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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..b00251a --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #55185 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/55185) diff --git a/old/55185-h.zip b/old/55185-h.zip Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 8a1d465..0000000 --- a/old/55185-h.zip +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/55185-h/55185-h.htm b/old/55185-h/55185-h.htm deleted file mode 100644 index 714047f..0000000 --- a/old/55185-h/55185-h.htm +++ /dev/null @@ -1,1710 +0,0 @@ -<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" - "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> -<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> -<head> -<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=ISO-8859-1" /> -<title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Some Principles of Frontier Mountain Warfare, by W. 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(Wilkinson Dent) Bird</title> - <link rel="coverpage" href="images/cover.jpg" /> - <style type="text/css"> - -body { - margin-left: 10%; - margin-right: 10%; -} - -.small { - font-size: small} - -.medium { - font-size: medium} - -.large { - font-size: large} - -.x-large { - font-size: x-large} - - - h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6 { - text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ - clear: both; -} - -p { - margin-top: .51em; - text-align: justify; - margin-bottom: .49em; -} - -.p2 {margin-top: 2em;} -.p4 {margin-top: 4em;} -.p6 {margin-top: 6em;} - -.ph1, .ph2, .ph3, .ph4 { text-align: center; text-indent: 0em; } -.ph1 { font-size: xx-large; margin: .67em auto; } -.ph2 { font-size: x-large; margin: .75em auto; } -.ph3 { font-size: large; margin: .83em auto; } -.ph4 { font-size: medium; margin: 1.12em auto; } -.ph5 { font-size: small; margin: 1.12em auto;text-align: center; } -.ph6 { font-size: x-small; margin: 1.12em auto;text-align: center; } - - - - - - -hr { - width: 33%; - margin-top: 2em; - margin-bottom: 2em; - margin-left: auto; - margin-right: auto; - clear: both; -} - -hr.tb {width: 45%;} -hr.chap {width: 65%} -hr.full {width: 95%;} - -hr.r5 {width: 5%; margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em;} -hr.r65 {width: 65%; margin-top: 3em; margin-bottom: 3em;} - - - - - -.pagenum { /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */ - /* visibility: hidden; */ - position: absolute; - left: 92%; - font-size: smaller; - text-align: right; -} /* page numbers */ - - - -.blockquot { - margin-left: 5%; - margin-right: 10%; -} - - - -.bb {border-bottom: solid 2px;} - -.bl {border-left: solid 2px;} - -.bt {border-top: solid 2px;} - -.br {border-right: solid 2px;} - -.bbox {border: solid 2px;} - -.center {text-align: center;} - -.right {text-align: right;} - -.smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} - -.u {text-decoration: underline;} - -.caption {text-align: center;} - -/* Footnotes */ -.footnotes {border: dashed 1px;} - -.footnote {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em;} - -.footnote .label {position: absolute; right: 84%; text-align: right;} - -.fnanchor { - vertical-align: super; - font-size: .8em; - text-decoration: - none; -} - -/* Transcriber's notes */ -.transnote {background-color: #E6E6FA; - color: black; - font-size:smaller; - margin-left: 23%; margin-right: 23%; - padding:0.5em; - margin-bottom:5em; - font-family:sans-serif, serif; } - -@media handheld { - .hidehand {display: none; visibility: hidden;} -} - - hr.pg { width: 100%; - margin-top: 3em; - margin-bottom: 0em; - margin-left: auto; - margin-right: auto; - height: 4px; - border-width: 4px 0 0 0; /* remove all borders except the top one */ - border-style: solid; - border-color: #000000; - clear: both; } - </style> -</head> -<body> -<h1>The Project Gutenberg eBook, Some Principles of Frontier Mountain Warfare, -by W. D. (Wilkinson Dent) Bird</h1> -<p>This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States -and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no -restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it -under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this -eBook or online at <a -href="http://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you are not -located in the United States, you'll have to check the laws of the -country where you are located before using this ebook.</p> -<p>Title: Some Principles of Frontier Mountain Warfare</p> -<p>Author: W. D. (Wilkinson Dent) Bird</p> -<p>Release Date: July 24, 2017 [eBook #55185]</p> -<p>Language: English</p> -<p>Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1</p> -<p>***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SOME PRINCIPLES OF FRONTIER MOUNTAIN WARFARE***</p> -<p> </p> -<h4>E-text prepared by Graeme Mackreth<br /> - and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team<br /> - (<a href="http://www.pgdp.net">http://www.pgdp.net</a>)<br /> - from page images generously made available by<br /> - Internet Archive<br /> - (<a href="https://archive.org">https://archive.org</a>)</h4> -<p> </p> -<table border="0" style="background-color: #ccccff;margin: 0 auto;" cellpadding="10"> - <tr> - <td valign="top"> - Note: - </td> - <td> - Images of the original pages are available through - Internet Archive. See - <a href="https://archive.org/details/someprinciplesof00bird"> - https://archive.org/details/someprinciplesof00bird</a> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p> </p> -<hr class="pg" /> -<p> </p> -<p> </p> -<p> </p> - -<p class="ph3"> -SOME PRINCIPLES</p> -<p class="ph4">OF</p> -<p class="ph1">Frontier Mountain Warfare</p> - -<p class="ph6" style="margin-top: 5em;">BY</p> -<p class="ph3">BREVET-MAJOR W.D. BIRD, D.S.O.</p> -<p class="ph4">(Late Professor at Indian Staff College.)</p> - -<p class="ph4" style="margin-top: 5em;">London:</p> -<p class="ph4"><span class="smcap">HUGH REES, Ltd.</span>, 119, PALL MALL, S.W.</p> -<p class="ph5">1909 -</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p class="ph2">SOME PRINCIPLES OF FRONTIER MOUNTAIN WARFARE.</p> - - -<p>The saying that there is no new thing under the sun, is as applicable -to military affairs as to those of everyday life, for it is fully -admitted that the principles underlying all strategy and tactics, -whether of mountain or other warfare, are immutable.</p> - -<p>But though the principles of strategy and tactics are unchanging, -organisation, formations, and minor items of procedure, must be -continually amended to meet ever varying circumstances, and, in -addition, each campaign possesses special characteristics demanding -further modifications.</p> - -<p>There are, in fact, no invariable rules in the conduct of war, and -whilst formalism is harmful in all matters, in military operations it -is disastrous.</p> - -<p>An army relying on an established code of rules will often defeat -itself in their application, and even if this disaster is avoided, the -enemy will soon become aware of the methods in vogue, and will so frame -his tactics as most advantageously to counteract them.</p> - -<p>Each problem, great and small, each set of circumstances, must, -therefore, be considered on its merits, principles must be applied -in the solution, not rules, and strategy, tactics, organisation, -equipment, and other matters, arranged accordingly.</p> - -<p>It is in this spirit that the problems of Indian Frontier warfare -should be approached.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p class="ph2">GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS.</p> - - -<p>The strength and organisation of a force destined to undertake -operations against the transborder clans of the Indian frontier is -naturally conditioned by the physical features of the area, by its -fertility, and by the numbers, character, organisation, and armament of -its inhabitants.</p> - -<p>It has been truly said that in war every available man should be -employed, for one can never be too strong, but this aphorism is always -qualified by the number of men that can be fed in the district which is -to form the seat of war. The problem of the numbers to be used against -the Pathan tribes is, therefore, by no means easy of solution, for, as -a great French King said of Spain, in mountainous countries possessing, -as does the Indian borderland, few natural resources, but inhabited by -a hardy though scanty population, large armies risk starvation, small -are in danger of defeat.</p> - -<p>The tribesmen of the North West Frontier are brave, and inured to -fatigue and hardship, a considerable number have been trained in our -Indian army, and these have some knowledge of tactics, and acquaintance -with British methods.</p> - -<p>The clansmen possess no artillery, but in other respects are fairly -well armed, and owing to the cheap sale of rifles and ammunition in -Afghanistan, are daily becoming more formidable in this respect. They -suffer, however, from two grave military faults, lack of discipline -and cohesion, and at present would, it is believed, be unable to mass -against any one of several columns invading their fastnesses.</p> - -<p>They would, more probably, be content merely to defend their own -valleys and homesteads, rather than attempt to defeat, in detail, the -divided forces of an invader operating from exterior lines.</p> - -<p>It would seem, then, that in a campaign in the Indian borderland, -British troops would be justified in undertaking a concentric invasion -from several localities.</p> - -<p>Certain advantages may also be claimed for this policy.</p> - -<p>The road space occupied, in these pathless regions, by a large force -moving on one line, is so great, that, as was demonstrated in Sir W. -Lockhart's advance from Shinawari, in 1897, the rear of the column -will be several days' march behind the leading troops. In these -circumstances, not only will risk of defeat in detail be even greater -than in the case of concentric invasion—for small columns can better -exercise mutual support, than can a large force moving in a restricted -valley—but the length of the convoy train, and the seeming strength -of the force, will be a direct temptation to the tribesmen to avoid -battle, and have recourse to guerilla warfare.</p> - -<p>Besides, if small columns are employed, the whole country will be, in -the first instance, over-run, and the enemy may, on account of the -apparent weakness of the various detachments, take heart of grace and -fight.</p> - -<p>This, after all, is what is most desired, for the aim is always to -attain rapid and decisive victory, and so end the campaign.</p> - -<p>An argument against convergent invasion is, that since it may be -necessary to use more than one line of communication, not only will the -employment of larger numbers be necessary, but more transport animals, -the provision and care of which really constitutes the main difficulty -in frontier warfare, will be required.</p> - -<p>This drawback may, however, be mitigated by opening only one line of -communication, along the easiest route, the other detachments moving as -flying columns, until the heart of the district is reached, when their -surplus animals can be transferred to line of communication duties.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p class="ph2">STRENGTH AND ORGANISATION OF COLUMNS.</p> - - -<p>In deciding the strength of a column for an expedition against the -North West Frontier tribesmen, the first requisite, having regard -to the foregoing considerations, is so to limit numbers, that, in -the topographical conditions likely to be met, the force can, as an -entirety, make a march of reasonable length, let us say eight or ten -miles. Assuming that the column will move at an average rate of about -two miles per hour, that, in order to avoid risk of disaster, it is, -as a rule, desirable for the main force not to march before dawn, and -to be in camp by dusk, and that ten—twelve hours of daylight are -available, it is clear that the road space occupied must not, for a ten -mile march, exceed ten to fourteen miles. That is to say, the numbers -that can fulfil this condition on a narrow track, amount to about 4500 -fighting men, carrying three days' rations on the person, and five -days' on transport animals.</p> - -<p>Suppose that four such columns are destined to invade the Afridi Tirah.</p> - -<p>The Afridis are said to possess 25,000 to 30,000 fighting men, and if -it be assumed that two-thirds of these have breech loading rifles, -and that the whole mass is unlikely to attack any, one, or even two -columns, the largest hostile gathering that a British detachment may -expect to meet is 6000-8000 men, of whom 4500-5500 may be well armed.</p> - -<p>A column of 4500 disciplined troops need not therefore fear reverse.</p> - -<p>The composition of a column is regulated by the topography of the area -of operations, but the following example will show how the allotment of -troops may be determined.</p> - -<p>As basis for calculation a mixed brigade<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> organised for independent -action may be taken. To these troops may be added a squadron of -Silladar cavalry, if the country is suitable to its action, and a -mountain battery, which, together with the infantry, form a handy force -of the three arms.</p> - -<p>But the column is still weak in infantry, on which the brunt of the -fighting will necessarily fall, and possesses no technical troops for -road-making, etc.</p> - -<p>Both requirements may be fulfilled by the addition of a pioneer -battalion, or, since some hold that sappers and miners are more -economical than pioneers, a battalion, of British infantry, or of -Gurkhas, and a company of sappers and miners may be included.</p> - -<p>It now only remains to give the troops an ammunition column, the -necessary staff, certain additional medical, and administrative -details, and the force—one infantry brigade organised for independent -action, one squadron, one mountain battery, one British battalion, one -company sappers and miners, etc.—will be complete, and adequate for -its purpose.</p> - -<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> 1 British infantry battalion; 3 Native infantry -battalions; ½ British field hospital; 1½ Native field hospitals; 1 -Field post office; Brigade supply column.</p></div></div> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p class="ph2">MARCHES AND PROTECTION.</p> - - -<p>A body of troops moving in an enemy's country is liable to be attacked -at any time, and from any direction, and must, therefore, always take -measures for the protection of its front, flanks, and rear.</p> - -<p>In warfare in civilised and highly developed countries, when the -enemy's object is rather to defeat the fighting force than to harry the -convoy, and when troops can march on broad frontages, the protection -given by bodies of cavalry with horse artillery, flung far to front and -flanks, and supported, if necessary, by infantry, is usually adequate.</p> - -<p>But when the line of march leads along a single file track, winding -through narrow valleys, and over rugged mountains, when the column, -compared to its strength, occupies an inordinate length of roadway, and -is therefore especially vulnerable to flank attack, and when the enemy, -or at any rate a portion of his warriors, prefer plunder of baggage to -pitched battles, other measures to safeguard the force must be taken.</p> - -<p>Flankguards can rarely make their way over the steeply scarped hills -enclosing the North West Frontier valleys, and since the advanced guard -can, in such conditions, effect no more than the clearance of the -valley in which it is moving, it becomes necessary to adopt a sedentary -form of protection for the flanks of the force. This consists of -picquets, posted along the route, in localities commanding approaches -to the roadway, or from which the enemy can fire on the column.</p> - -<p>These picquets, together with the advanced and rear guards, secure the -movement of the remaining troops; they are, as a rule, found by the -units composing the advanced guard, and withdraw under the supervision, -and if necessary with the assistance of the rear guard.</p> - -<p>The order of march of a column, in border, as in other campaigns, is -conditioned by the proximity, strength, and probable action of the -enemy, by the topography of the district to be traversed, by the -object to be attained, and by the composition of the force.</p> - -<p>The first duty of the staff officer to whom is confided the drafting -of orders for a march, will therefore be, by personal observation, and -from intelligence and other reports, to find out as much as possible -of the country, and of the enemy's dispositions and probable tactics. -Armed with this information he will be in a position to arrange the -order of march of his column according to the circumstances of the case.</p> - -<p>When the enemy, for instance, is in force in the vicinity, and his -actions, such as throwing up of entrenchments, harassing camp in -large numbers, imply that he will offer vigorous resistance to the -advance, it is probable that the baggage and supply column will be best -parked, under sufficient guard, either in the camp, or in some other -locality easy of defence, whilst the remainder move off, in preparatory -formation for action.</p> - -<p>If the clansmen are reported to be inclined to dispute the advance in -force, but are some distance from the camp, the most suitable order of -march may be deduced as follows.</p> - -<p>The enemy being in strength, the column should move in compact -formation, and deliberately, the advanced guard being pushed only so -far forward as to secure the troops from surprise, and as few road -picquets sent out as may be, in order that the fighting force may be -reduced as little as possible.</p> - -<p>The method of posting and withdrawing picquets will not materially -differ from that which will be described later.</p> - -<p>The tribesmen being known to be in force and prepared to resist, it -follows that the bulk of the fighting men must be at the head of the -column; and as the advanced guard will be near the remainder, it need -be only sufficiently numerous to insure that the duties of protection -are adequately performed.</p> - -<p>Suppose the tribesmen five miles distant, and that, as a rough basis -for calculation, two companies can secure about one-and-a-half to two -miles of roadway; then about three companies will be required for -picquetting.</p> - -<p>If three companies be added for other purposes, the advanced guard -infantry should be of sufficient strength.</p> - -<p>The advanced guard will require a proportion of technical troops for -road making and repair, and for this purpose two companies of pioneers, -or the bulk of a company of sappers and miners may be allotted.</p> - -<p>Cavalry are not, it is considered, in place with an advanced guard -moving in an enclosed and intricate country, nor, since the main body -will be close behind, need any special medical details be included.</p> - -<p>Whether artillery should be allotted is a more open question. In favour -of placing guns with the advanced guard, it can be argued that they -may be of assistance in clearing the hills to be occupied by picquets -or vanguard; against their inclusion it may be urged that artillery -ammunition will necessarily be scarce, owing to the difficulty of -carriage, and should only be employed when an advantageous opportunity -for inflicting loss occurs, but that advanced guard commanders are -prone to make too much use of their guns.</p> - -<p>On the whole, when the advanced guard is not far from the main body, it -would seem that the inclusion of guns in the former is unnecessary.</p> - -<p>The organisation and order of march of the main body may be as under.</p> - -<p>It is clear that the numbers available for action will be those left -over after suitable deduction has been made for baggage and rear -guards. These, therefore, must first be allotted.</p> - -<p>Light duty men, officers' servants, cooks, etc., should suffice to -secure the regimental transport, and for policing the drivers, but -the supply column, hospitals, and reserve ammunition, require special -escorts, and perhaps one company each may be adequate for the two first -mentioned, and one or two companies for the ammunition.</p> - -<p>The strength and composition of the rear guard is the next item, and -this is regulated by its function of supervision of the retirement of -the picquets.</p> - -<p>Such being the case, it appears that, in no circumstances, should -a large force be detailed as a rear-guard. There is not space in a -narrow valley for a strong rear-guard to manœuvre, so that it will -merely afford the enemy a good target, without corresponding advantage; -besides, the rear-guard can, if necessary, be continually reinforced by -incoming picquets.</p> - -<p>A rear-guard, then, should rarely include more than four companies of -infantry, and in the circumstances under consideration, may be weaker.</p> - -<p>Though cavalry may be useful for the delivery of a counter-attack, the -horses afford an easy mark, whilst its presence with the rear-guard may -cause the enemy to keep to the hills instead of descending into the -valley, where they will be more vulnerable. Cavalry, it seems, should, -therefore, not be added to the rear-guard infantry.</p> - -<p>Mountain guns may be of assistance to picquets in distress, or in the -delivery of a counter-attack, but they should, both for their own -security, and to prevent waste of ammunition, be kept well back. In -the present case the rear-guard is not likely to be harassed, so no -artillery need be included.</p> - -<p>A rear-guard does not require technical troops, but some hospital -riding mules, etc., may be allotted for rapid transference of wounded.</p> - -<p>The total deductions from the fighting force of the column will -therefore be:—</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p><i>Advanced Guard.</i> Six companies Infantry, bulk of one company S. and -M.</p> - -<p><i>Escorts, etc.</i> Three or four companies Infantry.</p> - -<p><i>Rear-guard.</i> Two or three companies, with machine guns.</p></blockquote> - -<p>In all about one and a half battalions, one company sappers and miners. -There remain three and a half battalions, one mountain battery, one -squadron, and the administrative services, at disposal.</p> - -<p>The order of march of the main body can now be dealt with.</p> - -<p>Perhaps half a battalion may move in front, then the mountain battery, -which should not require a special escort, next the three battalions.</p> - -<p>After these may follow the reserve ammunition, the hospitals, the 2nd -line transport with B. echelon 1st line transport<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> of all troops, -except the advanced and rear-guards, and then the supply column.</p> - -<p>At the tail of the main body may move the B. echelon of the advanced -and rear-guards, so as to be readily available in case any troops -belonging to either are obliged to bivouac outside camp; and finally, -since they are unlikely to be able to undertake effective pursuit, may -come the cavalry, so as to be at hand in case they are required to -assist the rear-guard to counter-attack, by charging any tribesmen who -have ventured into the valley.</p> - -<p>Though B. echelon 1st line transport of the advanced and rear-guards -is placed at the end of the column, it is considered that all troops -should be so equipped that they can be independent of camp and -transport for at least two, and better still, for three days. It is -a lesser evil to carry an extra, but in some degree decreasing load, -even if it prejudices mobility, than to starve, or run undue risk of -sickness from cold and damp.</p> - -<p>The next case to be considered will be when the enemy is not in great -force, and is more likely to harass than to seriously resist the -advance of the column.</p> - -<p>In such circumstances, the main objects will be to complete, as rapidly -as may be, the proposed march, whilst inflicting on the enemy, should -he give the opportunity, the greatest possible loss.</p> - -<p>Since the distance is to be quickly traversed, and because a road -picquet takes some time, even as much as an hour, to secure and -establish itself on a hill, it follows that, unless risk is to be run -of the march of the main body being delayed, the advanced guard must -precede the main body by at least one hour, and may even move off in -the twilight which precedes dawn.</p> - -<p>This settled, the composition of the advanced guard may be dealt with.</p> - -<p>If it is proposed to make a ten mile march, then, calculating from the -data previously mentioned, about one battalion will be sufficient to -picquet the roadway. To this force some four companies may be added, -so as to leave a good margin for securing the camp site, and for -unexpected contingencies.</p> - -<p>Technical troops will, as before, be required, and as the advanced -guard will be some way from the main body, a section of mountain -artillery may be included. Neither cavalry, nor special medical units, -seem necessary.</p> - -<p>The composition of the advanced guard may, therefore, -be:—one-and-a-half battalions infantry, one section mountain battery, -the bulk of one company sappers and miners.</p> - -<p>As already stated, before deciding on the order of march of the main -column, the deductions to be made for escort and rear-guard duties must -be fixed.</p> - -<p>Light duty men, etc., should suffice to secure the regimental -transport, three companies to safeguard the reserve ammunition, -hospitals, and supply column, whilst the mountain battery hardly needs -a special escort.</p> - -<p>In respect of the rear-guard, in the case under consideration it is -possible that the picquets may be harassed as they withdraw, the -strength of the rear-guard may, therefore, amount to four companies of -infantry, with machine guns, and one section mountain artillery, with -some ambulance riding mules, etc., in addition.</p> - -<p>The total deductions, for purposes of protection, from the fighting -force of the column, therefore, amount to:—infantry, two battalions -three companies; artillery, two sections; sappers and miners one -company; and there remain, for disposal, infantry, two battalions five -companies, artillery, one section, cavalry, one squadron, besides -various administrative units.</p> - -<p>No serious opposition being expected to the march of the column, the -comfort of the troops may be considered in regulating the order of -march.</p> - -<p>As before, and for the same reasons, the cavalry, and the B. echelon -1st line transport of the advanced and rear-guards, and of the -picquetting troops, may march at the tail of the main body.</p> - -<p>It should hardly be necessary to place, in addition, a body of infantry -at the end of the column, but, if desired, the remaining four companies -of the battalion furnishing the rear-guard may move immediately in -front of, or behind, the cavalry. The rest of the fighting force -can march at the head of the main column, followed by the reserve -ammunition, hospitals, B. echelon 1st line transport, with the 2nd line -transport, and then the supply column.</p> - -<p>In circumstances where little or no resistance is expected to the -forward movement of a column, but serious opposition to the withdrawal -of picquets, and to the march of the rear-guard, the following -modification will be necessary in the order of march just dealt with.</p> - -<p>The strength, composition, and time of march of the advanced guard need -only be altered by the deduction of, say, one section of sappers and -miners, and perhaps, too, the withdrawal of the mountain guns.</p> - -<p>The escorts, etc., of the non-fighting portions of the main column may -remain as before suggested, as may the strength and composition of the -rear-guard.</p> - -<p>The order of march of the main column will, however, require -transposition somewhat as follows:</p> - -<p>Since the principal opposition will take the form of pursuit by the -enemy, the bulk of the fighting troops should move in rear of the main -column, so as to be in position to undertake the offensive if required.</p> - -<p>The units may, therefore, march as follows:</p> - -<p>Two companies of infantry; the supply column; the B. echelon 1st line -transport, (except, of the advanced and rear-guards,) with the 2nd line -transport; the hospitals; the reserve ammunition; B. echelon 1st line -transport of the advanced and rear-guards; the rest of the infantry, -less four companies; the remainder of the artillery; one section of -sappers and miners, the cavalry, and finally four companies.</p> - -<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> 1st Line transport is usually divided into two echelons -A. and B. The former includes ammunition reserve, intrenching tools, -water, signalling and medical equipment. The latter blankets, rations, -and cooking pots, etc.</p></div></div> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p class="ph2">ACTION OF THE ADVANCED & REAR-GUARDS, AND OF ROAD PICQUETS.</p> - - -<p>Speaking generally, the procedure followed by an advanced guard may be -somewhat as follows:—</p> - -<p>Both on account of considerations for its own security, and because -hills will thus be more rapidly secured, it is desirable that the -positions to be occupied by road picquets should, so far as it is -practicable to do so from the valley, be decided some time before -the main guard arrives opposite the various localities. It is also -understood that considerable latitude is allowed to the picquet -commander as to the position occupied, and that he is at liberty either -to demand reinforcement, or to return redundant men to the advanced -guard, as occasion may demand.</p> - -<p>The advanced guard may move in the following order.</p> - -<p>First a vanguard of one or more companies, preceding the remainder by -about half a mile, and adapting its formation to the ground.</p> - -<p>Then the mainguard, at the head of which should be the advanced guard -commander, his staff officer, the battalion commander of the unit -furnishing the leading company, and the company commander.</p> - -<p class="center"> -<img src="images/illus01.jpg" alt="map" /> -</p> - - - -<p>As the troops march up the valley, the advanced guard commander should -decide what localities are to be held, and in what strength. He should -issue his orders to the battalion or company commander, as the case -may be, when the picquets should move direct to their positions. -Meanwhile, the staff officer should make, in sections, a rough sketch -of the positions occupied by the various picquets, which should be -numbered consecutively as they move out, the sections of the sketch -being sent, as completed, to the officer commanding the rear-guard.</p> - -<p>In addition, to insure that no picquet is overlooked by the rear-guard, -a double sentry, with a paper showing the number of its picquet, should -be placed in the roadway beneath the height occupied, and it is the -duty of the picquet commander to keep in touch with this sentry post.</p> - -<p>In this manner the roadway should be picquetted, until the locality is -reached where the column is to halt, when the advanced guard commander -should take the usual measures for the security of the camp, for -safe-guarding the water supply, etc.</p> - -<p>It has been suggested that an advanced guard should be divided into -two portions, advanced guard, and the picquetting troops, each under a -separate leader, the object being to free the advanced guard commander -from the work of picquetting, so that his whole attention can be -devoted to tactics. The advanced guard is to clear the hills, which are -then to be occupied by picquets.</p> - -<p>This system does not appear sound, for it necessitates two men doing -the work of one, and, in practice, the advanced guard usually either -meets with little or no resistance, or with such serious opposition -that picquetting is in abeyance.</p> - -<p>Each picquet, when it reaches the position selected by its leader, -should intrench, taking especial care to provide head cover, so that -the enemy may not be easily able to observe the moment of its final -withdrawal.</p> - -<p>Before the last troops of the main column have quitted camp, the -rear-guard commander should have arranged his force in a series of -successive positions, calculated to enable the units to mutually -support one another's retirement, as well as to assist, if necessary, -the withdrawal of picquets.</p> - -<p>The guns should, for reasons already given, be kept well back, and this -system of successive positions should be continued throughout the march.</p> - -<p>It is, of course, understood that the main column keeps contact with, -and regulates its march by that of the rear-guard.</p> - -<p>It is sometimes advocated that the camp picquets should, before the -column marches off, be relieved by the rear-guard, with the object of -enabling the picquets to rejoin their units.</p> - -<p>This arrangement does not appear advantageous. The troops detailed for -the relief of the picquets will probably have to move out in darkness, -and over an unknown area, and though, if the enemy advances during -the relief, he will be opposed in double strength, should his attack -be delivered later, units who do not know the ground will be placed -in positions they will not be able to defend to the best advantage. -Besides, the men composing the rear-guard, whose functions are in -any case sufficiently arduous, will be involved in additional and -unnecessary fatigue.</p> - -<p>The withdrawal of picquets may be carried out on the following -principles:—</p> - -<p>When a picquet commander sees, or receives reports that the rear-guard -is approaching, he should send the bulk of his picquet to a position, -previously reconnoitred, on the lower slope of the hill, and in the -direction of the line of march of the column, whence the retirement of -the remainder can be covered by fire.</p> - -<p>Whilst on the hill, and especially as the time for withdrawal -approaches, the men of a picquet should be careful not to show -themselves, in order that the enemy may not, by counting heads, be able -to divine that retirement has been begun. Similarly, the men left on -the hill to the last, should, above everything, avoid exposure.</p> - -<p>When the picquet commander sees the rear-guard commander, who will -usually be with the last troops, and whose presence will be shown -by a flag, is opposite his post, he should give the signal for the -evacuation of the hill top, on which the men should creep back, and as -soon as they are below the sky line, run down the hill to a position -beyond that of their covering party. The withdrawal should then be -continued according to the accepted principles, until the whole picquet -has reached the valley, when its leader should report to the rear-guard -commander, receiving orders whether the picquet is to proceed to the -main column, or to join the rear-guard.</p> - -<p>The rear guard commander should have previously called in the road -sentry post marking the locality held by the picquet, and the map -furnished by the advanced guard will have been of assistance in -identifying its position.</p> - -<p class="center"> -<img src="images/illus02.jpg" alt="map" /> -</p> - - - -<p>It is contended that the withdrawal of a picquet rests, except in -special circumstances, entirely with the picquet leader. He is the man -on the spot, and can best judge when the retirement should commence.</p> - -<p>The rear-guard commander should rarely attempt to regulate the actions -of the picquets, of whose situation he cannot have adequate knowledge, -but should exercise general supervision, ready to afford assistance if -required.</p> - -<p>At times picquets may be able to support one another's movements, but, -as a rule, a picquet will be too fully occupied with its own affairs to -be able to render assistance to its neighbours.</p> - -<p>The above outline of a withdrawal presupposes that hostile pressure is -not unduly severe.</p> - -<p>If the enemy venture to close with the rear-guard and picquets, it is -submitted that an immediate counter-attack should be delivered, the -main body being halted.</p> - -<p>To lose so golden an opportunity of inflicting loss on a volatile foe -seems on the one hand unwise, whilst, on the other, it is surely both -undignified and demoralising to permit savages to hunt British regulars -into camp.</p> - -<p>The delivery of a counter-attack is accompanied by some risk, and its -success will depend on the aptitude of the rear-guard commander for -stratagem, for, if loss is to be inflicted, the enemy must, as a rule, -be trapped.</p> - -<p>Simple ruses which suggest themselves are, either to attempt to attract -the tribesmen into the low ground by a bait of ammunition or transport -animals, the cavalry, guns, and part of rear-guard, infantry being -previously concealed in positions from which they can take advantage -of any mistake the enemy may commit, and the retirement of picquets -stopped, as soon as the attack is delivered. Or, two or more picquets, -which have been previously reinforced by troops moving along concealed -lines of advance to the hill tops, may feign retirement, and attack the -tribesmen as they follow over the crest line.</p> - -<p>If stratagem fails, the column should halt and drive off the enemy, a -proceeding which should be repeated until he is taught that to follow -up British troops is neither profitable nor advantageous.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p class="ph2">ATTACK AND DEFENCE.</p> - - -<p>Success in war depends in some degree on adaptation of tactics to local -conditions, and it is therefore clear that, to attain rapid success -against the inhabitants of the North Western Frontier, a knowledge -of their tactics is required, and that, whilst the British aims are -pursued with unswerving determination, their probable movements must be -met and defeated.</p> - -<p>The tribesmen, like most savages, are only really formidable when -one is running away from them. They fight well in positions strongly -fortified, and with flanks secure, but, being without the discipline -or cohesion to meet envelopment, are much influenced by pressure -against their flanks.</p> - -<p>Pathans are fearful of artillery, and do not, as a rule, seriously -resist a determined advance, preferring the easier and less dangerous -enterprise of harassing the retirements which they believe are an -inevitable corollary to forward movements; or of attacking isolated -detachments, whose operations they have observed from their hill-tops.</p> - -<p>They are suspicious of ambuscades, except when excited in pursuit, and -are not prone to accept battle unless surprised.</p> - -<p>Like other people, they shoot well when not themselves under effective -fire, and, when shooting into a valley, where the strike of the bullet -can be observed, their fire is accurate. On the other hand, owing to -their relatively defective armament, and to lack of ammunition, tribal -fire as a rule lacks volume.</p> - -<p>The tribesmen skirmish well, and move quickly over their hills, but -rarely, except when engaging a small force, or by night, attack in -mass. On the other hand, they often crowd their defensive positions -with men.</p> - -<p>They are said to dislike being overlooked by their opponents, and -therefore do not care to attack up hill, but will, at times, try to -rush a detachment, with the object of capturing rifles and ammunition.</p> - -<p>The fact that a proportion of the men possess only inferior fire-arms, -renders possible resort to shock tactics, especially when roused to a -pitch of fanaticism.</p> - -<p>Pathans are partial to night operations, probably because they believe -that there is little fear of interference after dark. Their enterprises -are usually on a small scale, but night attacks in force, are possible. -Their inadequate clothing, and the cold of the early morning, however, -usually forces them to seek shelter as the night wears on.</p> - -<p>From the above description it will be seen that British troops, so long -as they observe the ordinary principles of war, have nothing to fear -from the tribesmen. But it is to be remembered that, unless stratagem -is intended, the offensive is the general rule in tribal warfare, for -the enemy construes a defensive attitude as a sign of fear, and becomes -correspondingly elated.</p> - -<p>The composition of forces despatched on reconnaissance and minor -punitive expeditions requires careful consideration. Columns composed -of men drawn from many different infantry units are inherently weak, so -that, in all operations, complete units, so far as they are required, -should be employed, cavalry being added when local conditions are -favourable. Artillery will generally be necessary, as well as a -proportion of technical troops, but the strength of columns should, -within limits of safety, be low, in order to insure mobility, and -to encourage resistance. The military value of the enemy must not, -however, be underestimated.</p> - -<p>The main object of all operations is to quickly attain a decisive -success. To this end the tribesmen must be induced to stand and fight -with the purpose of inflicting casualties on them.</p> - -<p>It is to be remembered that the enemy can, less easily than the -British, afford losses, especially of arms. Commanders, without being -prodigal of their men's lives, need not, therefore, be afraid of -incurring casualties, especially when there is likelihood that the -enemy will suffer loss to at least an equal extent. If the tribesmen's -losses are heavy, those of the British troops will probably be -considerably less. Close fighting is all to the advantage of trained -soldiers.</p> - -<p>As has been stated, the clansmen will rarely commit themselves to -battle in conditions favourable to the British, unless they can be -outwitted or surprised. Night operations may, therefore, frequently -be necessary, having special regard to the fact that, from their hill -tops, the enemy will overlook all manœuvres. As the natives are not -often abroad in the early morning, surprise, at dawn, will not present -unusual difficulties.</p> - -<p>The enveloping form of tactics, when the enemy is attacked both in -front and flank, is as effective in tribal as in other warfare. But, -owing to the topographical advantages enjoyed by the tribesmen, it will -be necessary to hold them closely in frontal attack, and so distract -their attention from outflanking movements. This may be possible, for -they fight with confidence when behind cover. Mere frontal attack -is likely to be at once costly and ineffective; hence, if neither -envelopment, nor night operations, are practicable, resort may be -had to such stratagems as a feigned retirement, or bait of transport -animals, to tempt the Pathans from their hills.</p> - -<p>Though the possibility of tribal counter-attack, by shock, must not be -lost sight of, the British advantage in training and armament should -enable a central general reserve to be dispensed with, the object being -to so dispose the troops as to insure envelopment.</p> - -<p>Good information and staff work, and a sound system of -inter-communication, will, moreover, if all ranks are imbued with the -spirit of mutual support, go far to insure success.</p> - -<p>Commanders, especially of small forces, should remember that hesitation -will be quickly observed by the enemy, but a bold front, and ready -stratagem, will soon cause him to lose heart.</p> - -<p>When a post or isolated detachment requires assistance, aid can often -be most rapidly and effectively given by application of such indirect -pressure as will tend to divert the enemy's attention.</p> - -<p>In minor tactics, whilst taking every advantage of the cover afforded -by features of ground, troops must beware of seeking shelter in -hollows or nullahs, places which will, assuredly, have been marked -by the enemy's riflemen, so that their occupation will rarely escape -punishment.</p> - -<p>In attack, infantry units, whilst securing their flanks, should advance -up salients, taking care to afford one another mutual fire assistance. -Supports and local reserves should be pushed as near to the firing line -as the shape of the ground will permit; but, at times, reserves may be -able to effectively support the troops in front by covering fire, from -suitable positions, behind, or on the flanks of, the line of advance.</p> - -<p>Fire should be reserved until units have closed on the enemy, the -object being to prevent the early evacuation of a position, after -having caused a few casualties at long range.</p> - -<p>As the enemy's fire, though likely to be accurate, will probably lack -volume, resort need not be had to widely extended formations.</p> - -<p>To gain ground, and when assaulting, the procedure outlined in the -training manuals requires no modification.</p> - -<p>Artillery should be handled with discretion, and should be on its guard -against the tendency to open fire whenever a target is seen. Its aim -should be not to evict, but to hold the enemy to his sangars, and to -inflict loss when he retreats.</p> - -<p>The steep forward slopes of hills will enable fire to be continued -until the infantry has closed on the tribesmen, but oblique, rather -than frontal fire should be employed.</p> - -<p>It is, of course, important to insure close inter-communication between -infantry and artillery.</p> - -<p>In tribal, as in other warfare, unless the enemy is completely -enveloped, efficient pursuit is necessary to set the seal on victory. -Pursuit can, at first, probably be best undertaken by the enveloping -wings, artillery co-operating to head the enemy off in the required -direction, whilst the cavalry press forward.</p> - -<p>A portion of the artillery should, therefore, move with the outflanking -wings, keeping as near as possible to the firing line.</p> - -<p>Pathans, familiar with the country, and confident that they have -everything to gain, and but little to lose by such tactics, favour the -harassing of troops as they withdraw from heights, or along valleys. -Though it may be taken as a maxim that there will be no pursuit if -the enemy has, in any recent fighting, been adequately punished, the -conditions may have been such that casualties could not be inflicted.</p> - -<p>In these circumstances, the clansmen must surely not be permitted to -embarrass the British movements, and must be convinced that pursuit is -both dangerous and unprofitable.</p> - -<p>Mere counter-attack, when the enemy is not surprised, is likely to lead -to no advantage, but a few skilfully laid ambushes will soon discourage -his zeal for pursuit. Should he, however, persist in following up the -troops, counter-attack should at once be made, and the retirement -discontinued. The enemy, it is to be remembered, will, as a rule, -offer the greatest opportunity of inflicting loss when he follows up a -retirement, and, in such operations, the aim must be rather to cause -than to avoid casualties.</p> - -<p>All withdrawals should be pre-arranged and systematic, flanks being -securely held, and the principle of mutual support observed. But -formalism must be avoided, and procedure must never be permitted to -become so stereotyped that the enemy will be able to confidently -anticipate the movements of the troops.</p> - -<p>Men must beware of entering nullahs, or depressions of any kind, -until the further edge has been secured; and, when on a hill top, the -provision of such cover as will conceal the head-dress is of importance.</p> - -<p>Transport animals should be clear of the fighting troops before -retirement is begun.</p> - -<p>If the object is to slip away from the enemy, the retirement should be -made at a time when movement is not expected.</p> - -<p>When a valley is to be swept in course of punitive operations, an -adequate force should be left to secure the entrance, if the column is -to leave by this route.</p> - -<p>Troops, as has already been suggested, should, in respect of -ammunition, food, and warm coats, be independent of transport animals, -and it should be understood that units are always to be prepared to -remain for the night away from camp. The men should be trained to -economise water, which is often scarce across the border.</p> - -<p>Ammunition and rifles being the main objects of tribal ambition, -special care should be taken to prevent them from falling into the -enemy's hands.</p> - -<p>Against the North West Frontier clans, the offensive, as usual, is -normally the best defensive, but it may sometimes happen that small -British forces are temporarily obliged to act on the defensive.</p> - -<p>In such circumstances, it is to be expected that the enemy will adopt -the tactics, common amongst savages, of seeking the flanks of the -troops, both to avoid fire, and to obtain the advantages of enfilade. -It follows, then, that defensive measures should include all round -protection, whilst a relatively large reserve should be kept ready to -attack the hostile levies, as soon as any portion comes within charging -distance.</p> - -<p>Experience tends to prove that a compact body of even a section, if -well entrenched and supplied with ammunition, has nothing to fear from -Pathans, especially when the British leader is animated by the proper -spirit of timely offensive.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p class="ph2">CAMPS.</p> - - -<p>It is desirable for a column escorting a large baggage train—and this -is essentially the predicament of civilised troops engaged in frontier -mountain warfare—to be collected in camp before nightfall, otherwise -the enemy may be given unduly favourable opportunities of employing -harassing methods.</p> - -<p>But it does not result that the situation of troops unable, for any -cause, to reach camp, is at all desperate.</p> - -<p>Strong and compact forces adopting the usual precautions, can probably, -in many, if not in most cases, march in safety after nightfall, but -small detachments and baggage can rarely do so without undue risk. -These, then, should always park and intrench towards nightfall, -wherever they may find themselves, when they will have little to fear, -for experience, as has been stated, tends to show that even a section, -securely intrenched, and with ample ammunition, can hold its own -against heavy odds.</p> - -<p>The form of camp, and the nature of the protection adopted, depend, as -usual, on the topography, and on the character of the enemy.</p> - -<p>A common method is to place transport, etc., within a perimeter -occupied by the fighting troops, but this arrangement is by no means -invariable, and it may be convenient to form two or more camps, or to -separate transport from fighting troops.</p> - -<p>The camp will, as a rule, be located in proximity to water, that is to -say in a valley, and in such circumstances, if it can be sited well -under one of the enclosing ranges of hills, protection from sniping -will be afforded from this direction, though the overhanging heights -must be securely held.</p> - -<p>Sometimes a small basin is available for the bivouac, and in this case, -the troops can, to a great extent, be secured from this favourite -tribal device of firing into camp after nightfall.</p> - -<p>As is the case in all war, the measures taken for the security of a -camp include a system of picquets, and in frontier expeditions these -are placed all round camp, either on the level, or on any commanding -heights, within, at any rate, effective rifle range.</p> - -<p>Picquets may be pushed even further forward, but when so situated, must -be numerically strong, as they are liable to be rushed, though more for -the sake of capturing their arms, than with the object of inflicting -loss. No picquet should be of less strength than one section, all -should be intrenched against attack from any direction. Their bearing -from camp should also be taken, and they should be in signalling -communication with the main body, so that assistance may be requested -and despatched when necessary, or warning given of the approach of the -enemy in force.</p> - -<p>Bombs should be useful adjuncts to picquet defence, in case the enemy -should succeed in forming a lodgment near the sangar.</p> - -<p>Though a sedentary system of picquets may discover the presence of a -large hostile body near camp, and may, in some degree, check sniping, -the latter evil cannot, by this means, be completely prevented. -Tribesmen, especially since they are aware that the British rarely risk -troops, other than picquets, outside the perimeter, will often creep in -and snipe from the area between the picquets and camp.</p> - -<p>There seems, however, no valid reason why sniping should be passively -tolerated, when it can probably be effectively combated by placing, -in certain localities between the camp and picquets, small patrols of -picked men, provided with grass shoes, whose duty will be to stalk and -bayonet venturesome marauders.</p> - -<p>Against this proposal it has been argued that the British, and -especially the European soldiers, are unfit to cope, by night, with -tribesmen, inured from childhood to move silently in darkness over -rough ground. The contention is considered to be inadmissible, for -though there is, and must be, risk in stalking snipers, picked British -soldiers are surely now, as formerly, more than a match for Pathans, -in all circumstances when the numbers are fairly even.</p> - -<p>The form of intrenchment, if any, excavated round the bivouac, is -conditioned by the character of the enemy.</p> - -<p>If he is prone to adopt shock tactics, and to attempt to rush the camp -under cover of darkness, a ditch to check his charge, backed by a -parapet with head cover, will be the most favourable form of defence.</p> - -<p>But if he is partial merely to harassing methods, such as firing into -camp, the perimeter defences should be calculated to mitigate their -effects, by providing, for all troops, trenches well traversed, and -with parapets both to front and rear.</p> - -<p>If both forms of attack are possible, parapets with trench and ditch -should be made, the trench, or ditch, being first dug, according as a -charge or sniping is most to be feared.</p> - -<p>Naturally units protected by high ground on one or more flanks, need -only make cover so as to secure themselves from the directions from -which fire can be delivered.</p> - -<p>Only infantry should hold the perimeter of a camp, machine guns being -placed at the angles, and the defence of each confided to one unit, -divided responsibility not being permissible.</p> - -<p>Supports may, if necessary, be located in intrenchments behind the -perimeter, and a homogeneous body of about half a battalion, allotted -as reserve, and given a bivouac near that of the column commander.</p> - -<p>In case of attack, the duty of cavalry soldiers is to stand to their -horses, of artillery to man their guns. To neither, therefore, in -normal circumstances, should a portion of the perimeter be confided, -and both should be placed within its circumference.</p> - -<p>At the same time, guns should be so disposed, in pits or epaulments, -that they can sweep ground across which attack is most likely to be -made; or they may be laid so as to search localities where tribesmen -may collect prior to delivering an assault.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p class="ph2">PROTECTION OF LINE OF COMMUNICATION.</p> - - -<p>The protection of a line of communication is secured by combination -of passive and active measures, though the latter are of the greatest -importance.</p> - -<p>Passive measures include the provision of fortified staging posts, -linked up by a series of road picquets, and supplemented by escorts to -convoys. The active defence is by means of flying columns.</p> - -<p>Roughly speaking, it may be said that about 100 men per mile suffice -for all protective purposes, and it is assumed that the responsibility -of a staging post commandant extends half way to the posts on either -side of his own.</p> - -<p>The garrison of a staging post must be of sufficient strength, and of -suitable composition, to secure the convoys halting there for the -night, to furnish them with police escorts for the next day's march, -and, if road picquets are found from the post, to supply these also.</p> - -<p>Road picquets can either be sent out each day from staging posts, -can be permanently located in a succession of blockhouses, or can be -semi-permanent, that is to say can be supplied from a series of minor -posts connecting staging centres. In each of the above cases the same -number of men will be required.</p> - -<p>The first method, by concentrating the troops each evening, makes for -their general security, but, since picquets must daily, and at fixed -hours, move to and from their places, a good deal of fatigue will be -imposed on the men, and there will, in addition, be some risk of minor -disasters to individual picquets, which may be ambuscaded. Moreover, -since the convoys cannot march until the picquets are in position, and -as picquets cannot be risked outside the post before sunrise and after -sunset, the hours available for the movements of the convoys will be a -good deal curtailed.</p> - -<p>Under the second alternative, a weak cordon is formed, portions of -which cannot, owing to the topography, easily render one another -support in case any picquet is attacked in force. On the other hand, no -time will be wasted in posting and withdrawing picquets.</p> - -<p>The third system is a compromise between the two already mentioned, -and seems, on the whole, to be the most advantageous. If three or -four relatively large posts are placed, in dangerous localities, such -as valley junctions, between staging centres, there will be little or -no risk of their capture by the enemy. Since the picquets necessary -to watch, by day, the area between the posts, will have but short -distances to traverse to reach their positions, the time available -for movement of convoys will not be curtailed; and as the ground -intervening between two posts will, in some degree, be overlooked -from them, there will be less chance, than under the first method, of -picquets falling into ambuscades.</p> - -<p>The efficiency of the protection of a line of communication depends, -however, on the active, not on the passive measures for its security.</p> - -<p>Active defence is maintained by flying columns, of strength and -organisation suitable to the character of the enemy and the nature of -the country. To these columns is confided the protection of certain -areas, an end attained, not by inactivity, for the troops should be -continually on the move, so that the enemy can never be certain when -and where to expect them, but by a vigorous and energetic offensive -in whatever directions an efficient service of intelligence reports -hostile gatherings.</p> - -<p>The enemy's movements and projects must, in fact, be anticipated, -rather than countered when in course of execution.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p class="ph2">DEFENCE OF A POST.</p> - - -<p>When considering what steps are to be taken for the defence of a post, -large or small, the maxim that the offensive is the best defence must -be ever prominently before the mind.</p> - -<p>It follows that the first step, after a site has been selected, the -water supply secured, and the usual measures for security taken, -should be to set apart as many men as possible for offensive purposes, -including reconnaissance. In other words, the strength of the reserve -should be calculated from these premises, having due regard to the -number of nights in bed required by the whole garrison; and the reserve -should not be such men as may be left over after the requirements of -passive defence have been fully satisfied.</p> - -<p>The next item should be the selection of a keep or citadel, where -stores and ammunition can be placed, and where hospital, headquarters, -and a central signalling and communicating station can be located.</p> - -<p>In this keep may be placed machine or other guns, if available, so -arranged that they can sweep approaches to the post, and also, if -possible, protect with fire the flanks of picquet stations.</p> - -<p>It will now be time to allocate, generally, the troops destined for -guard and picquet duty.</p> - -<p>These arrangements may be primarily made from the interior of the -post, its safety being the first consideration, though for reasons of -sanitation the more space that can be given to troops and convoys the -better.</p> - -<p>Picquets having been roughly allotted, the plan of defence should be -regarded from the enemy's point of view, and the necessary changes -made; and, finally, the bearings of the picquet positions should be -taken from the keep, and routes to them cleared, in case they should -require reinforcement by night.</p> - -<p>It should only be necessary to keep picquets at their full strength -in night-time. By day the bulk of the men could fall back into the -interior of the post, an arrangement which would at once facilitate -water and food supply, and would also be advantageous from a sanitary -point of view.</p> - -<p>The next duties will be to deal with the general sanitation of the -post, and especially of the rest and convoy camps, to mark out the -latter, and to secure their policing.</p> - -<p>As time goes on, the post commandant can arrange for improved -communication between the keep and picquets, as well as throughout the -interior of the enceinte, sign posts being erected and the water supply -enclosed.</p> - -<p> </p> -<p> </p> -<hr /> -<p> </p> -<p> </p> - -<div class="transnote"> -<p class="center"> -Transcibers note: -One instance of "defensive" has been changed to "defence" -</p> -</div> - -<p> </p> -<hr class="pg" /> -<p>***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SOME PRINCIPLES OF FRONTIER MOUNTAIN WARFARE***</p> -<p>******* This file should be named 55185-h.htm or 55185-h.zip *******</p> -<p>This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:<br /> -<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/5/5/1/8/55185">http://www.gutenberg.org/5/5/1/8/55185</a></p> -<p> -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed.</p> - -<p>Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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D. (Wilkinson Dent) Bird - - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - - - - -Title: Some Principles of Frontier Mountain Warfare - - -Author: W. D. (Wilkinson Dent) Bird - - - -Release Date: July 24, 2017 [eBook #55185] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII) - - -***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SOME PRINCIPLES OF FRONTIER -MOUNTAIN WARFARE*** - - -E-text prepared by Graeme Mackreth and the Online Distributed Proofreading -Team (http://www.pgdp.net) from page images generously made available by -Internet Archive (https://archive.org) - - - -Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this - file which includes the original illustrations. - See 55185-h.htm or 55185-h.zip: - (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/55185/55185-h/55185-h.htm) - or - (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/55185/55185-h.zip) - - - Images of the original pages are available through - Internet Archive. See - https://archive.org/details/someprinciplesof00bird - - - - - -SOME PRINCIPLES OF FRONTIER MOUNTAIN WARFARE - -by - -BREVET-MAJOR W.D. BIRD, D.S.O. - -(Late Professor at Indian Staff College.) - - - - - - -London: -Hugh Rees, Ltd., 119, Pall Mall, S.W. -1909 - - - - -SOME PRINCIPLES OF FRONTIER MOUNTAIN WARFARE. - - -The saying that there is no new thing under the sun, is as applicable -to military affairs as to those of everyday life, for it is fully -admitted that the principles underlying all strategy and tactics, -whether of mountain or other warfare, are immutable. - -But though the principles of strategy and tactics are unchanging, -organisation, formations, and minor items of procedure, must be -continually amended to meet ever varying circumstances, and, in -addition, each campaign possesses special characteristics demanding -further modifications. - -There are, in fact, no invariable rules in the conduct of war, and -whilst formalism is harmful in all matters, in military operations it -is disastrous. - -An army relying on an established code of rules will often defeat -itself in their application, and even if this disaster is avoided, the -enemy will soon become aware of the methods in vogue, and will so frame -his tactics as most advantageously to counteract them. - -Each problem, great and small, each set of circumstances, must, -therefore, be considered on its merits, principles must be applied -in the solution, not rules, and strategy, tactics, organisation, -equipment, and other matters, arranged accordingly. - -It is in this spirit that the problems of Indian Frontier warfare -should be approached. - - - - -GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. - - -The strength and organisation of a force destined to undertake -operations against the transborder clans of the Indian frontier is -naturally conditioned by the physical features of the area, by its -fertility, and by the numbers, character, organisation, and armament of -its inhabitants. - -It has been truly said that in war every available man should be -employed, for one can never be too strong, but this aphorism is always -qualified by the number of men that can be fed in the district which is -to form the seat of war. The problem of the numbers to be used against -the Pathan tribes is, therefore, by no means easy of solution, for, as -a great French King said of Spain, in mountainous countries possessing, -as does the Indian borderland, few natural resources, but inhabited by -a hardy though scanty population, large armies risk starvation, small -are in danger of defeat. - -The tribesmen of the North West Frontier are brave, and inured to -fatigue and hardship, a considerable number have been trained in our -Indian army, and these have some knowledge of tactics, and acquaintance -with British methods. - -The clansmen possess no artillery, but in other respects are fairly -well armed, and owing to the cheap sale of rifles and ammunition in -Afghanistan, are daily becoming more formidable in this respect. They -suffer, however, from two grave military faults, lack of discipline -and cohesion, and at present would, it is believed, be unable to mass -against any one of several columns invading their fastnesses. - -They would, more probably, be content merely to defend their own -valleys and homesteads, rather than attempt to defeat, in detail, the -divided forces of an invader operating from exterior lines. - -It would seem, then, that in a campaign in the Indian borderland, -British troops would be justified in undertaking a concentric invasion -from several localities. - -Certain advantages may also be claimed for this policy. - -The road space occupied, in these pathless regions, by a large force -moving on one line, is so great, that, as was demonstrated in Sir W. -Lockhart's advance from Shinawari, in 1897, the rear of the column -will be several days' march behind the leading troops. In these -circumstances, not only will risk of defeat in detail be even greater -than in the case of concentric invasion--for small columns can better -exercise mutual support, than can a large force moving in a restricted -valley--but the length of the convoy train, and the seeming strength -of the force, will be a direct temptation to the tribesmen to avoid -battle, and have recourse to guerilla warfare. - -Besides, if small columns are employed, the whole country will be, in -the first instance, over-run, and the enemy may, on account of the -apparent weakness of the various detachments, take heart of grace and -fight. - -This, after all, is what is most desired, for the aim is always to -attain rapid and decisive victory, and so end the campaign. - -An argument against convergent invasion is, that since it may be -necessary to use more than one line of communication, not only will the -employment of larger numbers be necessary, but more transport animals, -the provision and care of which really constitutes the main difficulty -in frontier warfare, will be required. - -This drawback may, however, be mitigated by opening only one line of -communication, along the easiest route, the other detachments moving as -flying columns, until the heart of the district is reached, when their -surplus animals can be transferred to line of communication duties. - - - - -STRENGTH AND ORGANISATION OF COLUMNS. - - -In deciding the strength of a column for an expedition against the -North West Frontier tribesmen, the first requisite, having regard -to the foregoing considerations, is so to limit numbers, that, in -the topographical conditions likely to be met, the force can, as an -entirety, make a march of reasonable length, let us say eight or ten -miles. Assuming that the column will move at an average rate of about -two miles per hour, that, in order to avoid risk of disaster, it is, -as a rule, desirable for the main force not to march before dawn, and -to be in camp by dusk, and that ten--twelve hours of daylight are -available, it is clear that the road space occupied must not, for a ten -mile march, exceed ten to fourteen miles. That is to say, the numbers -that can fulfil this condition on a narrow track, amount to about 4500 -fighting men, carrying three days' rations on the person, and five -days' on transport animals. - -Suppose that four such columns are destined to invade the Afridi Tirah. - -The Afridis are said to possess 25,000 to 30,000 fighting men, and if -it be assumed that two-thirds of these have breech loading rifles, -and that the whole mass is unlikely to attack any, one, or even two -columns, the largest hostile gathering that a British detachment may -expect to meet is 6000-8000 men, of whom 4500-5500 may be well armed. - -A column of 4500 disciplined troops need not therefore fear reverse. - -The composition of a column is regulated by the topography of the area -of operations, but the following example will show how the allotment of -troops may be determined. - -As basis for calculation a mixed brigade[1] organised for independent -action may be taken. To these troops may be added a squadron of -Silladar cavalry, if the country is suitable to its action, and a -mountain battery, which, together with the infantry, form a handy force -of the three arms. - -But the column is still weak in infantry, on which the brunt of the -fighting will necessarily fall, and possesses no technical troops for -road-making, etc. - -Both requirements may be fulfilled by the addition of a pioneer -battalion, or, since some hold that sappers and miners are more -economical than pioneers, a battalion, of British infantry, or of -Gurkhas, and a company of sappers and miners may be included. - -It now only remains to give the troops an ammunition column, the -necessary staff, certain additional medical, and administrative -details, and the force--one infantry brigade organised for independent -action, one squadron, one mountain battery, one British battalion, one -company sappers and miners, etc.--will be complete, and adequate for -its purpose. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[Footnote 1: 1 British infantry battalion; 3 Native infantry -battalions; 1/2 British field hospital; 1-1/2 Native field hospitals; 1 -Field post office; Brigade supply column.] - - - - -MARCHES AND PROTECTION. - - -A body of troops moving in an enemy's country is liable to be attacked -at any time, and from any direction, and must, therefore, always take -measures for the protection of its front, flanks, and rear. - -In warfare in civilised and highly developed countries, when the -enemy's object is rather to defeat the fighting force than to harry the -convoy, and when troops can march on broad frontages, the protection -given by bodies of cavalry with horse artillery, flung far to front and -flanks, and supported, if necessary, by infantry, is usually adequate. - -But when the line of march leads along a single file track, winding -through narrow valleys, and over rugged mountains, when the column, -compared to its strength, occupies an inordinate length of roadway, and -is therefore especially vulnerable to flank attack, and when the enemy, -or at any rate a portion of his warriors, prefer plunder of baggage to -pitched battles, other measures to safeguard the force must be taken. - -Flankguards can rarely make their way over the steeply scarped hills -enclosing the North West Frontier valleys, and since the advanced guard -can, in such conditions, effect no more than the clearance of the -valley in which it is moving, it becomes necessary to adopt a sedentary -form of protection for the flanks of the force. This consists of -picquets, posted along the route, in localities commanding approaches -to the roadway, or from which the enemy can fire on the column. - -These picquets, together with the advanced and rear guards, secure the -movement of the remaining troops; they are, as a rule, found by the -units composing the advanced guard, and withdraw under the supervision, -and if necessary with the assistance of the rear guard. - -The order of march of a column, in border, as in other campaigns, is -conditioned by the proximity, strength, and probable action of the -enemy, by the topography of the district to be traversed, by the -object to be attained, and by the composition of the force. - -The first duty of the staff officer to whom is confided the drafting -of orders for a march, will therefore be, by personal observation, and -from intelligence and other reports, to find out as much as possible -of the country, and of the enemy's dispositions and probable tactics. -Armed with this information he will be in a position to arrange the -order of march of his column according to the circumstances of the case. - -When the enemy, for instance, is in force in the vicinity, and his -actions, such as throwing up of entrenchments, harassing camp in -large numbers, imply that he will offer vigorous resistance to the -advance, it is probable that the baggage and supply column will be best -parked, under sufficient guard, either in the camp, or in some other -locality easy of defence, whilst the remainder move off, in preparatory -formation for action. - -If the clansmen are reported to be inclined to dispute the advance in -force, but are some distance from the camp, the most suitable order of -march may be deduced as follows. - -The enemy being in strength, the column should move in compact -formation, and deliberately, the advanced guard being pushed only so -far forward as to secure the troops from surprise, and as few road -picquets sent out as may be, in order that the fighting force may be -reduced as little as possible. - -The method of posting and withdrawing picquets will not materially -differ from that which will be described later. - -The tribesmen being known to be in force and prepared to resist, it -follows that the bulk of the fighting men must be at the head of the -column; and as the advanced guard will be near the remainder, it need -be only sufficiently numerous to insure that the duties of protection -are adequately performed. - -Suppose the tribesmen five miles distant, and that, as a rough basis -for calculation, two companies can secure about one-and-a-half to two -miles of roadway; then about three companies will be required for -picquetting. - -If three companies be added for other purposes, the advanced guard -infantry should be of sufficient strength. - -The advanced guard will require a proportion of technical troops for -road making and repair, and for this purpose two companies of pioneers, -or the bulk of a company of sappers and miners may be allotted. - -Cavalry are not, it is considered, in place with an advanced guard -moving in an enclosed and intricate country, nor, since the main body -will be close behind, need any special medical details be included. - -Whether artillery should be allotted is a more open question. In favour -of placing guns with the advanced guard, it can be argued that they -may be of assistance in clearing the hills to be occupied by picquets -or vanguard; against their inclusion it may be urged that artillery -ammunition will necessarily be scarce, owing to the difficulty of -carriage, and should only be employed when an advantageous opportunity -for inflicting loss occurs, but that advanced guard commanders are -prone to make too much use of their guns. - -On the whole, when the advanced guard is not far from the main body, it -would seem that the inclusion of guns in the former is unnecessary. - -The organisation and order of march of the main body may be as under. - -It is clear that the numbers available for action will be those left -over after suitable deduction has been made for baggage and rear -guards. These, therefore, must first be allotted. - -Light duty men, officers' servants, cooks, etc., should suffice to -secure the regimental transport, and for policing the drivers, but -the supply column, hospitals, and reserve ammunition, require special -escorts, and perhaps one company each may be adequate for the two first -mentioned, and one or two companies for the ammunition. - -The strength and composition of the rear guard is the next item, and -this is regulated by its function of supervision of the retirement of -the picquets. - -Such being the case, it appears that, in no circumstances, should -a large force be detailed as a rear-guard. There is not space in a -narrow valley for a strong rear-guard to manoeuvre, so that it will -merely afford the enemy a good target, without corresponding advantage; -besides, the rear-guard can, if necessary, be continually reinforced by -incoming picquets. - -A rear-guard, then, should rarely include more than four companies of -infantry, and in the circumstances under consideration, may be weaker. - -Though cavalry may be useful for the delivery of a counter-attack, the -horses afford an easy mark, whilst its presence with the rear-guard may -cause the enemy to keep to the hills instead of descending into the -valley, where they will be more vulnerable. Cavalry, it seems, should, -therefore, not be added to the rear-guard infantry. - -Mountain guns may be of assistance to picquets in distress, or in the -delivery of a counter-attack, but they should, both for their own -security, and to prevent waste of ammunition, be kept well back. In -the present case the rear-guard is not likely to be harassed, so no -artillery need be included. - -A rear-guard does not require technical troops, but some hospital -riding mules, etc., may be allotted for rapid transference of wounded. - -The total deductions from the fighting force of the column will -therefore be:-- - - _Advanced Guard._ Six companies Infantry, bulk of one company S. and - M. - - _Escorts, etc._ Three or four companies Infantry. - - _Rear-guard._ Two or three companies, with machine guns. - -In all about one and a half battalions, one company sappers and miners. -There remain three and a half battalions, one mountain battery, one -squadron, and the administrative services, at disposal. - -The order of march of the main body can now be dealt with. - -Perhaps half a battalion may move in front, then the mountain battery, -which should not require a special escort, next the three battalions. - -After these may follow the reserve ammunition, the hospitals, the 2nd -line transport with B. echelon 1st line transport[2] of all troops, -except the advanced and rear-guards, and then the supply column. - -At the tail of the main body may move the B. echelon of the advanced -and rear-guards, so as to be readily available in case any troops -belonging to either are obliged to bivouac outside camp; and finally, -since they are unlikely to be able to undertake effective pursuit, may -come the cavalry, so as to be at hand in case they are required to -assist the rear-guard to counter-attack, by charging any tribesmen who -have ventured into the valley. - -Though B. echelon 1st line transport of the advanced and rear-guards -is placed at the end of the column, it is considered that all troops -should be so equipped that they can be independent of camp and -transport for at least two, and better still, for three days. It is -a lesser evil to carry an extra, but in some degree decreasing load, -even if it prejudices mobility, than to starve, or run undue risk of -sickness from cold and damp. - -The next case to be considered will be when the enemy is not in great -force, and is more likely to harass than to seriously resist the -advance of the column. - -In such circumstances, the main objects will be to complete, as rapidly -as may be, the proposed march, whilst inflicting on the enemy, should -he give the opportunity, the greatest possible loss. - -Since the distance is to be quickly traversed, and because a road -picquet takes some time, even as much as an hour, to secure and -establish itself on a hill, it follows that, unless risk is to be run -of the march of the main body being delayed, the advanced guard must -precede the main body by at least one hour, and may even move off in -the twilight which precedes dawn. - -This settled, the composition of the advanced guard may be dealt with. - -If it is proposed to make a ten mile march, then, calculating from the -data previously mentioned, about one battalion will be sufficient to -picquet the roadway. To this force some four companies may be added, -so as to leave a good margin for securing the camp site, and for -unexpected contingencies. - -Technical troops will, as before, be required, and as the advanced -guard will be some way from the main body, a section of mountain -artillery may be included. Neither cavalry, nor special medical units, -seem necessary. - -The composition of the advanced guard may, therefore, -be:--one-and-a-half battalions infantry, one section mountain battery, -the bulk of one company sappers and miners. - -As already stated, before deciding on the order of march of the main -column, the deductions to be made for escort and rear-guard duties must -be fixed. - -Light duty men, etc., should suffice to secure the regimental -transport, three companies to safeguard the reserve ammunition, -hospitals, and supply column, whilst the mountain battery hardly needs -a special escort. - -In respect of the rear-guard, in the case under consideration it is -possible that the picquets may be harassed as they withdraw, the -strength of the rear-guard may, therefore, amount to four companies of -infantry, with machine guns, and one section mountain artillery, with -some ambulance riding mules, etc., in addition. - -The total deductions, for purposes of protection, from the fighting -force of the column, therefore, amount to:--infantry, two battalions -three companies; artillery, two sections; sappers and miners one -company; and there remain, for disposal, infantry, two battalions five -companies, artillery, one section, cavalry, one squadron, besides -various administrative units. - -No serious opposition being expected to the march of the column, the -comfort of the troops may be considered in regulating the order of -march. - -As before, and for the same reasons, the cavalry, and the B. echelon -1st line transport of the advanced and rear-guards, and of the -picquetting troops, may march at the tail of the main body. - -It should hardly be necessary to place, in addition, a body of infantry -at the end of the column, but, if desired, the remaining four companies -of the battalion furnishing the rear-guard may move immediately in -front of, or behind, the cavalry. The rest of the fighting force -can march at the head of the main column, followed by the reserve -ammunition, hospitals, B. echelon 1st line transport, with the 2nd line -transport, and then the supply column. - -In circumstances where little or no resistance is expected to the -forward movement of a column, but serious opposition to the withdrawal -of picquets, and to the march of the rear-guard, the following -modification will be necessary in the order of march just dealt with. - -The strength, composition, and time of march of the advanced guard need -only be altered by the deduction of, say, one section of sappers and -miners, and perhaps, too, the withdrawal of the mountain guns. - -The escorts, etc., of the non-fighting portions of the main column may -remain as before suggested, as may the strength and composition of the -rear-guard. - -The order of march of the main column will, however, require -transposition somewhat as follows: - -Since the principal opposition will take the form of pursuit by the -enemy, the bulk of the fighting troops should move in rear of the main -column, so as to be in position to undertake the offensive if required. - -The units may, therefore, march as follows: - -Two companies of infantry; the supply column; the B. echelon 1st line -transport, (except, of the advanced and rear-guards,) with the 2nd line -transport; the hospitals; the reserve ammunition; B. echelon 1st line -transport of the advanced and rear-guards; the rest of the infantry, -less four companies; the remainder of the artillery; one section of -sappers and miners, the cavalry, and finally four companies. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[Footnote 2: 1st Line transport is usually divided into two echelons -A. and B. The former includes ammunition reserve, intrenching tools, -water, signalling and medical equipment. The latter blankets, rations, -and cooking pots, etc.] - - - - -ACTION OF THE ADVANCED & REAR-GUARDS, AND OF ROAD PICQUETS. - - -Speaking generally, the procedure followed by an advanced guard may be -somewhat as follows:-- - -Both on account of considerations for its own security, and because -hills will thus be more rapidly secured, it is desirable that the -positions to be occupied by road picquets should, so far as it is -practicable to do so from the valley, be decided some time before -the main guard arrives opposite the various localities. It is also -understood that considerable latitude is allowed to the picquet -commander as to the position occupied, and that he is at liberty either -to demand reinforcement, or to return redundant men to the advanced -guard, as occasion may demand. - -The advanced guard may move in the following order. - -First a vanguard of one or more companies, preceding the remainder by -about half a mile, and adapting its formation to the ground. - -Then the mainguard, at the head of which should be the advanced guard -commander, his staff officer, the battalion commander of the unit -furnishing the leading company, and the company commander. - -[Illustration] - -As the troops march up the valley, the advanced guard commander should -decide what localities are to be held, and in what strength. He should -issue his orders to the battalion or company commander, as the case -may be, when the picquets should move direct to their positions. -Meanwhile, the staff officer should make, in sections, a rough sketch -of the positions occupied by the various picquets, which should be -numbered consecutively as they move out, the sections of the sketch -being sent, as completed, to the officer commanding the rear-guard. - -In addition, to insure that no picquet is overlooked by the rear-guard, -a double sentry, with a paper showing the number of its picquet, should -be placed in the roadway beneath the height occupied, and it is the -duty of the picquet commander to keep in touch with this sentry post. - -In this manner the roadway should be picquetted, until the locality is -reached where the column is to halt, when the advanced guard commander -should take the usual measures for the security of the camp, for -safe-guarding the water supply, etc. - -It has been suggested that an advanced guard should be divided into -two portions, advanced guard, and the picquetting troops, each under a -separate leader, the object being to free the advanced guard commander -from the work of picquetting, so that his whole attention can be -devoted to tactics. The advanced guard is to clear the hills, which are -then to be occupied by picquets. - -This system does not appear sound, for it necessitates two men doing -the work of one, and, in practice, the advanced guard usually either -meets with little or no resistance, or with such serious opposition -that picquetting is in abeyance. - -Each picquet, when it reaches the position selected by its leader, -should intrench, taking especial care to provide head cover, so that -the enemy may not be easily able to observe the moment of its final -withdrawal. - -Before the last troops of the main column have quitted camp, the -rear-guard commander should have arranged his force in a series of -successive positions, calculated to enable the units to mutually -support one another's retirement, as well as to assist, if necessary, -the withdrawal of picquets. - -The guns should, for reasons already given, be kept well back, and this -system of successive positions should be continued throughout the march. - -It is, of course, understood that the main column keeps contact with, -and regulates its march by that of the rear-guard. - -It is sometimes advocated that the camp picquets should, before the -column marches off, be relieved by the rear-guard, with the object of -enabling the picquets to rejoin their units. - -This arrangement does not appear advantageous. The troops detailed for -the relief of the picquets will probably have to move out in darkness, -and over an unknown area, and though, if the enemy advances during -the relief, he will be opposed in double strength, should his attack -be delivered later, units who do not know the ground will be placed -in positions they will not be able to defend to the best advantage. -Besides, the men composing the rear-guard, whose functions are in -any case sufficiently arduous, will be involved in additional and -unnecessary fatigue. - -The withdrawal of picquets may be carried out on the following -principles:-- - -When a picquet commander sees, or receives reports that the rear-guard -is approaching, he should send the bulk of his picquet to a position, -previously reconnoitred, on the lower slope of the hill, and in the -direction of the line of march of the column, whence the retirement of -the remainder can be covered by fire. - -Whilst on the hill, and especially as the time for withdrawal -approaches, the men of a picquet should be careful not to show -themselves, in order that the enemy may not, by counting heads, be able -to divine that retirement has been begun. Similarly, the men left on -the hill to the last, should, above everything, avoid exposure. - -When the picquet commander sees the rear-guard commander, who will -usually be with the last troops, and whose presence will be shown -by a flag, is opposite his post, he should give the signal for the -evacuation of the hill top, on which the men should creep back, and as -soon as they are below the sky line, run down the hill to a position -beyond that of their covering party. The withdrawal should then be -continued according to the accepted principles, until the whole picquet -has reached the valley, when its leader should report to the rear-guard -commander, receiving orders whether the picquet is to proceed to the -main column, or to join the rear-guard. - -The rear guard commander should have previously called in the road -sentry post marking the locality held by the picquet, and the map -furnished by the advanced guard will have been of assistance in -identifying its position. - -[Illustration] - -It is contended that the withdrawal of a picquet rests, except in -special circumstances, entirely with the picquet leader. He is the man -on the spot, and can best judge when the retirement should commence. - -The rear-guard commander should rarely attempt to regulate the actions -of the picquets, of whose situation he cannot have adequate knowledge, -but should exercise general supervision, ready to afford assistance if -required. - -At times picquets may be able to support one another's movements, but, -as a rule, a picquet will be too fully occupied with its own affairs to -be able to render assistance to its neighbours. - -The above outline of a withdrawal presupposes that hostile pressure is -not unduly severe. - -If the enemy venture to close with the rear-guard and picquets, it is -submitted that an immediate counter-attack should be delivered, the -main body being halted. - -To lose so golden an opportunity of inflicting loss on a volatile foe -seems on the one hand unwise, whilst, on the other, it is surely both -undignified and demoralising to permit savages to hunt British regulars -into camp. - -The delivery of a counter-attack is accompanied by some risk, and its -success will depend on the aptitude of the rear-guard commander for -stratagem, for, if loss is to be inflicted, the enemy must, as a rule, -be trapped. - -Simple ruses which suggest themselves are, either to attempt to attract -the tribesmen into the low ground by a bait of ammunition or transport -animals, the cavalry, guns, and part of rear-guard, infantry being -previously concealed in positions from which they can take advantage -of any mistake the enemy may commit, and the retirement of picquets -stopped, as soon as the attack is delivered. Or, two or more picquets, -which have been previously reinforced by troops moving along concealed -lines of advance to the hill tops, may feign retirement, and attack the -tribesmen as they follow over the crest line. - -If stratagem fails, the column should halt and drive off the enemy, a -proceeding which should be repeated until he is taught that to follow -up British troops is neither profitable nor advantageous. - - - - -ATTACK AND DEFENCE. - - -Success in war depends in some degree on adaptation of tactics to local -conditions, and it is therefore clear that, to attain rapid success -against the inhabitants of the North Western Frontier, a knowledge -of their tactics is required, and that, whilst the British aims are -pursued with unswerving determination, their probable movements must be -met and defeated. - -The tribesmen, like most savages, are only really formidable when -one is running away from them. They fight well in positions strongly -fortified, and with flanks secure, but, being without the discipline -or cohesion to meet envelopment, are much influenced by pressure -against their flanks. - -Pathans are fearful of artillery, and do not, as a rule, seriously -resist a determined advance, preferring the easier and less dangerous -enterprise of harassing the retirements which they believe are an -inevitable corollary to forward movements; or of attacking isolated -detachments, whose operations they have observed from their hill-tops. - -They are suspicious of ambuscades, except when excited in pursuit, and -are not prone to accept battle unless surprised. - -Like other people, they shoot well when not themselves under effective -fire, and, when shooting into a valley, where the strike of the bullet -can be observed, their fire is accurate. On the other hand, owing to -their relatively defective armament, and to lack of ammunition, tribal -fire as a rule lacks volume. - -The tribesmen skirmish well, and move quickly over their hills, but -rarely, except when engaging a small force, or by night, attack in -mass. On the other hand, they often crowd their defensive positions -with men. - -They are said to dislike being overlooked by their opponents, and -therefore do not care to attack up hill, but will, at times, try to -rush a detachment, with the object of capturing rifles and ammunition. - -The fact that a proportion of the men possess only inferior fire-arms, -renders possible resort to shock tactics, especially when roused to a -pitch of fanaticism. - -Pathans are partial to night operations, probably because they believe -that there is little fear of interference after dark. Their enterprises -are usually on a small scale, but night attacks in force, are possible. -Their inadequate clothing, and the cold of the early morning, however, -usually forces them to seek shelter as the night wears on. - -From the above description it will be seen that British troops, so long -as they observe the ordinary principles of war, have nothing to fear -from the tribesmen. But it is to be remembered that, unless stratagem -is intended, the offensive is the general rule in tribal warfare, for -the enemy construes a defensive attitude as a sign of fear, and becomes -correspondingly elated. - -The composition of forces despatched on reconnaissance and minor -punitive expeditions requires careful consideration. Columns composed -of men drawn from many different infantry units are inherently weak, so -that, in all operations, complete units, so far as they are required, -should be employed, cavalry being added when local conditions are -favourable. Artillery will generally be necessary, as well as a -proportion of technical troops, but the strength of columns should, -within limits of safety, be low, in order to insure mobility, and -to encourage resistance. The military value of the enemy must not, -however, be underestimated. - -The main object of all operations is to quickly attain a decisive -success. To this end the tribesmen must be induced to stand and fight -with the purpose of inflicting casualties on them. - -It is to be remembered that the enemy can, less easily than the -British, afford losses, especially of arms. Commanders, without being -prodigal of their men's lives, need not, therefore, be afraid of -incurring casualties, especially when there is likelihood that the -enemy will suffer loss to at least an equal extent. If the tribesmen's -losses are heavy, those of the British troops will probably be -considerably less. Close fighting is all to the advantage of trained -soldiers. - -As has been stated, the clansmen will rarely commit themselves to -battle in conditions favourable to the British, unless they can be -outwitted or surprised. Night operations may, therefore, frequently -be necessary, having special regard to the fact that, from their hill -tops, the enemy will overlook all manoeuvres. As the natives are not -often abroad in the early morning, surprise, at dawn, will not present -unusual difficulties. - -The enveloping form of tactics, when the enemy is attacked both in -front and flank, is as effective in tribal as in other warfare. But, -owing to the topographical advantages enjoyed by the tribesmen, it will -be necessary to hold them closely in frontal attack, and so distract -their attention from outflanking movements. This may be possible, for -they fight with confidence when behind cover. Mere frontal attack -is likely to be at once costly and ineffective; hence, if neither -envelopment, nor night operations, are practicable, resort may be -had to such stratagems as a feigned retirement, or bait of transport -animals, to tempt the Pathans from their hills. - -Though the possibility of tribal counter-attack, by shock, must not be -lost sight of, the British advantage in training and armament should -enable a central general reserve to be dispensed with, the object being -to so dispose the troops as to insure envelopment. - -Good information and staff work, and a sound system of -inter-communication, will, moreover, if all ranks are imbued with the -spirit of mutual support, go far to insure success. - -Commanders, especially of small forces, should remember that hesitation -will be quickly observed by the enemy, but a bold front, and ready -stratagem, will soon cause him to lose heart. - -When a post or isolated detachment requires assistance, aid can often -be most rapidly and effectively given by application of such indirect -pressure as will tend to divert the enemy's attention. - -In minor tactics, whilst taking every advantage of the cover afforded -by features of ground, troops must beware of seeking shelter in -hollows or nullahs, places which will, assuredly, have been marked -by the enemy's riflemen, so that their occupation will rarely escape -punishment. - -In attack, infantry units, whilst securing their flanks, should advance -up salients, taking care to afford one another mutual fire assistance. -Supports and local reserves should be pushed as near to the firing line -as the shape of the ground will permit; but, at times, reserves may be -able to effectively support the troops in front by covering fire, from -suitable positions, behind, or on the flanks of, the line of advance. - -Fire should be reserved until units have closed on the enemy, the -object being to prevent the early evacuation of a position, after -having caused a few casualties at long range. - -As the enemy's fire, though likely to be accurate, will probably lack -volume, resort need not be had to widely extended formations. - -To gain ground, and when assaulting, the procedure outlined in the -training manuals requires no modification. - -Artillery should be handled with discretion, and should be on its guard -against the tendency to open fire whenever a target is seen. Its aim -should be not to evict, but to hold the enemy to his sangars, and to -inflict loss when he retreats. - -The steep forward slopes of hills will enable fire to be continued -until the infantry has closed on the tribesmen, but oblique, rather -than frontal fire should be employed. - -It is, of course, important to insure close inter-communication between -infantry and artillery. - -In tribal, as in other warfare, unless the enemy is completely -enveloped, efficient pursuit is necessary to set the seal on victory. -Pursuit can, at first, probably be best undertaken by the enveloping -wings, artillery co-operating to head the enemy off in the required -direction, whilst the cavalry press forward. - -A portion of the artillery should, therefore, move with the outflanking -wings, keeping as near as possible to the firing line. - -Pathans, familiar with the country, and confident that they have -everything to gain, and but little to lose by such tactics, favour the -harassing of troops as they withdraw from heights, or along valleys. -Though it may be taken as a maxim that there will be no pursuit if -the enemy has, in any recent fighting, been adequately punished, the -conditions may have been such that casualties could not be inflicted. - -In these circumstances, the clansmen must surely not be permitted to -embarrass the British movements, and must be convinced that pursuit is -both dangerous and unprofitable. - -Mere counter-attack, when the enemy is not surprised, is likely to lead -to no advantage, but a few skilfully laid ambushes will soon discourage -his zeal for pursuit. Should he, however, persist in following up the -troops, counter-attack should at once be made, and the retirement -discontinued. The enemy, it is to be remembered, will, as a rule, -offer the greatest opportunity of inflicting loss when he follows up a -retirement, and, in such operations, the aim must be rather to cause -than to avoid casualties. - -All withdrawals should be pre-arranged and systematic, flanks being -securely held, and the principle of mutual support observed. But -formalism must be avoided, and procedure must never be permitted to -become so stereotyped that the enemy will be able to confidently -anticipate the movements of the troops. - -Men must beware of entering nullahs, or depressions of any kind, -until the further edge has been secured; and, when on a hill top, the -provision of such cover as will conceal the head-dress is of importance. - -Transport animals should be clear of the fighting troops before -retirement is begun. - -If the object is to slip away from the enemy, the retirement should be -made at a time when movement is not expected. - -When a valley is to be swept in course of punitive operations, an -adequate force should be left to secure the entrance, if the column is -to leave by this route. - -Troops, as has already been suggested, should, in respect of -ammunition, food, and warm coats, be independent of transport animals, -and it should be understood that units are always to be prepared to -remain for the night away from camp. The men should be trained to -economise water, which is often scarce across the border. - -Ammunition and rifles being the main objects of tribal ambition, -special care should be taken to prevent them from falling into the -enemy's hands. - -Against the North West Frontier clans, the offensive, as usual, is -normally the best defensive, but it may sometimes happen that small -British forces are temporarily obliged to act on the defensive. - -In such circumstances, it is to be expected that the enemy will adopt -the tactics, common amongst savages, of seeking the flanks of the -troops, both to avoid fire, and to obtain the advantages of enfilade. -It follows, then, that defensive measures should include all round -protection, whilst a relatively large reserve should be kept ready to -attack the hostile levies, as soon as any portion comes within charging -distance. - -Experience tends to prove that a compact body of even a section, if -well entrenched and supplied with ammunition, has nothing to fear from -Pathans, especially when the British leader is animated by the proper -spirit of timely offensive. - - - - -CAMPS. - - -It is desirable for a column escorting a large baggage train--and this -is essentially the predicament of civilised troops engaged in frontier -mountain warfare--to be collected in camp before nightfall, otherwise -the enemy may be given unduly favourable opportunities of employing -harassing methods. - -But it does not result that the situation of troops unable, for any -cause, to reach camp, is at all desperate. - -Strong and compact forces adopting the usual precautions, can probably, -in many, if not in most cases, march in safety after nightfall, but -small detachments and baggage can rarely do so without undue risk. -These, then, should always park and intrench towards nightfall, -wherever they may find themselves, when they will have little to fear, -for experience, as has been stated, tends to show that even a section, -securely intrenched, and with ample ammunition, can hold its own -against heavy odds. - -The form of camp, and the nature of the protection adopted, depend, as -usual, on the topography, and on the character of the enemy. - -A common method is to place transport, etc., within a perimeter -occupied by the fighting troops, but this arrangement is by no means -invariable, and it may be convenient to form two or more camps, or to -separate transport from fighting troops. - -The camp will, as a rule, be located in proximity to water, that is to -say in a valley, and in such circumstances, if it can be sited well -under one of the enclosing ranges of hills, protection from sniping -will be afforded from this direction, though the overhanging heights -must be securely held. - -Sometimes a small basin is available for the bivouac, and in this case, -the troops can, to a great extent, be secured from this favourite -tribal device of firing into camp after nightfall. - -As is the case in all war, the measures taken for the security of a -camp include a system of picquets, and in frontier expeditions these -are placed all round camp, either on the level, or on any commanding -heights, within, at any rate, effective rifle range. - -Picquets may be pushed even further forward, but when so situated, must -be numerically strong, as they are liable to be rushed, though more for -the sake of capturing their arms, than with the object of inflicting -loss. No picquet should be of less strength than one section, all -should be intrenched against attack from any direction. Their bearing -from camp should also be taken, and they should be in signalling -communication with the main body, so that assistance may be requested -and despatched when necessary, or warning given of the approach of the -enemy in force. - -Bombs should be useful adjuncts to picquet defence, in case the enemy -should succeed in forming a lodgment near the sangar. - -Though a sedentary system of picquets may discover the presence of a -large hostile body near camp, and may, in some degree, check sniping, -the latter evil cannot, by this means, be completely prevented. -Tribesmen, especially since they are aware that the British rarely risk -troops, other than picquets, outside the perimeter, will often creep in -and snipe from the area between the picquets and camp. - -There seems, however, no valid reason why sniping should be passively -tolerated, when it can probably be effectively combated by placing, -in certain localities between the camp and picquets, small patrols of -picked men, provided with grass shoes, whose duty will be to stalk and -bayonet venturesome marauders. - -Against this proposal it has been argued that the British, and -especially the European soldiers, are unfit to cope, by night, with -tribesmen, inured from childhood to move silently in darkness over -rough ground. The contention is considered to be inadmissible, for -though there is, and must be, risk in stalking snipers, picked British -soldiers are surely now, as formerly, more than a match for Pathans, -in all circumstances when the numbers are fairly even. - -The form of intrenchment, if any, excavated round the bivouac, is -conditioned by the character of the enemy. - -If he is prone to adopt shock tactics, and to attempt to rush the camp -under cover of darkness, a ditch to check his charge, backed by a -parapet with head cover, will be the most favourable form of defence. - -But if he is partial merely to harassing methods, such as firing into -camp, the perimeter defences should be calculated to mitigate their -effects, by providing, for all troops, trenches well traversed, and -with parapets both to front and rear. - -If both forms of attack are possible, parapets with trench and ditch -should be made, the trench, or ditch, being first dug, according as a -charge or sniping is most to be feared. - -Naturally units protected by high ground on one or more flanks, need -only make cover so as to secure themselves from the directions from -which fire can be delivered. - -Only infantry should hold the perimeter of a camp, machine guns being -placed at the angles, and the defence of each confided to one unit, -divided responsibility not being permissible. - -Supports may, if necessary, be located in intrenchments behind the -perimeter, and a homogeneous body of about half a battalion, allotted -as reserve, and given a bivouac near that of the column commander. - -In case of attack, the duty of cavalry soldiers is to stand to their -horses, of artillery to man their guns. To neither, therefore, in -normal circumstances, should a portion of the perimeter be confided, -and both should be placed within its circumference. - -At the same time, guns should be so disposed, in pits or epaulments, -that they can sweep ground across which attack is most likely to be -made; or they may be laid so as to search localities where tribesmen -may collect prior to delivering an assault. - - - - -PROTECTION OF LINE OF COMMUNICATION. - - -The protection of a line of communication is secured by combination -of passive and active measures, though the latter are of the greatest -importance. - -Passive measures include the provision of fortified staging posts, -linked up by a series of road picquets, and supplemented by escorts to -convoys. The active defence is by means of flying columns. - -Roughly speaking, it may be said that about 100 men per mile suffice -for all protective purposes, and it is assumed that the responsibility -of a staging post commandant extends half way to the posts on either -side of his own. - -The garrison of a staging post must be of sufficient strength, and of -suitable composition, to secure the convoys halting there for the -night, to furnish them with police escorts for the next day's march, -and, if road picquets are found from the post, to supply these also. - -Road picquets can either be sent out each day from staging posts, -can be permanently located in a succession of blockhouses, or can be -semi-permanent, that is to say can be supplied from a series of minor -posts connecting staging centres. In each of the above cases the same -number of men will be required. - -The first method, by concentrating the troops each evening, makes for -their general security, but, since picquets must daily, and at fixed -hours, move to and from their places, a good deal of fatigue will be -imposed on the men, and there will, in addition, be some risk of minor -disasters to individual picquets, which may be ambuscaded. Moreover, -since the convoys cannot march until the picquets are in position, and -as picquets cannot be risked outside the post before sunrise and after -sunset, the hours available for the movements of the convoys will be a -good deal curtailed. - -Under the second alternative, a weak cordon is formed, portions of -which cannot, owing to the topography, easily render one another -support in case any picquet is attacked in force. On the other hand, no -time will be wasted in posting and withdrawing picquets. - -The third system is a compromise between the two already mentioned, -and seems, on the whole, to be the most advantageous. If three or -four relatively large posts are placed, in dangerous localities, such -as valley junctions, between staging centres, there will be little or -no risk of their capture by the enemy. Since the picquets necessary -to watch, by day, the area between the posts, will have but short -distances to traverse to reach their positions, the time available -for movement of convoys will not be curtailed; and as the ground -intervening between two posts will, in some degree, be overlooked -from them, there will be less chance, than under the first method, of -picquets falling into ambuscades. - -The efficiency of the protection of a line of communication depends, -however, on the active, not on the passive measures for its security. - -Active defence is maintained by flying columns, of strength and -organisation suitable to the character of the enemy and the nature of -the country. To these columns is confided the protection of certain -areas, an end attained, not by inactivity, for the troops should be -continually on the move, so that the enemy can never be certain when -and where to expect them, but by a vigorous and energetic offensive -in whatever directions an efficient service of intelligence reports -hostile gatherings. - -The enemy's movements and projects must, in fact, be anticipated, -rather than countered when in course of execution. - - - - -DEFENCE OF A POST. - - -When considering what steps are to be taken for the defence of a post, -large or small, the maxim that the offensive is the best defence must -be ever prominently before the mind. - -It follows that the first step, after a site has been selected, the -water supply secured, and the usual measures for security taken, -should be to set apart as many men as possible for offensive purposes, -including reconnaissance. In other words, the strength of the reserve -should be calculated from these premises, having due regard to the -number of nights in bed required by the whole garrison; and the reserve -should not be such men as may be left over after the requirements of -passive defence have been fully satisfied. - -The next item should be the selection of a keep or citadel, where -stores and ammunition can be placed, and where hospital, headquarters, -and a central signalling and communicating station can be located. - -In this keep may be placed machine or other guns, if available, so -arranged that they can sweep approaches to the post, and also, if -possible, protect with fire the flanks of picquet stations. - -It will now be time to allocate, generally, the troops destined for -guard and picquet duty. - -These arrangements may be primarily made from the interior of the -post, its safety being the first consideration, though for reasons of -sanitation the more space that can be given to troops and convoys the -better. - -Picquets having been roughly allotted, the plan of defence should be -regarded from the enemy's point of view, and the necessary changes -made; and, finally, the bearings of the picquet positions should be -taken from the keep, and routes to them cleared, in case they should -require reinforcement by night. - -It should only be necessary to keep picquets at their full strength -in night-time. By day the bulk of the men could fall back into the -interior of the post, an arrangement which would at once facilitate -water and food supply, and would also be advantageous from a sanitary -point of view. - -The next duties will be to deal with the general sanitation of the -post, and especially of the rest and convoy camps, to mark out the -latter, and to secure their policing. - -As time goes on, the post commandant can arrange for improved -communication between the keep and picquets, as well as throughout the -interior of the enceinte, sign posts being erected and the water supply -enclosed. - - - - - * * * * * * - - - - -Transcibers note: - -One instance of "defensive" has been changed to "defence." - - - -***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SOME PRINCIPLES OF FRONTIER MOUNTAIN -WARFARE*** - - -******* This file should be named 55185.txt or 55185.zip ******* - - -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: -http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/5/5/1/8/55185 - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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