded, for their -tenets were supposed to be dangerous to freedom.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>The farmers knew no want of plain wholesome food, but they were fain to -be content with few luxuries. Their dwellings were in general small and -to modern ideas scantily furnished, as they had not been here long -enough to acquire the means to provide more than was barely necessary -for shelter and the simplest needs. The picturesque and commodious -houses with their ornamented gables and high stoeps, now so much -admired, only made their appearance when more than half a century from -the arrival of Willem Adriaan van der Stel had passed away, and with -them was first seen the massive furniture still occasionally met with. -Lying in the loft or on the beams of most of the cottages was a coffin, -kept in readiness for its eventual purpose, but used in the mean time as -a receptacle for odds and ends.<a name="FNanchor_47_46" id="FNanchor_47_46"></a><a href="#Footnote_47_46" class="fnanchor">[47]</a></p> - -<p>The farming utensils were extremely crude, the plough especially, with -but one stilt, being as clumsy as it well could be. Black slaves had -been introduced, but were not yet numerous, and Hottentots in -considerable bands still roamed over the pastures beyond the settlement, -some of whom occasionally took service with the colonists in order to -obtain tobacco and strong drink.</p> - -<p>The country people were almost exclusively occupied in agricultural or -pastoral pursuits. One of the Huguenot immigrants, Isaac Taillefer by -name, found time from the care of his vineyard to manufacture coarse -felt hats, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_183" id="page_183"></a>{183}</span> some of the women spun yarn and knitted socks and -stockings. What leather was needed was tanned by the farmers themselves, -whose womenfolk also made what soap and candles were required for home -use. Here and there one acted as a blacksmith, a waggonmaker, a -carpenter, or a shoemaker, in addition to looking after his farm, but as -yet there was no scope for mechanical industry on a large scale. The -farmers were in the habit of visiting each others’ houses frequently, -and on such occasions the men were entertained with wine and tobacco and -the women with coffee or tea.<a name="FNanchor_48_47" id="FNanchor_48_47"></a><a href="#Footnote_48_47" class="fnanchor">[48]</a> At meal times visitors were invited to -partake as a matter of course.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Life in the Cape Colony.</div> - -<p>It was a simple condition of life, not favourable to great expansion of -the mind, and not free from care, but not necessarily attended with -unhappiness.</p> - -<p>Mixed with these worthy colonists was a sprinkling of men of loose -habits, mostly deserters from the garrison in Capetown or from ships, or -who had been discharged from the Company’s service without proper -caution. These men professed to desire to take service with the farmers, -but were in general vagabonds and a pest to the community. Yet no one -cared to give them up to justice, for it was regarded as the duty of the -government, not of the colonists, to apprehend them and punish them for -crime or expel them from the country as vagrants.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_184" id="page_184"></a>{184}</span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>The directors of the East India Company were desirous of increasing the -number of colonists, as they required larger supplies of provisions than -had hitherto been obtainable at the Cape, and they also wished to -strengthen the defensive force here in case of an attack by an enemy. -They were still sending out a few Huguenots almost every year, mixed -with a larger number of Dutch, but the ill-feeling between the two -nationalities in the colony, and more than this the menacing attitude of -the French king towards the Netherlands, with the suspicion that perhaps -the refugees might not prove loyal to a country that gave shelter and -religious dominance indeed, but that in language, customs, and form of -government was foreign and strange,<a name="FNanchor_49_48" id="FNanchor_49_48"></a><a href="#Footnote_49_48" class="fnanchor">[49]</a> caused them to alter their plans -soon after the new governor was installed in office. On the 16th of June -1700 they appointed a commission to consider the matter, and in -conformity with the report sent in, on the 22nd of the same month they -adopted a resolution to authorise the different chambers to send out -men, women, and children, providing them with free passages, but taking -care that they were either Dutch citizens or subjects of a German state -not carrying on commerce by sea, that they were either of the reformed -or of the Lutheran faith, and that<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_185" id="page_185"></a>{185}</span> they were agriculturists or -vinedressers; but not to send out any more French.<a name="FNanchor_50_49" id="FNanchor_50_49"></a><a href="#Footnote_50_49" class="fnanchor">[50]</a></p> - -<div class="sidenote">Emigration to South Africa.</div> - -<p>Emigration to South Africa, according to the terms of this resolution, -continued until the 15th of July 1707, when it was stopped,<a name="FNanchor_51_50" id="FNanchor_51_50"></a><a href="#Footnote_51_50" class="fnanchor">[51]</a> and from -that date onward the European population of the colony was increased -only by natural means and by the discharge of servants of the Company.</p> - -<p>On the 27th of June 1699 the directors had strictly prohibited the -members of the council of policy and of the high court of justice from -trading in cattle in any way,<a name="FNanchor_52_51" id="FNanchor_52_51"></a><a href="#Footnote_52_51" class="fnanchor">[52]</a> so that the interests of the colonists -seemed to them to be firmly secured. The chief officials, forbidden to -carry on agriculture or cattle breeding on their own account and to -speculate in oxen and sheep, could not do any damage to the farmers by -competing with them. In the large garden in Table Valley experiments -were being made at the Company’s expense in the cultivation of foreign -and indigenous plants, so that the colonists could learn<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_186" id="page_186"></a>{186}</span> without cost -what was most proper to cultivate and how to cultivate it. More -favourable terms could hardly be offered to suitable emigrants: free -transport, grant of land in freehold without charge, security against -competition.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>Unfortunately the colonists were ignorant of the last of these -conditions, for the orders of the directors were kept concealed from -them. Every member of the council of policy was sworn to secrecy, and -the contents of no document were made known without the governor’s -order. With our knowledge, now that the old records are open for -examination, it is with a feeling akin to amazement that we observe in -the struggle for justice about to be recorded that the burghers made no -use of a weapon which would at once have demolished their opponent, and -employed only instruments feebler in every way because they were not so -capable of being handled. More than once during the administration of -the Dutch East India Company in South Africa, the burghers complained, -and with reason, that they did not know by what laws they were governed. -Here was a case in point. A wise and salutary law, a law making -provision against gross oppression and wrong, was a dead letter for -years because it was kept concealed in inaccessible archives, and could -therefore be violated with impunity by faithless officials.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_187" id="page_187"></a>{187}</span></p> - -<h4><a name="II-3" id="II-3"></a>II.<br /><br /> -<span class="smcap">Ordinary Events during the Administration of Governor Willem Adriaan van -der Stel.</span></h4> - -<div class="sidenote">Governor Willem Adriaan van der Stel.</div> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">Willem Adriaan</span>—or Wilhem Adriaen as he wrote his given name—van der -Stel, councillor extraordinary of Netherlands India and governor of the -Cape Colony and its dependency the island of Mauritius, had resided here -for several years after his arrival with his father in October 1679, and -had held different situations in the public service, so that he was well -acquainted with the condition of the country. In the proceedings of the -council of policy he is mentioned on the 16th of December 1680 as -receiving the appointments of secretary of the orphan chamber and of the -matrimonial court, on the 19th of April 1682 as having acted as issuer -of stores and as being then promoted to be a book-keeper, and on the -26th of December 1682 as being issuer of stores and then promoted to be -treasurer.<a name="FNanchor_53_52" id="FNanchor_53_52"></a><a href="#Footnote_53_52" class="fnanchor">[53]</a> After a sojourn here of several years he returned to -Amsterdam, but the exact date of his removal is unknown. He was -accompanied to South Africa when he became governor by his wife, Maria -de Haase by name, and several children.</p> - -<p>Notwithstanding the pains taken by the late governor to promote -tree-planting, there was a scarcity of timber and fuel at the Cape. It -was a difficult matter to supply the ships with firewood. Some skippers -reported that in<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_188" id="page_188"></a>{188}</span> passing by two islands, named Dina and Marseveen, in -latitude 41° or 42° south, and about four hundred sea miles from the -Cape, they had observed fine forests, which they suggested should be -examined. The master of the galiot <i>Wezel</i> was thereupon instructed to -proceed to the locality indicated, to inspect the forests carefully, and -ascertain what quantity of timber was to be had. The <i>Wezel</i> sailed from -Table Bay on the 31st of March 1699, but returned on the 13th of May -with a report that the search for the islands had been fruitless.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>The governor had instructions from the directors to attend more -carefully to arboriculture than had yet been done, and they complained -that if a sufficient number of trees had been planted in earlier years -there would be no necessity to send timber from Europe for housebuilding -purposes and no want of fuel for the ships. These instructions he -carried out, and during the first winter after his arrival twenty -thousand young oaks were planted in the kloofs at Stellenbosch and -Drakenstein, where the native forests had been exhausted, and over ten -thousand were set out in the Cape peninsula. In the winter of 1701 a -further supply was sent to Stellenbosch from the nursery in Table -Valley, and the landdrost was instructed to have them planted along the -streets.</p> - -<p>On the 23rd of November 1699 the governor with a party of attendants set -out on a tour of inspection of the settlement. He visited Stellenbosch, -Drakenstein, and the farms about the Tigerberg, where he found some -persons to whom no ground had yet been allotted. The country was -inhabited by Europeans, though thinly, nearly as far as the present -village of Hermon. Small Hottentot kraals were scattered about, of which -the occupants were found to be very poor and very lazy.</p> - -<p>Keeping down the Berg river, the range of mountains on the right was -reported to be tenanted by Bushmen, who were in the habit of descending -from their fastnesses and plundering the burghers and Hottentots below. -The range<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_189" id="page_189"></a>{189}</span> was on this account known as the Obiqua mountains. The -governor crossed over at a place since termed the Roodezand pass, just -beyond the gorge through which the Little Berg river flows, and entered -the valley now called the Tulbagh basin.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Description of the Tulbagh Basin.</div> - -<p>Though not greatly elevated, this basin is in the second of the steps by -which the mainland of South Africa rises from the ocean to the central -plain. If a cane with a large round head be laid upon soft ground, the -mark will give an idea of its form. The hollow caused by the head of the -cane will represent the basin, the long narrow groove will indicate the -valley between the Obiqua mountains and a parallel range ten or eleven -kilometres farther inland. The Breede river has its source in the third -terrace, and, rushing down a gorge in the interior range, now called -Michell’s pass, flows south-eastward through the valley. Close to -Michell’s pass the mountain retires, but shortly sweeps round and joins -the Obiqua range, the keystone of the arch thus formed being the Great -Winterhoek, two thousand and eighty-five metres in height, the loftiest -peak visible from Capetown.</p> - -<p>It was the basin thus enclosed that the governor and his party entered. -It was found to be drained by the Little Berg river and its numerous -tributary rills, whose waters escape through a gorge in the Obiqua -mountains, and flow north-westward. The watershed between the Breede and -Little Berg rivers is merely a gentle swell in the surface of the -ground. At the foot of Michell’s pass, at the present day, a mill-race -is led out of the Breede and turned into the Little Berg, and thus a few -shovelsful of earth can divert water from the Indian to the Atlantic -Ocean.</p> - -<p>The basin excels all other parts of South Africa in the variety and -beauty of its wild flowers, which in early spring almost conceal the -ground. It was too late in the season for the governor’s party to see it -at its best, still the visitors were charmed with its appearance. Very -few<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_190" id="page_190"></a>{190}</span> Hottentots were found. In the recesses of the mountains were -forests of magnificent trees, and although the timber could not be -removed to the Cape, it would be of great use to residents. Immigrants -were arriving in every fleet from the Netherlands, so the governor -resolved to form a settlement in the valley, where cattle breeding could -be carried on to advantage. Agriculture, except to supply the wants of -residents, could not be pursued with profit, owing to the difficulty of -transport. The governor named the basin the Land of Waveren, in honour -of a family of position in Amsterdam. The range of mountains enclosing -the valley on the inland side and stretching away as far as the eye -could reach, as yet without a name, he called the Witsenberg, after the -justly-esteemed burgomaster Nicolaas Witsen of Amsterdam. The land of -Waveren has long since become the Tulbagh basin, but one may be allowed -to hope that the Witsenberg will always be known by the honoured name it -has borne since 1699.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>Several burghers who had been living at Drakenstein were now permitted -to graze their cattle at Riebeek’s Kasteel, and on the 31st of July 1700 -some recent immigrants from Europe were sent to occupy the land of -Waveren. As it was the rainy season, the families of the immigrants -remained at the Cape until rough cottages could be put up for their -accommodation. At the same time a corporal and six soldiers were sent to -form a military post in the valley for the protection of the colonists. -This post was termed the Waveren outstation, and was maintained for many -years. On the 16th of October several additional families were forwarded -to the new district to obtain a living as graziers.</p> - -<p>For a time after his arrival the Company’s garden in Table Valley was -kept by the new governor in the same state of cultivation as that in -which his father left it. To its former attractions he added a -museum—chiefly of skeletons and stuffed animals—and a small menagerie -of wild animals of the country, to which purposes one of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_191" id="page_191"></a>{191}</span> enclosed -spaces at the upper end was devoted. Near the centre of the garden he -erected a lodge for the reception of distinguished visitors and for his -own recreation, which building by enlargement and alterations in later -years became the governor’s town residence.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Illegal Cattle Trade.</div> - -<p>As the garden in Capetown was thus reduced in size, and that at -Rondebosch did not produce as large a quantity of vegetables and fruit -as was required for the hospital, the garrison, and the ships, in the -winter of 1700 Governor Willem Adriaan van der Stel caused a new one to -be laid out a short distance beyond Rustenburg, and spent much money in -its ornamentation. As originally planned, this garden and the -plantations attached to it covered forty morgen of ground; but in course -of time from twenty to thirty morgen more were added to it. A -superintendent was stationed here with assistants and a strong party of -slaves, by whose labour the place soon became exceedingly attractive. In -this garden, which bore the name of Newlands, a small lodge was erected, -which grew half a century later into the favourite country residence of -the governors.</p> - -<p>Ever since 1658 trade between the burghers and the Hottentots was -strictly forbidden. The chief object was to prevent any act that might -bring on a collision with the nomadic people or irritate them in any -way. In opposition to the law, however, parties of deserters and other -persons of loose character carried on a cattle trade, and were often -guilty of conduct that cannot be distinguished from robbery. Governor -Simon van der Stel thought to check this by threatening more severe -punishment, and on the 19th of October 1697 he issued a placaat in which -the barter of cattle from Hottentots was prohibited, under penalty of -whipping, branding, banishment, and confiscation of property.</p> - -<p>The directors disapproved of this. They wished to encourage the -colonists, and for that purpose they had already, on the 14th of July -1695, issued instructions that their own farming operations should be -gradually discontinued, and that the cultivation of the vine and wheat<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_192" id="page_192"></a>{192}</span> -together with the rearing of cattle should be left entirely to the -burghers. They were now disposed to allow the colonists to purchase -cattle from the Hottentots and fatten them for sale to such persons as -would contract to supply the hospital, the garrison, and the ships with -beef and mutton. They therefore annulled the placaat, and on the 27th of -June 1699 issued instructions that the cattle trade should be thrown -open, care being taken that the Hottentots suffered no ill-treatment in -connection with it. Servants of the Company having seats in the council -of policy or in the court of justice were excluded from this trade, and -forbidden to supply meat for the public service.<a name="FNanchor_54_53" id="FNanchor_54_53"></a><a href="#Footnote_54_53" class="fnanchor">[54]</a></p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>This order reached Capetown by the flute <i>De Boer</i> on the 24th of -November, but the governor, who paid little regard to the instructions -of the directors when they clashed with his own interests, did not make -it known at the time. After long delay tenders were called for, and in -February 1700 the burgher Henning Huising entered into a contract to -supply the garrison, hospital, and Company’s fleets with beef and mutton -at 5½d. a kilogramme, he to have the use of the Company’s slaughter -houses, and as a cattle run the whole of the district of Groenekloof -that was not occupied by Hottentots. The contract was signed -provisionally for ten years, but the directors reduced it to five. With -this transaction the Company designed to relinquish sending out -expeditions to purchase cattle, as<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_193" id="page_193"></a>{193}</span> had been the custom for nearly half -a century; and henceforth it was only when working oxen were needed in -greater numbers than the burghers could supply that military bartering -parties went out. By a placaat of the council of policy presided over by -the commissioner Wouter Valckenier, on the 28th of February 1700 the -trade was thrown open to the burghers, with such restrictions as were -considered necessary to prevent its abuse.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Training of the Colonists.</div> - -<p>From this date cattle-breeding became a favourite pursuit with yearly -increasing numbers or colonists. There was as much to be made by it as -by agriculture, and it was attended with less expense and less anxiety. -The government gave permission to applicants to use land for grazing -purposes at some defined locality north or north-east of Stellenbosch, -but if the pasture failed or did not prove as good as was anticipated, -the occupiers did not hesitate to seek other and better places. East of -the Hottentots-Holland mountains permission was not given to the -burghers in general to graze oxen and sheep until after the governor’s -recall in 1707, as he kept the pastures there as far as the Ziekenhuis -in one direction and Zoetendal’s Vlei in another for his own use and -that of one of his brothers. In defiance of the instructions or the 27th -of June 1699 and of the avowed policy of the Company at the time, he -himself was rapidly becoming a cattle farmer on a very extensive scale.</p> - -<p>Many men and women were thus undergoing a special training for pushing -their way deeper into the continent. They were learning to relish a diet -of little else than animal food, and to use the flesh of game largely in -order to spare their flocks and herds. They were becoming accustomed -also to live in tent waggons for months together, so that the want of -houses soon ceased to be regarded as a matter of much hardship by these -dwellers in the wilds. They were acquiring a fondness for the healthy -life of the open country, with its freedom from care and restraint, and -its simple pleasures. For the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_194" id="page_194"></a>{194}</span> town, with its government officials and -law agents and tradesmen and speculators of many kinds always seeking to -take advantage of their simplicity, they acquired such a dislike that -they never visited it when they could avoid doing so. They took with -them no other books than the bible and the psalms in metre, so their -children came to regard education in secular subjects as entirely -unnecessary. In self-reliance, however, they were receiving the most -complete training possible. The tastes and habits which were thus formed -were transmitted to their offspring, and in a few generations there was -a body of frontiersmen adapted, as no other Europeans ever were, for -acting as the pioneers of civilisation in such a country as South -Africa.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>To encourage the cattle breeders, no rent for ground was charged until -1714, and no other tax than the one for district purposes was laid upon -their stock. A little experience proved that occasional change of -pasture was advantageous in the rearing of oxen and sheep, and the -authorities made no objection to the graziers going yearly for three or -four months to a tract of land far from that on which they lived at -other times. This grew into a custom for each one to select as winter -grazing ground a particular part of the karoo on the third terrace -upward from the sea, his right to which was respected by all the others, -though it was not directly recognised by the government.</p> - -<p>With the enlargement of the settlement, fresh troubles arose with the -Bushmen. In March 1701 a band of those people drove off forty head of -cattle from Gerrit Cloete’s farm at Riebeek’s Kasteel. A commando of ten -soldiers and thirty burghers was sent after the depredators, but was -unable to find them. A temporary military post was then established at -Vogelvlei, at the foot of the Obiqua mountains.</p> - -<p>This protection soon proved insufficient. In April Gerrit Cloete was -again robbed, and eleven head of cattle were<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_195" id="page_195"></a>{195}</span> lifted from the Waveren -post. A commando of twelve soldiers and fifty burghers was then -organised to clear the country of Bushmen, but did not succeed in -effecting its object. It was hardly disbanded when one hundred and -thirty-seven head of cattle were lifted within sight of the Vogelvlei -post. Upon this a reinforcement of six mounted soldiers was sent to each -of the two posts already occupied, and twelve men were stationed at -Riebeek’s Kasteel.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Strife with the Bushmen.</div> - -<p>The Goringhaiqua and Cochoqua Hottentots now tendered their services to -assist the Europeans against the Bushmen, and requested that the captain -Kees, who was then living at Groenekloof, might be recognised as their -leader in the expedition. But it was discovered that Kees, who had -suffered severely from the Bushmen, had already joined a commando of -Gerrit Cloete’s friends, and that the joint force was scouring the -Obiqua mountains. On receipt of this information, the governor sent -instructions to the landdrost of Stellenbosch to have Cloete arrested -and brought to trial for waging war without leave, and to ascertain and -send in the names of those who had joined him in the expedition.</p> - -<p>The prosecution fell through, and the governor thought it best after -this to send out only parties of soldiers against the robbers. In -September one of these parties recovered a hundred and twenty head of -cattle belonging partly to burghers and partly to Hottentots; but in the -following month more than two hundred head belonging to the contractor -Henning Huising were lifted at Groenekloof, and a patrol of thirty-five -soldiers was obliged to fall back from Piketberg, where the Bushmen made -a resolute stand.</p> - -<p>In November a sergeant and ten men were sent to form a permanent -military post at Groenekloof. In the land of Waveren forty head of -cattle, mostly belonging to Etienne Terreblanche, were seized by -Bushmen, and one of the soldiers who tried to recover them was killed. -Two hundred and seventy-four head belonging to Hottentot<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_196" id="page_196"></a>{196}</span> kraals at -Riebeek’s Kasteel were driven off, but a party of soldiers followed the -robbers to Twenty-four Rivers, and retook most of the spoil. In trying -to afford protection, no distinction was made by the government between -burghers and Hottentots, the officers at the outposts being instructed -to do their utmost to recover cattle stolen by Bushmen and deliver them -to their proper owners, whoever these might be.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>In 1702 the military patrols were kept busy on behalf of the Hottentots, -for no complaints of depredations were made by burghers. A large number -of cattle were recovered and restored to various kraals, and so many -Bushmen were shot that those who were left seem to have been terrified. -At any rate they gave less trouble during the next few years, though -occasionally it was considered necessary to chastise them. The sergeants -and corporals in command of the outposts were directed to endeavour to -induce the Bushmen to keep the peace. When those wild people committed -depredations they were to be followed up and punished, but under no -circumstances were they to be attacked without provocation. The ruthless -nature of the warfare pursued by the Bushmen was exemplified in February -1702, when a Hottentot captain came to the castle and reported that they -had killed five of his wives and every one of his children.</p> - -<p>There is little else on record concerning the Hottentots at this period. -Some of them made such complaints of the rapacity and violence of -burgher trading parties that the council of policy provisionally -suspended the liberty of free barter, and, owing to the governor’s -representations, in 1703 the assembly of seventeen withdrew the -privilege. Commercial intercourse between the two races was again made -illegal, and the European graziers were chiefly depended upon to provide -as many cattle as were needed.</p> - -<p>In September 1704 several Namaqua captains visited the Cape, when an -agreement of friendship was made with them. This tribe, like the others -with which the Europeans had<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_197" id="page_197"></a>{197}</span> come in contact, at once accepted as a -matter of course the position of vassals. This was shown in October -1705, when three Namaqua captains came to the castle for the purpose of -requesting the governor to confirm their authority. They were kindly -treated, their request was complied with, and they left carrying with -them presents of beads and other trifles and copper-headed canes upon -which the new names given to them—Plato, Jason, and Vulcan—were -inscribed. Thenceforth they were termed allies of the honourable -Company. The number of captains mentioned as having applied for staffs -is an indication that the tribes were now more broken up than formerly. -Sometimes a clan requested the appointment of a regent, as its -hereditary captain was a minor. There are instances of clans applying -for a brother of a deceased captain to be appointed in his stead, but in -such cases they always gave as a reason that the dead chief had left no -children. Feuds between clans of the same tribe caused frequent -disturbances, though these same clans usually acted together against the -adjoining tribe.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Ecclesiastical Matters.</div> - -<p>After the removal in 1694 of the reverend Pierre Simond to Drakenstein, -there was no resident clergyman at Stellenbosch for nearly six years. -Once in three months the clergyman of the Cape visited the vacant church -and administered the sacraments, and occasionally Mr. Simond attended -for the same purpose. On the remaining Sundays the sick-comforter -conducted the services. At length the assembly of seventeen appointed -the reverend Hercules van Loon, who had once been acting clergyman of -the Cape, resident clergyman of Stellenbosch. He arrived from the -Netherlands on the 11th of April 1700.</p> - -<p>In April 1678 the foundation of a church in Table Valley had been laid, -but with that the work had ceased. For another quarter of a century -services were conducted in a large hall within the castle. But in course -of time the poor funds accumulated to a considerable amount, and the -consistory then consented to apply a sum equal to<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_198" id="page_198"></a>{198}</span> £2,200 of our money -to the erection of the building. As the original plan was now considered -too small, it was enlarged, and a new foundation stone was laid by the -governor on the 28th of December 1700. By the close of the year 1703 the -edifice was finished, except the tower. The first service in it was held -on the 6th of January 1704, the reverend Petrus Kalden being the -preacher. Of the building then constructed the tower and one of the end -walls still remain, the last forming part of the eastern wall of the -present church.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>At Drakenstein service was conducted sometimes in the front room of a -farmer’s house, sometimes in a large barn, or under a screen, there -being as yet no church building. There was a French clergyman, who was -assisted by a French sick-comforter. In April 1700 a sick-comforter and -schoolmaster was first appointed for the Dutch portion of the -congregation, that had previously been neglected. An able and zealous -man named Jacobus de Groot, who was returning from India to Europe, was -detained here for the purpose.</p> - -<p>The reverend Mr. Simond had prepared a new version in metre of the -psalms of David, which he was desirous of submitting to a synod of the -French churches, as great interest had been taken in the work by the -Huguenots in Europe. He therefore tendered his resignation, to the -regret of the Drakenstein people, and requested permission to return to -the Netherlands. The assembly of seventeen consented to his request, on -condition of his remaining until the arrival of the reverend Hendrik -Bek, whom they appointed to succeed him. Mr. Bek reached the Cape in -April 1702, and was installed at Drakenstein a few weeks later.</p> - -<p>There was a desire on the part of the directors that in the families of -the Huguenot immigrants the French language should be superseded by the -Dutch as speedily as possible. It was only a question of time, for the -proportion of French-speaking people was too small compared<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_199" id="page_199"></a>{199}</span> with those -of Dutch and German descent for their language to remain long in use in -the mixed community. To expedite its decay the new clergyman was -directed to conduct the public services in Dutch, though he had been -selected because he was conversant with French and could therefore -admonish, comfort, and pray with the aged Huguenots who understood no -other tongue. Instructions were at the same time sent out that the -school children were to be taught to read and write Dutch only. The -sick-comforter Paul Roux was not prevented, however, from ministering to -the Huguenots of any age in whichever tongue was most familiar to them.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Ecclesiastical Matters.</div> - -<p>This arrangement created much dissatisfaction. The French immigrants -sent in a memorial requesting that Mr. Bek should be instructed to -preach in their language once a fortnight. They stated that they -comprised over a hundred adults, not more than twenty-five of whom -understood sufficient Dutch to gather the meaning of a sermon. There was -also even a larger number of children of their nationality. The council -of policy recommended the memorial to the favourable consideration of -the assembly of seventeen; but before action could be taken upon it, Mr. -Bek requested to be removed to Stellenbosch as successor to Mr. Van -Loon, who died by his own hand on the 27th of June 1704. The directors -then appointed the reverend Engelbertus Franciscus le Boucq<a name="FNanchor_55_54" id="FNanchor_55_54"></a><a href="#Footnote_55_54" class="fnanchor">[55]</a> -clergyman of Drakenstein, and gave instructions that upon his arrival -from Batavia Mr. Bek should be transferred to Stellenbosch. They gave -the council of policy permission to allow the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_200" id="page_200"></a>{200}</span> French language to be -used alternately with the Dutch in the church services at Drakenstein, -if it should seem advisable to do so.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>The newly appointed minister did not reach the Cape until the 30th of -March 1707. Mr. Bek then took charge of the Stellenbosch congregation, -which had been for nearly three years without a clergyman, except once -in three months when he had preached and administered the sacraments. -Mr. Le Boucq should have taken up the duties in the parish to which he -had been appointed, but instead of doing so, he got into difficulties at -the Cape, as will be related in another chapter, and Drakenstein was for -several years without a resident clergyman.</p> - -<p>In the evening of the 3rd of April 1702 the outward bound ship -<i>Meresteyn</i>, an Indiaman of the first class, ran ashore on Jutten -Island, and in less than an hour broke into little pieces. Her skipper -was endeavouring to reach Saldanha Bay, and the ship was in a heavy surf -before any one on board suspected danger. The majority of her crew were -lost, as also were two women and five children passengers for the Cape. -Ninety-nine persons managed to reach the shore.</p> - -<p>In March 1702 a marauding party, consisting of forty-five white men and -the same number of Hottentots, whose deeds were afterwards prominently -brought to light, left Stellenbosch, and remained away seven months. -They travelled eastward until they reached the neighbourhood of the Fish -river, where at daylight one morning they were attacked unexpectedly and -without provocation by a band of Xosa warriors who were fugitives from -their own country and were living in friendship with the Hottentots. The -assailants were beaten off, followed up, and when they turned and made -another stand, were defeated again, losing many men. One European was -killed. The party then commenced a career of robbery, excusing their -acts to themselves under the plea that they were undertaken in -retaliation. They fell upon the Gonaquas and other Hottentot hordes, -shot many of them, and drove off their cattle.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_201" id="page_201"></a>{201}</span></p> - -<p>The perpetrators of these scandalous acts were not brought to justice. -In after years when the governor and the colonists were at variance, and -each party was endeavouring to blacken the reputation of the other, the -governor stated that they were in league with the colonists and were too -numerous to be punished without ruining half the settlement. This -statement was, however, indignantly contradicted by the most respectable -burghers, who asserted that the marauding Europeans were miscreants -without families or homes, being chiefly fugitives from justice and men -of loose character who had been imprudently discharged from the -Company’s service. The burghers maintained that they ought to have been -punished, and that the real reason why they were not prosecuted was that -the governor’s agents had obtained cattle for him in the same manner, -which would be brought to light at a trial. The names of the forty-five -white men who formed the robber band are given. Forty of them are quite -unknown in South Africa at the present day, and the remaining five are -of that class that cannot be distinguished with certainty, so that the -statements of the burghers are strongly borne out.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Expedition to Natal.</div> - -<p>Owing chiefly to the scarcity of timber and fuel, in 1705 it was -resolved to send an expedition to Natal and the adjoining coast, to make -an inspection of the country and particularly of the forests there. The -schooner <i>Centaurus</i>, which had been built at Natal in 1686-7, -principally of timber growing on the shore of the inlet, was a proof -that the wood was valuable, for she had been in use nearly fourteen -years before needing repair. The galiot <i>Postlooper</i> was made ready for -the expedition. Her master, Theunis van der Schelling, had visited Natal -when he was mate of the <i>Noord</i> in 1689 and 1690, and therefore knew the -harbour. He was instructed to make a thorough exploration of the -forests, and to frame a chart of the coast. A sailor who was expert in -drawing pictures was sent to take sketches of the scenery.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_202" id="page_202"></a>{202}</span></p> - -<p>The <i>Postlooper</i> sailed from Table Bay on the 20th of November 1705. She -reached Natal on the 29th of December, and found the bar so silted up -that she could only cross at high water. There were not so many cattle -in the neighbourhood as there had been sixteen years before. Wood still -remained on the shores of the inlet in considerable quantities.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>In December 1689 a purchase of the inlet and surrounding land had been -made from the chief then living at Port Natal, and had been recorded in -a formal contract, two copies of which had been drawn up. The one kept -by the Dutch officers was lost when the <i>Noord</i> was wrecked in January -1690, and the master of the <i>Postlooper</i> had therefore received -instructions to endeavour to procure the other, that had been left with -the chief, in order that a notarial copy might be made. The chief who -sold the ground was dead, and his son was now the head of the tribe or -clan, whichever it may have been. Upon Skipper Van der Schelling making -inquiry of him concerning the document, the chief stated that he knew -nothing about it, and supposed it had been buried with his father’s -other effects. It was evident that he did not recognise the sale as -binding upon him or his people.</p> - -<p>At Natal an Englishman was found who gave his name as Vaughan Goodwin, -and who stated that he was a native of London. He had two wives and -several children. His story was that he arrived in February 1699 in a -vessel named the <i>Fidele</i>, and with two others had been left behind by -Captain Stadis, who intended to form a settlement there. They were to -purchase ivory from the blacks, for which purpose goods had been left -with them, and were to keep possession of the place until Captain Stadis -should return, which he promised them would certainly be within three -years; but he had not yet made his appearance. In 1700 the blacks some -distance inland had killed the other white men on account of their -having become robbers.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_203" id="page_203"></a>{203}</span></p> - -<p>The life which Goodwin was leading seemed so attractive to two of the -<i>Postlooper’s</i> crew that they ran away from the vessel. When crossing -the bar in leaving Natal the galiot lurched, and the tiller struck the -skipper in the chest and hurt him so badly that he became unfit for -duty. There was no one on board who could take his place, so the vessel -returned to the Cape without any further attempt at exploration being -made. She dropped anchor again in Table Bay on the 8th of March 1706.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Failure to introduce Woolled Sheep.</div> - -<p>The directors were desirous of procuring sheep’s wool from South Africa, -as some samples sent to Europe were pronounced of excellent quality. -They were of opinion that if it could be produced at seventeen pence -halfpenny a kilogramme, they would be able to make a good profit from -it, and the colonists would have another reliable source of income. -Instructions were sent to the government to have this industry taken in -hand by the burghers. But it was not a pursuit that commended itself to -South African farmers at that time. Although a good many European sheep -had been imported in former years, there were very few of pure breed -left, nearly all having been crossed with the large tailed animal. It -was commonly believed that woolled sheep were more subject to scab than -others, and the havoc created by that disease was so great that the -farmers were in constant dread of it. Then there was the expense of -separate herds. Further the carcase of the woolled sheep was not so -valuable as that of the other, so that the graziers who bred for -slaughter could not be induced even to make experiments.</p> - -<p>In 1700 the government sent home one hundred and twenty-nine kilogrammes -of wool shorn from sheep belonging to the Company. This was received -with favour, but instead of increasing, the quantity fell off in -succeeding years. In 1703 one small bale was all that could be obtained. -It realised about thirty-two pence English money a kilogramme on the -market in Amsterdam. In 1704 a very small quantity was procured, in 1705 -none at all,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_204" id="page_204"></a>{204}</span> and in 1706 fifty-two kilogrammes. In the meantime the -governor took the matter in hand as a private speculation. He collected -all the wool-bearing sheep in the settlement at a farm of his own, wrote -to Europe for rams and ewes of good breed and to Java for some Persian -sheep, and was about to give the industry a fair trial when he was -recalled.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>The governor had previously endeavoured to encourage the production of -silk. He made experiments with the white mulberry, which was found to -grow and thrive well, but the silkworms which he obtained from imported -eggs all died. He then gave up the trial, being of opinion that the -mulberry was in leaf at the wrong season of the year for worms from the -south of Europe.</p> - -<p>A less important but more successful experiment made by this governor -was placing partridges and pheasants on Robben Island to breed.</p> - -<p>From 1698 to 1705 the seasons were very unfavourable for farming, and no -wheat could be exported. In 1700 it became necessary to import rice from -Java, as there was not sufficient grain in the country for the -consumption of the people and the supply of fresh bread to the crews of -ships. In 1705 the long drought broke up, and the crops were very good; -but as the wheat was being reaped heavy rains set in and greatly damaged -it. There was, however, a surplus above the requirements of the country, -and in 1706 exportation was resumed, and fourteen hundred muids were -sent to Batavia.</p> - -<p>The population of the colony was at this time increasing rapidly. The -families of the burghers were generally large, they married at an early -age, and no young women remained single. From Europe every year a few -settlers were received. A custom had come into vogue of allowing -soldiers and convalescent sailors to engage for short periods as -servants to burghers, their wages and cost of maintenance being thus -saved to the Company, while they were at hand in case of need. From a -hundred to a hundred and fifty<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_205" id="page_205"></a>{205}</span> of the garrison and seamen were commonly -out at service. A great many slaves were being introduced from -Madagascar and Mozambique.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Condition of Affairs in India.</div> - -<p>The bad seasons tended to produce a spirit of restlessness among the -farming population, which was increased by the conduct of the principal -officers of the government. Between Willem Adriaan van der Stel and the -colonists of South Africa there was not the slightest feeling of -sympathy, nor could there be between men who had a difficulty in making -more than a frugal livelihood and a governor who was unscrupulous in his -manner of acquiring wealth, and who regarded their interests as entirely -subordinate to his own. In all the official documents of the period -during which he was at the head of affairs, and the quantity is great, -there is not a single expression like “our own Netherlanders” of his -father. He requested the directors, indeed, to send out industrious -Zeeland farmers and no more French cadets, but the sentence displays as -little affection for the one as for the other.</p> - -<p>The condition of things in the country districts was one of discontent, -mingled with indignation towards the governor and some others, the -reasons for which will presently be explained. In Capetown it was -different. The people there could more easily be kept in restraint, and -were less affected by the causes which at this time tended to produce -intense dissatisfaction among the farmers. Those causes were not -trifling ones, as will be seen in the following pages.</p> - -<p>The East India Company had now been a century in existence, and the -honesty and rectitude of conduct which distinguished its officials in -early times were no longer noticeable except in a very few instances. -Its mode of paying its servants, largely by perquisites, had tended to -create a spirit of greed, and most of them were actuated more by the -desire of acquiring wealth with which to retire than of advancing the -interests of the association that employed them. To such an extent was -private<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_206" id="page_206"></a>{206}</span> trading carried on in the East that the Company feared its -utter ruin would be the result. There were even instances of Indian -produce being sent to Europe in its own ships, and transferred to -smuggling vessels off the coast of Holland, when it was landed and sold -stealthily at rates with which the legitimate trade could not compete.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>In November 1699 the directors found it necessary to instruct the -governor-general and council of India to appoint two of the ablest men -they could find to proceed to the various stations and check the abuses. -They were to be empowered to dismiss from the service all of the -Company’s officials who should be found guilty of abusing their trust, -and to confiscate summarily all goods found in their possession which -they were not entitled to have according to the regulations. They did -not then imagine that the man whom they had recently appointed governor -of the Cape settlement would in coming years prove to be the foremost of -all the offenders in this respect.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_207" id="page_207"></a>{207}</span></p> - -<h3><a name="III-3" id="III-3"></a>III.<br /><br /> -<span class="smcap">Faithless Conduct of the Governor.</span></h3> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Faithless Conduct of the Governor.</i></div> - -<p>Willem Adriaan van der Stel, as soon as he assumed the administration, -looked around for some means of acquiring money. The Cape settlement did -not offer such facilities for this purpose as an Indian island or -province would have done, still there were means for making large -profits on trade even here. One plan that he adopted was by -obtaining—purchasing as he termed it, constraining them to sell, as the -burghers called it—from the poorer viticulturists their wines at from -£3 2<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> to £4 3<i>s.</i> 4<i>d.</i> the legger, and selling it to English -and Dutch ships at £28 15<i>s.</i> or more. When these transactions were -brought to light in later years, his explanation was that he had -naturally purchased at as low a rate as he could, and that the ships’ -people were willing to pay more for wines which he had improved by his -skill than for those which the burghers made quite carelessly.<a name="FNanchor_56_55" id="FNanchor_56_55"></a><a href="#Footnote_56_55" class="fnanchor">[56]</a> The -farmers asserted that until his own vineyards were productive he bought -and sold in this manner about one hundred leggers yearly; in the <i>Korte -Deductie</i>, a kind of excuse for his conduct which he published after his -dismissal, he stated that he had not bought and sold twenty leggers -altogether, and there are no means now of ascertaining which statement -is correct. There may have been nothing actually criminal in dealings of -this kind, but they certainly did not tend to create respect, much less -affection, for a governor who could act in this manner.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_208" id="page_208"></a>{208}</span></p> - -<p>This was, however, a small matter compared with the governor’s conduct -in carrying on farming operations on a very large scale on his own -account, in disregard of the Company’s desire to favour the colonists by -relinquishing the breeding of cattle and the cultivation of wheat and -the vine in order that they might have better means of making a living, -and in direct opposition to the express orders of the directors of the -26th of April 1668, the 14th of July 1695, and the 27th of June 1699. In -the first of these instructions the directors had forbidden the members -of the council to have larger gardens or a greater number of cattle than -they required for the use of their own households, and this order had -never been cancelled. The high commissioner Hendrik Adriaan van Rheede, -lord of Mydrecht, had indeed made a grant of Constantia after that date -to the governor’s father, Simon van der Stel, but he possessed very -great and special powers, and the ground was given under circumstances -which no longer existed. No one except the directors themselves or some -official possessing equal authority to that of the lord of Mydrecht -could legally grant land to a governor of the colony.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>In February 1700, when Willem Adriaan van der Stel had been a year at -the head of affairs, a commissioner, Wouter Valckenier by name, holding -authority from the governor-general and council of India to inspect -matters at the Cape and rectify anything that was wrong, on his way from -Batavia to Europe called here, and during his stay took precedence of -all the local officials.<a name="FNanchor_57_56" id="FNanchor_57_56"></a><a href="#Footnote_57_56" class="fnanchor">[57]</a> What representations were made to him -cannot be ascertained, for there is nothing concerning the matter in the -Cape archives or those at the Hague, but at any rate he made<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_209" id="page_209"></a>{209}</span> a grant to -the governor of four hundred morgen of ground at Hottentots-Holland, and -signed a title-deed of it. He could not have foreseen the consequences, -for he knew that the policy of the Company at the time was directly -opposed to the head of the government being engaged in farming, and he -could not have imagined that an official, whose duties required his -presence at the castle almost constantly, would so far forget his -obligations as to leave his post and devote his time and attention to -private affairs. Probably he thought that the possession of a tract of -land at such a distance could signify very little, but he realised -afterwards that he had made a great mistake, for he was one of the -directors of the Company when the grant was annulled on the ground of -its having been improperly and fraudulently obtained.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Farms held by Heads of the Government.</div> - -<p>Of the two precedents for heads of the government holding farms—not -mere gardens—at the Cape,<a name="FNanchor_58_57" id="FNanchor_58_57"></a><a href="#Footnote_58_57" class="fnanchor">[58]</a> both dated from a time when the -settlement was very small, and the land assigned was so close to Table -Valley that it could be cultivated without detriment to the public -service. There was no precedent for a grant to a commander or a governor -at such a distance from the fort or the castle that it could not be -visited in a couple of hours. The policy of the directors recently made -known was entirely opposed to such grants, and Willem Adriaan van der -Stel was perfectly acquainted with that fact, as has already been shown. -This policy remained unaltered ever afterwards. It was again impressed -upon the governor in the strongest language in a despatch from the -directors dated the 28th of October 1705, in which instructions were -given that all the burghers should be permitted to tender for the supply -of the beef and mutton required by the Company, that this should be -regarded as a right belonging<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_210" id="page_210"></a>{210}</span> exclusively to them, and that no servant -of the Company, the governor included, should be allowed to supply any -meat to the ships, the hospital, etc., directly or indirectly.<a name="FNanchor_59_58" id="FNanchor_59_58"></a><a href="#Footnote_59_58" class="fnanchor">[59]</a></p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>The farm at Hottentots-Holland the governor named Vergelegen. He lost no -time in turning it to account, for he immediately began to build upon -it, to break up and cultivate the ground, and to adorn it in every -possible way. The choicest plants from the Company’s gardens were -removed to it, and the Company’s master gardener, Jan Hertog by name, -was sent there to lay out the grounds and superintend the work.<a name="FNanchor_60_59" id="FNanchor_60_59"></a><a href="#Footnote_60_59" class="fnanchor">[60]</a> -Great gangs of slaves<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_211" id="page_211"></a>{211}</span> and a large number of soldiers and convalescent -sailors, who were skilful agriculturists or mechanics,<a name="FNanchor_61_60" id="FNanchor_61_60"></a><a href="#Footnote_61_60" class="fnanchor">[61]</a> were -constantly at work there, until the farm, which he expanded to six -hundred and thirteen morgen, assumed the appearance of the most highly -cultivated ground in South Africa.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Extensive Farming Operations.</div> - -<p>On it were planted over four hundred thousand vines, or fully one-fourth -of the whole number in the colony in 1706. Groves, orchards, and corn -lands were laid out to a corresponding extent.<a name="FNanchor_62_61" id="FNanchor_62_61"></a><a href="#Footnote_62_61" class="fnanchor">[62]</a> On the estate were -built a very commodious dwelling-house, 82·4 by 74 English feet or 25·11 -by 22·55 metres in size and with walls 19½ English feet or 5·94 metres -in height, forming a storey and a half as it is termed at the Cape, a -flour mill, a leather tannery, a workshop for making wooden water pipes, -wine and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_212" id="page_212"></a>{212}</span> grain stores, an overseer’s cottage, a slave lodge, and very -extensive out-buildings.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>Beyond the mountains he had eighteen cattle stations or runs, on which -he kept fully a thousand head of horned cattle and over eighteen -thousand sheep.<a name="FNanchor_63_62" id="FNanchor_63_62"></a><a href="#Footnote_63_62" class="fnanchor">[63]</a></p> - -<p>With the instructions of the directors before him, it is difficult to -imagine how a sane man could have embarked in such an enterprise. If it -should become known, he must be ruined, for his friends and connections -in Amsterdam, though influential, could not support him in opposing the -highest authority. His only hope must therefore have been that his -transactions would never be known in Holland. No ships’ officers were -likely to see, or perhaps even to hear of, Vergelegen and the cattle -stations, and no one in South Africa, he must have thought, would be -likely to report upon it. The burghers knew nothing of the orders that -had been issued—that is very evident,—and probably he thought that -they supposed he was permitted to farm on such a scale. No information -was ever sent by him to the directors concerning Vergelegen, and the -utmost care was taken that in no official document of any kind, of which -duplicates had to be sent to Europe or India, was mention made of the -place or of any of the governor’s farming transactions. Actually for -more than five years the whole thing was kept secret, and it might have -been so for an indefinite time if the governor had not provoked the -burghers to complain of him.</p> - -<p>His inordinate desire to acquire wealth had stifled all feeling of -fidelity to the trust reposed in him by the authorities in Holland. On -the 15th of March 1701 the directors wrote to him and the council that -Carlos II,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_213" id="page_213"></a>{213}</span> king of Spain, had died childless, leaving by will his crown -to Philippe duke of Anjou, grandson of the king of France, that Louis -XIV had thereupon sent troops into the Spanish Netherlands and -garrisoned the principal cities to the very border of the republic, -which had caused the greatest apprehension of danger. The country was -being placed in a condition of defence, and the emperor and the king of -England were preparing for eventualities. The governor and the council -were enjoined to be on their guard.<a name="FNanchor_64_63" id="FNanchor_64_63"></a><a href="#Footnote_64_63" class="fnanchor">[64]</a></p> - -<div class="sidenote">War of the Spanish Succession.</div> - -<p>In another despatch from the directors, dated the 18th of February 1702, -the governor and council were informed that there was every probability -of the outbreak of hostilities. Spain had accepted Philippe as her king, -which was regarded as equivalent to her becoming subject to Louis XIV. -And on the 15th of May 1702 England, Holland, and the Empire issued a -declaration of war against France, Bavaria, and Spain, when the great -contest known in history as the war of the Spanish Succession commenced, -in which our English Marlborough won so much renown. As far as England -and Holland were concerned, the war continued until the 11th of April -1711, when the treaty of Utrecht was signed, so that nearly the whole -term of office of Governor Willem Adriaan van der Stel was a period of -hostilities.</p> - -<p>He was entrusted with the care of what was rightly regarded in Holland -as the frontier fortress of India. He was directed to reflect every -night when he retired to rest that when he awoke in the morning he might -find an enemy ready for attack before the gate of the castle, if due -precautions were not taken. The officer in command of the garrison, Olof -Bergh, was only a captain in rank, and was required to carry out his -instructions. Every evening after prayers it was his duty to give the -password and countersign for the night, to issue directions where<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_214" id="page_214"></a>{214}</span> -sentries were to be placed, and to ascertain that everything connected -with the military department was in proper order. He only could call out -the burghers to aid in the defence of the colony. It was a post of -extreme importance, which required the strictest attention to the -obligations of duty. Tidings frequently came of English or Dutch ships -being captured by French men-of-war and privateers in the Indian sea as -well as in European waters, and although the captures of French ships by -the allies were more numerous, there was nothing extravagant in the -supposition that a few men-of-war with a strong body of troops on board -might sail from some port of France or Spain and attempt to get -possession of the castle of Good Hope. The temptation to do so was very -great. The colony was not thought of, for that was of small importance -in the great war. But if the castle of Good Hope was occupied by a -French garrison, the ships of the Dutch East India Company could be all -seized as they came with their rich cargoes from the East, and one of -the sources of that wealth which enabled the Netherlands republic to -supply the funds for carrying on the war would be cut off.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>Avarice is the blindest of vices, and the eyes of Willem Adriaan van der -Stel were closed to everything except the money that flowed into his -coffers from an estate built upon and cultivated almost entirely at the -Company’s expense,<a name="FNanchor_65_64" id="FNanchor_65_64"></a><a href="#Footnote_65_64" class="fnanchor">[65]</a> and from flocks and herds practically pillaged<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_215" id="page_215"></a>{215}</span> -from the Hottentots. The trust confided to him the governor disregarded -to such an extent that he was frequently absent at his farm Vergelegen -for two to six weeks at a time as the burghers asserted, six or seven -days he himself admitted in his <i>Korte Deductie</i>,<a name="FNanchor_66_65" id="FNanchor_66_65"></a><a href="#Footnote_66_65" class="fnanchor">[66]</a> surely the weakest -attempt as an excuse for such conduct that ever was penned. It was a -journey of twelve hours by a single span of horses from the castle to -Vergelegen, but by keeping relays of fresh teams along the road, as he -did, it could be done in six hours. What might not have happened in even -six hours if a French fleet had sailed into the bay? Fortunately for the -colony, none appeared. But the burghers were certainly justified in the -fear which they expressed that the governor was imperilling the very -existence of the settlement and exposing it to foreign conquest by -absenting himself from his duty.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Faithlessness of the Governor.</div> - -<p>If there were no other charges against him than this one alone, an -honest historian, whose duty it is to expose to scorn the evil deeds of -ignoble men as well as to hold up to admiration the good deeds of the -upright, would<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_216" id="page_216"></a>{216}</span> be compelled to pronounce Willem Adriaan van der Stel -one of the most faithless and contemptible men of whom the records of -any nation, ancient or modern, furnish an example. Many a governor has -lost his head for crimes less glaring than his reckless neglect of duty -for the sake of private interest.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>The governor was not the only official of the Company in South Africa -who was farming on his own account, though he was the most prominent of -them all, and his operations were far more extensive than those of any -of the others. The secunde, Samuel Elsevier, an old and somewhat -weak-minded man, had obtained a grant of the farm Elsenburg, near -Klapmuts, from Governor Simon van der Stel,<a name="FNanchor_67_66" id="FNanchor_67_66"></a><a href="#Footnote_67_66" class="fnanchor">[67]</a> which brought him in -about £250 yearly after all expenses were paid. He might have cultivated -it without reproach from the burghers if he had not always submitted his -will to that of the governor. In the council he was regarded as a -nonentity, simply giving his vote in accordance with the wishes of the -head of the government. Two other members of the council of policy, the -fiscal Johan Blesius and the military captain Olof Bergh, had also -obtained grants of land, but were so moderate in their use that the -burghers did not complain of them.</p> - -<p>The reverend Petrus Kalden, clergyman of Capetown, had also obtained a -grant of a farm, Zandvliet, between Stellenbosch and the head of False -Bay. He spent a good deal of time there, but he afterwards proved to the -satisfaction of the authorities in Holland that his object in<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_217" id="page_217"></a>{217}</span> doing so -was not purely mercenary, but was mainly a wish to acquire a perfect -knowledge of the Hottentot language, in order that he might attempt to -teach those people the doctrines of Christianity, and so improve their -condition.<a name="FNanchor_68_67" id="FNanchor_68_67"></a><a href="#Footnote_68_67" class="fnanchor">[68]</a> The yearly income he derived from it cannot be -ascertained, but the ground with the buildings which he erected upon it -realised £1424 by public auction after his recall.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Spirit of the Country Districts.</div> - -<p>The governor’s brother, Frans van der Stel, who was not in the Company’s -service, had a farm at Hottentots-Holland. He was intensely disliked by -the other burghers, on account of his assuming an air of superiority -over them, and, depending upon his relative’s support, doing pretty much -as he liked. He was in the habit of requiring them to plough his land, -to convey his produce to town, and perform other work for him, under -threats that if they did not he would see that they should regret it.</p> - -<p>There have never been people less inclined to submit quietly to -grievances, real or imaginary, than the early colonists of Stellenbosch -and Drakenstein. Even at this infant stage of the settlement’s existence -they showed that great difference from the inhabitants of Capetown which -is observable to the present day. They did not know it then, but it was -they who were destined to impart that spirit of hostility to oppression -and wrong which has ever since marked the country people of South -Africa. It is not without reason that the farmers of the distant north -and east to-day regard Stellenbosch and Drakenstein as the mother -settlements of the country, and look upon Capetown almost as a foreign -city. The spirit of the town is widely different from that of the -country. And in 1705, when the first great struggle against tyranny and -corruption commenced, the very best men of Stellenbosch and Drakenstein, -those who had filled the posts of elders and deacons<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_218" id="page_218"></a>{218}</span> in the church, of -heemraden in the district court, and of officers in the militia, were -those who threw themselves into it. Among them was Jan Willem -Grevenbroek, the most learned man in South Africa at the time, who had -retired from the Company’s service, and had recently been an elder at -Stellenbosch. His name should command the respect of students of -ethnology, though his work has been to some extent distorted by a later -writer. He took as active a part in the movement against the governor as -was consistent with his character as a modest and godfearing student, -though his name does not appear on the principal memorial that will -presently be referred to.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>The farmers did not know that instructions in their favour had been sent -out by the directors, which the governor had disregarded, but they saw -plainly that nothing but ruin was before them if matters went on longer -as they were then going. The governor was turning every possible source -of profit to his own account and that of his relatives and friends. He -had eighteen different cattle stations or enormous grazing farms beyond -the mountains, and would allow no one but himself and his brother to use -the pasture there. His horned cattle numbered, as afterwards -ascertained, fully a thousand head, and his sheep were eighteen thousand -eight hundred all told. He had a vineyard sixty-one morgen and a half in -extent at Vergelegen, and besides his plantations and cornlands there, -he had taken possession of another tract of land nearly a hundred and -nineteen morgen in extent, upon which he was growing wheat. His -expenditure was very small, for he made use of the Company’s servants -largely to do his work, and he paid no tithes of his grain to the -Company, as the burghers were obliged to do.<a name="FNanchor_69_68" id="FNanchor_69_68"></a><a href="#Footnote_69_68" class="fnanchor">[69]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_219" id="page_219"></a>{219}</span></p> - -<p>The governor had the first entry into the market, and high prices from -foreign ships went into his pocket. Then his brother Frans at -Hottentots-Holland, his father at Contantia, and the secunde at -Elsenburg followed, and by the time all their produce was disposed of -little indeed was left that the burghers of Stellenbosch and Drakenstein -could sell to good account. In another way too the governor’s conduct -was believed to be such as to forfeit the respect of the burghers, who -were godfearing men. In his domestic life he was said to follow closely -the example of our Charles II, and it was asserted that he had given -strict orders that the ten commandments were not to be read in the -church when he was present.<a name="FNanchor_70_69" id="FNanchor_70_69"></a><a href="#Footnote_70_69" class="fnanchor">[70]</a> There is no way of either proving or -disproving these charges against him, but the fact that they were made -shows in how little esteem he was held.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Grievances of the Burghers.</div> - -<p>In 1705 some of the farmers determined to complain to<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_220" id="page_220"></a>{220}</span> the Indian -authorities, and they succeeded in forwarding to the governor-general -and council at Batavia a list of charges against him. It was a dangerous -thing to do, for if their names should become known, and no redress be -afforded, they knew, that they would be made to feel the governor’s -vengeance. The council was not regarded as any check upon him, and the -military power was entirely at his disposal, so that to brave his anger -was an act requiring more than ordinary moral courage. It was the -commencement of the struggle against corruption and tyranny by the -burghers of Stellenbosch and Drakenstein.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>At Batavia no immediate action was taken in the matter, but a copy of -the complaints, without the signatures to the document, was forwarded to -the governor, who was required to answer to them. While the complainants -were awaiting a reply from the Indian authorities, one of them, Adam Tas -by name, a respectable burgher and a deacon of the Stellenbosch church, -drew up a memorial to the directors in Holland. Tas was a native of the -city of Amsterdam, who had received a good commercial education, and had -come to Capetown in the capacity of bookkeeper in the service of the -contractor Henning Huising, whose wife, Maria Lindenhof, was a sister of -Tas’s mother. After serving as a bookkeeper for some time, Tas married a -widow named Elizabeth van Brakel, whose former husband had left her a -well-cultivated farm in the Stellenbosch district, and he then went to -reside there. He had thus the qualifications and much of the knowledge -necessary for the task he had taken in hand, but as he was ignorant of -the instructions of the directors, the document which he drew up was in -some points very much weaker than it might have been made if the -official documents had been open for his inspection as they are now for -ours. On the other hand, for the same reason some of the charges were -perhaps slightly overdrawn, but the governor was subsequently unable to -prove that the most serious of them were without solid foundation.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_221" id="page_221"></a>{221}</span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">Articles of Complaint.</div> - -<p>In this document the directors were informed of the governor’s extensive -farming operations, and of his employment of the Company’s servants and -slaves and of the use of the Company’s materials for his private -service. He was accused of obtaining cattle by violent means from the -Hottentots, who were provoked to retaliate upon innocent people for the -wrongs done to them.<a name="FNanchor_71_70" id="FNanchor_71_70"></a><a href="#Footnote_71_70" class="fnanchor">[71]</a> He was also accused of extorting cattle from -burghers by improper means. He was stated to have been frequently absent -at Vergelegen from two to six weeks at a time, when his public duties -were neglected. He was charged with selecting all the best timber and -staves for casks out of the Company’s stores, and paying less than the -burghers had to pay for what was left; of preventing free trade in wine, -and then extorting it from poor farmers at a very low price and selling -it to foreign ships at an enormous profit; of monopolising all trade -with foreigners; of requiring farmers to convey materials to Vergelegen -without payment; of compelling the bakers, by threats of his displeasure -if they did not, to buy his wheat at high prices; of defrauding the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_222" id="page_222"></a>{222}</span> -Company by not paying tithes of his wheat; of commandeering—to use an -expressive colonial word—over four hundred woolled sheep from them -without payment; of requiring to be bribed before he would issue -title-deeds to farms; and of arranging the wine and slaughter licenses -in such a manner that the holders could obtain what they needed at very -low prices from the farmers by paying him very high prices for what he -had to sell.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>There were some other charges against him, but they were of less -importance than these, and they need not be mentioned.</p> - -<p>The secunde, Samuel Elsevier, and the clergyman, Petrus Kalden, were -charged with being occupied with agriculture to a very large extent, and -of neglecting their duties in consequence. Frans van der Stel, the -governor’s brother, was declared to be a perfect pest to the settlement.</p> - -<p>This memorial was dated the 5th of January 1706, and was signed by Jan -Rotterdam, Henning Huising, Abraham Diemer, Nicolaas Diepenauw, Jan van -Meerland, Jacob de Savoye, Willem Mensink, Stephanus Vermey, Guillaume -du Toit, Pieter van der Byl, Adam Tas, Jacob van Brakel, Jacob Plunes, -Hercules du Pré, Jacobus van der Heiden, Wessel Pretorius, Jan Elberts, -Hans Jacob Conterman, Nicolaas Elberts, Jean le Roux, Ary van Wyk, -Pieter de Mont, Pierre Meyer, Reinier van de Zande, Jacobus Louw, Daniel -Sevenhofen, Ferdinandus Appel, Matthys Greef, Willem van Zyl, Daniel -Hugo, Jacques Theron, Etienne Niel, Jean du Buis, Jacques Malan, Douwe -Frederiks, Christiaan Wynoch, François du Toit, Claude Marais, Arend -Gildenhuis, Cornelis van Niekerk, Nicolaas van der Westhuizen, Pierre de -Villiers, Paul Couvret, Abraham Vivier, Abraham Bleusel, Jacques -Pienard, Pierre Vivier, Esaias Costeux, Pierre Mouy, Etienne Bruere, -David Senekal, J. le Roux, Jacob Vivier, Pierre Rousseau, Salomon de -Gourney, Pierre Cronje, Coenraad Cyffer, Charles Marais, Louis le Riche, -Nicolaas Meyboom, Jacob Cloete, and Jan Hendrik Styger.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_223" id="page_223"></a>{223}</span></p> - -<p>In a volume published by the governor some time afterwards, as well as -in his statements to the directors and the Indian authorities,<a name="FNanchor_72_71" id="FNanchor_72_71"></a><a href="#Footnote_72_71" class="fnanchor">[72]</a> he -attempted to explain away some of these charges, and he succeeded so far -that several must be pronounced not proven, while in some others he -established his innocence, but in all that related to his extensive -farming operations and to his making use of the Company’s servants, -slaves, and materials, he failed completely in overthrowing the charges -made against him. He does not refer to his not having paid tithes of his -grain, for he certainly could not refute that charge.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Action of the Indian Authorities.</div> - -<p>During the night of the 3rd of February 1706 the first five ships of the -return fleet of that year, which sailed from the roads of Batavia on the -2nd of December 1705, cast anchor in Table Bay, and they were followed -in the morning of the 4th by five others, all under the flag of -Commander Jan de Wit. They had orders to remain here until the arrival -of three ships from Ceylon and two others to be despatched later from -Batavia, that all might sail together for Europe. It had been arranged -with the English authorities in India that their return ships should -also call at Table Bay, in order to proceed farther with the Dutch -fleet, so that there might be a very strong force to oppose any French -cruisers in the Atlantic.</p> - -<p>With these ships the governor received a despatch from the Indian -authorities enclosing a copy of the document in which he was accused of -malpractices, that had been sent to Batavia in the previous year. He -immediately concluded that similar charges would be forwarded to the -Netherlands, and that a memorial embodying them must be in existence; -but he was unable to learn where it was, or who were parties to it. The -danger of his position,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_224" id="page_224"></a>{224}</span> which he at once realised, now drove him to -acts of extreme folly as well as of the grossest tyranny. To prevent the -knowledge of his farming operations reaching the directors became the -object of highest importance to him. If that could be done, he might -still be safe, but if it could not, it would matter little what -additional charges were brought against him, for in any case all would -be lost. There is no other way of accounting for the absurd and violent -measures that he now resorted to, for he cannot be regarded as insane, -though the remark of one of his opponents that avarice had intoxicated -him was doubtlessly true.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>He now caused a certificate to be drawn up, in which he was credited -with the highest virtues, and the utmost satisfaction was expressed with -his administration. The male residents of Capetown were then invited to -the castle, and were there requested to sign the certificate. His -servants were sent out to collect in turn all the mechanics and -labourers of every description in the town and all the fishermen, white -and black, and to bring them to the castle to drink wine and beer and to -smoke a pipe of tobacco at his expense. They mustered there party after -party, and after making merry, allowed their names to be attached to the -document, probably without knowing or caring what its contents were.</p> - -<p>The landdrost of Stellenbosch, Jan Starrenburg by name, a mere tool of -the governor, who had held office since July 1705, was directed to -proceed with an armed band from house to house in the country, and -require the residents there to sign it also. This was a much more -difficult matter to effect than to get the signatures of the town’s -people. Many of the farmers refused, even under the landdrost’s threats -that they would be marked men if they did not. Not a few of the -respectable names found on that extraordinary document are certainly not -genuine, for they appear with a cross, though the men that they -professed to represent could write letters and sign other papers as well -as the governor himself could do. Of the two<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_225" id="page_225"></a>{225}</span> hundred and forty names -found on it, less than one hundred are known in South Africa to-day, and -of these, as already stated, many must have been placed there -fraudulently. Surely no such means of obtaining a certificate of good -conduct was ever resorted to by any other officer of rank in a -colony.<a name="FNanchor_73_72" id="FNanchor_73_72"></a><a href="#Footnote_73_72" class="fnanchor">[73]</a></p> - -<div class="sidenote">Violent Conduct of the Governor.</div> - -<p>The governor suspected that a memorial to the directors concerning his -conduct had been prepared to be sent to the Netherlands by some officer -in the return fleet, and that Adam Tas, as a competent penman, had most -likely written it. To get possession of his papers, an act of extreme -violence, contrary to all law and justice, was then resolved upon. The -landdrost of Stellenbosch was directed to arrest Tas, and without a -warrant or any legal authority whatever, with a strong armed party he -surrounded the house of that burgher at early dawn in the morning of -Sunday, the 28th of February 1706, arrested him, sent him a prisoner to -Capetown, searched his house, and carried away his writing desk. After -this outrage there could be no truce whatever between the governor and -his opponents, for if a burgher could be treated in this manner, upon -mere suspicion of having drawn up a memorial to the high authorities, no -man’s liberty would be safe. Bail was immediately offered for the -appearance of Tas before a court of justice, but was refused. He was -committed to prison, where he was kept nearly fourteen months in close -confinement, without his wife or friends being permitted to see him, -without writing materials, and even when his little son died, without -being allowed to see the corpse.</p> - -<p>In his desk was found the draft from which the memorial to the directors -had been copied. It was unsigned, but a list containing a number of -names and various letters which were with it indicated several of those -who had taken part in the compilation. The completed memorial, with<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_226" id="page_226"></a>{226}</span> -sixty-two names, thirty-one of which were those of Frenchmen, attached -to it, was at the time in the house of a burgher in Capetown, where it -was intended to be kept until it could be sent away with the return -fleet.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>The governor thus became acquainted with the nature and terms of the -charges against him. On the 4th of March a number of ships’ officers -were invited to assist in the deliberations of the council of policy, -and some of the retired and acting burgher councillors were summoned to -give evidence. These answered a few questions put to them by the -governor, in a manner favourable to him. The broad council then -consented to the issue of a placaat, in which all persons were forbidden -to take part in any conspiracy or to sign any malicious or slanderous -document against the authorities of the country, under pain of severe -punishment. The ringleaders in such acts were threatened with death or -corporal chastisement. The fiscal and the landdrost were authorised to -seize persons suspected of such offences, and to commit them to prison. -This placaat was on the following Sunday affixed to the door of the -Stellenbosch church.</p> - -<p>Within the next few days the governor caused the burghers Wessel -Pretorius and Jacobus van der Heiden to be arrested and committed to -prison, the retired burgher councillor Jan Rotterdam to be banished to -Batavia, and the burghers Pieter van der Byl, Henning Huising, -Ferdinandus Appel, and Jan van Meerland to be put on board a ship bound -to Amsterdam. Jan Rotterdam was seventy years of age, and afflicted with -diabetes, a disease that made it difficult for him to rise quickly from -his seat. He was respected by every one, but the governor had taken a -dislike to him because he did not rise in church when his Excellency -entered, and only saluted by taking off his hat and bowing when seated -on a stoep and his Excellency passed by. This was termed by the governor -insolence, malice, and disrespect, and formed the principal complaint<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_227" id="page_227"></a>{227}</span> -against him.<a name="FNanchor_74_73" id="FNanchor_74_73"></a><a href="#Footnote_74_73" class="fnanchor">[74]</a> To this offence he had added, as had the others named, -by signing the memorial. These men had no time given to them to arrange -their affairs, but were hurried out of the country as if they had been -malefactors. They were informed that they must answer before the supreme -authorities at the places of their destination to the charges of -sedition and conspiracy that would be forwarded by the Cape council, and -if they had any complaints they might make them there also.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Illegal Imprisonment of Burghers.</div> - -<p>By these high-handed proceedings, which were hardly ever equalled by the -most despotic monarch in Europe, and which were in direct opposition to -the laws and customs of the Netherlands,<a name="FNanchor_75_74" id="FNanchor_75_74"></a><a href="#Footnote_75_74" class="fnanchor">[75]</a> though indeed more than -once violated there in times of popular uprisings, the governor hoped to -terrify his opponents into signing the certificate in his favour and -denying the truth of the charges against him. But not one of those who -were confined on board the ships in the bay faltered for a moment. Their -wives petitioned that the prisoners should be brought to trial at once -before a proper court of justice, which was their right as free-born -Netherlanders, and when it was hinted that if they would induce their -husbands to do what was desired, release would follow, these -true-hearted women indignantly refused.</p> - -<p>The arrest and committal to prison of Nicolaas van der Westhuizen, -Christiaan Wynoch, Hans Jacob Conterman, and Nicolaas Meyboom followed -shortly. The governor felt<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_228" id="page_228"></a>{228}</span> sure now that the complaints of the burghers -would reach Holland by some means or other, and therefore on the 31st of -March 1706 he and the council addressed a letter to the directors, in -which a very unfavourable description of the burghers who signed the -memorial was given, and their conduct in doing so was styled conspiracy, -sedition, mutiny, and rebellion.<a name="FNanchor_76_75" id="FNanchor_76_75"></a><a href="#Footnote_76_75" class="fnanchor">[76]</a> With this letter was sent an -attested copy of the certificate in his favour, as if it had been a -voluntary and spontaneous act on the part of those whose names or marks -were attached to it.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches</div> - -<p>In the meantime the memorial had been committed to the care of Abraham -Bogaert, a physician in the return fleet, who was refreshing himself on -shore, and who had warm sympathy with the oppressed burghers. He -afterwards wrote a history of these events, which is one of the best -ever published, and which agrees in all respects with the records in the -Cape archives. The Ceylon ships did not reach Table Bay until the 5th -and 6th of March, and the two from Batavia only on the 24th and 26th of -that month. The last arrival required a few days’ delay for refreshment, -but at length all were ready for sea, as were the English ships that had -been waiting to sail in their company. On Sunday, the 4th of April 1706, -the anchors were raised, and the fifteen Dutch and nine English Indiamen -stood out to sea with a favouring breeze. What a gallant sight it must -have been for all but the four banished men, who were forced to leave -all that was dear to them here in Africa, and their farms to be looked -after by their wives alone! When the fleet was at sea and all fear of -search was over, Bogaert delivered the memorial to Henning Huising.</p> - -<p>The anchors of the ships were being raised and the topsails being -sheeted home when the governor must have reflected that he was making a -mistake in sending four of the burghers to Europe. In great haste he -embarked in a galiot and followed the fleet as far as Robben Island.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_229" id="page_229"></a>{229}</span> In -the official records it is stated that he did this to show respect to -the admiral, but no such method of showing respect was practised here -before or since, and his opponents were probably right when they -asserted that his object was to overtake the ship in which the burghers -were, and release them. He did not succeed in doing this, however.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Treatment of Imprisoned Burghers.</div> - -<p>Within a week or two further arrests were made, when Jacob de Savoye, -Pierre Meyer, Jacob Cloete, Jacob Louw, and one or two others were -placed in detention. The health of some of the prisoners broke down -under the rigorous treatment to which they were subjected: one—Jacobus -van der Heiden—was confined for twenty-seven days in a foul dungeon, -with a black criminal as his companion. Thirteen of them then, with a -hope of obtaining liberty and the companionship of their families as an -inducement on one side, and the horrible suffering of confinement on -coarse and scanty fare in dark and noisome dungeons and debarred from -the visits of relatives or friends on the other, gave way to the -temptation, and replied to questions put to them disowning the truth of -the assertions in the memorial and expressing contrition for having -signed it. Among these thirteen was Adam Tas, and the circumstance of -his having done so is certainly a blemish upon his reputation, though it -would not be fair to speak harshly of him, considering the position in -which he was placed. His recantation, however, was of no service, for -the governor was devoid of anything like compassion towards him. These -declarations, as they were termed, which were really of no more value -than the confessions of men on the rack, were obtained at different -dates from the 8th of March to the 7th of May 1706. The men who made -them excused themselves afterwards for so doing by stating that it could -not affect the charges against the governor and the other officials, -which would be brought before the directors by those who were then on -the way to Europe. And so, after an imprisonment varying in duration -from a few days to a few weeks, all were released except Adam Tas and -Jacob Louw.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_230" id="page_230"></a>{230}</span></p> - -<p>On the 24th of June 1706 the governor and council of policy wrote again -to the directors, vilifying in very strong language the burghers who had -signed the memorial, enclosing copies of the declarations of those who -had been terrified into denying the truth of their former assertions, -and asking that a special commissioner should be sent out to inspect -matters of every kind and report upon them. This request must have been -made with the object of gaining time, for the governor knew well that -his conduct would not bear such an inquiry.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>For a short time matters were now quiet, but on the governor coming to -learn the names of some more of his opponents, Willem van Zyl, François -du Toit, Guillaume du Toit, Hercules du Pré, Cornelis van Niekerk, -Martin van Staden, Jacobus van Brakel, Jan Elberts, and Nicolaas Elberts -were cited to appear before the court of justice. These came to a -resolution not to obey the summons before the decision of the directors -should be known, and so they failed to attend. They were cited by -placaat, but in vain. In consequence, on the 9th of August, by a -majority of the court of justice sitting with closed doors each of them -was sentenced for contumacy to be banished to Mauritius for five years -and to pay a fine of £41 13<i>s</i>. 4<i>d</i>., half for the landdrost as -prosecutor and half for the court. They were at the same time declared -incapable of ever holding any political or military office in the -colony.</p> - -<p>This sentence was made public on the 23rd of August, and it tended to -increase the hostility to the government. The whole of the Stellenbosch -and Drakenstein district was now in a state of commotion. Work on the -farms practically ceased, for no man or woman could tell what might not -happen from hour to hour, and no one considered himself safe. The -military outposts, excepting those at Waveren, Klapmuts, Groenekloof, -and Saldanha Bay, at which twenty-four men in all were stationed, had -been broken up before this date, so the burghers felt free to act. In -the early morning of the 18th of September the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_231" id="page_231"></a>{231}</span> farmers of Waveren, -Riebeek’s Kasteel, and Drakenstein rode armed into the village of -Stellenbosch, and at beat of drum drew up near the landdrost’s office. -Starrenburg went out to them, and requested the drummer to be still; but -that individual, who was a Frenchman, kept on beating, only observing -that he did not understand Dutch. Some persons, to show their contempt -for the landdrost, began to dance round the drum. Others inquired why -there was to be no fair this year, such as there had always been since -1686. Starrenburg replied that the Indian authorities had prohibited it; -but they would not believe him, and laid the blame upon the Cape -government. Yet it was correct that the Indian authorities were solely -responsible in this matter, as with a view to save expense, on the 29th -of November 1705 they had instructed the council of policy not to -contribute longer towards the prizes or to furnish wine and ale at the -cost of the Company. There was thus no kermis or fair in 1706 and later.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Disorder at Stellenbosch.</div> - -<p>After this the women expressed their views. The wives of Pieter van der -Byl and Wessel Pretorius, speaking for all, informed the landdrost that -they had no intention of submitting to his tyranny, but were resolved to -maintain their rights. The spirit of the women of the country districts -was thoroughly roused, and their opposition was as formidable as that of -their husbands.<a name="FNanchor_77_76" id="FNanchor_77_76"></a><a href="#Footnote_77_76" class="fnanchor">[77]</a> Starrenburg was obliged to return to his house in -humiliation. The burghers remained in the village the whole day, setting -him at defiance, but otherwise preserving perfect order.</p> - -<p>A few days later two of the persons sentenced to banishment appeared in -Stellenbosch without any support, and jeered at the landdrost, who dared -not attempt to arrest them, as he could not even depend upon his -subordinates. All respect for the government was gone.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_232" id="page_232"></a>{232}</span></p> - -<p>It was now arranged between the governor and the landdrost that during -the night of the 28th of September, after the closing of the castle -gate, a party of mounted soldiers should march secretly to the Kuilen. -At two o’clock in the morning of the 29th the landdrost was to meet them -there, and was then before daylight to arrest those who were believed to -be the leaders of the defiant party. But a petty official at the Kuilen, -who sympathised with the burghers, managed to detain the party for a -time, and when they at length left to try to seize Cornelis van Niekerk -in his bed, the alarm had been given.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>Daylight broke, no one had been captured, and there was nothing left for -the landdrost and the soldiers but to retire to the village of -Stellenbosch. No one there would give any information or sell a particle -of food to the troops, and the landdrost was obliged to kill his own -goats for their use until provisions could be sent from Capetown. -Starrenburg having now soldiers at his back, the burghers sentenced to -exile fled to Twenty-four Rivers, where they concealed themselves. The -landdrost did his best to capture them, and on the 4th of February 1707 -succeeded in arresting Hercules du Pré and Jacobus van Brakel, who were -sent on board the Mauritius packet then lying in Table Bay. A month -later Guillaume du Toit was arrested also and sent on board the same -vessel. During this time the governor dismissed the heemraden and other -officers who had been elected in the legitimate manner, and arbitrarily -appointed creatures of his own to the vacant places.</p> - -<p>On the 20th of February 1707 the frigate <i>Pieter en Paul</i> arrived in -Table Bay. She had left Texel on the 2nd of November, and brought -letters to some of the burghers, in which they were informed that their -case had been decided favourably by the directors. She brought no -official despatches, however, and the governor, who affected to -disbelieve the assertions of the burghers, continued his tyranny as -before.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_233" id="page_233"></a>{233}</span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">Return of Jan Rotterdam.</div> - -<p>On the 3rd of March five ships from Ceylon dropped their anchors in -Table Bay, and were followed, 31st of March to 6th of April by six -others from Batavia, forming the return fleet of that year, under -Admiral Meynderts de Boer. In one of the ships from Batavia was Jan -Rotterdam, who returned to South Africa in triumph. Upon the receipt of -the complaints from the Cape concerning him and the governor’s comments -upon what had occurred, the governor-general and council of India -appointed a commission consisting of the ordinary councillor Pieter de -Vos and the councillor extraordinary Hendrik Bekker to investigate the -matter, and take Rotterdam’s evidence. On the 18th of September 1706 -these gentlemen sent in a report, of which there is a copy in the Cape -archives. On this the governor-general and council decided, on the 5th -of October, to send all the papers to the Netherlands, that the -directors might take what action they chose in the matter. On the 31st -of August they had decided to give Rotterdam a free passage to Holland, -with liberty on his arrival at the Cape to request permission to remain -here to attend to his affairs, if he chose to do so.<a name="FNanchor_78_77" id="FNanchor_78_77"></a><a href="#Footnote_78_77" class="fnanchor">[78]</a> There was no -necessity for him to make any request, as before the fleet left Table -Bay the tyranny of the governor was at an end.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_234" id="page_234"></a>{234}</span></p> - -<h3><a name="IV-3" id="IV-3"></a>IV.<br /><br /> -<span class="smcap">Proceedings in the Netherlands regarding Governor Willem Adriaan van der Stel.</span></h3> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>While these events were taking place in South Africa, a commission in -Amsterdam was actually making inquiries into the conduct of Governor -Willem Adriaan van der Stel. He knew nothing of this, nor did the -burghers know how information concerning his conduct had reached the -Netherlands.<a name="FNanchor_79_78" id="FNanchor_79_78"></a><a href="#Footnote_79_78" class="fnanchor">[79]</a> By some means, however, which cannot be ascertained -now, the directors had obtained an inkling of the state of affairs, and -on the 26th of October 1705 they appointed the members of the chamber of -Amsterdam a commission to inquire into the matter and report upon it. -This commission had the official correspondence from the Cape before it, -but no mention could be found in that of either Vergelegen or the -governor’s movements. It would seem from it as if everything was going -on smoothly and satisfactorily at the Cape, and the governor was doing -his duty as an honest man.</p> - -<p>Other tidings reached Amsterdam, however, in the course of the next few -months which caused the directors to become alarmed. What these reports -were exactly it is not now possible to discover, nor can the channels be -ascertained by which they were conveyed, but it cannot be far wrong to -conclude that they referred to the governor’s frequent visits to -Vergelegen and his long sojourns there,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_235" id="page_235"></a>{235}</span> when the castle and the -garrison were left to take care of themselves. With a governor so -faithless, if what they heard was true, they might lose the half way -house to India any day, and so on the 8th of March 1706 they appointed a -special committee representing all the chambers and including their two -advocates to devise measures for the security of the settlement.<a name="FNanchor_80_79" id="FNanchor_80_79"></a><a href="#Footnote_80_79" class="fnanchor">[80]</a></p> - -<div class="sidenote">Examination into the Governor’s Conduct.</div> - -<p>Meantime, on the 15th of February 1706 the chamber of Amsterdam had -appointed a committee, consisting of Messrs. Bas, Van Castricum, De -Witt, Lestevenon, and Trip, with Advocate Scott, to examine thoroughly -into the complaints against the governor and bring up a report on the -subject.<a name="FNanchor_81_80" id="FNanchor_81_80"></a><a href="#Footnote_81_80" class="fnanchor">[81]</a> So there can be no doubt that even if the charges drawn up -by Adam Tas and sent to Holland by the return fleet of 1706 had not -reached the directors, the circumstances connected with Vergelegen would -have become known, and the faithless and rapacious governor have met -with his deserts. But as the material upon which to form a judgment was -not as perfect in Holland as could be wished, the arrival of the fleet -then on its way from India to Europe was looked forward to with some -anxiety by both the committees, as it would probably bring despatches -from the governor and council of policy that would assist them to come -to a decision.</p> - -<p>On the 27th of July 1706 that fleet which, as has been<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_236" id="page_236"></a>{236}</span> recorded, sailed -from Table Bay on the 4th of April under Admiral Jan de Wit, reached -Texel in safety. There was then no lack of evidence as to what had -transpired at the Cape, it was to hand in fact in superabundance. As -soon therefore as the directors had read the official despatches from -the governor, including the testimonial in his favour which he had -caused to be drawn up and which must have excited their contempt for a -man who could adopt such a measure in face of his treachery that could -no longer be concealed, they sent the whole to the chamber of Amsterdam. -Of the four burghers exiled to Europe, one, Jan van Meerland, died on -the passage. The others, as soon as they could do so after their arrival -in Amsterdam, presented to the directors the memorial that Tas had drawn -up, with the various documents attached to it. After being read by them, -it also was sent to the chamber of Amsterdam.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>But now a great change in the attitude of the East India Company towards -the nature of the various offences committed by the governor took place. -His defiance of their orders not to cultivate ground or own cattle, his -treachery in leaving his duty and residing frequently at Vergelegen, -thus exposing the colony to the utmost danger, and his use of their -materials and their workpeople at Vergelegen and elsewhere, robbery as -it was, was permitted to fall into the background, and his lawless -violence towards the burghers who had complained of his misdeeds became -the most prominent subject enquired into. The whole of the tyranny -displayed by him was not indeed known, but sufficient had transpired -before the departure of the fleet from Table Bay to rouse the -indignation of the free Netherlanders, and the directors, even if they -had not been disposed to do justice themselves, dared not provoke an -outcry that one of the most cherished rights of a citizen was being -violated in their dependency at the Cape. The opponents of the Company, -the men who wanted something in its place in which they should have<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_237" id="page_237"></a>{237}</span> a -personal interest, would certainly make use of such an outcry to attack -it in the States-General, and therefore this charge must be attended to -before any other.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Lame Excuses of the Governor.</div> - -<p>The committee of the chamber of Amsterdam investigated the matter very -thoroughly. Unfortunately the debates were not recorded, and only the -resolutions were preserved, just as in the proceedings of a legislative -body to-day. But these resolutions show that all possible trouble was -taken to arrive at the truth, and notwithstanding the urgency of the -case, there was no undue haste, for it was only on the 11th of October -1706 that a report to the chamber was sent in.<a name="FNanchor_82_81" id="FNanchor_82_81"></a><a href="#Footnote_82_81" class="fnanchor">[82]</a> In addition to the -documents examined by the committee, it had taken the evidence of the -exiled burghers and of the ships’ officers who had been two months at -the Cape. Some of these had lived on shore during that time, and had -witnessed the violent acts that had put the whole settlement into -confusion and the manner in which signatures to the certificate in the -governor’s favour were obtained, so that document was held as of no -weight whatever. The governor’s comments upon the charges against him -also were so weak that they were utterly valueless.<a name="FNanchor_83_82" id="FNanchor_83_82"></a><a href="#Footnote_83_82" class="fnanchor">[83]</a></p> - -<p>For instance, his only excuse for his possession of Vergelegen was that -if the Company’s servants had no land they, himself included, would be -obliged to buy what grain, cattle, wine, vegetables, fruit, and other -necessaries they required from unreasonable farmers at whatever rates -might be demanded, and might even be at the mercy of those farmers to be -supplied or not. This would surely, he said, be intolerable to officials -of rank. That was the best and indeed the only excuse he could make for -having in his possession, in opposition to the direct orders of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_238" id="page_238"></a>{238}</span> -directors, a thousand head of horned cattle and eighteen thousand eight -hundred sheep, for producing eleven hundred muids of wheat and fifty-six -leggers of wine yearly. And that too when he was provided by the Company -with rations<a name="FNanchor_84_83" id="FNanchor_84_83"></a><a href="#Footnote_84_83" class="fnanchor">[84]</a> on an exceedingly liberal scale, when he was legally -and honestly entitled to whatever vegetables and fruit he needed for his -own family’s use out of the Company’s gardens in Capetown, at -Rustenburg, and at Newlands, when he had an adequate table allowance in -money to purchase anything else that was needed, as may be seen in the -yearly accounts, and when he was provided with twenty slaves as -domestics, who were entirely maintained by the Company.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>As for the woolled sheep that he was accused of taking from the farmers -without payment, his defence was that he had sent out two men to obtain -them either in exchange for others or for money, that they had returned -with one hundred and seventy-eight, and that he thought he had paid for -them. He denied positively that he had taken bribes for giving -title-deeds to ground, but it was proved conclusively that he had -received large presents and had made extensive purchases without payment -from those whom be favoured. The whole defence was as weak as these -examples, except in a few particulars, and with the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_239" id="page_239"></a>{239}</span> oral evidence -against him, the committee could only come to one conclusion.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Report of the Chamber of Amsterdam.</div> - -<p>The chamber of Amsterdam approved of the report of its committee, and -requested the members to go over it again carefully and draw it up in -such a form that it could be presented in the name of the full body to -the assembly of seventeen. On the 25th of October accordingly the report -was brought before the full chamber and adopted, when it was signed by -all the members present, sixteen in number, and was then forwarded to -the directors. Among those who signed it was the same Wouter -Valckenier<a name="FNanchor_85_84" id="FNanchor_85_84"></a><a href="#Footnote_85_84" class="fnanchor">[85]</a> who had granted Vergelegen to Van der Stel, who was then -a member of the chamber of Amsterdam, and immediately afterwards was -elected to a seat in the directorate.</p> - -<p>In this report the burghers who signed the complaints against Van der -Stel and others were acquitted of sedition, conspiracy, or treason, and -the action of the governor towards them was consequently declared to -have been unjust.</p> - -<p>It was recommended</p> - -<p>That all those banished from the Cape should be restored to their homes -at the Company’s expense, and all those imprisoned be liberated.</p> - -<p>That recompense should be made to the banished men for the damages -sustained by them, either by giving contracts to them or allowing them -to take anything they needed to the Cape free of charge for freight.</p> - -<p>That the governor Willem Adriaan van der Stel, the secunde Samuel -Elsevier, the clergyman Petrus Kalden, and the landdrost Jan Starrenburg -should be recalled at once, but be permitted to retain their salaries -and rank, though without any authority.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_240" id="page_240"></a>{240}</span></p> - -<p>That Frans van der Stel should be required to remove from the Company’s -possessions.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>That the estate Vergelegen at Hottentots-Holland, as acquired wrongfully -and without proper authority, and for the possession of which approval -was never obtained, should be restored to the Company with all the -plants on it, and that the buildings should be taken over on a -valuation.</p> - -<p>That enquiry should be made into the manner in which the retired -governor Simon van der Stel became possessed of his landed property, -especially of the Great Rietland or Zeekoe Valley, and a report thereon -be sent to the Assembly of Seventeen.</p> - -<p>That thereafter no servant of the Company should be permitted to hold -any land in property or on lease, or possess any cattle, or traffic in -cattle, corn, or wine, directly or indirectly.</p> - -<p>That every colonist should be free to slaughter and sell cattle, and -that contracts should be made to supply the Company’s passing ships with -flesh at thirteen duiten a pound.</p> - -<p>That the license to sell wine should be disposed of in four parts.</p> - -<p>And finally that emigration to the Cape should cease.</p> - -<p>This report was adopted by the assembly of seventeen on the 26th of -October, and four days later, 30th of October 1706, a letter signed by -the directors was delivered to the master of the ship <i>Kattendyk</i>, then -lying at Texel ready for sea, with orders to deliver it to the governor -Willem Adriaan van der Stel in presence of witnesses.<a name="FNanchor_86_85" id="FNanchor_86_85"></a><a href="#Footnote_86_85" class="fnanchor">[86]</a> The -<i>Kattendyk</i> with four other Indiamen left Texel on the 25th of December -1706 under convoy of four ships of war, but after leaving the Channel -she lost sight of the rest of the fleet, so she came on alone, -fortunately without falling in with French cruisers, and anchored in -Table Bay in<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_241" id="page_241"></a>{241}</span> the morning of the 16th of April 1707. The skipper took -the letter on shore, and delivered it to the governor as directed.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Recall of the Governor.</div> - -<p>On Sunday the 17th the council of policy assembled, when the despatch of -the directors was read. It announced that the governor Willem Adriaan -van der Stel, the secunde Samuel Elsevier, the clergyman Petrus Kalden, -and the landdrost Jan Starrenburg were removed from office and ordered -to proceed to Europe with the least possible delay. That everything -might be conducted fairly and justly with regard to them, however, they -were allowed to retain their rank and pay until they should have an -opportunity of clearing themselves from the charges against them, if -that was possible. The governor’s brother, Frans van der Stel, was to -betake himself to some place outside of the Company’s possessions. The -burghers were acquitted of the absurd charge of conspiracy, sedition, -mutiny, and rebellion, they were reinstated in all their former rights -and privileges, the three sent to Europe were restored to their homes at -the Company’s expense, and orders were given that if any were in prison -in the colony they should immediately be released. The governor was -ordered to pay out of his own pocket at the rate of 6<i>s.</i> 8<i>d.</i> each for -the woolled sheep he had acquired, and the wine and slaughter licenses -were to be issued at once in the same manner as had been the custom -before he altered them to suit his own purposes.</p> - -<p>It was announced that Louis van Assenburgh, who had previously been an -officer in the army of the German emperor, had been appointed governor, -and Johan Cornelis d’Ableing, recently commander at Palembang, secunde. -In case neither of these should arrive in the colony at an early date, -the administration was to be assumed by the independent fiscal Johan -Blesius and the other members of the council of policy acting as a -commission.<a name="FNanchor_87_86" id="FNanchor_87_86"></a><a href="#Footnote_87_86" class="fnanchor">[87]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_242" id="page_242"></a>{242}</span></p> - -<p>The Mauritius packet had not yet sailed, and the fiscal, who was -directed by the assembly of seventeen to carry out their instructions, -at once set at liberty the five burghers Adam Tas, Jacob Louw, Jacobus -van Brakel, Hercules du Pré, and Guillaume du Toit. Tidings that they -were to be released and that the tyranny of the governor was at an end -had reached the townspeople, and the principal inhabitants assembled on -the open ground before the castle to welcome their countrymen as they -landed on the jetty or came from the dungeons in which they had been -confined, and great was the joy and sincere were the thanks poured out -to the God of heaven, mingled with gratitude to the directors, that -justice had triumphed and oppression and misrule were things of the -past. Of what occurred at Stellenbosch and Drakenstein when the glad -tidings reached those places no information is given in our archives, -but it may be taken as certain that the joy there was at least as great -and deepfelt as it was in Capetown. To the men of those districts it was -due that tyranny and corruption had been overthrown, and from that time -forward Stellenbosch and Drakenstein have been the centres of Dutch -South African thought and action to a much greater extent than any other -parts of the country.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>There is a legend that the man who suffered most from violence -henceforth called his farm Libertas, to signify that freedom had been -won, or, as he wittily explained to inquirers as to the meaning of the -term, to denote that Tas was free. The place is still so called.</p> - -<p>The council resolved that the administration should be transferred to -the fiscal and others on the 15th of May, if the newly-appointed -secunde, who was on his way out, should not arrive before that date. It -was Sunday, and the reverend Mr. Kalden preached twice in the church.</p> - -<p>During the week an arrangement was made by which the reverend Messrs. Le -Boucq and Bek should conduct the services on alternate Sundays in -Capetown, and Mr. Kalden ceased to officiate. Starrenburg, whose last -report<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_243" id="page_243"></a>{243}</span> was that the mutineers were constantly reviling him and that -only a Masaniello was wanting to produce an open outbreak, was sent by -the fiscal on board a ship in the return fleet. An officer named Samuel -Martin de Meurs was appointed to act provisionally as landdrost.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Views of the Directors.</div> - -<p>Johan Cornelis d’Ableing, the newly-appointed secunde, arrived on the -6th of May 1707. He was a nephew of the recalled governor Van der Stel, -and, under pretence that the books required to be balanced, postponed -taking over the administration until the 3rd of June. The recalled -officials could not then leave for Europe before the arrival of the -homeward bound fleet of the following year.</p> - -<p>From the vast quantity of contemporaneous printed and manuscript matter -relating to the conduct of Willem Adriaan van der Stel, the views of the -directors and of the colonists concerning the government of the country -and the rights of its people can be gathered with great precision. In -the Netherlands at that period representative institutions, such as are -now believed to be indispensable to liberty, were unknown. Yet the -people were free in reality as well as in name. There is not a word -expressing a wish on the part of the burghers for an alteration in the -form of government, what they desired being merely that the -administration should be placed in honest hands, and that their rights -should be respected.</p> - -<p>The directors desired to have here a large body of freemen in -comfortable circumstances, loyal to the fatherland, ready and willing to -assist in the defence of the colony if attacked, enjoying the same -rights as their peers in Europe, and without much diversity of rank or -position. They stated clearly and distinctly that the closer the -equality between the burghers could be preserved the more satisfactory -it would be to them. Positive orders were issued that large tracts of -land, upon which several families could obtain a living, were not to be -granted to any individual.</p> - -<p>In giving directions concerning Vergelegen, they stated that as its -grant by the commissioner Valckenier to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_244" id="page_244"></a>{244}</span> governor was improper and -had never been reported to them and much less had their approval been -requested or given, they resumed possession of the ground. The large -dwelling-house upon it, being adapted for ostentation and not for the -use of a farmer, must be broken down. The late governor could sell the -materials for his own benefit. The other buildings could be fairly -valued, and the amount be paid to Mr. Van der Stel, or he could break -them down and dispose of the materials if he preferred to do so.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>An estate such as Vergelegen would by many people to-day be considered -useful as a model. Van der Stel had laid it out with the choicest vines, -plants, and trees, and was making extensive experiments there. The -ground was the most skilfully tilled in the whole country. But the -directors held that such a farm as this, owned by one individual and -cultivated chiefly by slave labour, could not be of the same advantage -to the infant colony as a number of smaller ones, each in possession of -a sturdy European proprietor. It was therefore not to be sold as a -single estate, but was to be divided into several farms, each of which -was to be disposed of by public auction separately from the others.</p> - -<p>Frans van der Stel was required to sell his property and remove to some -country not included in the Company’s charter. The former governor Simon -van der Stel was left in possession of his farm Constantia, but -directions were given that upon his death the other land which he held -should revert to the Company.</p> - -<p>Emphatic instructions were issued that for the future, in accordance -with the orders of the 26th of April 1668, no servant of the Company, -from the highest to the lowest, was to own or lease land in the colony, -or to trade directly or indirectly in corn, wine, or cattle. Those who -had landed property could sell it, but if they should not do so within a -reasonable period, it would be confiscated. The burghers were not to be -molested in their right to dispose of their cattle or the produce of -their ground in any<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_245" id="page_245"></a>{245}</span> way that suited them. They were to be governed in -accordance with law and justice.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Views of the Colonists.</div> - -<p>On their part, the colonists claimed exactly the same rights as if they -were still living in the fatherland. They held that any restrictions to -which the early burghers had agreed were of a temporary nature, and -affected only those who had consented to them. In their opinion they had -forfeited nothing by removal to a dependency, and the violence displayed -by the governor towards Adam Tas and his associates was as outrageous as -if it had taken place in the city of Amsterdam. They asserted their -undoubted right to personal liberty, to exemption from arrest unless -under reasonable suspicion of crime, to admission to bail, to speedy -trial before a proper court of justice, to freedom to sell to anyone, -burgher or foreigner, whatever their land produced, after the tithes had -been paid and the Company’s needs had been supplied, except under -special circumstances when restriction was needed for the good of the -community. And these claims, made in as explicit terms as they could be -to-day by an Englishman living in a crown colony, were not challenged by -the directors or the Indian authorities, but were accepted by every one -as unquestioned. They were the ideals of the proper working and spirit -of government held by the great bulk of the people of the Netherlands at -the beginning of the eighteenth century, before democratic principles or -socialistic views had gained ground among the labouring classes or were -even dimly foreshadowed in the minds of men who toiled with their hands -for their bread. Such a system answered admirably in the fatherland, and -the Cape burghers desired to maintain it unimpaired in South Africa.</p> - -<p>Mr. Van der Stel retired to Vergelegen, and began arranging matters so -that he could leave the country with as little pecuniary loss as -possible. His friends and connections in Amsterdam were numerous and -influential, and he cherished the hope that through their agency the -directors might be induced to leave him in possession of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_246" id="page_246"></a>{246}</span> the estate. He -does not seem to have realised how serious his offences had been and how -impossible it was that he should be forgiven. But as he had now only his -own servants and slaves to work with, it was necessary to contract his -farming operations, and under any circumstances it would be wise to -dispose of his great flocks and herds with the least possible delay. For -this, so unlike the case of the men whom he had hurried out of the -colony, he had ample time. There is very little information in the -archives of occurrences at Vergelegen during those months, though -several commissions visited the place, so nothing beyond what is here -mentioned can be related.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>On the 25th of January 1708 Governor Louis van Assenburgh arrived. He -had been eight months on the passage from Holland, and had been obliged -to put into a port on the coast of Brazil. In the same ship with the -governor was Henning Huising, one of the deported burghers, who had -entered into a contract with the directors for the supply of half the -meat required by the Company at the Cape during the next three years, -the object of dividing the contract being to secure competition in -purchasing cattle from the burghers. Pieter van der Byl and Ferdinandus -Appel had reached the colony seven months before.</p> - -<p>When the arrival of the governor was known at Vergelegen, Mr. Van der -Stel sent a petition to the council of policy requesting that he might -be allowed to retain the estate a few months longer, as he had hopes -that by the next fleet from Europe intelligence would be received that -the directors had mitigated their decision. As compliance with this -request would have been directly opposed to the orders of the 30th of -October 1706, a matter which he seemed to regard as of little -importance, but which the new governor decidedly objected to, the -council refused to entertain it, and the utmost that he could obtain was -permission to press the grapes then ripening and dispose of half the -wine on his own account, the other half to be<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_247" id="page_247"></a>{247}</span> for the Company. The -quantity pressed was fifty-six leggers of five hundred and seventy-six -litres each.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Dismissal of the Governor.</div> - -<p>On the 23rd of February 1708 Henning Huising summoned Mr. Van der Stel -before the court of justice for £3,056 in addition to the value of nine -thousand sheep. This gave the late governor an opportunity to request -the council of policy to allow him to remain in South Africa another -year, in order to get evidence to defend himself in this case; but upon -Huising stating that he preferred bringing the action in Holland to -being the means of keeping Van der Stel longer in the colony, the -council declined to accede to his request.</p> - -<p>On the 23rd of April 1708 the return fleet of this year sailed from -Table Bay for Europe, having on board the late governor, secunde, and -clergyman of Capetown with their families. Upon their arrival at -Amsterdam Van der Stel and Elsevier were dismissed from the Company’s -service. They had left agents in the colony to wind up their affairs and -to transmit the proceeds to them. Mr. Kalden was more fortunate, for, -though his possession of a farm was not approved of, he did not come in -the same category as members of the council and of the court of justice, -and he was able to make a good defence as far as his motives were -concerned. He was retained in the service, and several years afterwards -was sent as a chaplain to India.</p> - -<p>Vergelegen was divided into four farms, which were sold by auction in -October 1709. The cultivated land was found on measurement to be six -hundred and thirteen morgen in extent. The large dwelling-house was -broken down, and the material was sold for Van der Stel’s benefit. The -other buildings were taken over by the Company for £625, though the -materials of which they were constructed were appraised at a much higher -sum. The four farms brought £1,695 at public sale, the purchasers being -Barend Gildenhuis, Jacobus van der Heiden, Jacob Malan, and the widow of -Gerrit Cloete.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_248" id="page_248"></a>{248}</span></p> - -<p>Frans van der Stel returned to Europe in the same fleet with his -brother, and took up his residence in Amsterdam. His wife, Johanna -Wessels, was a daughter of one of the leading burghers of the colony. -She remained behind with her parents to dispose of the property to the -best advantage, and did not leave to rejoin her husband until April -1717.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>After his dismissal from the Company’s service, Willem Adriaan van der -Stel was in the most unenviable position that can be imagined, though he -was now possessed of considerable wealth. In the city of Amsterdam, -where he had once been a magistrate and where he had numerous -respectable relatives and connections, he was a disgraced man. In order -to try to make his conduct appear less reprehensible in the eyes of the -public, he prepared and published the volume called the <i>Korte -Deductie</i>, in which the most serious of his offences were entirely -ignored, and the certificate in his favour and the forced declarations -from several burghers that have been described were set forth as proofs -of his innocence with regard to others. As may well be believed, such a -volume completely failed in its object. The burghers in South Africa -were under no necessity to reply to it, for its weakness was evident to -every one, but two of them did so, and in their <i>Contra Deductie</i> -published such a number of depositions made under oath as utterly to -destroy it.</p> - -<p>There is one circumstance in connection with this matter that has been -commented upon by several historians, notably by the late Judge -Watermeyer in his <i>Lectures</i>, that is the lightness of the punishment -inflicted on Van der Stel. Mr. Watermeyer attributed it to the assembly -of seventeen not feeling aversion towards his tyranny. But that view is -not borne out by the documents of the time when minutely examined, for -the directors certainly did express the strongest disapprobation of his -conduct in trampling on law and justice. Nor was the leniency of their -treatment of him altogether due to their wish to avoid irritating his -influential relatives, though that may have had something<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_249" id="page_249"></a>{249}</span> to do with -it. The main cause was simply that Mr. Wouter Valckenier, who was one of -the directors at the time, could not absolve himself from all blame in -the matter, for he had granted part of Vergelegen to Van der Stel, -without reflecting upon what the consequences might be. The governor had -abused his confidence, still he was not free of blame. And so nothing -but the ground was resumed, and the delinquent was not even compelled to -make good to the Company the amount which he had defrauded it of.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">One Effect of the Governor’s Tyranny.</div> - -<p>The punishment of Willem Adriaan van der Stel, though mild, had the -effect of securing to the Cape colonists good government, as it was then -held to be, for more than half a century after his recall. The spirit of -the burghers was not broken, as it would have been if he had remained in -power, and a liberty loving people had time, in God’s good providence, -to secure a firm foothold in South Africa.</p> - -<p>There was an effect upon the South African colonists that these troubles -produced which makes them memorable in our history. They blended the -different nationalities together so firmly that thereafter they were -absolutely inseparable. There is nothing that tends more to make men and -women sympathise with each other than suffering in a common cause, and -in this instance Hollander and Huguenot alike had resisted and felt the -vengeance of the tyrant. When Du Toit and Du Pré, liberated from the -vessel that was to have taken them into exile at Mauritius, met Tas and -Louw, staggering from the dungeons in which they had been so long -confined, can anyone doubt that they greeted each other as brothers? Our -archives tell us nothing of that scene on the parade ground before the -castle, but they do tell us very plainly that from that day onward there -was no jealousy, no ill-feeling of any kind, between Dutchmen and -Frenchmen in the colony. Thereafter all were Afrikanders.</p> - -<p>How could it be otherwise? It is not too much for even a historian -seeking only for truth to assume that the sisterhood of the women also -had been cemented by their<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_250" id="page_250"></a>{250}</span> common misery, that Mevrouw Van der Byl, for -instance, would feel an affection stronger far than mere sympathy for -Madame Du Toit, who, like herself, had seen her husband torn from her -and sent into banishment, probably for ever unless God and the directors -should curb the merciless oppressor’s will. The names on the memorial -show an equal number of French and Dutch, and among them are those of -the heads of many of the best families in South Africa at the present -day. They can look back with pride to the action of their ancestors in -resisting corruption so gross and tyranny so outrageous as that of -Willem Adriaan van der Stel, and in thinking of the suffering those -brave men and women endured, they can thank God that it was not in vain, -since it was productive of so much good.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>The Van der Stel family attained its highest point of celebrity in the -time of the sons of Simon, the grandsons of Adriaan who went to India in -1623. According to Van der Aa, Willem Adriaan, after his dismissal, -purchased the estates of Old and New Vossemeer, and died on the 1st of -July 1723, leaving five children. Adriaan became governor of Amboina and -councillor extraordinary of India, and left three children. Hendrik was -warehouse keeper at Malacca in 1705, but nothing more is known of him. -It is a saying in the United States that the stage from shirt sleeve to -shirt sleeve is usually covered in only three generations, and the -observation would seem to be correct in this case. Van der Aa could find -no one of the name of Van der Stel worthy of notice after the third -generation had passed away, except A. van der Stel, who drew plates for -a work on natural history published in 1754, and a woman of the name who -was an actress and stage dancer in the middle of the eighteenth -century.<a name="FNanchor_88_87" id="FNanchor_88_87"></a><a href="#Footnote_88_87" class="fnanchor">[88]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_251" id="page_251"></a>{251}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="IV" id="IV"></a>IV.<br /><br /> -<i>Chronicles of Two Leaders of the Great Emigration, Louis Triegard and Pieter Uys.</i></h2> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_252" id="page_252"></a>{252}</span> </p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_253" id="page_253"></a>{253}</span> </p> - -<h3><a name="SKETCH_IV" id="SKETCH_IV"></a>SKETCH IV.</h3> - -<h4><a name="I-4" id="I-4"></a>I.<br /><br /> -<span class="smcap">Chronicles of Two Leaders of the Great Emigration, Louis Triegard and -Pieter Uys.</span></h4> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">No</span> history has yet been written that cannot be improved upon. In the -opinion of most students the greatest work of this kind in the English -language is <i>The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire</i>, but if Gibbon -were now alive he could certainly improve that masterpiece by means of -discoveries that have been made since he last revised it. If this can be -said of volumes prepared by a man of means, who was able to devote his -whole time and thought to his work, it is infinitely more true of such a -book as my <i>History of South Africa</i>, which has been produced under -difficulties little short of being insurmountable.</p> - -<p>Half a century has passed away since I commenced to gather materials for -my history, but during all that time I have had to toil for my bread, -and whenever I have gained a point of advantage I have found myself -speedily hurled from it. In a country like South Africa, where racial -prejudice has always been passionate, one who would try, as I have done, -to write impartially must expect to meet with opposition from the -extreme wings of both sections of the community, and unfortunately for -me that opposition, or more properly speaking animosity, has frequently -been sufficient to deprive me for a time of the power of making -researches or continuing my work.</p> - -<p>And so great is the quantity of material to be examined for the -preparation of a history of South Africa, so scattered is it, and so -disordered is the manuscript portion, that fifty years, even if devoted -entirely to the work, would<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_254" id="page_254"></a>{254}</span> not be too long to master it all. Many -languages have to be learned, and libraries and archive departments -visited and worked in half over Europe as well as in South Africa. I am -speaking now only of the period since the discovery of the Cape of Good -Hope by the Portuguese, if one wants to go further back a knowledge of -Arabic and prolonged visits to many eastern towns would be -indispensable. This I was prevented from even attempting. In Indian -literature also much important information may possibly—even -probably—be found, for beyond a doubt there was intercourse between -Hindostan and Eastern Africa in ancient times. No man could grapple with -all this single-handed, and if any one were to try to do it, at the end -of fifty years he would find a very great deal still to be done.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>Owing to this cause—the vast amount of research that was needed and the -many interruptions I met with—my history, though correct, is defective, -that is there is nothing untruthful or misleading in it, but there are -sections that could be enlarged to advantage. Among such sections are -the deeds of Louis Triegard and Pieter Uys. I commenced my study of the -great emigration by getting accounts of it from numerous men and women -who had taken part in it. I soon found—as every one else has done who -has attempted to collect such materials—that the various relations did -not agree, and that something more reliable was needed to base a -description upon. I then read whatever was to be found in printed books -and the newspapers of the period, and as soon as I had an opportunity of -doing so I examined all the manuscripts that I could find in the Cape -archives bearing on the subject.</p> - -<p>It is a quarter of a century since I published a volume containing the -history of the emigration, the first book on the subject prepared in -South Africa. The facts as related by me have never been disputed, but -there are some who profess to believe that they are described in a -spirit too favourable to the emigrants, and others that they are just -the reverse. I shall not alter a single word owing to such<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_255" id="page_255"></a>{255}</span> opinions, -but when I find new and reliable materials that enable me to enlarge my -former accounts, I shall certainly make use of them. Such materials have -recently come to hand with regard to Louis Triegard and Pieter Uys in a -collection of important documents made by Governor Sir Benjamin D’Urban, -taken by him to England, and preserved in the archives of his family -until 1911, when they were most generously presented by his grandson -through me to the Union government.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Occupation of the Eastern Districts.</div> - -<p>Two centuries lacking less than two decades had passed away since -European farmers first made homes for themselves on the banks of the -Liesbeek river, near the foot of Table Mountain, and in 1835 white men -were cultivating ground and pasturing their flocks and herds as far away -as the banks of the Kat and the Fish in one direction and the great -plain bordering on the Orange in another. The area they had spread over -was thus wide and long, though its occupation had been slower than that -of any other settlement of Europeans possessing a tithe of its -attractions. In most parts of the districts beyond the coast belt it was -very sparsely peopled, the farms, which might with greater propriety -have been termed cattle-runs, being seldom less than five or six -thousand English acres in extent, and often carrying only a single -family upon them.</p> - -<p>The small district of Albany was an exception to this general statement. -It was occupied chiefly by British settlers, who had originally plots of -ground only one hundred acres in size allotted to them, but these had -proved insufficient for the maintenance of a family, and most of them -had been abandoned. Those that remained occupied had then been enlarged, -though not to the extent of the great cattle-runs which the older -Dutch-speaking colonists considered necessary for their subsistence.</p> - -<p>There was a marked difference in disposition between the Dutch-speaking -and the English-speaking colonists. The former, being cattle-breeders by -descent through several generations, were strongly attached to country -life, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_256" id="page_256"></a>{256}</span> disliked residence in a village or town, where they seldom -remained longer than a few hours. Restraint of any kind was exceedingly -irksome to them, even the slight restraint of conforming to urban -conditions. Their ideal of a happy life was a life on a farm where a man -could look north, south, east, and west, and see nothing that was not -his own, where a few fruit trees and vines provided him with peaches and -oranges, apples and grapes, and a little garden, irrigated from a -running stream or a fountain, yielded him all the vegetables he needed, -and where his horned cattle, horses, and sheep throve and increased. Cry -down such a life as one will, call it unprogressive, devoid of culture, -wanting in refinement, destructive of energy, it cannot be denied that -it was a happy life and one that brought man into closer communion with -nature and with God than if he passed his existence in a town or a -village. Except in the most secluded districts there is no longer room -for such a life in South Africa, though some there are even in the more -fertile parts who strive to cling to it still, but in the fourth decade -of the nineteenth century it was the ideal which nearly every -Dutch-speaking colonist in the eastern districts of the Cape settlement -kept constantly before his eyes.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>The English settler as a rule viewed life differently. He disliked a -lonely country home, where there was no opportunity of exercising his -spirit of enterprise, where the means of giving his children an -education in books were lacking, and where companionship with his -species was uncertain and scanty. He preferred to reside in a town, -where he would have greater scope for his abilities, and where he could -have more of such comforts and enjoyments as he desired. There were -indeed Englishmen to be found among the leading farmers, but the great -majority of them were traders or mechanics. Besides this in most cases -they had not the means to purchase stock to commence cattle-breeding -with, even if they had the disposition to do so, and they had no heart -to face the privations that many<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_257" id="page_257"></a>{257}</span> a Dutch-speaking youth underwent as a -matter of course to obtain a few sheep and cows to make a beginning -with. An Englishman could not, for instance, live almost entirely on -game for years, as they often did, to spare their domestic cattle and -allow them to increase. And so in Albany a town speedily rose, which -contained a large proportion of the British settlers, and which was by -far the most important centre of population in the eastern districts of -the Cape Colony. Grahamstown it was called, and it was as purely English -as if it stood in Kent or in Sussex.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Causes of Discontent.</div> - -<p>For several years there had been great discontent throughout the -settlement. In England the party that wished to undo the errors of the -past, to atone for the crime of slave-trading in which earlier -generations had been deeply involved, and to make strenuous efforts for -the elevation of the coloured races, sunk in barbarism and heathenism -throughout the world, had been steadily growing in numbers and in -influence until at length it had become the dominant power in the state. -Its leaders were earnest well-meaning men, but they did not realise that -improvement to be most effective should be gradual rather than sudden. -They acted as did the men of the French revolution, and in both cases an -enormous amount of misery was the immediate consequence, though as time -went on the good that they did gradually came to surpass the evil which -was at first the result of too much haste. They did not study the -condition of things in South Africa, and the parliament at Westminster -applied laws to this country that were quite unsuitable to it.</p> - -<p>They placed the Hottentots on a perfect political equality with the -European colonists and refused to sanction a vagrant act, thereby -creating a host of idlers and wanderers, that only time and missionary -effort could reduce to order. They emancipated the slaves of a sudden, -paying one-third of their appraised value as compensation, and by doing -so brought utter ruin upon many of the best families in the country and -deep distress upon nearly all. The gradual<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_258" id="page_258"></a>{258}</span> emancipation which the -colonists favoured they rejected, simply because it would take a -generation to work out, though all possible protection against ill-usage -of the slaves could have been secured under it, and the negroes as a -whole would have been better prepared for freedom.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>There were other causes of dissatisfaction among the Dutch-speaking -colonists. The suppression of their language in courts of law and -official documents was one. Another was the change of land tenure from -leases renewable yearly to perpetual quitrent, necessitating heavy -charges for surveying and much larger annual payments. This measure, by -giving security of tenure and permitting transfer on sale, was -undoubtedly beneficial, but the frontier farmers and graziers, -accustomed to the old system, regarded the new one as a plan for -extorting money from them, especially as in most instances the charges -for surveying were paid years before the issue of titles. The great -extent of the magisterial districts prevented the government officials -from explaining the real object of such changes to the farmers, and this -could not be remedied for want of funds.</p> - -<p>Still another cause of dissatisfaction was owing to the swarms of -barbarians that of recent years had entered the colony from the north -and the east, who were a menace to the cattle farmers, from whom they -demanded food which, if not given at once, was taken by force. These -barbarians were the remnants of various Betshuana tribes that had been -nearly exterminated in the wars that originated with Tshaka and -Umsilikazi,<a name="FNanchor_89_88" id="FNanchor_89_88"></a><a href="#Footnote_89_88" class="fnanchor">[89]</a> to whom was added a large section of the Tembu tribe -driven westward by Matiwane, himself a fugitive from the Zulu spears. -The government did what it could, without actual violence, to induce -these invaders to remove beyond the borders, but without success, and -public opinion in England would not admit of sterner measures being -resorted to, such as the cattle farmers desired.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_259" id="page_259"></a>{259}</span></p> - -<p>But more than all that has been mentioned, the greatest cause of -irritation was due to the tone of the missionary and so-called -philanthropic press. By it the farmers were vilified as if they were -cruel tyrants who treated the coloured people as mere animals, and all -their misfortunes, which were diminished to next to nothing, were -alleged to be due to themselves. Extracts from books and pamphlets of -this tone found their way to the farms and were discussed whenever -individuals met, until a general feeling of indignation was aroused. By -no one was it disputed that in South Africa, as in all other countries -of the world, there were violent men to be found, and that instances of -extreme cruelty to coloured dependents could be pointed out; but that a -whole community should be branded with infamy on account of the misdeeds -of a few individuals seemed to be as unjust as if the inhabitants of -London should be termed murderers because occasionally a terrible crime -was committed there.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Causes of Discontent.</div> - -<p>And now in the closing days of 1834 a calamity more dreadful than any -that preceded it had overtaken the English settlers of Albany and the -Dutch-speaking farmers of Somerset, and had reduced them all alike to a -condition of the direst distress.<a name="FNanchor_90_89" id="FNanchor_90_89"></a><a href="#Footnote_90_89" class="fnanchor">[90]</a> Without notice, without anything<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_260" id="page_260"></a>{260}</span> -that a European can regard as sufficient provocation, great bands of -Xosas suddenly crossed the border and spread over these frontier -districts, murdering all the male inhabitants who had not time to escape -to places where they could defend themselves and their families, burning -their farmhouses and outbuildings, and driving off the horses, horned -cattle, sheep, and goats. The whole frontier, with the exception of -Grahamstown and a few of the most important villages which were left -like oases, was reduced to an absolute desert. Seven thousand -individuals, the majority of whom had previously been in comfortable -circumstances, were reduced to such destitution that the government was -obliged to supply them with food, or they must have starved.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>By dint of great exertion the burgher forces, with two regiments of -British infantry and a strong contingent of Hottentots, drove the Xosas -out of the colony and reduced them to partial subjection in the -territory between the Keiskama and Kei rivers. A British and colonial -army penetrated the country beyond the Kei, captured some thousands of -cattle, and released the Fingoes from subjection to the Xosas. These -Fingoes were the remnants of tribes that had lived in Natal, where they -were all but exterminated in the wars of Tshaka. They were brought -westward, and were located chiefly in what is now the district of -Peddie, that they might become a kind of buffer between the colonists -and the Xosas. Then the territory between the Keiskama and Kei rivers -was proclaimed a British possession, under the name of the Province of -Queen Adelaide.</p> - -<p>Sir Benjamin D’Urban, the governor, enjoyed the esteem and affection of -a great majority of the colonists, English and Dutch-speaking alike, in -a larger degree than any one<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_261" id="page_261"></a>{261}</span> before him had done, and Colonel H. G. -Smith, who was stationed at King-Williamstown as the governor’s -representative in the new province, was deservedly popular with all but -a few persons of malignant disposition. A more energetic man never -lived, nor one who had the happiness of the people committed to his -charge more at heart. The Xosa chiefs were permitted to govern their -dependents in their old way, though they were now officially termed -British magistrates, fieldcornets, &c., but they were supposed to act -under the supervision of English commissioners, and the most serious -crimes were legally punishable only after trial before European courts. -Missionary effort was encouraged, and respectable traders were permitted -to settle at selected stations, but traffic in munitions of war or in -intoxicating liquor was strictly prohibited.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Plans of Sir Benjamin D’Urban.</div> - -<p>There were no colonists so simple as to believe that this measure would -immediately put an end to depredations by the Xosas, or that it would in -some almost miraculous way turn barbarians suddenly into civilised men. -But it was generally supposed that under the circumstances then existing -this system was better than any other that could be adopted, and that it -really offered some hope that in course of time a great improvement in -the condition of the Xosas might take place. A small section of the -missionary party thought differently, however, as in their view the -system placed too much restraint upon the black people. With this -trifling exception Sir Benjamin D’Urban’s plans in general were heartily -approved of by nearly every frontier colonist, though many of them -feared that the settlement of the Fingoes on the border might prove to -be a mistake.</p> - -<p>Looking back now after the experience of three-quarters of a century, we -can say positively that Sir Benjamin D’Urban’s policy was wise and -benevolent. It might have been better if the Fingoes had not been -located where they were, but this was at the time the best thing that -could be done with them. We can see too that Colonel Smith<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_262" id="page_262"></a>{262}</span> was over -confident in his influence with the people,—he even believed that he -could depose the chiefs at his will,—for he did not know, as we do, the -cause of the fidelity of the commoners to them. But upon the whole -things were working well, infinitely better indeed than ever before as -far as the European colonists were concerned, while the blacks were in a -position where improvement was much more easy than it had previously -been.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>The party in power in England, however, was decidedly of opinion that a -great wrong of some kind or other must have been done to the Xosas, or -they would not have made war upon the colony. The white people, -consequently, must have been at fault. Lord Glenelg, then secretary of -state for the colonies, in whose hands the destiny of South Africa was -at the time, held this opinion, and issued instructions that British -rule was to be withdrawn from the Province of Queen Adelaide, all the -land east of the Fish and Kat rivers be abandoned to the Xosas, and -treaties of friendship be entered into with the chiefs as independent -and sovereign powers. An officer who was not favourably regarded at that -time by the farmers, though in later years he performed eminent services -for the country, was appointed to carry out these measures, and it was -announced that he would leave England at once. When this information -reached South Africa, the last ray of hope died out in the hearts of the -Dutch-speaking farmers in the eastern districts of the Cape Colony, and -there was a general resolution to abandon the land of their birth and -seek a new home somewhere beyond the border. The British government had -repeatedly announced its fixed determination not to enlarge its domain -in this part of the world, so they believed that upon their removal they -would be free and independent.</p> - -<p>The enormous destruction of human life in the wars of Tshaka and -Moselekatse had left wide tracts of land in South Africa almost—in some -instances quite—uninhabited, and although the extent of these wastes -was unknown, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_263" id="page_263"></a>{263}</span> farmers were cognisant of the fact that there were -unoccupied areas where, they thought, they might settle without doing -wrong to any one. One of these nearly vacant tracts was the country -called Natal, which at that time was taken to signify the land between -the Tugela and Umzimvubu rivers, the Kathlamba mountains and the sea. It -was the most beautiful and most fertile part of South Africa, rising in -steps from the ocean to the great wall that bounds the interior plain, -and thus embracing a variety of climates. It was abundantly watered by -the rains driven up from the Indian ocean, and was well drained by -rivers and rivulets that carried the surplus moisture to the sea. Every -one who saw the land spoke of it with enthusiasm, as being one of the -fairest regions on earth, and one of the best adapted to make -comfortable homes in.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Condition of Natal.</div> - -<p>Some forty Englishmen had settled on the shore of the inlet called Port -Natal, where they made a living chiefly by hunting elephants and -buffaloes and trading with the Zulu chief for ivory. Some of them were -living more like barbarians than civilised men, and were the only -acknowledged heads or chiefs of little bands of fugitives from Zululand, -who placed themselves under the white men’s guidance and protection. A -petty chief named Umnini, who with a few followers lived in a thicket -adjoining the Bluff, and who had concealed himself during the Zulu -invasions, was also a dependent of the white people.<a name="FNanchor_91_90" id="FNanchor_91_90"></a><a href="#Footnote_91_90" class="fnanchor">[91]</a> On the 23rd of -June 1835 fourteen of these men under the guidance of Captain Allen F. -Gardiner, recently of the royal navy, who was then on a visit to the -country<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_264" id="page_264"></a>{264}</span> with a view of preparing for the establishment of missions -among the Zulus, signed a petition to Sir Benjamin D’Urban, requesting -him to forward it to the authorities in England, asking that the -territory might be annexed and a proper government be established in it. -They estimated the number of Bantu inhabitants at not less than three -thousand.<a name="FNanchor_92_91" id="FNanchor_92_91"></a><a href="#Footnote_92_91" class="fnanchor">[92]</a> As some of these men were hunters who knew every inch of -the country, this number might be accepted as at least approximately -correct, though from the observations of others perhaps five or even six -thousand would be more accurate.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>This low estimate is supported by such an amount of trustworthy -testimony that only those who refuse to accept any evidence that is in -conflict with their prejudices can reject it. Nathaniel Isaacs’ <i>Travels -and Adventures in Eastern Africa, with a Sketch of Natal</i>, two volumes, -London, 1836,<a name="FNanchor_93_92" id="FNanchor_93_92"></a><a href="#Footnote_93_92" class="fnanchor">[93]</a> and Gardiner’s <i>Narrative of a Journey to the Zoolu -Country in South Africa</i>, London, 1836,<a name="FNanchor_94_93" id="FNanchor_94_93"></a><a href="#Footnote_94_93" class="fnanchor">[94]</a> support it in<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_265" id="page_265"></a>{265}</span> general -terms. Mr. Henry Fynn, who lived in Natal from 1824 to 1834, writing in -1838, says: “The number now under the management of the Europeans at -Port Natal amounts to nearly six thousand souls, who would all be -massacred if the Europeans were to be withdrawn from the Port.”<a name="FNanchor_95_94" id="FNanchor_95_94"></a><a href="#Footnote_95_94" class="fnanchor">[95]</a> All -the documents of the next five years in which mention is made of the -number of black people in Natal agree with it. Only a few years ago Mr. -G. M. Rudolph, when giving evidence before the last Native Affairs -Commission, stated that he did not think there were more than three -thousand natives (<i>i.e.</i> Bantu) in Natal when he as a boy nine years of -age went there with the first voortrekkers. A party of farmers, one of -whom was Pieter Lavras Uys, travelled through Kaffraria in 1834 with -fourteen waggons to Port Natal, and after thoroughly inspecting the -uplands as well as the coast belt and the harbour, returned to the Cape -Colony highly satisfied with the country as a desirable locality to -migrate to.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Betshuana Refugees.</div> - -<p>Of the vast regions north of the Orange river that had been swept nearly -clean by war the farmers knew very little except from the statements of -Betshuana refugees, whose intelligence was vague and often -contradictory. No one of them seemed to know anything beyond the fate of -the particular tribe or clan to which he belonged, and there was always -so much that was fabulous mixed with their accounts that in general no -credence was given to them. Then they could only be spoken to through -interpreters, who were rarely obtainable and whose knowledge of any<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_266" id="page_266"></a>{266}</span> -other language than their own was usually very defective.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>This was the condition of things on the frontier of the Cape Colony when -the emigration of the Dutch-speaking farmers commenced, an emigration -without parallel in any other dependency of Great Britain. The farmers -formed themselves in little bands and moved away together, under the -leadership of an elected commandant, whose authority, however, was very -limited.</p> - -<p>The first band to leave the colony with the intention of never returning -to it had as its head a man named Louis Triegard, fifty-three years of -age, who had been living in the district of Somerset. He was the -grandson of a Swede, who came to South Africa in the service of the -Dutch East India Company, and married here in 1744. His father, Carel -Johannes Triegard, was one of those farmers of Bruintjes Hoogte who in -1796 were most opposed to the recognition of British authority in -Graaff-Reinet, and he inherited his parent’s prejudice in this respect. -He was married to Martha Elizabeth Susanna Bouwer, and had a family of -five children.</p> - -<p>Triegard had received only an elementary education from an itinerant -schoolmaster, just sufficient to enable him to write a letter or keep a -journal in such a way that his meaning could be made out, but his -understanding was by no means defective. He had a passionate temper, -though he was usually able to keep it under control. Among the farmers -he was regarded as a wealthy man, and his establishment was much larger -than those of his neighbours.</p> - -<p>In June 1834 Louis Triegard moved away from the district of Somerset, -and camped out for a time on the banks of the White Kei river, beyond -the border of the colony. According to the declaration of one of his -slaves, who ran away from him there, and who appeared before the civil -commissioner of Albany at Grahamstown on the 10th of September, he had -previously purchased from a storekeeper in that place one large and two -small kegs of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_267" id="page_267"></a>{267}</span> gunpowder, which he had taken with him. On the banks of -the White Kei about thirty emigrant families were then living, among -whom were those of Adriaan de Lange, his four sons Adriaan, Hans, -Robert, and Gerrit, Frans van Aardt, Hans van der Merwe, and Sybrand van -Dyk. Triegard had three female and seven men slaves, but the others had -only five slaves among them all. While in the colony Triegard was a mild -master, but when he got beyond the border his conduct changed, and he -became harsh.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Conduct of Louis Triegard.</div> - -<p>On the 21st of November 1834 the civil commissioner reported that all of -Triegard’s slaves and four of the others had run away and reached -Grahamstown safely, only one, belonging to Frans van Aardt, remaining at -the White Kei. By removing them beyond the border, their masters had -forfeited their right to them,<a name="FNanchor_96_95" id="FNanchor_96_95"></a><a href="#Footnote_96_95" class="fnanchor">[96]</a> so they were all declared emancipated -without any further action, and were permitted to take service as free -persons with any individuals in the town who might care to employ them.</p> - -<p>At the close of this year the sixth Kaffir war commenced, and the Rarabe -clans held out until September 1835. When negotiations for peace were -being conducted, the chief Tyali stated that Louis Triegard had -persuaded the Xosas to continue hostilities so long, but there is no -other positive evidence to this effect. It is difficult to believe that -he would have tried to bring evil upon his own countrymen, but there is -the incriminating fact against him that he moved northward with the -notorious robber captain Jalusa, who carried on a career of violence and -indiscriminate plunder until his entire band of between a thousand and -twelve hundred individuals, with only eight exceptions, was exterminated -in September 1836 by the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_268" id="page_268"></a>{268}</span> Basuto of Moshesh. The authorities on the -frontier in the meantime, being convinced that he was doing much harm, -but being unable to arrest him in his retreat beyond the border, were -making secret inquiries into his conduct and movements, of which very -likely he came to learn, for early in September 1835 he crossed the -Orange river and became the leader of the first band of emigrants into -the then unknown interior.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>He had with him his wife and four children, his son Carel with wife and -two children, Pieter Johannes Hendrik Botha with wife and five children, -J. Pretorius with wife and four children, G. Scheepers with wife and -nine children, H. Strydom with wife and five children, an old man named -Daniel Pfeffer who made his living as a schoolmaster, and a Frenchman -named Isaac Albacht, who had a coloured woman as a consort and five -children.</p> - -<p>This party was joined before it crossed the Orange river by another of -equal size, consisting of Jan van Rensburg as leader, with wife and four -children, S. Bronkhorst with wife and six children, G. Bronkhorst the -elder with wife and one child, G. Bronkhorst the younger with wife, -Jacobus de Wet with wife, F. van Wyk with wife and two children, P. -Viljoen with wife and six children, H. Aucamp with wife and three -children, N. Prins with wife and eight children, and M. Prins.</p> - -<p>Together they had thirty waggons. After crossing the Orange they -continued their course northward, travelling just as suited their -inclination or convenience until they reached the place now known as -Potgieter’s Rust, in the Zoutpansberg, where they arrived in May 1836. -In passing through the vast almost uninhabited waste beyond the Orange -river they had escaped the observation of Moselekatse’s warriors, and -had met so few blacks that they considered themselves quite secure. The -men hunted game constantly on horseback, and had seen vast areas of land -suited for settlement, but as they wished to open communication with the -outer world through Delagoa Bay,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_269" id="page_269"></a>{269}</span> they had gone on until they believed -themselves to be in the latitude of that port.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Fate of Rensburg’s Party.</div> - -<p>At the Zoutpansberg they halted while the young men explored the country -around, which they considered admirably adapted for stock-breeding and -agriculture. They were in ignorance that Moselekatse’s kraals were only -four hundred kilometres or two hundred and fifty English miles to the -south-west, and of the ferocity of the Matabele they likewise knew -nothing, or they would not have been so satisfied with the locality. -They were almost at the mouth of a lion’s den, and yet were so utterly -careless that in July 1836 the families composing Rensburg’s division, -consisting of forty-nine individuals, left the others with the object of -proceeding to Delagoa Bay to open up communication and trade with the -Portuguese who had recently rebuilt a fort there. From that time nothing -definite is known of these people. A report reached Triegard some months -afterwards that they had all been murdered by a band of Magwamba -robbers, and this was confirmed in later years by the accounts of -various blacks, but just when and where it occurred could never be -ascertained.</p> - -<p>It was commonly believed in the Transvaal Republic a generation later, -and the newspapers circulated the statement widely, that in August 1867 -a white man and woman, who spoke no language but that of the Eastern -Bantu, and whose habits were those of barbarians, were sent to -Commandant Coetzer, of Lydenburg, by a Swazi chief who had obtained them -from the Magwamba. They could tell nothing of their history except that -they believed they had always lived among Bantu; but as they had never -seen other whites that they could remember, it was concluded that they -were the sole survivors of Rensburg’s party, and that they were very -young when their relatives were murdered. For some time they had lived -as man and wife, and had two children when they were handed over to -Commandant Coetzer. This was the tale generally accepted as correct at -the time, but the man and woman believed to<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_270" id="page_270"></a>{270}</span> be Europeans were in -reality albinos of pure Bantu blood.<a name="FNanchor_97_96" id="FNanchor_97_96"></a><a href="#Footnote_97_96" class="fnanchor">[97]</a></p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>From a journal kept by Triegard, a fragment of which, commencing on the -25th of January 1837 and ending on the 1st of May 1838, has fortunately -been preserved, the history of those who were left behind at the -Zoutpansberg is known. On the 11th of May 1837 Triegard wrote to the -authorities at Lourenço Marques that the party was in great want of -clothing and ammunition, and asking if horned cattle, wethers, wool, and -hides would be received in barter. They were then seven families of -forty-six souls, only nine of whom were males capable of bearing arms. -This letter was sent by Gabriel Buys, accompanied by a Knobnose black -named Waiwai. Buys was a son of the notorious freebooter Coenraad du -Buis, who had fled from the eastern frontier of the Cape Colony many -years before, and after carrying on extensive depredations in Southern -Betshuanaland, at the head of a band of ruffians, had become afraid that -ministers of justice might be sent to apprehend him there, so had moved -on to the Zoutpansberg and become the first European resident in the -present Transvaal province. As he had done at the Keiskama he did in his -new home in the north: he took to himself a harem of Bantu women, by -whom he had numerous children. Among these were Gabriel and an<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_271" id="page_271"></a>{271}</span> elder -brother named Doris, who attached themselves temporarily to Triegard’s -party, and as they spoke Dutch and Setshuana, were of great service. -Doris remained behind as interpreter and general servant when Gabriel -proceeded to Delagoa Bay with the letter.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Life at the Zoutpansberg.</div> - -<p>They had over five hundred head of horned cattle and a flock of sheep -and goats, the care of which occupied most of their attention. Game was -plentiful, and they obtained some millet and sweet cane from the blacks -who were thinly scattered about in their neighbourhood, so that there -was no want of plain food, but the women missed greatly such articles as -coffee and sugar. The men had accustomed themselves to the use of millet -beer, and Triegard was always pleased to receive a calabash filled with -it as a present from the head of a Bantu kraal, using the precaution, -however, of requiring the donor according to the custom of the -barbarians to take the first draught. As they had used all their lead, -they cast bullets of copper and of tin, both of which metals were -obtainable, though no information is given as to how or through whose -means they were procured. Occasionally, though very rarely, they were -able to get in barter a piece of calico that had passed through the -country from Delagoa Bay, being handed on from one clan to another for -sale. It is interesting to read in Triegard’s journal that, rough a life -as they were leading, they observed Sunday as well as they could, and -that a school was kept for the children. It is to be noted also that -even in this little party there was a spirit of disagreement, and that -Triegard’s leadership, owing to the feeling of absolute equality among -the different heads of families, was hardly even nominal, much less -real.</p> - -<p>On the 7th of August Gabriel Buys and the Knobnose Waiwai returned from -Delagoa Bay. No one there could read Triegard’s letter, but the -Portuguese officer in command of the fort, understanding that the -emigrants wished to visit him, sent two black soldiers to show them the -way. Accordingly on the 23rd of that month they broke up their<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_272" id="page_272"></a>{272}</span> camp, -and set out on the journey to the coast, with the intention, however, of -returning and settling permanently in the goodly locality they had -found. From Gabriel Buys and the men who accompanied him they obtained -only a vague idea of the distance they would have to travel or of the -obstacles in their way. They were in reality about three hundred and -thirty-six kilometres or two hundred and ten English miles in a straight -line from Lourenço Marques, which lay almost due south-east, for without -knowing it they had gone fully a hundred and ninety kilometres farther -north than its latitude. So far they had enjoyed excellent health, as -after passing the Stormberg they had been on the high plateau, and -travelling from south to north they had not met with any serious -obstacles. They were now to have a very different experience.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>They travelled past the mountains, since so famous as the strongholds of -the Bapedi, where Sekwati, who was then a very petty chief, was living, -and who sent them a kindly greeting. They came next to the great range, -which lay between them and the coast terraces, where trouble of no -ordinary kind was before them. The black Portuguese soldiers had -traversed the range on foot, and had no conception of waggon traffic, so -they were absolutely useless as guides. A road had to be made, and they -managed to obtain some Bantu labourers by paying them in sheep, but when -it was completed it was just passable in most places and so dangerous at -one spot that some of the party rather than venture on it preferred to -take their waggons to pieces and lower the separate parts down the face -of a precipice.</p> - -<p>In the mountains their cattle were attacked by the tsetse, an insect a -little larger than a common fly, but though they had once before -suffered loss from this destructive pest, they did not pay much -attention to it at first. They were doubtful of its being the same as -that they had formerly seen, but soon their oxen began to pine away and -die, when they found themselves in a deplorable<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_273" id="page_273"></a>{273}</span> condition. Still they -pushed on, and by dint of almost superhuman exertions, managed to get -through the Lebombo, the last range on their way. The cattle were dying -fast, when on the 8th of April 1838, to their great joy, they were met -by a messenger from the commandant of the Portuguese fort at Lourenço -Marques. This messenger had come up the river Umbelosi in a boat, and -had brought a present of provisions, rum, medicines, and even some -articles of clothing, which were most acceptable.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Suffering at Delagoa Bay.</div> - -<p>Triegard now transferred his ivory and other heavy effects to the boat, -and with his lightened waggons pushed on to the fort, which he reached -on the 15th of April 1838, two hundred and thirty-five days after -leaving Makapan’s Poort at the Zoutpansberg. The party then consisted of -fifty-seven individuals, namely five married men and their wives, two -widowers, one widow, eight lads over sixteen years of age, fourteen lads -under sixteen years of age, four girls over sixteen years of age, seven -girls under sixteen years of age, four half-caste children of Albacht, -and seven Betshuana and Bushman servants.</p> - -<p>The Portuguese received them with much kindness, though they were -required at first to give up their guns. These, however, were soon -restored to them, and whatever could be thought of to make them -comfortable was done. Triegard informed the commandant of the fort that -he had left the Cape Colony because the frontier had been ruined by the -Xosas, the slaves had been set free by the English, and the government -desired to make soldiers of the Afrikanders. It was evident that they -could not return to the Zoutpansberg, but they had not decided what next -to undertake when they were attacked by fever. The first to die was old. -Daniel Pfeffer, who expired on the 21st of April, at the age of 78 -years. He was followed on the 29th of April by P. J. Hendrik Botha, who -was 37 years of age. Next came Louis Triegard’s wife, who died on the -1st of May. When she fell ill the Portuguese commandant had her carried -into the best room in the fort,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_274" id="page_274"></a>{274}</span> and his own wife tended her day after -day with the utmost kindness until she died. With a great cry of anguish -over his terrible loss Triegard closed his journal, and no particulars -can be ascertained of occurrences during the next fifteen months that -the party remained at Lourenço Marques. Months of intense suffering, -physical and mental, they must have been, of this there can be no doubt. -Actual hunger may have been averted by the kindness of the Portuguese -officers, but the resources of these good people were very limited, and -such food as was obtainable must have consisted mainly, if not entirely, -of millet and other produce of the gardens of the Bantu.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>Their number was constantly diminishing by fever, till at length the -emigrants who had settled in Natal, hearing where and in what condition -they were, chartered the schooner <i>Mazeppa</i> to proceed to Delagoa Bay to -their relief, and in July 1839 the remnant of the party, consisting of -Mrs. H. Botha and five children, Mrs. G. Scheepers and five children, -Mrs. J. Pretorius and two children, three young men, and seven orphan -children, were landed at Durban. One young man, son of Louis Triegard, -had gone to Mozambique in a Portuguese vessel before the <i>Mazeppa</i> -reached the bay, but in the following year he managed to travel overland -to his friends in Natal. Thus of the ninety-eight individuals who formed -the first party of emigrants all had perished except the twenty-six who -reached Natal in a state of utter destitution.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_275" id="page_275"></a>{275}</span></p> - -<h4><a name="II-4" id="II-4"></a>II.<br /><br /> -<span class="smcap">Pieter Lavras Uys.</span></h4> - -<div class="sidenote">Progress of Emigration.</div> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">The</span> second party to leave the colony was under the leadership of Andries -Hendrik Potgieter, and consisted of farmers whose religious tendencies -were towards the separatist—equivalent to the Scottish -Covenanter—section of the church. They migrated chiefly from the Tarka. -A full account of their wanderings and actions, of their sufferings from -the Matabele and their heroic conduct until Moselekatse was compelled to -flee northward to the territory now called Rhodesia, together with the -adventures of the party from Colesberg under Carel Cilliers that joined -them is given in my <i>History of South Africa</i>, and it is unnecessary to -repeat it here.</p> - -<p>The third party was under the leadership of Gerrit Marthinus Maritz, and -went from the neighbourhood of Graaff-Reinet. It was much larger than -the one under Potgieter. On the 2nd of December 1836 these parties, who -were then in the neighbourhood of Thaba Ntshu, attempted to establish a -government and elected a court of justice, with Maritz as landdrost or -president. Various small parties and even single families now arrived, -and joined either Potgieter or Maritz according to the section of the -church that they preferred.</p> - -<p>The next large party was headed by Pieter Retief, and went from the -Winterberg. On the 17th of April 1837 a meeting of the emigrants was -held in the camp of Maritz,<a name="FNanchor_98_97" id="FNanchor_98_97"></a><a href="#Footnote_98_97" class="fnanchor">[98]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_276" id="page_276"></a>{276}</span> when Pieter Retief was elected -administrative head, but he was not then installed in office, as the -section under Potgieter took no part in the proceedings, and the others -hoped that they might be induced to join in course of time. Potgieter -and Maritz had quarrelled, and from this time forward harmony among the -emigrants was rarely seen.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>On the 6th of June 1837 Mr. Retief was formally installed in office as -governor and commandant-general, a volksraad of six members was elected -and entrusted with full legislative power, and a provisional -constitution of nine articles was adopted. Whether these proceedings -were not premature may be open to doubt. The number of emigrants north -of the Orange was then not very great, many more were known to be on -their way, and for these few to exercise the power of modelling the -future government and appointing the chief executive officer seemed -unjustifiable to most of those who arrived afterwards. There was no -question as to the ability of Pieter Retief and his fitness for the -highest office, but that he should be appointed to it by a section of -the community and the others be required simply to concur was regarded -as a grievance.</p> - -<p>Mr. Retief’s first proceeding proved him to be a man of tact. He -actually succeeded in inducing Hendrik Potgieter, the representative of -the separatist or Covenanter<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_277" id="page_277"></a>{277}</span> section of the church, to meet in a -friendly manner Gerrit Maritz, the representative of the larger section -of the church,<a name="FNanchor_99_98" id="FNanchor_99_98"></a><a href="#Footnote_99_98" class="fnanchor">[99]</a> a man accused by his opponents of ambitious views and -not very conciliatory in demeanour. It is true that these men had once -fought side by side, when Maritz generously assisted the other to -recover the spoil taken by the Matabele in August 1836 in their -murderous onslaughts on the camps north of the Vaal, but the -constitution of mind of the Covenanter seems to differ from that of -other men so much as to make concord difficult except under unusual -circumstances. It need not be asked whether his views are more or less -praiseworthy than those of his neighbours, but it must be admitted that -as a rule he looks upon most matters from a different standpoint. And so -the good feeling between the two leaders brought about by Mr. Retief was -only temporary, and from the first Potgieter resolutely declined to give -in his adherence to the political faction led by Maritz.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Progress of Emigration.</div> - -<p>The fifth large party arrived at Thaba Ntshu at this time. It was under -the leadership of Mr. Pieter Jacobs, and went from the district of -Beaufort West, being composed largely of families connected with the -Slachter’s Nek insurrection. These people joined the adherents of Retief -and Maritz, though they continued to form a separate camp.</p> - -<p>Next to cross the Orange was a large party from Oliphants Hoek, under -the leadership of Pieter Lavras Uys, though his father, Jacobus Johannes -Uys, was nominally its head. The old man was nearly seventy years of -age, and the party was entirely composed of his immediate descendants -and connections by marriage. It is of Pieter Lavras Uys, and the part he -took in the emigration, that<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_278" id="page_278"></a>{278}</span> the remainder of this paper will deal, the -information being largely drawn from the documents contained in the -D’Urban collection.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>He was descended from Cornelis Uys, who with his wife and three children -migrated from Leyden in Holland as colonists at the beginning of the -eighteenth century, when the Dutch East India Company was sending to the -Cape settlement as many industrious families accustomed to agriculture -as it could obtain. Dirk, one of the three children of Cornelis, was -born at Leyden, but grew up in South Africa, and in 1722 married Dina le -Roux, daughter of a Huguenot refugee from Provence. The fifth child of -this marriage, Cornelis Janse by name, in 1766 married Alida Maria -Swart, and from this union eleven children were born, the second of -whom, Jacobus Johannes by name, in 1793 married Susanna Margaretha -Moolman. When grown up, this Jacobus Johannes Uys went to reside in -Oliphants Hoek in what became later the district of Uitenhage, and there -in 1797 his third child, Pieter Lavras, was born.<a name="FNanchor_100_99" id="FNanchor_100_99"></a><a href="#Footnote_100_99" class="fnanchor">[100]</a></p> - -<p>Any one who will take the trouble to watch the career of South African -students at European universities, say at Leyden or Edinburgh, will find -that they occupy prominent places in their classes. The sons of men -whose ancestors for many generations had received very little education -from books on their farms are found intellectually able to compete in -study with the sons of Europeans who have long enjoyed the greatest -facilities for acquiring knowledge. This is a most hopeful sign for the -future of South Africa. If with vastly increased knowledge our young men -only adhere to the sterling virtues and strong confidence in God that -characterised their ancestors, there need be no fear for this country in -the time to come.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_279" id="page_279"></a>{279}</span></p> - -<p>It is true that there are in South Africa many poor white people, some -of whom seem to have lost both the power and the inclination to raise -themselves in the social scale. But with education, industrial training, -and opportunities to acquire property, the great majority of these would -undoubtedly rise again, and the residue are at least more capable of -improvement than the unemployables in a European city. In all countries -of the world there are weak-minded people of different degrees of -imbecility, but in South Africa the number of these is very small, and -white men and women with criminal instincts are almost unknown. If an -average be taken the old colonists need not fear a comparison of -intellect with the inhabitants of any country in Europe.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Character of Pieter Uys.</div> - -<p>Pieter Uys was of the best stamp of man to be found in South Africa. He -had not the advantage of a university training or even of a good school -education, but he had the capacity of drawing information from every -source within his reach, and putting it to the best use. He could write -a letter or draw up a document in clear and concise Cape Dutch, and he -was acquainted with what was going on over the sea. His upright conduct, -his religious convictions, and his kindly disposition caused him to be -held in general esteem, not only by his Dutch-speaking neighbours, but -by the English settlers of Albany, with whom he was brought into close -contact during the Kaffir war of 1835.</p> - -<p>When the farmers were temporarily released from duty in the field in -order to get crops in the ground, he found himself so thwarted by the -unruly conduct of the apprentices, late slaves and Betshuana refugees -alike, that he addressed a memorial to the authorities, representing the -insufficiency of the existing laws for their correction, and praying for -the interference and protection of the government.<a name="FNanchor_101_100" id="FNanchor_101_100"></a><a href="#Footnote_101_100" class="fnanchor">[101]</a> It was -impossible for Sir Benjamin D’Urban to<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_280" id="page_280"></a>{280}</span> give him any relief, but even if -it had been otherwise, he would probably have left the colony, for he -had been charmed with the appearance of Natal, the almost uninhabited -territory that he had visited in the preceding year.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>It is impossible to give even approximately the number of those who had -left the Cape Colony before this time. The government called for returns -from the civil commissioners of the different districts, and in July -1837 these officials reported that one thousand and sixty-seven persons -had left and two hundred and sixty others were about to follow. But -these numbers are certainly much too low, though the estimate of Mr. Uys -given in his letter of the 7th of August is probably too large.</p> - -<p>It was the intention of the party under Uys to proceed to Natal, but not -to attempt to go through Kaffraria. He had found such difficulties in -travelling there in 1834 that he thought a better road might be found by -moving northward over the Orange river, and then seeking a pass through -the Drakensbergen that would lead him to the beautiful land below. This -was the route that he followed, and at the beginning of August 1837 he -and his party were on the northern bank of the Great river, without -having met with any accident on the way. On the 7th of that month he -addressed a letter to Sir Benjamin D’Urban, of which a literal -translation made for the governor’s use and preserved among his papers -is given here <i>in extenso</i>:</p> - -<div class="blockquot"><p class="r"> -“Orange River, 7th August 1837.<br /> -</p> - -<p>“<span class="smcap">Sir</span>,—I beg to submit to your Excellency a statement of what I -have observed since I left Capetown and set out on my journey -beyond the Orange river. I there met more than three thousand -persons, lately inhabitants of the Colony, who have left their -country and gone to a foreign land, even to a desert. I have spoken -to many old men amongst them, with the view of ascertaining their -reasons for leaving their native country, and they give the -following as the principal causes:<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_281" id="page_281"></a>{281}</span></p> - -<p>“1. The laws made for this colony by Parliament, however -inapplicable to the people and their condition, must be implicitly -obeyed.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Causes of the Emigration.</div> - -<p>“2. We were put to great expense for the measurement, of our farms -prior to their grant, and for a small farm must pay an annual rent -of from forty to two hundred rixdollars. (£3 to £15.)</p> - -<p>“3. All power of domestic coercion of our apprentices in our houses -and on our farms has been taken away from us, which has brought the -apprentices into such a state of insubordination as to expose us to -the risk of the loss of property and even life. Neither have we the -right to defend ourselves against these people who live at our -expense, and if they think proper go to a magistrate and make a -false oath, without witnesses, upon which we are seized by black -and white constables, in the same manner as murderers, and brought -before the court, to the great injury of our reputation; whilst if -they lose their cause, then the costs are paid from the government -chest, to which we must pay heavy taxes annually; and if we are -condemned, we must then pay a fine out of our own pockets or be -sent to prison. On this point your Excellency is aware how I myself -was treated in the late Kaffir war and whilst I was in presence of -the enemy and my property left unprotected;<a name="FNanchor_102_101" id="FNanchor_102_101"></a><a href="#Footnote_102_101" class="fnanchor">[102]</a> which vexatious -treatment has also had great influence on many of the inhabitants.</p> - -<p>“4. The, slaves who were our property, who cost us<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_282" id="page_282"></a>{282}</span> much money, and -for whom we paid every government due, have been taken from us upon -an appraisement made by order of Parliament, and have become free -for a third part of the money at which they were valued, and our -power of maintaining order and discipline having been taken away, -the masters and mistresses are scandalously treated.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>“5. The last Kaffir invasion is also one of the causes. The Kaffirs -have for many years murdered and plundered the inhabitants, and -government has always held out hopes of improvement in this -respect, if we would remain at peace with them; and now, to crown -the whole, we are accused of being the cause of the war, and must -lose all our cattle, as well as put up with our other losses.</p> - -<p>“I have stated but a few of the points upon which the greatest -stress is laid by the colonists who have emigrated. To state every -point would go too much into detail; but these will be sufficient -to show why the people are discontented.</p> - -<p>“The inhabitants asked for a vagrant law, but that was refused. -They asked for power to punish their insubordinate apprentices, but -this was also refused. Many of them prayed to be relieved from -taxes for the first year after the war, but this was not acceded -to. Their waggons, oxen, and horses were used for the purposes of -the war, but they received no satisfactory remuneration. Several -other things are also stated, too many to be mentioned here.</p> - -<p>“I hope your Excellency will be convinced of the truth of what I -have here said, and I do not doubt that if it had been in your -power, our country would now be in a prosperous state; but, as it -is, our country is ruined, for we see that everything taken by you -from the enemy has been restored to them, which will more encourage -them.</p> - -<p>“To make the country yet more unfortunate, we see with astonishment -a governor who could do much good by<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_283" id="page_283"></a>{283}</span> the existing laws, and we see -other persons, such as missionaries and other prejudiced writers, -who are believed, whilst what this governor writes is not attended -to.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Political Attitude of Uys.</div> - -<p>“We address memorials to the governor and to parliament, but we -find no change. Now we see the mischievous effects to the -inhabitants, and we are thus obliged to quit the colony. It is not -our fault that we leave our native land; we have begged and prayed -for a change, and none is made. We therefore emigrate, but we -shall, notwithstanding, not yet separate ourselves from our -respected governor, who endeavoured to do us good; and whenever we -can be of any assistance, we shall not fail to afford it.</p> - -<p>“If I can be of any use to your Excellency, or any report of mine -be of service to a governor whom I so much esteem, I shall spare no -trouble; and I remain, etc.</p> - -<p class="r"> -“<span class="smcap">P. L. Uys</span>, Commandant.”<br /> -</p></div> - -<p>The political position, or the attitude assumed by Pieter Uys and his -party towards the emigrants who had preceded them, was one of -independence. As well he thought might he assert authority over Mr. -Retief as Mr. Retief over him. The time had not yet come for framing a -constitution, which should be deferred until the tide of emigration had -slackened, when it could be done with the consent of the whole body of -the people, and not merely of a small section of them. Accordingly on -the 14th of August 1837 a series of resolutions were drawn up and -signed, placing their attitude clearly before their countrymen. These -resolutions literally translated were as follows:</p> - -<div class="blockquot"><p class="r"> -“Caledon River, 14th August 1837.<br /> -</p> - -<p>“Resolutions adopted by us, the undersigned travellers and exiles -from the colony of the Cape of Good Hope, now on our journey -between the Orange and Vet rivers. We make known to our countrymen -in advance with what object and intention we have undertaken our -journey, and that our unanimous wish is:<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_284" id="page_284"></a>{284}</span></p> - -<p>“1. To select the country called the Bay of Port Natal as our -seaport.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>“2. To inspect the extent of country joining the same inland, as -far as we shall deem necessary.</p> - -<p>“3. That we have placed ourselves under certain chiefs as field -commandants, as protecting leaders over us, to investigate and -redress all grievances that may take place on our journey.</p> - -<p>“4. We place our dependence on the Allwise Ruler of heaven and -earth, and are resolved to adhere to the sure foundation of our -reformed Christian religion, entertaining the hope that when we -have reached the place of our destination we shall live a better -and safer life.</p> - -<p>“5. As regards the establishment and execution of legal authority -as exercised by some of our countrymen, we must unanimously declare -that we entirely disapprove thereof; and we shall only regulate -ourselves in the wilderness by the old burgher regulations and -duties, and all differences which may arise shall be adjusted in -accordance with those burgher regulations.</p> - -<p>“6. We have come to the final determination not to submit to any -laws that may have been established by a few individuals, and which -we conceive have a tendency to reduce us from a state of banishment -to a state of slavery.</p> - -<p>“7. When we shall have attained our object and have arrived at the -place of our destination, we trust to see the whole of our -countrymen assembled together, then by the public voice to proceed -to the election and appointment of our chief rulers and the framing -of proper laws, and in general to consider what is useful both for -the country and the people.</p> - -<p>“8. The judicial appointments and laws as now established will not -be noticed by us in the slightest degree, but are considered as of -no value.</p> - -<p>“9. We trust that every burgher will participate in these -sentiments, in order to be placed in the situation of a free -citizen.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_285" id="page_285"></a>{285}</span></p> - -<p>“10. We purpose to establish our settlement on the same principles -of liberty as those adopted by the United States of America, -carrying into effect, as far as practicable, our burgher laws. -Every person agreeing herewith will therefore attach his signature -for the information of those who are still in doubt on the subject.</p> - -<div class="poetry"><div class="poem2"> -“<span class="smcap">P. L. Uys</span>,<br /> - <span class="smcap">J. J. Uys</span>,<br /> - <span class="smcap">J. P. Moolman</span>,<br /> - <span class="smcap">H. J. Potgieter</span>,<br /> - <span class="smcap">J. Landman</span>,<br /> - And 165 others.”<br /> -</div> -</div></div> - -<div class="sidenote">Action of Pieter Retief.</div> - -<p>At this time Mr. Retief was preparing to send an expedition against -Moselekatse, to follow up the blow struck at Mosega in January 1837 by -the commandos under Gerrit Maritz and Hendrik Potgieter. The Matabele -had provoked hostilities by the robbery and massacre of a hunting party -under Fieldcornet Stephanus Petrus Erasmus, of the Kraai river,<a name="FNanchor_103_102" id="FNanchor_103_102"></a><a href="#Footnote_103_102" class="fnanchor">[103]</a> and -of many emigrant families belonging to the party of Potgieter who had -imprudently ventured across the Vaal. But this expedition was not -carried out, Mr. Retief’s partisans assigning as a reason that they -believed the Griquas under Adam Kok and Andries Waterboer would attack -the camps while so many of the men were away, but the real cause -probably being the dissensions between the emigrants themselves.</p> - -<p>In October 1837 Mr. Retief, having found a pass in the Drakensbergen, -with some of his followers went down<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_286" id="page_286"></a>{286}</span> into Natal, and Messrs. Potgieter -and Uys determined to carry out the plan of attacking the Matabele -again. Uys had no personal interest in the matter, for he had resolved -to settle in Natal, but his sympathy with his countrymen led him to -assist them against the barbarians who had done them so much injury. On -the 19th of this month he concluded an agreement of friendship with -Moroko, chief of the principal section of the Barolong at Thaba Ntshu, -and immediately afterwards the two commandos set out from the camps on -the border of the Caledon and at Winburg. One of the most important -campaigns yet entered upon in South Africa between Europeans and Bantu -had commenced.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>An account of this campaign has been given in my <i>History of South -Africa</i>, and Dr. J. C. Voigt has entered even more fully into the -details of the nine days’ struggle on the Marikwa than I did.<a name="FNanchor_104_103" id="FNanchor_104_103"></a><a href="#Footnote_104_103" class="fnanchor">[104]</a> The -result of this expedition was the flight of the whole Matabele tribe to -the country north of the Limpopo, the opening of the territory now -comprised in the Transvaal Province and the Orange Free State to -European settlers, and the relief of the remnants of the Betshuana -tribes from the misery in which they had been existing. It would be -difficult to exaggerate the importance of the victory on the Marikwa in -November 1837 to civilisation and the happiness of both white and black -people in South Africa. And yet Pieter Lavras Uys, one of the leaders of -the little band of brave men who risked their lives against terrible -odds and won it, is well nigh forgotten in the land he served so well.</p> - -<p>On the 21st of July 1837 Mr. Retief had written to Sir Benjamin D’Urban -a letter of which the following is a translation:</p> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>“The undersigned Pieter Retief, as conductor-in-chief of the united -encampments, most humbly sheweth,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_287" id="page_287"></a>{287}</span></p> - -<p>“That we as subjects of the British government during our -distressed circumstances submitted our grievances to his Majesty -the King; but as all our endeavours proved fruitless, we have -ultimately found ourselves compelled to quit the land of our birth -in order that we might not become guilty of opposition or rebellion -against our government.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Letter of Pieter Retief.</div> - -<p>“That this abandonment of our native country has occasioned us -enormous and incalculable losses, but that notwithstanding this we -on our side will not show any enmity towards the British nation.</p> - -<p>“That consequently all trade and commerce between us and the -British merchants will on our part be free and uninterrupted, as -with all other nations, with this understanding that we desire to -be considered as a free and independent people.</p> - -<p>“That we have learnt with grief that almost all the native tribes -by whom we are now surrounded have been instigated to attack us; -but although we feel ourselves fully able to resist all our -enemies, we would however beg of your Excellency to prevent, as far -as lies in your power, such hostilities, so that we may not be -compelled to spill human blood, which has already been the case -with Moselekatse.</p> - -<p>“That we will prove to the world by our conduct that it never has -been our intention unlawfully to molest any nation or people; but -that on the contrary we have no greater satisfaction than in the -general peace and amity of all mankind.</p> - -<p>“That, finally, we confidently trust that the British government -will allow us to receive the amount of all the just claims and -demands which we still have within the colony. I have &c.</p> - -<p class="r"> -“<span class="smcap">P. Retief.</span>”<br /> -</p></div> - -<p>This letter seems to have taken a long time to reach the governor. On -the 25th of October 1837 he wrote the following note upon it:<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_288" id="page_288"></a>{288}</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>“A little time must be suffered to elapse before any answer be sent -to this, and this of necessity, because there are three contending -chiefs: Retief, Maritz (<i>sic</i>, it should be Potgieter), and Uys; -and although Retief has now the greatest influence, yet it does not -extend over the whole of the emigrants, nor is there any positive -certainty that it will continue. Before the government condescends -to treat with them at all, it must at least be certain that it -treats with an acknowledged and undivided authority; this matter -must lay by, therefore, for a while, which also may afford time for -an answer to the dispatch of July last, in which the question is -asked of his Majesty’s government ‘What are the relations to be in -future kept between the emigrants and the colonial government?’ And -in the meanwhile the emigrants are moving far out of contact with -the Colony, to the eastward, so that there can arise in the interim -no collision between them and the colonial authorities or -inhabitants.—<span class="smcap">B. D’Urban.</span>”</p></div> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>Of Pieter Retief’s negotiations with the Zulu chief Dingan, of the -removal to Natal of the whole of the party that adhered to him, and of -the terrible massacres of the emigrants by the Zulus, nothing needs to -be stated here.<a name="FNanchor_105_104" id="FNanchor_105_104"></a><a href="#Footnote_105_104" class="fnanchor">[105]</a> These events are fully recorded in my <i>History of -South Africa</i> and in Mr. G. S. Preller’s <i>Piet Retief: Lewenskets van -die Grote Voortrekker</i>, (6de druk), a demi octavo<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_289" id="page_289"></a>{289}</span> volume of one hundred -and ninety-four pages, published at Pretoria in 1909.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Visit of Pieter Uys to Natal.</div> - -<p>It was the intention of Mr. Potgieter to settle on the highlands of the -interior and to endeavour to open communication with the outer world if -possible through the Portuguese harbour of Delagoa Bay. Mr. Uys, on the -other hand, had from the first resolved to make homes for himself and -his party in the neighbourhood of Port Natal. But he was not in a hurry -to move over the mountains, especially as the pasture around his -temporary camp was good, and the cattle, large and small, would be the -better of a long rest after their journey from Oliphants Hoek. With a -few companions on horseback, however, he rode over to inspect the -country again, and on the 15th of December 1837 arrived in the first of -the camps under Retief and Maritz on the Bushman’s river in Natal.</p> - -<p>There the question of the form and personnel of the government was the -topic of discussion again, and it became evident to Mr. Uys that he and -his adherents would be in a minority in Natal. He therefore stated that -after his party had arrived and settled on farms he would be prepared to -abide by the decision of a majority of the whole community, but he could -not be induced to sign a document pledging fidelity to Mr. Retief as -governor and commandant-general, which was pressed upon him. After a -short visit he returned to his camp on the highlands, and was there when -the heartrending tidings reached him of the treacherous massacre of Mr. -Retief and his companions at Dingan’s kraal on the 6th of February 1838 -and of the even more atrocious massacre of men, women, and children -alike, near the present village of Weenen on the 17th of the same month.</p> - -<p>All political differences disappeared at once on receipt of this sad -intelligence, and as soon as possible Uys and his men were on their way -to the assistance of their sorely afflicted countrymen and women who -were still alive in Natal. So quickly was the commando got together and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_290" id="page_290"></a>{290}</span> -so rapidly did it ride that it arrived at the camp on the 1st of March -1838. Potgieter also assembled his men as speedily as he could, and went -down into Natal with the same intention.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>The condition of things there was wretched. The survivors of the -massacre were huddled together in lagers, each under a commandant, but -all close together to ensure their safety, and recognising Mr. Maritz as -commandant-general and president of the council of war. Every day they -were expecting another attack from Dingan’s army. Constant watch had -therefore to be kept, and the men did not venture to move about unarmed, -while the women were confined to the precincts of the lagers.</p> - -<p>The accession of strength derived from the commandos of Uys and -Potgieter made it unnecessary to act solely on the defensive any longer. -Offensive operations were decided upon, not only with a view of -punishing the Zulus, but of proving to them that the arms and tactics of -Europeans were so superior that a prolonged conflict would be averted, -and peace based upon the white man’s supremacy be secured. But the -emigrants had still much to learn. The heavy firelocks that they carried -were indeed more formidable weapons than the Zulu stabbing spears, but -were far short of being as efficient as modern rifles. To load them it -was necessary to pour a certain quantity of powder from a horn into the -barrel, to insert a wad and beat it down with a ramrod, then to put in -the slugs or a ball and wad down again, and finally to put priming in -the pan and adjust the flint and lock. All this took time, even with the -most expert and practised man, and while the gun was being loaded its -owner was practically unarmed. The difference between a modern military -rifle and a gun used by a South African farmer in 1838 is vastly greater -in point of efficiency in conflict than that between such a gun and a -Zulu stabbing spear.</p> - -<p>Then as to military tactics. The farmer considered himself superior, -simply because he was a civilised man.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_291" id="page_291"></a>{291}</span> He was accustomed to circumvent -game, and used the same methods in war that he used in the chase. But he -had yet to learn that many a Zulu induna as well as the wily chief of -the mountain, who was even then gathering strength at Thaba Bosigo, was -greatly his superior in military skill. The almost naked black man, -whose general knowledge was so defective that he might be regarded as -intellectually little superior to a child, in all that relates to -tactics and strategy was in advance of the ordinary untrained European.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Arrangements to punish Dingan.</div> - -<p>It was arranged that Uys and Potgieter with all the men they could -muster should advance towards Dingan’s residence from the camp on the -Bushman’s river, and that the English chiefs with their warriors should -cross the Tugela much nearer its mouth and press on towards the same -point. It was hoped in this way to divide Dingan’s forces, and it was -certain that the black army of Natal, as the English chiefs called their -followers, would fight desperately, as their existence depended upon -victory over the Zulus. Several hundreds of them were armed with -muskets, which their chiefs had imported and paid for with ivory, and -their leaders were brave and capable men. But this really formidable -force was drawn into an ambush by the strategy of the Zulu commander who -was sent to oppose it, and after such a battle as is only fought by men -who know that they must conquer or die, it was almost annihilated.<a name="FNanchor_106_105" id="FNanchor_106_105"></a><a href="#Footnote_106_105" class="fnanchor">[106]</a></p> - -<p>As neither Potgieter nor Uys would serve under Maritz, who may have been -wanting in tact and was certainly charged with being overbearing in his -manner, though no man could have been more devoted to the public welfare -than he, it was resolved that he should remain to protect the camps in -case of attack, and that they should lead their respective adherents in -separate commandos, but acting in concert with each other, to attack -Dingan in his<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_292" id="page_292"></a>{292}</span> principal kraal Umkungunklovu. The two commandos, when -finally mustered, numbered three hundred and forty-seven men, exclusive -of a few coloured attendants. Their commissariat and spare ammunition -was taken with them on pack horses.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>Neither of the leaders had a full conception of the hazardous nature of -their expedition. A much smaller force than that under their command -could have marched anywhere in the Xosa or Tembu country, and by keeping -on open plains or ridges have been perfectly safe. They had served in -the Kaffir war, and knew this. Then their decisive defeat of the -Matabele had inspired them with the belief that they were invincible. -They did not reflect that perhaps the field of operations against Dingan -might not be so favourable to them as that against Moselekatse had been, -and so they rode on in unbounded confidence. For five days they saw -hardly any people, as the inhabitants had removed by order of Dingan to -places of greater safety.</p> - -<p>On the 11th of April 1838 they were close to the spot where eight months -and five days later in the same year the battle was fought that gave to -the stream from which they drank the name Blood River and to the date of -the memorable engagement the name Dingan’s Day. Here for the first time -since they left the camp they saw what appeared to them to be a small -Zulu army. They drew hastily into battle order, and then dashed forward -to charge, Potgieter with his men on one wing of the enemy, and Uys with -his on the centre. The Zulus did not wait to meet the shock, but fled as -fast as they could, and the farmers pursued them. Uys and his followers -were too eager in the chase to act with proper caution, and did not -observe that they were riding into a defile between two parallel chains -of hills until a great Zulu army, that had been lying there concealed, -suddenly showed itself on each side and in front of them. Its horns were -even closing in behind before they realised<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_293" id="page_293"></a>{293}</span> that they were in an -ambuscade and in the utmost danger.<a name="FNanchor_107_106" id="FNanchor_107_106"></a><a href="#Footnote_107_106" class="fnanchor">[107]</a></p> - -<div class="sidenote">Death of Pieter Uys.</div> - -<p>There was no possibility now of carrying out the tactics they had -adopted against the Matabele: of firing a volley, riding back and -reloading their guns, and then charging again. There were no better -horsemen in the world than these farmers, for they had been accustomed -from early youth to ride and to hunt the game which then abounded in the -country they came from. But the din caused by the Zulus striking their -shields with their short spear shafts was so great that the horses -became almost unmanageable, and for an instant it seemed as if all was -lost. Then realising that there was one chance left, they directed all -their fire upon the horns of the Zulu army, that had closed in, shot -down hundreds, and dashed through the opening thus made.</p> - -<p>Commandant Uys was wounded by a spear thrust, but as he fell from his -horse he called out to his followers to leave him and fight their way -out, for he must die. All except ten of them escaped by the road that -had been opened, but the pack horses, baggage, and spare ammunition had -to be left behind. Of the ten who died there, one was Commandant Pieter -Lavras Uys. Another was his gallant son Dirk Cornelis Uys, a boy only -fifteen years of age, who could have escaped, but seeing his father on -the ground and a Zulu raising a spear to stab him, he turned to assist -his parent, and fell by his side. The others who lost their lives were -David, Jacobus, and Jan Malan, Louis, Pieter, and Theunis Nel, Joseph -Kruger, and Frans Labuschagne. Potgieter’s division retreated in time, -on finding<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_294" id="page_294"></a>{294}</span> that it was being drawn into broken ground, and got safely -away. The expedition then, being unable to keep the field owing to the -loss of all the stores of the division under Uys, fell back to the camp -on the Bushman’s river, and Potgieter and his men shortly afterwards -returned to Winburg.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>The aged father of Pieter Uys survived him only three months. He went -down into Natal with the other members of the party, and in July died -there. Mr. Maritz too, broken in health by anxiety and trouble, died on -the 23rd of September of the same year. Thus of the most prominent -leaders of the emigration, all had passed away in this short time except -Mr. Potgieter, who lived until 1853.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_295" id="page_295"></a>{295}</span></p> - -<h3><a name="SYNOPTICAL_INDEX" id="SYNOPTICAL_INDEX"></a>SYNOPTICAL INDEX.</h3> - -<div class="blksyn"> - -<h4><a name="SKETCH_I-s" id="SKETCH_I-s"></a>SKETCH I.</h4> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">Alfonso</span>, son of the Burgundian Count Henrique: assumes the title of king -of Portugal, <a href="#page_007">7</a>; which in <small>A.D.</small> 1143 is confirmed by Pope Innocent II, -ib.; in 1147 he obtains possession of Santarem and Lisbon, and extends -the boundary of Portugal southward to the Tagus, ib.</p> - -<p>Africa: is almost entirely unexplored by Europeans in the early years of -the fifteenth century, <a href="#page_004">4</a></p> - -<p>Alani, the: in the fifth century of our era invade the Iberian -peninsula, but most of them are afterwards driven by the Visigoths into -Africa, <a href="#page_006">6</a></p> - -<p>Alexandria: before <small>A.D.</small> 1500 is the chief market in which Europeans -obtain Indian products, <a href="#page_003">3</a></p> - -<p>Alexandrian libraries: destruction of, <a href="#page_011">11</a></p> - -<p>Algarves, emirate of the: in 1250 is conquered by the Christians, and in -1263 is annexed to Portugal, which thus acquires its present dimensions, -<a href="#page_008">8</a></p> - -<p>America: is entirely unknown to Europeans in the early years of the -fifteenth century, <a href="#page_004">4</a></p> - -<p>Arabs, the: before <small>A.D.</small> 1500 know more than Europeans of the geography -of Africa, <a href="#page_011">11</a>; in the eighth century of our era conquer the whole of the -Iberian peninsula except the territory held by the Basques, <a href="#page_006">6</a>; their -rule at first is mild, ib.; in the eleventh century of our era the -caliphate is broken into fragments, ib.; when a struggle with the -Christian population commences which lasts for centuries, ib.; gradually -a number of little independent Christian states come into existence, <a href="#page_007">7</a>; -among which in <small>A.D.</small> 1095 is a county that afterwards expands into the -kingdom of Portugal, ib.</p> - -<p>Arnold’s <i>History of Rome</i>: reference to, <a href="#page_004">4</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_296" id="page_296"></a>{296}</span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>Australia: in the fifteenth century is entirely unknown to Europeans, <a href="#page_004">4</a></p> - -<p>d’Azambuja, Diogo: in January 1482 founds São Jorge da Mina, <a href="#page_025">25</a></p> - -<p>de Barros, João: <i>Da Asia</i>, reference to, <a href="#page_014">14</a></p> - -<p>Basques, the: occupy the Iberian peninsula, <a href="#page_004">4</a>; are exterminated or -driven by the Celts into the Pyrenees, <a href="#page_005">5</a></p> - -<p>Beazley’s <i>Prince Henry the Navigator, the Hero of Portugal and of -Modern Discovery</i>: reference to, <a href="#page_014">14</a></p> - -<p>Belief of seamen at the beginning of the fifteenth century as to the -ocean beyond Cape Nun, <a href="#page_013">13</a></p> - -<p>Bragança: creation of the first duke of by Affonso V, <a href="#page_009">9</a></p> - -<p>Busk’s <i>History of Spain and Portugal</i>: reference to, <a href="#page_004">4</a></p> - -<p>Cabral, Gonçalo Velho: in 1432 discovers the island Santa Maria in the -Azores, <a href="#page_015">15</a></p> - -<p>Caliph of Cordova: is for a time the supreme authority in the Iberian -peninsula, <a href="#page_006">6</a></p> - -<p>Caliph of Damascus: for a time is ruler of the Iberian peninsula, <a href="#page_006">6</a></p> - -<p>Cam, Diogo: in 1484 reaches the mouth of the Congo, <a href="#page_016">16</a>; in 1485 sets up -a marble pillar on Cape Cross in latitude 22° S., ib.</p> - -<p>Cape Blanco: in 1441 is reached by Nuno Tristão, <a href="#page_015">15</a></p> - -<p>Cape Bojador: in 1434 is passed by Gil Eannes, <a href="#page_015">15</a></p> - -<p>Cape Correntes: before <small>A.D.</small> 1500 is the southern terminus of ordinary -navigation by the Persians and Arabs, owing to fear of danger beyond it, -<a href="#page_011">11</a></p> - -<p>Cape Nun: belief of seamen as to the ocean beyond, <a href="#page_013">13</a></p> - -<p>Cape Verde: in 1444 or 1445 is discovered and named by Diniz Dias, <a href="#page_015">15</a></p> - -<p>Carthaginians: occupy stations in the southern part of the Iberian -peninsula, <a href="#page_005">5</a>; from which in <small>B.C.</small> 206 they are expelled by the Romans, <a href="#page_005">5</a></p> - -<p>de Castanheda, Fernão Lopes: <i>Descobrimento e Conquista da India pelos -Portuguezes</i>, reference to, <a href="#page_017">17</a></p> - -<p>Celts: occupation of the Iberian peninsula by, <a href="#page_005">5</a></p> - -<p>Ceuta, opposite Gibraltar: in 1415 is taken by the Portuguese from the -Moors, <a href="#page_009">9</a></p> - -<p>de Cinta, Pedro: in 1461 reaches Cape Palmas, <a href="#page_016">16</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_297" id="page_297"></a>{297}</span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">Synoptical Index.</div> - -<p>Commerce between Europe and India before <small>A.D.</small> 1500: mode of conducting, -<a href="#page_003">3</a></p> - -<p>Compass, the: use of in Western Europe in the early years of the -fifteenth century, <a href="#page_012">12</a></p> - -<p>Convicts: use made of by the Portuguese, <a href="#page_018">18</a></p> - -<p>Cross set up by Bartholomeu Dias at Angra Pequena: destruction of, <a href="#page_020">20</a></p> - -<p>Dias, Bartholomeu: in August 1486 sails from the Tagus, <a href="#page_017">17</a>; near the -equator leaves his storeship behind, <a href="#page_019">19</a>; reaches Angra dos Ilheos, now -called Angra Pequena, where he sets up a marble pillar, ib.; touches -next at Angra das Voltas, <a href="#page_020">20</a>; passes the Cape of Good Hope without -knowing it, <a href="#page_021">21</a>; and reaches Angra dos Vaqueiros, probably the present -Mossel Bay, ib.; where he sees Hottentots with cattle, but cannot -communicate with them, as they flee inland in fear, ib.; sails eastward -and reaches an island in the bay now called Algoa, on which he erects a -cross, <a href="#page_022">22</a>; visits the mainland and examines it eastward to a prominent -rock, which receives the name Penedo das Fontes on account of two -springs of water found there, ib.; here the seamen protest against going -farther, but he induces them to persevere a little longer, <a href="#page_023">23</a>; reaches -the mouth of a river which he names the Infante, ib.; there the -expedition turns back, <a href="#page_024">24</a>; when returning he discovers the Cape of Good -Hope, and erects a cross somewhere on the Cape peninsula, ib.; rejoins -his storeship, which he burns, ib.; touches next at Prince’s Island in -the bight of Biafra, <a href="#page_025">25</a>; where he finds some Portuguese in distress, and -takes them on board his ship, ib.; visits São Jorge da Mina, where he -takes some gold on board, ib.; and in December 1487 reaches Lisbon -again, ib.</p> - -<p>Discovery of an ocean route between Europe and India: effect of, <a href="#page_003">3</a></p> - -<p>Eastern Asia: in the early years of the fifteenth century is very -imperfectly known to Europeans, <a href="#page_004">4</a></p> - -<p>Edrisi: incorrect map of South Africa of, <a href="#page_004">4</a></p> - -<p>Egypt: before <small>A.D.</small> 1517 is independent, but in that year is reduced to -be a Turkish province, <a href="#page_003">3</a></p> - -<p>English crusaders: assist the Portuguese against the Moslems, <a href="#page_007">7</a></p> - -<p>Fogaça, João: in 1487 is commander of São Jorge da Mina, <a href="#page_025">25</a></p> - -<p>Genoese: visit Madeira and even the Canary islands before the -Portuguese, <a href="#page_015">15</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_298" id="page_298"></a>{298}</span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>Geographical ignorance in Europe in the early years of the fifteenth -century, <a href="#page_004">4</a></p> - -<p>Gibbon’s <i>Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire</i>: references to, 4 and <a href="#page_011">11</a></p> - -<p>de Goes, Damião: <i>Chronica do Felicissimo Rei Dom Emanuel da Gloriosa -Memoria</i>, reference to, <a href="#page_017">17</a></p> - -<p>Goths: see Visigoths</p> - -<p>Greeks: are supposed to have formed trading stations on the coast of -Portugal, <a href="#page_005">5</a></p> - -<p>Habrão, Rabbi: travels of, <a href="#page_026">26</a></p> - -<p>Henrique, a Burgundian noble, in <small>A.D.</small> 1095 becomes first count of -Portugal, <a href="#page_007">7</a></p> - -<p>Henrique, the Infante Dom, commonly known to Englishmen as Prince Henry -the Navigator: is third son of King João I and Philippa of Lancaster, -<a href="#page_013">13</a>; prosecutes maritime exploration as much as possible, ib.; -establishes himself at Sagres with this object, <a href="#page_014">14</a>; in 1460 dies, <a href="#page_016">16</a></p> - -<p>Indian commerce with Europe: route of before <small>A.D.</small> 1500, <a href="#page_003">3</a></p> - -<p>Indians: in early times knew more than Europeans of the geography of -Africa, <a href="#page_011">11</a></p> - -<p><i>Indice Chronologico das Navegações, Viagens, Descobrimentos, e -Conquistas dos Portuguezes nos Paizes Ultramarinos desde o Principio do -Seculo XV</i>: references to, 14 and <a href="#page_026">26</a></p> - -<p>Jayne, K. G.: <i>Vasco da Gama and his Successors</i>: reference to, <a href="#page_032">32</a></p> - -<p>João I, grand master of the order of Saint Benedict of Avis: in <small>A.D.</small> -1385 is elected by the cortes king of Portugal, <a href="#page_009">9</a>; is assisted against -Castile by John of Gaunt, whose daughter he marries, ib.; enters into a -treaty of close friendship with England, ib.</p> - -<p>João II: breaks the power of the feudal nobles of Portugal, and becomes -an absolute monarch, <a href="#page_010">10</a></p> - -<p>Josepe, a Portuguese Jew: travels of, <a href="#page_026">26</a></p> - -<p>Kings of Portugal before <small>A.D.</small> 1500, succession of: Affonso I, Sancho I, -Affonso II, Sancho II, Affonso III, Diniz, Affonso IV, Pedro, Fernando, -with whom the Burgundian dynasty came to an end; João I, of the dynasty -of Avis, Duarte, Affonso V, João II, Emanuel.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_299" id="page_299"></a>{299}</span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">Synoptical Index.</div> - -<p>Legends of vessels having been carried by storms and currents from the -Indian to the Atlantic ocean, <a href="#page_012">12</a></p> - -<p>de Lima, Dom Rodrigo: in 1515 proceeds to Abyssinia as ambassador of the -king of Portugal, <a href="#page_027">27</a></p> - -<p>Lisbon: is supposed by some historians to have been founded by a -Hellenic colony, <a href="#page_005">5</a></p> - -<p>Madeira: in 1420 is visited by Portuguese explorers, <a href="#page_014">14</a>; in 1425 a -commencement in colonising the island is made, <a href="#page_015">15</a></p> - -<p>Major’s <i>Discoveries of Prince Henry the Navigator and their Results</i>: -reference to, <a href="#page_014">14</a></p> - -<p>Maps of South Africa by Ptolemy and Edrisi: incorrectness of, <a href="#page_004">4</a></p> - -<p>Mozambique current: at Cape Correntes runs southward with great -velocity, <a href="#page_011">11</a></p> - -<p><i>Narrative of Voyages to explore the Shores of Africa, Arabia and -Madagascar, performed in H.M. Ships Leven and Barracouta under the -direction of Captain W. F. W. Owen, R.N.</i>: reference to, <a href="#page_020">20</a></p> - -<p>Negro slaves: in 1443 the first are brought to Portugal by Nuno Tristão, -<a href="#page_015">15</a></p> - -<p>Ocean route between Europe and India: effect of the discovery of, <a href="#page_003">3</a></p> - -<p>Ourique: battle of, <a href="#page_007">7</a></p> - -<p>de Paiva, Affonso: in May 1487 leaves Santarem to search for Prester -John, <a href="#page_026">26</a>; proceeds to Naples, Rhodes, Alexandria, Cairo, Tor, Suakin, -and Aden, and then to Abyssinia, ib.; dies in the East, ib.</p> - -<p>Palæolithic men in Portugal: relics of, <a href="#page_004">4</a></p> - -<p>Pereira, Duarte Pacheco: is found by Bartholomeu Dias in distress at -Prince’s Island, and is taken by him to Lisbon, <a href="#page_025">25</a>; is author of a -volume termed <i>Esmeraldo de Situ Orbis</i>, 31 and <a href="#page_032">32</a></p> - -<p>Perestrello, Bartholomeu: voyages of, <a href="#page_014">14</a></p> - -<p><i>Periplus of the Erythrean Sea</i>: reference to, <a href="#page_011">11</a></p> - -<p>Persians: before <small>A.D.</small> 1500 know more than Europeans of the geography of -Africa, <a href="#page_011">11</a></p> - -<p>Phœnicians: occupy stations in the southern part of the Iberian -peninsula, <a href="#page_005">5</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_300" id="page_300"></a>{300}</span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>Pires, João, of Covilhão: in May 1487 leaves Santarem to search for -Prester John, <a href="#page_026">26</a>; proceeds to Naples, Rhodes, Alexandria, Cairo, Tor, -Suakin, and Aden, then crosses the Indian ocean to Cananor, Calicut, and -Goa, passes over to Sofala, and back to Aden and Cairo, ib.; where he -receives further orders from Portugal, and proceeds to Aden and Ormuz, -thence back by way of Aden to Abyssinia, where he is detained till his -death, <a href="#page_027">27</a></p> - -<p>Po, Fernando: in 1471 crosses the equator, <a href="#page_016">16</a></p> - -<p>Porto Santo: discovery of, <a href="#page_014">14</a></p> - -<p>Portugal: outline of the early history of, <a href="#page_004">4</a>; primitive inhabitants of, -ib.; is occupied by the Basques, ib.; who are followed by the Celts, <a href="#page_005">5</a>; -the country is conquered by the Romans, ib.; and becomes Romanised in -civilisation, religion, and language, ib.; in the fifth century of our -era is overrun by the Visigoths, who establish themselves as an -aristocracy in the country, <a href="#page_006">6</a>; in the eighth century the Arabs conquer -the whole peninsula except the territory occupied by the Basques, ib.; -in <small>A.D.</small> 1095 the northern portion of Portugal becomes independent of the -Arabs, <a href="#page_007">7</a>; and in 1143 is acknowledged by Pope Innocent II as an -independent kingdom, ib.; it is called Portugal from o Porto, the port -at the mouth of the Douro, ib.; it is gradually enlarged until 1263, -when it attains its present dimensions, <a href="#page_008">8</a>; it is favourably situated for -prosecuting discovery by sea, <a href="#page_004">4</a>; but in the early years of the fifteenth -century it has not much shipping, ib.</p> - -<p>Prester John, a mythical potentate: reference to, <a href="#page_018">18</a></p> - -<p>Ptolemy: incorrect map of South Africa of, 4 and <a href="#page_024">24</a></p> - -<p>Ravenstein, E. G.: paper in the <i>Geographical Journal</i> by, entitled <i>The -Voyages of Diogo Cão and Bartholomeu Dias</i>, 1482-88, <a href="#page_028">28</a> <i>et seq.</i></p> - -<p>Romans: establish their authority in the Iberian peninsula, <a href="#page_005">5</a></p> - -<p>São Jorge da Mina: is established in January 1482, and is the first -permanent settlement of the Portuguese on the western coast of Africa. -It is now called Elmina, and is a British possession, <a href="#page_025">25</a></p> - -<p>Ships of the fifteenth century: description of, <a href="#page_012">12</a></p> - -<p>Slave trade: is ruinous to Portugal, <a href="#page_016">16</a></p> - -<p>Stephens’ <i>History of Portugal</i>: reference to, <a href="#page_004">4</a></p> - -<p>Stone implements: are found in Portugal of very crude workmanship, <a href="#page_004">4</a></p> - -<p>Suevi, the: in the fifth century of our era invade the Iberian -peninsula, where their descendants still remain, <a href="#page_006">6</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_301" id="page_301"></a>{301}</span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">Synoptical Index.</div> - -<p>Tangier: in 1437 the Portuguese are repulsed in an attack upon, <a href="#page_009">9</a></p> - -<p>Toro: battle of, <a href="#page_010">10</a></p> - -<p>Vandals: in the fifth century of our era invade the Iberian peninsula, -but are afterwards driven by the Visigoths into Africa, <a href="#page_006">6</a></p> - -<p>Vas, Tristão: voyage of, <a href="#page_014">14</a></p> - -<p>Venetians: before <small>A.D.</small> 1500 are the distributors of Indian products over -Europe, <a href="#page_003">3</a></p> - -<p>Vidal, Captain: reference to, <a href="#page_020">20</a></p> - -<p>Visigoths, the: in the fifth century of our era occupy the Iberian -peninsula, where their descendants still remain, <a href="#page_006">6</a></p> - -<p><i>Voyage of Nearchus</i>: reference to, <a href="#page_011">11</a></p> - -<p>Zarco, João Gonçalves: voyage of, <a href="#page_014">14</a></p> - -<h4><a name="SKETCH_II-s" id="SKETCH_II-s"></a>SKETCH II.</h4> - -<p>Adolf of Nassau, brother of William prince of Orange: death of in -battle, <a href="#page_058">58</a></p> - -<p>Agoada de São Bras of the Portuguese: is now called Mossel Bay, <a href="#page_122">122</a></p> - -<p>Albert, Cardinal Archduke: in January 1596 becomes governor-general of -the submissive Netherlands, <a href="#page_110">110</a>; administration of, ib. et seq.; in 1621 -dies, <a href="#page_152">152</a></p> - -<p>Alkmaar: unsuccessful siege of by the Spaniards, <a href="#page_068">68</a></p> - -<p>Alva, duke of: in 1567 is sent by Philippe II to the Netherlands with a -strong Spanish army, <a href="#page_056">56</a>; murderous administration of, 56 to <a href="#page_070">70</a>; in -December 1573 leaves the Netherlands, <a href="#page_070">70</a></p> - -<p>Amsterdam, city of: on the 8th of February 1578 is gained by the -patriots, <a href="#page_087">87</a>; in later years has a preponderating influence in the -government of the East India Company, <a href="#page_133">133</a></p> - -<p>Ango, Jean: in 1527 sends three ships from Dieppe to India, <a href="#page_036">36</a>; but they -are all lost, ib.; in 1529 assists in sending two others to India, <a href="#page_037">37</a>; -but this venture is also unfortunate, ib.</p> - -<p>Anjou, duke of: in 1581 is elected their sovereign by twelve of the -Netherland provinces, <a href="#page_093">93</a>; on the 17th of February 1582 is inaugurated at -Antwerp, <a href="#page_094">94</a>; acts in a perfidious and violent manner, <a href="#page_095">95</a>; is obliged to -flee from Antwerp, ib.; returns to Paris, and in June 1584 dies, <a href="#page_096">96</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_302" id="page_302"></a>{302}</span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>Antwerp: description of the city, <a href="#page_080">80</a>; in November 1576 it is pillaged by -Spanish troops, ib.; it is besieged by the duke of Parma, and on the -17th of August 1585 is obliged to capitulate, <a href="#page_100">100</a></p> - -<p>Antwerp cathedral: in August 1566 is greatly injured by a party of -fanatics, <a href="#page_055">55</a></p> - -<p>Antwerp citadel: is constructed by the duke of Alva to overawe the -townspeople, <a href="#page_057">57</a></p> - -<p>Artois, count of: before 1544 admits the precedence in rank of the kings -of France, <a href="#page_044">44</a></p> - -<p>Artois, province of: in 1544 comes under the government of the emperor -Charles V, <a href="#page_048">48</a>; after taking part in the resistance to Spanish tyranny, -on the 17th of May 1579, with Hainaut and Lille, is reconciled to -Philippe II, and for ever lost to the patriot cause, <a href="#page_088">88</a></p> - -<p>d’Ataide, Dom Estevão: in 1607 successfully defends Fort São Sebastião -at Mozambique against the Dutch under Paulus van Caerden, <a href="#page_139">139</a>; and also -in 1608 against a stronger Dutch force under Pieter Willemszoon -Verhoeff, <a href="#page_146">146</a></p> - -<p><i>Atlas of Mercator and Hondius</i>: reference to, <a href="#page_050">50</a></p> - -<p><i>Atlas</i> of Ortelius: reference to, <a href="#page_050">50</a></p> - -<p>d’Avila, Don Juan Alvarez, Spanish admiral: on the 25th of April 1607 is -killed in the great battle in Gibraltar Bay, <a href="#page_151">151</a></p> - -<p>Azores, the: in 1466 are presented by Affonso V of Portugal to his aunt -the duchess of Burgundy, <a href="#page_046">46</a>; they are thereafter termed the Flemish -islands until 1640, when they revert to Portugal, ib.</p> - -<p>Baffin, William, the famous Arctic navigator: in 1620 visits Table -Valley, <a href="#page_159">159</a></p> - -<p>Bali: is visited by the first Dutch expedition to India, <a href="#page_123">123</a></p> - -<p>Bantam: is visited by the first Dutch expedition to India, <a href="#page_123">123</a></p> - -<p>Barendszoon, Willem: in 1594 explores the polar seas in search of a -passage to China, but finds the way blocked by ice, <a href="#page_116">116</a>; in 1595 makes -another attempt, but again without success, <a href="#page_117">117</a>; in 1596 tries again, -passes the winter in Nova Zembla, and dies when attempting to return -home, 117 and <a href="#page_118">118</a></p> - -<p>Batavi, the, a Nether Teuton tribe: about a century before the Christian -era take possession of the territory between the extreme forks of the -Rhine, <a href="#page_042">42</a></p> - -<p>Beggars: in 1566 the title is adopted by the patriot party in the -Netherlands, <a href="#page_055">55</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_303" id="page_303"></a>{303}</span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">Synoptical Index.</div> - -<p><i>Begin ende Voortgangh van de Vereenighde Nederlantsche Geoctroyeerde -Oost Indische Compagnie</i>: references to, 117 and <a href="#page_122">122</a></p> - -<p>Belgium: in 1624, after the death of the archduchess Isabella, passes -again under the direct rule of Spain, <a href="#page_152">152</a>; successive diminutions of -territory since that date, ib.; on the 7th of September 1714 it is ceded -to the emperor Charles VI, ib.</p> - -<p>Bergen-op-Zoom: is besieged by Alexander Farnese, but in November 1588 -the siege is raised, <a href="#page_108">108</a></p> - -<p>Biesbosch, the: in 1421 is formed, <a href="#page_043">43</a></p> - -<p>Bilderdyk’s <i>Geschiedenis des Vaderlands</i>: reference to, <a href="#page_041">41</a></p> - -<p>Bishops: are greatly increased in number in the Netherlands by Philippe -II of Spain, in order to extend the inquisition, <a href="#page_052">52</a></p> - -<p>Blok’s <i>History of the People of the Netherlands</i>: references to, 41, -50, 52, and <a href="#page_071">71</a></p> - -<p>Boisot, Louis, admiral of Zeeland: in January 1574 destroys a Spanish -flotilla in the Schelde, <a href="#page_072">72</a>; and part of another Spanish flotilla at -Antwerp, <a href="#page_074">74</a>; commands the flotilla that relieves Leyden, 75 and <a href="#page_076">76</a>; in -June 1575 loses his life in attempting to relieve Zierikzee, <a href="#page_078">78</a></p> - -<p><i>Bom Jesus</i>, Portuguese galleon: in August 1608 is captured by the Dutch -near Mozambique, <a href="#page_147">147</a></p> - -<p>Bossu, count of, admiral of a Spanish fleet: in October 1573 is defeated -by the Sea Beggars in a desperate battle in the Zuyder Zee, <a href="#page_069">69</a></p> - -<p>Both, Pieter: in 1599 commands an expedition sent to India, <a href="#page_125">125</a>; in -November 1609 is appointed first governor-general of Netherlands India, -<a href="#page_149">149</a>; and in December 1610 assumes the duty at Bantam, <a href="#page_150">150</a></p> - -<p>Boulger’s <i>History of Belgium</i>: reference to, <a href="#page_042">42</a></p> - -<p>Breda, town of: on the 4th of March 1590 is gained by the patriots, <a href="#page_108">108</a></p> - -<p>Brill, town of: in 1572 is seized by the Sea Beggars under William de la -Marck, <a href="#page_062">62</a>; when revolting cruelties are perpetrated upon their -opponents, <a href="#page_063">63</a>; the town is thereafter held by the patriots, ib.; from -1585 to 1616 it is occupied by English troops as security for the -payment of money lent to the patriots by Queen Elizabeth, 101 and <a href="#page_115">115</a></p> - -<p>Bruges: before <small>A.D.</small> 1500 is the emporium of the Italian merchants for -Indian products, <a href="#page_045">45</a>; in May 1584 it is betrayed to the Spaniards, <a href="#page_096">96</a></p> - -<p>Brussels: on the 13th of March 1585 capitulates to the Spaniards, <a href="#page_100">100</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_304" id="page_304"></a>{304}</span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>Cabires: the horde of Bantu so called by the Portuguese invade the -territory of the monomotapa and lay it waste, <a href="#page_136">136</a>; the Portuguese go to -the assistance of the Kalanga chief, but are defeated and obliged to -retire, ib.</p> - -<p>van Caerden, Paulus: in 1601 gives Mossel Bay its present name, <a href="#page_126">126</a>; in -March 1607 with a strong force attacks Mozambique, <a href="#page_139">139</a>; but in May is -obliged to give up the attempt to get possession of it, <a href="#page_143">143</a></p> - -<p>Cæsar: conquers the Celtic portion of the Netherlands and also compels -the Frisians to pay tribute, but admits the Batavi to an alliance with -Rome, <a href="#page_043">43</a></p> - -<p>Calais: is taken by the French from the English in the reign of Queen -Mary, <a href="#page_051">51</a></p> - -<p>Candish, Thomas: in 1586-1588 sails round the world, <a href="#page_040">40</a></p> - -<p>Charlemagne: in the eighth century of our era becomes sovereign of the -Netherlands, <a href="#page_044">44</a></p> - -<p>Charles V, Emperor: from his Burgundian ancestors inherits the -sovereignty of all the Netherlands except Gelderland, Utrecht, the -Frisian provinces, Liege, Artois, and Flanders, <a href="#page_048">48</a>; in 1524 he adds -Friesland to his dominions, in 1528 Overyssel and Utrecht, in 1536 -Groningen and Drenthe, in 1543 Gelderland, and in 1544 Flanders and -Artois, ib.; so that in and after 1544 the whole country, with the -exception of the bishopric of Liege, is united under one monarch with -Spain, <a href="#page_049">49</a>; character of his government, ib.; in October 1555 he -abdicates, and his son Philippe II of Spain becomes sovereign of all the -Netherland provinces except Liege, <a href="#page_051">51</a></p> - -<p>Churches in the Southern Netherlands: violation of, <a href="#page_055">55</a></p> - -<p>Coligny, Admiral: murder of, <a href="#page_065">65</a></p> - -<p>Commencement of the struggle of the Netherlands against Spain, <a href="#page_058">58</a></p> - -<p>Convicts sent from England to South Africa: account of, <a href="#page_165">165</a></p> - -<p><i>Corbin</i>, the: in 1601 sails from St. Malo to India, but in July 1602 is -lost at the Maldives, <a href="#page_037">37</a></p> - -<p>Cory, a Hottentot taken to England and made much of there: account of, -163 and <a href="#page_164">164</a></p> - -<p>Council of Blood: is established at Brussels by the duke of Alva, <a href="#page_057">57</a></p> - -<p>de Couto’s <i>Da Asia</i>: references to, 122 and <a href="#page_128">128</a></p> - -<p><i>Croissant</i>, the: in 1601 sails from St. Malo to India, but is lost on -her homeward passage, <a href="#page_037">37</a></p> - -<p>Crusades, the: have a beneficial effect upon the Netherlands, <a href="#page_045">45</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_305" id="page_305"></a>{305}</span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">Synoptical Index.</div> - -<p>Danish ships: in 1619 first visit Table Bay, <a href="#page_168">168</a></p> - -<p>Dassen (Conies) Island: in 1605 receives its name, <a href="#page_156">156</a></p> - -<p>Davis, John: in 1598 sails to India in the Dutch service, <a href="#page_123">123</a>; in 1601 -visits Table Bay on his second voyage to India, <a href="#page_155">155</a>; and again in 1605 -on his third outward passage, ib.; in December of this year he is killed -by Japanese pirates, ib.</p> - -<p>Dendermonde: on the 17th of August 1584 is reconciled to Philippe II, -and is thereafter lost to the patriot cause, <a href="#page_098">98</a></p> - -<p>Deventer: on the 29th of January 1587 is betrayed by Sir William Stanley -to Spain, <a href="#page_104">104</a>; on the 10th of June 1591 is recovered by the patriots, -<a href="#page_109">109</a></p> - -<p>Dias, Estevão: career of, 36 and <a href="#page_037">37</a></p> - -<p>Dirkszoon, Cornelis: in October 1573 gains a great victory in a naval -battle with a Spanish fleet, <a href="#page_069">69</a></p> - -<p>Disastrous encounters with Hottentots in Table Valley, <a href="#page_163">163</a></p> - -<p>Dollart, the: in 1277 is formed, <a href="#page_043">43</a></p> - -<p>Don John of Austria: in 1576 is appointed by Philippe II -governor-general of the Netherlands, <a href="#page_082">82</a>; on the 3rd of May 1577 takes -the oaths of office at Brussels, <a href="#page_084">84</a>; administration of, 84 to <a href="#page_088">88</a>; on the -1st of October 1578 dies, <a href="#page_088">88</a></p> - -<p>Drake, Sir Francis: in 1577-1580 makes his celebrated voyage round the -world, 38 and <a href="#page_039">39</a>; in April 1587 destroys a great Spanish fleet in the -harbour of Cadiz and another in the Tagus, <a href="#page_106">106</a></p> - -<p>Drenthe: particulars concerning the province of, <a href="#page_090">90</a></p> - -<p>Dutch East India Company: causes of the formation of, <a href="#page_130">130</a>; in March 1602 -comes into existence, ib.; conditions of the charter granted by the -states-general, ib.; capital of the Company, <a href="#page_132">132</a>; its advantage to the -State, <a href="#page_132">132</a>; later modifications of the charter, <a href="#page_133">133</a></p> - -<p>Dutch ships in Spanish ports: in 1598 are seized and confiscated, <a href="#page_116">116</a></p> - -<p>Egmont, count of: wins the great battles of St. Quentin and Gravelines -for Philippe II, <a href="#page_051">51</a>; execution of, <a href="#page_059">59</a></p> - -<p>English convicts sent to South Africa: account of, <a href="#page_165">165</a></p> - -<p>English ships: in 1591 for the first time visit Table Bay, <a href="#page_040">40</a></p> - -<p>Ernest, archduke: in January 1594 becomes governor-general of the -submissive Netherlands, <a href="#page_109">109</a>; on the 20th of February 1595 dies, <a href="#page_110">110</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_306" id="page_306"></a>{306}</span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>Farnese, Alexander, prince of Parma: on the 31st of January 1578 -annihilates the patriot army at Gemblours, <a href="#page_086">86</a>; in October 1578 becomes -governor-general of the Netherlands, <a href="#page_088">88</a>; administration of, 88 to <a href="#page_109">109</a>; -in 1590 goes to France with a strong army to assist the duke of Mayenne -against Henry of Navarre, <a href="#page_108">108</a>; but after breaking the blockade of Paris -returns to the Netherlands, ib.; on the 3rd of December 1592 dies, <a href="#page_109">109</a></p> - -<p>Fitch, Ralph: travels of, 39 and <a href="#page_040">40</a></p> - -<p>Fitzherbert and Shillinge, two English commodores: in 1620 in Table -Valley proclaim the sovereignty of James I of England over Africa to the -dominions of another Christian prince, 159 and <a href="#page_160">160</a>; but this is not -confirmed in England, <a href="#page_160">160</a></p> - -<p>Flanders, count of: before 1544 admits the precedence in rank of the -kings of France, <a href="#page_044">44</a>; in that year the province becomes subject to the -emperor Charles V, <a href="#page_048">48</a></p> - -<p>Flushing: is the second town in the Netherlands to be seized and -permanently held by the patriots, <a href="#page_063">63</a>; which event is followed by other -important successes, <a href="#page_064">64</a>; from 1585 to 1616 it is occupied by English -troops as security for the payment of debt to England, 101 and <a href="#page_115">115</a></p> - -<p>French, the: are the first to follow the Portuguese by sea to India, <a href="#page_036">36</a></p> - -<p>French East India Company: in 1604 is established on paper, but gets no -further, <a href="#page_037">37</a>; in 1615 it is reorganised, and in 1617 sends an expedition -to India, which is successful, ib.</p> - -<p>French ships: towards the middle of the seventeenth century occasionally -visit the islands in and near Saldanha Bay to procure sealskins and oil, -<a href="#page_038">38</a></p> - -<p>Frisians, the: in <small>A.D.</small> 750 accept Christianity, <a href="#page_044">44</a></p> - -<p>Gemblours: battle of, <a href="#page_086">86</a></p> - -<p><i>General Collection of Treatys, Manifesto’s, Contracts of Marriage, -Renunciations, and other Publick Papers, from the year 1495 to the year -1712</i>: references to, 101, 102, 106, 111, 113, 115, 153, and <a href="#page_161">161</a></p> - -<p>Ghent: atrocious conduct of the fanatical party in the city, <a href="#page_088">88</a>; on the -17th of September 1584 it is reconciled to Philippe II, and is -thereafter lost to the patriot cause, <a href="#page_098">98</a></p> - -<p>Giedde, Ove, Danish admiral: in 1619 and again in 1621 visits Table Bay, -<a href="#page_168">168</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_307" id="page_307"></a>{307}</span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">Synoptical Index.</div> - -<p>Granvelle, Cardinal: is agent of Philippe II in the Netherlands, <a href="#page_052">52</a>; is -detested by the people, <a href="#page_053">53</a>; in 1564 leaves the Netherlands, ib.</p> - -<p>Grave: in September 1602 is gained by the patriots, <a href="#page_114">114</a></p> - -<p>Groen van Prinsterer’s <i>Handboek der Geschiedenis van het Vaderland</i>: -reference to, <a href="#page_042">42</a></p> - -<p>Groningen, town of: in March 1580 is betrayed to the Spaniards, <a href="#page_092">92</a>; on -the 22nd of July 1594 is recovered by the patriots, <a href="#page_110">110</a></p> - -<p>Haarlem, siege of, <a href="#page_067">67</a>; on the 12th of July 1573 the city is taken by the -Spaniards, ib.</p> - -<p>van der Hagen, Steven: in 1599 commands an expedition sent to India, -<a href="#page_125">125</a>; in December 1603 leaves Holland for India as admiral of a powerful -fleet, <a href="#page_136">136</a>; in June 1604 attacks Mozambique, ib.; but in August is -obliged to retire without success, <a href="#page_137">137</a>; in February 1605 gets possession -of the Portuguese fort on Amboina, ib.</p> - -<p>Hainaut, Artois, and Lille, provinces of: on the 17th of May 1579 are -reconciled to Philippe II, and for ever lost to the patriot cause, <a href="#page_088">88</a></p> - -<p>van Heemskerk, Jacob: in 1595 accompanies Willem Barendszoom on his -second polar expedition, <a href="#page_117">117</a>; and again in 1596 on his third and last, -ib.; in 1598 goes to India in the fleet under Jacob van Nek, <a href="#page_124">124</a>; in -April 1601 leaves Holland on his second voyage to India as admiral of a -fleet of eight ships, <a href="#page_129">129</a>; captures a very richly laden carrack, ib.; on -the 25th of April 1607 with a greatly inferior force attacks a powerful -Spanish fleet in Gibraltar Bay, and utterly destroys it, <a href="#page_151">151</a>; but is -killed in the engagement, ib.</p> - -<p>Hendrik of Nassau, brother of William prince of Orange: death of in -battle, <a href="#page_074">74</a></p> - -<p>Hermanszoon, Wolfert: in 1601 commands a fleet sent to India, <a href="#page_128">128</a>; -attacks a large Portuguese fleet under André Furtado de Mendoça -besieging Bantam, ib.; and compels Mendoça to retire, <a href="#page_129">129</a>; enters into a -commercial treaty with the ruler of Bantam, ib.; and with the ruler of -Banda, ib.</p> - -<p>Holland and Zeeland, provinces of: in June 1575 unite in a kind of loose -confederation, <a href="#page_077">77</a>; in October 1575 renounce allegiance to Philippe II, -<a href="#page_079">79</a></p> - -<p>Hoorn, Count: execution of, <a href="#page_059">59</a></p> - -<p>Hottentots: dealings with by the first English visitors to South Africa, -<a href="#page_040">40</a>; are seen and described by the first Dutch voyagers to India, <a href="#page_122">122</a>; -disgusting food of, <a href="#page_157">157</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_308" id="page_308"></a>{308}</span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>Houtman, Cornelis: in 1595 is in command of the first Dutch expedition -to India, <a href="#page_121">121</a>; in 1598 commands another expedition to India, <a href="#page_123">123</a>; and is -murdered at Atchin, <a href="#page_124">124</a></p> - -<p>Hunebedden: description of, <a href="#page_042">42</a></p> - -<p>Indian trade: number of Dutch ships engaged in before 1602, <a href="#page_129">129</a></p> - -<p>Inquisition in the Netherlands: particulars concerning, 49, 53, and <a href="#page_054">54</a></p> - -<p>Inundation: in 1570 causes terrible loss of life and property in the -Northern Netherlands, <a href="#page_060">60</a></p> - -<p>Invincible Spanish Armada: in 1588 is destroyed, <a href="#page_107">107</a></p> - -<p>Isabella, Archduchess, daughter of Philippe II: in May 1598 becomes -sovereign of the submissive Netherlands, and in April 1599 marries the -archduke Albert, <a href="#page_113">113</a>; on the 30th of November 1623 dies, <a href="#page_152">152</a></p> - -<p>James I, king of England: for a short time after his accession favours -the Dutch, but in 1604 he enters into a treaty of peace and alliance -with Spain, <a href="#page_115">115</a></p> - -<p>de Jonge’s <i>De Opkomst van het Nederlandsch Gezag in Oost Indie</i>: -reference to, <a href="#page_122">122</a></p> - -<p>Jourdain, John: gives an account of his visits to Table Valley in 1608 -and 1617, 156, 157, and <a href="#page_164">164</a></p> - -<p>Lancaster, Captain James: in 1591 visits Table Bay, <a href="#page_041">41</a>; as admiral of -the first fleet fitted out by the English East India Company in -September 1601 again calls at Table Bay, <a href="#page_155">155</a></p> - -<p>Leades, William: travels of, <a href="#page_039">39</a></p> - -<p><i>Leeven en Daden der Doorlughtige Zee-Helden</i>: reference to, <a href="#page_078">78</a></p> - -<p>Leicester, earl of: is appointed by Queen Elizabeth lieutenant-general -of the English forces in the Netherlands, and on the 19th of December -1585 arrives and assumes duty, <a href="#page_102">102</a>; conduct of, 102 to <a href="#page_106">106</a>; in December -1587 leaves the Netherlands, <a href="#page_106">106</a></p> - -<p>Lepanto: battle of, <a href="#page_082">82</a></p> - -<p>Leyden: first siege of, <a href="#page_073">73</a>; second siege and heroic defence of from the -26th of May to the 3rd of October 1574, when the city is relieved by -Admiral Boisot, 74, 75, and <a href="#page_076">76</a></p> - -<p>Liege, province of: particulars concerning, 51, 52, and <a href="#page_154">154</a></p> - -<p>Lille, with Douai and Orchies, Artois, and Hainaut, provinces of: on the -17th of May 1579 are reconciled to Philippe II, and for ever lost to the -patriot cause, <a href="#page_088">88</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_309" id="page_309"></a>{309}</span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">Synoptical Index.</div> - -<p>van Linschoten, Jan Huyghen: in 1583 goes to India in the service of the -archbishop of Goa, <a href="#page_118">118</a>; and remains there until January 1589, <a href="#page_119">119</a>; after -his return to Holland publishes sailing directions, a description of the -Indies, &c., which serve as guides for his countrymen, ib.; in 1594 -accompanies Willem Barendszoon in his first polar voyage, <a href="#page_117">117</a></p> - -<p>Louis of Nassau, brother of William prince of Orange: death of in -battle, <a href="#page_074">74</a></p> - -<p>Maastricht: siege and destruction of by Alexander Farnese, <a href="#page_091">91</a></p> - -<p>Madura: is visited by the first Dutch expedition to India, <a href="#page_123">123</a></p> - -<p>le Maire, Isaac: in May 1611 visits Table Bay, <a href="#page_154">154</a></p> - -<p>Mandeville, Sir John: note on, <a href="#page_038">38</a></p> - -<p>Manufactures: are driven from the Netherlands by persecution, <a href="#page_054">54</a></p> - -<p>de la Marck, William: exploits of, <a href="#page_062">62</a></p> - -<p>Margaret of Parma: in 1559 becomes regent of the Netherlands, <a href="#page_052">52</a>; -administration of, 52 to <a href="#page_058">58</a></p> - -<p>Massacre of Saint Bartholomew in August 1572: has disastrous effects on -the patriot cause in the Netherlands, <a href="#page_065">65</a></p> - -<p>Matelief, Cornelis: in May 1605 leaves Holland for India as admiral of a -fleet, <a href="#page_138">138</a>; attempts to get possession of Malacca, but without success, -ib.; builds Fort Orange on the island of Ternate, and places a garrison -in it, ib.; in April 1608 calls at Table Bay on his homeward passage, -and remains there till June, <a href="#page_139">139</a></p> - -<p>Matthias of Hapsburg: in January 1578 becomes nominally governor-general -of the Netherlands provinces on the invitation of a party of nobles, but -has no real power, <a href="#page_086">86</a>; in 1581 returns to Germany, <a href="#page_093">93</a></p> - -<p>Maurits of Nassau, second son of William prince of Orange: in 1584 -commences his career, <a href="#page_098">98</a></p> - -<p>Mechlin: a court of appeal for all the provinces is established here by -the duke of Burgundy, <a href="#page_046">46</a>; ferocious treatment of the city by the duke of -Alva, <a href="#page_065">65</a>; on the 19th of July 1585 it capitulates to the Spaniards, <a href="#page_100">100</a></p> - -<p>de Mendoça, André Furtado: in 1601 is in command of a large Portuguese -fleet besieging Bantam, <a href="#page_128">128</a>; when he is attacked by a puny Dutch fleet -under Wolfert Hermanszoon, ib.; which forces him to raise the blockade, -<a href="#page_129">129</a>; he causes great destruction at Amboina, ib.; successfully defends -Malacca against Cornelis Matelief, <a href="#page_138">138</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_310" id="page_310"></a>{310}</span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>Michelburne, Sir Edward: in 1605 visits Table Bay, <a href="#page_155">155</a></p> - -<p>Middelburg: in February 1574 after a long siege is surrendered to the -patriots by Colonel Christopher Mondragon, <a href="#page_073">73</a></p> - -<p>Mondragon, a French corsair: in 1507 seizes a Portuguese ship in the -Mozambique channel, <a href="#page_036">36</a>; in 1509 he is captured by the Portuguese and is -taken as a prisoner to Lisbon, ib.; where he manages to make his peace -with the king, ib.</p> - -<p>Montigny, Baron; murder of, <a href="#page_060">60</a></p> - -<p>Mookerheyde: disastrous battle of in April 1574, <a href="#page_074">74</a></p> - -<p>Mossel Bay: is touched at by the first Dutch expedition to India, <a href="#page_122">122</a>; -in 1601 receives its present name from Paulus van Caerden, <a href="#page_126">126</a></p> - -<p>Motley’s <i>Rise of the Dutch Republic</i>, and <i>History of the United -Netherlands to the Twelve Years’ Truce, 1609</i>: references to, 41 and <a href="#page_078">78</a></p> - -<p>Mozambique: description of in 1583, <a href="#page_120">120</a>; is coveted by the Dutch, owing -to rumours of the great quantity of gold to be had on the mainland, <a href="#page_135">135</a>; -in June 1604 is attacked by Steven van der Hagen, <a href="#page_136">136</a>; but in August he -is obliged to leave without success, <a href="#page_137">137</a>; in March 1607 is attacked by -Paulus van Caerden, <a href="#page_139">139</a>; Fort São Sebastião is bravely defended by Dom -Estevão d’Ataide, <a href="#page_141">141</a>; and in May Van Caerden is obliged to abandon the -effort to take it, <a href="#page_143">143</a>; in July 1608 it is attacked for the third time -by the Dutch under Pieter Willemszoon Verhoeff, <a href="#page_144">144</a>; but in August the -siege is abandoned, <a href="#page_147">147</a></p> - -<p>Municipal Charters: in <small>A.D.</small> 1217 the first of these in the Northern -Netherlands is obtained by the town of Middelburg in Zeeland, <a href="#page_045">45</a></p> - -<p>Mutinies of Spanish troops: account of, 79 to 81, and <a href="#page_111">111</a></p> - -<p>Naarden: in 1572 is destroyed by the Spaniards, <a href="#page_066">66</a></p> - -<p>Negotiations for the alliance of the Dutch and English East India -Companies: particulars concerning, 161 and <a href="#page_162">162</a></p> - -<p>van Nek, Jacob: successful voyage to India of, <a href="#page_124">124</a></p> - -<p>Netherlands: the territory of the Northern Provinces is the last -occupied on the continent of Europe, <a href="#page_042">42</a>; no traces of palæolithic men -are found there, ib.; the Celts are the earliest known inhabitants, ib.; -the Batavi, a Nether Teuton tribe, come next, ib.; the Frisians occupy -the territory farther north, <a href="#page_043">43</a>; palæolithic implements in great -abundance are found in the southern provinces, <a href="#page_042">42</a>; which in the earliest -historical times are occupied by Celts, <a href="#page_043">43</a>; at the time of the Roman -invasion the extreme north is occupied by Teutons, the extreme south by -Celts, and the centre<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_311" id="page_311"></a>{311}</span> by the two races intermingled, ib.; the country -is conquered by Cæsar and the Frisians are compelled to pay tribute, but -the Batavi are admitted to an alliance with Rome, ib.; some centuries -later on the fall of the Roman empire, other Teutonic tribes enter the -country, <a href="#page_044">44</a>; when the Franks conquer the Romanised Celtic territory in -the south, ib.; in <small>A.D.</small> 785 the conquest of the whole country is -completed by Charlemagne, ib.; under his feeble successors it is broken -up into a number of petty states independent of each other, ib.; which -in course of time become prosperous through manufactures, commerce, and -the fisheries, <a href="#page_045">45</a>; the towns are able to obtain, mostly by purchase from -their sovereigns, charters conferring extensive powers of self -government, ib.; in 1437 through various causes many of the provinces or -separate states come under the dominion of Philippe duke of Burgundy, -<a href="#page_046">46</a>; in 1477 the “Great Privilege” is granted by Mary of Burgundy, <a href="#page_047">47</a>; -who marries Maximilian of Hapsburg, and leaves a son, Philippe by name, -as sovereign of the Burgundian Netherlands, <a href="#page_048">48</a>; this Philippe marries -the eldest daughter of the Spanish monarchs Ferdinand of Aragon and -Isabella of Castile, and in 1500 has a son born to him, who becomes the -emperor Charles V, ib.; Charles inherits the sovereignty of all the -Netherland provinces except Gelderland, Utrecht, the Frisian provinces, -Liege, Flanders, and Artois, ib.; by 1544 all of the provinces except -Liege are under his rule, <a href="#page_049">49</a>; enumeration of the provinces, <a href="#page_050">50</a>; in 1555 -on the abdication of Charles V all of the provinces except Liege come -under the sovereignty of his son Philippe II of Spain, <a href="#page_051">51</a>; under whose -rule they are treated with such cruelty that they rise in rebellion -against him, <a href="#page_051">51</a> et seq.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Synoptical Index.</div> - -<p>Newbery, John: travels of, <a href="#page_039">39</a></p> - -<p>Nieuwpoort: battle of, <a href="#page_113">113</a></p> - -<p>van Noort, Olivier: in 1598-1601 is the first Netherlander to sail round -the world, 124 and <a href="#page_125">125</a></p> - -<p>Nymegen: on the 21st of October 1591 surrenders to the patriots, <a href="#page_109">109</a></p> - -<p>Ostend: on the 5th of July 1601 is besieged by the archduke Albert, but -holds out till the 20th of September 1604, when it is taken by the -marquis Ambrose Spinola, <a href="#page_114">114</a></p> - -<p>Oudewater: in July 1575 is destroyed by the Spaniards, <a href="#page_077">77</a></p> - -<p>Pacification of Ghent: particulars regarding the, <a href="#page_081">81</a></p> - -<p>Parmentier, Jean: in 1529 commands a French ship sent to India, <a href="#page_037">37</a></p> - -<p>Parmentier, Raoul: in 1529 commands a French ship sent to India, <a href="#page_037">37</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_312" id="page_312"></a>{312}</span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>Pereira, Duarte Pacheco: in 1509 captures the French corsair Mondragon, -<a href="#page_036">36</a></p> - -<p>Perpetual Edict: particulars concerning the, <a href="#page_083">83</a></p> - -<p>Philippe II of Spain: in 1555 becomes sovereign of all the Netherland -provinces except Liege, <a href="#page_051">51</a>; his rule is so atrocious that the provinces -rise in rebellion, and in October 1575 the states of Holland and Zeeland -renounce allegiance to him, <a href="#page_079">79</a>; on the 26th of July 1581 he is formally -abjured by the other provinces in arms against him, <a href="#page_093">93</a>; on the 6th of -May 1598 he transfers the sovereignty of the Netherlands to his daughter -Isabella, <a href="#page_112">112</a>; and on the 13th of September of the same year dies, ib.</p> - -<p>Philippe III: in September 1598 succeeds his father as king of Spain, -<a href="#page_112">112</a></p> - -<p>Pirenne’s <i>Histoire de Belgique</i>: reference to, <a href="#page_042">42</a></p> - -<p>Portugal: in 1580 comes under the authority of Philippe II of Spain, <a href="#page_092">92</a></p> - -<p>Portuguese: before the close of the sixteenth century cease to be -progressive, <a href="#page_035">35</a></p> - -<p>Position of the Dutch in India at the time of the conclusion of the -truce with Spain, <a href="#page_149">149</a></p> - -<p>Protestants: emigration of from the Southern to the Northern Netherland -provinces, 98 and <a href="#page_101">101</a></p> - -<p>Queen Elizabeth of England: in January 1578 commences to assist the -patriots in the Netherlands, <a href="#page_085">85</a>; in August 1585 enters into a treaty -with the states, giving them material assistance, <a href="#page_101">101</a>; on the 24th of -March 1603 dies, <a href="#page_115">115</a></p> - -<p>Rapid advance of the Dutch in India in 1609, <a href="#page_148">148</a></p> - -<p>Reformation, the: spread of in the Netherlands, 49 and <a href="#page_054">54</a></p> - -<p>Repudiation of the public debt by Philippe II, <a href="#page_110">110</a></p> - -<p>de Requesens, Don Luis: in November 1573 becomes governor and -captain-general of the Netherlands, <a href="#page_070">70</a>; administration of, 70 to <a href="#page_079">79</a>; on -the 5th of March 1576 dies, <a href="#page_079">79</a></p> - -<p>Roe, Sir Thomas: in 1615 visits Table Valley, <a href="#page_166">166</a></p> - -<p>Romans, the: confer great benefits upon the Netherlands, <a href="#page_044">44</a></p> - -<p>Scandinavian pirates: plunder the Netherlands, but do not form -settlements in the country, <a href="#page_045">45</a></p> - -<p>Sluis: is besieged, and in August 1587 is compelled to surrender to the -Spaniards, <a href="#page_105">105</a>; in August 1604 is recovered by the patriots, <a href="#page_115">115</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_313" id="page_313"></a>{313}</span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">Synoptical Index.</div> - -<p>Sonoy, Diederik: atrocious conduct of at Alkmaar, <a href="#page_077">77</a></p> - -<p>Spanish Fury of Antwerp: account of, 80 and <a href="#page_081">81</a></p> - -<p>Spanish troops: mutinies of, 74 and <a href="#page_113">113</a></p> - -<p>van Spilbergen, Joris: in 1601 commands an expedition sent to India, <a href="#page_127">127</a></p> - -<p>Spinola, the marquis Ambrose: in 1603 becomes commander-in-chief of the -Spanish army in Flanders, <a href="#page_114">114</a></p> - -<p>Stephens, Thomas, an Englishman: in 1579 is rector of the Jesuit college -at Salsette, <a href="#page_038">38</a></p> - -<p>Story, James: travels of, <a href="#page_039">39</a></p> - -<p>Sumatra: is visited by the first Dutch expedition to India, <a href="#page_123">123</a></p> - -<p>Synod of the Reformed churches: in 1572 the first meets at Hoorn; in -1578 the second meets at Dordrecht, <a href="#page_087">87</a></p> - -<p>Table Bay: in 1601 receives its present name from Joris van Spilbergen, -<a href="#page_127">127</a></p> - -<p>Terry’s <i>Voyage to India</i>: references to, 163 and <a href="#page_166">166</a></p> - -<p>Teutonic tribes: overrun the Netherlands, <a href="#page_044">44</a></p> - -<p>Treaty of alliance between England, France, and the seven United -Provinces of the Netherlands: on the 31st of October 1596 is entered -into, <a href="#page_111">111</a>; from which in May 1598 Henry IV of France withdraws, <a href="#page_112">112</a>; on -the 16th of August 1598 a new treaty of alliance is entered into between -England and the free Netherlands, <a href="#page_112">112</a></p> - -<p>Truce for twelve years between Spain and the Netherlands: on the 9th of -April 1609 is signed at Antwerp, <a href="#page_151">151</a></p> - -<p>Turnhout: rout of a Spanish army at, <a href="#page_111">111</a></p> - -<p>Union of Brussels: particulars concerning the, <a href="#page_082">82</a></p> - -<p>Union of Utrecht: particulars concerning the, 89 and <a href="#page_090">90</a></p> - -<p>United Netherlands, republic of the: territory of in 1609, at the time -of the twelve years’ truce, 151 and <a href="#page_152">152</a></p> - -<p>Utrecht, bishopric of: is founded by Charlemagne as a fief, <a href="#page_044">44</a>; in 1579 -ceases to exist, <a href="#page_089">89</a></p> - -<p>Valenciennes: in 1567 is reduced to submission to Philippe II, <a href="#page_056">56</a></p> - -<p>Valentijn’s <i>Oud en Nieuw Oost Indien</i>: reference to, <a href="#page_122">122</a></p> - -<p>Variation of the compass: mention of, <a href="#page_123">123</a> and <a href="#page_124">124</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_314" id="page_314"></a>{314}</span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>Verhoeff, Pieter Willemszoon: in December 1607 sails from Holland for -India as admiral of a very powerful fleet, <a href="#page_144">144</a>; and in July 1608 makes -an attack upon Mozambique, ib.; but in August is compelled to abandon -the effort to get possession of Fort São Sebastião, <a href="#page_147">147</a>; barbarity of -after the great victory in Gibraltar Bay, <a href="#page_151">151</a>; in May 1609 he and -twenty-nine others are murdered on the island of Neira, <a href="#page_148">148</a></p> - -<p>van Waerwyk, Wybrand: in June 1602 leaves Holland for India as admiral -of a fleet, <a href="#page_134">134</a>; in August 1603 establishes a permanent factory at -Bantam, <a href="#page_135">135</a>; which for several years is regarded as the Dutch head -quarters in the East, ib.</p> - -<p>de Weert, Sebald: in March 1602 is admiral of the first fleet sent out -by the Dutch East India Company, <a href="#page_134">134</a>; visits Ceylon and makes an -agreement of friendship with the ruler of Kandy, ib.; but commits the -great error of offending the religious feelings of the Cingalese, ib.; -with the result that he and forty-six others are surprised when on shore -and are all put to death, <a href="#page_135">135</a></p> - -<p>William, prince of Orange: is appointed by Philippe II stadholder of -Holland, Zeeland, and Utrecht, <a href="#page_052">52</a>; becomes the very soul of the struggle -of the provinces for liberty, 52 to <a href="#page_097">97</a>; on the 15th of March 1580 is -declared an outlaw by Philippe II, and a great reward is offered to any -one who takes his life, <a href="#page_092">92</a>; on the 10th of July 1584 is murdered at -Delft, <a href="#page_097">97</a></p> - -<p>Zeeland and Holland, provinces of: in June 1575 unite in a kind of loose -confederation, <a href="#page_077">77</a>; in October 1575 renounce allegiance to Philippe II, -<a href="#page_079">79</a></p> - -<p>Zierikzee: in June 1576 is besieged and taken by the Spaniards, <a href="#page_078">78</a></p> - -<p>Zutphen: treatment of by Don Frederic de Toledo, son of the duke of -Alva, <a href="#page_066">66</a>; in September 1583 it is betrayed to the Spaniards, <a href="#page_096">96</a>; on the -23rd of May 1591 it is recovered by the patriots, <a href="#page_109">109</a></p> - -<p>Zuyder Zee: is formed in the thirteenth century of our era, <a href="#page_043">43</a></p> - -<h4><a name="SKETCH_III-s" id="SKETCH_III-s"></a>SKETCH III.</h4> - -<p>van der Aa’s <i>Biographisch Woordenboek der Nederlanden</i>: references to, -173 and <a href="#page_250">250</a></p> - -<p>Appel, Ferdinandus: treatment of by Governor Willem Adriaan van der -Stel, <a href="#page_226">226</a>; further mention of, <a href="#page_246">246</a></p> - -<p>Arboriculture: instructions of the directors concerning, <a href="#page_188">188</a>; which are -carried out by the governor, ib.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_315" id="page_315"></a>{315}</span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">Synoptical Index.</div> - -<p>van Assenburgh, Louis: is appointed to succeed Willem Adriaan van der -Stel as governor, <a href="#page_241">241</a>; in January 1708 arrives and assumes the duty, <a href="#page_246">246</a></p> - -<p>Bek, Rev. Hendrik: in May 1702 becomes clergyman of Drakenstein, <a href="#page_198">198</a>; in -April 1707 is transferred to Stellenbosch, <a href="#page_200">200</a></p> - -<p>Bogaert, Abraham: takes charge of the document containing the complaints -of the burghers, <a href="#page_228">228</a></p> - -<p>Bogaert’s <i>Historisch Verhaal</i>: reference to, <a href="#page_211">211</a></p> - -<p>le Boucq, Rev. Engelbertus: account of, <a href="#page_199">199</a></p> - -<p>van Brakel, Jacobus: treatment of by Governor Willem Adriaan van der -Stel, 230, 232, and <a href="#page_242">242</a></p> - -<p>Bushmen: particulars concerning, <a href="#page_188">188</a>, <a href="#page_194">194</a> et seq.</p> - -<p>van der Byl, Pieter: treatment of by Governor Willem Adriaan van der -Stel, <a href="#page_226">226</a>; further mention of, <a href="#page_246">246</a></p> - -<p>Charges against Governor Willem Adriaan van der Stel: list of, <a href="#page_221">221</a></p> - -<p>Church building: in January 1704 the first in Capetown is opened for -use, <a href="#page_198">198</a></p> - -<p>Cloete, Jacob: treatment of by Governor Willem Adriaan van der Stel, <a href="#page_229">229</a></p> - -<p>Colonists: at the beginning of the eighteenth century are rapidly -increasing in number, <a href="#page_204">204</a></p> - -<p>Company’s garden in Capetown: particulars concerning, <a href="#page_190">190</a></p> - -<p>Condition of the Cape settlement when Willem Adriaan van der Stel -becomes governor, <a href="#page_181">181</a></p> - -<p>Constantia farm: on the 13th of July 1685 is granted to Commander Simon -van der Stel by the lord of Mydrecht, <a href="#page_179">179</a></p> - -<p>Conterman, Hans Jacob: treatment of by Governor Willem Adriaan van der -Stel, <a href="#page_227">227</a></p> - -<p>Corruption: at the beginning of the eighteenth century is generally -prevalent in the East India Company’s service, <a href="#page_205">205</a>; means adopted to -prevent it, <a href="#page_206">206</a></p> - -<p>Council of Policy: during the administration of Governor Willem Adriaan -van der Stel meetings are only held at long intervals, <a href="#page_215">215</a></p> - -<p>Drakenstein: is settled under Simon van der Stel’s supervision, <a href="#page_177">177</a></p> - -<p>Du Bois’s <i>Vies des Gouverneurs Generaux</i>: reference to, <a href="#page_173">173</a></p> - -<p>Dutch and German settlers: are sent to South Africa from 1700 to 1707, -when emigration is stopped, <a href="#page_185">185</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_316" id="page_316"></a>{316}</span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>Ecclesiastical matters: particulars concerning, <a href="#page_197">197</a> et seq.</p> - -<p>Effect of Governor Willem Adriaan van der Stel’s tyranny in blending the -Dutch and French sections of the community, <a href="#page_249">249</a></p> - -<p>Elberts, Jan: treatment of by Governor Willem Adriaan van der Stel, <a href="#page_230">230</a></p> - -<p>Elberts, Nicolaas: treatment of by Governor Willem Adriaan van der Stel, -<a href="#page_230">230</a></p> - -<p>Elsevier, Samuel, the secunde: is in illegal possession of a tract of -land near Klapmuts, <a href="#page_216">216</a>; is charged by the burghers with carrying on -farming and neglecting his duty, <a href="#page_222">222</a>; is dismissed from office by the -directors, and in April 1708 leaves the colony, <a href="#page_247">247</a></p> - -<p>Expedition to Natal in 1705: account of, <a href="#page_202">202</a></p> - -<p>Extent of the Cape settlement when Simon van der Stel becomes commander, -<a href="#page_177">177</a></p> - -<p>Fouché, Professor Leo: copies and publishes portions of the journal of -Adam Tas, <a href="#page_183">183</a></p> - -<p>French Hoek: is settled under Simon van der Stel’s supervision, <a href="#page_177">177</a></p> - -<p>French language in South Africa: particulars concerning, <a href="#page_198">198</a></p> - -<p>Goodwin, Vaughan, an Englishman: in 1705 is found living at Port Natal, -<a href="#page_202">202</a></p> - -<p>Grazing farms: occupation of, <a href="#page_193">193</a></p> - -<p>Grevenbroek, Jan Willem: mention of, <a href="#page_218">218</a></p> - -<p>van der Heiden, Jacobus: treatment of by Governor Willem Adriaan van der -Stel, <a href="#page_226">226</a></p> - -<p>van der Heiden and Tas’s <i>Contra Deductie</i>: references to, 210, 218, -219, and <a href="#page_248">248</a></p> - -<p>Hertog, Jan, the Company’s master gardener: is in charge of Vergelegen, -<a href="#page_210">210</a></p> - -<p>Hottentots: particulars concerning, 195 and <a href="#page_221">221</a>; trade with by colonists -is prohibited from 1658 to 1699, <a href="#page_191">191</a>; is then thrown open by the -directors, <a href="#page_192">192</a>; but in 1703 is again forbidden, <a href="#page_196">196</a></p> - -<p>Huguenot settlers: are sent out in small numbers until 1700, when the -directors resolve not to send any more, <a href="#page_184">184</a></p> - -<p>Huguenots: are in a difficult position in the countries that shelter -them, <a href="#page_184">184</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_317" id="page_317"></a>{317}</span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">Synoptical Index.</div> - -<p>Huising, Henning: in 1700 enters into the first contract to supply meat -to the East India Company, <a href="#page_192">192</a>; treatment of by Governor Willem Adriaan -van der Stel, <a href="#page_226">226</a>; is well treated by the directors, <a href="#page_246">246</a>; further -mention of, <a href="#page_247">247</a></p> - -<p>Inducements to migrate to South Africa at the beginning of the -eighteenth century, <a href="#page_185">185</a></p> - -<p>Islands of Dina and Marseveen: search for, <a href="#page_188">188</a></p> - -<p>Kalden, Rev. Petrus, clergyman of Capetown: is in possession of a farm, -<a href="#page_216">216</a>; is charged by the burghers with spending too much time on it and -neglecting his duty, <a href="#page_222">222</a>; is recalled by the directors, and in April -1708 leaves the colony, <a href="#page_247">247</a></p> - -<p>Kolbe’s <i>Caput Bonæ Spei</i>: reference to, <a href="#page_173">173</a></p> - -<p>van Loon, Rev. Hercules: in April 1700 becomes clergyman of -Stellenbosch, <a href="#page_197">197</a>; in June 1704 commits suicide, <a href="#page_199">199</a></p> - -<p>Louw, Jacob: treatment of by Governor Willem Adriaan van der Stel, 229 -and <a href="#page_242">242</a></p> - -<p>Marauding band of Europeans and Hottentots: account of, <a href="#page_200">200</a></p> - -<p>Mauritius, island of: is uninhabited when the Dutch East India Company -sends a small party of men to take possession of it, <a href="#page_171">171</a></p> - -<p>van Meerland, Jan: treatment of by Governor Willem Adriaan van der Stel, -<a href="#page_226">226</a></p> - -<p><i>Meresteyn</i>, the: in April 1702 is wrecked on Jutten Island, when many -lives are lost, <a href="#page_200">200</a></p> - -<p>Meyboom, Nicolaas: treatment of by Governor Willem Adriaan van der Stel, -<a href="#page_227">227</a></p> - -<p>Meyer, Pierre: treatment of by Governor Willem Adriaan van der Stel, <a href="#page_229">229</a></p> - -<p>Natal: in 1705 an expedition is sent to, <a href="#page_201">201</a></p> - -<p>Newlands garden: in 1700 is planted by Governor Willem Adriaan van der -Stel, <a href="#page_191">191</a></p> - -<p>van Niekerk, Cornelis: treatment of by Governor Willem Adriaan van der -Stel, <a href="#page_230">230</a></p> - -<p>Obiqua mountains: reason for being so called, <a href="#page_189">189</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_318" id="page_318"></a>{318}</span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>du Pré, Hercules: treatment of by Governor Willem Adriaan van der Stel, -230, 232, and <a href="#page_242">242</a></p> - -<p>Pretorius, Wessel: treatment of by Governor Willem Adriaan van der Stel, -<a href="#page_226">226</a></p> - -<p>van Rheede, Hendrik Adriaan, lord of Mydrecht: is sent out by the -directors with all the powers of a dictator to correct abuses in -Hindostan and Ceylon, and has supreme authority conferred upon him while -at the Cape, <a href="#page_177">177</a>; from the 19th of April to the 16th of July 1685 he is -in Capetown, <a href="#page_178">178</a>; and three days before he leaves makes a grant to -Commander Simon van der Stel of the farm Constantia at Wynberg as a -reward for his good conduct, <a href="#page_179">179</a></p> - -<p>Roman Catholics: position of in the Cape Colony under the Dutch -government, <a href="#page_182">182</a></p> - -<p>Rotterdam, Jan: treatment of by Governor Willem Adriaan van der Stel, -<a href="#page_226">226</a>; account of his return from banishment, <a href="#page_233">233</a></p> - -<p>Saar’s <i>Account of Ceylon</i>: extract from, <a href="#page_174">174</a></p> - -<p>de Savoye, Jacob: treatment of by Governor Willem Adriaan van der Stel, -<a href="#page_229">229</a></p> - -<p>Scarcity of timber and fuel at the Cape in 1699: mention of, <a href="#page_187">187</a></p> - -<p>Seasons, the: from 1698 to 1705 are unfavourable for farming, <a href="#page_204">204</a></p> - -<p>Sheep’s wool: efforts to produce in South Africa in the beginning of the -eighteenth century, <a href="#page_203">203</a></p> - -<p>Silk: experiment in the production of, <a href="#page_204">204</a></p> - -<p>Slaves: are being introduced from Madagascar and Mozambique, <a href="#page_205">205</a></p> - -<p>Spoelstra’s <i>Bouwstoffen voor de Geschiedenis der -Nederduitsch-Gereformeerde Kerken in Zuid Afrika</i>: reference to, <a href="#page_217">217</a></p> - -<p>van Staden, Martin: treatment of by Governor Willem Adriaan van der -Stel, <a href="#page_230">230</a></p> - -<p>Starrenburg, Jan, landdrost of Stellenbosch: conduct of, <a href="#page_224">224</a>; by order -of the directors he is dismissed from office and sent out of the colony, -<a href="#page_243">243</a></p> - -<p>van der Stel, Adriaan: in 1623 goes to India in the service of the Dutch -East India Company, <a href="#page_171">171</a>; in 1638 becomes commander of the island of -Mauritius, ib.; becomes next a military commander, and in that capacity -is sent to Ceylon, <a href="#page_172">172</a>; on the 19th of May 1646 falls in battle with a -Cingalese army, when nearly his whole force is destroyed, <a href="#page_173">173</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_319" id="page_319"></a>{319}</span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">Synoptical Index.</div> - -<p>van der Stel, Frans, farmer at the Cape and younger brother of the -governor Willem Adriaan van der Stel: makes himself greatly disliked by -the burghers, <a href="#page_217">217</a>; is required by the directors to leave the colony, and -in April 1708 embarks for Europe, <a href="#page_248">248</a></p> - -<p>van der Stel, Simon: on the 14th of November 1639 is born at Mauritius, -<a href="#page_172">172</a>; at a very early age is sent to Amsterdam to be educated, <a href="#page_175">175</a>; is -regarded as their protégé by the directors of the East India Company, -ib.; when grown up marries and becomes the father of six children, ib.; -in 1679 is offered the situation of commander of the Cape settlement, -which he gladly accepts, and in October of that year assumes the duty, -<a href="#page_176">176</a>; like all the chief officials he is prohibited from carrying on -farming operations or speculating in cattle, ib.; he must be regarded as -a model ruler, <a href="#page_177">177</a>; in 1691 he is promoted to be governor, and in 1692 -to be councillor extraordinary of Netherlands India, <a href="#page_179">179</a>; in February -1699 retires from office, and is succeeded by his eldest son, <a href="#page_180">180</a>; on -the 24th of June 1712 dies at Constantia, ib.</p> - -<p>van der Stel, Willem Adriaan: in February 1699 succeeds his father as -governor of the Cape Colony and councillor extraordinary of Netherlands -India, <a href="#page_180">180</a>; has previously held various situations in the colony, <a href="#page_187">187</a>; -in November 1699 sets out on a tour of inspection of the settlement, -<a href="#page_188">188</a>; makes large profits by dealing in wine, <a href="#page_207">207</a>; in February 1700 -obtains an illegal grant of four hundred morgen of ground at -Hottentots-Holland from the Commissioner Wouter Valckenier, <a href="#page_208">208</a>; which -farm he names Vergelegen, <a href="#page_210">210</a>; and immediately begins to build upon and -cultivate it, ib.; using the Company’s materials and servants for the -purpose, ib.; until it becomes the most highly tilled ground in the -colony, <a href="#page_211">211</a>; beyond the mountains he holds an immense tract of country, -on which he keeps a great number of horned cattle and sheep, <a href="#page_212">212</a>; the -utmost care is taken that no information of these matters reaches the -directors, ib.; on the 15th of March 1701 the directors instruct him to -be on guard, as war with France is imminent, ib.; which order he -disobeys by frequent and long absence at Vergelegen, <a href="#page_215">215</a>; in 1705 some -of the farmers send a complaint against him to the Indian authorities, -<a href="#page_219">219</a>; which is sent back to him for explanation, <a href="#page_220">220</a>; on receiving it he -immediately concludes that similar charges will be sent to the directors -and that his farming operations will become known to them, <a href="#page_223">223</a>; to -prevent this, if possible, he resorts to the most arbitrary and violent -measures, <a href="#page_224">224</a>; at this very time a commission in Amsterdam is making -inquiry into his conduct, <a href="#page_234">234</a>; and a committee appointed by the -directors is devising measures for the security of the Cape settlement -in case Vergelegen should<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_320" id="page_320"></a>{320}</span> not be a myth, <a href="#page_235">235</a>; the commission of inquiry -investigates the matter very thoroughly, and sends in a report, <a href="#page_237">237</a>; in -accordance with which the directors issue orders for the immediate -recall of the governor and the other unworthy officials, <a href="#page_241">241</a>; in April -1708 he leaves the colony, <a href="#page_247">247</a>; after his dismissal from the Company’s -service he publishes the <i>Korte Deductie</i>, as the best excuse he can -make for his conduct, <a href="#page_248">248</a>; he purchases an estate in the Netherlands, -and in July 1723 dies there, <a href="#page_250">250</a></p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>van der Stel’s <i>Korte Deductie</i>: references to, 210, 211, 212, 214, and -<a href="#page_248">248</a></p> - -<p>Stellenbosch: is founded under Simon van der Stel’s supervision, <a href="#page_177">177</a>; -defiant conduct of the residents, <a href="#page_231">231</a></p> - -<p>System of the Dutch East India Company of paying its officials: is a -very bad one, <a href="#page_176">176</a></p> - -<p>Tas, Adam: draws up a memorial to the directors, complaining of the -governor, <a href="#page_220">220</a>; is illegally arrested and committed to prison, <a href="#page_225">225</a>; -further particulars of the treatment accorded to him, 229 and <a href="#page_242">242</a>; -journal of, <a href="#page_183">183</a></p> - -<p>Text of the orders of the directors of the 26th of April 1668 -prohibiting the high officials in the settlement from farming land or -dealing in cattle, <a href="#page_179">179</a></p> - -<p>Text of the order of the directors of the 27th of June 1699 again -prohibiting the chief officials from trading in cattle, <a href="#page_192">192</a></p> - -<p>Text of the resolution of the directors on the 22nd of June 1700 -concerning emigrants, <a href="#page_185">185</a></p> - -<p>Text of the instructions of the directors to the governor on the 15th of -March 1701 to be on his guard against an attack by the French, <a href="#page_213">213</a></p> - -<p>Text of the orders of the directors on the 28th of October 1705 -reiterating their previous commands that the officials should not -traffic in cattle, <a href="#page_210">210</a></p> - -<p>Text of the resolution of the assembly of seventeen on the 8th of March -1706, <a href="#page_235">235</a></p> - -<p>Theal’s <i>Abstract of the Debates and Resolutions of the Council of -Policy at the Cape from 1651 to 1687</i>: reference to, <a href="#page_187">187</a></p> - -<p>Theal’s <i>Belangrijke Historische Dokumenten over Zuid Afrika</i>: -references to, 174, 178, 180, 185, 235, 237, 239, and <a href="#page_250">250</a></p> - -<p>Timber and fuel: scarcity of in 1699 at the Cape, <a href="#page_187">187</a></p> - -<p>du Toit, François: treatment of by Governor Willem Adriaan van der Stel, -<a href="#page_230">230</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_321" id="page_321"></a>{321}</span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">Synoptical Index.</div> - -<p>du Toit, Guillaume: treatment of by Governor Willem Adriaan van der -Stel, 230, 232, and <a href="#page_242">242</a></p> - -<p>Traffic of any kind in cattle is prohibited on the 27th of June 1699 to -the chief officials in the colony, <a href="#page_185">185</a></p> - -<p>Training of the colonists, <a href="#page_193">193</a></p> - -<p>Treaty of Utrecht: reference to, <a href="#page_213">213</a></p> - -<p>Tulbagh Basin: in November 1699 is inspected by Governor Willem Adriaan -van der Stel, <a href="#page_189">189</a>; description of the basin, ib.; receives from the -governor the name Land of Waveren, <a href="#page_190">190</a>; in 1700 begins to be occupied, -ib.</p> - -<p>Valckenier, Wouter: when returning from India to Holland acts as a -commissioner at the Cape, <a href="#page_208">208</a>; and illegally makes a grant of land to -the governor, <a href="#page_209">209</a>; is a member of the commission that condemns the -governor for having obtained Vergelegen in an improper manner, <a href="#page_239">239</a></p> - -<p>Valentijn’s <i>Oud en Nieuw Oost Indien</i>: reference to, <a href="#page_173">173</a></p> - -<p>Vergelegen: is illegally obtained by Governor Willem Adriaan van der -Stel, <a href="#page_209">209</a>; the ground is resumed by the East India Company, <a href="#page_244">244</a>; is -divided into four farms, which are sold separately, <a href="#page_247">247</a></p> - -<p>War of the Spanish Succession: reference to, <a href="#page_213">213</a></p> - -<p>Waveren outstation: in 1700 is formed, <a href="#page_190">190</a></p> - -<p>van der Westhuizen, Nicolaas: treatment of by Governor Willem Adriaan -van der Stel, <a href="#page_227">227</a></p> - -<p>Witsenberg: is so named in honour of Nicolaas Witsen, of Amsterdam, <a href="#page_190">190</a></p> - -<p>Wool; see Sheep’s wool</p> - -<p>Wynoch, Christiaan: treatment of by Governor Willem Adriaan van der -Stel, <a href="#page_227">227</a></p> - -<p>van Zyl, Willem: treatment of by Governor Willem Adriaan van der Stel, -<a href="#page_230">230</a></p> - -<h4><a name="SKETCH_IV-s" id="SKETCH_IV-s"></a>SKETCH IV.</h4> - -<p>Albany: settlement of the district of, <a href="#page_255">255</a></p> - -<p>Barbarians: effect of the influx into the Cape Colony of, <a href="#page_258">258</a></p> - -<p>Battle in which the army of Natal under English chiefs is almost -annihilated, <a href="#page_291">291</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_322" id="page_322"></a>{322}</span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>Betshuana refugees: can give very little information upon the interior -of the country, <a href="#page_265">265</a></p> - -<p>Betshuana tribes: destruction of in the wars of Moselekatse, <a href="#page_258">258</a></p> - -<p>Bird’s <i>Annals of Natal</i>: reference to, <a href="#page_293">293</a></p> - -<p>du Buis, Coenraad, a notorious freebooter: account of, <a href="#page_270">270</a></p> - -<p>Cape Colony: extent of in 1835, <a href="#page_255">255</a></p> - -<p>Causes of the great emigration from the Cape Colony: as given by Louis -Triegard, <a href="#page_273">273</a>; as given by Pieter Uys, <a href="#page_281">281</a></p> - -<p>Chase’s <i>Natal Papers</i>: reference to, <a href="#page_281">281</a></p> - -<p>Destruction of human life in the wars of Tshaka and Moselekatse: leaves -great tracts of land without inhabitants, <a href="#page_262">262</a></p> - -<p>Discontent in South Africa in and before 1835: causes of, <a href="#page_257">257</a></p> - -<p>D’Urban, Sir Benjamin, governor of the Cape Colony: the confidential -correspondence of is presented by his grandson to the Union government, -<a href="#page_259">259</a></p> - -<p>Dutch and English colonists: difference in disposition of, <a href="#page_255">255</a></p> - -<p>Dutch language: the suppression of in the public offices and in the -courts of law is felt as a grievance by the old colonists, <a href="#page_258">258</a></p> - -<p>English and Dutch colonists: difference in disposition of, <a href="#page_255">255</a></p> - -<p>Englishmen: in 1835 some forty are living in Natal, <a href="#page_263">263</a>; list of their -names, <a href="#page_264">264</a>; in June 1835 fourteen of them send a petition that the -territory may be annexed by Great Britain, ib.; in March 1836 Lord -Glenelg replies refusing to annex Natal, ib.</p> - -<p>Fingoes, the: are brought by Sir Benjamin D’Urban from Kaffirland and -located in Peddie, <a href="#page_260">260</a></p> - -<p>Futu, Bantu chief: particulars concerning, <a href="#page_264">264</a></p> - -<p>Gardiner’s <i>Narrative of a Journey to the Zoolu Country in South -Africa</i>: reference to, <a href="#page_264">264</a></p> - -<p><i>Geslacht Register de Oude Kaapsche Familien</i>: reference to, <a href="#page_278">278</a></p> - -<p>Glenelg, Lord, secretary of state for the colonies: maintains that the -colonists are to blame for the Kaffir war of 1835, and abandons the -Province of Queen Adelaide, <a href="#page_262">262</a></p> - -<p>Glenelg system of dealing with the Kaffirs: particulars concerning, <a href="#page_262">262</a></p> - -<p>Grahamstown: description of, <a href="#page_257">257</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_323" id="page_323"></a>{323}</span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">Synoptical Index.</div> - -<p>Hottentots: injudicious treatment of, <a href="#page_257">257</a></p> - -<p>Influx of barbarians into the Cape Colony: effect of, <a href="#page_258">258</a></p> - -<p>Invasion of the Cape Colony by the Xosas in December 1834: particulars -concerning, <a href="#page_260">260</a></p> - -<p>Isaacs’ <i>Travels and Adventures in Eastern Africa, with a Sketch of -Natal</i>: reference to, <a href="#page_264">264</a></p> - -<p>Jacobs, Pieter: is leader of the fifth party of emigrants from the Cape -Colony, <a href="#page_277">277</a></p> - -<p>Jalusa, a Xosa robber captain: moves to the country north of the Orange -river, <a href="#page_267">267</a>; in September 1836 his entire band is exterminated by the -Basuto, ib.</p> - -<p><i>Kaffir War of 1835</i>: origin of the volume so called, <a href="#page_259">259</a>; reference to, -<a href="#page_279">279</a></p> - -<p>Land tenure: the new system is not appreciated at first by the cattle -farmers, <a href="#page_258">258</a></p> - -<p>Maritz, Gerrit Marthinus: is leader of the third party of emigrants from -the Cape Colony, <a href="#page_275">275</a></p> - -<p>Matiwane, chief of the Amangwane: drives a section of the Tembu tribe -into the Cape Colony, <a href="#page_258">258</a></p> - -<p>Missionary and philanthropic press: tone of, <a href="#page_259">259</a></p> - -<p>Moselekatse: effect of the wars of, <a href="#page_258">258</a></p> - -<p>Natal: description of, <a href="#page_263">263</a>; number of Bantu residing in 1835, <a href="#page_264">264</a>; -condition of the emigrant farmers in after the massacres by the Zulus, -<a href="#page_290">290</a></p> - -<p>Potgieter, Andries Hendrik: is leader of the second party of emigrants -from the Cape Colony, <a href="#page_275">275</a>; after the massacres by the Zulus goes with -his men to the assistance of the distressed people in Natal, <a href="#page_290">290</a>; with -Pieter Uys marches into Zululand to attack Dingan, <a href="#page_292">292</a>; on the 11th of -April 1838 encounters a great Zulu army, and is compelled to retire, -ib.; shortly afterwards leaves Natal and returns to Winburg, <a href="#page_294">294</a></p> - -<p>Preller’s <i>Piet Retief, Lewenskets van die Grote Voortrekker</i>: reference -to, <a href="#page_288">288</a></p> - -<p>Province of Queen Adelaide: is created by Sir Benjamin D’Urban, <a href="#page_260">260</a>; is -abandoned by Lord Glenelg, <a href="#page_262">262</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_324" id="page_324"></a>{324}</span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">Historical Sketches.</div> - -<p>van Rensburg, Jan: is leader of a small party of emigrants from the Cape -Colony, <a href="#page_268">268</a>; in July 1833 leaves Louis Triegard’s party at the -Zoutpansberg to open up a road to Delagoa Bay, <a href="#page_269">269</a>; and with every -individual in his company is murdered by blacks on the journey, ib.</p> - -<p>Resolutions adopted by Pieter Uys and those who agree with him, -asserting independence of Mr. Retief, <a href="#page_283">283</a></p> - -<p>Retief, Pieter: is leader of the fourth party of emigrants from the Cape -Colony, <a href="#page_275">275</a>; in June 1837 is installed as governor and -commandant-general of his own party and the one under Maritz, <a href="#page_276">276</a>; on -the 21st of July 1837 writes to Sir Benjamin D’Urban desiring that the -emigrants may be acknowledged as an independent people, <a href="#page_286">286</a>; in October -1837 goes over the Drakensberg into Natal, <a href="#page_285">285</a>; on the 6th of February -1838 is murdered with all his companions at Dingan’s kraal, <a href="#page_280">280</a></p> - -<p>Sekwati, chief of the Bapedi: mention of, <a href="#page_272">272</a></p> - -<p>Settlement of the Cape Colony by Europeans: slow progress of, <a href="#page_255">255</a></p> - -<p>Slaves in the Cape Colony: hasty emancipation of, <a href="#page_257">257</a></p> - -<p>Smit, Erasmus: reference to the journal of, <a href="#page_275">275</a></p> - -<p>Smith, G. C. Moore, Esqre., M.A.: assistance rendered by, <a href="#page_260">260</a></p> - -<p>Tembu tribe: a section of is driven by the Amangwane under Matiwane into -the Cape Colony, <a href="#page_258">258</a></p> - -<p>Triegard, Louis: family history of, <a href="#page_266">266</a>; in June 1834 he moves from the -district of Somerset to the bank of the White Kei river beyond the -colonial border, ib.; where about thirty emigrant families are then -residing, <a href="#page_267">267</a>; here all his slaves run away, ib.; he is believed by the -British officials on the frontier to have induced the Xosas to persevere -in the war against the colony, ib.; he moves northward with the -notorious robber captain Jalusa, ib.; in September 1835 crosses the -Orange river, and then with a number of other emigrants travels onward -to the Zoutpansberg, <a href="#page_268">268</a>; which he reaches in May 1836, ib.; account of -his residence there until August 1837, when he and his party leave for -Delagoa Bay, <a href="#page_271">271</a>; they encounter great difficulties on the way, <a href="#page_272">272</a>; but -in April 1838 reach Lourenço Marques, <a href="#page_273">273</a>; where they are received with -great kindness by the Portuguese, ib.; but are attacked by fever, from -which in course of time nearly the whole party, including Triegard -himself, dies, ib.; in July 1839 the remnant of the party is rescued and -taken to Natal, <a href="#page_274">274</a></p> - -<p>Tsetse fly: destructive nature of, <a href="#page_272">272</a></p> - -<p>Tshaka: effect of the wars of, <a href="#page_258">258</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_325" id="page_325"></a>{325}</span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">Synoptical Index.</div> - -<p>Umnini, petty Bantu chief: particulars concerning, <a href="#page_263">263</a></p> - -<p>Uys, Pieter Lavras: particulars concerning the family of, <a href="#page_278">278</a>; personal -character of, <a href="#page_279">279</a>; in 1834 visits and inspects Natal, <a href="#page_265">265</a>; is leader of -the sixth party of emigrants from the Cape Colony, <a href="#page_277">277</a>; travels -northward over the Orange river, with the intention of crossing the -Drakensberg into Natal, <a href="#page_280">280</a>; on the 7th of August 1837 writes to Sir -Benjamin D’Urban, stating the causes of the emigration, ib.; he assumes -an attitude of independence as regards Mr. Retief, <a href="#page_283">283</a>; in October 1837 -joins Commandant Potgieter in the campaign in which the Matabele are -driven far to the north, <a href="#page_286">286</a>; in December 1837 visits Natal again, <a href="#page_289">289</a>; -in February 1838 is in the present Orange Free State when tidings of the -fearful massacres by the Zulus reach him, ib.; he immediately collects -his men and goes down into Natal to the assistance of the distressed -people there, ib.; with Commandant Potgieter marches into Zululand to -attack Dingan, <a href="#page_292">292</a>; on the 11th of April 1838 is drawn into an ambuscade -and is almost surrounded by a great Zulu army, ib.; when attempting to -retreat is killed with nine others, <a href="#page_293">293</a></p> - -<p>Uys, Dirk Cornelis: heroic death of, <a href="#page_293">293</a></p> - -<p>Voigt’s <i>Fifty Years of the History of the Republic in South Africa</i>: -reference to, <a href="#page_286">286</a></p> - -<p>Xosa invasion of the Cape Colony in December 1834: particulars -concerning, <a href="#page_260">260</a></p> - -</div> - -<p class="c"> -THE END<br /> -<br /> -PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED, LONDON AND BECCLES.<br /> -</p> - -<div class="footnotes"><p class="cb">FOOTNOTES:</p> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> Among the sources of information for the next few pages I -must mention particularly Arnold’s <i>History of Rome</i>, Gibbon’s <i>Decline -and Fall of the Roman Empire</i>, Busk’s <i>History of Spain and Portugal</i>, -and Stephens’ <i>History of Portugal</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> The old library of the Ptolemies was consumed in Cæsar’s -Alexandrian war. Marc Antony gave the whole collection of Pergamus -(200,000 volumes) to Cleopatra, as the foundation of the <i>new</i> library -of Alexandria. It was kept in apartments of the great temple of Serapis, -which was broken down in A.D. 389 by Theophilus, archbishop of -Alexandria, “the perpetual enemy of peace and virtue, a bold, bad man, -whose hands were alternately polluted with gold and with blood.” The -valuable library was pillaged or destroyed. See Gibbon’s <i>Decline and -Fall of the Roman Empire</i>, Chapter XXVIII.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> The Arabs, Persians, and Indians were found at the -beginning of the sixteenth century of our era to be well acquainted with -the eastern coast as far south as Cape Correntes, and the Arabs and -Persians had settlements along the whole of that seaboard. But of this -Europeans knew absolutely nothing. Beyond Cape Correntes, in latitude -24° 4´ south, the Asiatics did not venture in their coir-sewn vessels. -Here the Mozambique current, from which the cape has its present name, -ran southward with great velocity, usually from two to five kilometres -an hour, according to the force and direction of the wind, but often -much faster. The cape had the reputation also of being a place of -storms, where the regular monsoons of the north could no longer be -depended upon, and where violent gusts from every quarter would almost -surely destroy the mariners who should be so foolhardy as to brave them. -The vivid Arab imagination further pictured danger of another kind, for -this was the chosen home of those mermaids—believed in also by the -Greeks of old—who lured unfortunate men to their doom. There were -legends of ships having been driven far beyond it in gales, and having -been carried by the current onward to a great ocean in the west, from -which they had only with the greatest difficulty returned. The perils -the crews had gone through and the hardships they had suffered were -magnified as a matter of course, and the dreadful sights that had met -their eyes were such as to make the boldest shudder. Of the shore of -that awful sea nothing was known, for no one had ever set foot upon it. -So Cape Correntes, with its real and fictitious perils, was the terminus -of Mohamedan enterprise to the south, though there were men in Kilwa who -sometimes wondered what was beyond it and half made up their minds to go -overland and ascertain. Had there been a Bantu settlement beyond -Inhambane there can be no doubt that their eagerness to procure ivory -would have led them on, but black men had replaced the wild aborigines -there so shortly before the arrival of the Portuguese that there was not -time to make the venture.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> For information on the discoveries mentioned here I am -indebted chiefly to the <i>Indice Chronologico das Navegações, Viagens, -Descobrimentos, e Conquistas dos Portuguezes nos Paizes Ultramarinos -desde o Principio do Seculo XV</i>, the great history <i>Da Asia</i> of João de -Barros, Major’s <i>Discoveries of Prince Henry the Navigator and their -Results</i>, and Beazley’s <i>Prince Henry the Navigator, the Hero of -Portugal and of Modern Discovery</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> These islands and even the Canaries had been visited by -Genoese ships before they were rediscovered by the Portuguese. But as no -use was made of them by the first visitors, and as knowledge concering -them was not communicated to the world in general, the Portuguese have a -fair claim to be regarded as the real discoverers. In the same way -Columbus is rightly credited with the discovery of America, though the -Northmen visited its north-eastern coast long before his time.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> It would be interesting to know the exact day on which Dias -sailed, but I have not found it possible to ascertain it. As already -observed, before the entrance of Vasco da Gama into the Indian sea the -dates of the various discoveries given by Portuguese historians are not -implicitly to be relied upon, and as no original journals or logbooks of -the early voyages are now in existence, there are no means of verifying -them. João de Barros is the only historian known to me who has placed on -record the month and year of sailing and of the return of Dias in this -voyage, and he does not state the day of departure from the Tagus. His -words are: (ElRei Dom João) “determinou de enviar logo neste anno de -quatrocentos e oitenta e seis dobrados navios per mar, e homens per -terra, pera ver o fim destas cousas.” ... “partiram no fim de Agosto do -dito anno.” ... “onde chegáram em Dezembro do anno de quatrocentos e -oitenta e sete, havendo dezeseis mezes, e dezesete dias que eram -partidos delle.” Barros is the most reliable of all the Portuguese -historians of that time, and he was in a position to obtain the -particulars of this voyage, which unfortunately he gives so scantily. -Neither Damião de Goes in his <i>Chronica do Felicissimo Rei Dom Emanuel -da Gloriosa Memoria</i> nor Fernão Lopes de Castanheda in his -<i>Descobrimento e Conquista da India pelos Portuguezes</i> mentions the date -of the voyage, but both relate other particulars which tend to confirm -the opinion that it took place at the time stated by Barros. For -instance, Castanheda states that Affonso de Paiva and João Pires de -Covilhão commenced their journey from Portugal after the departure of -Dias, and he agrees with Barros in giving the 7th of May 1487 as the -date on which they left Santarem. The exact dates of Dias passing the -Cape of Good Hope eastward, of his reaching the mouth of the Infante -river, and of the erection of the landmark São Philippe cannot be -ascertained, but these events in all probability occurred in 1487, as -making allowance for his detentions when leaving the storeship, at Angra -dos Ilheos, and afterwards, Dias can hardly have reached the latitude of -the Cape before the beginning of that year. See appendix.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> See the numerous statements concerning this mythical -monarch made by the early Portuguese writers, copied by me and printed, -together with English translations, in volumes i, iii, v, vi, and vii of -the <i>Records of South-Eastern Africa</i>. Ultimately the name was applied -to the ruler of Abyssinia. Index, Prester John, in Vol. ix, page 474.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> “On the 21st of November (1825) a heavy south-east gale set -in, before which we were carried with great velocity, and in the -afternoon saw the remains of the cross erected by Bartholomeu Dias at -the southern extremity of Angra Pequena. Passing by it we (H.M.S. -<i>Barracouta</i>) anchored in the bay, where, although the wind was directly -off shore, yet such was its violence that the whole surface of the water -was one vast sheet of foam. Some officers landed with Captain Vidal, for -the purpose of examining the cross, and obtaining the latitude and -longitude of the point. They found the sand very painful to the eyes, -being swept from the surface of the rocks, and almost blinding them as -they proceeded to the summit of the small granite eminence on which -Bartholomeu Dias erected his cross, as a memento of his discovery of the -place. This is said to have been standing complete forty years back, but -we found that it had been cast down, evidently by design, as the part of -the shaft that had originally been buried in the rock remained unbroken, -which never could have been the case had it been overturned in any other -way than by lifting it from the foundation. The inducement to this -disgraceful act was probably to search for such coins as might have been -buried beneath the cross; and it is probable that the destroyers, in -order to make some little amende for their desolation, re-erected a -portion of the fragments, as we found a piece of the shaft, including -the part originally placed in the ground, altogether about six feet in -length, propped up by means of large stones, crossed at the top by a -broken fragment, which had originally formed the whole length of the -shaft. This was six feet above ground, and twenty-one inches beneath, -composed of marble rounded on one side, but left square on the other, -evidently for the inscription, which, however, the unsparing hand of -Time, in a lapse of nearly three centuries and a half, had rendered -illegible. In descending by a different and more craggy path, the party -suddenly came upon the cross; this was sixteen inches square, of the -same breadth and thickness as the shaft, and had on the centre an -inscription, but, like the other, almost obliterated.”—<i>Narrative of -Voyages to explore the Shores of Africa, Arabia, and Madagascar, -performed in H.M. Ships Leven and Barracouta under the direction of -Captain W. F. W. Owen, R.N.</i> Two demi octavo volumes, published in -London in 1833. The extract given above is to be found in Vol. II, pages -269 and 270. Two fragments of the pillar are now in the museum in -Lisbon, and one is in the South African museum in Capetown.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> The probabilities are that they did not, otherwise the -information they carried back would have been regarded as much more -important than it was considered to be by the king and by all the -writers of the time. Ptolemy’s map, on which Africa was made to turn -like a horn and project so far to the eastward as to enclose the Indian -ocean, was still treated with respect, and the discoveries of Dias -seemed at the time as if they tended rather to confirm than to refute -this geographical feature. According to the view of those who regarded -Ptolemy and Edrisi as safe guides, Dias had sailed along the southern -side of the horn, without finding its end, and therefore had not done -much more than Diogo Cam and other previous explorers. To-day, with our -knowledge, his feat is regarded very differently, but neither the king -nor the people considered at the time that it entitled him to any -special reward or mark of favour.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> The factory of São Jorge da Mina was established in -January 1482 by Diogo d’Azambuja, and was the first permanent Portuguese -settlement on the western coast of Africa, and the centre of the trade -in gold. It was wrested from the Portuguese by the Dutch in 1637, and -was held by them until April 1872, when it was transferred to England in -exchange for some other territory on the coast. It is now known as -Elmina.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> Called João Pires, of Covilhão, by Damião de Goes, Pedro -de Covilhão by Castanheda and Barros. Modern Portuguese writers follow -De Goes in the name. See the <i>Indice Chronologico das Navegações, -Viagens, Descobrimentos, e Conquistas dos Portuguezes nos Paizes -Ultramarinos desde o Principio do Seculo XV.</i> Lisboa, 1841. João Pires -on page 69. Barros says of him: “The king, seeing how necessary an -acquaintance with the Arabic tongue was for this journey, sent upon this -business one Pedro de Covilhão, a gentleman of his household who was -well acquainted with it, and in his company another named Affonso de -Paiva, and they were sent from Santarem on the 7th of May of the year -1487.”</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> Probably a misprint.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> The German Emperor has since caused an exact copy of it to -be erected, substituting granite for marble.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> The particulars of this event cannot be ascertained, and -it would even be doubtful whether Mondragon really rounded the Cape of -Good Hope if it were not expressly stated in a summary of the directions -issued by the king for his capture that the robbery of Queimado’s ship -took place “no canal de Moçambique.”</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> I do not mention Sir John Mandeville in the text, because -modern criticism has proved that what he states concerning India in his -book <i>The Voiage and trauayle of syr John Maundeuille, knight, which -treateth of the way toward Hierusalem, and of maruayles of Inde, with -other Ilands and Countryes</i> was compiled from earlier foreign writers, -though his work was regarded as genuine and trustworthy by Englishmen -until recently. Nothing is known of him from contemporary records, and -it is even regarded as possible that Mandeville was a pseudonym. In his -book he states that he was born at St. Albans, and travelled in the east -as far as China between the years 1322 and 1357. It is now believed that -he really visited Palestine, and his account of that country is -considered as partly based on personal observation, but the remainder of -the volume is spurious. The original was written in French. See the -<i>Encyclopedia Britannica</i>, article Mandeville. Of the numerous copies of -the book, in many languages, in the library of the British Museum, the -earliest was printed in 1480.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> This sketch is drawn chiefly from Motley’s <i>Rise of the -Dutch Republic</i> and his <i>History of the United Netherlands to the Twelve -Years’ Truce</i>—1609, the <i>Geschiedenis des Vaderlands</i>, by Mr. W. -Bilderdyk, edited by Professor H. W. Tydeman, seven octavo volumes, -issued at Amsterdam in 1832 to 1853, <i>History of the People of the -Netherlands</i>, by Petrus Johannes Blok, Ph.D., four demi octavo volumes -(English edition), published at New York and London, 1898 to 1907, -(another volume still to appear), <i>Handboek der Geschiedenis van het -Vaderland</i>, by Mr. G. Groen van Prinsterer, two octavo volumes (second -edition), issued at Amsterdam in 1852, <i>Histoire de Belgique</i>, by -Professor H. Pirenne, of the University of Ghent, second edition of Vol. -I published at Brussels in 1902, Vol. II published at the same place in -1903, and Vol. III in 1907, (other volumes still to appear), and <i>The -History of Belgium</i>, by Demetrius C. Boulger, published at London in -1902. Some other works consulted will be mentioned in notes.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> “Belgium ofte Nederland werdt ghemeynelijck verdeelt in -zeventhien Provincien, meer om dat de Princen daer over regierende, -seventhien Tytelen van de selve hebben ghevoert, als om andere -merckelijcke redenen. Want op de ghemeyne vergaderinghen ende -by-een-comsten der Staten van den Lande, en pleghen de selve in -soodanighen ghetalle niet te verschijnen, maer sommighe sorteerden onder -andere, als by exempel: Het Hartoghdom van Limborch met syn -appendentien: item het Marck-Graeffschap des H. Rycx ofte van Antwerpen -stemden ende contribueerden onder Brabandt, ’t Graeffschap Zutphen -maeckte het vierde Quartier van Gelderland: Daer-en-tegens Doornijck -ende het Doornijcksche Landt: Item Rijssel, Douay ende Orchies (synde -andersints Steden ende Leden van Wals-Vlaenderen) hadden hare stemmen in -het bysonder, ende contribueerden apart: Het selve gheschiede oock met -Valencyn, dat nochtans een Stad ende Lidt van Henegouwen is.” <i>Atlas of -Mercator and Hondius</i>, edition published at Amsterdam in 1633. This -superb atlas contains a double page map of all the provinces and no -fewer than thirty maps of different sections. A copy obtained by me in -Holland is in the South African Public Library.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> See the superb <i>Atlas</i> of Ortelius, published at Antwerp -in 1570. A copy obtained by me at the Hague is now in the South African -Public Library. This atlas contains a map of the whole provinces and -separate maps of Holland, Zeeland, the Frisian provinces, Flanders, and -Brabant. A comparison of the map of the provinces with one of Holland -and Belgium to-day will show the great changes that have taken place in -the interim.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> See Blok’s <i>History of the People of the Netherlands</i>, -Vol. II, page 263.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> There was in the south the large province of Liege, -nominally a fief of the Holy Roman Empire, under the government of a -bishop, but it was not counted with the others, though enclosed by some -of them. It had been conquered by Charles the Headstrong of Burgundy, -but on his death became independent again, and maintained a perfect -neutrality thereafter, though its borders were not always respected by -contending armies. It remained an independent principality until it was -annexed to France on the 1st of October 1795, and in 1814 for the first -time was joined to the other provinces to form the kingdom of the -Netherlands. When Belgium seceded and secured its independence in 1831 -Liege became one of its provinces.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> The greatest of the southern dioceses was Liege, whose -bishop was first settled at Tongres, then at Maastricht, and from A.D. -708 at Liege. In the tenth century the bishops of Liege and Cambrai -obtained rights as counts over extensive domains.—<span class="smcap">Blok.</span></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> The word “king” is used as a convenient one, though -Philippe was not <i>king</i> of the Netherlands. He was duke of one province, -count of another, lord of the next, and so on, but under these titles he -was sovereign of them all.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> Blok gives the number, according to a statement of -Requesens, as six thousand.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> This differs slightly in detail from the account given by -Motley, whose authority is so high that it is with reluctance I do not -adhere to it in every particular. In this instance I follow the Life of -Boisot, as given in <i>Leeven en Daden der Doorlughtige Zee-Helden</i>, a -quarto volume issued at Amsterdam in 1683.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> The treaty contained thirty articles. It is to be found on -pages 83 to 88 of Volume II of <i>A General Collection of Treatys, -Manifesto’s, Contracts of Marriage, Renunciations, and other Publick -Papers, from the year 1495, to the year 1712</i>, second edition published -in London in 1732.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> See pages 89 to 91 of the volume of <i>Treaties, etc.</i>, -already referred to.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> Page 92, Vol. II of the <i>Collection of Treaties, etc.</i>, -already referred to.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> <i>General Collection of Treaties, etc.</i>, Vol. II, pages 103 -to 119.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> <i>General Collection of Treaties, etc.</i>, Vol. II, pages 120 -to 127.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_30_30" id="Footnote_30_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> <i>Collection of Treaties, etc.</i>, Vol. II, pages 128 to -146.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_31_31" id="Footnote_31_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> The account of these voyages is taken from <i>Begin ende -Voortgangh van de Vereenighde Nederlantsche Geoctroyeerde Oost Indische -Compagnie, vervatende de voornaemste Reysen by de Inwoonderen derselver -Provincien derwaerts gedaen</i>. Two thick volumes, published at Amsterdam -in 1646.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_32_32" id="Footnote_32_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> The accounts of the voyages that follow have been taken by -me from the volumes <i>Begin ende Voortgangh</i> already mentioned, and -François Valentijn’s <i>Oud en Nieuw Oost Indien</i>, five huge volumes -published at Amsterdam in 1726, checked by the narratives in the first -three volumes of J. K. J. de Jonge’s <i>De Opkomst van het Nederlandsch -Gezag in Oost Indie</i>, published at the Hague and Amsterdam in 1862-65. I -also made use of the last volume of Diogo de Couto’s <i>Da Asia</i>, in order -to get the Portuguese version of these events, but obtained very little -information in it. His work ends with an account of a Dutch disaster at -Achin before the principal voyages were undertaken. Of course the Dutch -were to him pirates and rebels.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_33_33" id="Footnote_33_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a> It is attached to the original journals, now in the -archives of the Netherlands. I made a copy of it on tracing linen for -the Cape government, as it differs considerably from the chart in the -printed condensed journal of the voyage. In other respects also the -compilation of the printed journal has been very carelessly executed.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_34_34" id="Footnote_34_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a> See the last two volumes of De Couto’s <i>Da Asia</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_35_35" id="Footnote_35_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35_35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a> The first Buddhist commandment, as given in <i>The Light of -Asia</i>, reads: -</p> - -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">“Kill not, for pity’s sake, and lest thou slay<br /></span> -<span class="i1">The meanest creature on its upward way.”<br /></span> -</div></div> -</div> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_36_36" id="Footnote_36_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36_36"><span class="label">[36]</span></a> Albert died in 1621 and Isabella on the 30th of November -1623, and as they left no children, in 1624 Belgium passed again under -the direct government of Spain. By the treaty of Baden on the 7th of -September 1714 it was ceded to the emperor Charles VI, and thereafter -was generally termed the Austrian Netherlands.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_37_37" id="Footnote_37_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37_37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a> Sections III, XLIX, and L of the treaty of Munster, pages -335 to 367 of Vol. II <i>General Collection of Treaties, &c.</i></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_38_38" id="Footnote_38_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a> See pages 188 to 202 of Volume II of <i>A General Collection -of Treaties, &c.</i></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_39_39" id="Footnote_39_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39_39"><span class="label">[39]</span></a> See <i>A Voyage to East India, &c.</i> by the Rev. Edward -Terry. London, 1655.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_40_40" id="Footnote_40_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40_40"><span class="label">[40]</span></a> The name of the Welshman is not given in the <i>Report on -Manuscripts in the Welsh language</i> by the Historical Manuscripts -Commission (Vol. I, Part 3), published in London in 1905, from which -this extract is taken.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_41_41" id="Footnote_41_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41_41"><span class="label">[41]</span></a> <i>A Voyage to East India, wherein some things are taken -notice of in our passage thither, but many more in our abode there, -within that rich and most spacious Empire. Of the Great Mogols, &c., &c. -Observed by Edward Terry (then Chaplain to the Right Honorable Sr. -Thomas Row, Knight, Lord Ambassadour to the great Mogol) now Rector of -the Church at Grunford, in the County of Middlesex.</i> A foolscap octavo -volume of 545 pages, published in London in 1655. Terry says that he -went to India the year after Sir Thomas Roe in a fleet of six ships—the -<i>Charles</i>, of 1,000 tons, the <i>Unicorn</i>, almost as big, the <i>James</i>, a -large ship also, the <i>Globe</i>, the <i>Swan</i>, and the <i>Rose</i>, which were -smaller. The fleet left the Thames on the 3rd of February 1615 (old -style, 1616 it would be written now that the year commences on the 1st -of January), under command of Captain Benjamin Joseph as commodore, and -it rode at anchor in Table Bay from the 12th to the 28th of June. His -statement concerning the convicts sent out the previous year does not -fully agree with the records in the India Office in London, which I -consulted to obtain information on this subject, and which I follow as -far as they go, though they are defective.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_42_42" id="Footnote_42_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42_42"><span class="label">[42]</span></a> See Valentyn’s great work on India, the last volume of -which contains the history of Ceylon and also of Mauritius. See also the -volume <i>Vies des Gouverneurs Generaux</i>, by J. P. I. du Bois. The account -of Pieter Kolbe, in his <i>Caput Bonæ Spei Hodiernum</i>, is so distorted by -his bitter animosity towards Simon van der Stel as well as towards his -son Willem Adriaan that no reliance can be placed upon it. Van der Aa, -in his <i>Biographisch Woordenboek der Nederlanden</i>, says that Simon van -der Stel, son of Adriaan van der Stel and Monica da Costa, was born in -Amsterdam, but that is a mistake, and not the only one in the article. -See <i>Biographisch Woordenboek der Nederlanden</i>, door A. J. van der Aa, -Zeventiende Deel, Tweede Stuk, Haarlem, 1874. I copied the article on -the Van der Stel family in the above work, and published it in 1911 in -the third part of my <i>Belangrijke Historische Dokumenten over Zuid -Afrika</i>. It will be found on pages 11 and 12 of the volume. -</p><p> -In Johan Saar’s <i>Account of Ceylon 1647-1657</i>, this event is related as -follows: “To pick a quarrel they (the Hollanders) seized upon four of -the best elephants of the King of Candi. He, as a sensible man, sent -word to the Hollanders that he had no intention to do anything against -them, and he expected them, for their part, to act likewise; he had -called them in as friends to be his allies against the Portuguese, and -he hoped therefore that they would not settle in his territory. But the -Hollanders from the beginning were bent upon war. When the king saw that -it could not be avoided, he collected by one of his generals (a Saude, -or what we should call a Count) about 60,000 men, chiefly natives, -besides a few Portuguese whom he had formerly made captives, and who had -entered his service. He would no longer trust the Hollanders.... In the -following year (Anno Christi 1646) in the month of May, Mr. van der -Stält (Van der Stel) received fresh orders to march with 150 men (picked -soldiers), plenty of ammunition, powder, lead, and other materials of -war, and also two field guns. He met with the heathen Saude in a small -clearing, but as the latter had no orders to fight, because the king was -still disinclined to go to war, he withdrew into the forest. The -Hollanders opened a heavy fire from their field-guns and fire-arms, so -that 400 were killed, and many were wounded. As the Hollanders had taken -the offensive, the Saude did not care to act only on the defensive. He -therefore came out of the forest, and closing round our people, attacked -them with such energy that he cut off the head of Mr. Van der Stel, who -had been carried in a palanquin or litter, clad in red scarlet. Of our -men, who had numbered 150, they got 103 heads. The rest fled into the -jungle and hid themselves as best they could. When the King, who had -been near, heard of the onslaught he hurried to the spot, and although -he was told that his men had been forced to fight, he showed -displeasure. At once he ordered drums to be beaten and proclamation to -be made that none of the Hollanders who had fled into the jungle were to -be killed, but they were to be brought alive before him; that he would -treat them well; and that he would swear by his God that he was innocent -of the bloodshed. He then gave directions to have the head of Mr. Van -der Stel put into a silver bowl, and covered it with white cloth, and -sent it by one of the prisoners to their Captain in the great camp, to -say that this was the head of Mr. Van der Stel, and that the King would -see his body as well as the other 103 bodies decently buried.”</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_44_43" id="Footnote_44_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_44_43"><span class="label">[44]</span></a> The instructions and orders of the lord of Mydrecht were -copied by me from the original document in the Cape archives, and were -published in 1896 in Deel I <i>Belangrijke Historische Dokumenten</i>. They -occupy pages 1 to 48 of that pamphlet.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_45_44" id="Footnote_45_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45_44"><span class="label">[45]</span></a> “Wij cunnen geensints verstaen dat den Commandeur en die -van zijnen Raden voortaen haer eygen thuynen en bestiael sullen hebben -of houden, meer als hij off sij tot hun eygen gesin sullen van noden -hebben maer gehouden wesen haer daer van t’ ontledigen.” Despatch dated -at Amsterdam on the 26th of April 1668, and signed by all of the -seventeen directors. In the Cape archives, and copy in those at the -Hague.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_46_45" id="Footnote_46_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46_45"><span class="label">[46]</span></a> See the Resolutions of the Assembly of Seventeen, copied -by me from the original volumes in the Archives at the Hague, and -published in Deel III <i>Belangrijke Historische Dokumenten over Zuid -Afrika</i>, an octavo volume of 435 pages, printed for the Union Government -in 1911.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_47_46" id="Footnote_47_46"></a><a href="#FNanchor_47_46"><span class="label">[47]</span></a> In secluded parts of South Africa, where it would not be -possible to have one made in time after death, this precaution is still -taken, but elsewhere the custom has died out. I have known instances of -it in Canada also.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_48_47" id="Footnote_48_47"></a><a href="#FNanchor_48_47"><span class="label">[48]</span></a> Two fragments of a journal kept by Adam Tas have been -preserved: one from the 13th of June to the 14th of August 1705, in the -archives at the Hague, the other, from the 7th of December 1705 to the -27th of February 1706, in the South African public library in Capetown, -and they give a graphic picture of life in the country districts at the -time. Whenever a friend came to his house or he went to a friend’s, they -at once sat down to chat and drink wine and smoke tobacco, when if the -party was large and included wives and daughters, playing cards was -resorted to as a pastime. The quantity of coffee and tea consumed was -very large. The vicious custom of returning incorrect numbers of cattle -and sheep for taxation purposes was already prevalent, and Tas, who was -certainly not a dishonest man in other matters, was unable to see that -this was a crime deserving punishment. Professor Leo Fouché, of -Pretoria, has copied these interesting fragments, and informs me that he -intends to publish them.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_49_48" id="Footnote_49_48"></a><a href="#FNanchor_49_48"><span class="label">[49]</span></a> It was only natural that the Huguenot refugees should be -warmly attached to their native country, and long to be able to return -to it. It was noticed in England as well as in Holland and Prussia that -the French exiles had no hesitation in declaring that if Louis XIV would -only restore the edict of Henri IV and pledge himself to observe it -faithfully, they would return to the land of their birth and be his most -faithful subjects. It was believed that they would not return and -profess adherence to the state church while in their hearts remaining -Calvinists and secretly practising the Calvinistic form of worship, as -many of those who remained behind were doing, but the governments of the -countries in which they had taken refuge were at this time suspicious of -their attachment under all circumstances. In South Africa the Dutch -section of the population—or at least some of them—believed that the -Huguenots would not assist to repel a French invasion. It was only when -the children born in the lands of refuge grew up that the strong -attachment of the Huguenots to France died out.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_50_49" id="Footnote_50_49"></a><a href="#FNanchor_50_49"><span class="label">[50]</span></a> “Op het rapport van de heeren commissarissen ingevolge van -de resolutie commissorial van den 16 deses, geëxamineerd hebbende het -wensch van de colonie van de Caap de Bonne Esperance, en het senden van -vrije luijden derwaarts breeder in voorn. resolutie ter nedergestelt, is -in conformite van ’t geadviseerde goetgevonden en geresolveert de -respectieve kameren te authoriseeren omme eenige vrije luijden soo -mannen vrouwen als kinderen vrij van kost en transport gelt derwaarts te -senden, mitsgaders zorg dragende en lettende dat het soo veel doenlijk -is mogen zijn Nederlanders of onderdaanen van dese Staat of van -Hoogduijtsch natien geen trafieq ter zee doende, mitsgaders van de -gereformeerde of Luyterse godsdienst, hun op de lantbouw of culture der -wijnen verstaende, dogh geen franschen, de selve om redenen in voorn. -als anders in ’t geheel excuserende.” Résolution of the Assembly of -Seventeen adopted on the 22nd of June 1700, copied by me from the -original records at the Hague, and published in 1911 on page 2 of -<i>Belangrijke Historische Dokumenten over Zuid Afrika</i>, Deel III.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_51_50" id="Footnote_51_50"></a><a href="#FNanchor_51_50"><span class="label">[51]</span></a> See resolution of that date on page 6 of the volume -already mentioned.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_52_51" id="Footnote_52_51"></a><a href="#FNanchor_52_51"><span class="label">[52]</span></a> These instructions are given in the original on page 192.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_53_52" id="Footnote_53_52"></a><a href="#FNanchor_53_52"><span class="label">[53]</span></a> See the original records of the council of policy in the -Cape archives, or my <i>Abstract of the Debates and Resolutions of the -Council of Policy at the Cape from 1651 to 1687</i>, an octavo volume of -233 pages, published at Capetown in 1881.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_54_53" id="Footnote_54_53"></a><a href="#FNanchor_54_53"><span class="label">[54]</span></a> “daerop hebben wij naegesien ’t geene wij bij onsen brieff -van den 14 Julij 1695 soo raeckende den Landtbouw als het bestiael -beijde van de Comp: hebben geschreven, en gemeijnt dat soo wel de voors: -Lantbouw, als het aenhouden van het bestiael, geensints een werck is, de -Comp: convenierende off dat die haer daermede behoort te bemoeijen, maer -dat deselve in tegendeel dat aen de vrijeluijen dient over te laeten soo -om die daer door te beter te doen subsisteren ... met uijtsluytinge van -Comps: dienaren die soo wel in den politicquen raed, als in den raedt -van justitie compareren, en Sessie in deselve hebben, aen dewelcke wij -verstaen, dat alle leverantie aen de Comp: sal werden benomen, off haer -ontseijt.”—Despatch to the governor and council of policy at the Cape, -dated at Amsterdam on the 27th of June 1699, and signed by fifteen of -the directors.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_55_54" id="Footnote_55_54"></a><a href="#FNanchor_55_54"><span class="label">[55]</span></a> This clergyman was of French descent, was educated for the -ministry of the Roman catholic church, and had been a monk in the abbey -of Boneffe in Belgium. After becoming a Protestant he wrote a book -entitled <i>Dwalingen van het Pausdom</i>. He could converse in many -languages, and was unquestionably a man of high ability and learning, -but he was of irascible disposition and wherever he went was engaged in -strife. After he left South Africa he became a doctor of laws, and died -at a very advanced age at Batavia in 1748, after having been during the -preceding nineteen years minister of the Protestant Portuguese -congregation at that place.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_56_55" id="Footnote_56_55"></a><a href="#FNanchor_56_55"><span class="label">[56]</span></a> See the report of the commissioners Pieter de Vos and -Hendrik Bekker, signed at Batavia on the 18th of September 1706. Copy in -the Cape archives.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_57_56" id="Footnote_57_56"></a><a href="#FNanchor_57_56"><span class="label">[57]</span></a> As he was an ordinary councillor of India and admiral of -the return fleet he was higher in rank than the governor. His commission -from the Indian authorities directed him to see that the laws were -properly carried out, but he had no power given to him to make any new -laws, and of course none to annul or suspend any order of the directors, -which even the high Indian authorities could not do.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_58_57" id="Footnote_58_57"></a><a href="#FNanchor_58_57"><span class="label">[58]</span></a> The first was a grant of the farm now occupied by the -English archbishop of Capetown to Commander Jan van Riebeek, before the -order of 1668 was issued, the second was the grant of Constantia already -mentioned.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_59_58" id="Footnote_59_58"></a><a href="#FNanchor_59_58"><span class="label">[59]</span></a> “Alle de Coloniers (goet vlees leverende) sonder dese of -geene begunstighde daerinne boven anderen te prefereren, en sulex sonder -onderscheijt tot voors: leverantie sal hebben te admitteren. Dan -aengesien wij considereren dat voorsz: leverantie onder anderen mede -moet geaght werden te sijn een voorregt der vrije Ingesetenen en -Coloniers deselve privative competerende met uijtsluijtingh van Comps: -dienaren, die met haer Soldije en emolumenten moeten te vreden sijn, en -daermede oock genoeghsaem kunnen bestaen, soo verstaen en begeeren wij -dat niemant van Comps: dienaren, den gouverneur daer onder mede -begrepen, eenigh versch vlees aen Comps: schepen, hospitael etc: sal -mogen leveren, direct of indirect, maer ’t selve op den ontfangst deses -voortaen alleen door de vrije Ingesetenen moeten geschieden.”—Despatch -signed by fifteen of the directors, dated at Middelburg on the 28th of -October 1705. In the Cape archives and copy in those of the Netherlands. -This order was sent out, because complaints had already been received in -Holland that the governor was disregarding the laws on the subject.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_60_59" id="Footnote_60_59"></a><a href="#FNanchor_60_59"><span class="label">[60]</span></a> When trying to excuse his conduct to his friends after all -this was made known to the directors and he had been dismissed from the -service, the late governor admitted, as he could not deny it, that he -had occasionally taken Hertog with him to Vergelegen for the purpose -here mentioned. See the <i>Korte Deductie van Willem Adriaen van der Stel: -tot destructie ende wederlegginge van alle de klaghten, die eenige -vrijluijden van de voorsz Cabo aen de Edele Achtbare Heren -Bewinthebberen van de Oost Indische Compagnie over hem hadden gedaen</i>. A -foolscap folio volume of 172 pages, published in Holland—the name of -the town is not given—soon after his recall and dismissal from the -Company’s service. But his opponents proved conclusively that Hertog was -there for six or eight months at a time, while drawing pay from the -Company, and they published some of his written orders as manager of the -place. See the <i>Contra Deductie ofte Grondige Demonstratie van de -valsheit der witgegevene Deductie by den Ed: Heer Willem Adriaan van der -Stel, Geweezen Raad Extraordinaris van Nederlandsch India, en Gouverneur -aan Cabo de Goede Hoop, etc., etc., etc.; waar in niet alleen begrepen -is een nauwkeurig Historisch Verhaal, van al ’t geene de Heer van der -Stel in den jare 1706 heeft werkstellig gemaakt, on de Vrijburgeren aan -de Kaab t’ onder te brengen: maar ook een beknopt Antwoort op alle in -gemelde Deductie, en deszelfs schriftelijke Verantwoordinge, -voorgestelde naakte uitvluchten, abuseerende bewysstukken, en andere -zaken meer: strekkende tot Verificatie van’t Klachtschrift, in den jare -1706 aan Haar Wel Edele Hoog Achtbaarheden, de Heeren Bewinthebberen ter -Illustre Vergadering van Zeventienen afgezonden; zynde gesterkt door -veele authenticque en gerecolleerde Bewysstukken, waar van de origineele -of authenticque Copyen in handen hebben de twee Gemachtigden van eenige -der Kaapsche Inwoonderen Jacobus van der Heiden en Adam Tas</i>. A foolscap -folio volume of 318 pages, published at Amsterdam in 1712. This volume -refutes the statements made in the <i>Korte Deductie</i>, and contains some -very strong evidence given under oath. It is otherwise interesting, as -being the first book entirely prepared in South Africa.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_61_60" id="Footnote_61_60"></a><a href="#FNanchor_61_60"><span class="label">[61]</span></a> In his <i>Korte Deductie</i> the late governor asserted that he -had purchased over two hundred slaves for his private use. The Company -allowed him twenty of its male and female slaves as domestic servants in -his residence in the castle, and these he sent to his farm, employing -his own instead. He denied making use of other government slaves than -these for his private work. He stated that the soldiers and sailors were -temporarily detached from the public service, in the manner usual in -times of peace, and were paid and maintained by him while they were in -his service. The only other soldiers that he admitted as having worked -at Vergelegen were those who formed his escort when he went there, and -who, he asserted, might better have been occupied during their stay at -the farm than have been idle. But see the note on page 218.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_62_61" id="Footnote_62_61"></a><a href="#FNanchor_62_61"><span class="label">[62]</span></a> The quantity of wheat produced at Vergelegen is not given -in the archives, but is stated by Bogaert, who is a trustworthy -authority, at over eleven hundred muids yearly.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_63_62" id="Footnote_63_62"></a><a href="#FNanchor_63_62"><span class="label">[63]</span></a> In his <i>Korte Deductie</i> he stated that by purchasing from -farmers and by the natural increase of his stock he had some thousands -of sheep and some hundreds of horned cattle, but that he did not know -the exact number. Instead of eighteen stations, he asserted that he had -eight folds or kraals, but that part of his attempted excuse for his -conduct is so palpably misleading that it is of no value whatever. The -statistics given here are from those obtained after his recall.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_64_63" id="Footnote_64_63"></a><a href="#FNanchor_64_63"><span class="label">[64]</span></a> “Ondertusschen sullen uE: haer mede op hoede hebben te -houden.”—Despatch signed by twelve of the directors, dated at Amsterdam -on the 15th of March 1701.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_65_64" id="Footnote_65_64"></a><a href="#FNanchor_65_64"><span class="label">[65]</span></a> He was able to prove that he had paid for some timber -drawn from the Company’s magazine, but the evidence of the master of a -ship shows how articles could be obtained even where invoices and -disbursements were audited. The skipper of one of the Company’s vessels -needed a small quantity of iron for repairs, which he drew from the -magazine. Before he sailed he was required to sign a receipt for a very -much larger quantity, and on his remonstrating he was told that such was -the usual custom. He grumbled, but was at length induced to attach his -signature to the document. The receipt then became a voucher for the use -of so much iron in the Company’s service. Willem Adriaan van der Stel -was a poor man when he arrived in South Africa, and could not have -established Vergelegen with his own means, although he received large -bribes for favours granted. In Tas’s journal it is stated that from the -contractor Henning Huising he obtained three thousand sheep, two slaves, -and over £833, but no particulars are given as to the nature of the -transaction. The bribers may be morally as guilty as the bribed, but -with such a man as Willem Adriaan van der Stel there was no other way of -getting any business transacted.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_66_65" id="Footnote_66_65"></a><a href="#FNanchor_66_65"><span class="label">[66]</span></a> Such extreme precaution was used to prevent the governor’s -movements from becoming known in Holland or India that it is now -impossible to ascertain from any documents in the archives which of -these statements is correct. The long intervals that frequently occurred -during his administration between the meetings of the council of policy, -however, prove that the periods named by the burghers were quite -possible. In 1700 there was one meeting in January, four meetings in -February, one in March, one in April, one in May, one on the 28th of -June, one on the 30th of August, and one on the 18th of December. In -1701 there was one meeting in January, three meetings in March, one on -the 26th of May, one on the 29th of August, and one on the 30th of -December. In 1702 there were only six meetings in all, the first being -on the 23rd of May, in 1703 there were only five meetings, and in 1704 -the same number. In 1705 there were ten meetings, with an interval of -two months in one instance and of nearly three months in another. This -is not very important, however, as the time of absence from his post -admitted by himself is sufficient to convict him of unfaithfulness to -his trust.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_67_66" id="Footnote_67_66"></a><a href="#FNanchor_67_66"><span class="label">[67]</span></a> This grant was of course illegal, as being in opposition -to the orders of the directors in 1668, and Elsevier’s making use of it -was the ground of his dismissal from the service when the directors -became acquainted with the circumstances. There is so little on record -concerning it that it is not now possible to say why Simon van der Stel -acted as he did, but he may have reasoned that as the lord of Mydrecht -would have given ground to the secunde in 1685, if the holder of the -situation at that time had chosen to accept it, it would not be wrong to -give it to another secunde. This is only supposition, but I cannot think -of anything else that would have caused the old governor to overstep his -authority in this manner.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_68_67" id="Footnote_68_67"></a><a href="#FNanchor_68_67"><span class="label">[68]</span></a> See letter from the reverend Petrus Kalden to the Classis -of Amsterdam, dated 26th of April 1707, given in <i>Bouwstoffen voor de -Geschiedenis der Nederduitsch-Gereformeerde Kerken in Zuid Afrika</i>, door -C. Spoelstra, V.D.M. Volume I, page 56.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_69_68" id="Footnote_69_68"></a><a href="#FNanchor_69_68"><span class="label">[69]</span></a> For these statistics see the sworn depositions of men who -had worked for him, printed in the <i>Contra Deductie</i>. The charge of not -paying the Company its legal dues he took no notice of in his attempt to -excuse his conduct, and there is not the slightest trace of such a -payment being made in the accounts or other records of the time. The -names of over sixty of the Company’s soldiers and sailors who worked for -him for considerable periods are given under oath in the <i>Contra -Deductie</i>, and of them he only accounted for twenty-eight as being paid -by him. There is positive proof of his using the Company’s slaves on his -farm, but the charge of taking twenty-five for himself and causing them -to be written off in the Company’s books as having died must be regarded -as doubtful. That the Company’s master gardener, Jan Hertog, was the -overseer at Vergelegen, that the workmen there were under his direction, -and that he was not away from the place for eight months at a time, was -fully proved.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_70_69" id="Footnote_70_69"></a><a href="#FNanchor_70_69"><span class="label">[70]</span></a> See the <i>Contra Deductie</i>, pages 126, 180, and 279. Kolbe -states that his wife attempted to commit suicide on account of his -conduct, but I would be disinclined to accept the evidence of that -author unless it was well supported. Tas, however, in his journal, -states on information supplied to him that in December 1705 the -governor’s wife tried to drown herself by jumping into the fountain -behind her residence at the Cape, and that Mrs. Bergh sprang forward and -drew her out of the water. She complained that life was a misery to her, -owing to what she was obliged to see and hear daily. Of Mrs. Van der -Stel so little is known that it would not be right to express an opinion -as to whether her conduct towards her husband was or was not such as to -provoke him to neglect her for other women, but this can be said with -confidence, that the man who was utterly faithless towards his country, -his rulers, and one who was weak enough to trust him as Wouter -Valckenier had done, may without hesitation be pronounced capable of -being equally faithless towards the mother of his children, the most -unhappy woman in the settlement.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_71_70" id="Footnote_71_70"></a><a href="#FNanchor_71_70"><span class="label">[71]</span></a> This charge can neither be proved nor disproved by any -documents in the Cape archives. But there is one circumstance in -connection with it that throws strong suspicion upon the governor, and -under any circumstances shows that he paid no attention to the -instructions of the authorities in Holland. Their orders of the 27th of -June 1699, throwing open to the burghers the cattle trade with the -Hottentots, reached Capetown on the 24th of November of the same year; -having been brought by the flute <i>De Boer</i>, which sailed from Texel on -the 17th of July. The governor did not return to the castle from his -visit to the Tulbagh basin until the 14th of December,—all his -movements when absent on duty are carefully recorded,—and a placaat -announcing the will of the directors ought to have been issued on the -following day. Instead of that, however, it was not published until the -28th of February 1700, and then only owing to the presence of the -commissioner Wouter Valckenier. It was during these two months and a -half, as the burghers asserted, that the governor’s agents were engaged -in procuring horned cattle and sheep for him by fair means or by foul, -and that the Hottentots to a considerable distance from the Cape were -despoiled and exasperated. From his general character, as delineated in -the archives, one cannot say that he would scruple even at acts of -robbery.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_72_71" id="Footnote_72_71"></a><a href="#FNanchor_72_71"><span class="label">[72]</span></a> See letters from the governor and council at the Cape to -the governor-general and council of India, dated 18th of March 1706, and -to the directors, dated 31st of March and 24th of June 1706, in the Cape -archives. The abuse heaped upon the burghers in these documents is -enormous, and indicates how weak the governor must have felt his -attempted defence to be.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_73_72" id="Footnote_73_72"></a><a href="#FNanchor_73_72"><span class="label">[73]</span></a> This document is in the Cape archives. It is in as good a -state of preservation—excepting one leaf—as if it had been drawn up -yesterday.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_74_73" id="Footnote_74_73"></a><a href="#FNanchor_74_73"><span class="label">[74]</span></a> See the letter of the governor and council at the Cape to -the governor-general and council of India, of the 18th of March 1706. -For this and subsequent events to the governor’s recall see the -Proceedings of the Council of Policy and the Cape Journal for 1706 and -1707 in the Cape archives.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_75_74" id="Footnote_75_74"></a><a href="#FNanchor_75_74"><span class="label">[75]</span></a> One of the chief privileges secured to the free -Netherlanders by their revolt against Spain and the long and successful -war that followed was security from confinement except as a punishment -for crime. A man suspected of having committed an offence could be -arrested on a warrant properly issued by a court of justice, and was -then either released on bail or speedily brought to trial, according to -the nature of the charge.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_76_75" id="Footnote_76_75"></a><a href="#FNanchor_76_75"><span class="label">[76]</span></a> In a letter to the Indian authorities it is also termed -blasphemy.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_77_76" id="Footnote_77_76"></a><a href="#FNanchor_77_76"><span class="label">[77]</span></a> “Maar Edele Gestrenge Heer, de wyven zyn alsoo gevaarlyk -als de mans, en zyn niet stil.”—Extract from a letter of the landdrost -Starrenburg to the governor Willem Adriaan van der Stel, dated 18th of -September 1706. In the Cape archives.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_78_77" id="Footnote_78_77"></a><a href="#FNanchor_78_77"><span class="label">[78]</span></a> See letter from the governor-general and council of India -to the governor and council at the Cape, dated 30th of November 1706. In -the Cape archives.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_79_78" id="Footnote_79_78"></a><a href="#FNanchor_79_78"><span class="label">[79]</span></a> Tas mentions in his journal under date 19th of June 1705 -that he had heard of complaints about the governor having reached the -Netherlands, but gives no particulars.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_80_79" id="Footnote_80_79"></a><a href="#FNanchor_80_79"><span class="label">[80]</span></a> “Tot het stellen van de nodige ordres voor de securiteijt -van de Caep de bonne Esperance, en daer toe soodanige middelen te -adhiberen en in ’t werck stellen, alsmede tot bereijkingh van dat -ooghmerck sal nodigh en dienstigh aghten, is goetgevonden te versoecken -en committeren, gelijck als versoght en gecommittert werden bij dese, -wegens de kamer Amsterdam de heeren Witsen en Hooft, wegens de kamer -Zeeland de heer d’Huijbert, en wegens de kameren van ’t zuijder en -noorder quartier de heeren van Blois en van Gent, beneffens beijde d’ -advocaten van de Compagnie.”—Resolution of the Assembly of Seventeen -adopted on the 8th of March 1706, copied by me from the original volume -in the archives at the Hague, and published in <i>Belangrijke Historische -Dokumenten over Zuid Afrika</i>, Deel III, page 3.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_81_80" id="Footnote_81_80"></a><a href="#FNanchor_81_80"><span class="label">[81]</span></a> See <i>Belangrijke Historische Dokumenten over Zuid Afrika</i>, -Deel III, page 7.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_82_81" id="Footnote_82_81"></a><a href="#FNanchor_82_81"><span class="label">[82]</span></a> See <i>Belangrijke Historische Dokumenten over Zuid Afrika</i>, -Deel III, page 7.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_83_82" id="Footnote_83_82"></a><a href="#FNanchor_83_82"><span class="label">[83]</span></a> They can be seen in the letter of the governor and the -council of policy to the directors, dated 31st of March 1706, in the -archives at the Hague and copy in those at Capetown, also in the printed -volume called the <i>Korte Deductie</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_84_83" id="Footnote_84_83"></a><a href="#FNanchor_84_83"><span class="label">[84]</span></a> These rations included three hundred and sixty pounds of -flour, a still larger quantity of rice, fresh meat equal to four sheep, -twenty pounds of salted beef or pork, a very large quantity of European -wine, ale, and spirits, oil, vinegar, four pounds of pepper, two pounds -of spices, and twenty-five pounds of butter monthly, besides twenty-five -pounds of wax and tallow candles, and as much fuel as he needed. He was -supposed to entertain the masters of ships when they were ashore on -business, and was therefore provided for so liberally. He was also -required to give a dinner to all the principal officers of the fleets -returning from India, just before they sailed, which was termed the -afscheidmaal, but for this he was paid £41 13<i>s.</i> 4<i>d.</i> by the Company. -A carriage and horses were also provided for him free of cost, so that -he had no forage to purchase. Under these circumstances his excuse seems -to be as silly as it was impudent. His actual salary was only two -hundred gulden or £16 13<i>s.</i> 4<i>d.</i> a month, less than that of a second -class clerk in the public service to-day, but he had various fees and -perquisites.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_85_84" id="Footnote_85_84"></a><a href="#FNanchor_85_84"><span class="label">[85]</span></a> The other members were Messrs. Lestevenon, De Vries, -Corven, Bas, Hooft, Van Dam, Velters, De Witt, Van der Waeijen, Van de -Blocquerij, Hoogeveen, Muijssart, Maarseveen, Trip, and Goudoeven. For -the actual text of the resolution see <i>Belangrijke Historische -Dokumenten over Zuid Afrika</i>, Deel III, pages 7, 8, and 9.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_86_85" id="Footnote_86_85"></a><a href="#FNanchor_86_85"><span class="label">[86]</span></a> The original letter is now in the Cape archives, and the -office copy is in the archives of the Netherlands at the Hague.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_87_86" id="Footnote_87_86"></a><a href="#FNanchor_87_86"><span class="label">[87]</span></a> This appointment of a military man as head of the -government was made specially to secure his constant presence in the -castle in time of war, as the directors were startled by the conduct of -Van der Stel in neglecting his duty as he had done.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_88_87" id="Footnote_88_87"></a><a href="#FNanchor_88_87"><span class="label">[88]</span></a> <i>Biographisch Woordenboek der Nederlanden</i>, door A. J. van -der Aa, Zeventiende Deel, Tweede Stuk, published at Haarlem in 1874. -Copied by me and published in <i>Belangrijke Historische Dokumenten over -Zuid Afrika</i>, Deel III, pages 11 and 12.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_89_88" id="Footnote_89_88"></a><a href="#FNanchor_89_88"><span class="label">[89]</span></a> Better known to English readers as Moselekatse, the -Setshuana form of his name. He was the father of the late chief -Lobengula.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_90_89" id="Footnote_90_89"></a><a href="#FNanchor_90_89"><span class="label">[90]</span></a> The private, confidential, and semi-official -correspondence between Governor Sir Benjamin D’Urban, Colonel H. G. -Smith, Lieutenant-Colonel H. Somerset, and many others, was fortunately -preserved by the governor and remained in his family’s possession until -1911, when it was most kindly presented by his grandson W. S. M. -D’Urban, Esqre., of Exeter, through me to the government of the Union of -South Africa. I immediately published one volume of these most valuable -papers under the title of <i>The Kaffir War of 1835</i>, which can be seen in -several of the most important public libraries in Great Britain and the -Netherlands as well as in those of South Africa. I copied sufficient for -two volumes more, which can be seen typewritten in the South African -Public Library, Capetown, under the title of <i>The Province of Queen -Adelaide</i>, and finally I am now preparing another packet, under the -title of <i>The Emigration of the Dutch Farmers from the Cape Colony</i>, -which will also be deposited in the same institution. It is from these -papers that I have derived the information which enables me to enlarge -upon the accounts of Louis Triegard and Pieter Lavras Uys which I have -given in my <i>History of South Africa</i>. I am also indebted to G. C. Moore -Smith, Esqre., M.A., of Sheffield, a great nephew of Colonel (afterwards -Sir Harry) Smith, for the use of many papers in his possession and for -much kindly assistance otherwise rendered to me.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_91_90" id="Footnote_91_90"></a><a href="#FNanchor_91_90"><span class="label">[91]</span></a> He was a lineal descendant of the ruling family of the -Amatuli tribe, the remnant of which had been reduced to such a wretched -condition that they depended chiefly upon fish for subsistence. This is -an article of diet that would only be used by this section of the Bantu -in the last extremity of want, but they dared not make a garden or even -erect a hut before the arrival of Messrs. Farewell and Fynn in 1824, for -fear of attracting notice. Umnini was then a child, and his uncle -Matubana was regarded as the temporary head of the little community of -three or four hundred souls that had escaped when the remainder of their -tribe was destroyed.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_92_91" id="Footnote_92_91"></a><a href="#FNanchor_92_91"><span class="label">[92]</span></a> The petition is in the archive department, a typewritten -copy in the South African Public Library. The names attached to it are -those of A. Gardiner, Henry Hogle (elsewhere written Ogle), Charles J. -Pickman, P. Kew, J. Francis, J. Mouncey, G. Lyons, Charles Adams, James -Collis, John Cane, R. Ward, Thomas Carden, Richard King, J. Prince, and -Daniel Toohey. On the 29th of March 1836 Lord Glenelg replied refusing -to annex Natal. Other European residents, either permanent or -occasional, at Port Natal at this time were C. Blankenberg, Richard -Wood, William Wood, Thomas Halstead, J. Pierce, John Snelder, Alexander -Biggar, Robert Biggar, George Biggar, John Jones, Henry Batts, William -Bottomley, John Campbell, Thomas Campbell, Richard Lovedale, John -Russell, Robert Russell, John Stubbs, Robert Dunn, G. Britton, James -Brown, George Duffy, Richard Duffy, Thomas Lidwell, C. Rhoddam, and G. -White.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_93_92" id="Footnote_93_92"></a><a href="#FNanchor_93_92"><span class="label">[93]</span></a> When Mr. Isaacs lived in Natal—October 1825 to June -1831—the Zulus occupied the territory between the Tugela and Tongati -rivers, but from this tract of country they were withdrawn in 1834 by -Dingan. In 1828 Tshaka was murdered at his residence there. At the port -and near the Umzimkulu the Bantu under European chiefs were living. The -remainder of the territory was uninhabited except by Bushmen on the -uplands and a few cannibals. Mr. Isaacs says: “our settlement, which was -somewhat circumscribed, contained upwards of two thousand -persons.”—<i>Travels and Adventures, &c.</i>, Volume II, page 326.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_94_93" id="Footnote_94_93"></a><a href="#FNanchor_94_93"><span class="label">[94]</span></a> The people under the chief Futu, some of whose kraals were -found by Captain Gardiner on the head waters of the Umkomanz river, -should not be included in the population of Natal at that time. They -were refugees from the north, and frequently moved from one locality to -another. Shortly after Captain Gardiner’s visit they retired to the -Umtamvuna. Their chief, Futu, was the son of Nombewu, who was killed by -Ncapayi, the ferocious leader of the Bacas. Captain Gardiner estimated -the people under Futu at different places in Natal at from seven to -eight thousand souls. See pages 312 <i>et seq.</i> of his volume.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_95_94" id="Footnote_95_94"></a><a href="#FNanchor_95_94"><span class="label">[95]</span></a> See <i>The Annals of Natal</i>, by John Bird, Pietermaritzburg, -1888, Vol. I, page 75.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_96_95" id="Footnote_96_95"></a><a href="#FNanchor_96_95"><span class="label">[96]</span></a> By a Proclamation of the 11th of September 1834 the -removal of a slave beyond the border of the colony was punishable by the -forfeiture of the slave, a fine of £100, transportation, or imprisonment -with hard labour from three to five years. It was based upon an Imperial -<i>Act to amend and consolidate the Laws relating to the Abolition of the -Slave Trade</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_97_96" id="Footnote_97_96"></a><a href="#FNanchor_97_96"><span class="label">[97]</span></a> Mr. Willem Hendrik Neethling, afterwards landdrost of -Klerksdorp, who was living in Lydenburg in 1867 and was then -twenty-three years of age, in a communication to President F. W. Reitz -which has been kindly lent to me, says: “Wat betreft het verhaal re de -twee Blanken die te Lijdenburg aanlandden, is dat eene dwaling. Ik ben -in staat UEd. volkomen daarover in te lichten. Het waren geen Europeanen -of Caukassiers, maar wel Albinos van het neger ras. Zij waren man en -vrouw en twee kinderen. Het derde is te Lijdenburg geboren. De man -heette Tjaka, de alombekende slangen tegen-vergift maker. De man was -reeds op leeftijd, doch ik schatte de vrouw 27 of 28 jaren oud. Toen het -gerucht verspreid werd van de teruggevonden blanken heb ik mij gehaast -om ze zelven te zien, en vond uit dat zij Albinos waren, zeer blank, -doch met neger type, met de on-ontwikkelde neusbeen, en kroeshaar. Zij -kwamen van Kosi-baai, en zijn er weder heen vertrokken. Ik heb se -persoonlijk gesproken. Zij waren van staatswege gehaald op geruchten.”</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_98_97" id="Footnote_98_97"></a><a href="#FNanchor_98_97"><span class="label">[98]</span></a> Since the publication of my <i>History of South Africa</i>, a -journal kept by Mr. Erasmus Smit from the 15th of November 1836 to the -31st of January 1839 has been brought to light and in 1897 was printed -in Capetown. It forms an octavo pamphlet of one hundred and eight pages. -Mr. Smit, a native of Amsterdam, had once been a lay missionary in the -service of the London Society, later a schoolmaster at Oliphants Hoek, -and was married to a sister of Mr. Gerrit Maritz. He was a man of -fifty-eight years of age and infirm in health, but he joined his -brother-in-law’s party, and left the colony with it, being engaged to -perform religious services in the camp. During the stay of the emigrants -at Thaba Ntshu he was exceedingly jealous of the reverend James -Archbell, Wesleyan missionary there, whom he suspected of a design of -wishing to supplant him. On the 21st of May 1837 Mr. Retief appointed -him religious instructor of the emigrants, whereupon he ordained himself -and thereafter administered the sacraments and performed all the duties -of a clergyman. I have found nothing in his journal that enables me to -add to the account of the emigration given in my <i>History</i>, but there -are in it a few remarks that are of assistance to me in the preparation -of this paper.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_99_98" id="Footnote_99_98"></a><a href="#FNanchor_99_98"><span class="label">[99]</span></a> The actual separation into two distinct communions, as we -see them to-day, had not then taken place, but the principles underlying -the movement were already at work, and had been for many years. There -was not as much difference between the two parties as there is in the -English episcopal church between the high and the low sections, but it -was sufficient to cause those with common sympathies to keep together as -much as they could.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_100_99" id="Footnote_100_99"></a><a href="#FNanchor_100_99"><span class="label">[100]</span></a> See pages 451 to 455 of Volume III <i>Geslacht Register der -Oude Kaapsche Familien</i>, published at Capetown in 1894. The family Uys -in 1836 was a very large one, and was widely spread over the Cape -Colony.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_101_100" id="Footnote_101_100"></a><a href="#FNanchor_101_100"><span class="label">[101]</span></a> See page 302 of the printed volume of records entitled -<i>The Kaffir War of 1835</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_102_101" id="Footnote_102_101"></a><a href="#FNanchor_102_101"><span class="label">[102]</span></a> This refers to the following occurrence. During the war, -while Uys was in the field, a complaint, afterwards proved to be -frivolous, was made against his wife to the nearest special magistrate -for the protection of apprentices, who issued a warrant, and she was -taken to Port Elizabeth to be tried. Upon her innocence being clearly -established she was liberated, and an action was then brought before the -circuit court against the special magistrate for false imprisonment. The -chief justice, who was the circuit judge, and before whom the case was -tried, condemned the special magistrate to pay the costs, but these were -defrayed for him out of the district treasury, on the ground that -otherwise he would be deterred from doing his legal duty when complaints -were made to him.—See Chase’s <i>Natal Papers</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_103_102" id="Footnote_103_102"></a><a href="#FNanchor_103_102"><span class="label">[103]</span></a> Sir Benjamin D’Urban provisionally extended the boundary -of the colony to the Kraai river, and on the 6th of November 1835 -Lieutenant-Colonel Henry Somerset, who visited the north-eastern -districts as an agent of the governor, issued a notice that Stephanus -Petrus Erasmus was to be fieldcornet of the newly annexed ward. In -September of this year one hundred and sixty families were reported to -be living on the Stormberg spruit and the Kraai river. See the D’Urban -papers in the South African Public Library. A full account of the -massacres and robberies by the Matabele will be found in my <i>History of -South Africa</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_104_103" id="Footnote_104_103"></a><a href="#FNanchor_104_103"><span class="label">[104]</span></a> See his <i>Fifty Years of the History of the Republic in -South Africa (1795-1845)</i>, published in London in 1899, Volume II, pages -23 to 28.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_105_104" id="Footnote_105_104"></a><a href="#FNanchor_105_104"><span class="label">[105]</span></a> I am unable to add to or amend the accounts of these -events given by me a quarter of a century ago in my <i>History</i>, except in -one particular. The number of men and boys murdered at Umkungunhlovu on -the 6th of February 1838 (page 318, volume ii, <i>History of South Africa -since September 1795</i>) should be sixty-seven, not sixty-six, and to the -names should be added that of Pieter Retief, junior. This is found in -Mr. Boshof’s list, but not in most of those made shortly after the -event. These vary from each other, and some trouble must be taken to -verify many of the names. In a letter from Magdalena Johanna de Wet, -widow of Mr. Retief, to her brothers and sisters, dated at -Pietermaritzburg on the 7th of July 1840, published in Mr. Preller’s -work, she mentions the murder of her son Pieter Retief with his father, -and also of Abraham Greyling, her son by a former marriage, at the same -time.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_106_105" id="Footnote_106_105"></a><a href="#FNanchor_106_105"><span class="label">[106]</span></a> For the particulars see my <i>History of South Africa since -September 1795</i>, Volume II, pages 323 to 326.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_107_106" id="Footnote_107_106"></a><a href="#FNanchor_107_106"><span class="label">[107]</span></a> The difficulty of giving a reliable account of all the -details of this event is insurmountable, as it is impossible to -reconcile the narratives of those who took part in it with each other. I -give therefore only the leading features. Readers who may imagine that -every incident should be obtained by thorough research are requested to -consult the different statements given by Mr. Bird in his <i>Annals of -Natal</i>, and to believe that others consulted by me long before the -publication of that work are equally as conflicting.</p></div> - -</div> - -<hr class="full" /> - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's Willem Adriaan Van Der Stel, by George McCall Theal - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WILLEM ADRIAAN VAN DER STEL *** - -***** This file should be named 55781-h.htm or 55781-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/5/7/8/55781/ - -Produced by Chuck Greif, Christine D and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, -set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to -copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to -protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project -Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you -charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you -do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the -rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose -such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and -research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do -practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is -subject to the trademark license, especially commercial -redistribution. - - - -*** START: FULL LICENSE *** - -THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE -PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK - -To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free -distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work -(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project -Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project -Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at -http://gutenberg.org/license). - - -Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works - -1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to -and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property -(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all -the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy -all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. -If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the -terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or -entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. - -1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be -used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who -agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few -things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works -even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See -paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement -and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic -works. See paragraph 1.E below. - -1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" -or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the -collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an -individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are -located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from -copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative -works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg -are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project -Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by -freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of -this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with -the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by -keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project -Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. - -1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern -what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in -a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check -the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement -before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or -creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project -Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning -the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United -States. - -1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: - -1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate -access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently -whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the -phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project -Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, -copied or distributed: - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license - -1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived -from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is -posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied -and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees -or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work -with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the -work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 -through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the -Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or -1.E.9. - -1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted -with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution -must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional -terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked -to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the -permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. - -1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm -License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this -work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. - -1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this -electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without -prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with -active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project -Gutenberg-tm License. - -1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, -compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any -word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or -distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than -"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version -posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), -you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a -copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon -request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other -form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm -License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. - -1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, -performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works -unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. - -1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing -access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided -that - -- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from - the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method - you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is - owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he - has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the - Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments - must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you - prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax - returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and - sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the - address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to - the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." - -- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies - you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he - does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm - License. You must require such a user to return or - destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium - and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of - Project Gutenberg-tm works. - -- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any - money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the - electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days - of receipt of the work. - -- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free - distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. - -1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set -forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from -both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael -Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the -Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. - -1.F. - -1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable -effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread -public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm -collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic -works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain -"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or -corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual -property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a -computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by -your equipment. - -1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right -of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project -Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all -liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal -fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT -LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE -PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE -TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE -LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR -INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH -DAMAGE. - -1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a -defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can -receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a -written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you -received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with -your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with -the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a -refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity -providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to -receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy -is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further -opportunities to fix the problem. - -1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth -in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER -WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO -WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. - -1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied -warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. -If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the -law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be -interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by -the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any -provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. - -1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the -trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone -providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance -with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, -promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, -harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, -that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do -or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm -work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any -Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. - - -Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm - -Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of -electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers -including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists -because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from -people in all walks of life. - -Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the -assistance they need, are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's -goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will -remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure -and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. -To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation -and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 -and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org. - - -Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive -Foundation - -The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit -501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the -state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal -Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification -number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at -http://pglaf.org/fundraising. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg -Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent -permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. - -The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. -Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered -throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at -809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email -business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact -information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official -page at http://pglaf.org - -For additional contact information: - Dr. Gregory B. Newby - Chief Executive and Director - gbnewby@pglaf.org - - -Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg -Literary Archive Foundation - -Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide -spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of -increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be -freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest -array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations -($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt -status with the IRS. - -The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating -charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United -States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a -considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up -with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations -where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To -SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any -particular state visit http://pglaf.org - -While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we -have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition -against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who -approach us with offers to donate. - -International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make -any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from -outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. - -Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation -methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other -ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. -To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate - - -Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic -works. - -Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm -concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared -with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project -Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. - - -Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed -editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. -unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily -keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. - - -Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: - - http://www.gutenberg.org - -This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, -including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to -subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. - - -</pre> - -</body> -</html> diff --git a/old/55781-h/images/cover.jpg b/old/55781-h/images/cover.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index cce9de8..0000000 --- a/old/55781-h/images/cover.jpg +++ /dev/null |
